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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Reflections on War and Death, by Sigmund Freud
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Reflections on War and Death
+
+Author: Sigmund Freud
+
+Translator: A. A. Brill
+            Alfred B. Kuttner
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2011 [EBook #35875]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REFLECTIONS ON WAR AND DEATH ***
+
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+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was
+produced from scanned images of public domain material
+from the Google Print project.)
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+
+REFLECTIONS
+ON WAR AND DEATH
+
+
+
+
+REFLECTIONS
+ON WAR AND DEATH
+
+_By_
+PROFESSOR DR. SIGMUND FREUD, LL.D.
+
+_Authorized English Translation By_
+
+DR. A. A. BRILL and
+ALFRED B. KUTTNER
+
+[Illustration: colophon]
+
+MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY
+NEW YORK
+1918
+
+Copyright, 1918, by
+MOFFAT, YARD, AND COMPANY
+
+
+This book is offered to the American public at the present time in the
+hope that it may contribute something to the cause of international
+understanding and good will which has become the hope of the world.
+
+THE TRANSLATORS.
+
+
+
+
+REFLECTIONS
+ON WAR AND DEATH
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE DISAPPOINTMENTS OF WAR
+
+
+Caught in the whirlwind of these war times, without any real information
+or any perspective upon the great changes that have already occurred or
+are about to be enacted, lacking all premonition of the future, it is
+small wonder that we ourselves become confused as to the meaning of
+impressions which crowd in upon us or of the value of the judgments we
+are forming. It would seem as though no event had ever destroyed so much
+of the precious heritage of mankind, confused so many of the clearest
+intellects or so thoroughly debased what is highest.
+
+Even science has lost her dispassionate impartiality. Her deeply
+embittered votaries are intent upon seizing her weapons to do their
+share in the battle against the enemy. The anthropologist has to declare
+his opponent inferior and degenerate, the psychiatrist must diagnose him
+as mentally deranged. Yet it is probable that we are affected out of all
+proportion by the evils of these times and have no right to compare them
+with the evils of other times through which we have not lived.
+
+The individual who is not himself a combatant and therefore has not
+become a cog in the gigantic war machinery, feels confused in his
+bearings and hampered in his activities. I think any little suggestion
+that will make it easier for him to see his way more clearly will be
+welcome. Among the factors which cause the stay-at-home so much
+spiritual misery and are so hard to endure there are two in particular
+which I should like to emphasize and discuss. I mean the disappointment
+that this war has called forth and the altered attitude towards death to
+which it, in common with other wars, forces us.
+
+When I speak of disappointment everybody knows at once what I mean. One
+need not be a sentimentalist, one may realize the biological and
+physiological necessity of suffering in the economy of human life, and
+yet one may condemn the methods and the aims of war and long for its
+termination. To be sure, we used to say that wars cannot cease as long
+as nations live under such varied conditions, as long as they place
+such different values upon the individual life, and as long as the
+animosities which divide them represent such powerful psychic forces. We
+were therefore quite ready to believe that for some time to come there
+would be wars between primitive and civilized nations and between those
+divided by color, as well as with and among the partly enlightened and
+more or less civilized peoples of Europe. But we dared to hope
+differently. We expected that the great ruling nations of the white
+race, the leaders of mankind, who had cultivated world wide interests,
+and to whom we owe the technical progress in the control of nature as
+well as the creation of artistic and scientific cultural standards--we
+expected that these nations would find some other way of settling their
+differences and conflicting interests.
+
+Each of these nations had set a high moral standard to which the
+individual had to conform if he wished to be a member of the civilized
+community.
+
+These frequently over strict precepts demanded a great deal of him, a
+great self-restraint and a marked renunciation of his impulses. Above
+all he was forbidden to resort to lying and cheating, which are so
+extraordinarily useful in competition with others. The civilized state
+considered these moral standards the foundation of its existence, it
+drastically interfered if anyone dared to question them and often
+declared it improper even to submit them to the test of intellectual
+criticism. It was therefore assumed that the state itself would respect
+them and would do nothing that might contradict the foundations of its
+own existence. To be sure, one was aware that scattered among these
+civilized nations there were certain remnants of races that were quite
+universally disliked, and were therefore reluctantly and only to a
+certain extent permitted to participate in the common work of
+civilization where they had proved themselves sufficiently fit for the
+task. But the great nations themselves, one should have thought, had
+acquired sufficient understanding for the qualities they had in common
+and enough tolerance for their differences so that, unlike in the days
+of classical antiquity, the words "foreign" and "hostile" should no
+longer be synonyms.
+
+Trusting to this unity of civilized races countless people left hearth
+and home to live in strange lands and trusted their fortunes to the
+friendly relations existing between the various countries. And even he
+who was not tied down to the same spot by the exigencies of life could
+combine all the advantages and charms of civilized countries into a
+newer and greater fatherland which he could enjoy without hindrance or
+suspicion. He thus took delight in the blue and the grey ocean, the
+beauty of snow clad mountains and of the green lowlands, the magic of
+the north woods and the grandeur of southern vegetation, the atmosphere
+of landscapes upon which great historical memories rest, and the peace
+of untouched nature. The new fatherland was to him also a museum, filled
+with the treasure that all the artists of the world for many centuries
+had created and left behind. While he wandered from one hall to another
+in this museum he could give his impartial appreciation to the varied
+types of perfection that had been developed among his distant
+compatriots by the mixture of blood, by history, and by the
+peculiarities of physical environment. Here cool, inflexible energy was
+developed to the highest degree, there the graceful art of beautifying
+life, elsewhere the sense of law and order, or other qualities that have
+made man master of the earth.
+
+We must not forget that every civilized citizen of the world had created
+his own special "Parnassus" and his own "School of Athens." Among the
+great philosophers, poets, and artists of all nations he had selected
+those to whom he considered himself indebted for the best enjoyment and
+understanding of life, and he associated them in his homage both with
+the immortal ancients and with the familiar masters of his own tongue.
+Not one of these great figures seemed alien to him just because he spoke
+in a different language; be it the incomparable explorer of human
+passions or the intoxicated worshiper of beauty, the mighty and
+threatening seer or the sensitive scoffer, and yet he never reproached
+himself with having become an apostate to his own nation and his beloved
+mother tongue.
+
+The enjoyment of this common civilization was occasionally disturbed by
+voices which warned that in consequence of traditional differences wars
+were unavoidable even between those who shared this civilization. One
+did not want to believe this, but what did one imagine such a war to be
+like if it should ever come about? No doubt it was to be an opportunity
+to show the progress in man's community feeling since the days when the
+Greek amphictyonies had forbidden the destruction of a city belonging to
+the league, the felling of her oil trees and the cutting off of her
+water supply. It would be a chivalrous bout of arms for the sole purpose
+of establishing the superiority of one side or the other with the
+greatest possible avoidance of severe suffering which could contribute
+nothing to the decision, with complete protection for the wounded, who
+must withdraw from the battle, and for the physicians and nurses who
+devote themselves to their care. With every consideration, of course,
+for noncombatants, for the women who are removed from the activities of
+war, and for the children who, when grown up, are to become friends and
+co-workers on both sides. And with the maintenance, finally, of all the
+international projects and institutions in which the civilized community
+of peace times had expressed its corporate life.
+
+Such a war would still be horrible enough and full of burdens, but it
+would not have interrupted the development of ethical relations between
+the large human units, between nations and states. But the war in which
+we did not want to believe broke out and brought--disappointment. It is
+not only bloodier and more destructive than any foregoing war, as a
+result of the tremendous development of weapons of attack and defense,
+but it is at least as cruel, bitter, and merciless as any earlier war.
+It places itself above all the restrictions pledged in times of peace,
+the so-called rights of nations, it does not acknowledge the
+prerogatives of the wounded and of physicians, the distinction between
+peaceful and fighting members of the population, or the claims of
+private property. It hurls down in blind rage whatever bars its way, as
+though there were to be no future and no peace after it is over. It
+tears asunder all community bonds among the struggling peoples and
+threatens to leave a bitterness which will make impossible any
+re-establishment of these ties for a long time to come.
+
+It has also brought to light the barely conceivable phenomenon of
+civilized nations knowing and understanding each other so little that
+one can turn from the other with hate and loathing. Indeed one of these
+great civilized nations has become so universally disliked that it is
+even attempted to cast it out from the civilized community as though it
+were barbaric, although this very nation has long proved its
+eligibility through contribution after contribution of brilliant
+achievements. We live in the hope that impartial history will furnish
+the proof that this very nation, in whose language I am writing and for
+whose victory our dear ones are fighting, has sinned least against the
+laws of human civilization. But who is privileged to step forward at
+such a time as judge in his own defense?
+
+Races are roughly represented by the states they form and these states
+by the governments which guide them. The individual citizen can prove
+with dismay in this war what occasionally thrust itself upon him already
+in times of peace, namely, that the state forbids him to do wrong not
+because it wishes to do away with wrongdoing but because it wishes to
+monopolize it, like salt and tobacco. A state at war makes free use of
+every injustice, every act of violence, that would dishonor the
+individual. It employs not only permissible cunning but conscious lies
+and intentional deception against the enemy, and this to a degree which
+apparently outdoes what was customary in previous wars. The state
+demands the utmost obedience and sacrifice of its citizens, but at the
+same time it treats them as children through an excess of secrecy and a
+censorship of news and expression of opinion which render the minds of
+those who are thus intellectually repressed defenseless against every
+unfavorable situation and every wild rumor. It absolves itself from
+guarantees and treaties by which it was bound to other states, makes
+unabashed confession of its greed and aspiration to power, which the
+individual is then supposed to sanction out of patriotism.
+
+Let the reader not object that the state cannot abstain from the use of
+injustice because it would thereby put itself at a disadvantage. For the
+individual, too, obedience to moral standards and abstinence from brutal
+acts of violence are as a rule very disadvantageous, and the state but
+rarely proves itself capable of indemnifying the individual for the
+sacrifice it demands of him. Nor is it to be wondered at that the
+loosening of moral ties between the large human units has had a
+pronounced effect upon the morality of the individual, for our
+conscience is not the inexorable judge that teachers of ethics say it
+is; it has its origin in nothing but "social fear." Wherever the
+community suspends its reproach the suppression of evil desire also
+ceases, and men commit acts of cruelty, treachery, deception, and
+brutality, the very possibility of which would have been considered
+incompatible with their level of culture.
+
+Thus the civilized world-citizen of whom I spoke before may find himself
+helpless in a world that has grown strange to him when he sees his great
+fatherland disintegrated, the possessions common to mankind destroyed,
+and his fellow citizens divided and debased.
+
+Nevertheless several things might be said in criticism of his
+disappointment. Strictly speaking it is not justified, for it consists
+in the destruction of an illusion. Illusions commend themselves to us
+because they save us pain and allow us to enjoy pleasure instead. We
+must therefore accept it without complaint when they sometimes collide
+with a bit of reality against which they are dashed to pieces.
+
+Two things have roused our disappointment in this war: the feeble
+morality of states in their external relations which have inwardly acted
+as guardians of moral standards, and the brutal behavior of individuals
+of the highest culture of whom one would not have believed any such
+thing possible.
+
+Let us begin with the second point and try to sum up the view which we
+wish to criticise in a single compact statement. Through what process
+does the individual reach a higher stage of morality? The first answer
+will probably be: He is really good and noble from birth, in the first
+place. It is hardly necessary to give this any further consideration.
+The second answer will follow the suggestion that a process of
+development is involved here and will probably assume that this
+development consists in eradicating the evil inclinations of man and
+substituting good inclinations under the influence of education and
+cultural environment. In that case we may indeed wonder that evil should
+appear again so actively in persons who have been educated in this way.
+
+But this answer also contains the theory which we wish to contradict. In
+reality there is no such thing as "eradicating" evil. Psychological, or
+strictly speaking, psychoanalytic investigation proves, on the contrary,
+that the deepest character of man consists of impulses of an elemental
+kind which are similar in all human beings, the aim of which is the
+gratification of certain primitive needs. These impulses are in
+themselves neither good or evil. We classify them and their
+manifestations according to their relation to the needs and demands of
+the human community. It is conceded that all the impulses which society
+rejects as evil, such as selfishness and cruelty, are of this primitive
+nature.
+
+These primitive impulses go through a long process of development before
+they can become active in the adult. They become inhibited and diverted
+to other aims and fields, they unite with each other, change their
+objects and in part turn against one's own person. The formation of
+reactions against certain impulses give the deceptive appearance of a
+change of content, as if egotism had become altruism and cruelty had
+changed into sympathy. The formation of these reactions is favored by
+the fact that many impulses appear almost from the beginning in
+contrasting pairs; this is a remarkable state of affairs called the
+ambivalence of feeling and is quite unknown to the layman. This feeling
+is best observed and grasped through the fact that intense love and
+intense hate occur so frequently in the same person. Psychoanalysis goes
+further and states that the two contrasting feelings not infrequently
+take the same person as their object.
+
+What we call the character of a person does not really emerge until the
+fate of all these impulses has been settled, and character, as we all
+know, is very inadequately defined in terms of either "good" or "evil."
+Man is seldom entirely good or evil, he is "good" on the whole in one
+respect and "evil" in another, or "good" under certain conditions, and
+decidedly "evil" under others. It is interesting to learn that the
+earlier infantile existence of intense "bad" impulses is often the
+necessary condition of being "good" in later life. The most pronounced
+childish egotists may become the most helpful and self-sacrificing
+citizens; the majority of idealists, humanitarians, and protectors of
+animals have developed from little sadists and animal tormentors.
+
+The transformation of "evil" impulses is the result of two factors
+operating in the same sense, one inwardly and the other outwardly. The
+inner factor consists in influencing the evil or selfish impulses
+through erotic elements, the love needs of man interpreted in the widest
+sense. The addition of erotic components transforms selfish impulses
+into social impulses. We learn to value being loved as an advantage for
+the sake of which we can renounce other advantages. The outer factor is
+the force of education which represents the demands of the civilized
+environment and which is then continued through the direct influence of
+the cultural _milieu_.
+
+Civilization is based upon the renunciation of impulse gratification and
+in turn demands the same renunciation of impulses from every newcomer.
+During the individual's life a constant change takes place from outer to
+inner compulsion. The influences of civilization work through the erotic
+components to bring about the transformation of more and more of the
+selfish tendencies into altruistic and social tendencies. We may indeed
+assume that the inner compulsion which makes itself felt in the
+development of man was originally, that is, in the history of mankind,
+a purely external compulsion. Today people bring along a certain
+tendency (disposition) to transform the egotistic into social impulses
+as a part of their hereditary organization, which then responds to
+further slight incentives to complete the transformation. A part of this
+transformation of impulse must also be made during life. In this way the
+individual man is not only under the influence of his own contemporary
+cultural _milieu_ but is also subject to the influences of his ancestral
+civilization.
+
+If we call a person's individual capacity for transforming his
+egotistical impulses under the influence of love his cultural
+adaptability, we can say that this consists of two parts, one congenital
+and the other acquired, and we may add that the relation of these two to
+each other and to the untransformed part of the emotional life is a
+very variable one.
+
+In general we are inclined to rate the congenital part too highly, and
+are also in danger of over-valuing the whole cultural adaptability in
+its relation to that part of the impulse life which has remained
+primitive, that is, we are misled into judging people to be "better"
+than they really are. For there is another factor which clouds our
+judgment and falsifies the result in favor of what we are judging.
+
+We are of course in no position to observe the impulses of another
+person. We deduce them from his actions and his conduct, which we trace
+back to motives springing from his emotional life. In a number of cases
+such a conclusion is necessarily incorrect. The same actions which are
+"good" in the civilized sense may sometimes originate in "noble"
+motives and sometimes not. Students of the theory of ethics call only
+those acts "good" which are the expression of good impulses and refuse
+to acknowledge others as such. But society is on the whole guided by
+practical aims and does not bother about this distinction; it is
+satisfied if a man adapts his conduct and his actions to the precepts of
+civilization and asks little about his motives.
+
+We have heard that the outer compulsion which education and environment
+exercise upon a man brings about a further transformation of his impulse
+life for the good, the change from egotism to altruism. But this is not
+the necessary or regular effect of the outer compulsion. Education and
+environment have not only love premiums to offer but work with profit
+premiums of another sort, namely rewards and punishments. They can
+therefore bring it about that a person subject to their influence
+decides in favor of good conduct in the civilized sense without any
+ennobling of impulse or change from egotistic into altruistic
+inclinations. On the whole the consequence remains the same; only
+special circumstances will reveal whether the one person is always good
+because his impulses compel him to be so while another person is good
+only in so far as this civilized behavior is of advantage to his selfish
+purposes. But our superficial knowledge of the individual gives us no
+means of distinguishing the two cases, and we shall certainly be misled
+by our optimism into greatly over-estimating the number of people who
+have been transformed by civilization.
+
+Civilized society, which demands good conduct and does not bother about
+the impulse on which it is based, has thus won over a great many people
+to civilized obedience who do not thereby follow their own natures.
+Encouraged by this success, society has permitted itself to be misled
+into putting the ethical demands as high as possible, thereby forcing
+its members to move still further from their emotional dispositions. A
+continual emotional suppression is imposed upon them, the strain of
+which is indicated by the appearance of the most remarkable reactions
+and compensations.
