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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego, by 
+Sigmund Freud
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego
+
+Author: Sigmund Freud
+
+Translator: James Strachey
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2011 [EBook #35877]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROUP PSYCHOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, University of Michigan and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY
+No. 6
+
+
+
+
+GROUP PSYCHOLOGY
+AND
+THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
+
+BY
+SIGM. FREUD, M. D., LL. D.
+
+AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION
+BY
+JAMES STRACHEY
+
+[Illustration: colophon]
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS
+LONDON MCMXXII VIENNA
+
+Copyright 1922
+
+
+
+
+TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
+
+
+A comparison of the following pages with the German original
+(_Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse_, Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
+Verlag, Vienna, 1921) will show that certain passages have been
+transferred in the English version from the text to the footnotes. This
+alteration has been carried out at the author's express desire.
+
+All technical terms have been translated in accordance with the Glossary
+to be published as a supplement to the _International Journal of
+Psycho-Analysis_.
+
+J. S.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                       Page
+
+   I Introduction                                         1
+
+  II Le Bon's Description of the Group Mind               5
+
+ III Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life            23
+
+  IV Suggestion and Libido                               33
+
+   V Two Artificial Groups: the Church and the Army      41
+
+  VI Further Problems and Lines of Work                  52
+
+ VII Identification                                      60
+
+VIII Being in Love and Hypnosis                          71
+
+  IX The Herd Instinct                                   81
+
+   X The Group and the Primal Horde                      90
+
+  XI A Differentiating Grade in the Ego                 101
+
+ XII Postscript                                         110
+
+
+
+
+GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The contrast between Individual Psychology and Social or Group[1]
+Psychology, which at a first glance may seem to be full of significance,
+loses a great deal of its sharpness when it is examined more closely. It
+is true that Individual Psychology is concerned with the individual man
+and explores the paths by which he seeks to find satisfaction for his
+instincts; but only rarely and under certain exceptional conditions is
+Individual Psychology in a position to disregard the relations of this
+individual to others. In the individual's mental life someone else is
+invariably involved, as a model, as an object, as a helper, as an
+opponent, and so from the very first Individual Psychology is at the
+same time Social Psychology as well--in this extended but entirely
+justifiable sense of the words.
+
+The relations of an individual to his parents and to his brothers and
+sisters, to the object of his love, and to his physician--in fact all
+the relations which have hitherto been the chief subject of
+psycho-analytic research--may claim to be considered as social
+phenomena; and in this respect they may be contrasted with certain other
+processes, described by us as 'narcissistic', in which the satisfaction
+of the instincts is partially or totally withdrawn from the influence of
+other people. The contrast between social and narcissistic--Bleuler
+would perhaps call them 'autistic'--mental acts therefore falls wholly
+within the domain of Individual Psychology, and is not well calculated
+to differentiate it from a Social or Group Psychology.
+
+The individual in the relations which have already been mentioned--to
+his parents and to his brothers and sisters, to the person he is in love
+with, to his friend, and to his physician--comes under the influence of
+only a single person, or of a very small number of persons, each one of
+whom has become enormously important to him. Now in speaking of Social
+or Group Psychology it has become usual to leave these relations on one
+side and to isolate as the subject of inquiry the influencing of an
+individual by a large number of people simultaneously, people with whom
+he is connected by something, though otherwise they may in many respects
+be strangers to him. Group Psychology is therefore concerned with the
+individual man as a member of a race, of a nation, of a caste, of a
+profession, of an institution, or as a component part of a crowd of
+people who have been organised into a group at some particular time for
+some definite purpose. When once natural continuity has been severed in
+this way, it is easy to regard the phenomena that appear under these
+special conditions as being expressions of a special instinct that is
+not further reducible, the social instinct ('herd instinct', 'group
+mind'), which does not come to light in any other situations. But we may
+perhaps venture to object that it seems difficult to attribute to the
+factor of number a significance so great as to make it capable by itself
+or arousing in our mental life a new instinct that is otherwise not
+brought into play. Our expectation is therefore directed towards two
+other possibilities: that the social instinct may not be a primitive one
+and insusceptible of dissection, and that it may be possible to discover
+the beginnings of its development in a narrower circle, such as that of
+the family.
+
+Although Group Psychology is only in its infancy, it embraces an immense
+number of separate issues and offers to investigators countless
+problems which have hitherto not even been properly distinguished from
+one another. The mere classification of the different forms of group
+formation and the description of the mental phenomena produced by them
+require a great expenditure of observation and exposition, and have
+already given rise to a copious literature. Anyone who compares the
+narrow dimensions of this little book with the extent of Group
+Psychology will at once be able to guess that only a few points chosen
+from the whole material are to be dealt with here. And they will in fact
+only be a few questions with which the depth-psychology of
+psycho-analysis is specially concerned.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+LE BON'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUP MIND
+
+
+Instead of starting from a definition, it seems more useful to begin
+with some indication of the range of the phenomena under review, and to
+select from among them a few specially striking and characteristic facts
+to which our inquiry can be attached. We can achieve both of these aims
+by means of quotation from Le Bon's deservedly famous work _Psychologie
+des foules_.[2]
+
+Let us make the matter clear once again. If a Psychology, concerned with
+exploring the predispositions, the instincts, the motives and the aims
+of an individual man down to his actions and his relations with those
+who are nearest to him, had completely achieved its task, and had
+cleared up the whole of these matters with their inter-connections, it
+would then suddenly find itself confronted by a new task which would lie
+before it unachieved. It would be obliged to explain the surprising
+fact that under a certain condition this individual whom it had come to
+understand thought, felt, and acted in quite a different way from what
+would have been expected. And this condition is his insertion into a
+collection of people which has acquired the characteristic of a
+'psychological group'. What, then, is a 'group'? How does it acquire the
+capacity for exercising such a decisive influence over the mental life
+of the individual? And what is the nature of the mental change which it
+forces upon the individual?
+
+It is the task of a theoretical Group Psychology to answer these three
+questions. The best way of approaching them is evidently to start with
+the third. Observation of the changes in the individual's reactions is
+what provides Group Psychology with its material; for every attempt at
+an explanation must be preceded by a description of the thing that is to
+be explained.
+
+I will now let Le Bon speak for himself. He says: 'The most striking
+peculiarity presented by a psychological group[3] is the following.
+Whoever be the individuals that compose it, however like or unlike be
+their mode of life, their occupations, their character, or their
+intelligence, the fact that they have been transformed into a group puts
+them in possession of a sort of collective mind which makes them feel,
+think, and act in a manner quite different from that in which each
+individual of them would feel, think, and act were he in a state of
+isolation. There are certain ideas and feelings which do not come into
+being, or do not transform themselves into acts except in the case of
+individuals forming a group. The psychological group is a provisional
+being formed of heterogeneous elements, which for a moment are combined,
+exactly as the cells which constitute a living body form by their
+reunion a new being which displays characteristics very different from
+those possessed by each of the cells singly.' (p. 29.)[4]
+
+We shall take the liberty of interrupting Le Bon's exposition with
+glosses of our own, and shall accordingly insert an observation at this
+point. If the individuals in the group are combined into a unity, there
+must surely be something to unite them, and this bond might be precisely
+the thing that is characteristic of a group. But Le Bon does not answer
+this question; he goes on to consider the alteration which the
+individual undergoes when in a group and describes it in terms which
+harmonize well with the fundamental postulates of our own
+depth-psychology.
+
+'It is easy to prove how much the individual forming part of a group
+differs from the isolated individual, but it is less easy to discover
+the causes of this difference.
+
+'To obtain at any rate a glimpse of them it is necessary in the first
+place to call to mind the truth established by modern psychology, that
+unconscious phenomena play an altogether preponderating part not only in
+organic life, but also in the operations of the intelligence. The
+conscious life of the mind is of small importance in comparison with its
+unconscious life. The most subtle analyst, the most acute observer, is
+scarcely successful in discovering more than a very small number of the
+conscious[5] motives that determine his conduct. Our conscious acts are
+the outcome of an unconscious substratum created in the mind in the main
+by hereditary influences. This substratum consists of the innumerable
+common characteristics handed down from generation to generation, which
+constitute the genius of a race. Behind the avowed causes of our acts
+there undoubtedly lie secret causes that we do not avow, but behind
+these secret causes there are many others more secret still, of which we
+ourselves are ignorant.[6] The greater part of our daily actions are the
+result of hidden motives which escape our observation.' (p. 30.)
+
+Le Bon thinks that the particular acquirements of individuals become
+obliterated in a group, and that in this way their distinctiveness
+vanishes. The racial unconscious emerges; what is heterogeneous is
+submerged in what is homogeneous. We may say that the mental
+superstructure, the development of which in individuals shows such
+dissimilarities, is removed, and that the unconscious foundations, which
+are similar in everyone, stand exposed to view.
+
+In this way individuals in a group would come to show an average
+character. But Le Bon believes that they also display new
+characteristics which they have not previously possessed, and he seeks
+the reason for this in three different factors.
+
+'The first is that the individual forming part of a group acquires,
+solely from numerical considerations, a sentiment of invincible power
+which allows him to yield to instincts which, had he been alone, he
+would perforce have kept under restraint. He will be the less disposed
+to check himself from the consideration that, a group being anonymous,
+and in consequence irresponsible, the sentiment of responsibility which
+always controls individuals disappears entirely.' (p. 33.)
+
+From our point of view we need not attribute so much importance to the
+appearance of new characteristics. For us it would be enough to say that
+in a group the individual is brought under conditions which allow him to
+throw off the repressions of his unconscious instincts. The apparently
+new characteristics which he then displays are in fact the
+manifestations of this unconscious, in which all that is evil in the
+human mind is contained as a predisposition. We can find no difficulty
+in understanding the disappearance of conscience or of a sense of
+responsibility in these circumstances. It has long been our contention
+that 'dread of society [_soziale Angst_]' is the essence of what is
+called conscience.[7]
+
+'The second cause, which is contagion, also intervenes to determine the
+manifestation in groups of their special characteristics, and at the
+same time the trend they are to take. Contagion is a phenomenon of which
+it is easy to establish the presence, but that it is not easy to
+explain. It must be classed among those phenomena of a hypnotic order,
+which we shall shortly study. In a group every sentiment and act is
+contagious, and contagious to such a degree that an individual readily
+sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an
+aptitude very contrary to his nature, and of which a man is scarcely
+capable, except when he makes part of a group.' (p. 33.)
+
+We shall later on base an important conjecture upon this last statement.
+
+'A third cause, and by far the most important, determines in the
+individuals of a group special characteristics which are quite contrary
+at times to those presented by the isolated individual. I allude to that
+suggestibility of which, moreover, the contagion mentioned above is only
+an effect.
+
+'To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to bear in mind certain
+recent physiological discoveries. We know to-day that by various
+processes an individual may be brought into such a condition that,
+having entirely lost his conscious personality, he obeys all the
+suggestions of the operator who has deprived him of it, and commits acts
+in utter contradiction with his character and habits. The most careful
+investigations seem to prove that an individual immersed for some length
+of time in a group in action soon finds himself--either in consequence
+of the magnetic influence given out by the group, or from some other
+cause of which we are ignorant--in a special state, which much resembles
+the state of fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds
+himself in the hands of the hypnotiser.... The conscious personality has
+entirely vanished; will and discernment are lost. All feelings and
+thoughts are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser.
+
+'Such also is approximately the state of the individual forming part of
+a psychological group. He is no longer conscious of his acts. In his
+case, as in the case of the hypnotised subject, at the same time that
+certain faculties are destroyed, others may be brought to a high degree
+of exaltation. Under the influence of a suggestion, he will undertake
+the accomplishment of certain acts with irresistible impetuosity. This
+impetuosity is the more irresistible in the case of groups than in that
+of the hypnotised subject, from the fact that, the suggestion being the
+same for all the individuals of the group, it gains in strength by
+reciprocity.' (p. 34.)
+
+'We see, then, that the disappearance of the conscious personality, the
+predominance of the unconscious personality, the turning by means of
+suggestion and contagion of feelings and ideas in an identical
+direction, the tendency to immediately transform the suggested ideas
+into acts; these, we see, are the principal characteristics of the
+individual forming part of a group. He is no longer himself, but has
+become an automaton who has ceased to be guided by his will.' (p. 35.)
+
+I have quoted this passage so fully in order to make it quite clear that
+Le Bon explains the condition of an individual in a group as being
+actually hypnotic, and does not merely make a comparison between the two
+states. We have no intention of raising any objection at this point, but
+wish only to emphasize the fact that the two last causes of an
+individual becoming altered in a group (the contagion and the heightened
+suggestibility) are evidently not on a par, since the contagion seems
+actually to be a manifestation of the suggestibility. Moreover the
+effects of the two factors do not seem to be sharply differentiated in
+the text of Le Bon's remarks. We may perhaps best interpret his
+statement if we connect the contagion with the effects of the individual
+members of the group upon one another, while we point to another source
+for those manifestations of suggestion in the group which are put on a
+level with the phenomena of hypnotic influence. But to what source? We
+cannot avoid being struck with a sense of deficiency when we notice that
+one of the chief elements of the comparison, namely the person who is to
+replace the hypnotist in the case of the group, is not mentioned in Le
+Bon's exposition. But he nevertheless distinguishes between this
+influence of fascination which remains plunged in obscurity and the
+contagious effect which the individuals exercise upon one another and by
+which the original suggestion is strengthened.
+
+Here is yet another important consideration for helping us to understand
+the individual in a group: 'Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms
+part of an organised group, a man descends several rungs in the ladder
+of civilisation. Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a
+crowd, he is a barbarian--that is, a creature acting by instinct. He
+possesses the spontaneity, the violence, the ferocity, and also the
+enthusiasm and heroism of primitive beings.' (p. 36.) He then dwells
+especially upon the lowering in intellectual ability which an individual
+experiences when he becomes merged in a group.[8]
+
+Let us now leave the individual, and turn to the group mind, as it has
+been outlined by Le Bon. It shows not a single feature which a
+psycho-analyst would find any difficulty in placing or in deriving from
+its source. Le Bon himself shows us the way by pointing to its
+similarity with the mental life of primitive people and of children (p.
+40).
+
+A group is impulsive, changeable and irritable. It is led almost
+exclusively by the unconscious.[9] The impulses which a group obeys may
+according to circumstances be generous or cruel, heroic or cowardly, but
+they are always so imperious that no personal interest, not even that of
+self-preservation, can make itself felt (p. 41). Nothing about it is
+premeditated. Though it may desire things passionately, yet this is
+never so for long, for it is incapable of perseverance. It cannot
+tolerate any delay between its desire and the fulfilment of what it
+desires. It has a sense of omnipotence; the notion of impossibility
+disappears for the individual in a group.[10]
+
+A group is extraordinarily credulous and open to influence, it has no
+critical faculty, and the improbable does not exist for it. It thinks in
+images, which call one another up by association (just as they arise
+with individuals in states of free imagination), and whose agreement
+with reality is never checked by any reasonable function
+[_Instanz_].[11] The feelings of a group are always very simple and very
+exaggerated. So that a group knows neither doubt nor uncertainty.[12]
+
+It goes directly to extremes; if a suspicion is expressed, it is
+instantly changed into an incontrovertible certainty; a trace of
+antipathy is turned into furious hatred (p. 56).[13]
+
+Inclined as it itself is to all extremes, a group can only be excited by
+an excessive stimulus. Anyone who wishes to produce an effect upon it
+needs no logical adjustment in his arguments; he must paint in the most
+forcible colours, he must exaggerate, and he must repeat the same thing
+again and again.
+
+Since a group is in no doubt as to what constitutes truth or error, and
+is conscious, moreover, of its own great strength, it is as intolerant
+as it is obedient to authority. It respects force and can only be
+slightly influenced by kindness, which it regards merely as a form of
+weakness. What it demands of its heroes is strength, or even violence.
+It wants to be ruled and oppressed and to fear its masters.
+Fundamentally it is entirely conservative, and it has a deep aversion
+from all innovations and advances and an unbounded respect for tradition
+(p. 62).
+
+In order to make a correct judgement upon the morals of groups, one must
+take into consideration the fact that when individuals come together in
+a group all their individual inhibitions fall away and all the cruel,
+brutal and destructive instincts, which lie dormant in individuals as
+relics of a primitive epoch, are stirred up to find free gratification.
+But under the influence of suggestion groups are also capable of high
+achievements in the shape of abnegation, unselfishness, and devotion to
+an ideal. While with isolated individuals personal interest is almost
+the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely prominent. It is
+possible to speak of an individual having his moral standards raised by
+a group (p. 65). Whereas the intellectual capacity of a group is always
+far below that of an individual, its ethical conduct may rise as high
+above his as it may sink deep below it.
+
+Some other features in Le Bon's description show in a clear light how
+well justified is the identification of the group mind with the mind of
+primitive people. In groups the most contradictory ideas can exist side
+by side and tolerate each other, without any conflict arising from the
+logical contradiction between them. But this is also the case in the
+unconscious mental life of individuals, of children and of neurotics, as
+psycho-analysis has long pointed out.[14]
+
+A group, further, is subject to the truly magical power of words; they
+can evoke the most formidable tempests in the group mind, and are also
+capable of stilling them (p. 117). 'Reason and arguments are incapable
+of combating certain words and formulas. They are uttered with solemnity
+in the presence of groups, and as soon as they have been pronounced an
+expression of respect is visible on every countenance, and all heads are
+bowed. By many they are considered as natural forces, as supernatural
+powers.' (p. 117.) It is only necessary in this connection to remember
+the taboo upon names among primitive people and the magical powers which
+they ascribe to names and words.[15]
+
+And, finally, groups have never thirsted after truth. They demand
+illusions, and cannot do without them. They constantly give what is
+unreal precedence over what is real; they are almost as strongly
+influenced by what is untrue as by what is true. They have an evident
+tendency not to distinguish between the two (p. 77).
+
+We have pointed out that this predominance of the life of phantasy and
+of the illusion born of an unfulfilled wish is the ruling factor in the
+psychology of neuroses. We have found that what neurotics are guided by
+is not ordinary objective reality but psychological reality. A
+hysterical symptom is based upon phantasy instead of upon the repetition
+of real experience, and the sense of guilt in an obsessional neurosis is
+based upon the fact of an evil intention which was never carried out.
+Indeed, just as in dreams and in hypnosis, in the mental operations of a
+group the function for testing the reality of things falls into the
+background in comparison with the strength of wishes with their
+affective cathexis.[16]
+
+What Le Bon says on the subject of leaders of groups is less exhaustive,
+and does not enable us to make out an underlying principle so clearly.
+He thinks that as soon as living beings are gathered together in certain
+numbers, no matter whether they are a herd of animals or a collection of
+human beings, they place themselves instinctively under the authority
+of a chief (p. 134). A group is an obedient herd, which could never live
+without a master. It has such a thirst for obedience that it submits
+instinctively to anyone who appoints himself its master.
+
+Although in this way the needs of a group carry it half-way to meet the
+leader, yet he too must fit in with it in his personal qualities. He
+must himself be held in fascination by a strong faith (in an idea) in
+order to awaken the group's faith; he must possess a strong and imposing
+will, which the group, which has no will of its own, can accept from
+him. Le Bon then discusses the different kinds of leaders, and the means
+by which they work upon the group. On the whole he believes that the
+leaders make themselves felt by means of the ideas in which they
+themselves are fanatical believers.
+
+Moreover, he ascribes both to the ideas and to the leaders a mysterious
+and irresistible power, which he calls 'prestige'. Prestige is a sort of
+domination exercised over us by an individual, a work or an idea. It
+entirely paralyses our critical faculty, and fills us with astonishment
+and respect. It would seem to arouse a feeling like that of fascination
+in hypnosis (p. 148). He distinguishes between acquired or artificial
+and personal prestige. The former is attached to persons in virtue of
+their name, fortune and reputation, and to opinions, works of art, etc.,
+in virtue of tradition. Since in every case it harks back to the past,
+it cannot be of much help to us in understanding this puzzling
+influence. Personal prestige is attached to a few people, who become
+leaders by means of it, and it has the effect of making everything obey
+them as though by the operation of some magnetic magic. All prestige,
+however, is also dependent upon success, and is lost in the event of
+failure (p. 159).
+
+We cannot feel that Le Bon has brought the function of the leader and
+the importance of prestige completely into harmony with his brilliantly
+executed picture of the group mind.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+OTHER ACCOUNTS OF COLLECTIVE MENTAL LIFE
+
+
+We have made use of Le Bon's description by way of introduction, because
+it fits in so well with our own Psychology in the emphasis which it lays
+upon unconscious mental life. But we must now add that as a matter of
+fact none of that author's statements bring forward anything new.
+Everything that he says to the detriment and depreciation of the
+manifestations of the group mind had already been said by others before
+him with equal distinctness and equal hostility, and has been repeated
+in unison by thinkers, statesmen and writers since the earliest periods
+of literature.[17] The two theses which comprise the most important of
+Le Bon's opinions, those touching upon the collective inhibition of
+intellectual functioning and the heightening of affectivity in groups,
+had been formulated shortly before by Sighele.[18] At bottom, all that
+is left over as being peculiar to Le Bon are the two notions of the
+unconscious and of the comparison with the mental life of primitive
+people, and even these had naturally often been alluded to before him.
+
+But, what is more, the description and estimate of the group mind as
+they have been given by Le Bon and the rest have not by any means been
+left undisputed. There is no doubt that all the phenomena of the group
+mind which have just been mentioned have been correctly observed, but it
+is also possible to distinguish other manifestations of the group
+formation, which operate in a precisely opposite sense, and from which a
+much higher opinion of the group mind must necessarily follow.
+
+Le Bon himself was prepared to admit that in certain circumstances the
+morals of a group can be higher than those of the individuals that
+compose it, and that only collectivities are capable of a high degree of
+unselfishness and devotion. 'While with isolated individuals personal
+interest is almost the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely
+prominent.' (p. 65.) Other writers adduce the fact that it is only
+society which prescribes any ethical standards at all for the
+individual, while he as a rule fails in one way or another to come up to
+its high demands. Or they point out that in exceptional circumstances
+there may arise in communities the phenomenon of enthusiasm, which has
+made the most splendid group achievements possible.
+
+As regards intellectual work it remains a fact, indeed, that great
+decisions in the realm of thought and momentous discoveries and
+solutions of problems are only possible to an individual, working in
+solitude. But even the group mind is capable of genius in intellectual
+creation, as is shown above all by language itself, as well as by
+folk-song, folk-lore and the like. It remains an open question,
+moreover, how much the individual thinker or writer owes to the
+stimulation of the group in which he lives, or whether he does more than
+perfect a mental work in which the others have had a simultaneous share.
+
+In face of these completely contradictory accounts, it looks as though
+the work of Group Psychology were bound to come to an ineffectual end.
+But it is easy to find a more hopeful escape from the dilemma. A number
+of very different formations have probably been merged under the term
+'group' and may require to be distinguished. The assertions of Sighele,
+Le Bon and the rest relate to groups of a short-lived character, which
+some passing interest has hastily agglomerated out of various sorts of
+individuals. The characteristics of revolutionary groups, and
+especially those of the great French Revolution, have unmistakably
+influenced their descriptions. The opposite opinions owe their origin to
+the consideration of those stable groups or associations in which
+mankind pass their lives, and which are embodied in the institutions of
+society. Groups of the first kind stand in the same sort of relation to
+those of the second as a high but choppy sea to a ground swell.