+
+In the field of sexuality, where such suppression is most difficult to
+carry out, it results in reactions known as neurotic ailments. In other
+fields the pressure of civilization shows no pathological results but
+manifests itself in distorted characters and in the constant readiness
+of the inhibited impulses to enforce their gratification at any fitting
+opportunity.
+
+Anyone thus forced to react continually to precepts that are not the
+expressions of his impulses lives, psychologically speaking, above his
+means, and may be objectively described as a hypocrite, whether he is
+clearly conscious of this difference or not. It is undeniable that our
+contemporary civilization favors this sort of hypocrisy to an
+extraordinary extent. One might even venture to assert that it is built
+upon such a hypocrisy and would have to undergo extensive changes if man
+were to undertake to live according to the psychological truth. There
+are therefore more civilized hypocrites than truly cultured persons, and
+one can even discuss the question whether a certain amount of civilized
+hypocrisy is not indispensable to maintain civilization because the
+already organized cultural adaptability of the man of today would
+perhaps not suffice for the task of living according to the truth. On
+the other hand the maintenance of civilization even on such questionable
+grounds offers the prospect that with every new generation a more
+extensive transformation of impulses will pave the way for a better
+civilization.
+
+These discussions have already afforded us the consolation that our
+mortification and painful disappointment on account of the uncivilized
+behavior of our fellow world citizens in this war were not justified.
+They rested upon an illusion to which we had succumbed. In reality they
+have not sunk as deeply as we feared because they never really rose as
+high as we had believed. The fact that states and races abolished their
+mutual ethical restrictions not unnaturally incited them to withdraw for
+a time from the existing pressure of civilization and to sanction a
+passing gratification of their suppressed impulses. In doing so their
+relative morality within their own national life probably suffered no
+rupture.
+
+But we can still further deepen our understanding of the change which
+this war has brought about in our former compatriots and at the same
+time take warning not to be unjust to them. For psychic evolution shows
+a peculiarity which is not found in any other process of development.
+When a town becomes a city or a child grows into a man, town and child
+disappear in the city and in the man. Only memory can sketch in the old
+features in the new picture; in reality the old materials and forms have
+been replaced by new ones. It is different in the case of psychic
+evolution. One can describe this unique state of affairs only by saying
+that every previous stage of development is preserved next to the
+following one from which it has evolved; the succession stipulates a
+co-existence although the material in which the whole series of changes
+has taken place remains the same.
+
+The earlier psychic state may not have manifested itself for years but
+nevertheless continues to exist to the extent that it may some day again
+become the form in which psychic forces express themselves, in fact the
+only form, as though all subsequent developments had been annulled and
+made regressive. This extraordinary plasticity of psychic development
+is not without limits as to its direction; one can describe it as a
+special capacity for retrograde action or regression, for it sometimes
+happens that a later and higher stage of development that has been
+abandoned cannot be attained again. But the primitive conditions can
+always be reconstructed; the primitive psyche is in the strictest sense
+indestructible.
+
+The so-called mental diseases must make the impression on the layman of
+mental and psychic life fallen into decay. In reality the destruction
+concerns only later acquisitions and developments. The nature of mental
+diseases consists in the return to former states of the affective life
+and function. An excellent example of the plasticity of the psychic life
+is the state of sleep, which we all court every night.
+
+Since we know how to interpret even the maddest and most confused
+dreams, we know that every time we go to sleep we throw aside our hard
+won morality like a garment in order to put it on again in the morning.
+This laying bare is, of course, harmless, because we are paralyzed and
+condemned to inactivity by the sleeping state.
+
+Only the dream can inform us of the regression of our emotional life to
+an earlier stage of development. Thus, for instance, it is worthy of
+note that all our dreams are governed by purely egotistic motives. One
+of my English friends once presented this theory to a scientific meeting
+in America, whereupon a lady present made the remark that this might
+perhaps be true of Austrians, but she ventured to assert for herself and
+her friends that even in dreams they always felt altruistically. My
+friend, although himself a member of the English race, was obliged to
+contradict the lady energetically on the basis of his experience in
+dream analysis. The noble Americans are just as egotistic in their
+dreams as the Austrians.
+
+The transformation of impulses upon which our cultural adaptability
+rests can therefore also be permanently or temporarily made regressive.
+Without doubt the influences of war belong to those forces which can
+create such regressions; we therefore need not deny cultural
+adaptibility to all those who at present are acting in such an
+uncivilized manner, and may expect that the refinement of their
+impulses will continue in more peaceful times.
+
+But there is perhaps another symptom of our fellow citizens of the world
+which has caused us no less surprise and fear than this descent from
+former ethical heights which has been so painful to us. I mean the lack
+of insight that our greatest intellectual leaders have shown, their
+obduracy, their inaccessibility to the most impressive arguments, their
+uncritical credulity concerning the most contestable assertions. This
+certainly presents a sad picture, and I wish expressly to emphasize that
+I am by no means a blinded partisan who finds all the intellectual
+mistakes on one side. But this phenomenon is more easily explained and
+far less serious than the one which we have just considered. Students of
+human nature and philosophers have long ago taught us that we do wrong
+to value our intelligence as an independent force and to overlook its
+dependence upon our emotional life. According to their view our
+intellect can work reliably only when it is removed from the influence
+of powerful incitements; otherwise it acts simply as an instrument at
+the beck and call of our will and delivers the results which the will
+demands. Logical argumentation is therefore powerless against affective
+interests; that is why arguing with reasons which, according to
+Falstaff, are as common as blackberries, are so fruitless where our
+interests are concerned. Whenever possible psychoanalytic experience has
+driven home this assertion. It is in a position to prove every day that
+the cleverest people suddenly behave as unintelligently as defectives
+as soon as their understanding encounters emotional resistance, but that
+they regain their intelligence completely as soon as this resistance has
+been overcome. This blindness to logic which this war has so frequently
+conjured up in just our best fellow citizens, is therefore a secondary
+phenomenon, the result of emotional excitement and destined, we hope, to
+disappear simultaneously with it.
+
+If we have thus come to a fresh understanding of our estranged fellow
+citizens we can more easily bear the disappointment which nations have
+caused us, for of them we must only make demands of a far more modest
+nature. They are perhaps repeating the development of the individual and
+at the present day still exhibit very primitive stages of development
+with a correspondingly slow progress towards the formation of higher
+unities. It is in keeping with this that the educational factor of an
+outer compulsion to morality, which we found so active in the
+individual, is barely perceptible in them. We had indeed hoped that the
+wonderful community of interests established by intercourse and the
+exchange of products would result in the beginning of such a compulsion,
+but it seems that nations obey their passions of the moment far more
+than their interests. At most they make use of their interests to
+justify the gratification of their passions.
+
+It is indeed a mystery why the individual members of nations should
+disdain, hate, and abhor each other at all, even in times of peace. I do
+not know why it is. It seems as if all the moral achievements of the
+individual were obliterated in the case of a large number of people,
+not to mention millions, until only the most primitive, oldest, and most
+brutal psychic inhibitions remained.
+
+Perhaps only later developments will succeed in changing these
+lamentable conditions. But a little more truthfulness and
+straightforward dealing on all sides, both in the relation of people
+towards each other and between themselves and those who govern them,
+might smooth the way for such a change.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+OUR ATTITUDE TOWARDS DEATH
+
+
+It remains for us to consider the second factor of which I have already
+spoken which accounts for our feeling of strangeness in a world which
+used to seem so beautiful and familiar to us. I refer to the disturbance
+in our former attitude towards death.
+
+Our attitude had not been a sincere one. To listen to us we were, of
+course, prepared to maintain that death is the necessary termination of
+life, that everyone of us owes nature his death and must be prepared to
+pay his debt, in short, that death was natural, undeniable, and
+inevitable. In practice we were accustomed to act as if matters were
+quite different. We have shown an unmistakable tendency to put death
+aside, to eliminate it from life. We attempted to hush it up, in fact,
+we have the proverb: to think of something as of death. Of course we
+meant our own death. We cannot, indeed, imagine our own death; whenever
+we try to do so we find that we survive ourselves as spectators. The
+school of psychoanalysis could thus assert that at bottom no one
+believes in his own death, which amounts to saying: in the unconscious
+every one of us is convinced of his immortality.
+
+As far as the death of another person is concerned every man of culture
+will studiously avoid mentioning this possibility in the presence of the
+person in question. Only children ignore this restraint; they boldly
+threaten each other with the possibility of death, and are quite capable
+of giving expression to the thought of death in relation to the persons
+they love, as, for instance: Dear Mama, when unfortunately, you are
+dead, I shall do so and so. The civilized adult also likes to avoid
+entertaining the thought of another's death lest he seem harsh or
+unkind, unless his profession as a physician or a lawyer brings up the
+question. Least of all would he permit himself to think of somebody's
+death if this event is connected with a gain of freedom, wealth, or
+position. Death is, of course, not deferred through our sensitiveness on
+the subject, and when it occurs we are always deeply affected, as if our
+expectations had been shattered. We regularly lay stress upon the
+unexpected causes of death, we speak of the accident, the infection, or
+advanced age, and thus betray our endeavor to debase death from a
+necessity to an accident. A large number of deaths seems unspeakably
+dreadful to us. We assume a special attitude towards the dead, something
+almost like admiration for one who has accomplished a very difficult
+feat. We suspend criticism of him, overlooking whatever wrongs he may
+have done, and issue the command, _de mortuis nil nisi bene_: we act as
+if we were justified in singing his praises at the funeral oration, and
+inscribe only what is to his advantage on the tombstone. This
+consideration for the dead, which he really no longer needs, is more
+important to us than the truth and to most of us, certainly, it is more
+important than consideration for the living.
+
+This conventional attitude of civilized people towards death is made
+still more striking by our complete collapse at the death of a person
+closely related to us, such as a parent, a wife or husband, a brother or
+sister, a child or a dear friend. We bury our hopes, our wishes, and our
+desires with the dead, we are inconsolable and refuse to replace our
+loss. We act in this case as if we belonged to the tribe of the Asra who
+also die when those whom they love perish.[1]
+
+But this attitude of ours towards death exerts a powerful influence upon
+our lives. Life becomes impoverished and loses its interest when life
+itself, the highest stake in the game of living, must not be risked. It
+becomes as hollow and empty as an American flirtation in which it is
+understood from the beginning that nothing is to happen, in contrast to
+a continental love affair in which both partners must always bear in
+mind the serious consequences. Our emotional ties, the unbearable
+intensity of our grief, make us disinclined to court dangers for
+ourselves and those belonging to us. We do not dare to contemplate a
+number of undertakings that are dangerous but really indispensable, such
+as aeroplane flights, expeditions to distant countries, and experiments
+with explosive substances. We are paralyzed by the thought of who is to
+replace the son to his mother, the husband to his wife, or the father to
+his children, should an accident occur. A number of other renunciations
+and exclusions result from this tendency to rule out death from the
+calculations of life. And yet the motto of the Hanseatic League said:
+_Navigare necesse est, vivere non necesse_: It is necessary to sail the
+seas, but not to live.
+
+It is therefore inevitable that we should seek compensation for the loss
+of life in the world of fiction, in literature, and in the theater.
+There we still find people who know how to die, who are even quite
+capable of killing others. There alone the condition for reconciling
+ourselves to death is fulfilled, namely, if beneath all the vicissitudes
+of life a permanent life still remains to us. It is really too sad that
+it may happen in life as in chess, where a false move can force us to
+lose the game, but with this difference, that we cannot begin a return
+match. In the realm of fiction we find the many lives in one for which
+we crave. We die in identification with a certain hero and yet we
+outlive him and, quite unharmed, are prepared to die again with the next
+hero.
+
+It is obvious that the war must brush aside this conventional treatment
+of death. Death is no longer to be denied; we are compelled to believe
+in it. People really die and no longer one by one, but in large numbers,
+often ten thousand in one day. It is no longer an accident. Of course,
+it still seems accidental whether a particular bullet strikes this man
+or that but the survivor may easily be struck down by a second bullet,
+and the accumulation of deaths ends the impression of accident. Life has
+indeed become interesting again; it has once more received its full
+significance.
+
+Let us make a division here and separate those who risk their lives in
+battle from those who remain at home, where they can only expect to
+lose one of their loved ones through injury, illness, or infection. It
+would certainly be very interesting to study the changes in the
+psychology of the combatants but I know too little about this. We must
+stick to the second group, to which we ourselves belong. I have already
+stated that I think the confusion and paralysis of our activities from
+which we are suffering is essentially determined by the fact that we
+cannot retain our previous attitude towards death. Perhaps it will help
+us to direct our psychological investigation to two other attitudes
+towards death, one of which we may ascribe to primitive man, while the
+other is still preserved, though invisible to our consciousness, in the
+deeper layers of our psychic life.
+
+The attitude of prehistoric man towards death is, of course, known to us
+only through deductions and reconstructions, but I am of the opinion
+that these have given us fairly trustworthy information.
+
+Primitive man maintained a very curious attitude towards death. It is
+not at all consistent but rather contradictory. On the one hand he took
+death very seriously, recognized it as the termination of life, and made
+use of it in this sense; but, on the other hand, he also denied death
+and reduced it to nothingness. This contradiction was made possible by
+the fact that he maintained a radically different position in regard to
+the death of others, a stranger or an enemy, than in regard to his own.
+The death of another person fitted in with his idea, it signified the
+annihilation of the hated one, and primitive man had no scruples
+against bringing it about. He must have been a very passionate being,
+more cruel and vicious than other animals. He liked to kill and did it
+as a matter of course. Nor need we attribute to him the instinct which
+restrains other animals from killing and devouring their own species.
+
+As a matter of fact the primitive history of mankind is filled with
+murder. The history of the world which is still taught to our children
+is essentially a series of race murders. The dimly felt sense of guilt
+under which man has lived since archaic times, and which in many
+religions has been condensed into the assumption of a primal guilt, a
+hereditary sin, is probably the expression of a blood guilt, the burden
+of which primitive man assumed. In my book entitled "Totem and Taboo,"
+1913, I have followed the hints of W. Robertson Smith, Atkinson, and
+Charles Darwin in the attempt to fathom the nature of this ancient
+guilt, and am of the opinion that the Christian doctrine of today still
+makes it possible for us to work back to its origin.[2]
+
+If the Son of God had to sacrifice his life to absolve mankind from
+original sin, then, according to the law of retaliation, the return of
+like for like, this sin must have been an act of killing, a murder.
+Nothing else could call for the sacrifice of a life in expiation. And if
+original sin was a sin against the God Father, the oldest sin of mankind
+must have been a patricide--the killing of the primal father of the
+primitive human horde, whose memory picture later was transfigured into
+a deity.[3]
+
+Primitive man was as incapable of imagining and realizing his own death
+as any one of us are today. But a case arose in which the two opposite
+attitudes towards death clashed and came into conflict with each other,
+with results that are both significant and far reaching. Such a case was
+given when primitive man saw one of his own relatives die, his wife,
+child, or friend, whom he certainly loved as we do ours; for love cannot
+be much younger than the lust for murder. In his pain he must have
+discovered that he, too, could die, an admission against which his whole
+being must have revolted, for everyone of these loved ones was a part of
+his own beloved self. On the other hand again, every such death was
+satisfactory to him, for there was also something foreign in each one of
+these persons. The law of emotional ambivalence, which today still
+governs our emotional relations to those whom we love, certainly
+obtained far more widely in primitive times. The beloved dead had
+nevertheless roused some hostile feelings in primitive man just because
+they had been both friends and enemies.
+
+Philosophers have maintained that the intellectual puzzle which the
+picture of death presented to primitive man forced him to reflect and
+became the starting point of every speculation. I believe the
+philosophers here think too philosophically, they give too little
+consideration to the primary effective motive. I should therefore like
+to correct and limit the above assertion; primitive man probably
+triumphed at the side of the corpse of the slain enemy, without finding
+any occasion to puzzle his head about the riddle of life and death. It
+was not the intellectual puzzle or any particular death which roused the
+spirit of inquiry in man, but the conflict of emotions at the death of
+beloved and withal foreign and hated persons.
+
+From this emotional conflict psychology arose. Man could no longer keep
+death away from him, for he had tasted of it in his grief for the
+deceased, but he did not want to acknowledge it, since he could not
+imagine himself dead. He therefore formed a compromise and concealed his
+own death but denied it the significance of destroying life, a
+distinction for which the death of his enemies had given him no motive.
+He invented spirits during his contemplation of the corpse of the
+person he loved, and his consciousness of guilt over the gratification
+which mingled with his grief brought it about that these first created
+spirits were transformed into evil demons who were to be feared. The
+changes wrought by death suggested to him to divide the individual into
+body and soul, at first several souls, and in this way his train of
+thought paralleled the disintegration process inaugurated by death. The
+continued remembrance of the dead became the basis of the assumption of
+other forms of existence and gave him the idea of a future life after
+apparent death.
+
+These later forms of existence were at first only vaguely associated
+appendages to those whom death had cut off, and enjoyed only slight
+esteem until much later times; they still betrayed a very meagre
+knowledge. The reply which the soul of Achilles made to Odysseus comes
+to our mind:
+
+    Erst in the life on the earth, no less than a god we revered thee,
+    We the Achaeans; and now in the realm of the dead as a monarch
+    Here thou dost rule; then why should death thus grieve thee, Achilles?