+
+McDougall, in his book on _The Group Mind_,[19] starts out from the same
+contradiction that has just been mentioned, and finds a solution for it
+in the factor of organisation. In the simplest case, he says, the
+'group' possesses no organisation at all or one scarcely deserving the
+name. He describes a group of this kind as a 'crowd'. But he admits that
+a crowd of human beings can hardly come together without possessing at
+all events the rudiments of an organisation, and that precisely in these
+simple groups many of the fundamental facts of Collective Psychology can
+be observed with special ease (p. 22). Before the members of a random
+crowd of people can constitute something in the nature of a group in the
+psychological sense of the word, a condition has to be fulfilled; these
+individuals must have something in common with one another, a common
+interest in an object, a similar emotional bias in some situation or
+other, and ('consequently', I should like to interpolate) 'some degree
+of reciprocal influence' (p. 23). The higher the degree of 'this mental
+homogeneity', the more readily do the individuals form a psychological
+group, and the more striking are the manifestations of a group mind.
+
+The most remarkable and also the most important result of the formation
+of a group is the 'exaltation or intensification of emotion' produced in
+every member of it (p. 24). In McDougall's opinion men's emotions are
+stirred in a group to a pitch that they seldom or never attain under
+other conditions; and it is a pleasurable experience for those who are
+concerned to surrender themselves so unreservedly to their passions and
+thus to become merged in the group and to lose the sense of the limits
+of their individuality. The manner in which individuals are thus carried
+away by a common impulse is explained by McDougall by means of what he
+calls the 'principle of direct induction of emotion by way of the
+primitive sympathetic response' (p. 25), that is, by means of the
+emotional contagion with which we are already familiar. The fact is that
+the perception of the signs of an emotional state is calculated
+automatically to arouse the same emotion in the person who perceives
+them. The greater the number of people in whom the same emotion can be
+simultaneously observed, the stronger does this automatic compulsion
+grow. The individual loses his power of criticism, and lets himself slip
+into the same emotion. But in so doing he increases the excitement of
+the other people, who had produced this effect upon him, and thus the
+emotional charge of the individuals becomes intensified by mutual
+interaction. Something is unmistakably at work in the nature of a
+compulsion to do the same as the others, to remain in harmony with the
+many. The coarser and simpler emotions are the more apt to spread
+through a group in this way (p. 39).
+
+This mechanism for the intensification of emotion is favoured by some
+other influences which emanate from groups. A group impresses the
+individual with a sense of unlimited power and of insurmountable peril.
+For the moment it replaces the whole of human society, which is the
+wielder of authority, whose punishments the individual fears, and for
+whose sake he has submitted to so many inhibitions. It is clearly
+perilous for him to put himself in opposition to it, and it will be
+safer to follow the example of those around him and perhaps even 'hunt
+with the pack'. In obedience to the new authority he may put his former
+'conscience' out of action, and so surrender to the attraction of the
+increased pleasure that is certainly obtained from the removal of
+inhibitions. On the whole, therefore, it is not so remarkable that we
+should see an individual in a group doing or approving things which he
+would have avoided in the normal conditions of life; and in this way we
+may even hope to clear up a little of the mystery which is so often
+covered by the enigmatic word 'suggestion'.
+
+McDougall does not dispute the thesis as to the collective inhibition of
+intelligence in groups (p. 41). He says that the minds of lower
+intelligence bring down those of a higher order to their own level. The
+latter are obstructed in their activity, because in general an
+intensification of emotion creates unfavourable conditions for sound
+intellectual work, and further because the individuals are intimidated
+by the group and their mental activity is not free, and because there is
+a lowering in each individual of his sense of responsibility for his own
+performances.
+
+The judgement with which McDougall sums up the psychological behaviour
+of a simple 'unorganised' group is no more friendly than that of Le Bon.
+Such a group 'is excessively emotional, impulsive, violent, fickle,
+inconsistent, irresolute and extreme in action, displaying only the
+coarser emotions and the less refined sentiments; extremely suggestible,
+careless in deliberation, hasty in judgment, incapable of any but the
+simpler and imperfect forms of reasoning; easily swayed and led,
+lacking in self-consciousness, devoid of self-respect and of sense of
+responsibility, and apt to be carried away by the consciousness of its
+own force, so that it tends to produce all the manifestations we have
+learnt to expect of any irresponsible and absolute power. Hence its
+behaviour is like that of an unruly child or an untutored passionate
+savage in a strange situation, rather than like that of its average
+member; and in the worst cases it is like that of a wild beast, rather
+than like that of human beings.' (p. 45.)
+
+Since McDougall contrasts the behaviour of a highly organised group with
+what has just been described, we shall be particularly interested to
+learn in what this organisation consists, and by what factors it is
+produced. The author enumerates five 'principal conditions' for raising
+collective mental life to a higher level.
+
+The first and fundamental condition is that there should be some degree
+of continuity of existence in the group. This may be either material or
+formal; the former, if the same individuals persist in the group for
+some time; and the latter, if there is developed within the group a
+system of fixed positions which are occupied by a succession of
+individuals.
+
+The second condition is that in the individual member of the group some
+definite idea should be formed of the nature, composition, functions and
+capacities of the group, so that from this he may develop an emotional
+relation to the group as a whole.
+
+The third is that the group should be brought into interaction (perhaps
+in the form of rivalry) with other groups similar to it but differing
+from it in many respects.
+
+The fourth is that the group should possess traditions, customs and
+habits, and especially such as determine the relations of its members to
+one another.
+
+The fifth is that the group should have a definite structure, expressed
+in the specialisation and differentiation of the functions of its
+constituents.
+
+According to McDougall, if these conditions are fulfilled, the
+psychological disadvantages of the group formation are removed. The
+collective lowering of intellectual ability is avoided by withdrawing
+the performance of intellectual tasks from the group and reserving them
+for individual members of it.
+
+It seems to us that the condition which McDougall designates as the
+'organisation' of a group can with more justification be described in
+another way. The problem consists in how to procure for the group
+precisely those features which were characteristic of the individual and
+which are extinguished in him by the formation of the group. For the
+individual, outside the primitive group, possessed his own continuity,
+his self-consciousness, his traditions and customs, his own particular
+functions and position, and kept apart from his rivals. Owing to his
+entry into an 'unorganised' group he had lost this distinctiveness for a
+time. If we thus recognise that the aim is to equip the group with the
+attributes of the individual, we shall be reminded of a valuable remark
+of Trotter's,[20] to the effect that the tendency towards the formation
+of groups is biologically a continuation of the multicellular character
+of all the higher organisms.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+SUGGESTION AND LIBIDO
+
+
+We started from the fundamental fact that an individual in a group is
+subjected through its influence to what is often a profound alteration
+in his mental activity. His emotions become extraordinarily intensified,
+while his intellectual ability becomes markedly reduced, both processes
+being evidently in the direction of an approximation to the other
+individuals in the group; and this result can only be reached by the
+removal of those inhibitions upon his instincts which are peculiar to
+each individual, and by his resigning those expressions of his
+inclinations which are especially his own. We have heard that these
+often unwelcome consequences are to some extent at least prevented by a
+higher 'organisation' of the group; but this does not contradict the
+fundamental fact of Group Psychology--the two theses as to the
+intensification of the emotions and the inhibition of the intellect in
+primitive groups. Our interest is now directed to discovering the
+psychological explanation of this mental change which is experienced by
+the individual in a group.
+
+It is clear that rational factors (such as the intimidation of the
+individual which has already been mentioned, that is, the action of his
+instinct of self-preservation) do not cover the observable phenomena.
+Beyond this what we are offered as an explanation by authorities upon
+Sociology and Group Psychology is always the same, even though it is
+given various names, and that is--the magic word 'suggestion'. Tarde
+calls it 'imitation'; but we cannot help agreeing with a writer who
+protests that imitation comes under the concept of suggestion, and is in
+fact one of its results.[21] Le Bon traces back all the puzzling
+features of social phenomena to two factors: the mutual suggestion of
+individuals and the prestige of leaders. But prestige, again, is only
+recognizable by its capacity for evoking suggestion. McDougall for a
+moment gives us an impression that his principle of 'primitive induction
+of emotion' might enable us to do without the assumption of suggestion.
+But on further consideration we are forced to perceive that this
+principle says no more than the familiar assertions about 'imitation' or
+'contagion', except for a decided stress upon the emotional factor.
+There is no doubt that something exists in us which, when we become
+aware of signs of an emotion in someone else, tends to make us fall into
+the same emotion; but how often do we not successfully oppose it, resist
+the emotion, and react in quite an opposite way? Why, therefore, do we
+invariably give way to this contagion when we are in a group? Once more
+we should have to say that what compels us to obey this tendency is
+imitation, and what induces the emotion in us is the group's suggestive
+influence. Moreover, quite apart from this, McDougall does not enable us
+to evade suggestion; we hear from him as well as from other writers that
+groups are distinguished by their special suggestibility.
+
+We shall therefore be prepared for the statement that suggestion (or
+more correctly suggestibility) is actually an irreducible, primitive
+phenomenon, a fundamental fact in the mental life of man. Such, too, was
+the opinion of Bernheim, of whose astonishing arts I was a witness in
+the year 1889. But I can remember even then feeling a muffled hostility
+to this tyranny of suggestion. When a patient who showed himself
+unamenable was met with the shout: 'What are you doing? _Vous vous
+contresuggestionnez!_', I said to myself that this was an evident
+injustice and an act of violence. For the man certainly had a right to
+counter-suggestions if they were trying to subdue him with suggestions.
+Later on my resistance took the direction of protesting against the view
+that suggestion, which explained everything, was itself to be preserved
+from explanation. Thinking of it, I repeated the old conundrum:[22]
+
+            Christoph trug Christum,
+            Christus trug die ganze Welt,
+            Sag' wo hat Christoph
+            Damals hin den Fuss gestellt?[23]
+
+Christophorus Christum, sed Christus sustulit orbem:
+    Constiterit pedibus dic ubi Christophorus?
+
+Now that I once more approach the riddle of suggestion after having kept
+away from it for some thirty years, I find there is no change in the
+situation. To this statement I can discover only a single exception,
+which I need not mention, since it is one which bears witness to the
+influence of psycho-analysis. I notice that particular efforts are being
+made to formulate the concept of suggestion correctly, that is, to fix
+the conventional use of the name.[24] And this is by no means
+superfluous, for the word is acquiring a more and more extended use and
+a looser and looser meaning, and will soon come to designate any sort of
+influence whatever, just as in English, where 'to suggest' and
+'suggestion' correspond to our _nahelegen_ and _Anregung_. But there has
+been no explanation of the nature of suggestion, that is, of the
+conditions under which influence without adequate logical foundation
+takes place. I should not avoid the task of supporting this statement by
+an analysis of the literature of the last thirty years, if I were not
+aware that an exhaustive inquiry is being undertaken close at hand which
+has in view the fulfilment of this very task.
+
+Instead of this I shall make an attempt at using the concept of _libido_
+for the purpose of throwing light upon Group Psychology, a concept which
+has done us such good service in the study of psycho-neuroses.
+
+Libido is an expression taken from the theory of the emotions. We call
+by that name the energy (regarded as a quantitative magnitude, though
+not at present actually mensurable) of those instincts which have to do
+with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'. The nucleus of
+what we mean by love naturally consists (and this is what is commonly
+called love, and what the poets sing of) in sexual love with sexual
+union as its aim. But we do not separate from this--what in any case
+has a share in the name 'love'--on the one hand, self-love, and on the
+other, love for parents and children, friendship and love for humanity
+in general, and also devotion to concrete objects and to abstract ideas.
+Our justification lies in the fact that psycho-analytic research has
+taught us that all these tendencies are an expression of the same
+instinctive activities; in relations between the sexes these instincts
+force their way towards sexual union, but in other circumstances they
+are diverted from this aim or are prevented from reaching it, though
+always preserving enough of their original nature to keep their identity
+recognizable (as in such features as the longing for proximity, and
+self-sacrifice).
+
+We are of opinion, then, that language has carried out an entirely
+justifiable piece of unification in creating the word 'love' with its
+numerous uses, and that we cannot do better than take it as the basis of
+our scientific discussions and expositions as well. By coming to this
+decision, psycho-analysis has let loose a storm of indignation, as
+though it had been guilty of an act of outrageous innovation. Yet
+psycho-analysis has done nothing original in taking love in this 'wider'
+sense. In its origin, function, and relation to sexual love, the
+'_Eros_' of the philosopher Plato coincides exactly with the love force,
+the libido, of psycho-analysis, as has been shown in detail by
+Nachmansohn and Pfister;[25] and when the apostle Paul, in his famous
+epistle to the Corinthians, prizes love above all else, he certainly
+understands it in the same 'wider' sense.[26] But this only shows that
+men do not always take their great thinkers seriously, even when they
+profess most to admire them.
+
+Psycho-analysis, then, gives these love instincts the name of sexual
+instincts, a _potiori_ and by reason of their origin. The majority of
+'educated' people have taken their revenge by retorting upon
+psycho-analysis with the reproach of 'pan-sexualism'. Anyone who
+considers sex as something mortifying and humiliating to human nature is
+at liberty to make use of the more genteel expressions 'Eros' and
+'erotic'. I might have done so myself from the first and thus have
+spared myself much opposition. But I did not want to, for I like to
+avoid concessions to faint-heartedness. One can never tell where that
+road may lead one; one gives way first in words, and then little by
+little in substance too. I cannot see any merit in being ashamed of sex;
+the Greek word 'Eros', which is to soften the affront, is in the end
+nothing more than a translation of our German word _Liebe_ [love]; and
+finally, he who knows how to wait need make no concessions.
+
+We will try our fortune, then, with the supposition that love
+relationships (or, to use a more neutral expression, emotional ties)
+also constitute the essence of the group mind. Let us remember that the
+authorities make no mention of any such relations. What would correspond
+to them is evidently concealed behind the shelter, the screen, of
+suggestion. Our hypothesis finds support in the first instance from two
+passing thoughts. First, that a group is clearly held together by a
+power of some kind: and to what power could this feat be better ascribed
+than to Eros, who holds together everything in the world? Secondly, that
+if an individual gives up his distinctiveness in a group and lets its
+other members influence him by suggestion, it gives one the impression
+that he does it because he feels the need of being in harmony with them
+rather than in opposition to them--so that perhaps after all he does it
+'_ihnen zu Liebe_'.[27]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+TWO ARTIFICIAL GROUPS: THE CHURCH AND THE ARMY
+
+
+We may recall from what we know of the morphology of groups that it is
+possible to distinguish very different kinds of groups and opposing
+lines in their development. There are very fleeting groups and extremely
+lasting ones; homogeneous ones, made up of the same sorts of
+individuals, and unhomogeneous ones; natural groups, and artificial
+ones, requiring an external force to keep them together; primitive
+groups, and highly organised ones with a definite structure. But for
+reasons which have yet to be explained we should like to lay particular
+stress upon a distinction to which the authorities have rather given too
+little attention; I refer to that between leaderless groups and those
+with leaders. And, in complete opposition to the usual practice, we
+shall not choose a relatively simple group formation as our point of
+departure, but shall begin with highly organised, lasting and artificial
+groups. The most interesting example of such structures are
+churches--communities of believers--and armies.
+
+A church and an army are artificial groups, that is, a certain external
+force is employed to prevent them from disintegrating and to check
+alterations in their structure. As a rule a person is not consulted or
+is given no choice, as to whether he wants to enter such a group; any
+attempt at leaving it is usually met with persecution or with severe
+punishment, or has quite definite conditions attached to it. It is quite
+outside our present interest to enquire why these associations need such
+special safeguards. We are only attracted by one circumstance, namely
+that certain facts, which are far more concealed in other cases, can be
+observed very clearly in those highly organised groups which are
+protected from dissolution in the manner that has been mentioned. In a
+church (and we may with advantage take the Catholic Church as a type) as
+well as in an army, however different the two may be in other respects,
+the same illusion holds good of there being a head--in the Catholic
+Church Christ, in an army its Commander-in-Chief--who loves all the
+individuals in the group with an equal love. Everything depends upon
+this illusion; if it were to be dropped, then both Church and army would
+dissolve, so far as the external force permitted them to. This equal
+love was expressly enunciated by Christ: 'Inasmuch as ye have done it
+unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.' He
+stands to the individual members of the group of believers in the
+relation of a kind elder brother; he is their father surrogate. All the
+demands that are made upon the individual are derived from this love of
+Christ's. A democratic character runs through the Church, for the very
+reason that before Christ everyone is equal, and that everyone has an
+equal share in his love. It is not without a deep reason that the
+similarity between the Christian community and a family is invoked, and
+that believers call themselves brothers in Christ, that is, brothers
+through the love which Christ has for them. There is no doubt that the
+tie which unites each individual with Christ is also the cause of the
+tie which unites them with one another. The like holds good of an army.
+The Commander-in-Chief is a father who loves all his soldiers equally,
+and for that reason they are comrades among themselves. The army differs
+structurally from the Church in being built up of a series of such
+groups. Every captain is, as it were, the Commander-in-Chief and the
+father of his company, and so is every non-commissioned officer of his
+section. It is true that a similar hierarchy has been constructed in the
+Church, but it does not play the same part in it economically; for more
+knowledge and care about individuals may be attributed to Christ than
+to a human Commander-in-Chief.[28]
+
+It is to be noticed that in these two artificial groups each individual
+is bound by libidinal[29] ties on the one hand to the leader (Christ,
+the Commander-in-Chief) and on the other hand to the other members of
+the group. How these two ties are related to each other, whether they
+are of the same kind and the same value, and how they are to be
+described psychologically--these questions must be reserved for
+subsequent enquiry. But we shall venture even now upon a mild reproach
+against the authorities for not having sufficiently appreciated the
+importance of the leader in the psychology of the group, while our own
+choice of a first object for investigation has brought us into a more
+favourable position. It would appear as though we were on the right road
+towards an explanation of the principal phenomenon of Group
+Psychology--the individual's lack of freedom in a group. If each
+individual is bound in two directions by such an intense emotional tie,
+we shall find no difficulty in attributing to that circumstance the
+alteration and limitation which have been observed in his personality.
+
+A hint to the same effect, that the essence of a group lies in the
+libidinal ties existing in it, is also to be found in the phenomenon of
+panic, which is best studied in military groups. A panic arises if a
+group of that kind becomes disintegrated. Its characteristics are that
+none of the orders given by superiors are any longer listened to, and
+that each individual is only solicitous on his own account, and without
+any consideration for the rest. The mutual ties have ceased to exist,
+and a gigantic and senseless dread [_Angst_] is set free. At this point,
+again, the objection will naturally be made that it is rather the other
+way round; and that the dread has grown so great as to be able to
+disregard all ties and all feelings of consideration for others.
+McDougall has even (p. 24) made use of the case of panic (though not of
+military panic) as a typical instance of that intensification of emotion
+by contagion ('primary induction') upon which he lays so much emphasis.
+But nevertheless this rational method of explanation is here quite
+inadequate. The very question that needs explanation is why the dread
+has become so gigantic. The greatness of the danger cannot be
+responsible, for the same army which now falls a victim to panic may
+previously have faced equally great or greater danger with complete
+success; it is of the very essence of panic that it bears no relation to
+the danger that threatens, and often breaks out upon the most trivial
+occasions. If an individual in panic dread begins to be solicitous only
+on his own account, he bears witness in so doing to the fact that the
+emotional ties, which have hitherto made the danger seem small to him,
+have ceased to exist. Now that he is by himself in facing the danger,
+he may surely think it greater. The fact is, therefore, that panic dread
+presupposes a relaxation in the libidinal structure of the group and
+reacts to it in a justifiable manner, and the contrary view--that the
+libidinal ties of the group are destroyed owing to dread in the face of
+the danger--can be refuted.
+
+The contention that dread in a group is increased to enormous
+proportions by means of induction (contagion) is not in the least
+contradicted by these remarks. McDougall's view meets the case entirely
+when the danger is a really great one and when the group has no strong
+emotional ties--conditions which are fulfilled, for instance, when a
+fire breaks out in a theatre or a place of amusement. But the really
+instructive case and the one which can be best employed for our purposes
+is that mentioned above, in which a body of troops breaks into a panic
+although the danger has not increased beyond a degree that is usual and
+has often been previously faced. It is not to be expected that the usage
+of the word 'panic' should be clearly and unambiguously determined.
+Sometimes it is used to describe any collective dread, sometimes even
+dread in an individual when it exceeds all bounds, and often the name
+seems to be reserved for cases in which the outbreak of dread is not
+warranted by the occasion. If we take the word 'panic' in the sense of
+collective dread, we can establish a far-reaching analogy. Dread in an
+individual is provoked either by the greatness of a danger or by the
+cessation of emotional ties (libidinal cathexes[30]
+[_Libidobesetzungen_]); the latter is the case of neurotic dread.[31] In
+just the same way panic arises either owing to an increase of the common
+danger or owing to the disappearance of the emotional ties which hold
+the group together; and the latter case is analogous to that of neurotic
+dread.[32]
+
+Anyone who, like McDougall (l.c.), describes a panic as one of the
+plainest functions of the 'group mind', arrives at the paradoxical
+position that this group mind does away with itself in one of its most
+striking manifestations. It is impossible to doubt that panic means the
+disintegration of a group; it involves the cessation of all the feelings
+of consideration which the members of the group otherwise show one
+another.
+
+The typical occasion of the outbreak of a panic is very much as it is
+represented in Nestroy's parody of Hebbel's play about Judith and
+Holofernes. A soldier cries out: "The general has lost his head!" and
+thereupon all the Assyrians take to flight. The loss of the leader in
+some sense or other, the birth, of misgivings about him, brings on the
+outbreak of panic, though the danger remains the same; the mutual ties
+between the members of the group disappear, as a rule, at the same time
+as the tie with their leader. The group vanishes in dust, like a Bologna
+flask when its top is broken off.
+
+The dissolution of a religious group is not so easy to observe. A short
+time ago there came into my hands an English novel of Catholic origin,
+recommended by the Bishop of London, with the title _When It Was Dark_.
+It gave a clever and, as it seems to me, a convincing picture of such a
+possibility and its consequences. The novel, which is supposed to
+relate to the present day, tells how a conspiracy of enemies of the
+figure of Christ and of the Christian faith succeed in arranging for a
+sepulchre to be discovered in Jerusalem. In this sepulchre is an
+inscription, in which Joseph of Arimathaea confesses that for reasons of
+piety he secretly removed the body of Christ from its grave on the third
+day after its entombment and buried it in this spot. The resurrection of
+Christ and his divine nature are by this means disposed of, and the
+result of this archaeological discovery is a convulsion in European
+civilisation and an extraordinary increase in all crimes and acts of
+violence, which only ceases when the forgers' plot has been revealed.
+
+The phenomenon which accompanies the dissolution that is here supposed
+to overtake a religious group is not dread, for which the occasion is
+wanting. Instead of it ruthless and hostile impulses towards other
+people make their appearance, which, owing to the equal love of Christ,
+they had previously been unable to do.[33] But even during the kingdom
+of Christ those people who do not belong to the community of believers,
+who do not love him, and whom he does not love, stand outside this tie.
+Therefore a religion, even if it calls itself the religion of love,
+must be hard and unloving to those who do not belong to it.
+Fundamentally indeed every religion is in this same way a religion of
+love for all those whom it embraces; while cruelty and intolerance
+towards those who do not belong to it are natural to every religion.