+    Thus did I speak: forthwith then answering thus he addressed me.
+    Speak not smoothly of death, I beseech, O famous Odysseus,
+    Better by far to remain on the earth as the thrall of another,
+    E'en of a portionless man that hath means right scanty of living,
+    Rather than reign sole king in the realm of the bodiless phantoms.
+
+                     Odysseus XI, verse 484-491
+                       Translated by H. B. Coterill.
+
+Heine has rendered this in a forcible and bitter parody:
+
+    The smallest living philistine,
+    At Stuckert on the Neckar
+    Is much happier than I am,
+    Son of Pelleus, the dead hero,
+    Shadowy ruler of the Underworld.
+
+It was much later before religions managed to declare this after-life as
+the more valuable and perfect and to debase our mortal life to a mere
+preparation for the life to come. It was then only logical to prolong
+our existence into the past and to invent former existences,
+transmigrations of souls, and reincarnations, all with the object of
+depriving death of its meaning as the termination of life. It was as
+early as this that the denial of death, which we described as the
+product of conventional culture, originated.
+
+Contemplation of the corpse of the person loved gave birth not only to
+the theory of the soul, the belief in immortality, and implanted the
+deep roots of the human sense of guilt, but it also created the first
+ethical laws. The first and most important prohibition of the awakening
+conscience declared: Thou shalt not kill. This arose as a reaction
+against the gratification of hate for the beloved dead which is
+concealed behind grief, and was gradually extended to the unloved
+stranger and finally also to the enemy.
+
+Civilized man no longer feels this way in regard to killing enemies.
+When the fierce struggle of this war will have reached a decision every
+victorious warrior will joyfully and without delay return home to his
+wife and children, undisturbed by thoughts of the enemy he has killed
+either at close quarters or with weapons operating at a distance.
+
+It is worthy of note that the primitive races which still inhabit the
+earth and who are certainly closer to primitive man than we, act
+differently in this respect, or have so acted as long as they did not
+yet feel the influence of our civilization. The savage, such as the
+Australian, the Bushman, or the inhabitant of Terra del Fuego, is by no
+means a remorseless murderer; when he returns home as victor from the
+war path he is not allowed to enter his village or touch his wife until
+he has expiated his war murders through lengthy and often painful
+penances. The explanation for this is, of course, related to his
+superstition; the savage fears the avenging spirit of the slain. But the
+spirits of the fallen enemy are nothing but the expression of his evil
+conscience over his blood guilt; behind this superstition there lies
+concealed a bit of ethical delicacy of feeling which has been lost to
+us civilized beings.[4]
+
+Pious souls, who would like to think us removed from contact with what
+is evil and mean, will surely not fail to draw satisfactory conclusions
+in regard to the strength of the ethical impulses which have been
+implanted in us from these early and forcible murder prohibitions.
+Unfortunately this argument proves even more for the opposite
+contention.
+
+Such a powerful inhibition can only be directed against an equally
+strong impulse. What no human being desires to do does not have to be
+forbidden, it is self-exclusive. The very emphasis of the commandment:
+Thou shalt not kill, makes it certain that we are descended from an
+endlessly long chain of generations of murderers, whose love of murder
+was in their blood as it is perhaps also in ours. The ethical strivings
+of mankind, with the strength and significance of which we need not
+quarrel, are an acquisition of the history of man; they have since
+become, though unfortunately in very variable quantities, the hereditary
+possessions of people of today.
+
+Let us now leave primitive man and turn to the unconscious in our
+psyche. Here we depend entirely upon psychoanalytic investigation, the
+only method which reaches such depths. The question is what is the
+attitude of our unconscious towards death. In answer we say that it is
+almost like that of primitive man. In this respect, as well as in many
+others, the man of prehistoric times lives on, unchanged, in our
+conscious.
+
+Our unconscious therefore does not believe in its own death; it acts as
+though it were immortal. What we call our unconscious, those deepest
+layers in our psyche which consist of impulses, recognizes no negative
+or any form of denial and resolves all contradictions, so that it does
+not acknowledge its own death, to which we can give only a negative
+content. The idea of death finds absolutely no acceptance in our
+impulses. This is perhaps the real secret of heroism. The rational basis
+of heroism is dependent upon the decision that one's own life cannot be
+worth as much as certain abstract common ideals. But I believe that
+instinctive or impulsive heroism is much more frequently independent of
+such motivation and simply defies danger on the assurance which
+animated Hans, the stone-cutter, a character in Anzengruber, who always
+said to himself: Nothing can happen to me. Or that motivation only
+serves to clear away the hesitations which might restrain the
+corresponding heroic reaction in the unconscious. The fear of death,
+which controls us more frequently than we are aware, is comparatively
+secondary and is usually the outcome of the consciousness of guilt.
+
+On the other hand we recognize the death of strangers and of enemies and
+sentence them to it just as willingly and unhesitatingly as primitive
+man. Here there is indeed a distinction which becomes decisive in
+practice. Our unconscious does not carry out the killing, it only thinks
+and wishes it. But it would be wrong to underestimate the psychic
+reality so completely in comparison to the practical reality. It is
+really important and full of serious consequences.
+
+In our unconscious we daily and hourly do away with all those who stand
+in our way, all those who have insulted or harmed us. The expression:
+"The devil take him," which so frequently crosses our lips in the form
+of an ill-humored jest, but by which we really intend to say, "Death
+take him," is a serious and forceful death wish in our unconscious.
+Indeed our unconscious murders even for trifles; like the old Athenian
+law of Draco, it knows no other punishment for crime than death, and
+this not without a certain consistency, for every injury done to our
+all-mighty and self-glorifying self is at bottom a _crimen laesae
+majestatis_.
+
+Thus, if we are to be judged by our unconscious wishes, we ourselves
+are nothing but a band of murderers, just like primitive man. It is
+lucky that all wishes do not possess the power which people of primitive
+times attributed to them.[5] For in the cross fire of mutual
+maledictions mankind would have perished long ago, not excepting the
+best and wisest of men as well as the most beautiful and charming women.
+
+As a rule the layman refuses to believe these theories of
+psychoanalysis. They are rejected as calumnies which can be ignored in
+the face of the assurances of consciousness, while the few signs through
+which the unconscious betrays itself to consciousness are cleverly
+overlooked. It is therefore in place here to point out that many
+thinkers who could not possibly have been influenced by psychoanalysis
+have very clearly accused our silent thought of a readiness to ignore
+the murder prohibition in order to clear away what stands in our path.
+Instead of quoting many examples I have chosen one which is very famous.
+In his novel, _Père Goriot_, Balzac refers to a place in the works of J.
+J. Rousseau where this author asks the reader what he would do if,
+without leaving Paris and, of course, without being discovered, he could
+kill an old mandarin in Peking, with great profit to himself, by a mere
+act of the will. He makes it possible for us to guess that he does not
+consider the life of this dignitary very secure. "To kill your mandarin"
+has become proverbial for this secret readiness to kill, even on the
+part of people of today.
+
+There are also a number of cynical jokes and anecdotes which bear
+witness to the same effect, such as the remark attributed to the
+husband: "If one of us dies I shall move to Paris." Such cynical jokes
+would not be possible if they did not have an unavowed truth to reveal
+which we cannot admit when it is baldly and seriously stated. It is well
+known that one may even speak the truth in jest.
+
+A case arises for our consciousness, just as it did for primitive man,
+in which the two opposite attitudes towards death, one of which
+acknowledges it as the destroyer of life, while the other denies the
+reality of death, clash and come into conflict. The case is identical
+for both, it consists of the death of one of our loved ones, of a parent
+or a partner in wedlock, of a brother or a sister, of a child or a
+friend. These persons we love are on the one hand a part of our inner
+possessions and a constituent of our own selves, but on the other hand
+they are also in part strangers and even enemies. Except in a few
+instances, even the tenderest and closest love relations also contain a
+bit of hostility which can rouse an unconscious death wish. But at the
+present day this ambivalent conflict no longer results in the
+development of ethics and soul theories, but in neuroses which also
+gives us a profound insight into the normal psychic life. Doctors who
+practice psychoanalysis have frequently had to deal with the symptom of
+over tender care for the welfare of relatives or with wholly unfounded
+self reproaches after the death of a beloved person. The study of these
+cases has left them in no doubt as to the significance of unconscious
+death wishes.
+
+The layman feels an extraordinary horror at the possibility of such an
+emotion and takes his aversion to it as a legitimate ground for
+disbelief in the assertions of psychoanalysis. I think he is wrong
+there. No debasing of our love life is intended and none such has
+resulted. It is indeed foreign to our comprehension as well as to our
+feelings to unite love and hate in this manner, but in so far as nature
+employs these contrasts she brings it about that love is always kept
+alive and fresh in order to safeguard it against the hate that is
+lurking behind it. It may be said that we owe the most beautiful
+unfolding of our love life to the reaction against this hostile impulse
+which we feel in our hearts.
+
+Let us sum up what we have said. Our unconscious is just as inaccessible
+to the conception of our own death, just as much inclined to kill the
+stranger, and just as divided, or ambivalent towards the persons we love
+as was primitive man. But how far we are removed from this primitive
+state in our conventionally civilized attitude towards death!
+
+It is easy to see how war enters into this disunity. War strips off the
+later deposits of civilization and allows the primitive man in us to
+reappear. It forces us again to be heroes who cannot believe in their
+own death, it stamps all strangers as enemies whose death we ought to
+cause or wish; it counsels us to rise above the death of those whom we
+love. But war cannot be abolished; as long as the conditions of
+existence among races are so varied and the repulsions between them are
+so vehement, there will have to be wars. The question then arises
+whether we shall be the ones to yield and adapt ourselves to it. Shall
+we not admit that in our civilized attitude towards death we have again
+lived psychologically beyond our means? Shall we not turn around and
+avow the truth? Were it not better to give death the place to which it
+is entitled both in reality and in our thoughts and to reveal a little
+more of our unconscious attitude towards death which up to now we have
+so carefully suppressed? This may not appear a very high achievement and
+in some respects rather a step backwards, a kind of regression, but at
+least it has the advantage of taking the truth into account a little
+more and of making life more bearable again. To bear life remains, after
+all, the first duty of the living. The illusion becomes worthless if it
+disturbs us in this.
+
+We remember the old saying:
+
+            _Si vis pacem, para bellum._
+    If you wish peace, prepare for war.
+
+The times call for a paraphrase:
+
+           _Si vis vitam, para mortem._
+    If you wish life, prepare for death.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Compare Heine's poem, "Der Asra," Louis Untermeyer's translation, p.
+269, Henry Holt & Co., 1917.
+
+[2] Totem and Taboo, translated by Dr. A. A. Brill, Moffat, Yard & Co.,
+1918.
+
+[3] Totem and Taboo, Chapter IV.
+
+[4] Totem and Taboo, Chapter IV.
+
+[5] See Totem and Taboo, Chapter III.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Reflections on War and Death, by Sigmund Freud
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+<title>
+  The Project Gutenberg eBook of Reflections On War And Death, by Sigmund Freud.
+</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Reflections on War and Death, by Sigmund Freud
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Reflections on War and Death
+
+Author: Sigmund Freud
+
+Translator: A. A. Brill
+            Alfred B. Kuttner
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2011 [EBook #35875]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REFLECTIONS ON WAR AND DEATH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was
+produced from scanned images of public domain material
+from the Google Print project.)
+
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+
+
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+</pre>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="cb">REFLECTIONS<br />
+ON WAR AND DEATH</p>
+
+<h1>REFLECTIONS<br />
+ON WAR AND DEATH</h1>
+
+<p class="cb"><i>By</i><br />
+PROFESSOR DR. SIGMUND FREUD, LL.D.</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="cb"><small><i>Authorized English Translation By</i></small><br />
+DR. A. A. BRILL and<br />
+ALFRED B. KUTTNER</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 50px;">
+<img src="images/colophon.png" width="30" height="33" alt="colophon" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="cb">MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY<br />
+NEW YORK<br />
+1918</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<p class="c"><small>Copyright, 1918, by<br />
+M<small>OFFAT</small>, Y<small>ARD, AND</small> C<small>OMPANY</small></small>
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="dedic">
+<p>This book is offered to the American public at the present time in the
+hope that it may contribute something to the cause of international
+understanding and good will which has become the hope of the world.</p>
+
+<p class="r">T<small>HE</small> T<small>RANSLATORS.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>REFLECTIONS<br />
+ON WAR AND DEATH<a name="contents" id="contents"></a></h1>
+
+<table border="5" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td><a href="#I"><b>I, </b></a>
+<a href="#II"><b>II</b></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br /><br />
+THE DISAPPOINTMENTS OF WAR</h3>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">C</span>AUGHT in the whirlwind of these war times, without any real information
+or any perspective upon the great changes that have already occurred or
+are about to be enacted, lacking all premonition of the future, it is
+small wonder that we ourselves become confused as to the meaning of
+impressions which crowd in upon us or of the value of the judgments we
+are forming. It would seem as though no event had ever destroyed so much
+of the precious heritage<a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a> of mankind, confused so many of the clearest
+intellects or so thoroughly debased what is highest.</p>
+
+<p>Even science has lost her dispassionate impartiality. Her deeply
+embittered votaries are intent upon seizing her weapons to do their
+share in the battle against the enemy. The anthropologist has to declare
+his opponent inferior and degenerate, the psychiatrist must diagnose him
+as mentally deranged. Yet it is probable that we are affected out of all
+proportion by the evils of these times and have no right to compare them
+with the evils of other times through which we have not lived.</p>
+
+<p>The individual who is not himself a combatant and therefore has not
+become a cog in the gigantic war machinery, feels confused in his
+bearings and hampered in his<a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a> activities. I think any little suggestion
+that will make it easier for him to see his way more clearly will be
+welcome. Among the factors which cause the stay-at-home so much
+spiritual misery and are so hard to endure there are two in particular
+which I should like to emphasize and discuss. I mean the disappointment
+that this war has called forth and the altered attitude towards death to
+which it, in common with other wars, forces us.</p>
+
+<p>When I speak of disappointment everybody knows at once what I mean. One
+need not be a sentimentalist, one may realize the biological and
+physiological necessity of suffering in the economy of human life, and
+yet one may condemn the methods and the aims of war and long for its
+termination. To be sure, we used to say that wars cannot cease as long
+as nations<a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a> live under such varied conditions, as long as they place
+such different values upon the individual life, and as long as the
+animosities which divide them represent such powerful psychic forces. We
+were therefore quite ready to believe that for some time to come there
+would be wars between primitive and civilized nations and between those
+divided by color, as well as with and among the partly enlightened and
+more or less civilized peoples of Europe. But we dared to hope
+differently. We expected that the great ruling nations of the white
+race, the leaders of mankind, who had cultivated world wide interests,
+and to whom we owe the technical progress in the control of nature as
+well as the creation of artistic and scientific cultural standards&mdash;we
+expected that these nations would find some other way<a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a> of settling their
+differences and conflicting interests.</p>
+
+<p>Each of these nations had set a high moral standard to which the
+individual had to conform if he wished to be a member of the civilized
+community.</p>
+
+<p>These frequently over strict precepts demanded a great deal of him, a
+great self-restraint and a marked renunciation of his impulses. Above
+all he was forbidden to resort to lying and cheating, which are so
+extraordinarily useful in competition with others. The civilized state
+considered these moral standards the foundation of its existence, it
+drastically interfered if anyone dared to question them and often
+declared it improper even to submit them to the test of intellectual
+criticism. It was therefore assumed that the state itself would respect
+them and would do nothing<a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a> that might contradict the foundations of its
+own existence. To be sure, one was aware that scattered among these
+civilized nations there were certain remnants of races that were quite
+universally disliked, and were therefore reluctantly and only to a
+certain extent permitted to participate in the common work of
+civilization where they had proved themselves sufficiently fit for the
+task. But the great nations themselves, one should have thought, had
+acquired sufficient understanding for the qualities they had in common
+and enough tolerance for their differences so that, unlike in the days
+of classical antiquity, the words "foreign" and "hostile" should no
+longer be synonyms.</p>
+
+<p>Trusting to this unity of civilized races countless people left hearth
+and home to live in strange lands and trusted their fortunes<a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a> to the
+friendly relations existing between the various countries. And even he
+who was not tied down to the same spot by the exigencies of life could
+combine all the advantages and charms of civilized countries into a
+newer and greater fatherland which he could enjoy without hindrance or
+suspicion. He thus took delight in the blue and the grey ocean, the
+beauty of snow clad mountains and of the green lowlands, the magic of
+the north woods and the grandeur of southern vegetation, the atmosphere
+of landscapes upon which great historical memories rest, and the peace
+of untouched nature. The new fatherland was to him also a museum, filled
+with the treasure that all the artists of the world for many centuries
+had created and left behind. While he wandered from one hall to another
+in this<a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a> museum he could give his impartial appreciation to the varied
+types of perfection that had been developed among his distant
+compatriots by the mixture of blood, by history, and by the
+peculiarities of physical environment. Here cool, inflexible energy was
+developed to the highest degree, there the graceful art of beautifying
+life, elsewhere the sense of law and order, or other qualities that have
+made man master of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>We must not forget that every civilized citizen of the world had created
+his own special "Parnassus" and his own "School of Athens." Among the
+great philosophers, poets, and artists of all nations he had selected
+those to whom he considered himself indebted for the best enjoyment and
+understanding of life, and he associated them in his homage both with
+the<a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a> immortal ancients and with the familiar masters of his own tongue.
+Not one of these great figures seemed alien to him just because he spoke
+in a different language; be it the incomparable explorer of human
+passions or the intoxicated worshiper of beauty, the mighty and
+threatening seer or the sensitive scoffer, and yet he never reproached
+himself with having become an apostate to his own nation and his beloved
+mother tongue.</p>
+
+<p>The enjoyment of this common civilization was occasionally disturbed by
+voices which warned that in consequence of traditional differences wars
+were unavoidable even between those who shared this civilization. One
+did not want to believe this, but what did one imagine such a war to be
+like if it should ever come about? No doubt it was to be an opportunity
+to show<a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a> the progress in man's community feeling since the days when the
+Greek amphictyonies had forbidden the destruction of a city belonging to
+the league, the felling of her oil trees and the cutting off of her
+water supply. It would be a chivalrous bout of arms for the sole purpose
+of establishing the superiority of one side or the other with the
+greatest possible avoidance of severe suffering which could contribute
+nothing to the decision, with complete protection for the wounded, who
+must withdraw from the battle, and for the physicians and nurses who
+devote themselves to their care. With every consideration, of course,
+for noncombatants, for the women who are removed from the activities of
+war, and for the children who, when grown up, are to become friends and
+co-workers on both sides. And with the<a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a> maintenance, finally, of all the
+international projects and institutions in which the civilized community
+of peace times had expressed its corporate life.</p>
+
+<p>Such a war would still be horrible enough and full of burdens, but it
+would not have interrupted the development of ethical relations between
+the large human units, between nations and states. But the war in which
+we did not want to believe broke out and brought&mdash;disappointment. It is
+not only bloodier and more destructive than any foregoing war, as a
+result of the tremendous development of weapons of attack and defense,
+but it is at least as cruel, bitter, and merciless as any earlier war.
+It places itself above all the restrictions pledged in times of peace,
+the so-called rights of nations, it does not acknowledge the
+prerogatives of the<a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a> wounded and of physicians, the distinction between
+peaceful and fighting members of the population, or the claims of
+private property. It hurls down in blind rage whatever bars its way, as
+though there were to be no future and no peace after it is over. It
+tears asunder all community bonds among the struggling peoples and
+threatens to leave a bitterness which will make impossible any
+re-establishment of these ties for a long time to come.</p>
+
+<p>It has also brought to light the barely conceivable phenomenon of
+civilized nations knowing and understanding each other so little that
+one can turn from the other with hate and loathing. Indeed one of these
+great civilized nations has become so universally disliked that it is
+even attempted to cast it out from the civilized community as though it
+were barbaric, although<a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a> this very nation has long proved its
+eligibility through contribution after contribution of brilliant
+achievements. We live in the hope that impartial history will furnish
+the proof that this very nation, in whose language I am writing and for
+whose victory our dear ones are fighting, has sinned least against the
+laws of human civilization. But who is privileged to step forward at
+such a time as judge in his own defense?</p>
+
+<p>Races are roughly represented by the states they form and these states
+by the governments which guide them. The individual citizen can prove
+with dismay in this war what occasionally thrust itself upon him already
+in times of peace, namely, that the state forbids him to do wrong not
+because it wishes to do away with wrongdoing but because it wishes to<a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a>
+monopolize it, like salt and tobacco. A state at war makes free use of
+every injustice, every act of violence, that would dishonor the
+individual. It employs not only permissible cunning but conscious lies
+and intentional deception against the enemy, and this to a degree which
+apparently outdoes what was customary in previous wars. The state
+demands the utmost obedience and sacrifice of its citizens, but at the
+same time it treats them as children through an excess of secrecy and a
+censorship of news and expression of opinion which render the minds of
+those who are thus intellectually repressed defenseless against every
+unfavorable situation and every wild rumor. It absolves itself from
+guarantees and treaties by which it was bound to other states, makes
+unabashed confession of its greed and<a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a> aspiration to power, which the
+individual is then supposed to sanction out of patriotism.</p>
+
+<p>Let the reader not object that the state cannot abstain from the use of
+injustice because it would thereby put itself at a disadvantage. For the
+individual, too, obedience to moral standards and abstinence from brutal
+acts of violence are as a rule very disadvantageous, and the state but
+rarely proves itself capable of indemnifying the individual for the
+sacrifice it demands of him. Nor is it to be wondered at that the
+loosening of moral ties between the large human units has had a
+pronounced effect upon the morality of the individual, for our
+conscience is not the inexorable judge that teachers of ethics say it
+is; it has its origin in nothing but "social fear." Wherever the
+community<a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a> suspends its reproach the suppression of evil desire also
+ceases, and men commit acts of cruelty, treachery, deception, and
+brutality, the very possibility of which would have been considered
+incompatible with their level of culture.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the civilized world-citizen of whom I spoke before may find himself
+helpless in a world that has grown strange to him when he sees his great
+fatherland disintegrated, the possessions common to mankind destroyed,
+and his fellow citizens divided and debased.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless several things might be said in criticism of his
+disappointment. Strictly speaking it is not justified, for it consists
+in the destruction of an illusion. Illusions commend themselves to us
+because they save us pain and allow us to enjoy pleasure instead. We
+must therefore<a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a> accept it without complaint when they sometimes collide
+with a bit of reality against which they are dashed to pieces.</p>
+
+<p>Two things have roused our disappointment in this war: the feeble
+morality of states in their external relations which have inwardly acted
+as guardians of moral standards, and the brutal behavior of individuals
+of the highest culture of whom one would not have believed any such
+thing possible.</p>
+
+<p>Let us begin with the second point and try to sum up the view which we
+wish to criticise in a single compact statement. Through what process
+does the individual reach a higher stage of morality? The first answer
+will probably be: He is really good and noble from birth, in the first
+place. It is hardly necessary to give this any further consideration.
+The second<a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a> answer will follow the suggestion that a process of
+development is involved here and will probably assume that this
+development consists in eradicating the evil inclinations of man and
+substituting good inclinations under the influence of education and
+cultural environment. In that case we may indeed wonder that evil should
+appear again so actively in persons who have been educated in this way.</p>
+
+<p>But this answer also contains the theory which we wish to contradict. In
+reality there is no such thing as "eradicating" evil. Psychological, or
+strictly speaking, psychoanalytic investigation proves, on the contrary,
+that the deepest character of man consists of impulses of an elemental
+kind which are similar in all human beings, the aim of which is the
+gratification of certain primitive needs. These impulses are<a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a> in
+themselves neither good or evil. We classify them and their
+manifestations according to their relation to the needs and demands of
+the human community. It is conceded that all the impulses which society
+rejects as evil, such as selfishness and cruelty, are of this primitive
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>These primitive impulses go through a long process of development before
+they can become active in the adult. They become inhibited and diverted
+to other aims and fields, they unite with each other, change their
+objects and in part turn against one's own person. The formation of
+reactions against certain impulses give the deceptive appearance of a
+change of content, as if egotism had become altruism and cruelty had
+changed into sympathy. The formation of these reactions is favored by
+the fact that many impulses appear almost<a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a> from the beginning in
+contrasting pairs; this is a remarkable state of affairs called the
+ambivalence of feeling and is quite unknown to the layman. This feeling
+is best observed and grasped through the fact that intense love and
+intense hate occur so frequently in the same person. Psychoanalysis goes
+further and states that the two contrasting feelings not infrequently
+take the same person as their object.</p>
+
+<p>What we call the character of a person does not really emerge until the
+fate of all these impulses has been settled, and character, as we all
+know, is very inadequately defined in terms of either "good" or "evil."
+Man is seldom entirely good or evil, he is "good" on the whole in one
+respect and "evil" in another, or "good" under certain conditions, and
+decidedly<a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a> "evil" under others. It is interesting to learn that the
+earlier infantile existence of intense "bad" impulses is often the
+necessary condition of being "good" in later life. The most pronounced
+childish egotists may become the most helpful and self-sacrificing
+citizens; the majority of idealists, humanitarians, and protectors of
+animals have developed from little sadists and animal tormentors.</p>
+
+<p>The transformation of "evil" impulses is the result of two factors
+operating in the same sense, one inwardly and the other outwardly. The
+inner factor consists in influencing the evil or selfish impulses
+through erotic elements, the love needs of man interpreted in the widest
+sense. The addition of erotic components transforms selfish impulses
+into social impulses. We learn to value being loved as an advantage<a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a> for
+the sake of which we can renounce other advantages. The outer factor is
+the force of education which represents the demands of the civilized
+environment and which is then continued through the direct influence of
+the cultural <i>milieu</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Civilization is based upon the renunciation of impulse gratification and
+in turn demands the same renunciation of impulses from every newcomer.
+During the individual's life a constant change takes place from outer to
+inner compulsion. The influences of civilization work through the erotic
+components to bring about the transformation of more and more of the
+selfish tendencies into altruistic and social tendencies. We may indeed
+assume that the inner compulsion which makes itself felt in the
+development of man was originally, that is, in the history of mankind,
+a<a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a> purely external compulsion. Today people bring along a certain
+tendency (disposition) to transform the egotistic into social impulses
+as a part of their hereditary organization, which then responds to
+further slight incentives to complete the transformation. A part of this
+transformation of impulse must also be made during life. In this way the
+individual man is not only under the influence of his own contemporary
+cultural <i>milieu</i> but is also subject to the influences of his ancestral
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>If we call a person's individual capacity for transforming his
+egotistical impulses under the influence of love his cultural
+adaptability, we can say that this consists of two parts, one congenital
+and the other acquired, and we may add that the relation of these two to
+each other and to the<a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a> untransformed part of the emotional life is a
+very variable one.</p>
+
+<p>In general we are inclined to rate the congenital part too highly, and
+are also in danger of over-valuing the whole cultural adaptability in
+its relation to that part of the impulse life which has remained
+primitive, that is, we are misled into judging people to be "better"
+than they really are. For there is another factor which clouds our
+judgment and falsifies the result in favor of what we are judging.</p>
+
+<p>We are of course in no position to observe the impulses of another
+person. We deduce them from his actions and his conduct, which we trace
+back to motives springing from his emotional life. In a number of cases
+such a conclusion is necessarily incorrect. The same actions which are
+"good" in the civilized sense may sometimes<a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a> originate in "noble"
+motives and sometimes not. Students of the theory of ethics call only
+those acts "good" which are the expression of good impulses and refuse
+to acknowledge others as such. But society is on the whole guided by
+practical aims and does not bother about this distinction; it is
+satisfied if a man adapts his conduct and his actions to the precepts of
+civilization and asks little about his motives.</p>
+
+<p>We have heard that the outer compulsion which education and environment
+exercise upon a man brings about a further transformation of his impulse
+life for the good, the change from egotism to altruism. But this is not
+the necessary or regular effect of the outer compulsion. Education and
+environment have not only love premiums to offer but work with<a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a> profit
+premiums of another sort, namely rewards and punishments. They can
+therefore bring it about that a person subject to their influence
+decides in favor of good conduct in the civilized sense without any
+ennobling of impulse or change from egotistic into altruistic
+inclinations. On the whole the consequence remains the same; only
+special circumstances will reveal whether the one person is always good
+because his impulses compel him to be so while another person is good
+only in so far as this civilized behavior is of advantage to his selfish
+purposes. But our superficial knowledge of the individual gives us no
+means of distinguishing the two cases, and we shall certainly be misled
+by our optimism into greatly over-estimating the number of people who
+have been transformed by civilization.<a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a></p>
+
+<p>Civilized society, which demands good conduct and does not bother about
+the impulse on which it is based, has thus won over a great many people
+to civilized obedience who do not thereby follow their own natures.
+Encouraged by this success, society has permitted itself to be misled
+into putting the ethical demands as high as possible, thereby forcing
+its members to move still further from their emotional dispositions. A
+continual emotional suppression is imposed upon them, the strain of
+which is indicated by the appearance of the most remarkable reactions
+and compensations.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of sexuality, where such suppression is most difficult to
+carry out, it results in reactions known as neurotic ailments. In other
+fields the pressure of civilization shows no pathological results<a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a> but
+manifests itself in distorted characters and in the constant readiness
+of the inhibited impulses to enforce their gratification at any fitting
+opportunity.</p>
+
+<p>Anyone thus forced to react continually to precepts that are not the
+expressions of his impulses lives, psychologically speaking, above his
+means, and may be objectively described as a hypocrite, whether he is
+clearly conscious of this difference or not. It is undeniable that our
+contemporary civilization favors this sort of hypocrisy to an
+extraordinary extent. One might even venture to assert that it is built
+upon such a hypocrisy and would have to undergo extensive changes if man
+were to undertake to live according to the psychological truth. There
+are therefore more civilized hypocrites than truly cultured persons, and
+one can even discuss<a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a> the question whether a certain amount of civilized
+hypocrisy is not indispensable to maintain civilization because the
+already organized cultural adaptability of the man of today would
+perhaps not suffice for the task of living according to the truth. On
+the other hand the maintenance of civilization even on such questionable
+grounds offers the prospect that with every new generation a more
+extensive transformation of impulses will pave the way for a better
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>These discussions have already afforded us the consolation that our
+mortification and painful disappointment on account of the uncivilized
+behavior of our fellow world citizens in this war were not justified.
+They rested upon an illusion to which we had succumbed. In reality they
+have not sunk as deeply as we feared because<a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a> they never really rose as
+high as we had believed. The fact that states and races abolished their
+mutual ethical restrictions not unnaturally incited them to withdraw for
+a time from the existing pressure of civilization and to sanction a
+passing gratification of their suppressed impulses. In doing so their
+relative morality within their own national life probably suffered no
+rupture.</p>
+
+<p>But we can still further deepen our understanding of the change which
+this war has brought about in our former compatriots and at the same
+time take warning not to be unjust to them. For psychic evolution shows
+a peculiarity which is not found in any other process of development.
+When a town becomes a city or a child grows into a man, town and child
+disappear in the city and in the man.<a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a> Only memory can sketch in the old
+features in the new picture; in reality the old materials and forms have
+been replaced by new ones. It is different in the case of psychic
+evolution. One can describe this unique state of affairs only by saying
+that every previous stage of development is preserved next to the
+following one from which it has evolved; the succession stipulates a
+co-existence although the material in which the whole series of changes
+has taken place remains the same.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier psychic state may not have manifested itself for years but
+nevertheless continues to exist to the extent that it may some day again
+become the form in which psychic forces express themselves, in fact the
+only form, as though all subsequent developments had been annulled and
+made regressive. This extraordinary<a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a> plasticity of psychic development
+is not without limits as to its direction; one can describe it as a
+special capacity for retrograde action or regression, for it sometimes
+happens that a later and higher stage of development that has been
+abandoned cannot be attained again. But the primitive conditions can
+always be reconstructed; the primitive psyche is in the strictest sense
+indestructible.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called mental diseases must make the impression on the layman of
+mental and psychic life fallen into decay. In reality the destruction
+concerns only later acquisitions and developments. The nature of mental
+diseases consists in the return to former states of the affective life
+and function. An excellent example of the plasticity of the psychic life
+is the<a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a> state of sleep, which we all court every night.</p>
+
+<p>Since we know how to interpret even the maddest and most confused
+dreams, we know that every time we go to sleep we throw aside our hard
+won morality like a garment in order to put it on again in the morning.
+This laying bare is, of course, harmless, because we are paralyzed and
+condemned to inactivity by the sleeping state.</p>
+
+<p>Only the dream can inform us of the regression of our emotional life to
+an earlier stage of development. Thus, for instance, it is worthy of
+note that all our dreams are governed by purely egotistic motives. One
+of my English friends once presented this theory to a scientific meeting
+in America, whereupon a lady<a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a> present made the remark that this might
+perhaps be true of Austrians, but she ventured to assert for herself and
+her friends that even in dreams they always felt altruistically. My
+friend, although himself a member of the English race, was obliged to
+contradict the lady energetically on the basis of his experience in
+dream analysis. The noble Americans are just as egotistic in their
+dreams as the Austrians.</p>
+
+<p>The transformation of impulses upon which our cultural adaptability
+rests can therefore also be permanently or temporarily made regressive.