+However difficult we may find it personally, we ought not to reproach
+believers too severely on this account; people who are unbelieving or
+indifferent are so much better off psychologically in this respect. If
+to-day that intolerance no longer shows itself so violent and cruel as
+in former centuries, we can scarcely conclude that there has been a
+softening in human manners. The cause is rather to be found in the
+undeniable weakening of religious feelings and the libidinal ties which
+depend upon them. If another group tie takes the place of the religious
+one--and the socialistic tie seems to be succeeding in doing so--, then
+there will be the same intolerance towards outsiders as in the age of
+the Wars of Religion; and if differences between scientific opinions
+could ever attain a similar significance for groups, the same result
+would again be repeated with this new motivation.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+FURTHER PROBLEMS AND LINES OF WORK
+
+
+We have hitherto considered two artificial groups and have found that
+they are dominated by two emotional ties. One of these, the tie with the
+leader, seems (at all events for these cases) to be more of a ruling
+factor than the other, which holds between the members of the group.
+
+Now much else remains to be examined and described in the morphology of
+groups. We should have to start from the ascertained fact that a mere
+collection of people is not a group, so long as these ties have not been
+established in it; but we should have to admit that in any collection of
+people the tendency to form a psychological group may very easily become
+prominent. We should have to give our attention to the different kinds
+of groups, more or less stable, that arise spontaneously, and to study
+the conditions of their origin and of their dissolution. We should above
+all be concerned with the distinction between groups which have a
+leader and leaderless groups. We should consider whether groups with
+leaders may not be the more primitive and complete, whether in the
+others an idea, an abstraction, may not be substituted for the leader (a
+state of things to which religious groups, with their invisible head,
+form a transition stage), and whether a common tendency, a wish in which
+a number of people can have a share, may not in the same way serve as a
+substitute. This abstraction, again, might be more or less completely
+embodied in the figure of what we might call a secondary leader, and
+interesting varieties would arise from the relation between the idea and
+the leader. The leader or the leading idea might also, so to speak, be
+negative; hatred against a particular person or institution might
+operate in just the same unifying way, and might call up the same kind
+of emotional ties as positive attachment. Then the question would also
+arise whether a leader is really indispensable to the essence of a
+group--and other questions besides.
+
+But all these questions, which may, moreover, have been dealt with in
+part in the literature of Group Psychology, will not succeed in
+diverting our interest from the fundamental psychological problems that
+confront us in the structure of a group. And our attention will first be
+attracted by a consideration which promises to bring us in the most
+direct way to a proof that libidinal ties are what characterize a
+group.
+
+Let us keep before our eyes the nature of the emotional relations which
+hold between men in general. According to Schopenhauer's famous simile
+of the freezing porcupines no one can tolerate a too intimate approach
+to his neighbour.[34]
+
+The evidence of psycho-analysis shows that almost every intimate
+emotional relation between two people which lasts for some
+time--marriage, friendship, the relations between parents and
+children[35]--leaves a sediment of feelings of aversion and hostility,
+which have first to be eliminated by repression. This is less disguised
+in the common wrangles between business partners or in the grumbles of a
+subordinate at his superior. The same thing happens when men come
+together in larger units. Every time two families become connected by a
+marriage, each of them thinks itself superior to or of better birth than
+the other. Of two neighbouring towns each is the other's most jealous
+rival; every little canton looks down upon the others with contempt.
+Closely related races keep one another at arm's length; the South German
+cannot endure the North German, the Englishman casts every kind of
+aspersion upon the Scotchman, the Spaniard despises the Portuguese. We
+are no longer astonished that greater differences should lead to an
+almost insuperable repugnance, such as the Gallic people feel for the
+German, the Aryan for the Semite, and the white races for the coloured.
+
+When this hostility is directed against people who are otherwise loved
+we describe it as ambivalence of feeling; and we explain the fact, in
+what is probably far too rational a manner, by means of the numerous
+occasions for conflicts of interest which arise precisely in such
+intimate relations. In the undisguised antipathies and aversions which
+people feel towards strangers with whom they have to do we may recognize
+the expression of self-love--of narcissism. This self-love works for the
+self-assertion of the individual, and behaves as though the occurrence
+of any divergence from his own particular lines of development involved
+a criticism of them and a demand for their alteration. We do not know
+why such sensitiveness should have been directed to just these details
+of differentiation; but it is unmistakable that in this whole connection
+men give evidence of a readiness for hatred, an aggressiveness, the
+source of which is unknown, and to which one is tempted to ascribe an
+elementary character.[36]
+
+But the whole of this intolerance vanishes, temporarily or permanently,
+as the result of the formation of a group, and in a group. So long as a
+group formation persists or so far as it extends, individuals behave as
+though they were uniform, tolerate other people's peculiarities, put
+themselves on an equal level with them, and have no feeling of aversion
+towards them. Such a limitation of narcissism can, according to our
+theoretical views, only be produced by one factor, a libidinal tie with
+other people. Love for oneself knows only one barrier--love for others,
+love for objects.[37] The question will at once be raised whether
+community of interest in itself, without any addition of libido, must
+not necessarily lead to the toleration of other people and to
+considerateness for them. This objection may be met by the reply that
+nevertheless no lasting limitation of narcissism is effected in this
+way, since this tolerance does not persist longer than the immediate
+advantage gained from the other people's collaboration. But the
+practical importance of the discussion is less than might be supposed,
+for experience has shown that in cases of collaboration libidinal ties
+are regularly formed between the fellow-workers which prolong and
+solidify the relation between them to a point beyond what is merely
+profitable. The same thing occurs in men's social relations as has
+become familiar to psycho-analytic research in the course of the
+development of the individual libido. The libido props itself upon the
+satisfaction of the great vital needs, and chooses as its first objects
+the people who have a share in that process. And in the development of
+mankind as a whole, just as in individuals, love alone acts as the
+civilizing factor in the sense that it brings a change from egoism to
+altruism. And this is true both of the sexual love for women, with all
+the obligations which it involves of sparing what women are fond of, and
+also of the desexualised, sublimated homosexual love for other men,
+which springs from work in common. If therefore in groups narcissistic
+self-love is subject to limitations which do not operate outside them,
+that is cogent evidence that the essence of a group formation consists
+in a new kind of libidinal ties among the members of the group.
+
+But our interest now leads us on to the pressing question as to what may
+be the nature of these ties which exist in groups. In the
+psycho-analytic study of neuroses we have hitherto been occupied almost
+exclusively with ties that unite with their objects those love instincts
+which still pursue directly sexual aims. In groups there can evidently
+be no question of sexual aims of that kind. We are concerned here with
+love instincts which have been diverted from their original aims, though
+they do not operate with less energy on that account. Now we have
+already observed within the range of the usual sexual object-cathexis
+[_Objektbesetzung_] phenomena which represent a diversion of the
+instinct from its sexual aim. We have described them as degrees of being
+in love, and have recognized that they involve a certain encroachment
+upon the ego. We shall now turn our attention more closely to these
+phenomena of being in love, in the firm expectation of finding in them
+conditions which can be transferred to the ties that exist in groups.
+But we should also like to know whether this kind of object-cathexis, as
+we know it in sexual life, represents the only manner of emotional tie
+with other people, or whether we must take other mechanisms of the sort
+into account. As a matter of fact we learn from psycho-analysis that
+there do exist other mechanisms for emotional ties, the so-called
+_identifications_, insufficiently-known processes and hard to describe,
+the investigation of which will for some time keep us away from the
+subject of Group Psychology.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+IDENTIFICATION
+
+
+Identification is known to psycho-analysis as the earliest expression of
+an emotional tie with another person. It plays a part in the early
+history of the Oedipus complex. A little boy will exhibit a special
+interest in his father; he would like to grow like him and be like him,
+and take his place everywhere. We may say simply that he takes his
+father as his ideal. This behaviour has nothing to do with a passive or
+feminine attitude towards his father (and towards males in general); it
+is on the contrary typically masculine. It fits in very well with the
+Oedipus complex, for which it helps to prepare the way.
+
+At the same time as this identification with his father, or a little
+later, the boy has begun to develop a true object-cathexis towards his
+mother according to the anaclitic type [_Anlehnungstypus_].[38] He then
+exhibits, therefore, two psychologically distinct ties: a
+straightforward sexual object-cathexis towards his mother and a typical
+identification towards his father. The two subsist side by side for a
+time without any mutual influence or interference. In consequence of the
+irresistible advance towards a unification of mental life they come
+together at last; and the normal Oedipus complex originates from their
+confluence. The little boy notices that his father stands in his way
+with his mother. His identification with his father then takes on a
+hostile colouring and becomes identical with the wish to replace his
+father in regard to his mother as well. Identification, in fact, is
+ambivalent from the very first; it can turn into an expression of
+tenderness as easily as into a wish for someone's removal. It behaves
+like a derivative of the first _oral_ phase of the organisation of the
+libido, in which the object that we long for and prize is assimilated by
+eating and is in that way annihilated as such. The cannibal, as we know,
+has remained at this standpoint; he has a devouring affection for his
+enemies and only devours people of whom he is fond.[39]
+
+The subsequent history of this identification with the father may easily
+be lost sight of. It may happen that the Oedipus complex becomes
+inverted, and that the father is taken as the object of a feminine
+attitude, an object from which the directly sexual instincts look for
+satisfaction; in that event the identification with the father has
+become the precursor of an object tie with the father. The same holds
+good, with the necessary substitutions, of the baby daughter as well.
+
+It is easy to state in a formula the distinction between an
+identification with the father and the choice of the father as an
+object. In the first case one's father is what one would like to _be_,
+and in the second he is what one would like to _have_. The distinction,
+that is, depends upon whether the tie attaches to the subject or to the
+object of the ego. The former is therefore already possible before any
+sexual object-choice has been made. It is much more difficult to give a
+clear metapsychological representation of the distinction. We can only
+see that identification endeavours to mould a person's own ego after the
+fashion of the one that has been taken as a 'model'.
+
+Let us disentangle identification as it occurs in the structure of a
+neurotic symptom from its rather complicated connections. Supposing that
+a little girl (and we will keep to her for the present) develops the
+same painful symptom as her mother--for instance, the same tormenting
+cough. Now this may come about in various ways. The identification may
+come from the Oedipus complex; in that case it signifies a hostile
+desire on the girl's part to take her mother's place, and the symptom
+expresses her object love towards her father, and brings about a
+realisation, under the influence of a sense of guilt, of her desire to
+take her mother's place: 'You wanted to be your mother, and now you
+_are_--anyhow as far as the pain goes'. This is the complete mechanism
+of the structure of a hysterical symptom. Or, on the other hand, the
+symptom may be the same as that of the person who is loved--(so, for
+instance, Dora in the 'Bruchstück einer Hysterieanalyse'[40] imitated
+her father's cough); in that case we can only describe the state of
+things by saying that _identification has appeared instead of
+object-choice, and that object-choice has regressed to identification_.
+We have heard that identification is the earliest and original form of
+emotional tie; it often happens that under the conditions in which
+symptoms are constructed, that is, where there is repression and where
+the mechanisms of the unconscious are dominant, object-choice is turned
+back into identification--the ego, that is, assumes the characteristics
+of the object. It is noticeable that in these identifications the ego
+sometimes copies the person who is not loved and sometimes the one who
+is loved. It must also strike us that in both cases the identification
+is a partial and extremely limited one and only borrows a single trait
+from the person who is its object.
+
+There is a third particularly frequent and important case of symptom
+formation, in which the identification leaves any object relation to the
+person who is being copied entirely out of account. Supposing, for
+instance, that one of the girls in a boarding school has had a letter
+from someone with whom she is secretly in love which arouses her
+jealousy, and that she reacts to it with a fit of hysterics; then some
+of her friends who know about it will contract the fit, as we say, by
+means of mental infection. The mechanism is that of identification based
+upon the possibility or desire of putting oneself in the same
+situation. The other girls would like to have a secret love affair too,
+and under the influence of a sense of guilt they also accept the pain
+involved in it. It would be wrong to suppose that they take on the
+symptom out of sympathy. On the contrary, the sympathy only arises out
+of the identification, and this is proved by the fact that infection or
+imitation of this kind takes place in circumstances where even less
+pre-existing sympathy is to be assumed than usually exists between
+friends in a girls' school. One ego has perceived a significant analogy
+with another upon one point--in our example upon a similar readiness for
+emotion; an identification is thereupon constructed on this point, and,
+under the influence of the pathogenic situation, is displaced on to the
+symptom which the one ego has produced. The identification by means of
+the symptom has thus become the mark of a point of coincidence between
+the two egos which has to be kept repressed.
+
+What we have learned from these three sources may be summarised as
+follows. First, identification is the original form of emotional tie
+with an object; secondly, in a regressive way it becomes a substitute
+for a libidinal object tie, as it were by means of the introjection of
+the object into the ego; and thirdly, it may arise with every new
+perception of a common quality shared with some other person who is not
+an object of the sexual instinct. The more important this common
+quality is, the more successful may this partial identification become,
+and it may thus represent the beginning of a new tie.
+
+We already begin to divine that the mutual tie between members of a
+group is in the nature of an identification of this kind, based upon an
+important emotional common quality; and we may suspect that this common
+quality lies in the nature of the tie with the leader. Another suspicion
+may tell us that we are far from having exhausted the problem of
+identification, and that we are faced by the process which psychology
+calls 'empathy [_Einfühlung_]' and which plays the largest part in our
+understanding of what is inherently foreign to our ego in other people.
+But we shall here limit ourselves to the immediate emotional effects of
+identification, and shall leave on one side its significance for our
+intellectual life.
+
+Psycho-analytic research, which has already occasionally attacked the
+more difficult problems of the psychoses, has also been able to exhibit
+identification to us in some other cases which are not immediately
+comprehensible. I shall treat two of these cases in detail as material
+for our further consideration.
+
+The genesis of male homosexuality in a large class of cases is as
+follows. A young man has been unusually long and intensely fixated upon
+his mother in the sense of the Oedipus complex. But at last, after the
+end of his puberty, the time comes for exchanging his mother for some
+other sexual object. Things take a sudden turn: the young man does not
+abandon his mother, but identifies himself with her; he transforms
+himself into her, and now looks about for objects which can replace his
+ego for him, and on which he can bestow such love and care as he has
+experienced from his mother. This is a frequent process, which can be
+confirmed as often as one likes, and which is naturally quite
+independent of any hypothesis that may be made as to the organic driving
+force and the motives of the sudden transformation. A striking thing
+about this identification is its ample scale; it remoulds the ego in one
+of its important features--in its sexual character--upon the model of
+what has hitherto been the object. In this process the object itself is
+renounced--whether entirely or in the sense of being preserved only in
+the unconscious is a question outside the present discussion.
+Identification with an object that is renounced or lost as a substitute
+for it, introjection of this object into the ego, is indeed no longer a
+novelty to us. A process of the kind may sometimes be directly observed
+in small children. A short time ago an observation of this sort was
+published in the _Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_. A child
+who was unhappy over the loss of a kitten declared straight out that now
+he himself was the kitten, and accordingly crawled about on all fours,
+would not eat at table, etc.[41]
+
+Another such instance of introjection of the object has been provided by
+the analysis of melancholia, an affection which counts among the most
+remarkable of its exciting causes the real or emotional loss of a loved
+object. A leading characteristic of these cases is a cruel
+self-depreciation of the ego combined with relentless self-criticism and
+bitter self-reproaches. Analyses have shown that this disparagement and
+these reproaches apply at bottom to the object and represent the ego's
+revenge upon it. The shadow of the object has fallen upon the ego, as I
+have said elsewhere.[42] The introjection of the object is here
+unmistakably clear.
+
+But these melancholias also show us something else, which may be of
+importance for our later discussions. They show us the ego divided,
+fallen into two pieces, one of which rages against the second. This
+second piece is the one which has been altered by introjection and which
+contains the lost object. But the piece which behaves so cruelly is not
+unknown to us either. It comprises the conscience, a critical faculty
+[_Instanz_][43] within the ego, which even in normal times takes up a
+critical attitude towards the ego, though never so relentlessly and so
+unjustifiably. On previous occasions we have been driven to the
+hypothesis[44] that some such faculty develops in our ego which may cut
+itself off from the rest of the ego and come into conflict with it. We
+have called it the 'ego ideal', and by way of functions we have ascribed
+to it self-observation, the moral conscience, the censorship of dreams,
+and the chief influence in repression. We have said that it is the heir
+to the original narcissism in which the childish ego found its
+self-sufficiency; it gradually gathers up from the influences of the
+environment the demands which that environment makes upon the ego and
+which the ego cannot always rise to; so that a man, when he cannot be
+satisfied with his ego itself, may nevertheless be able to find
+satisfaction in the ego ideal which has been differentiated out of the
+ego. In delusions of observation, as we have further shown, the
+disintegration of this faculty has become patent, and has thus revealed
+its origin in the influence of superior powers, and above all of
+parents.[45] But we have not forgotten to add that the amount of
+distance between this ego ideal and the real ego is very variable from
+one individual to another, and that with many people this
+differentiation within the ego does not go further than with children.
+
+But before we can employ this material for understanding the libidinal
+organisation of groups, we must take into account some other examples of
+the mutual relations between the object and the ego.[46]
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+BEING IN LOVE AND HYPNOSIS
+
+
+Even in its caprices the usage of language remains true to some kind of
+reality. Thus it gives the name of 'love' to a great many kinds of
+emotional relationship which we too group together theoretically as
+love; but then again it feels a doubt whether this love is real, true,
+actual love, and so hints at a whole scale of possibilities within the
+range of the phenomena of love. We shall have no difficulty in making
+the same discovery empirically.
+
+In one class of cases being in love is nothing more than object-cathexis
+on the part of the sexual instincts with a view to directly sexual
+satisfaction, a cathexis which expires, moreover, when this aim has been
+reached; this is what is called common, sensual love. But, as we know,
+the libidinal situation rarely remains so simple. It was possible to
+calculate with certainty upon the revival of the need which had just
+expired; and this must no doubt have been the first motive for
+directing a lasting cathexis upon the sexual object and for 'loving' it
+in the passionless intervals as well.
+
+To this must be added another factor derived from the astonishing course
+of development which is pursued by the erotic life of man. In his first
+phase, which has usually come to an end by the time he is five years
+old, a child has found the first object for his love in one or other of
+his parents, and all of his sexual instincts with their demand for
+satisfaction have been united upon this object. The repression which
+then sets in compels him to renounce the greater number of these
+infantile sexual aims, and leaves behind a profound modification in his
+relation to his parents. The child still remains tied to his parents,
+but by instincts which must be described as being 'inhibited in their
+aim [_zielgehemmte_]'. The emotions which he feels henceforward towards
+these objects of his love are characterized as 'tender'. It is well
+known that the earlier 'sensual' tendencies remain more or less strongly
+preserved in the unconscious, so that in a certain sense the whole of
+the original current continues to exist.[47]
+
+At puberty, as we know, there set in new and very strong tendencies with
+directly sexual aims. In unfavourable cases they remain separate, in the
+form of a sensual current, from the 'tender' emotional trends which
+persist. We are then faced by a picture the two aspects of which certain
+movements in literature take such delight in idealising. A man of this
+kind will show a sentimental enthusiasm for women whom he deeply
+respects but who do not excite him to sexual activities, and he will
+only be potent with other women whom he does not 'love' but thinks
+little of or even despises.[48] More often, however, the adolescent
+succeeds in bringing about a certain degree of synthesis between the
+unsensual, heavenly love and the sensual, earthly love, and his relation
+to his sexual object is characterised by the interaction of uninhibited
+instincts and of instincts inhibited in their aim. The depth to which
+anyone is in love, as contrasted with his purely sensual desire, may be
+measured by the size of the share taken by the inhibited instincts of
+tenderness.
+
+In connection with this question of being in love we have always been
+struck by the phenomenon of sexual over-estimation--the fact that the
+loved object enjoys a certain amount of freedom from criticism, and that
+all its characteristics are valued more highly than those of people who
+are not loved, or than its own were at a time when it itself was not
+loved. If the sensual tendencies are somewhat more effectively
+repressed or set aside, the illusion is produced that the object has
+come to be sensually loved on account of its spiritual merits, whereas
+on the contrary these merits may really only have been lent to it by its
+sensual charm.
+
+The tendency which falsifies judgement in this respect is that of
+_idealisation_. But this makes it easier for us to find our way about.
+We see that the object is being treated in the same way as our own ego,
+so that when we are in love a considerable amount of narcissistic libido
+overflows on to the object. It is even obvious, in many forms of love
+choice, that the object serves as a substitute for some unattained ego
+ideal of our own. We love it on account of the perfections which we have
+striven to reach for our own ego, and which we should now like to
+procure in this roundabout way as a means of satisfying our narcissism.
+
+If the sexual over-estimation and the being in love increase even
+further, then the interpretation of the picture becomes still more
+unmistakable. The tendencies whose trend is towards directly sexual
+satisfaction may now be pushed back entirely, as regularly happens, for
+instance, with the young man's sentimental passion; the ego becomes more
+and more unassuming and modest, and the object more and more sublime and
+precious, until at last it gets possession of the entire self-love of
+the ego, whose self-sacrifice thus follows as a natural consequence. The
+object has, so to speak, consumed the ego. Traits of humility, of the
+limitation of narcissism, and of self-injury occur in every case of
+being in love; in the extreme case they are only intensified, and as a
+result of the withdrawal of the sensual claims they remain in solitary
+supremacy.
+
+This happens especially easily with love that is unhappy and cannot be
+satisfied; for in spite of everything each sexual satisfaction always
+involves a reduction in sexual over-estimation. Contemporaneously with
+this 'devotion' of the ego to the object, which is no longer to be
+distinguished from a sublimated devotion to an abstract idea, the
+functions allotted to the ego ideal entirely cease to operate. The
+criticism exercised by that faculty is silent; everything that the
+object does and asks for is right and blameless. Conscience has no
+application to anything that is done for the sake of the object; in the
+blindness of love remorselessness is carried to the pitch of crime. The
+whole situation can be completely summarised in a formula: _The object
+has taken the place of the ego ideal._
+
+It is now easy to define the distinction between identification and such
+extreme developments of being in love as may be described as fascination
+or infatuation. In the former case the ego has enriched itself with the
+properties of the object, it has 'introjected' the object into itself,
+as Ferenczi expresses it. In the second case it is impoverished, it has
+surrendered itself to the object, it has substituted the object for its
+most important constituent. Closer consideration soon makes it plain,
+however, that this kind of account creates an illusion of
+contradistinctions that have no real existence. Economically there is no
+question of impoverishment or enrichment; it is even possible to
+describe an extreme case of being in love as a state in which the ego
+has introjected the object into itself. Another distinction is perhaps
+better calculated to meet the essence of the matter. In the case of
+identification the object has been lost or given up; it is then set up
+again inside the ego, and the ego makes a partial alteration in itself
+after the model of the lost object. In the other case the object is
+retained, and there is a hyper-cathexis of it by the ego and at the
+ego's expense. But here again a difficulty presents itself. Is it quite
+certain that identification presupposes that object-cathexis has been
+given up? Can there be no identification with the object retained? And
+before we embark upon a discussion of this delicate question, the
+perception may already be beginning to dawn on us that yet another
+alternative embraces the real essence of the matter, namely, _whether
+the object is put in the place of the ego or of the ego ideal_.
+
+From being in love to hypnosis is evidently only a short step. The
+respects in which the two agree are obvious. There is the same humble
+subjection, the same compliance, the same absence of criticism, towards
+the hypnotist just as towards the loved object. There is the same
+absorption of one's own initiative; no one can doubt that the hypnotist
+has stepped into the place of the ego ideal. It is only that everything
+is even clearer and more intense in hypnosis, so that it would be more
+to the point to explain being in love by means of hypnosis than the
+other way round. The hypnotist is the sole object, and no attention is
+paid to any but him. The fact that the ego experiences in a dream-like
+way whatever he may request or assert reminds us that we omitted to
+mention among the functions of the ego ideal the business of testing the
+reality of things.[49] No wonder that the ego takes a perception for
+real if its reality is vouched for by the mental faculty which
+ordinarily discharges the duty of testing the reality of things. The
+complete absence of tendencies which are uninhibited in their sexual
+aims contributes further towards the extreme purity of the phenomena.
+The hypnotic relation is the devotion of someone in love to an unlimited
+degree but with sexual satisfaction excluded; whereas in the case of
+being in love this kind of satisfaction is only temporarily kept back,
+and remains in the background as a possible aim at some later time.
+
+But on the other hand we may also say that the hypnotic relation is (if
+the expression is permissible) a group formation with two members.
+Hypnosis is not a good object for comparison with a group formation,
+because it is truer to say that it is identical with it. Out of the
+complicated fabric of the group it isolates one element for us--the
+behaviour of the individual to the leader. Hypnosis is distinguished
+from a group formation by this limitation of number, just as it is
+distinguished from being in love by the absence of directly sexual
+tendencies. In this respect it occupies a middle position between the
+two.
+
+It is interesting to see that it is precisely those sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims which achieve such lasting ties between
+men. But this can easily be understood from the fact that they are not
+capable of complete satisfaction, while sexual tendencies which are
+uninhibited in their aims suffer an extraordinary reduction through the
+discharge of energy every time the sexual aim is attained. It is the
+fate of sensual love to become extinguished when it is satisfied; for it
+to be able to last, it must from the first be mixed with purely tender
+components--with such, that is, as are inhibited in their aims--or it
+must itself undergo a transformation of this kind.
+
+Hypnosis would solve the riddle of the libidinal constitution of groups
+for us straight away, if it were not that it itself exhibits some
+features which are not met by the rational explanation we have hitherto
+given of it as a state of being in love with the directly sexual
+tendencies excluded. There is still a great deal in it which we must
+recognise as unexplained and mystical. It contains an additional element
+of paralysis derived from the relation between someone with superior
+power and someone who is without power and helpless--which may afford a
+transition to the hypnosis of terror which occurs in animals. The manner
+in which it is produced and its relationship to sleep are not clear; and
+the puzzling way in which some people are subject to it, while others
+resist it completely, points to some factor still unknown which is
+realised in it and which perhaps alone makes possible the purity of the
+attitudes of the libido which it exhibits. It is noticeable that, even
+when there is complete suggestive compliance in other respects, the
+moral conscience of the person hypnotized may show resistance. But this
+may be due to the fact that in hypnosis as it is usually practised some
+knowledge may be retained that what is happening is only a game, an
+untrue reproduction of another situation of far more importance to life.
+
+But after the preceding discussions we are quite in a position to give
+the formula for the libidinal constitution of groups: or at least of
+such groups as we have hitherto considered, namely, those that have a
+leader and have not been able by means of too much 'organisation' to
+acquire secondarily the characteristics of an individual. _A primary
+group of this kind is a number of individuals who have substituted one
+and the same object for their ego ideal and have consequently identified
+themselves with one another in their ego._ This condition admits of
+graphic representation:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE HERD INSTINCT
+
+
+We cannot for long enjoy the illusion that we have solved the riddle of
+the group with this formula. It is impossible to escape the immediate
+and disturbing recollection that all we have really done has been to
+shift the question on to the riddle of hypnosis, about which so many
+points have yet to be cleared up. And now another objection shows us our
+further path.
+
+It might be said that the intense emotional ties which we observe in
+groups are quite sufficient to explain one of their characteristics--the
+lack of independence and initiative in their members, the similarity in
+the reactions of all of them, their reduction, so to speak, to the level
+of group individuals. But if we look at it as a whole, a group shows us
+more than this. Some of its features--the weakness of intellectual
+ability, the lack of emotional restraint, the incapacity for moderation
+and delay, the inclination to exceed every limit in the expression of
+emotion and to work it off completely in the form of action--these and
+similar features, which we find so impressively described in Le Bon,
+show an unmistakable picture of a regression of mental activity to an
+earlier stage such as we are not surprised to find among savages or
+children. A regression of this sort is in particular an essential
+characteristic of common groups, while, as we have heard, in organized
+and artificial groups it can to a large extent be checked.
+
+We thus have an impression of a state in which an individual's separate
+emotion and personal intellectual act are too weak to come to anything
+by themselves and are absolutely obliged to wait till they are
+reinforced through being repeated in a similar way in the other members
+of the group. We are reminded of how many of these phenomena of
+dependence are part of the normal constitution of human society, of how
+little originality and personal courage are to be found in it, of how
+much every individual is ruled by those attitudes of the group mind
+which exhibit themselves in such forms as racial characteristics, class
+prejudices, public opinion, etc. The influence of suggestion becomes a
+greater riddle for us when we admit that it is not exercised only by the
+leader, but by every individual upon every other individual; and we must
+reproach ourselves with having unfairly emphasized the relation to the
+leader and with having kept the other factor of mutual suggestion too
+much in the background.
+
+After this encouragement to modesty, we shall be inclined to listen to
+another voice, which promises us an explanation based upon simpler
+grounds. Such a one is to be found in Trotter's thoughtful book upon the
+herd instinct, concerning which my only regret is that it does not
+entirely escape the antipathies that were set loose by the recent great
+war.[50]
+
+Trotter derives the mental phenomena that are described as occurring in
+groups from a herd instinct ('gregariousness'), which is innate in human
+beings just as in other species of animals. Biologically this
+gregariousness is an analogy to multicellularity and as it were a
+continuation of it. From the standpoint of the libido theory it is a
+further manifestation of the inclination, which proceeds from the
+libido, and which is felt by all living beings of the same kind, to
+combine in more and more comprehensive units.[51] The individual feels
+'incomplete' if he is alone. The dread shown by small children would
+seem already to be an expression of this herd instinct. Opposition to
+the herd is as good as separation from it, and is therefore anxiously
+avoided. But the herd turns away from anything that is new or unusual.
+The herd instinct would appear to be something primary, something
+'which cannot be split up'.
+
+Trotter gives as the list of instincts which he considers as primary
+those of self-preservation, of nutrition, of sex, and of the herd. The
+last often comes into opposition with the others. The feelings of guilt
+and of duty are the peculiar possessions of a gregarious animal. Trotter
+also derives from the herd instinct the repressive forces which
+psycho-analysis has shown to exist in the ego, and from the same source
+accordingly the resistances which the physician comes up against in
+psycho-analytic treatment. Speech owes its importance to its aptitude
+for mutual understanding in the herd, and upon it the identification of
+the individuals with one another largely rests.
+
+While Le Bon is principally concerned with typical transient group
+formations, and McDougall with stable associations, Trotter has chosen
+as the centre of his interest the most generalised form of assemblage in
+which man, that Ϛὡον πολιτικὁν, passes his life, and he gives
+us its psychological basis. But Trotter is under no necessity of tracing
+back the herd instinct, for he characterizes it as primary and not
+further reducible. Boris Sidis's attempt, to which he refers, at tracing
+the herd instinct back to suggestibility is fortunately superfluous as
+far as he is concerned; it is an explanation of a familiar and
+unsatisfactory type, and the converse proposition--that suggestibility
+is a derivative of the herd instinct--would seem to me to throw far more
+light on the subject.
+
+But Trotter's exposition, with even more justice than the others', is
+open to the objection that it takes too little account of the leader's
+part in a group, while we incline rather to the opposite judgement, that
+it is impossible to grasp the nature of a group if the leader is
+disregarded. The herd instinct leaves no room at all for the leader; he
+is merely thrown in along with the herd, almost by chance; it follows,
+too, that no path leads from this instinct to the need for a God; the
+herd is without a herdsman. But besides this Trotter's exposition can be
+undermined psychologically; that is to say, it can be made at all events
+probable that the herd instinct is not irreducible, that it is not
+primary in the same sense as the instinct of self-preservation and the
+sexual instinct.
+
+It is naturally no easy matter to trace the ontogenesis of the herd
+instinct. The dread which is shown by small children when they are left
+alone, and which Trotter claims as being already a manifestation of the
+instinct, nevertheless suggests more readily another interpretation. The
+dread relates to the child's mother, and later to other familiar
+persons, and it is the expression of an unfulfilled desire, which the
+child does not yet know how to deal with in any way except by turning
+it into dread.[52] Nor is the child's dread when it is alone pacified by
+the sight of any haphazard 'member of the herd', but on the contrary it
+is only brought into existence by the approach of a 'stranger' of this
+sort. Then for a long time nothing in the nature of herd instinct or
+group feeling is to be observed in children. Something like it grows up
+first of all, in a nursery containing many children, out of the
+children's relation to their parents, and it does so as a reaction to
+the initial envy with which the elder child receives the younger one.
+The elder child would certainly like to put its successor jealously
+aside, to keep it away from the parents, and to rob it of all its
+privileges; but in face of the fact that this child (like all that come
+later) is loved by the parents in just the same way, and in consequence
+of the impossibility of maintaining its hostile attitude without
+damaging itself, it is forced into identifying itself with the other
+children. So there grows up in the troop of children a communal or group
+feeling, which is then further developed at school. The first demand
+made by this reaction-formation is for justice, for equal treatment for
+all. We all know how loudly and implacably this claim is put forward at
+school. If one cannot be the favourite oneself, at all events nobody
+else shall be the favourite. This transformation--the replacing of
+jealousy by a group feeling in the nursery and classroom--might be
+considered improbable, if the same process could not later on be
+observed again in other circumstances. We have only to think of the
+troop of women and girls, all of them in love in an enthusiastically
+sentimental way, who crowd round a singer or pianist after his
+performance. It would certainly be easy for each of them to be jealous
+of the rest; but, in face of their numbers and the consequent
+impossibility of their reaching the aim of their love, they renounce it,
+and, instead of pulling out one another's hair, they act as a united
+group, do homage to the hero of the occasion with their common actions,
+and would probably be glad to have a share of his flowing locks.
+Originally rivals, they have succeeded in identifying themselves with
+one another by means of a similar love for the same object. When, as is
+usual, a situation in the field of the instincts is capable of various
+outcomes, we need not be surprised if the actual outcome is one which
+involves the possibility of a certain amount of satisfaction, while
+another, even though in itself more obvious, is passed over because the
+circumstances of life prevent its attaining this aim.
+
+What appears later on in society in the shape of _Gemeingeist_, _esprit
+de corps_, 'group spirit', etc., does not belie its derivation from what
+was originally envy. No one must want to put himself forward, every one
+must be the same and have the same. Social justice means that we deny
+ourselves many things so that others may have to do without them as
+well, or, what is the same thing, may not be able to ask for them. This
+demand for equality is the root of social conscience and the sense of
+duty. It reveals itself unexpectedly in the syphilitic's dread of
+infecting other people, which psycho-analysis has taught us to
+understand. The dread exhibited by these poor wretches corresponds to
+their violent struggles against the unconscious wish to spread their
+infection on to other people; for why should they alone be infected and
+cut off from so much? why not other people as well? And the same germ is
+to be found in the pretty anecdote of the judgement of Solomon. If one
+woman's child is dead, the other shall not have a live one either. The
+bereaved woman is recognized by this wish.
+
+Thus social feeling is based upon the reversal of what was first a
+hostile feeling into a positively-toned tie of the nature of an
+identification. So far as we have hitherto been able to follow the
+course of events, this reversal appears to be effected under the
+influence of a common tender tie with a person outside the group. We do
+not ourselves regard our analysis of identification as exhaustive, but
+it is enough for our present purpose that we should revert to this one
+feature--its demand that equalization shall be consistently carried
+through. We have already heard in the discussion of the two artificial
+groups, church and army, that their preliminary condition is that all
+their members should be loved in the same way by one person, the leader.
+Do not let us forget, however, that the demand for equality in a group
+applies only to its members and not to the leader. All the members must
+be equal to one another, but they all want to be ruled by one person.
+Many equals, who can identify themselves with one another, and a single
+person superior to them all--that is the situation that we find realised
+in groups which are capable of subsisting. Let us venture, then, to
+correct Trotter's pronouncement that man is a herd animal and assert
+that he is rather a horde animal, an individual creature in a horde led
+by a chief.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE GROUP AND THE PRIMAL HORDE
+
+
+In 1912 I took up a conjecture of Darwin's to the effect that the
+primitive form of human society was that of a horde ruled over
+despotically by a powerful male. I attempted to show that the fortunes
+of this horde have left indestructible traces upon the history of human
+descent; and, especially, that the development of totemism, which
+comprises in itself the beginnings of religion, morality, and social
+organisation, is connected with the killing of the chief by violence and
+the transformation of the paternal horde into a community of
+brothers.[53] To be sure, this is only a hypothesis, like so many others
+with which archaeologists endeavour to lighten the darkness of
+prehistoric times--a 'Just-So Story', as it was amusingly called by a
+not unkind critic (Kroeger); but I think it is creditable to such a
+hypothesis if it proves able to bring coherence and understanding into
+more and more new regions.
+
+Human groups exhibit once again the familiar picture of an individual of
+superior strength among a troop of similar companions, a picture which
+is also contained in our idea of the primal horde. The psychology of
+such a group, as we know it from the descriptions to which we have so
+often referred--the dwindling of the conscious individual personality,
+the focussing of thoughts and feelings into a common direction, the
+predominance of the emotions and of the unconscious mental life, the
+tendency to the immediate carrying out of intentions as they emerge--all
+this corresponds to a state of regression to a primitive mental
+activity, of just such a sort as we should be inclined to ascribe to the
+primal horde.[54]
+
+Thus the group appears to us as a revival of the primal horde. Just as
+primitive man virtually survives in every individual, so the primal
+horde may arise once more out of any random crowd; in so far as men are
+habitually under the sway of group formation we recognise in it the
+survival of the primal horde. We must conclude that the psychology of
+the group is the oldest human psychology; what we have isolated as
+individual psychology, by neglecting all traces of the group, has only
+since come into prominence out of the old group psychology, by a gradual
+process which may still, perhaps, be described as incomplete. We shall
+later venture upon an attempt at specifying the point of departure of
+this development.
+
+Further reflection will show us in what respect this statement requires
+correction. Individual psychology must, on the contrary, be just as old
+as group psychology, for from the first there were two kinds of
+psychologies, that of the individual members of the group and that of
+the father, chief, or leader. The members of the group were subject to
+ties just as we see them to-day, but the father of the primal horde was
+free. His intellectual acts were strong and independent even in
+isolation, and his will needed no reinforcement from others. Consistency
+leads us to assume that his ego had few libidinal ties; he loved no one
+but himself, or other people only in so far as they served his needs. To
+objects his ego gave away no more than was barely necessary.
+
+He, at the very beginning of the history of mankind, was the _Superman_
+whom Nietzsche only expected from the future. Even to-day the members of
+a group stand in need of the illusion that they are equally and justly
+loved by their leader; but the leader himself need love no one else, he
+may be of a masterly nature, absolutely narcissistic, but self-confident
+and independent. We know that love puts a check upon narcissism, and it
+would be possible to show how, by operating in this way, it became a
+factor of civilisation.
+
+The primal father of the horde was not yet immortal, as he later became
+by deification. If he died, he had to be replaced; his place was
+probably taken by a youngest son, who had up to then been a member of
+the group like any other. There must therefore be a possibility of
+transforming group psychology into individual psychology; a condition
+must be discovered under which such a transformation is easily
+accomplished, just as it is possible for bees in case of necessity to
+turn a larva into a queen instead of into a worker. One can imagine only
+one possibility: the primal father had prevented his sons from
+satisfying their directly sexual tendencies; he forced them into
+abstinence and consequently into the emotional ties with him and with
+one another which could arise out of those of their tendencies that were
+inhibited in their sexual aim. He forced them, so to speak, into group
+psychology. His sexual jealousy and intolerance became in the last
+resort the causes of group psychology.[55]
+
+Whoever became his successor was also given the possibility of sexual
+satisfaction, and was by that means offered a way out of the conditions
+of group psychology. The fixation of the libido to woman and the
+possibility of satisfaction without any need for delay or accumulation
+made and end of the importance of those of his sexual tendencies that
+were inhibited in their aim, and allowed his narcissism always to rise
+to its full height. We shall return in a postscript to this connection
+between love and character formation.
+
+We may further emphasize, as being specially instructive, the relation
+that holds between the contrivance by means of which an artificial group
+is held together and the constitution of the primal horde. We have seen
+that with an army and a church this contrivance is the illusion that
+the leader loves all of the individuals equally and justly. But this is
+simply an idealistic remodelling of the state of affairs in the primal
+horde, where all of the sons knew that they were equally persecuted by
+the primal father, and feared him equally. This same recasting upon
+which all social duties are built up is already presupposed by the next
+form of human society, the totemistic clan. The indestructible strength
+of the family as a natural group formation rests upon the fact that this
+necessary presupposition of the father's equal love can have a real
+application in the family.
+
+But we expect even more of this derivation of the group from the primal
+horde. It ought also to help us to understand what is still
+incomprehensible and mysterious in group formations--all that lies
+hidden behind the enigmatic words hypnosis and suggestion. And I think
+it can succeed in this too. Let us recall that hypnosis has something
+positively uncanny about it; but the characteristic of uncanniness
+suggests something old and familiar that has undergone repression.[56]
+Let us consider how hypnosis is induced. The hypnotist asserts that he
+is in possession of a mysterious power which robs the subject of his own
+will, or, which is the same thing, the subject believes it of him. This
+mysterious power (which is even now often described popularly as animal
+magnetism) must be the same that is looked upon by primitive people as
+the source of taboo, the same that emanates from kings and chieftains
+and makes it dangerous to approach them (_mana_). The hypnotist, then,
+is supposed to be in possession of this power; and how does he manifest
+it? By telling the subject to look him in the eyes; his most typical
+method of hypnotising is by his look. But it is precisely the sight of
+the chieftain that is dangerous and unbearable for primitive people,
+just as later that of the Godhead is for mortals. Even Moses had to act
+as an intermediary between his people and Jehovah, since the people
+could not support the sight of God; and when he returned from the
+presence of God his face shone--some of the _mana_ had been transferred
+on to him, just as happens with the intermediary among primitive
+people.[57]
+
+It is true that hypnosis can also be evoked in other ways, for instance
+by fixing the eyes upon a bright object or by listening to a monotonous
+sound. This is misleading and has given occasion to inadequate
+physiological theories. As a matter of fact these procedures merely
+serve to divert conscious attention and to hold it riveted. The
+situation is the same as if the hypnotist had said to the subject: 'Now
+concern yourself exclusively with my person; the rest of the world is
+quite uninteresting.' It would of course be technically inexpedient for
+a hypnotist to make such a speech; it would tear the subject away from
+his unconscious attitude and stimulate him to conscious opposition. The
+hypnotist avoids directing the subject's conscious thoughts towards his
+own intentions, and makes the person upon whom he is experimenting sink
+into an activity in which the world is bound to seem uninteresting to
+him; but at the same time the subject is in reality unconsciously
+concentrating his whole attention upon the hypnotist, and is getting
+into an attitude of _rapport_, of transference on to him. Thus the
+indirect methods of hypnotising, like many of the technical procedures
+used in making jokes, have the effect of checking certain distributions
+of mental energy which would interfere with the course of events in the
+unconscious, and they lead eventually to the same result as the direct
+methods of influence by means of staring or stroking.[58]
+
+Ferenczi has made the true discovery that when a hypnotist gives the
+command to sleep, which is often done at the beginning of hypnosis, he
+is putting himself in the place of the subject's parents. He thinks that
+two sorts of hypnosis are to be distinguished: one coaxing and soothing,
+which he considers is modelled upon the mother, and another threatening,
+which is derived from the father.[59] Now the command to sleep in
+hypnosis means nothing more nor less than an order to withdraw all
+interest from the world and to concentrate it upon the person of the
+hypnotist. And it is so understood by the subject; for in this
+withdrawal of interest from the outer world lies the psychological
+characteristic of sleep, and the kinship between sleep and the state of
+hypnosis is based upon it.
+
+By the measures that he takes, then, the hypnotist awakens in the
+subject a portion of his archaic inheritance which had also made him
+compliant towards his parents and which had experienced an individual
+re-animation in his relation to his father; what is thus awakened is the
+idea of a paramount and dangerous personality, towards whom only a
+passive-masochistic attitude is possible, to whom one's will has to be
+surrendered,--while to be alone with him, 'to look him in the face',
+appears a hazardous enterprise. It is only in some such way as this that
+we can picture the relation of the individual member of the primal horde
+to the primal father. As we know from other reactions, individuals have
+preserved a variable degree of personal aptitude for reviving old
+situations of this kind. Some knowledge that in spite of everything
+hypnosis is only a game, a deceptive renewal of these old impressions,
+may however remain behind and take care that there is a resistance
+against any too serious consequences of the suspension of the will in
+hypnosis.
+
+The uncanny and coercive characteristics of group formations, which are
+shown in their suggestion phenomena, may therefore with justice be
+traced back to the fact of their origin from the primal horde. The
+leader of the group is still the dreaded primal father; the group still
+wishes to be governed by unrestricted force; it has an extreme passion
+for authority; in Le Bon's phrase, it has a thirst for obedience. The
+primal father is the group ideal, which governs the ego in the place of
+the ego ideal. Hypnosis has a good claim to being described as a group
+of two; there remains as a definition for suggestion--a conviction which
+is not based upon perception and reasoning but upon an erotic tie.[60]
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+A DIFFERENTIATING GRADE IN THE EGO
+
+
+If we survey the life of an individual man of to-day, bearing in mind
+the mutually complementary accounts of group psychology given by the
+authorities, we may lose the courage, in face of the complications that
+are revealed, to attempt a comprehensive exposition. Each individual is
+a component part of numerous groups, he is bound by ties of
+identification in many directions, and he has built up his ego ideal
+upon the most various models. Each individual therefore has a share in
+numerous group minds--those of his race, of his class, of his creed, of
+his nationality, etc.--and he can also raise himself above them to the
+extent of having a scrap of independence and originality. Such stable
+and lasting group formations, with their uniform and constant effects,
+are less striking to an observer than the rapidly formed and transient
+groups from which Le Bon has made his brilliant psychological character
+sketch of the group mind. And it is just in these noisy ephemeral
+groups, which are as it were superimposed upon the others, that we are
+met by the prodigy of the complete, even though only temporary,
+disappearance of exactly what we have recognized as individual
+acquirements.
+
+We have interpreted this prodigy as meaning that the individual gives up
+his ego ideal and substitutes for it the group ideal as embodied in the
+leader. And we must add by way of correction that the prodigy is not
+equally great in every case. In many individuals the separation between
+the ego and the ego ideal is not very far advanced; the two still
+coincide readily; the ego has often preserved its earlier
+self-complacency. The selection of the leader is very much facilitated
+by this circumstance. He need only possess the typical qualities of the
+individuals concerned in a particularly clearly marked and pure form,
+and need only give an impression of greater force and of more freedom of
+libido; and in that case the need for a strong chief will often meet him
+half-way and invest him with a predominance to which he would otherwise
+perhaps have had no claim. The other members of the group, whose ego
+ideal would not, apart from this, have become embodied in his person
+without some correction, are then carried away with the rest by
+'suggestion', that is to say, by means of identification.