+Without doubt the influences of war belong to those forces which can
+create such regressions; we therefore need not deny cultural
+adaptibility to all those who at present are acting in such an
+uncivilized manner, and may expect that the refinement of their
+impulses<a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a> will continue in more peaceful times.</p>
+
+<p>But there is perhaps another symptom of our fellow citizens of the world
+which has caused us no less surprise and fear than this descent from
+former ethical heights which has been so painful to us. I mean the lack
+of insight that our greatest intellectual leaders have shown, their
+obduracy, their inaccessibility to the most impressive arguments, their
+uncritical credulity concerning the most contestable assertions. This
+certainly presents a sad picture, and I wish expressly to emphasize that
+I am by no means a blinded partisan who finds all the intellectual
+mistakes on one side. But this phenomenon is more easily explained and
+far less serious than the one which we have just considered. Students of
+human nature and philosophers<a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a> have long ago taught us that we do wrong
+to value our intelligence as an independent force and to overlook its
+dependence upon our emotional life. According to their view our
+intellect can work reliably only when it is removed from the influence
+of powerful incitements; otherwise it acts simply as an instrument at
+the beck and call of our will and delivers the results which the will
+demands. Logical argumentation is therefore powerless against affective
+interests; that is why arguing with reasons which, according to
+Falstaff, are as common as blackberries, are so fruitless where our
+interests are concerned. Whenever possible psychoanalytic experience has
+driven home this assertion. It is in a position to prove every day that
+the cleverest people suddenly behave as unintelligently as defectives<a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a>
+as soon as their understanding encounters emotional resistance, but that
+they regain their intelligence completely as soon as this resistance has
+been overcome. This blindness to logic which this war has so frequently
+conjured up in just our best fellow citizens, is therefore a secondary
+phenomenon, the result of emotional excitement and destined, we hope, to
+disappear simultaneously with it.</p>
+
+<p>If we have thus come to a fresh understanding of our estranged fellow
+citizens we can more easily bear the disappointment which nations have
+caused us, for of them we must only make demands of a far more modest
+nature. They are perhaps repeating the development of the individual and
+at the present day still exhibit very primitive stages of development
+with a correspondingly slow progress<a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a> towards the formation of higher
+unities. It is in keeping with this that the educational factor of an
+outer compulsion to morality, which we found so active in the
+individual, is barely perceptible in them. We had indeed hoped that the
+wonderful community of interests established by intercourse and the
+exchange of products would result in the beginning of such a compulsion,
+but it seems that nations obey their passions of the moment far more
+than their interests. At most they make use of their interests to
+justify the gratification of their passions.</p>
+
+<p>It is indeed a mystery why the individual members of nations should
+disdain, hate, and abhor each other at all, even in times of peace. I do
+not know why it is. It seems as if all the moral achievements of the
+individual were obliterated in the case<a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a> of a large number of people,
+not to mention millions, until only the most primitive, oldest, and most
+brutal psychic inhibitions remained.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps only later developments will succeed in changing these
+lamentable conditions. But a little more truthfulness and
+straightforward dealing on all sides, both in the relation of people
+towards each other and between themselves and those who govern them,
+might smooth the way for such a change.<a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br /><br />
+OUR ATTITUDE TOWARDS DEATH</h3>
+
+<p class="nind"><span class="letra">I</span>T
+remains for us to consider the second factor of which I have already
+spoken which accounts for our feeling of strangeness in a world which
+used to seem so beautiful and familiar to us. I refer to the disturbance
+in our former attitude towards death.</p>
+
+<p>Our attitude had not been a sincere one. To listen to us we were, of
+course, prepared to maintain that death is the necessary termination of
+life, that everyone of us owes nature his death and must be prepared to
+pay his debt, in short, that death<a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a> was natural, undeniable, and
+inevitable. In practice we were accustomed to act as if matters were
+quite different. We have shown an unmistakable tendency to put death
+aside, to eliminate it from life. We attempted to hush it up, in fact,
+we have the proverb: to think of something as of death. Of course we
+meant our own death. We cannot, indeed, imagine our own death; whenever
+we try to do so we find that we survive ourselves as spectators. The
+school of psychoanalysis could thus assert that at bottom no one
+believes in his own death, which amounts to saying: in the unconscious
+every one of us is convinced of his immortality.</p>
+
+<p>As far as the death of another person is concerned every man of culture
+will studiously avoid mentioning this possibility in the presence of the
+person in question.<a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a> Only children ignore this restraint; they boldly
+threaten each other with the possibility of death, and are quite capable
+of giving expression to the thought of death in relation to the persons
+they love, as, for instance: Dear Mama, when unfortunately, you are
+dead, I shall do so and so. The civilized adult also likes to avoid
+entertaining the thought of another's death lest he seem harsh or
+unkind, unless his profession as a physician or a lawyer brings up the
+question. Least of all would he permit himself to think of somebody's
+death if this event is connected with a gain of freedom, wealth, or
+position. Death is, of course, not deferred through our sensitiveness on
+the subject, and when it occurs we are always deeply affected, as if our
+expectations had been shattered. We regularly lay stress upon the
+unexpected<a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a> causes of death, we speak of the accident, the infection, or
+advanced age, and thus betray our endeavor to debase death from a
+necessity to an accident. A large number of deaths seems unspeakably
+dreadful to us. We assume a special attitude towards the dead, something
+almost like admiration for one who has accomplished a very difficult
+feat. We suspend criticism of him, overlooking whatever wrongs he may
+have done, and issue the command, <i>de mortuis nil nisi bene</i>: we act as
+if we were justified in singing his praises at the funeral oration, and
+inscribe only what is to his advantage on the tombstone. This
+consideration for the dead, which he really no longer needs, is more
+important to us than the truth and to most of us, certainly, it is more
+important than consideration for the living.<a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a></p>
+
+<p>This conventional attitude of civilized people towards death is made
+still more striking by our complete collapse at the death of a person
+closely related to us, such as a parent, a wife or husband, a brother or
+sister, a child or a dear friend. We bury our hopes, our wishes, and our
+desires with the dead, we are inconsolable and refuse to replace our
+loss. We act in this case as if we belonged to the tribe of the Asra who
+also die when those whom they love perish.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>But this attitude of ours towards death exerts a powerful influence upon
+our lives. Life becomes impoverished and loses its interest when life
+itself, the highest stake in the game of living, must not be risked. It
+becomes as hollow and empty as an<a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a> American flirtation in which it is
+understood from the beginning that nothing is to happen, in contrast to
+a continental love affair in which both partners must always bear in
+mind the serious consequences. Our emotional ties, the unbearable
+intensity of our grief, make us disinclined to court dangers for
+ourselves and those belonging to us. We do not dare to contemplate a
+number of undertakings that are dangerous but really indispensable, such
+as aeroplane flights, expeditions to distant countries, and experiments
+with explosive substances. We are paralyzed by the thought of who is to
+replace the son to his mother, the husband to his wife, or the father to
+his children, should an accident occur. A number of other renunciations
+and exclusions result from this tendency to rule out death from the
+calculations<a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a> of life. And yet the motto of the Hanseatic League said:
+<i>Navigare necesse est, vivere non necesse</i>: It is necessary to sail the
+seas, but not to live.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore inevitable that we should seek compensation for the loss
+of life in the world of fiction, in literature, and in the theater.
+There we still find people who know how to die, who are even quite
+capable of killing others. There alone the condition for reconciling
+ourselves to death is fulfilled, namely, if beneath all the vicissitudes
+of life a permanent life still remains to us. It is really too sad that
+it may happen in life as in chess, where a false move can force us to
+lose the game, but with this difference, that we cannot begin a return
+match. In the realm of fiction we find the many lives in one for which
+we crave. We die in identification<a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a> with a certain hero and yet we
+outlive him and, quite unharmed, are prepared to die again with the next
+hero.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the war must brush aside this conventional treatment
+of death. Death is no longer to be denied; we are compelled to believe
+in it. People really die and no longer one by one, but in large numbers,
+often ten thousand in one day. It is no longer an accident. Of course,
+it still seems accidental whether a particular bullet strikes this man
+or that but the survivor may easily be struck down by a second bullet,
+and the accumulation of deaths ends the impression of accident. Life has
+indeed become interesting again; it has once more received its full
+significance.</p>
+
+<p>Let us make a division here and separate those who risk their lives in
+battle<a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a> from those who remain at home, where they can only expect to
+lose one of their loved ones through injury, illness, or infection. It
+would certainly be very interesting to study the changes in the
+psychology of the combatants but I know too little about this. We must
+stick to the second group, to which we ourselves belong. I have already
+stated that I think the confusion and paralysis of our activities from
+which we are suffering is essentially determined by the fact that we
+cannot retain our previous attitude towards death. Perhaps it will help
+us to direct our psychological investigation to two other attitudes
+towards death, one of which we may ascribe to primitive man, while the
+other is still preserved, though invisible to our consciousness, in the
+deeper layers of our psychic life.<a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a></p>
+
+<p>The attitude of prehistoric man towards death is, of course, known to us
+only through deductions and reconstructions, but I am of the opinion
+that these have given us fairly trustworthy information.</p>
+
+<p>Primitive man maintained a very curious attitude towards death. It is
+not at all consistent but rather contradictory. On the one hand he took
+death very seriously, recognized it as the termination of life, and made
+use of it in this sense; but, on the other hand, he also denied death
+and reduced it to nothingness. This contradiction was made possible by
+the fact that he maintained a radically different position in regard to
+the death of others, a stranger or an enemy, than in regard to his own.
+The death of another person fitted in with his idea, it signified the
+annihilation of the hated one, and primitive<a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a> man had no scruples
+against bringing it about. He must have been a very passionate being,
+more cruel and vicious than other animals. He liked to kill and did it
+as a matter of course. Nor need we attribute to him the instinct which
+restrains other animals from killing and devouring their own species.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact the primitive history of mankind is filled with
+murder. The history of the world which is still taught to our children
+is essentially a series of race murders. The dimly felt sense of guilt
+under which man has lived since archaic times, and which in many
+religions has been condensed into the assumption of a primal guilt, a
+hereditary sin, is probably the expression of a blood guilt, the burden
+of which primitive man assumed. In my book entitled "Totem and Taboo,"<a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a>
+1913, I have followed the hints of W. Robertson Smith, Atkinson, and
+Charles Darwin in the attempt to fathom the nature of this ancient
+guilt, and am of the opinion that the Christian doctrine of today still
+makes it possible for us to work back to its origin.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>If the Son of God had to sacrifice his life to absolve mankind from
+original sin, then, according to the law of retaliation, the return of
+like for like, this sin must have been an act of killing, a murder.
+Nothing else could call for the sacrifice of a life in expiation. And if
+original sin was a sin against the God Father, the oldest sin of mankind
+must have been a patricide&mdash;the killing of the primal father of the
+primitive human horde, whose memory<a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a> picture later was transfigured into
+a deity.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>Primitive man was as incapable of imagining and realizing his own death
+as any one of us are today. But a case arose in which the two opposite
+attitudes towards death clashed and came into conflict with each other,
+with results that are both significant and far reaching. Such a case was
+given when primitive man saw one of his own relatives die, his wife,
+child, or friend, whom he certainly loved as we do ours; for love cannot
+be much younger than the lust for murder. In his pain he must have
+discovered that he, too, could die, an admission against which his whole
+being must have revolted, for everyone of these loved ones was a part of
+his own beloved self. On the other hand again, every such<a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a> death was
+satisfactory to him, for there was also something foreign in each one of
+these persons. The law of emotional ambivalence, which today still
+governs our emotional relations to those whom we love, certainly
+obtained far more widely in primitive times. The beloved dead had
+nevertheless roused some hostile feelings in primitive man just because
+they had been both friends and enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Philosophers have maintained that the intellectual puzzle which the
+picture of death presented to primitive man forced him to reflect and
+became the starting point of every speculation. I believe the
+philosophers here think too philosophically, they give too little
+consideration to the primary effective motive. I should therefore like
+to correct and limit the above assertion; primitive man probably<a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a>
+triumphed at the side of the corpse of the slain enemy, without finding
+any occasion to puzzle his head about the riddle of life and death. It
+was not the intellectual puzzle or any particular death which roused the
+spirit of inquiry in man, but the conflict of emotions at the death of
+beloved and withal foreign and hated persons.</p>
+
+<p>From this emotional conflict psychology arose. Man could no longer keep
+death away from him, for he had tasted of it in his grief for the
+deceased, but he did not want to acknowledge it, since he could not
+imagine himself dead. He therefore formed a compromise and concealed his
+own death but denied it the significance of destroying life, a
+distinction for which the death of his enemies had given him no motive.
+He invented spirits during his<a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a> contemplation of the corpse of the
+person he loved, and his consciousness of guilt over the gratification
+which mingled with his grief brought it about that these first created
+spirits were transformed into evil demons who were to be feared. The
+changes wrought by death suggested to him to divide the individual into
+body and soul, at first several souls, and in this way his train of
+thought paralleled the disintegration process inaugurated by death. The
+continued remembrance of the dead became the basis of the assumption of
+other forms of existence and gave him the idea of a future life after
+apparent death.</p>
+
+<p>These later forms of existence were at first only vaguely associated
+appendages to those whom death had cut off, and enjoyed only slight
+esteem until much later times; they still betrayed a very meagre<a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a>
+knowledge. The reply which the soul of Achilles made to Odysseus comes
+to our mind:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poetry">
+<tr><td align="left">Erst in the life on the earth, no less than a god we revered thee,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">We the Achaeans; and now in the realm of the dead as a monarch</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Here thou dost rule; then why should death thus grieve thee, Achilles?</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thus did I speak: forthwith then answering thus he addressed me.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Speak not smoothly of death, I beseech, O famous Odysseus,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Better by far to remain on the earth as the thrall of another,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">E'en of a portionless man that hath means right scanty of living,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rather than reign sole king in the realm of the bodiless phantoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Odysseus XI, verse 484-491</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&nbsp; &nbsp; Translated by H. B. Coterill.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Heine has rendered this in a forcible and bitter parody:<a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poetry">
+<tr><td align="left">The smallest living philistine,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">At Stuckert on the Neckar</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Is much happier than I am,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Son of Pelleus, the dead hero,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shadowy ruler of the Underworld.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It was much later before religions managed to declare this after-life as
+the more valuable and perfect and to debase our mortal life to a mere
+preparation for the life to come. It was then only logical to prolong
+our existence into the past and to invent former existences,
+transmigrations of souls, and reincarnations, all with the object of
+depriving death of its meaning as the termination of life. It was as
+early as this that the denial of death, which we described as the
+product of conventional culture, originated.</p>
+
+<p>Contemplation of the corpse of the person loved gave birth not only to
+the theory of the soul, the belief in immortality, and<a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a> implanted the
+deep roots of the human sense of guilt, but it also created the first
+ethical laws. The first and most important prohibition of the awakening
+conscience declared: Thou shalt not kill. This arose as a reaction
+against the gratification of hate for the beloved dead which is
+concealed behind grief, and was gradually extended to the unloved
+stranger and finally also to the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Civilized man no longer feels this way in regard to killing enemies.
+When the fierce struggle of this war will have reached a decision every
+victorious warrior will joyfully and without delay return home to his
+wife and children, undisturbed by thoughts of the enemy he has killed
+either at close quarters or with weapons operating at a distance.</p>
+
+<p>It is worthy of note that the primitive<a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a> races which still inhabit the
+earth and who are certainly closer to primitive man than we, act
+differently in this respect, or have so acted as long as they did not
+yet feel the influence of our civilization. The savage, such as the
+Australian, the Bushman, or the inhabitant of Terra del Fuego, is by no
+means a remorseless murderer; when he returns home as victor from the
+war path he is not allowed to enter his village or touch his wife until
+he has expiated his war murders through lengthy and often painful
+penances. The explanation for this is, of course, related to his
+superstition; the savage fears the avenging spirit of the slain. But the
+spirits of the fallen enemy are nothing but the expression of his evil
+conscience over his blood guilt; behind this superstition there lies
+concealed a bit of ethical delicacy of<a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a> feeling which has been lost to
+us civilized beings.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>Pious souls, who would like to think us removed from contact with what
+is evil and mean, will surely not fail to draw satisfactory conclusions
+in regard to the strength of the ethical impulses which have been
+implanted in us from these early and forcible murder prohibitions.
+Unfortunately this argument proves even more for the opposite
+contention.</p>
+
+<p>Such a powerful inhibition can only be directed against an equally
+strong impulse. What no human being desires to do does not have to be
+forbidden, it is self-exclusive. The very emphasis of the commandment:
+Thou shalt not kill, makes it certain that we are descended from an
+endlessly long chain of generations of<a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a> murderers, whose love of murder
+was in their blood as it is perhaps also in ours. The ethical strivings
+of mankind, with the strength and significance of which we need not
+quarrel, are an acquisition of the history of man; they have since
+become, though unfortunately in very variable quantities, the hereditary
+possessions of people of today.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now leave primitive man and turn to the unconscious in our
+psyche. Here we depend entirely upon psychoanalytic investigation, the
+only method which reaches such depths. The question is what is the
+attitude of our unconscious towards death. In answer we say that it is
+almost like that of primitive man. In this respect, as well as in many
+others, the man of prehistoric times lives on, unchanged, in our
+conscious.<a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a></p>
+
+<p>Our unconscious therefore does not believe in its own death; it acts as
+though it were immortal. What we call our unconscious, those deepest
+layers in our psyche which consist of impulses, recognizes no negative
+or any form of denial and resolves all contradictions, so that it does
+not acknowledge its own death, to which we can give only a negative
+content. The idea of death finds absolutely no acceptance in our
+impulses. This is perhaps the real secret of heroism. The rational basis
+of heroism is dependent upon the decision that one's own life cannot be
+worth as much as certain abstract common ideals. But I believe that
+instinctive or impulsive heroism is much more frequently independent of
+such motivation and simply defies danger on the assurance which
+animated<a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a> Hans, the stone-cutter, a character in Anzengruber, who always
+said to himself: Nothing can happen to me. Or that motivation only
+serves to clear away the hesitations which might restrain the
+corresponding heroic reaction in the unconscious. The fear of death,
+which controls us more frequently than we are aware, is comparatively
+secondary and is usually the outcome of the consciousness of guilt.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand we recognize the death of strangers and of enemies and
+sentence them to it just as willingly and unhesitatingly as primitive
+man. Here there is indeed a distinction which becomes decisive in
+practice. Our unconscious does not carry out the killing, it only thinks
+and wishes it. But it would be wrong to underestimate the psychic
+reality<a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a> so completely in comparison to the practical reality. It is
+really important and full of serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p>In our unconscious we daily and hourly do away with all those who stand
+in our way, all those who have insulted or harmed us. The expression:
+"The devil take him," which so frequently crosses our lips in the form
+of an ill-humored jest, but by which we really intend to say, "Death
+take him," is a serious and forceful death wish in our unconscious.