+
+We are aware that what we have been able to contribute towards the
+explanation of the libidinal structure of groups leads back to the
+distinction between the ego and the ego ideal and to the double kind of
+tie which this makes possible--identification, and substitution of the
+object for the ego ideal. The assumption of this kind of differentiating
+grade [_Stufe_] in the ego as a first step in an analysis of the ego
+must gradually establish its justification in the most various regions
+of psychology. In my paper 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus' I have put
+together all the pathological material that could at the moment be used
+in support of this separation. But it may be expected that when we
+penetrate deeper into the psychology of the psychoses its significance
+will be discovered to be far greater. Let us reflect that the ego now
+appears in the relation of an object to the ego ideal which has been
+developed out of it, and that all the interplay between an outer object
+and the ego as a whole, with which our study of the neuroses has made us
+acquainted, may possibly be repeated upon this new scene of action
+inside the ego.
+
+In this place I shall only follow up one of the consequences which seem
+possible from this point of view, thus resuming the discussion of a
+problem which I was obliged to leave unsolved elsewhere.[61] Each of the
+mental differentiations that we have become acquainted with represents a
+fresh aggravation of the difficulties of mental functioning, increases
+its instability, and may become the starting-point for its breakdown,
+that is, for the onset of a disease. Thus, by being born we have made
+the step from an absolutely self-sufficient narcissism to the perception
+of a changing outer world and to the beginnings of the discovery of
+objects. And with this is associated the fact that we cannot endure the
+new state of things for long, that we periodically revert from it, in
+our sleep, to our former condition of absence of stimulation and
+avoidance of objects. It is true, however, that in this we are following
+a hint from the outer world, which, by means of the periodical change of
+day and night, temporarily withdraws the greater part of the stimuli
+that affect us. The second example, which is pathologically more
+important, is not subject to any such qualification. In the course of
+our development we have effected a separation of our mental existence
+into a coherent ego and into an unconscious and repressed portion which
+is left outside it; and we know that the stability of this new
+acquisition is exposed to constant shocks. In dreams and in neuroses
+what is thus excluded knocks for admission at the gates, guarded though
+they are by resistances; and in our waking health we make use of special
+artifices for allowing what is repressed to circumvent the resistances
+and for receiving it temporarily into our ego to the increase of our
+pleasure. Wit and humour, and to some extent the comic in general, may
+be regarded in this light. Everyone acquainted with the psychology of
+the neuroses will think of similar examples of less importance; but I
+hasten on to the application I have in view.
+
+It is quite conceivable that the separation of the ego ideal from the
+ego cannot be borne for long either, and has to be temporarily undone.
+In all renunciations and limitations imposed upon the ego a periodical
+infringement of the prohibition is the rule; this indeed is shown by the
+institution of festivals, which in origin are nothing more nor less than
+excesses provided by law and which owe their cheerful character to the
+release which they bring.[62] The Saturnalia of the Romans and our
+modern carnival agree in this essential feature with the festivals of
+primitive people, which usually end in debaucheries of every kind and
+the transgression of what are at other times the most sacred
+commandments. But the ego ideal comprises the sum of all the limitations
+in which the ego has to acquiesce, and for that reason the abrogation of
+the ideal would necessarily be a magnificent festival for the ego, which
+might then once again feel satisfied with itself.[63]
+
+There is always a feeling of triumph when something in the ego coincides
+with the ego ideal. And the sense of guilt (as well as the sense of
+inferiority) can also be understood as an expression of tension between
+the ego and the ego ideal.
+
+It is well known that there are people the general colour of whose mood
+oscillates periodically from an excessive depression through some kind
+of intermediate state to an exalted sense of well-being. These
+oscillations appear in very different degrees of amplitude, from what is
+just noticeable to those extreme instances which, in the shape of
+melancholia and mania, make the most painful or disturbing inroads upon
+the life of the person concerned. In typical cases of this cyclical
+depression outer exciting causes do not seem to play any decisive part;
+as regards inner motives, nothing more (or nothing different) is to be
+found in these patients than in all others. It has consequently become
+the custom to consider these cases as not being psychogenic. We shall
+refer later on to those other exactly similar cases of cyclical
+depression which can nevertheless easily be traced back to mental
+traumata.
+
+Thus the foundation of these spontaneous oscillations of mood is
+unknown; we are without insight into the mechanism of the displacement
+of a melancholia by a mania. So we are free to suppose that these
+patients are people in whom our conjecture might find an actual
+application--their ego ideal might be temporarily resolved into their
+ego after having previously ruled it with especial strictness.
+
+Let us keep to what is clear: On the basis of our analysis of the ego it
+cannot be doubted that in cases of mania the ego and the ego ideal have
+fused together, so that the person, in a mood of triumph and
+self-satisfaction, disturbed by no self-criticism, can enjoy the
+abolition of his inhibitions, his feelings of consideration for others,
+and his self-reproaches. It is not so obvious, but nevertheless very
+probable, that the misery of the melancholiac is the expression of a
+sharp conflict between the two faculties of his ego, a conflict in which
+the ideal, in an excess of sensitiveness, relentlessly exhibits its
+condemnation of the ego in delusions of inferiority and in
+self-depreciation. The only question is whether we are to look for the
+causes of these altered relations between the ego and the ego ideal in
+the periodic rebellions, which we have postulated above, against the new
+institution, or whether we are to make other circumstances responsible
+for them.
+
+A change into mania is not an indispensable feature of the
+symptomatology of melancholic depression. There are simple melancholias,
+some in single and some in recurring attacks, which never show this
+development. On the other hand there are melancholias in which the
+exciting cause clearly plays an aetiological part. They are those which
+occur after the loss of a loved object, whether by death or as a result
+of circumstances which have necessitated the withdrawal of the libido
+from the object. A psychogenic melancholia of this sort can end in
+mania, and this cycle can be repeated several times, just as easily as
+in a case which appears to be spontaneous. Thus the state of things is
+somewhat obscure, especially as only a few forms and cases of
+melancholia have been submitted to psycho-analytical investigation.[64]
+So far we only understand those cases in which the object is given up
+because it has shown itself unworthy of love. It is then set up again
+inside the ego, by means of identification, and severely condemned by
+the ego ideal. The reproaches and attacks directed towards the object
+come to light in the shape of melancholic self-reproaches.[65]
+
+A melancholia of this kind may also end in a change to mania; so that
+the possibility of this happening represents a feature which is
+independent of the other characteristics in the symptomatology.
+
+Nevertheless I see no difficulty in assigning to the factor of the
+periodical rebellion of the ego against the ego ideal a share in both
+kinds of melancholia, the psychogenic as well as the spontaneous. In the
+spontaneous kind it may be supposed that the ego ideal is inclined to
+display a peculiar strictness, which then results automatically in its
+temporary suspension. In the psychogenic kind the ego would be incited
+to rebellion by ill-treatment on the part of its ideal--an ill-treatment
+which it encounters when there has been identification with a rejected
+object.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+
+In the course of the enquiry which has just been brought to a
+provisional end we came across a number of side-paths which we avoided
+pursuing in the first instance but in which there was much that offered
+us promises of insight. We propose now to take up a few of the points
+that have been left on one side in this way.
+
+A. The distinction between identification of the ego with an object and
+replacement of the ego ideal by an object finds an interesting
+illustration in the two great artificial groups which we began by
+studying, the army and the Christian church.
+
+It is obvious that a soldier takes his superior, that is, really, the
+leader of the army, as his ideal, while he identifies himself with his
+equals, and derives from this community of their egos the obligations
+for giving mutual help and for sharing possessions which comradeship
+implies. But he becomes ridiculous if he tries to identify himself with
+the general. The soldier in _Wallensteins Lager_ laughs at the sergeant
+for this very reason:
+
+    Wie er räuspert und wie er spuckt,
+    Das habt ihr ihm glücklich abgeguckt![66]
+
+It is otherwise in the Catholic Church. Every Christian loves Christ as
+his ideal and feels himself united with all other Christians by the tie
+of identification. But the Church requires more of him. He has also to
+identify himself with Christ and love all other Christians as Christ
+loved them. At both points, therefore, the Church requires that the
+position of the libido which is given by a group formation should be
+supplemented. Identification has to be added where object-choice has
+taken place, and object love where there is identification. This
+addition evidently goes beyond the constitution of the group. One can be
+a good Christian and yet be far from the idea of putting oneself in
+Christ's place and of having like him an all-embracing love for mankind.
+One need not think oneself capable, weak mortal that one is, of the
+Saviour's largeness of soul and strength of love. But this further
+development in the distribution of libido in the group is probably the
+factor upon which Christianity bases its claim to have reached a higher
+ethical level.
+
+B. We have said that it would be possible to specify the point in the
+mental development of man at which the advance from group to individual
+psychology was also achieved by the individual members of the group.[67]
+
+For this purpose we must return for a moment to the scientific myth of
+the father of the primal horde. He was later on exalted into the creator
+of the world, and with justice, for he had produced all the sons who
+composed the first group. He was the ideal of each one of them, at once
+feared and honoured, a fact which led later to the idea of taboo. These
+many individuals eventually banded themselves together, killed him and
+cut him in pieces. None of the group of victors could take his place,
+or, if one of them did, the battles began afresh, until they understood
+that they must all renounce their father's heritage. They then formed
+the totemistic community of brothers, all with equal rights and united
+by the totem prohibitions which were to preserve and to expiate the
+memory of the murder. But the dissatisfaction with what had been
+achieved still remained, and it became the source of new developments.
+The persons who were united in this group of brothers gradually came
+towards a revival of the old state of things at a new level. Man became
+once more the chief of a family, and broke down the prerogatives of the
+gynaecocracy which had become established during the fatherless period.
+As a compensation for this he may at that time have acknowledged the
+mother deities, whose priests were castrated for the mother's
+protection, after the example that had been given by the father of the
+primal horde. And yet the new family was only a shadow of the old one;
+there were numbers of fathers and each one was limited by the rights of
+the others.
+
+It was then, perhaps, that some individual, in the exigency of his
+longing, may have been moved to free himself from the group and take
+over the father's part. He who did this was the first epic poet; and the
+advance was achieved in his imagination. This poet disguised the truth
+with lies in accordance with his longing. He invented the heroic myth.
+The hero was a man who by himself had slain the father--the father who
+still appeared in the myth as a totemistic monster. Just as the father
+had been the boy's first ideal, so in the hero who aspires to the
+father's place the poet now created the first ego ideal. The transition
+to the hero was probably afforded by the youngest son, the mother's
+favourite, whom she had protected from paternal jealousy, and who, in
+the era of the primal horde, had been the father's successor. In the
+lying poetic fancies of prehistoric times the woman, who had been the
+prize of battle and the allurement to murder, was probably turned into
+the seducer and instigator to the crime.
+
+The hero claims to have acted alone in accomplishing the deed, which
+certainly only the horde as a whole would have ventured upon. But, as
+Rank has observed, fairy tales have preserved clear traces of the facts
+which were disavowed. For we often find in them that the hero who has to
+carry out some difficult task (usually a youngest son, and not
+infrequently one who has represented himself to the father surrogate as
+being stupid, that is to say, harmless)--we often find, then, that this
+hero can carry out his task only by the help of a crowd of small
+animals, such as bees or ants. These would be the brothers in the primal
+horde, just as in the same way in dream symbolism insects or vermin
+signify brothers and sisters (contemptuously, considered as babies).
+Moreover every one of the tasks in myths and fairy tales is easily
+recognisable as a substitute for the heroic deed.
+
+The myth, then, is the step by which the individual emerges from group
+psychology. The first myth was certainly the psychological, the hero
+myth; the explanatory nature myth must have followed much later. The
+poet who had taken this step and had in this way set himself free from
+the group in his imagination, is nevertheless able (as Rank has further
+observed) to find his way back to it in reality. For he goes and relates
+to the group his hero's deeds which he has invented. At bottom this hero
+is no one but himself. Thus he lowers himself to the level of reality,
+and raises his hearers to the level of imagination. But his hearers
+understand the poet, and, in virtue of their having the same relation of
+longing towards the primal father, they can identify themselves with the
+hero.[68]
+
+The lie of the heroic myth culminates in the deification of the hero.
+Perhaps the deified hero may have been earlier than the Father God and
+may have been a precursor to the return of the primal father as a deity.
+The series of gods, then, would run chronologically: Mother
+Goddess--Hero--Father God. But it is only with the elevation of the
+never forgotten primal father that the deity acquires the features that
+we still recognise in him to-day.[69]
+
+C. A great deal has been said in this paper about directly sexual
+instincts and those that are inhibited in their aims, and it may be
+hoped that this distinction will not meet with too much resistance. But
+a detailed discussion of the question will not be out of place, even if
+it only repeats what has to a great extent already been said before.
+
+The development of the libido in children has made us acquainted with
+the first but also the best example of sexual instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims. All the feelings which a child has towards its
+parents and those who look after it pass by an easy transition into the
+wishes which give expression to the child's sexual tendencies. The child
+claims from these objects of its love all the signs of affection which
+it knows of; it wants to kiss them, touch them, and look at them; it is
+curious to see their genitals, and to be with them when they perform
+their intimate excremental functions; it promises to marry its mother or
+nurse--whatever it may understand by that; it proposes to itself to bear
+its father a child, etc. Direct observation, as well as the subsequent
+analytic investigation of the residue of childhood, leave no doubt as to
+the complete fusion of tender and jealous feelings and of sexual
+intentions, and show us in what a fundamental way the child makes the
+person it loves into the object of all its incompletely centred sexual
+tendencies.[70]
+
+This first configuration of the child's love, which in typical cases is
+co-ordinated with the Oedipus complex, succumbs, as we know, from the
+beginning of the period of latency onwards to a wave of repression. Such
+of it as is left over shows itself as a purely tender emotional tie,
+which relates to the same people, but is no longer to be described as
+'sexual'. Psycho-analysis, which illuminates the depths of mental life,
+has no difficulty in showing that the sexual ties of the earliest years
+of childhood also persist, though repressed and unconscious. It gives us
+courage to assert that wherever we come across a tender feeling it is
+the successor to a completely 'sensual' object tie with the person in
+question or rather with that person's prototype (or _imago_). It cannot
+indeed disclose to us without a special investigation whether in a given
+case this former complete sexual current still exists under repression
+or whether it has already been exhausted. To put it still more
+precisely: it is quite certain that it is still there as a form and
+possibility, and can always be charged with cathectic energy and put
+into activity again by means of regression; the only question is (and it
+cannot always be answered) what degree of cathexis and operative force
+it still has at the present moment. Equal care must be taken in this
+connection to avoid two sources of error--the Scylla of under-estimating
+the importance of the repressed unconscious, and the Charybdis of
+judging the normal entirely by the standards of the pathological.
+
+A psychology which will not or cannot penetrate the depths of what is
+repressed regards tender emotional ties as being invariably the
+expression of tendencies which have no sexual aim, even though they are
+derived from tendencies which have such an aim.[71]
+
+We are justified in saying that they have been diverted from these
+sexual aims, even though there is some difficulty in giving a
+representation of such a diversion of aim which will conform to the
+requirements of metapsychology. Moreover, those instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims always preserve some few of their original
+sexual aims; even an affectionate devotee, even a friend or an admirer,
+desires the physical proximity and the sight of the person who is now
+loved only in the 'Pauline' sense. If we choose, we may recognise in
+this diversion of aim a beginning of the _sublimation_ of the sexual
+instincts, or on the other hand we may fix the limits of sublimation at
+some more distant point. Those sexual instincts which are inhibited in
+their aims have a great functional advantage over those which are
+uninhibited. Since they are not capable of really complete
+satisfaction, they are especially adapted to create permanent ties;
+while those instincts which are directly sexual incur a loss of energy
+each time they are satisfied, and must wait to be renewed by a fresh
+accumulation of sexual libido, so that meanwhile the object may have
+been changed. The inhibited instincts are capable of any degree of
+admixture with the uninhibited; they can be transformed back into them,
+just as they arose out of them. It is well known how easily erotic
+wishes develop out of emotional relations of a friendly character, based
+upon appreciation and admiration, (compare Molière's 'Embrassez-moi pour
+l'amour du grec'), between a master and a pupil, between a performer and
+a delighted listener, and especially in the case of women. In fact the
+growth of emotional ties of this kind, with their purposeless
+beginnings, provides a much frequented pathway to sexual object-choice.
+Pfister, in his _Frömmigkeit des Grafen von Zinzendorf_,[72] has given
+an extremely clear and certainly not an isolated example of how easily
+even an intense religious tie can revert to ardent sexual excitement. On
+the other hand it is also very usual for directly sexual tendencies,
+short-lived in themselves, to be transformed into a lasting and purely
+tender tie; and the consolidation of a passionate love marriage rests
+to a large extent upon this process.
+
+We shall naturally not be surprised to hear that the sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims arise out of the directly sexual ones
+when inner or outer obstacles make the sexual aims unattainable. The
+repression during the period of latency is an inner obstacle of this
+kind--or rather one which has become inner. We have assumed that the
+father of the primal horde owing to his sexual intolerance compelled all
+his sons to be abstinent, and thus forced them into ties that were
+inhibited in their aims, while he reserved for himself freedom of sexual
+enjoyment and in this way remained without ties. All the ties upon which
+a group depends are of the character of instincts that are inhibited in
+their aims. But here we have approached the discussion of a new subject,
+which deals with the relation between directly sexual instincts and the
+formation of groups.
+
+D. The last two remarks will have prepared us for finding that directly
+sexual tendencies are unfavourable to the formation of groups. In the
+history of the development of the family there have also, it is true,
+been group relations of sexual love (group marriages); but the more
+important sexual love became for the ego, and the more it developed the
+characteristics of being in love, the more urgently it required to be
+limited to two people--_una cum uno_--as is prescribed by the nature of
+the genital aim. Polygamous inclinations had to be content to find
+satisfaction in a succession of changing objects.
+
+Two people coming together for the purpose of sexual satisfaction, in so
+far as they seek for solitude, are making a demonstration against the
+herd instinct, the group feeling. The more they are in love, the more
+completely they suffice for each other. The rejection of the group's
+influence is manifested in the shape of a sense of shame. The extremely
+violent feelings of jealousy are summoned up in order to protect the
+sexual object-choice from being encroached upon by a group tie. It is
+only when the tender, that is, the personal, factor of a love relation
+gives place entirely to the sensual one, that it is possible for two
+people to have sexual intercourse in the presence of others or for there
+to be simultaneous sexual acts in a group as occurs at an orgy. But at
+that point a regression has taken place to an early stage in sexual
+relations, at which being in love as yet played no part, and all sexual
+objects were judged to be of equal value, somewhat in the sense of
+Bernard Shaw's malicious aphorism to the effect that being in love means
+greatly exaggerating the difference between one woman and another.
+
+There are abundant indications that being in love only made its
+appearance late on in the sexual relations between men and women; so
+that the opposition between sexual love and group ties is also a late
+development. Now it may seem as though this assumption were incompatible
+with our myth of the primal family. For it was after all by their love
+for their mothers and sisters that the troop of brothers was, as we have
+supposed, driven to parricide; and it is difficult to imagine this love
+as being anything but unbroken and primitive--that is, as an intimate
+union of the tender and the sensual. But further consideration resolves
+this objection into a confirmation. One of the reactions to the
+parricide was after all the institution of totemistic exogamy; the
+prohibition of any sexual relation with those women of the family who
+had been tenderly loved since childhood. In this way a wedge was driven
+in between a man's tender and sensual feelings, one still firmly fixed
+in his erotic life to-day.[73] As a result of this exogamy the sensual
+needs of men had to be satisfied with strange and unloved women.
+
+In the great artificial groups, the church and the army, there is no
+room for woman as a sexual object. The love relation between men and
+women remains outside these organisations. Even where groups are formed
+which are composed of both men and women the distinction between the
+sexes plays no part. There is scarcely any sense in asking whether the
+libido which keeps groups together is of a homosexual or of a
+heterosexual nature, for it is not differentiated according to the
+sexes, and particularly shows a complete disregard for the aims of the
+genital organisation of the libido.
+
+Even in a person who has in other respects become absorbed in a group
+the directly sexual tendencies preserve a little of his individual
+activity. If they become too strong they disintegrate every group
+formation. The Catholic Church had the best of motives for recommending
+its followers to remain unmarried and for imposing celibacy upon its
+priests; but falling in love has often driven even priests to leave the
+church. In the same way love for women breaks through the group ties of
+race, of national separation, and of the social class system, and it
+thus produces important effects as a factor in civilization. It seems
+certain that homosexual love is far more compatible with group ties,
+even when it takes the shape of uninhibited sexual tendencies--a
+remarkable fact, the explanation of which might carry us far.
+
+The psycho-analytic investigation of the psycho-neuroses has taught us
+that their symptoms are to be traced back to directly sexual tendencies
+which are repressed but still remain active. We can complete this
+formula by adding to it: or, to tendencies inhibited in their aims,
+whose inhibition has not been entirely successful or has made room for
+a return to the repressed sexual aim. It is in accordance with this that
+a neurosis should make its victim asocial and should remove him from the
+usual group formations. It may be said that a neurosis has the same
+disintegrating effect upon a group as being in love. On the other hand
+it appears that where a powerful impetus has been given to group
+formation, neuroses may diminish and at all events temporarily
+disappear. Justifiable attempts have also been made to turn this
+antagonism between neuroses and group formation to therapeutic account.
+Even those who do not regret the disappearance of religious illusions
+from the civilized world of to-day will admit that so long as they were
+in force they offered those who were bound by them the most powerful
+protection against the danger of neurosis. Nor is it hard to discern in
+all the ties with mystico-religious or philosophico-religious sects and
+communities the manifestation of distorted cures of all kinds of
+neuroses. All of this is bound up with the contrast between directly
+sexual tendencies and those which are inhibited in their aims.
+
+If he is left to himself, a neurotic is obliged to replace by his own
+symptom formations the great group formations from which he is excluded.
+He creates his own world of imagination for himself, his religion, his
+own system of delusions, and thus recapitulates the institutions of
+humanity in a distorted way which is clear evidence of the dominating
+part played by the directly sexual tendencies.[74]
+
+E. In conclusion, we will add a comparative estimate, from the
+standpoint of the libido theory, of the states with which we have been
+concerned, of being in love, of hypnosis, of group formation, and of the
+neurosis.
+
+_Being in love_ is based upon the simultaneous presence of directly
+sexual tendencies and of sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their
+aims, so that the object draws a part of the narcissistic ego-libido to
+itself. It is a condition in which there is only room for the ego and
+the object.
+
+_Hypnosis_ resembles being in love in being limited to these two
+persons, but it is based entirely upon sexual tendencies that are
+inhibited in their aims and substitutes the object for the ego ideal.
+
+_The group_ multiplies this process; it agrees with hypnosis in the
+nature of the instincts which hold it together, and in the replacement
+of the ego ideal by the object; but to this it adds identification with
+other individuals, which was perhaps originally made possible by their
+having the same relation to the object.
+
+Both states, hypnosis and group formation, are an inherited deposit from
+the phylogenesis of the human libido--hypnosis in the form of a
+predisposition, and the group, besides this, as a direct survival. The
+replacement of the directly sexual tendencies by those that are
+inhibited in their aims promotes in both states a separation between the
+ego and the ego ideal, a separation with which a beginning has already
+been made in the state of being in love.
+
+_The neurosis_ stands outside this series. It also is based upon a
+peculiarity in the development of the human libido--the twice repeated
+start made by the directly sexual function, with an intervening period
+of latency.[75] To this extent it resembles hypnosis and group formation
+in having the character of a regression, which is absent from being in
+love. It makes its appearance wherever the advance from directly sexual
+instincts to those that are inhibited in their aims has not been
+completely successful; and it represents a _conflict_ between those
+instincts which have been received into the ego after having passed
+through this development and those portions of the same instincts which,
+like other instinctive desires that have been completely repressed,
+strive, from the repressed unconscious, to attain direct satisfaction.