+Indeed our unconscious murders even for trifles; like the old Athenian
+law of Draco, it knows no other punishment for crime than death, and
+this not without a certain consistency, for every injury done to our
+all-mighty and self-glorifying self is at bottom a <i>crimen laesae
+majestatis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, if we are to be judged by our unconscious<a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a> wishes, we ourselves
+are nothing but a band of murderers, just like primitive man. It is
+lucky that all wishes do not possess the power which people of primitive
+times attributed to them.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> For in the cross fire of mutual
+maledictions mankind would have perished long ago, not excepting the
+best and wisest of men as well as the most beautiful and charming women.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule the layman refuses to believe these theories of
+psychoanalysis. They are rejected as calumnies which can be ignored in
+the face of the assurances of consciousness, while the few signs through
+which the unconscious betrays itself to consciousness are cleverly
+overlooked. It is therefore in place here to point out that many
+thinkers who could not possibly have<a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a> been influenced by psychoanalysis
+have very clearly accused our silent thought of a readiness to ignore
+the murder prohibition in order to clear away what stands in our path.
+Instead of quoting many examples I have chosen one which is very famous.
+In his novel, <i>Père Goriot</i>, Balzac refers to a place in the works of J.
+J. Rousseau where this author asks the reader what he would do if,
+without leaving Paris and, of course, without being discovered, he could
+kill an old mandarin in Peking, with great profit to himself, by a mere
+act of the will. He makes it possible for us to guess that he does not
+consider the life of this dignitary very secure. "To kill your mandarin"
+has become proverbial for this secret readiness to kill, even on the
+part of people of today.</p>
+
+<p>There are also a number of cynical<a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a> jokes and anecdotes which bear
+witness to the same effect, such as the remark attributed to the
+husband: "If one of us dies I shall move to Paris." Such cynical jokes
+would not be possible if they did not have an unavowed truth to reveal
+which we cannot admit when it is baldly and seriously stated. It is well
+known that one may even speak the truth in jest.</p>
+
+<p>A case arises for our consciousness, just as it did for primitive man,
+in which the two opposite attitudes towards death, one of which
+acknowledges it as the destroyer of life, while the other denies the
+reality of death, clash and come into conflict. The case is identical
+for both, it consists of the death of one of our loved ones, of a parent
+or a partner in wedlock, of a brother or a sister, of a child or a
+friend. These persons we love are on the one hand a part<a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a> of our inner
+possessions and a constituent of our own selves, but on the other hand
+they are also in part strangers and even enemies. Except in a few
+instances, even the tenderest and closest love relations also contain a
+bit of hostility which can rouse an unconscious death wish. But at the
+present day this ambivalent conflict no longer results in the
+development of ethics and soul theories, but in neuroses which also
+gives us a profound insight into the normal psychic life. Doctors who
+practice psychoanalysis have frequently had to deal with the symptom of
+over tender care for the welfare of relatives or with wholly unfounded
+self reproaches after the death of a beloved person. The study of these
+cases has left them in no doubt as to the significance of unconscious
+death wishes.<a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a></p>
+
+<p>The layman feels an extraordinary horror at the possibility of such an
+emotion and takes his aversion to it as a legitimate ground for
+disbelief in the assertions of psychoanalysis. I think he is wrong
+there. No debasing of our love life is intended and none such has
+resulted. It is indeed foreign to our comprehension as well as to our
+feelings to unite love and hate in this manner, but in so far as nature
+employs these contrasts she brings it about that love is always kept
+alive and fresh in order to safeguard it against the hate that is
+lurking behind it. It may be said that we owe the most beautiful
+unfolding of our love life to the reaction against this hostile impulse
+which we feel in our hearts.</p>
+
+<p>Let us sum up what we have said. Our unconscious is just as inaccessible
+to the conception of our own death, just as much<a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a> inclined to kill the
+stranger, and just as divided, or ambivalent towards the persons we love
+as was primitive man. But how far we are removed from this primitive
+state in our conventionally civilized attitude towards death!</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to see how war enters into this disunity. War strips off the
+later deposits of civilization and allows the primitive man in us to
+reappear. It forces us again to be heroes who cannot believe in their
+own death, it stamps all strangers as enemies whose death we ought to
+cause or wish; it counsels us to rise above the death of those whom we
+love. But war cannot be abolished; as long as the conditions of
+existence among races are so varied and the repulsions between them are
+so vehement, there will have to be wars. The question then arises
+whether<a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a> we shall be the ones to yield and adapt ourselves to it. Shall
+we not admit that in our civilized attitude towards death we have again
+lived psychologically beyond our means? Shall we not turn around and
+avow the truth? Were it not better to give death the place to which it
+is entitled both in reality and in our thoughts and to reveal a little
+more of our unconscious attitude towards death which up to now we have
+so carefully suppressed? This may not appear a very high achievement and
+in some respects rather a step backwards, a kind of regression, but at
+least it has the advantage of taking the truth into account a little
+more and of making life more bearable again. To bear life remains, after
+all, the first duty of the living. The illusion becomes worthless if it
+disturbs us in this.<a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a></p>
+
+<p>We remember the old saying:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poetry">
+<tr><td align="right"><i>Si vis pacem, para bellum.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">If you wish peace, prepare for war.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The times call for a paraphrase:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="poetry">
+<tr><td align="right"><i>Si vis vitam, para mortem.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">If you wish life, prepare for death.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Compare Heine's poem, "Der Asra," Louis Untermeyer's
+translation, p. 269, Henry Holt &amp; Co., 1917.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Totem and Taboo, translated by Dr. A. A. Brill, Moffat,
+Yard &amp; Co., 1918.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Totem and Taboo, Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Totem and Taboo, Chapter IV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> See Totem and Taboo, Chapter III.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Reflections on War and Death, by Sigmund Freud
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Reflections on War and Death
+
+Author: Sigmund Freud
+
+Translator: A. A. Brill
+            Alfred B. Kuttner
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2011 [EBook #35875]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REFLECTIONS ON WAR AND DEATH ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was
+produced from scanned images of public domain material
+from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+REFLECTIONS
+ON WAR AND DEATH
+
+
+
+
+REFLECTIONS
+ON WAR AND DEATH
+
+_By_
+PROFESSOR DR. SIGMUND FREUD, LL.D.
+
+_Authorized English Translation By_
+
+DR. A. A. BRILL and
+ALFRED B. KUTTNER
+
+[Illustration: colophon]
+
+MOFFAT, YARD AND COMPANY
+NEW YORK
+1918
+
+Copyright, 1918, by
+MOFFAT, YARD, AND COMPANY
+
+
+This book is offered to the American public at the present time in the
+hope that it may contribute something to the cause of international
+understanding and good will which has become the hope of the world.
+
+THE TRANSLATORS.
+
+
+
+
+REFLECTIONS
+ON WAR AND DEATH
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE DISAPPOINTMENTS OF WAR
+
+
+Caught in the whirlwind of these war times, without any real information
+or any perspective upon the great changes that have already occurred or
+are about to be enacted, lacking all premonition of the future, it is
+small wonder that we ourselves become confused as to the meaning of
+impressions which crowd in upon us or of the value of the judgments we
+are forming. It would seem as though no event had ever destroyed so much
+of the precious heritage of mankind, confused so many of the clearest
+intellects or so thoroughly debased what is highest.
+
+Even science has lost her dispassionate impartiality. Her deeply
+embittered votaries are intent upon seizing her weapons to do their
+share in the battle against the enemy. The anthropologist has to declare
+his opponent inferior and degenerate, the psychiatrist must diagnose him
+as mentally deranged. Yet it is probable that we are affected out of all
+proportion by the evils of these times and have no right to compare them
+with the evils of other times through which we have not lived.
+
+The individual who is not himself a combatant and therefore has not
+become a cog in the gigantic war machinery, feels confused in his
+bearings and hampered in his activities. I think any little suggestion
+that will make it easier for him to see his way more clearly will be
+welcome. Among the factors which cause the stay-at-home so much
+spiritual misery and are so hard to endure there are two in particular
+which I should like to emphasize and discuss. I mean the disappointment
+that this war has called forth and the altered attitude towards death to
+which it, in common with other wars, forces us.
+
+When I speak of disappointment everybody knows at once what I mean. One
+need not be a sentimentalist, one may realize the biological and
+physiological necessity of suffering in the economy of human life, and
+yet one may condemn the methods and the aims of war and long for its
+termination. To be sure, we used to say that wars cannot cease as long
+as nations live under such varied conditions, as long as they place
+such different values upon the individual life, and as long as the
+animosities which divide them represent such powerful psychic forces. We
+were therefore quite ready to believe that for some time to come there
+would be wars between primitive and civilized nations and between those
+divided by color, as well as with and among the partly enlightened and
+more or less civilized peoples of Europe. But we dared to hope
+differently. We expected that the great ruling nations of the white
+race, the leaders of mankind, who had cultivated world wide interests,
+and to whom we owe the technical progress in the control of nature as
+well as the creation of artistic and scientific cultural standards--we
+expected that these nations would find some other way of settling their
+differences and conflicting interests.
+
+Each of these nations had set a high moral standard to which the
+individual had to conform if he wished to be a member of the civilized
+community.
+
+These frequently over strict precepts demanded a great deal of him, a
+great self-restraint and a marked renunciation of his impulses. Above
+all he was forbidden to resort to lying and cheating, which are so
+extraordinarily useful in competition with others. The civilized state
+considered these moral standards the foundation of its existence, it
+drastically interfered if anyone dared to question them and often
+declared it improper even to submit them to the test of intellectual
+criticism. It was therefore assumed that the state itself would respect
+them and would do nothing that might contradict the foundations of its
+own existence. To be sure, one was aware that scattered among these
+civilized nations there were certain remnants of races that were quite
+universally disliked, and were therefore reluctantly and only to a
+certain extent permitted to participate in the common work of
+civilization where they had proved themselves sufficiently fit for the
+task. But the great nations themselves, one should have thought, had
+acquired sufficient understanding for the qualities they had in common
+and enough tolerance for their differences so that, unlike in the days
+of classical antiquity, the words "foreign" and "hostile" should no
+longer be synonyms.
+
+Trusting to this unity of civilized races countless people left hearth
+and home to live in strange lands and trusted their fortunes to the
+friendly relations existing between the various countries. And even he
+who was not tied down to the same spot by the exigencies of life could
+combine all the advantages and charms of civilized countries into a
+newer and greater fatherland which he could enjoy without hindrance or
+suspicion. He thus took delight in the blue and the grey ocean, the
+beauty of snow clad mountains and of the green lowlands, the magic of
+the north woods and the grandeur of southern vegetation, the atmosphere
+of landscapes upon which great historical memories rest, and the peace
+of untouched nature. The new fatherland was to him also a museum, filled
+with the treasure that all the artists of the world for many centuries
+had created and left behind. While he wandered from one hall to another
+in this museum he could give his impartial appreciation to the varied
+types of perfection that had been developed among his distant
+compatriots by the mixture of blood, by history, and by the
+peculiarities of physical environment. Here cool, inflexible energy was
+developed to the highest degree, there the graceful art of beautifying
+life, elsewhere the sense of law and order, or other qualities that have
+made man master of the earth.
+
+We must not forget that every civilized citizen of the world had created
+his own special "Parnassus" and his own "School of Athens." Among the
+great philosophers, poets, and artists of all nations he had selected
+those to whom he considered himself indebted for the best enjoyment and
+understanding of life, and he associated them in his homage both with
+the immortal ancients and with the familiar masters of his own tongue.
+Not one of these great figures seemed alien to him just because he spoke
+in a different language; be it the incomparable explorer of human
+passions or the intoxicated worshiper of beauty, the mighty and
+threatening seer or the sensitive scoffer, and yet he never reproached
+himself with having become an apostate to his own nation and his beloved
+mother tongue.
+
+The enjoyment of this common civilization was occasionally disturbed by
+voices which warned that in consequence of traditional differences wars
+were unavoidable even between those who shared this civilization. One
+did not want to believe this, but what did one imagine such a war to be
+like if it should ever come about? No doubt it was to be an opportunity
+to show the progress in man's community feeling since the days when the
+Greek amphictyonies had forbidden the destruction of a city belonging to
+the league, the felling of her oil trees and the cutting off of her
+water supply. It would be a chivalrous bout of arms for the sole purpose
+of establishing the superiority of one side or the other with the
+greatest possible avoidance of severe suffering which could contribute
+nothing to the decision, with complete protection for the wounded, who
+must withdraw from the battle, and for the physicians and nurses who
+devote themselves to their care. With every consideration, of course,
+for noncombatants, for the women who are removed from the activities of
+war, and for the children who, when grown up, are to become friends and
+co-workers on both sides. And with the maintenance, finally, of all the
+international projects and institutions in which the civilized community
+of peace times had expressed its corporate life.
+
+Such a war would still be horrible enough and full of burdens, but it
+would not have interrupted the development of ethical relations between
+the large human units, between nations and states. But the war in which
+we did not want to believe broke out and brought--disappointment. It is
+not only bloodier and more destructive than any foregoing war, as a
+result of the tremendous development of weapons of attack and defense,
+but it is at least as cruel, bitter, and merciless as any earlier war.
+It places itself above all the restrictions pledged in times of peace,
+the so-called rights of nations, it does not acknowledge the
+prerogatives of the wounded and of physicians, the distinction between
+peaceful and fighting members of the population, or the claims of
+private property. It hurls down in blind rage whatever bars its way, as
+though there were to be no future and no peace after it is over. It
+tears asunder all community bonds among the struggling peoples and
+threatens to leave a bitterness which will make impossible any
+re-establishment of these ties for a long time to come.
+
+It has also brought to light the barely conceivable phenomenon of
+civilized nations knowing and understanding each other so little that
+one can turn from the other with hate and loathing. Indeed one of these
+great civilized nations has become so universally disliked that it is
+even attempted to cast it out from the civilized community as though it
+were barbaric, although this very nation has long proved its
+eligibility through contribution after contribution of brilliant
+achievements. We live in the hope that impartial history will furnish
+the proof that this very nation, in whose language I am writing and for
+whose victory our dear ones are fighting, has sinned least against the
+laws of human civilization. But who is privileged to step forward at
+such a time as judge in his own defense?
+
+Races are roughly represented by the states they form and these states
+by the governments which guide them. The individual citizen can prove
+with dismay in this war what occasionally thrust itself upon him already
+in times of peace, namely, that the state forbids him to do wrong not
+because it wishes to do away with wrongdoing but because it wishes to
+monopolize it, like salt and tobacco. A state at war makes free use of
+every injustice, every act of violence, that would dishonor the
+individual. It employs not only permissible cunning but conscious lies
+and intentional deception against the enemy, and this to a degree which
+apparently outdoes what was customary in previous wars. The state
+demands the utmost obedience and sacrifice of its citizens, but at the
+same time it treats them as children through an excess of secrecy and a
+censorship of news and expression of opinion which render the minds of
+those who are thus intellectually repressed defenseless against every
+unfavorable situation and every wild rumor. It absolves itself from
+guarantees and treaties by which it was bound to other states, makes
+unabashed confession of its greed and aspiration to power, which the
+individual is then supposed to sanction out of patriotism.
+
+Let the reader not object that the state cannot abstain from the use of
+injustice because it would thereby put itself at a disadvantage. For the
+individual, too, obedience to moral standards and abstinence from brutal
+acts of violence are as a rule very disadvantageous, and the state but
+rarely proves itself capable of indemnifying the individual for the
+sacrifice it demands of him. Nor is it to be wondered at that the
+loosening of moral ties between the large human units has had a
+pronounced effect upon the morality of the individual, for our
+conscience is not the inexorable judge that teachers of ethics say it
+is; it has its origin in nothing but "social fear." Wherever the
+community suspends its reproach the suppression of evil desire also
+ceases, and men commit acts of cruelty, treachery, deception, and
+brutality, the very possibility of which would have been considered
+incompatible with their level of culture.
+
+Thus the civilized world-citizen of whom I spoke before may find himself
+helpless in a world that has grown strange to him when he sees his great
+fatherland disintegrated, the possessions common to mankind destroyed,
+and his fellow citizens divided and debased.
+
+Nevertheless several things might be said in criticism of his
+disappointment. Strictly speaking it is not justified, for it consists
+in the destruction of an illusion. Illusions commend themselves to us
+because they save us pain and allow us to enjoy pleasure instead. We
+must therefore accept it without complaint when they sometimes collide
+with a bit of reality against which they are dashed to pieces.