+The neurosis is extraordinarily rich in content, for it embraces all
+possible relations between the ego and the object--both those in which
+the object is retained and others in which it is abandoned or erected
+inside the ego itself--and also the conflicting relations between the
+ego and its ego ideal.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+_Abraham_, 62, 108.
+
+Affectivity. _See under_ Emotion.
+
+Altruism, 57.
+
+Ambivalence, 18, 55, 61.
+
+Anaclitic type, 60.
+
+Archaic inheritance, 10, 99.
+
+Army 42-6, 89, 94, 110, 122.
+
+Autistic mental acts, 2.
+
+
+_Bernheim_, 35, 100
+
+_Bleuler_, 2.
+
+Brothers, 43, 114.
+  in Christ, 43.
+  Community of, 90, 112, 122.
+
+_Brugeilles_, 34.
+
+
+_Caesar_, 44.
+
+Cathexis, 18, 20, 28, 117.
+  Object-, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
+
+Catholic Church, 42-3, 111, 123.
+
+Celibacy of priests, 123.
+
+Censorship of dreams, 16, 69.
+
+Chieftains, Mana in, 96.
+
+Children, 14, 16, 18-19, 30, 67 82, 91.
+  Dread in, 83, 85-6.
+  Parents and, 54, 86, 116.
+  Sexual object of, 72, 116.
+  Unconscious of, 18.
+
+_Christ_, 42-5, 50, 111.
+  Equal love of, 50.
+  Identification with, 111.
+
+Church, 42-3, 89, 94, 110-11, 122-3.
+
+Commander-in-Chief, 42-5.
+
+Conflict, 18, 107, 126.
+
+Conscience, 10, 28, 68-9, 75, 79
+  Social, 88.
+
+Contagion, Emotional, 10-13, 27, 34-5, 46-7.
+
+Crowd, 1, 3, 26, 92.
+
+
+Danger, Effect on groups, 46-9.
+
+_Darwin_, 90.
+
+Delusions:
+  of inferiority, 107.
+  of observation, 69.
+
+Devotion to abstract idea, 17, 75.
+
+Doubt:
+  absence in groups, 15-16
+  interpretation in dreams, 15-16.
+
+Dread:
+  Children's, 83, 85-6.
+  in a group, 46-8, 50.
+  in an individual, 47-8.
+  Neurotic, 48.
+  of society, 10.
+  Panic, 45-9.
+
+Dream, 20, 69, 104.
+  Interpretation of doubt and uncertainty in, 15-16.
+  symbolism, 114.
+
+Duty, Sense of, 84, 88, 95.
+
+
+Ego, 10, 18-19, 62-70, 74, 84, 93, 100-9, 120, 125-7.
+  Relations between ego ideal and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
+  Relations between object and, 62-70, 74-6, 108-10.
+
+Ego ideal, 68-70, 74-7, 80, 100-3, 105-10, 113, 126-7.
+  Abrogation of the, 105.
+  Hypnotist in the place of, 77.
+  Object as substitute for, 74-6, 80, 103, 110.
+  Relations between ego and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
+  Testing reality of things, 77.
+  The first, 113.
+
+Egoism, 57.
+
+Emotion:
+  Ambivalent, 18, 55.
+  Charge of, 28.
+  Contagion of. _See_ Contagion.
+  Intensification of, in groups, 16, 23, 27-30, 33, 46, 81.
+  Primitive induction of, 27, 34, 46-7.
+  Tender, 72-3, 78, 116-17.
+
+Emotional tie, 40, 43, 45, 52-3, 59-60, 64-5, 81, 88, 91, 94, 100, 117-20.
+  Cessation of, 46-9.
+
+Empathy, relation to identification, 66, 70.
+
+Enthusiasm, in groups, 25.
+
+Envy, 87-8.
+
+Equality, demand for, 88, 89.
+
+Eros, 38-40.
+
+Esprit de corps, origin of, 87.
+
+Ethical:
+  conduct of a group, 18.
+  level of Christianity, 111.
+  standards of individual, 24-5.
+
+
+Fairy tales, the hero in, 114.
+
+Family, 70, 95, 100, 113, 120.
+  a group formation, 95.
+  and Christian community, 43.
+  and social instinct, 3.
+  Primal, 122.
+
+Fascination, 11, 13, 21, 75.
+
+Father, 43, 92, 98-9.
+  Equal love of, 95.
+  God, 115.
+  Identification with, 60-2.
+  Object tie with, 62.
+  Primal, 92, 94-5, 99-100, 112-13, 115, 120.
+    Deification of, 93, 115.
+    Killing the, 94, 112-13, 122.
+  Surrogate, 43, 114.
+
+_Federn, P._, 50.
+
+_Felszeghy, Bela v._, 48.
+
+_Ferenczi_, 76, 98.
+
+Festivals, 105.
+
+Folk-lore, 25.
+
+Folk-song, 25.
+
+French Revolution, 26.
+
+Function:
+  for testing reality, 20, 77.
+  (Instanz), 15.
+
+
+Gemeingeist, origin of, 87.
+
+Genital organisation, 19.
+
+God, 85, 96.
+  Father, 115.
+
+Gregariousness, 83-4, 92.
+
+Group:
+  Artificial, 41-2, 52, 82, 89, 94, 110, 122.
+  Different kinds of, 26, 41.
+  Disintegration of, 49-51.
+  Dread in, 47.
+  Equality in, 89.
+  feeling, 86-7, 121.
+  Heightened affectivity in. _See under_ Emotion.
+  ideal, 100, 102.
+  Intellectual capacity of, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.
+  Intensification of emotion in. _See under_ Emotion.
+  Leaders of. _See under_ Leader.
+  Libidinal structure of, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 51, 53-4, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
+  marriages, 120.
+  Mental change of the individual in, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
+  mind, 3, 5-27, 40, 49, 82.
+  Organisation in, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.
+  Primitive, 31, 33, 41, 80.
+  psychological character of, 6-32.
+  psychology, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92-4, 101, 112, 114.
+  Revolutionary, 26.
+  Sexual instincts and, 120.
+  spirit, 37.
+  Stable, 26, 41, 84, 101.
+  Suggestibility of, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.
+  Transient, 25, 41, 84, 101.
+
+Guilt, Sense of, 20, 63, 65, 84, 106.
+
+Gynaecocracy, 113.
+
+
+Hatred, 53, 56.
+
+_Hebbel_, 49.
+
+Herd, 83-5, 89.
+  instinct, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.
+
+Hero, 17, 113-15.
+
+Homosexuality, 57, 66-7, 94, 123.
+
+Horde Primal, 89-95, 99, 113-14, 120.
+  Father of the. _See under_ Father.
+
+Hypnosis, 10-13, 20-1, 77-9, 81, 95-100, 125-6.
+  a group of two, 78, 100.
+  and sleep, 79, 98.
+  of terror, 79.
+
+Hypnotist, 13, 77, 95-9.
+
+Hysteria, Identification in, 63-5.
+
+
+Idealisation, 74.
+  Identification, 59-70, 75-6, 84, 86-9, 94, 101-3, 111, 125.
+  Ambivalent, 61.
+  in hysterical symptom, 63-5.
+  Regression of object-choice to, 64.
+  with a lost or rejected object, 67-8, 108-9.
+  with Christ, 111.
+  with the father, 60-2.
+  with the hero, 115.
+  with the leader, 110-11.
+
+Imitation, 34-5, 65, 70.
+
+Individual:
+  a member of many groups, 101.
+  Dread in, 47-8.
+  Mental change in a group, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
+  Psychology, 1-2, 92-3, 112, 114.
+
+Induction of Emotion, 27, 34, 46-7.
+
+Infection, mental, 64-65.
+
+Inferiority, Delusions of, 57, 106-7.
+
+Inheritance, archaic, 10, 99.
+
+Inhibition:
+  Collective, of intellectual functioning, 23, 33.
+  Removal of, 17, 28, 33.
+
+Instinct:
+  Herd, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.
+  inhibited in aim, 72-3, 78, 115-26.
+  Life and death, 56.
+  Love, 37, 39, 58.
+  Nutrition, 85.
+  Primary, 84-5.
+  Self-preservative, 34, 85.
+  Sexual, 19, 39, 56, 71-8, 85-5, 94, 115-26.
+  Social, 3.
+  unhibited in aim, 73, 77-8, 94, 115-26.
+  Unconscious, 10.
+
+Intellectual ability, lowering of,
+  in groups, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.
+
+Introjection, of object into ego, 65, 67-8, 76.
+
+
+Jealousy, 121.
+
+
+Kings, Mana in, 96.
+
+_Kraškovič, B. Jnr._, 23.
+
+_Kroeger_, 90.
+
+
+Language, 25, 38, 71.
+
+Latency, period of, 72, 117, 120, 126.
+
+Leader, 20-2, 41, 44-5, 78, 82, 85, 89, 92, 99, 110.
+  Abstractions as substitutes for, 53.
+  Equal love of, 93, 95.
+  Identification with, 110-11.
+  Killing the, 90.
+  Loss of, 49.
+  Negative, 53.
+  Prestige of, 21-2.
+  the group ideal, 100, 102, 110.
+  Tie with, 49, 52, 66.
+
+_Le Bon_, 5-25, 29, 34, 82, 84, 100-1.
+
+Libidinal:
+  structure of the group, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 53, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
+  The word, 44.
+  ties, 44, 56-8, 65, 93, 100.
+  in the group, 45, 51, 54.
+
+Libido, 33-40, 44, 57, 79, 83, 102, 111, 116, 119, 123, 126.
+  Narcissistic, 58, 74, 93, 104, 125.
+  Oral phase of, 61.
+  theory, 57, 83, 125.
+  Unification of, 19.
+  Withdrawal of, 108.
+
+Love, 37-40, 42, 73, 87, 108, 122.
+  a factor of civilisation, 57, 93.
+  and character formation, 94, 118-20.
+  and hatred, 56.
+  Being in, 58, 71-9, 120-1, 124-6.
+  Child's, 116-17.
+  Christ's, 43.
+  Equal, 42, 50, 89, 93.
+  Pauline, 118.
+  Self-. _See under_ Narcissism.
+  Sensual, 71-3, 78, 117.
+  Sexual, 37-8, 57, 120-2.
+  Sublimated homosexual, 57.
+  The word, 37-9, 71.
+  Unhappy, 75.
+  Unsensual, 73.
+
+
+_McDougall_, 1, 26-31, 34-6, 46-7, 49, 84.
+
+Magical power of words, 19.
+
+Magnetic influence, 11.
+
+Magnetism, animal, 96.
+
+Mana, 96.
+
+Mania, 106-9.
+
+_Marcuszewicz_, 68.
+
+Marriage, 54, 120.
+
+Melancholia, 68, 106-9.
+
+Metapsychology, 63, 118.
+
+_Moede, Walter_, 24.
+
+_Molière_, 119.
+
+Morality, Totemism the origin of, 90.
+
+Mother deities, 113, 115.
+
+Multicellularity, 7, 32, 83.
+
+Myth, 113-15.
+
+
+_Nachmansohn_, 39.
+
+Names, Taboo upon, 19.
+
+_Napoleon_, 44.
+
+Narcissism, 2, 38, 54-8, 69, 74-5, 93, 94, 104.
+
+_Nestroy_, 49.
+
+Neurosis, 18, 20, 37, 44, 58, 63, 103-4, 123-26.
+
+_Nietzsche_, 93.
+
+Nutrition, Instinct of, 84.
+
+
+Object, 57-8, 62, 68, 74, 87, 93, 104, 125, 127.
+  cathexis, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
+  Change of, 18, 119, 121.
+  Child's, 72.
+  -choice, 54, 62, 64, 74, 111, 119, 121.
+  Eating the, 61-62.
+  Hyper-cathexis of, 76.
+  Identification with ego, 108.
+  Less or Renunciation of, 68, 108.
+  -love, 56, 63, 74, 111.
+  Relations with the ego, 65, 67-8, 70, 76.
+  Sexual, 67, 72-3, 116.
+  Substituted for ego ideal, 74, 80, 103, 125.
+
+Observation, delusions of, 69.
+
+Oedipus complex, 60-61, 63, 66, 117.
+  Inverted, 62.
+
+Oral phase of organisation of the libido, 61.
+
+Organisation in groups, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.
+
+Orgy, 121.
+
+
+Panic, 45-9.
+
+Pan-sexualism, 39.
+
+_Paul, Saint_, 39, 118.
+
+_Pfister_, 39, 119.
+
+_Plato_, 38.
+
+Poet, the first epic, 113-114.
+
+Power, 9, 15, 28.
+  of leaders, 21.
+  of words, 19.
+
+Prestige, 21-2, 34.
+
+Primitive peoples, 14, 18-19, 24, 92, 96, 105.
+
+Psycho-Analysis, 4, 7, 14, 18, 36, 38-9, 59-60, 84, 97.
+
+Psychology:
+  Group, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92, 94, 101.
+  Group and individual, 1-2, 92-93, 112, 114.
+
+Psychoses, 66, 103.
+
+Puberty, 67, 72-73.
+
+
+Races, repugnance between related, 55.
+
+_Rank, Otto_, 112, 114.
+
+Rapport, 97.
+
+Reality:
+  Function for testing, 20, 77.
+  Contrast between Objective and Psychological, 20.
+
+Regression, 82, 91, 117, 121, 126.
+
+Religion, 51, 90.
+  Wars of, 51.
+
+Repressed:
+  Sexual tendencies, 74, 117, 123-4.
+  The, 10, 104, 117-18, 126.
+
+Repression, 9, 54, 64-5, 69, 72, 84, 95, 105, 117, 120.
+
+Resistance, 84, 104.
+
+Responsibility, Sense of, 9-10, 29-30.
+
+_Richter, Konrad_, 36.
+
+
+_Sachs, Hanns_, 16, 115.
+
+_Schopenhauer_, 54.
+
+Self-:
+  consciousness, 30-1.
+  depreciation, 107.
+  love. _See under_ Narcissism.
+  observation, 69.
+  preservation, 15, 34, 84-5.
+  sacrifice, 11, 38, 75.
+
+Sex, 39.
+
+Sexual:
+  act, 92, 121.
+  aims, 58, 72.
+    Diversion of instinct from, 58.
+    Infantile, 72.
+    Obstacles to, 120.
+  life, 19, 72.
+  over-estimation, 53-5.
+  Tendencies, Inhibited and uninhibited. 72-3, 77-8, 94, 115-16, 125-26.
+  union, 37-8.
+
+_Shaw, Bernard_, 121.
+
+_Sidis, Boris_, 84
+
+_Sighele_, 24-5.
+
+_Simmel, E._, 44.
+
+Sleep, 98, 104.
+  and hypnosis, 98.
+
+_Smith, Robertson_, 70.
+
+Social:
+  duties, 88, 95.
+  relations, 2-3, 57.
+
+Socialistic tie, 51.
+
+Society, 24, 26, 28, 90.
+  Dread of, 10.
+
+Sociology. _See under_ Group Psychology.
+
+Speech, 84.
+
+Sublimated:
+  devotion, 17, 75.
+  homosexual love, 57.
+
+Sublimation, 118.
+
+Suggestibility, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.
+
+Suggestion, 12-13, 17, 29, 34-7, 40, 82, 95, 99, 102.
+  Counter-, 35.
+  Definition for, 100.
+  Mutual, 12, 27, 34, 82.
+
+Superman, 93.
+
+
+Taboo, 19, 96, 112.
+
+_Tarde_, 34.
+
+Totemism, 90, 112-13.
+
+Totemistic:
+  clan, 95.
+  community of brothers, 112.
+  exogamy, 122.
+
+Tradition, 17, 21.
+  of the group, 31.
+  of the individual, 32.
+
+Transference, 97-8.
+
+_Trotter_, 32, 83-5, 89, 105.
+
+
+Uncanniness, 95, 99.
+
+Uncertainty, absence in groups, 15-16.
+  interpretation in dreams, 15-16.
+
+Unconscious, 8, 10, 12, 14-16, 18, 23-4, 64, 67, 72, 97, 100, 104.
+  Groups led by, 14.
+  instincts, 10.
+  _Le Bon's_, 10, 14, 24.
+  of children, 18, 117.
+  of neurotics, 18.
+  Racial, 9.
+
+
+_Wallenstein_, 44.
+
+War neuroses, 44.
+
+War, The, 44.
+
+_Wilson, President_, 44.
+
+Wishes, Affective cathexis of, 20.
+
+Words, magical power of, 19.
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY. Edited by ERNEST JONES
+
+     No. 1. ADDRESSES ON PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. BY J.J. Putnam, M.D. Emeritus
+     Professor of Neurology, Harvard University. With a Preface by Sigm.
+     Freud, M.D., LL.D.
+
+     No. 2. PSYCHO-ANALYSIS AND THE WAR NEUROSES. By Drs. S. Ferenczi
+     (Budapest), Karl Abraham (Berlin), Ernst Simmel (Berlin) and Ernest
+     Jones (London). Introduction by Prof. Sigm. Freud (Vienna).
+
+     No. 3. THE PSYCHO-ANALYTIC STUDY OF THE FAMILY. By J. C. Flügel,
+     B.A.
+
+     No. 4. BEYOND THE PLEASURE PRINCIPLE. By Sigm. Freud M.D., LL.D.
+     Authorized Translation from the second German Edition by C. J. M.
+     Hubback.
+
+     No. 5. ESSAYS IN APPLIED PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. By Ernest Jones M.D.
+     President of the International Psycho-Analytical Association.
+
+     No. 6. GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO. By Sigm. Freud
+     M.D., LL.D. Authorized Translation by James Strachey.
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS Directed by Sigm. Freud
+
+Official Organ of the INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL ASSOCIATION
+
+Edited by Ernest Jones President of the Association
+
+With the Assistance of DOUGLAS BRYAN, J. C. FLÜGEL (London) A. A. BRILL,
+H. W. FRINK, C. P. OBERNDORF (New York)
+
+Issued Quarterly Subscription 30s. per Volume of Four Parts (c. 500 pp.)
+the parts not being sold separately.
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS
+
+Printed by K. Liebel in Vienna, II. Große Mohrengasse 23
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] ['Group' is used throughout this translation as equivalent to the
+rather more comprehensive German '_Masse_'. The author uses this latter
+word to render both McDougall's 'group', and also Le Bon's '_foule_',
+which would more naturally be translated 'crowd' in English. For the
+sake of uniformity, however, 'group' has been preferred in this case as
+well, and has been substituted for 'crowd' even in the extracts from the
+English translation of Le Bon.--_Translator._.]
+
+[2] _The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind._ Fisher Unwin 12th.
+Impression, 1920.
+
+[3] [See footnote page 1.]
+
+[4] [References are to the English translation.--_Translator._]
+
+[5] [The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author, reads
+'_bewusster_'; the English translation has 'unconscious'; and the
+original French text '_inconscients_'.--_Translator._]
+
+[6] [The English translation reads 'which we ourselves ignore'--a
+misunderstanding of the French word '_ignorées_'.--_Translator._]
+
+[7] There is some difference between Le Bon's view and ours owing to his
+concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding with the one adopted by
+psycho-analysis. Le Bon's unconscious more especially contains the most
+deeply buried features of the racial mind, which as a matter of fact
+lies outside the scope of psycho-analysis. We do not fail to recognize,
+indeed, that the ego's nucleus, which comprises the 'archaic
+inheritance' of the human mind, is unconscious; but in addition to this
+we distinguish the 'unconscious repressed', which arose from a portion
+of that inheritance. This concept of the repressed is not to be found in
+Le Bon.
+
+[8] Compare Schiller's couplet:
+
+  Jeder, sieht man ihn einzeln, ist leidlich klug und verständig;
+        Sind sie in corpore, gleich wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus.
+  [Everyone, seen by himself, is passably shrewd and discerning;
+        When they're _in corpore_, then straightway you'll find he's an ass.]
+
+
+[9] 'Unconscious' is used here correctly by Le Bon in the descriptive
+sense, where it does not only mean the 'repressed'.
+
+[10] Compare _Totem und Tabu_, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und Allmacht der
+Gedanken.' [_Totem and Taboo._ New York, Moffat, 1918. London, Kegan
+Paul, 1919.]
+
+[11] [See footnote p. 69.]
+
+[12] In the interpretation of dreams, to which, indeed, we owe our best
+knowledge of unconscious mental life, we follow a technical rule of
+disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative of the dream, and of
+treating every element of the manifest dream as being quite certain. We
+attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of the censorship to
+which the dream-work is subjected, and we assume that the primary
+dream-thoughts are not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty as critical
+processes. They may naturally be present, like everything else, as part
+of the content of the day's residue which leads to the dream. (See _Die
+Traumdeutung_, 6. Auflage, 1921, S. 386. [_The Interpretation of
+Dreams._ Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 1913, p. 409.])
+
+[13] The same extreme and unmeasured intensification of every emotion is
+also a feature of the affective life of children, and it is present as
+well in dream life. Thanks to the isolation of the single emotions in
+the unconscious, a slight annoyance during the day will express itself
+in a dream as a wish for the offending person's death, or a breath of
+temptation may give the impetus to the portrayal in the dream of a
+criminal action. Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark on this
+point: 'If we try to discover in consciousness all that the dream has
+made known to us of its bearing upon the present (upon reality), we need
+not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under the microscope of
+analysis now reappears as an infusorium.' (_Die Traumdeutung_, S. 457.
+[Translation p. 493.])
+
+[14] In young children, for instance, ambivalent emotional attitudes
+towards those who are nearest to them exist side by side for a long
+time, without either of them interfering with the expression of the
+other and contrary one. If eventually a conflict breaks out between the
+two, it often settled by the child making a change of object and
+displacing one of the ambivalent emotions on to a substitute. The
+history of the development of a neurosis in an adult will also show that
+a suppressed emotion may frequently persist for a long time in
+unconscious or even in conscious phantasies, the content of which
+naturally runs directly counter to some predominant tendency, and yet
+that this antagonism does not result in any proceedings on the part of
+the ego against what it has repudiated. The phantasy is tolerated for
+quite a long time, until suddenly one day, usually as a result of an
+increase in the affective cathexis [see footnote page 48] of the
+phantasy, a conflict breaks out between it and the ego with all the
+usual consequences. In the process of a child's development into a
+mature adult there is a more and more extensive integration of its
+personality, a co-ordination of the separate instinctive feelings and
+desires which have grown up in him independently of one another. The
+analogous process in the domain of sexual life has long been known to us
+as the co-ordination of all the sexual instincts into a definitive
+genital organisation. (_Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905.
+[_Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory._ Nervous and Mental Disease
+Monograph Series, No. 7, 1910.]) Moreover, that the unification of the
+ego is liable to the same interferences as that of the libido is shown
+by numerous familiar instances, such as that of men of science who have
+preserved their faith in the Bible, and the like.
+
+[15] See Totem and Tabu.
+
+[16] [See footnote p. 48.]
+
+[17] B. Kraškovič, jun.: _Die Psychologie der Kollektivitäten_.
+Translated [into German] from the Croatian by Siegmund von Posavec.
+Vukovar, 1915. See the body of the work as well as the bibliography.
+
+[18] See Walter Moede: 'Die Massen-und Sozialpsychologie im kritischen
+Überblick.' Meumann and Scheibner's _Zeitschrift für pädagogische
+Psychologie und experimentelle Pädagogik_. 1915, XVI.