+
+Two things have roused our disappointment in this war: the feeble
+morality of states in their external relations which have inwardly acted
+as guardians of moral standards, and the brutal behavior of individuals
+of the highest culture of whom one would not have believed any such
+thing possible.
+
+Let us begin with the second point and try to sum up the view which we
+wish to criticise in a single compact statement. Through what process
+does the individual reach a higher stage of morality? The first answer
+will probably be: He is really good and noble from birth, in the first
+place. It is hardly necessary to give this any further consideration.
+The second answer will follow the suggestion that a process of
+development is involved here and will probably assume that this
+development consists in eradicating the evil inclinations of man and
+substituting good inclinations under the influence of education and
+cultural environment. In that case we may indeed wonder that evil should
+appear again so actively in persons who have been educated in this way.
+
+But this answer also contains the theory which we wish to contradict. In
+reality there is no such thing as "eradicating" evil. Psychological, or
+strictly speaking, psychoanalytic investigation proves, on the contrary,
+that the deepest character of man consists of impulses of an elemental
+kind which are similar in all human beings, the aim of which is the
+gratification of certain primitive needs. These impulses are in
+themselves neither good or evil. We classify them and their
+manifestations according to their relation to the needs and demands of
+the human community. It is conceded that all the impulses which society
+rejects as evil, such as selfishness and cruelty, are of this primitive
+nature.
+
+These primitive impulses go through a long process of development before
+they can become active in the adult. They become inhibited and diverted
+to other aims and fields, they unite with each other, change their
+objects and in part turn against one's own person. The formation of
+reactions against certain impulses give the deceptive appearance of a
+change of content, as if egotism had become altruism and cruelty had
+changed into sympathy. The formation of these reactions is favored by
+the fact that many impulses appear almost from the beginning in
+contrasting pairs; this is a remarkable state of affairs called the
+ambivalence of feeling and is quite unknown to the layman. This feeling
+is best observed and grasped through the fact that intense love and
+intense hate occur so frequently in the same person. Psychoanalysis goes
+further and states that the two contrasting feelings not infrequently
+take the same person as their object.
+
+What we call the character of a person does not really emerge until the
+fate of all these impulses has been settled, and character, as we all
+know, is very inadequately defined in terms of either "good" or "evil."
+Man is seldom entirely good or evil, he is "good" on the whole in one
+respect and "evil" in another, or "good" under certain conditions, and
+decidedly "evil" under others. It is interesting to learn that the
+earlier infantile existence of intense "bad" impulses is often the
+necessary condition of being "good" in later life. The most pronounced
+childish egotists may become the most helpful and self-sacrificing
+citizens; the majority of idealists, humanitarians, and protectors of
+animals have developed from little sadists and animal tormentors.
+
+The transformation of "evil" impulses is the result of two factors
+operating in the same sense, one inwardly and the other outwardly. The
+inner factor consists in influencing the evil or selfish impulses
+through erotic elements, the love needs of man interpreted in the widest
+sense. The addition of erotic components transforms selfish impulses
+into social impulses. We learn to value being loved as an advantage for
+the sake of which we can renounce other advantages. The outer factor is
+the force of education which represents the demands of the civilized
+environment and which is then continued through the direct influence of
+the cultural _milieu_.
+
+Civilization is based upon the renunciation of impulse gratification and
+in turn demands the same renunciation of impulses from every newcomer.
+During the individual's life a constant change takes place from outer to
+inner compulsion. The influences of civilization work through the erotic
+components to bring about the transformation of more and more of the
+selfish tendencies into altruistic and social tendencies. We may indeed
+assume that the inner compulsion which makes itself felt in the
+development of man was originally, that is, in the history of mankind,
+a purely external compulsion. Today people bring along a certain
+tendency (disposition) to transform the egotistic into social impulses
+as a part of their hereditary organization, which then responds to
+further slight incentives to complete the transformation. A part of this
+transformation of impulse must also be made during life. In this way the
+individual man is not only under the influence of his own contemporary
+cultural _milieu_ but is also subject to the influences of his ancestral
+civilization.
+
+If we call a person's individual capacity for transforming his
+egotistical impulses under the influence of love his cultural
+adaptability, we can say that this consists of two parts, one congenital
+and the other acquired, and we may add that the relation of these two to
+each other and to the untransformed part of the emotional life is a
+very variable one.
+
+In general we are inclined to rate the congenital part too highly, and
+are also in danger of over-valuing the whole cultural adaptability in
+its relation to that part of the impulse life which has remained
+primitive, that is, we are misled into judging people to be "better"
+than they really are. For there is another factor which clouds our
+judgment and falsifies the result in favor of what we are judging.
+
+We are of course in no position to observe the impulses of another
+person. We deduce them from his actions and his conduct, which we trace
+back to motives springing from his emotional life. In a number of cases
+such a conclusion is necessarily incorrect. The same actions which are
+"good" in the civilized sense may sometimes originate in "noble"
+motives and sometimes not. Students of the theory of ethics call only
+those acts "good" which are the expression of good impulses and refuse
+to acknowledge others as such. But society is on the whole guided by
+practical aims and does not bother about this distinction; it is
+satisfied if a man adapts his conduct and his actions to the precepts of
+civilization and asks little about his motives.
+
+We have heard that the outer compulsion which education and environment
+exercise upon a man brings about a further transformation of his impulse
+life for the good, the change from egotism to altruism. But this is not
+the necessary or regular effect of the outer compulsion. Education and
+environment have not only love premiums to offer but work with profit
+premiums of another sort, namely rewards and punishments. They can
+therefore bring it about that a person subject to their influence
+decides in favor of good conduct in the civilized sense without any
+ennobling of impulse or change from egotistic into altruistic
+inclinations. On the whole the consequence remains the same; only
+special circumstances will reveal whether the one person is always good
+because his impulses compel him to be so while another person is good
+only in so far as this civilized behavior is of advantage to his selfish
+purposes. But our superficial knowledge of the individual gives us no
+means of distinguishing the two cases, and we shall certainly be misled
+by our optimism into greatly over-estimating the number of people who
+have been transformed by civilization.
+
+Civilized society, which demands good conduct and does not bother about
+the impulse on which it is based, has thus won over a great many people
+to civilized obedience who do not thereby follow their own natures.
+Encouraged by this success, society has permitted itself to be misled
+into putting the ethical demands as high as possible, thereby forcing
+its members to move still further from their emotional dispositions. A
+continual emotional suppression is imposed upon them, the strain of
+which is indicated by the appearance of the most remarkable reactions
+and compensations.
+
+In the field of sexuality, where such suppression is most difficult to
+carry out, it results in reactions known as neurotic ailments. In other
+fields the pressure of civilization shows no pathological results but
+manifests itself in distorted characters and in the constant readiness
+of the inhibited impulses to enforce their gratification at any fitting
+opportunity.
+
+Anyone thus forced to react continually to precepts that are not the
+expressions of his impulses lives, psychologically speaking, above his
+means, and may be objectively described as a hypocrite, whether he is
+clearly conscious of this difference or not. It is undeniable that our
+contemporary civilization favors this sort of hypocrisy to an
+extraordinary extent. One might even venture to assert that it is built
+upon such a hypocrisy and would have to undergo extensive changes if man
+were to undertake to live according to the psychological truth. There
+are therefore more civilized hypocrites than truly cultured persons, and
+one can even discuss the question whether a certain amount of civilized
+hypocrisy is not indispensable to maintain civilization because the
+already organized cultural adaptability of the man of today would
+perhaps not suffice for the task of living according to the truth. On
+the other hand the maintenance of civilization even on such questionable
+grounds offers the prospect that with every new generation a more
+extensive transformation of impulses will pave the way for a better
+civilization.
+
+These discussions have already afforded us the consolation that our
+mortification and painful disappointment on account of the uncivilized
+behavior of our fellow world citizens in this war were not justified.
+They rested upon an illusion to which we had succumbed. In reality they
+have not sunk as deeply as we feared because they never really rose as
+high as we had believed. The fact that states and races abolished their
+mutual ethical restrictions not unnaturally incited them to withdraw for
+a time from the existing pressure of civilization and to sanction a
+passing gratification of their suppressed impulses. In doing so their
+relative morality within their own national life probably suffered no
+rupture.
+
+But we can still further deepen our understanding of the change which
+this war has brought about in our former compatriots and at the same
+time take warning not to be unjust to them. For psychic evolution shows
+a peculiarity which is not found in any other process of development.
+When a town becomes a city or a child grows into a man, town and child
+disappear in the city and in the man. Only memory can sketch in the old
+features in the new picture; in reality the old materials and forms have
+been replaced by new ones. It is different in the case of psychic
+evolution. One can describe this unique state of affairs only by saying
+that every previous stage of development is preserved next to the
+following one from which it has evolved; the succession stipulates a
+co-existence although the material in which the whole series of changes
+has taken place remains the same.
+
+The earlier psychic state may not have manifested itself for years but
+nevertheless continues to exist to the extent that it may some day again
+become the form in which psychic forces express themselves, in fact the
+only form, as though all subsequent developments had been annulled and
+made regressive. This extraordinary plasticity of psychic development
+is not without limits as to its direction; one can describe it as a
+special capacity for retrograde action or regression, for it sometimes
+happens that a later and higher stage of development that has been
+abandoned cannot be attained again. But the primitive conditions can
+always be reconstructed; the primitive psyche is in the strictest sense
+indestructible.
+
+The so-called mental diseases must make the impression on the layman of
+mental and psychic life fallen into decay. In reality the destruction
+concerns only later acquisitions and developments. The nature of mental
+diseases consists in the return to former states of the affective life
+and function. An excellent example of the plasticity of the psychic life
+is the state of sleep, which we all court every night.
+
+Since we know how to interpret even the maddest and most confused
+dreams, we know that every time we go to sleep we throw aside our hard
+won morality like a garment in order to put it on again in the morning.
+This laying bare is, of course, harmless, because we are paralyzed and
+condemned to inactivity by the sleeping state.
+
+Only the dream can inform us of the regression of our emotional life to
+an earlier stage of development. Thus, for instance, it is worthy of
+note that all our dreams are governed by purely egotistic motives. One
+of my English friends once presented this theory to a scientific meeting
+in America, whereupon a lady present made the remark that this might
+perhaps be true of Austrians, but she ventured to assert for herself and
+her friends that even in dreams they always felt altruistically. My
+friend, although himself a member of the English race, was obliged to
+contradict the lady energetically on the basis of his experience in
+dream analysis. The noble Americans are just as egotistic in their
+dreams as the Austrians.
+
+The transformation of impulses upon which our cultural adaptability
+rests can therefore also be permanently or temporarily made regressive.
+Without doubt the influences of war belong to those forces which can
+create such regressions; we therefore need not deny cultural
+adaptibility to all those who at present are acting in such an
+uncivilized manner, and may expect that the refinement of their
+impulses will continue in more peaceful times.
+
+But there is perhaps another symptom of our fellow citizens of the world
+which has caused us no less surprise and fear than this descent from
+former ethical heights which has been so painful to us. I mean the lack
+of insight that our greatest intellectual leaders have shown, their
+obduracy, their inaccessibility to the most impressive arguments, their
+uncritical credulity concerning the most contestable assertions. This
+certainly presents a sad picture, and I wish expressly to emphasize that
+I am by no means a blinded partisan who finds all the intellectual
+mistakes on one side. But this phenomenon is more easily explained and
+far less serious than the one which we have just considered. Students of
+human nature and philosophers have long ago taught us that we do wrong
+to value our intelligence as an independent force and to overlook its
+dependence upon our emotional life. According to their view our
+intellect can work reliably only when it is removed from the influence
+of powerful incitements; otherwise it acts simply as an instrument at
+the beck and call of our will and delivers the results which the will
+demands. Logical argumentation is therefore powerless against affective
+interests; that is why arguing with reasons which, according to
+Falstaff, are as common as blackberries, are so fruitless where our
+interests are concerned. Whenever possible psychoanalytic experience has
+driven home this assertion. It is in a position to prove every day that
+the cleverest people suddenly behave as unintelligently as defectives
+as soon as their understanding encounters emotional resistance, but that
+they regain their intelligence completely as soon as this resistance has
+been overcome. This blindness to logic which this war has so frequently
+conjured up in just our best fellow citizens, is therefore a secondary
+phenomenon, the result of emotional excitement and destined, we hope, to
+disappear simultaneously with it.
+
+If we have thus come to a fresh understanding of our estranged fellow
+citizens we can more easily bear the disappointment which nations have
+caused us, for of them we must only make demands of a far more modest
+nature. They are perhaps repeating the development of the individual and
+at the present day still exhibit very primitive stages of development
+with a correspondingly slow progress towards the formation of higher
+unities. It is in keeping with this that the educational factor of an
+outer compulsion to morality, which we found so active in the
+individual, is barely perceptible in them. We had indeed hoped that the
+wonderful community of interests established by intercourse and the
+exchange of products would result in the beginning of such a compulsion,
+but it seems that nations obey their passions of the moment far more
+than their interests. At most they make use of their interests to
+justify the gratification of their passions.
+
+It is indeed a mystery why the individual members of nations should
+disdain, hate, and abhor each other at all, even in times of peace. I do
+not know why it is. It seems as if all the moral achievements of the
+individual were obliterated in the case of a large number of people,
+not to mention millions, until only the most primitive, oldest, and most
+brutal psychic inhibitions remained.
+
+Perhaps only later developments will succeed in changing these
+lamentable conditions. But a little more truthfulness and
+straightforward dealing on all sides, both in the relation of people
+towards each other and between themselves and those who govern them,
+might smooth the way for such a change.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+OUR ATTITUDE TOWARDS DEATH
+
+
+It remains for us to consider the second factor of which I have already
+spoken which accounts for our feeling of strangeness in a world which
+used to seem so beautiful and familiar to us. I refer to the disturbance
+in our former attitude towards death.
+
+Our attitude had not been a sincere one. To listen to us we were, of
+course, prepared to maintain that death is the necessary termination of
+life, that everyone of us owes nature his death and must be prepared to
+pay his debt, in short, that death was natural, undeniable, and
+inevitable. In practice we were accustomed to act as if matters were
+quite different. We have shown an unmistakable tendency to put death
+aside, to eliminate it from life. We attempted to hush it up, in fact,
+we have the proverb: to think of something as of death. Of course we
+meant our own death. We cannot, indeed, imagine our own death; whenever
+we try to do so we find that we survive ourselves as spectators. The
+school of psychoanalysis could thus assert that at bottom no one
+believes in his own death, which amounts to saying: in the unconscious
+every one of us is convinced of his immortality.
+
+As far as the death of another person is concerned every man of culture
+will studiously avoid mentioning this possibility in the presence of the
+person in question. Only children ignore this restraint; they boldly
+threaten each other with the possibility of death, and are quite capable
+of giving expression to the thought of death in relation to the persons
+they love, as, for instance: Dear Mama, when unfortunately, you are
+dead, I shall do so and so. The civilized adult also likes to avoid
+entertaining the thought of another's death lest he seem harsh or
+unkind, unless his profession as a physician or a lawyer brings up the
+question. Least of all would he permit himself to think of somebody's
+death if this event is connected with a gain of freedom, wealth, or
+position. Death is, of course, not deferred through our sensitiveness on
+the subject, and when it occurs we are always deeply affected, as if our
+expectations had been shattered. We regularly lay stress upon the
+unexpected causes of death, we speak of the accident, the infection, or
+advanced age, and thus betray our endeavor to debase death from a
+necessity to an accident. A large number of deaths seems unspeakably
+dreadful to us. We assume a special attitude towards the dead, something
+almost like admiration for one who has accomplished a very difficult
+feat. We suspend criticism of him, overlooking whatever wrongs he may
+have done, and issue the command, _de mortuis nil nisi bene_: we act as
+if we were justified in singing his praises at the funeral oration, and
+inscribe only what is to his advantage on the tombstone. This
+consideration for the dead, which he really no longer needs, is more
+important to us than the truth and to most of us, certainly, it is more
+important than consideration for the living.
+
+This conventional attitude of civilized people towards death is made
+still more striking by our complete collapse at the death of a person
+closely related to us, such as a parent, a wife or husband, a brother or
+sister, a child or a dear friend. We bury our hopes, our wishes, and our
+desires with the dead, we are inconsolable and refuse to replace our
+loss. We act in this case as if we belonged to the tribe of the Asra who
+also die when those whom they love perish.[1]
+
+But this attitude of ours towards death exerts a powerful influence upon
+our lives. Life becomes impoverished and loses its interest when life
+itself, the highest stake in the game of living, must not be risked. It
+becomes as hollow and empty as an American flirtation in which it is
+understood from the beginning that nothing is to happen, in contrast to
+a continental love affair in which both partners must always bear in
+mind the serious consequences. Our emotional ties, the unbearable
+intensity of our grief, make us disinclined to court dangers for
+ourselves and those belonging to us. We do not dare to contemplate a
+number of undertakings that are dangerous but really indispensable, such
+as aeroplane flights, expeditions to distant countries, and experiments
+with explosive substances. We are paralyzed by the thought of who is to
+replace the son to his mother, the husband to his wife, or the father to
+his children, should an accident occur. A number of other renunciations
+and exclusions result from this tendency to rule out death from the
+calculations of life. And yet the motto of the Hanseatic League said:
+_Navigare necesse est, vivere non necesse_: It is necessary to sail the
+seas, but not to live.