+
+[19] Cambridge University Press, 1920.
+
+[20] _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin, 1916.
+
+[21] Brugeilles: 'L'essence du phénomèna social: la suggestion.' _Revue
+philosophique_, 1913, XXV.
+
+[22] Konrad Richter: 'Der deutsche S. Christoph.' Berlin, 1896, _Acta
+Germanica_, V, I.
+
+[23] [Literally:"Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the whole world;
+Say, where did Christopher then put his foot?']
+
+[24] Thus, McDougall: 'A Note on Suggestion.' _Journal of Neurology and
+Psychopathology_, 1920, Vol. I, No. I.
+
+[25] Nachmansohn: 'Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der Eroslehre
+Platos'. _Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_, 1915, Bd. III;
+Pfister: 'Plato als Vorläufer der Psychoanalyse', ibid., 1921, Bd. VII.
+['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'. _International Journal of
+Psycho-Analysis_, 1922, Vol. III.]
+
+[26] 'Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not
+love, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'
+
+[27] [An idiom meaning 'for their sake'. Literally: 'for love of
+them'.--_Translator._]
+
+[28] An objection will justly be raised against this conception of the
+libidinal [see next foot-note] structure of an army on the ground that
+no place has been found in it for such ideas as those of one's country,
+of national glory, etc., which are of such importance in holding an army
+together. The answer is that that is a different instance of a group
+tie, and no longer such a simple one; for the examples of great
+generals, like Caesar, Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show that such ideas
+are not indispensable to the existence of an army. We shall presently
+touch upon the possibility of a leading idea being substituted for a
+leader and upon the relations between the two. The neglect of this
+libidinal factor in an army, even when it is not the only factor
+operative, seems to be not merely a theoretical omission but also a
+practical danger. Prussian militarism, which was just as unpsychological
+as German science, may have had to suffer the consequences of this in
+the great war. We know that the war neuroses which ravaged the German
+army have been recognized as being a protest of the individual against
+the part he was expected to play in the army; and according to the
+communication of E. Simmel (_Kriegsneurosen and 'Psychisches Trauma'._
+Munich, 1918), the hard treatment of the men by their superiors may be
+considered as foremost among the motive forces of the disease. If the
+importance of the libido's claims on this score had been better
+appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American President's fourteen
+points would probably not have been believed so easily, and the splendid
+instrument would not have broken in the hands of the German leaders.
+
+[29] [Here and elsewhere the German 'libidinös' is used simply as an
+adjectival derivative from the technical term '_Libido_'; 'libidinal' is
+accordingly introduced in the translation in order to avoid the
+highly-coloured connotation of the English 'libidinous'.--_Translator._]
+
+[30] ['Cathexis', from the Greek 'κατἑχω', 'I occupy'. The German word
+'_Besetzung_' has become of fundamental importance in the exposition of
+psycho-analytical theory. Any attempt at a short definition or
+description is likely to be misleading, but speaking very loosely, we
+may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy of an electric charge,
+and that it means the concentration or accumulation of mental energy in
+some particular channel. Thus, when we speak of the existence in someone
+of a libidinal cathexis of an object, or, more shortly, of an
+object-cathexis, we mean that the libidinal energy is directed towards,
+or rather infused into, the idea (_Vorstellung_) of some object in the
+outer world. Readers who desire to obtain a more precise knowledge of
+the term are referred to the discussions in 'Zur Einführung des
+Narzissmus' and the essays on metapsychology in _Kleine Schriften zur
+Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge.--_Translator._]
+
+[31] See _Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse_. XXV, 3.
+Auflage, 1920. [_Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis._ Lecture XXV.
+George Allen and Unwin, 1922.]
+
+[32] Compare Bela v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat fantastic
+paper 'Panik und Pankomplex'. _Imago_, 1920, Bd. VI.
+
+[33] Compare the explanation of similar phenomena after the abolition of
+the paternal authority of the sovereign given in P. Federn's _Die
+vaterlose Gesellschaft_. Vienna, Anzengruber-Verlag, 1919.
+
+[34] 'A company of porcupines crowded themselves very close together one
+cold winter's day so as to profit by one another's warmth and so save
+themselves from being frozen to death. But soon they felt one another's
+quills, which induced them to separate again. And now, when the need for
+warmth brought them nearer together again, the second evil arose once
+more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards from one trouble
+to the other, until they had discovered a mean distance at which they
+could most tolerably exist.' (_Parerga und Paralipomena_, II. Teil,
+XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.)
+
+[35] Perhaps with the solitary exception of the relation of a mother to
+her son, which is based upon narcissism, is not disturbed by subsequent
+rivalry, and is reinforced by a rudimentary attempt at sexual
+object-choice.
+
+[36] In a recently published study, _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_ (1920)
+[_Beyond the Pleasure Principle_, International Psycho-Analytical
+Library, No. 4], I have attempted to connect the polarity of love and
+hatred with a hypothetical opposition between instincts of life and
+death, and to establish the sexual instincts as the purest examples of
+the former, the instincts of life.
+
+[37] See 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus', 1914. _Kleine Schriften zur
+Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[38] [Literally, 'leaning-up-against type'; from the Greek 'ἁνακλἱνω' 'I
+lean up against'. In the first phase of their development the sexual
+instincts have no independent means of finding satisfaction; they do so
+by propping themselves upon or 'leaning up against' the
+self-preservative instincts. The individual's first choice of a sexual
+object is said to be of the 'anaclitic type' when it follows this path;
+that is, when he choses as his first sexual object the same person who
+has satisfied his early non-sexual needs. For a full discussion of the
+anaclitic and narcissistic types of object-choice compare 'Zur
+Einführung des Narzissmus.--_Translator._]
+
+[39] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, and Abraham's
+'Untersuchungen über die früheste prägenitale Entwicklungsstufe der
+Libido', _Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_, 1916, Bd, IV;
+also included in his _Klinische Beiträge zur Psychoanalyse_
+(Internationale psychoanalytische Bibliothek. Nr. 10, 1921).
+
+[40] [_Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre._ Zweite Folge.]
+
+[41] Marcuszewicz: 'Beitrag zum autistischen Denken bei Kindern.'
+_Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI.
+
+[42] ['Trauer und Melancholie.' _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_,
+Vierte Folge, 1918.]
+
+[43] ['_Instanz_'--like 'instance' in the phrase 'court of first
+instance'--was originally a legal term. It is now used in the sense of
+one of a hierarchy of authorities or functions.--_Translator._]
+
+[44] 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus', 'Trauer und Melancholie.'
+
+[45] 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus.'
+
+[46] We are very well aware that we have not exhausted the nature of
+identification with these samples taken from pathology, and that we have
+consequently left part of the riddle of group formations untouched. A
+far more fundamental and comprehensive psychological analysis would have
+to intervene at this point. A path leads from identification by way of
+imitation to empathy, that is, to the comprehension of the mechanism by
+means of which we are enabled to take up any attitude at all towards
+another mental life. Moreover there is still much to be explained in the
+manifestations of existing identifications. These result among other
+things in a person limiting his aggressiveness towards those with whom
+he has identified himself, and in his sparing them and giving them help.
+The study of such identifications, like those, for instance, which lie
+at the root of clan feeling, led Robertson Smith to the surprising
+result that they rest upon the recognition of a common substance
+(_Kinship and Marriage_, 1885), and may even therefore be brought about
+by a meal eaten in common. This feature makes it possible to connect
+this kind of identification with the early history of the human family
+which I constructed in _Totem und Tabu_.
+
+[47] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, l.c.
+
+[48] 'Über die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.' _Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[49] Cf. 'Metapsychologische Ergänzung zur Traumlehre.' _Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[50] W. Trotter: _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin,
+1916.
+
+[51] See my essay _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_.
+
+[52] See the remarks upon Dread in _Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die
+Psychoanalyse_. XXV.
+
+[53] _Totem und Tabu._
+
+[54] What we have just described in our general characterisation of
+mankind must apply especially to the primal horde. The will of the
+individual was too weak; he did not venture upon action. No impulses
+whatever came into play except collective ones; there was only a common
+will, there were no single ones. An idea did not dare to turn itself
+into a volition unless it felt itself reinforced by a perception of its
+general diffusion. This weakness of the idea is to be explained by the
+strength of the emotional tie which is shared by all the members of the
+horde; but the similarity in the circumstances of their life and the
+absence of any private property assist in determining the uniformity of
+their individual mental acts. As we may observe with children and
+soldiers, common activity is not excluded even in the excremental
+functions. The one great exception is provided by the sexual act, in
+which a third person is at the best superfluous and in the extreme case
+is condemned to a state of painful expectancy. As to the reaction of the
+sexual need (for genital gratification) towards gregariousness, see
+below.
+
+[55] It may perhaps also be assumed that the sons, when they were driven
+out and separated from their father, advanced from identification with
+one another to homosexual object love, and in this way won freedom to
+kill their father.
+
+[56] 'Das Unheimliche.' _Imago_, 1919, Bd. V.
+
+[57] See _Totem und Tabu_ and the sources there quoted.
+
+[58] This situation, in which the subject's attitude is unconsciously
+directed towards the hypnotist, while he is consciously occupied with
+the monotonous and uninteresting perceptions, finds a parallel among the
+events of psycho-analytic treatment, which deserves to be mentioned
+here. At least once in the course of every analysis a moment comes when
+the patient obstinately maintains that just now positively nothing
+whatever occurs to his mind. His free associations come to a stop and
+the usual incentives for putting them in motion fail in their effect. As
+a result of pressure the patient is at last induced to admit that he is
+thinking of the view from the consulting-room window, of the wall-paper
+that he sees before him, or of the gas-lamp hanging from the ceiling.
+Then one knows at once that he has gone off into the transference and
+that he is engaged upon what are still unconscious thoughts relating to
+the physician; and one sees the stoppage in the patient's associations
+disappear, as soon as he has been given this explanation.
+
+[59] Ferenczi: 'Introjektion und Übertragung.' _Jahrbuch der
+Psychoanalyse_, 1909, Bd. I [_Contributions to Psycho-Analysis._ Boston,
+Badger, 1916, Chapter II.]
+
+[60] It seems to me worth emphasizing the fact that the discussions in
+this section have induced us to give up Bernheim's conception of
+hypnosis and go back to the _naïf_ earlier one. According to Bernheim
+all hypnotic phenomena are to be traced to the factor of suggestion,
+which is not itself capable of further explanation. We have come to the
+conclusion that suggestion is a partial manifestation of the state of
+hypnosis, and that hypnosis is solidly founded upon a predisposition
+which has survived in the unconscious from the early history of the
+human family.
+
+[61] 'Trauer und Melancholie.'
+
+[62] _Totem und Tabu._
+
+[63] Trotter traces repression back to the herd instinct. It is a
+translation of this into another form of expression rather than a
+contradiction when I say in my 'Einführung des Narzissmus' that on the
+part of the ego the construction of an ideal is the condition of
+repression.
+
+[64] Cf. Abraham: 'Ansätze zur psychoanalytischen Erforschung und
+Behandlung des manisch-depressiven Irreseins', 1912, in _Klinische
+Beiträge zur Psychoanalyse_, 1921.
+
+[65] To speak more accurately, they conceal themselves behind the
+reproaches directed towards the person's own ego, and lend them the
+fixity, tenacity, and imperativeness which characterize the
+self-reproaches of a melancholiac.
+
+[66] [Literally: 'How he clears his throat and how he spits, that you
+have cleverly copied from him.']
+
+[67] What follows at this point was written under the influence of an
+exchange of ideas with Otto Rank.
+
+[68] Cf. Hanns Sachs: 'Gemeinsame Tagträume', a summary made by the
+lecturer himself of a paper read at the Sixth Psycho-analytical
+Congress, held at the Hague in 1920. _Internationale Zeitschrift für
+Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI. ['Day-Dreams in Common'. _International
+Journal of Psycho-Analysis_, 1920, Vol. I.]
+
+[69] In this brief exposition I have made no attempt to bring forward
+any of the material existing in legends, myths, fairy tales, the history
+of manners, etc., in support of the construction.
+
+[70] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_.
+
+[71] Hostile feelings, which are a little more complicated in their
+construction, offer no exception to this rule.
+
+[72] [_Schriften zur angewandten Seelenkunde._ Heft 8. Vienna, Deuticke,
+1910.]
+
+[73] See 'Über die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.'
+
+[74] See _Totem und Tabu_, towards the end of Part II, 'Das Tabu und die
+Ambivalenz'.
+
+[75] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 4. Auflage, 1920, S. 96.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego, by 
+Sigmund Freud
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego
+
+Author: Sigmund Freud
+
+Translator: James Strachey
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2011 [EBook #35877]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROUP PSYCHOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, University of Michigan and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY
+No. 6
+
+
+
+
+GROUP PSYCHOLOGY
+AND
+THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
+
+BY
+SIGM. FREUD, M. D., LL. D.
+
+AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION
+BY
+JAMES STRACHEY
+
+[Illustration: colophon]
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS
+LONDON MCMXXII VIENNA
+
+Copyright 1922
+
+
+
+
+TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
+
+
+A comparison of the following pages with the German original
+(_Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse_, Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
+Verlag, Vienna, 1921) will show that certain passages have been
+transferred in the English version from the text to the footnotes. This
+alteration has been carried out at the author's express desire.
+
+All technical terms have been translated in accordance with the Glossary
+to be published as a supplement to the _International Journal of
+Psycho-Analysis_.
+
+J. S.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                       Page
+
+   I Introduction                                         1
+
+  II Le Bon's Description of the Group Mind               5
+
+ III Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life            23
+
+  IV Suggestion and Libido                               33
+
+   V Two Artificial Groups: the Church and the Army      41
+
+  VI Further Problems and Lines of Work                  52
+
+ VII Identification                                      60
+
+VIII Being in Love and Hypnosis                          71
+
+  IX The Herd Instinct                                   81
+
+   X The Group and the Primal Horde                      90
+
+  XI A Differentiating Grade in the Ego                 101
+
+ XII Postscript                                         110
+
+
+
+
+GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The contrast between Individual Psychology and Social or Group[1]
+Psychology, which at a first glance may seem to be full of significance,
+loses a great deal of its sharpness when it is examined more closely. It
+is true that Individual Psychology is concerned with the individual man
+and explores the paths by which he seeks to find satisfaction for his
+instincts; but only rarely and under certain exceptional conditions is
+Individual Psychology in a position to disregard the relations of this
+individual to others. In the individual's mental life someone else is
+invariably involved, as a model, as an object, as a helper, as an
+opponent, and so from the very first Individual Psychology is at the
+same time Social Psychology as well--in this extended but entirely
+justifiable sense of the words.
+
+The relations of an individual to his parents and to his brothers and
+sisters, to the object of his love, and to his physician--in fact all
+the relations which have hitherto been the chief subject of
+psycho-analytic research--may claim to be considered as social
+phenomena; and in this respect they may be contrasted with certain other
+processes, described by us as 'narcissistic', in which the satisfaction
+of the instincts is partially or totally withdrawn from the influence of
+other people. The contrast between social and narcissistic--Bleuler
+would perhaps call them 'autistic'--mental acts therefore falls wholly
+within the domain of Individual Psychology, and is not well calculated
+to differentiate it from a Social or Group Psychology.
+
+The individual in the relations which have already been mentioned--to
+his parents and to his brothers and sisters, to the person he is in love
+with, to his friend, and to his physician--comes under the influence of
+only a single person, or of a very small number of persons, each one of
+whom has become enormously important to him. Now in speaking of Social
+or Group Psychology it has become usual to leave these relations on one
+side and to isolate as the subject of inquiry the influencing of an
+individual by a large number of people simultaneously, people with whom
+he is connected by something, though otherwise they may in many respects
+be strangers to him. Group Psychology is therefore concerned with the
+individual man as a member of a race, of a nation, of a caste, of a
+profession, of an institution, or as a component part of a crowd of
+people who have been organised into a group at some particular time for
+some definite purpose. When once natural continuity has been severed in
+this way, it is easy to regard the phenomena that appear under these
+special conditions as being expressions of a special instinct that is
+not further reducible, the social instinct ('herd instinct', 'group
+mind'), which does not come to light in any other situations. But we may
+perhaps venture to object that it seems difficult to attribute to the
+factor of number a significance so great as to make it capable by itself
+or arousing in our mental life a new instinct that is otherwise not
+brought into play. Our expectation is therefore directed towards two
+other possibilities: that the social instinct may not be a primitive one
+and insusceptible of dissection, and that it may be possible to discover
+the beginnings of its development in a narrower circle, such as that of
+the family.
+
+Although Group Psychology is only in its infancy, it embraces an immense
+number of separate issues and offers to investigators countless
+problems which have hitherto not even been properly distinguished from
+one another. The mere classification of the different forms of group
+formation and the description of the mental phenomena produced by them
+require a great expenditure of observation and exposition, and have
+already given rise to a copious literature. Anyone who compares the
+narrow dimensions of this little book with the extent of Group
+Psychology will at once be able to guess that only a few points chosen
+from the whole material are to be dealt with here. And they will in fact
+only be a few questions with which the depth-psychology of
+psycho-analysis is specially concerned.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+LE BON'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUP MIND
+
+
+Instead of starting from a definition, it seems more useful to begin
+with some indication of the range of the phenomena under review, and to
+select from among them a few specially striking and characteristic facts
+to which our inquiry can be attached. We can achieve both of these aims
+by means of quotation from Le Bon's deservedly famous work _Psychologie
+des foules_.[2]
+
+Let us make the matter clear once again. If a Psychology, concerned with
+exploring the predispositions, the instincts, the motives and the aims
+of an individual man down to his actions and his relations with those
+who are nearest to him, had completely achieved its task, and had
+cleared up the whole of these matters with their inter-connections, it
+would then suddenly find itself confronted by a new task which would lie
+before it unachieved. It would be obliged to explain the surprising
+fact that under a certain condition this individual whom it had come to
+understand thought, felt, and acted in quite a different way from what
+would have been expected. And this condition is his insertion into a
+collection of people which has acquired the characteristic of a
+'psychological group'. What, then, is a 'group'? How does it acquire the
+capacity for exercising such a decisive influence over the mental life
+of the individual? And what is the nature of the mental change which it
+forces upon the individual?
+
+It is the task of a theoretical Group Psychology to answer these three
+questions. The best way of approaching them is evidently to start with
+the third. Observation of the changes in the individual's reactions is
+what provides Group Psychology with its material; for every attempt at
+an explanation must be preceded by a description of the thing that is to
+be explained.
+
+I will now let Le Bon speak for himself. He says: 'The most striking
+peculiarity presented by a psychological group[3] is the following.
+Whoever be the individuals that compose it, however like or unlike be
+their mode of life, their occupations, their character, or their
+intelligence, the fact that they have been transformed into a group puts
+them in possession of a sort of collective mind which makes them feel,
+think, and act in a manner quite different from that in which each
+individual of them would feel, think, and act were he in a state of
+isolation. There are certain ideas and feelings which do not come into
+being, or do not transform themselves into acts except in the case of
+individuals forming a group. The psychological group is a provisional
+being formed of heterogeneous elements, which for a moment are combined,
+exactly as the cells which constitute a living body form by their
+reunion a new being which displays characteristics very different from
+those possessed by each of the cells singly.' (p. 29.)[4]
+
+We shall take the liberty of interrupting Le Bon's exposition with
+glosses of our own, and shall accordingly insert an observation at this
+point. If the individuals in the group are combined into a unity, there
+must surely be something to unite them, and this bond might be precisely
+the thing that is characteristic of a group. But Le Bon does not answer
+this question; he goes on to consider the alteration which the
+individual undergoes when in a group and describes it in terms which
+harmonize well with the fundamental postulates of our own
+depth-psychology.
+
+'It is easy to prove how much the individual forming part of a group
+differs from the isolated individual, but it is less easy to discover
+the causes of this difference.
+
+'To obtain at any rate a glimpse of them it is necessary in the first
+place to call to mind the truth established by modern psychology, that
+unconscious phenomena play an altogether preponderating part not only in
+organic life, but also in the operations of the intelligence. The
+conscious life of the mind is of small importance in comparison with its
+unconscious life. The most subtle analyst, the most acute observer, is
+scarcely successful in discovering more than a very small number of the
+conscious[5] motives that determine his conduct. Our conscious acts are
+the outcome of an unconscious substratum created in the mind in the main
+by hereditary influences. This substratum consists of the innumerable
+common characteristics handed down from generation to generation, which
+constitute the genius of a race. Behind the avowed causes of our acts
+there undoubtedly lie secret causes that we do not avow, but behind
+these secret causes there are many others more secret still, of which we
+ourselves are ignorant.[6] The greater part of our daily actions are the
+result of hidden motives which escape our observation.' (p. 30.)
+
+Le Bon thinks that the particular acquirements of individuals become
+obliterated in a group, and that in this way their distinctiveness
+vanishes. The racial unconscious emerges; what is heterogeneous is
+submerged in what is homogeneous. We may say that the mental
+superstructure, the development of which in individuals shows such
+dissimilarities, is removed, and that the unconscious foundations, which
+are similar in everyone, stand exposed to view.
+
+In this way individuals in a group would come to show an average
+character. But Le Bon believes that they also display new
+characteristics which they have not previously possessed, and he seeks
+the reason for this in three different factors.
+
+'The first is that the individual forming part of a group acquires,
+solely from numerical considerations, a sentiment of invincible power
+which allows him to yield to instincts which, had he been alone, he
+would perforce have kept under restraint. He will be the less disposed
+to check himself from the consideration that, a group being anonymous,
+and in consequence irresponsible, the sentiment of responsibility which
+always controls individuals disappears entirely.' (p. 33.)
+
+From our point of view we need not attribute so much importance to the
+appearance of new characteristics. For us it would be enough to say that
+in a group the individual is brought under conditions which allow him to
+throw off the repressions of his unconscious instincts. The apparently
+new characteristics which he then displays are in fact the
+manifestations of this unconscious, in which all that is evil in the
+human mind is contained as a predisposition. We can find no difficulty
+in understanding the disappearance of conscience or of a sense of
+responsibility in these circumstances. It has long been our contention
+that 'dread of society [_soziale Angst_]' is the essence of what is
+called conscience.[7]
+
+'The second cause, which is contagion, also intervenes to determine the
+manifestation in groups of their special characteristics, and at the
+same time the trend they are to take. Contagion is a phenomenon of which
+it is easy to establish the presence, but that it is not easy to
+explain. It must be classed among those phenomena of a hypnotic order,
+which we shall shortly study. In a group every sentiment and act is
+contagious, and contagious to such a degree that an individual readily
+sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an
+aptitude very contrary to his nature, and of which a man is scarcely
+capable, except when he makes part of a group.' (p. 33.)
+
+We shall later on base an important conjecture upon this last statement.
+
+'A third cause, and by far the most important, determines in the
+individuals of a group special characteristics which are quite contrary
+at times to those presented by the isolated individual. I allude to that
+suggestibility of which, moreover, the contagion mentioned above is only
+an effect.
+
+'To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to bear in mind certain
+recent physiological discoveries. We know to-day that by various
+processes an individual may be brought into such a condition that,
+having entirely lost his conscious personality, he obeys all the
+suggestions of the operator who has deprived him of it, and commits acts
+in utter contradiction with his character and habits. The most careful
+investigations seem to prove that an individual immersed for some length
+of time in a group in action soon finds himself--either in consequence
+of the magnetic influence given out by the group, or from some other
+cause of which we are ignorant--in a special state, which much resembles
+the state of fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds
+himself in the hands of the hypnotiser.... The conscious personality has
+entirely vanished; will and discernment are lost. All feelings and
+thoughts are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser.