+
+It is therefore inevitable that we should seek compensation for the loss
+of life in the world of fiction, in literature, and in the theater.
+There we still find people who know how to die, who are even quite
+capable of killing others. There alone the condition for reconciling
+ourselves to death is fulfilled, namely, if beneath all the vicissitudes
+of life a permanent life still remains to us. It is really too sad that
+it may happen in life as in chess, where a false move can force us to
+lose the game, but with this difference, that we cannot begin a return
+match. In the realm of fiction we find the many lives in one for which
+we crave. We die in identification with a certain hero and yet we
+outlive him and, quite unharmed, are prepared to die again with the next
+hero.
+
+It is obvious that the war must brush aside this conventional treatment
+of death. Death is no longer to be denied; we are compelled to believe
+in it. People really die and no longer one by one, but in large numbers,
+often ten thousand in one day. It is no longer an accident. Of course,
+it still seems accidental whether a particular bullet strikes this man
+or that but the survivor may easily be struck down by a second bullet,
+and the accumulation of deaths ends the impression of accident. Life has
+indeed become interesting again; it has once more received its full
+significance.
+
+Let us make a division here and separate those who risk their lives in
+battle from those who remain at home, where they can only expect to
+lose one of their loved ones through injury, illness, or infection. It
+would certainly be very interesting to study the changes in the
+psychology of the combatants but I know too little about this. We must
+stick to the second group, to which we ourselves belong. I have already
+stated that I think the confusion and paralysis of our activities from
+which we are suffering is essentially determined by the fact that we
+cannot retain our previous attitude towards death. Perhaps it will help
+us to direct our psychological investigation to two other attitudes
+towards death, one of which we may ascribe to primitive man, while the
+other is still preserved, though invisible to our consciousness, in the
+deeper layers of our psychic life.
+
+The attitude of prehistoric man towards death is, of course, known to us
+only through deductions and reconstructions, but I am of the opinion
+that these have given us fairly trustworthy information.
+
+Primitive man maintained a very curious attitude towards death. It is
+not at all consistent but rather contradictory. On the one hand he took
+death very seriously, recognized it as the termination of life, and made
+use of it in this sense; but, on the other hand, he also denied death
+and reduced it to nothingness. This contradiction was made possible by
+the fact that he maintained a radically different position in regard to
+the death of others, a stranger or an enemy, than in regard to his own.
+The death of another person fitted in with his idea, it signified the
+annihilation of the hated one, and primitive man had no scruples
+against bringing it about. He must have been a very passionate being,
+more cruel and vicious than other animals. He liked to kill and did it
+as a matter of course. Nor need we attribute to him the instinct which
+restrains other animals from killing and devouring their own species.
+
+As a matter of fact the primitive history of mankind is filled with
+murder. The history of the world which is still taught to our children
+is essentially a series of race murders. The dimly felt sense of guilt
+under which man has lived since archaic times, and which in many
+religions has been condensed into the assumption of a primal guilt, a
+hereditary sin, is probably the expression of a blood guilt, the burden
+of which primitive man assumed. In my book entitled "Totem and Taboo,"
+1913, I have followed the hints of W. Robertson Smith, Atkinson, and
+Charles Darwin in the attempt to fathom the nature of this ancient
+guilt, and am of the opinion that the Christian doctrine of today still
+makes it possible for us to work back to its origin.[2]
+
+If the Son of God had to sacrifice his life to absolve mankind from
+original sin, then, according to the law of retaliation, the return of
+like for like, this sin must have been an act of killing, a murder.
+Nothing else could call for the sacrifice of a life in expiation. And if
+original sin was a sin against the God Father, the oldest sin of mankind
+must have been a patricide--the killing of the primal father of the
+primitive human horde, whose memory picture later was transfigured into
+a deity.[3]
+
+Primitive man was as incapable of imagining and realizing his own death
+as any one of us are today. But a case arose in which the two opposite
+attitudes towards death clashed and came into conflict with each other,
+with results that are both significant and far reaching. Such a case was
+given when primitive man saw one of his own relatives die, his wife,
+child, or friend, whom he certainly loved as we do ours; for love cannot
+be much younger than the lust for murder. In his pain he must have
+discovered that he, too, could die, an admission against which his whole
+being must have revolted, for everyone of these loved ones was a part of
+his own beloved self. On the other hand again, every such death was
+satisfactory to him, for there was also something foreign in each one of
+these persons. The law of emotional ambivalence, which today still
+governs our emotional relations to those whom we love, certainly
+obtained far more widely in primitive times. The beloved dead had
+nevertheless roused some hostile feelings in primitive man just because
+they had been both friends and enemies.
+
+Philosophers have maintained that the intellectual puzzle which the
+picture of death presented to primitive man forced him to reflect and
+became the starting point of every speculation. I believe the
+philosophers here think too philosophically, they give too little
+consideration to the primary effective motive. I should therefore like
+to correct and limit the above assertion; primitive man probably
+triumphed at the side of the corpse of the slain enemy, without finding
+any occasion to puzzle his head about the riddle of life and death. It
+was not the intellectual puzzle or any particular death which roused the
+spirit of inquiry in man, but the conflict of emotions at the death of
+beloved and withal foreign and hated persons.
+
+From this emotional conflict psychology arose. Man could no longer keep
+death away from him, for he had tasted of it in his grief for the
+deceased, but he did not want to acknowledge it, since he could not
+imagine himself dead. He therefore formed a compromise and concealed his
+own death but denied it the significance of destroying life, a
+distinction for which the death of his enemies had given him no motive.
+He invented spirits during his contemplation of the corpse of the
+person he loved, and his consciousness of guilt over the gratification
+which mingled with his grief brought it about that these first created
+spirits were transformed into evil demons who were to be feared. The
+changes wrought by death suggested to him to divide the individual into
+body and soul, at first several souls, and in this way his train of
+thought paralleled the disintegration process inaugurated by death. The
+continued remembrance of the dead became the basis of the assumption of
+other forms of existence and gave him the idea of a future life after
+apparent death.
+
+These later forms of existence were at first only vaguely associated
+appendages to those whom death had cut off, and enjoyed only slight
+esteem until much later times; they still betrayed a very meagre
+knowledge. The reply which the soul of Achilles made to Odysseus comes
+to our mind:
+
+    Erst in the life on the earth, no less than a god we revered thee,
+    We the Achaeans; and now in the realm of the dead as a monarch
+    Here thou dost rule; then why should death thus grieve thee, Achilles?
+    Thus did I speak: forthwith then answering thus he addressed me.
+    Speak not smoothly of death, I beseech, O famous Odysseus,
+    Better by far to remain on the earth as the thrall of another,
+    E'en of a portionless man that hath means right scanty of living,
+    Rather than reign sole king in the realm of the bodiless phantoms.
+
+                     Odysseus XI, verse 484-491
+                       Translated by H. B. Coterill.
+
+Heine has rendered this in a forcible and bitter parody:
+
+    The smallest living philistine,
+    At Stuckert on the Neckar
+    Is much happier than I am,
+    Son of Pelleus, the dead hero,
+    Shadowy ruler of the Underworld.
+
+It was much later before religions managed to declare this after-life as
+the more valuable and perfect and to debase our mortal life to a mere
+preparation for the life to come. It was then only logical to prolong
+our existence into the past and to invent former existences,
+transmigrations of souls, and reincarnations, all with the object of
+depriving death of its meaning as the termination of life. It was as
+early as this that the denial of death, which we described as the
+product of conventional culture, originated.
+
+Contemplation of the corpse of the person loved gave birth not only to
+the theory of the soul, the belief in immortality, and implanted the
+deep roots of the human sense of guilt, but it also created the first
+ethical laws. The first and most important prohibition of the awakening
+conscience declared: Thou shalt not kill. This arose as a reaction
+against the gratification of hate for the beloved dead which is
+concealed behind grief, and was gradually extended to the unloved
+stranger and finally also to the enemy.
+
+Civilized man no longer feels this way in regard to killing enemies.
+When the fierce struggle of this war will have reached a decision every
+victorious warrior will joyfully and without delay return home to his
+wife and children, undisturbed by thoughts of the enemy he has killed
+either at close quarters or with weapons operating at a distance.
+
+It is worthy of note that the primitive races which still inhabit the
+earth and who are certainly closer to primitive man than we, act
+differently in this respect, or have so acted as long as they did not
+yet feel the influence of our civilization. The savage, such as the
+Australian, the Bushman, or the inhabitant of Terra del Fuego, is by no
+means a remorseless murderer; when he returns home as victor from the
+war path he is not allowed to enter his village or touch his wife until
+he has expiated his war murders through lengthy and often painful
+penances. The explanation for this is, of course, related to his
+superstition; the savage fears the avenging spirit of the slain. But the
+spirits of the fallen enemy are nothing but the expression of his evil
+conscience over his blood guilt; behind this superstition there lies
+concealed a bit of ethical delicacy of feeling which has been lost to
+us civilized beings.[4]
+
+Pious souls, who would like to think us removed from contact with what
+is evil and mean, will surely not fail to draw satisfactory conclusions
+in regard to the strength of the ethical impulses which have been
+implanted in us from these early and forcible murder prohibitions.
+Unfortunately this argument proves even more for the opposite
+contention.
+
+Such a powerful inhibition can only be directed against an equally
+strong impulse. What no human being desires to do does not have to be
+forbidden, it is self-exclusive. The very emphasis of the commandment:
+Thou shalt not kill, makes it certain that we are descended from an
+endlessly long chain of generations of murderers, whose love of murder
+was in their blood as it is perhaps also in ours. The ethical strivings
+of mankind, with the strength and significance of which we need not
+quarrel, are an acquisition of the history of man; they have since
+become, though unfortunately in very variable quantities, the hereditary
+possessions of people of today.
+
+Let us now leave primitive man and turn to the unconscious in our
+psyche. Here we depend entirely upon psychoanalytic investigation, the
+only method which reaches such depths. The question is what is the
+attitude of our unconscious towards death. In answer we say that it is
+almost like that of primitive man. In this respect, as well as in many
+others, the man of prehistoric times lives on, unchanged, in our
+conscious.
+
+Our unconscious therefore does not believe in its own death; it acts as
+though it were immortal. What we call our unconscious, those deepest
+layers in our psyche which consist of impulses, recognizes no negative
+or any form of denial and resolves all contradictions, so that it does
+not acknowledge its own death, to which we can give only a negative
+content. The idea of death finds absolutely no acceptance in our
+impulses. This is perhaps the real secret of heroism. The rational basis
+of heroism is dependent upon the decision that one's own life cannot be
+worth as much as certain abstract common ideals. But I believe that
+instinctive or impulsive heroism is much more frequently independent of
+such motivation and simply defies danger on the assurance which
+animated Hans, the stone-cutter, a character in Anzengruber, who always
+said to himself: Nothing can happen to me. Or that motivation only
+serves to clear away the hesitations which might restrain the
+corresponding heroic reaction in the unconscious. The fear of death,
+which controls us more frequently than we are aware, is comparatively
+secondary and is usually the outcome of the consciousness of guilt.
+
+On the other hand we recognize the death of strangers and of enemies and
+sentence them to it just as willingly and unhesitatingly as primitive
+man. Here there is indeed a distinction which becomes decisive in
+practice. Our unconscious does not carry out the killing, it only thinks
+and wishes it. But it would be wrong to underestimate the psychic
+reality so completely in comparison to the practical reality. It is
+really important and full of serious consequences.
+
+In our unconscious we daily and hourly do away with all those who stand
+in our way, all those who have insulted or harmed us. The expression:
+"The devil take him," which so frequently crosses our lips in the form
+of an ill-humored jest, but by which we really intend to say, "Death
+take him," is a serious and forceful death wish in our unconscious.
+Indeed our unconscious murders even for trifles; like the old Athenian
+law of Draco, it knows no other punishment for crime than death, and
+this not without a certain consistency, for every injury done to our
+all-mighty and self-glorifying self is at bottom a _crimen laesae
+majestatis_.
+
+Thus, if we are to be judged by our unconscious wishes, we ourselves
+are nothing but a band of murderers, just like primitive man. It is
+lucky that all wishes do not possess the power which people of primitive
+times attributed to them.[5] For in the cross fire of mutual
+maledictions mankind would have perished long ago, not excepting the
+best and wisest of men as well as the most beautiful and charming women.
+
+As a rule the layman refuses to believe these theories of
+psychoanalysis. They are rejected as calumnies which can be ignored in
+the face of the assurances of consciousness, while the few signs through
+which the unconscious betrays itself to consciousness are cleverly
+overlooked. It is therefore in place here to point out that many
+thinkers who could not possibly have been influenced by psychoanalysis
+have very clearly accused our silent thought of a readiness to ignore
+the murder prohibition in order to clear away what stands in our path.
+Instead of quoting many examples I have chosen one which is very famous.
+In his novel, _Pere Goriot_, Balzac refers to a place in the works of J.
+J. Rousseau where this author asks the reader what he would do if,
+without leaving Paris and, of course, without being discovered, he could
+kill an old mandarin in Peking, with great profit to himself, by a mere
+act of the will. He makes it possible for us to guess that he does not
+consider the life of this dignitary very secure. "To kill your mandarin"
+has become proverbial for this secret readiness to kill, even on the
+part of people of today.
+
+There are also a number of cynical jokes and anecdotes which bear
+witness to the same effect, such as the remark attributed to the
+husband: "If one of us dies I shall move to Paris." Such cynical jokes
+would not be possible if they did not have an unavowed truth to reveal
+which we cannot admit when it is baldly and seriously stated. It is well
+known that one may even speak the truth in jest.
+
+A case arises for our consciousness, just as it did for primitive man,
+in which the two opposite attitudes towards death, one of which
+acknowledges it as the destroyer of life, while the other denies the
+reality of death, clash and come into conflict. The case is identical
+for both, it consists of the death of one of our loved ones, of a parent
+or a partner in wedlock, of a brother or a sister, of a child or a
+friend. These persons we love are on the one hand a part of our inner
+possessions and a constituent of our own selves, but on the other hand
+they are also in part strangers and even enemies. Except in a few
+instances, even the tenderest and closest love relations also contain a
+bit of hostility which can rouse an unconscious death wish. But at the
+present day this ambivalent conflict no longer results in the
+development of ethics and soul theories, but in neuroses which also
+gives us a profound insight into the normal psychic life. Doctors who
+practice psychoanalysis have frequently had to deal with the symptom of
+over tender care for the welfare of relatives or with wholly unfounded
+self reproaches after the death of a beloved person. The study of these
+cases has left them in no doubt as to the significance of unconscious
+death wishes.
+
+The layman feels an extraordinary horror at the possibility of such an
+emotion and takes his aversion to it as a legitimate ground for
+disbelief in the assertions of psychoanalysis. I think he is wrong
+there. No debasing of our love life is intended and none such has
+resulted. It is indeed foreign to our comprehension as well as to our
+feelings to unite love and hate in this manner, but in so far as nature
+employs these contrasts she brings it about that love is always kept
+alive and fresh in order to safeguard it against the hate that is
+lurking behind it. It may be said that we owe the most beautiful
+unfolding of our love life to the reaction against this hostile impulse
+which we feel in our hearts.
+
+Let us sum up what we have said. Our unconscious is just as inaccessible
+to the conception of our own death, just as much inclined to kill the
+stranger, and just as divided, or ambivalent towards the persons we love
+as was primitive man. But how far we are removed from this primitive
+state in our conventionally civilized attitude towards death!
+
+It is easy to see how war enters into this disunity. War strips off the
+later deposits of civilization and allows the primitive man in us to
+reappear. It forces us again to be heroes who cannot believe in their
+own death, it stamps all strangers as enemies whose death we ought to
+cause or wish; it counsels us to rise above the death of those whom we
+love. But war cannot be abolished; as long as the conditions of
+existence among races are so varied and the repulsions between them are
+so vehement, there will have to be wars. The question then arises
+whether we shall be the ones to yield and adapt ourselves to it. Shall
+we not admit that in our civilized attitude towards death we have again
+lived psychologically beyond our means? Shall we not turn around and
+avow the truth? Were it not better to give death the place to which it
+is entitled both in reality and in our thoughts and to reveal a little
+more of our unconscious attitude towards death which up to now we have
+so carefully suppressed? This may not appear a very high achievement and
+in some respects rather a step backwards, a kind of regression, but at
+least it has the advantage of taking the truth into account a little
+more and of making life more bearable again. To bear life remains, after
+all, the first duty of the living. The illusion becomes worthless if it
+disturbs us in this.
+
+We remember the old saying:
+
+            _Si vis pacem, para bellum._
+    If you wish peace, prepare for war.
+
+The times call for a paraphrase:
+
+           _Si vis vitam, para mortem._
+    If you wish life, prepare for death.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Compare Heine's poem, "Der Asra," Louis Untermeyer's translation, p.
+269, Henry Holt & Co., 1917.
+
+[2] Totem and Taboo, translated by Dr. A. A. Brill, Moffat, Yard & Co.,
+1918.
+
+[3] Totem and Taboo, Chapter IV.
+
+[4] Totem and Taboo, Chapter IV.
+
+[5] See Totem and Taboo, Chapter III.
+
+
+
+
+
+
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