+
+'Such also is approximately the state of the individual forming part of
+a psychological group. He is no longer conscious of his acts. In his
+case, as in the case of the hypnotised subject, at the same time that
+certain faculties are destroyed, others may be brought to a high degree
+of exaltation. Under the influence of a suggestion, he will undertake
+the accomplishment of certain acts with irresistible impetuosity. This
+impetuosity is the more irresistible in the case of groups than in that
+of the hypnotised subject, from the fact that, the suggestion being the
+same for all the individuals of the group, it gains in strength by
+reciprocity.' (p. 34.)
+
+'We see, then, that the disappearance of the conscious personality, the
+predominance of the unconscious personality, the turning by means of
+suggestion and contagion of feelings and ideas in an identical
+direction, the tendency to immediately transform the suggested ideas
+into acts; these, we see, are the principal characteristics of the
+individual forming part of a group. He is no longer himself, but has
+become an automaton who has ceased to be guided by his will.' (p. 35.)
+
+I have quoted this passage so fully in order to make it quite clear that
+Le Bon explains the condition of an individual in a group as being
+actually hypnotic, and does not merely make a comparison between the two
+states. We have no intention of raising any objection at this point, but
+wish only to emphasize the fact that the two last causes of an
+individual becoming altered in a group (the contagion and the heightened
+suggestibility) are evidently not on a par, since the contagion seems
+actually to be a manifestation of the suggestibility. Moreover the
+effects of the two factors do not seem to be sharply differentiated in
+the text of Le Bon's remarks. We may perhaps best interpret his
+statement if we connect the contagion with the effects of the individual
+members of the group upon one another, while we point to another source
+for those manifestations of suggestion in the group which are put on a
+level with the phenomena of hypnotic influence. But to what source? We
+cannot avoid being struck with a sense of deficiency when we notice that
+one of the chief elements of the comparison, namely the person who is to
+replace the hypnotist in the case of the group, is not mentioned in Le
+Bon's exposition. But he nevertheless distinguishes between this
+influence of fascination which remains plunged in obscurity and the
+contagious effect which the individuals exercise upon one another and by
+which the original suggestion is strengthened.
+
+Here is yet another important consideration for helping us to understand
+the individual in a group: 'Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms
+part of an organised group, a man descends several rungs in the ladder
+of civilisation. Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a
+crowd, he is a barbarian--that is, a creature acting by instinct. He
+possesses the spontaneity, the violence, the ferocity, and also the
+enthusiasm and heroism of primitive beings.' (p. 36.) He then dwells
+especially upon the lowering in intellectual ability which an individual
+experiences when he becomes merged in a group.[8]
+
+Let us now leave the individual, and turn to the group mind, as it has
+been outlined by Le Bon. It shows not a single feature which a
+psycho-analyst would find any difficulty in placing or in deriving from
+its source. Le Bon himself shows us the way by pointing to its
+similarity with the mental life of primitive people and of children (p.
+40).
+
+A group is impulsive, changeable and irritable. It is led almost
+exclusively by the unconscious.[9] The impulses which a group obeys may
+according to circumstances be generous or cruel, heroic or cowardly, but
+they are always so imperious that no personal interest, not even that of
+self-preservation, can make itself felt (p. 41). Nothing about it is
+premeditated. Though it may desire things passionately, yet this is
+never so for long, for it is incapable of perseverance. It cannot
+tolerate any delay between its desire and the fulfilment of what it
+desires. It has a sense of omnipotence; the notion of impossibility
+disappears for the individual in a group.[10]
+
+A group is extraordinarily credulous and open to influence, it has no
+critical faculty, and the improbable does not exist for it. It thinks in
+images, which call one another up by association (just as they arise
+with individuals in states of free imagination), and whose agreement
+with reality is never checked by any reasonable function
+[_Instanz_].[11] The feelings of a group are always very simple and very
+exaggerated. So that a group knows neither doubt nor uncertainty.[12]
+
+It goes directly to extremes; if a suspicion is expressed, it is
+instantly changed into an incontrovertible certainty; a trace of
+antipathy is turned into furious hatred (p. 56).[13]
+
+Inclined as it itself is to all extremes, a group can only be excited by
+an excessive stimulus. Anyone who wishes to produce an effect upon it
+needs no logical adjustment in his arguments; he must paint in the most
+forcible colours, he must exaggerate, and he must repeat the same thing
+again and again.
+
+Since a group is in no doubt as to what constitutes truth or error, and
+is conscious, moreover, of its own great strength, it is as intolerant
+as it is obedient to authority. It respects force and can only be
+slightly influenced by kindness, which it regards merely as a form of
+weakness. What it demands of its heroes is strength, or even violence.
+It wants to be ruled and oppressed and to fear its masters.
+Fundamentally it is entirely conservative, and it has a deep aversion
+from all innovations and advances and an unbounded respect for tradition
+(p. 62).
+
+In order to make a correct judgement upon the morals of groups, one must
+take into consideration the fact that when individuals come together in
+a group all their individual inhibitions fall away and all the cruel,
+brutal and destructive instincts, which lie dormant in individuals as
+relics of a primitive epoch, are stirred up to find free gratification.
+But under the influence of suggestion groups are also capable of high
+achievements in the shape of abnegation, unselfishness, and devotion to
+an ideal. While with isolated individuals personal interest is almost
+the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely prominent. It is
+possible to speak of an individual having his moral standards raised by
+a group (p. 65). Whereas the intellectual capacity of a group is always
+far below that of an individual, its ethical conduct may rise as high
+above his as it may sink deep below it.
+
+Some other features in Le Bon's description show in a clear light how
+well justified is the identification of the group mind with the mind of
+primitive people. In groups the most contradictory ideas can exist side
+by side and tolerate each other, without any conflict arising from the
+logical contradiction between them. But this is also the case in the
+unconscious mental life of individuals, of children and of neurotics, as
+psycho-analysis has long pointed out.[14]
+
+A group, further, is subject to the truly magical power of words; they
+can evoke the most formidable tempests in the group mind, and are also
+capable of stilling them (p. 117). 'Reason and arguments are incapable
+of combating certain words and formulas. They are uttered with solemnity
+in the presence of groups, and as soon as they have been pronounced an
+expression of respect is visible on every countenance, and all heads are
+bowed. By many they are considered as natural forces, as supernatural
+powers.' (p. 117.) It is only necessary in this connection to remember
+the taboo upon names among primitive people and the magical powers which
+they ascribe to names and words.[15]
+
+And, finally, groups have never thirsted after truth. They demand
+illusions, and cannot do without them. They constantly give what is
+unreal precedence over what is real; they are almost as strongly
+influenced by what is untrue as by what is true. They have an evident
+tendency not to distinguish between the two (p. 77).
+
+We have pointed out that this predominance of the life of phantasy and
+of the illusion born of an unfulfilled wish is the ruling factor in the
+psychology of neuroses. We have found that what neurotics are guided by
+is not ordinary objective reality but psychological reality. A
+hysterical symptom is based upon phantasy instead of upon the repetition
+of real experience, and the sense of guilt in an obsessional neurosis is
+based upon the fact of an evil intention which was never carried out.
+Indeed, just as in dreams and in hypnosis, in the mental operations of a
+group the function for testing the reality of things falls into the
+background in comparison with the strength of wishes with their
+affective cathexis.[16]
+
+What Le Bon says on the subject of leaders of groups is less exhaustive,
+and does not enable us to make out an underlying principle so clearly.
+He thinks that as soon as living beings are gathered together in certain
+numbers, no matter whether they are a herd of animals or a collection of
+human beings, they place themselves instinctively under the authority
+of a chief (p. 134). A group is an obedient herd, which could never live
+without a master. It has such a thirst for obedience that it submits
+instinctively to anyone who appoints himself its master.
+
+Although in this way the needs of a group carry it half-way to meet the
+leader, yet he too must fit in with it in his personal qualities. He
+must himself be held in fascination by a strong faith (in an idea) in
+order to awaken the group's faith; he must possess a strong and imposing
+will, which the group, which has no will of its own, can accept from
+him. Le Bon then discusses the different kinds of leaders, and the means
+by which they work upon the group. On the whole he believes that the
+leaders make themselves felt by means of the ideas in which they
+themselves are fanatical believers.
+
+Moreover, he ascribes both to the ideas and to the leaders a mysterious
+and irresistible power, which he calls 'prestige'. Prestige is a sort of
+domination exercised over us by an individual, a work or an idea. It
+entirely paralyses our critical faculty, and fills us with astonishment
+and respect. It would seem to arouse a feeling like that of fascination
+in hypnosis (p. 148). He distinguishes between acquired or artificial
+and personal prestige. The former is attached to persons in virtue of
+their name, fortune and reputation, and to opinions, works of art, etc.,
+in virtue of tradition. Since in every case it harks back to the past,
+it cannot be of much help to us in understanding this puzzling
+influence. Personal prestige is attached to a few people, who become
+leaders by means of it, and it has the effect of making everything obey
+them as though by the operation of some magnetic magic. All prestige,
+however, is also dependent upon success, and is lost in the event of
+failure (p. 159).
+
+We cannot feel that Le Bon has brought the function of the leader and
+the importance of prestige completely into harmony with his brilliantly
+executed picture of the group mind.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+OTHER ACCOUNTS OF COLLECTIVE MENTAL LIFE
+
+
+We have made use of Le Bon's description by way of introduction, because
+it fits in so well with our own Psychology in the emphasis which it lays
+upon unconscious mental life. But we must now add that as a matter of
+fact none of that author's statements bring forward anything new.
+Everything that he says to the detriment and depreciation of the
+manifestations of the group mind had already been said by others before
+him with equal distinctness and equal hostility, and has been repeated
+in unison by thinkers, statesmen and writers since the earliest periods
+of literature.[17] The two theses which comprise the most important of
+Le Bon's opinions, those touching upon the collective inhibition of
+intellectual functioning and the heightening of affectivity in groups,
+had been formulated shortly before by Sighele.[18] At bottom, all that
+is left over as being peculiar to Le Bon are the two notions of the
+unconscious and of the comparison with the mental life of primitive
+people, and even these had naturally often been alluded to before him.
+
+But, what is more, the description and estimate of the group mind as
+they have been given by Le Bon and the rest have not by any means been
+left undisputed. There is no doubt that all the phenomena of the group
+mind which have just been mentioned have been correctly observed, but it
+is also possible to distinguish other manifestations of the group
+formation, which operate in a precisely opposite sense, and from which a
+much higher opinion of the group mind must necessarily follow.
+
+Le Bon himself was prepared to admit that in certain circumstances the
+morals of a group can be higher than those of the individuals that
+compose it, and that only collectivities are capable of a high degree of
+unselfishness and devotion. 'While with isolated individuals personal
+interest is almost the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely
+prominent.' (p. 65.) Other writers adduce the fact that it is only
+society which prescribes any ethical standards at all for the
+individual, while he as a rule fails in one way or another to come up to
+its high demands. Or they point out that in exceptional circumstances
+there may arise in communities the phenomenon of enthusiasm, which has
+made the most splendid group achievements possible.
+
+As regards intellectual work it remains a fact, indeed, that great
+decisions in the realm of thought and momentous discoveries and
+solutions of problems are only possible to an individual, working in
+solitude. But even the group mind is capable of genius in intellectual
+creation, as is shown above all by language itself, as well as by
+folk-song, folk-lore and the like. It remains an open question,
+moreover, how much the individual thinker or writer owes to the
+stimulation of the group in which he lives, or whether he does more than
+perfect a mental work in which the others have had a simultaneous share.
+
+In face of these completely contradictory accounts, it looks as though
+the work of Group Psychology were bound to come to an ineffectual end.
+But it is easy to find a more hopeful escape from the dilemma. A number
+of very different formations have probably been merged under the term
+'group' and may require to be distinguished. The assertions of Sighele,
+Le Bon and the rest relate to groups of a short-lived character, which
+some passing interest has hastily agglomerated out of various sorts of
+individuals. The characteristics of revolutionary groups, and
+especially those of the great French Revolution, have unmistakably
+influenced their descriptions. The opposite opinions owe their origin to
+the consideration of those stable groups or associations in which
+mankind pass their lives, and which are embodied in the institutions of
+society. Groups of the first kind stand in the same sort of relation to
+those of the second as a high but choppy sea to a ground swell.
+
+McDougall, in his book on _The Group Mind_,[19] starts out from the same
+contradiction that has just been mentioned, and finds a solution for it
+in the factor of organisation. In the simplest case, he says, the
+'group' possesses no organisation at all or one scarcely deserving the
+name. He describes a group of this kind as a 'crowd'. But he admits that
+a crowd of human beings can hardly come together without possessing at
+all events the rudiments of an organisation, and that precisely in these
+simple groups many of the fundamental facts of Collective Psychology can
+be observed with special ease (p. 22). Before the members of a random
+crowd of people can constitute something in the nature of a group in the
+psychological sense of the word, a condition has to be fulfilled; these
+individuals must have something in common with one another, a common
+interest in an object, a similar emotional bias in some situation or
+other, and ('consequently', I should like to interpolate) 'some degree
+of reciprocal influence' (p. 23). The higher the degree of 'this mental
+homogeneity', the more readily do the individuals form a psychological
+group, and the more striking are the manifestations of a group mind.
+
+The most remarkable and also the most important result of the formation
+of a group is the 'exaltation or intensification of emotion' produced in
+every member of it (p. 24). In McDougall's opinion men's emotions are
+stirred in a group to a pitch that they seldom or never attain under
+other conditions; and it is a pleasurable experience for those who are
+concerned to surrender themselves so unreservedly to their passions and
+thus to become merged in the group and to lose the sense of the limits
+of their individuality. The manner in which individuals are thus carried
+away by a common impulse is explained by McDougall by means of what he
+calls the 'principle of direct induction of emotion by way of the
+primitive sympathetic response' (p. 25), that is, by means of the
+emotional contagion with which we are already familiar. The fact is that
+the perception of the signs of an emotional state is calculated
+automatically to arouse the same emotion in the person who perceives
+them. The greater the number of people in whom the same emotion can be
+simultaneously observed, the stronger does this automatic compulsion
+grow. The individual loses his power of criticism, and lets himself slip
+into the same emotion. But in so doing he increases the excitement of
+the other people, who had produced this effect upon him, and thus the
+emotional charge of the individuals becomes intensified by mutual
+interaction. Something is unmistakably at work in the nature of a
+compulsion to do the same as the others, to remain in harmony with the
+many. The coarser and simpler emotions are the more apt to spread
+through a group in this way (p. 39).
+
+This mechanism for the intensification of emotion is favoured by some
+other influences which emanate from groups. A group impresses the
+individual with a sense of unlimited power and of insurmountable peril.
+For the moment it replaces the whole of human society, which is the
+wielder of authority, whose punishments the individual fears, and for
+whose sake he has submitted to so many inhibitions. It is clearly
+perilous for him to put himself in opposition to it, and it will be
+safer to follow the example of those around him and perhaps even 'hunt
+with the pack'. In obedience to the new authority he may put his former
+'conscience' out of action, and so surrender to the attraction of the
+increased pleasure that is certainly obtained from the removal of
+inhibitions. On the whole, therefore, it is not so remarkable that we
+should see an individual in a group doing or approving things which he
+would have avoided in the normal conditions of life; and in this way we
+may even hope to clear up a little of the mystery which is so often
+covered by the enigmatic word 'suggestion'.
+
+McDougall does not dispute the thesis as to the collective inhibition of
+intelligence in groups (p. 41). He says that the minds of lower
+intelligence bring down those of a higher order to their own level. The
+latter are obstructed in their activity, because in general an
+intensification of emotion creates unfavourable conditions for sound
+intellectual work, and further because the individuals are intimidated
+by the group and their mental activity is not free, and because there is
+a lowering in each individual of his sense of responsibility for his own
+performances.
+
+The judgement with which McDougall sums up the psychological behaviour
+of a simple 'unorganised' group is no more friendly than that of Le Bon.
+Such a group 'is excessively emotional, impulsive, violent, fickle,
+inconsistent, irresolute and extreme in action, displaying only the
+coarser emotions and the less refined sentiments; extremely suggestible,
+careless in deliberation, hasty in judgment, incapable of any but the
+simpler and imperfect forms of reasoning; easily swayed and led,
+lacking in self-consciousness, devoid of self-respect and of sense of
+responsibility, and apt to be carried away by the consciousness of its
+own force, so that it tends to produce all the manifestations we have
+learnt to expect of any irresponsible and absolute power. Hence its
+behaviour is like that of an unruly child or an untutored passionate
+savage in a strange situation, rather than like that of its average
+member; and in the worst cases it is like that of a wild beast, rather
+than like that of human beings.' (p. 45.)
+
+Since McDougall contrasts the behaviour of a highly organised group with
+what has just been described, we shall be particularly interested to
+learn in what this organisation consists, and by what factors it is
+produced. The author enumerates five 'principal conditions' for raising
+collective mental life to a higher level.
+
+The first and fundamental condition is that there should be some degree
+of continuity of existence in the group. This may be either material or
+formal; the former, if the same individuals persist in the group for
+some time; and the latter, if there is developed within the group a
+system of fixed positions which are occupied by a succession of
+individuals.
+
+The second condition is that in the individual member of the group some
+definite idea should be formed of the nature, composition, functions and
+capacities of the group, so that from this he may develop an emotional
+relation to the group as a whole.
+
+The third is that the group should be brought into interaction (perhaps
+in the form of rivalry) with other groups similar to it but differing
+from it in many respects.
+
+The fourth is that the group should possess traditions, customs and
+habits, and especially such as determine the relations of its members to
+one another.
+
+The fifth is that the group should have a definite structure, expressed
+in the specialisation and differentiation of the functions of its
+constituents.
+
+According to McDougall, if these conditions are fulfilled, the
+psychological disadvantages of the group formation are removed. The
+collective lowering of intellectual ability is avoided by withdrawing
+the performance of intellectual tasks from the group and reserving them
+for individual members of it.
+
+It seems to us that the condition which McDougall designates as the
+'organisation' of a group can with more justification be described in
+another way. The problem consists in how to procure for the group
+precisely those features which were characteristic of the individual and
+which are extinguished in him by the formation of the group. For the
+individual, outside the primitive group, possessed his own continuity,
+his self-consciousness, his traditions and customs, his own particular
+functions and position, and kept apart from his rivals. Owing to his
+entry into an 'unorganised' group he had lost this distinctiveness for a
+time. If we thus recognise that the aim is to equip the group with the
+attributes of the individual, we shall be reminded of a valuable remark
+of Trotter's,[20] to the effect that the tendency towards the formation
+of groups is biologically a continuation of the multicellular character
+of all the higher organisms.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+SUGGESTION AND LIBIDO
+
+
+We started from the fundamental fact that an individual in a group is
+subjected through its influence to what is often a profound alteration
+in his mental activity. His emotions become extraordinarily intensified,
+while his intellectual ability becomes markedly reduced, both processes
+being evidently in the direction of an approximation to the other
+individuals in the group; and this result can only be reached by the
+removal of those inhibitions upon his instincts which are peculiar to
+each individual, and by his resigning those expressions of his
+inclinations which are especially his own. We have heard that these
+often unwelcome consequences are to some extent at least prevented by a
+higher 'organisation' of the group; but this does not contradict the
+fundamental fact of Group Psychology--the two theses as to the
+intensification of the emotions and the inhibition of the intellect in
+primitive groups. Our interest is now directed to discovering the
+psychological explanation of this mental change which is experienced by
+the individual in a group.
+
+It is clear that rational factors (such as the intimidation of the
+individual which has already been mentioned, that is, the action of his
+instinct of self-preservation) do not cover the observable phenomena.
+Beyond this what we are offered as an explanation by authorities upon
+Sociology and Group Psychology is always the same, even though it is
+given various names, and that is--the magic word 'suggestion'. Tarde
+calls it 'imitation'; but we cannot help agreeing with a writer who
+protests that imitation comes under the concept of suggestion, and is in
+fact one of its results.[21] Le Bon traces back all the puzzling
+features of social phenomena to two factors: the mutual suggestion of
+individuals and the prestige of leaders. But prestige, again, is only
+recognizable by its capacity for evoking suggestion. McDougall for a
+moment gives us an impression that his principle of 'primitive induction
+of emotion' might enable us to do without the assumption of suggestion.
+But on further consideration we are forced to perceive that this
+principle says no more than the familiar assertions about 'imitation' or
+'contagion', except for a decided stress upon the emotional factor.
+There is no doubt that something exists in us which, when we become
+aware of signs of an emotion in someone else, tends to make us fall into
+the same emotion; but how often do we not successfully oppose it, resist
+the emotion, and react in quite an opposite way? Why, therefore, do we
+invariably give way to this contagion when we are in a group? Once more
+we should have to say that what compels us to obey this tendency is
+imitation, and what induces the emotion in us is the group's suggestive
+influence. Moreover, quite apart from this, McDougall does not enable us
+to evade suggestion; we hear from him as well as from other writers that
+groups are distinguished by their special suggestibility.
+
+We shall therefore be prepared for the statement that suggestion (or
+more correctly suggestibility) is actually an irreducible, primitive
+phenomenon, a fundamental fact in the mental life of man. Such, too, was
+the opinion of Bernheim, of whose astonishing arts I was a witness in
+the year 1889. But I can remember even then feeling a muffled hostility
+to this tyranny of suggestion. When a patient who showed himself
+unamenable was met with the shout: 'What are you doing? _Vous vous
+contresuggestionnez!_', I said to myself that this was an evident
+injustice and an act of violence. For the man certainly had a right to
+counter-suggestions if they were trying to subdue him with suggestions.
+Later on my resistance took the direction of protesting against the view
+that suggestion, which explained everything, was itself to be preserved
+from explanation. Thinking of it, I repeated the old conundrum:[22]
+
+            Christoph trug Christum,
+            Christus trug die ganze Welt,
+            Sag' wo hat Christoph
+            Damals hin den Fuss gestellt?[23]
+
+Christophorus Christum, sed Christus sustulit orbem:
+    Constiterit pedibus dic ubi Christophorus?
+
+Now that I once more approach the riddle of suggestion after having kept
+away from it for some thirty years, I find there is no change in the
+situation. To this statement I can discover only a single exception,
+which I need not mention, since it is one which bears witness to the
+influence of psycho-analysis. I notice that particular efforts are being
+made to formulate the concept of suggestion correctly, that is, to fix
+the conventional use of the name.[24] And this is by no means
+superfluous, for the word is acquiring a more and more extended use and
+a looser and looser meaning, and will soon come to designate any sort of
+influence whatever, just as in English, where 'to suggest' and
+'suggestion' correspond to our _nahelegen_ and _Anregung_. But there has
+been no explanation of the nature of suggestion, that is, of the
+conditions under which influence without adequate logical foundation
+takes place. I should not avoid the task of supporting this statement by
+an analysis of the literature of the last thirty years, if I were not
+aware that an exhaustive inquiry is being undertaken close at hand which
+has in view the fulfilment of this very task.
+
+Instead of this I shall make an attempt at using the concept of _libido_
+for the purpose of throwing light upon Group Psychology, a concept which
+has done us such good service in the study of psycho-neuroses.
+
+Libido is an expression taken from the theory of the emotions. We call
+by that name the energy (regarded as a quantitative magnitude, though
+not at present actually mensurable) of those instincts which have to do
+with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'. The nucleus of
+what we mean by love naturally consists (and this is what is commonly
+called love, and what the poets sing of) in sexual love with sexual
+union as its aim. But we do not separate from this--what in any case
+has a share in the name 'love'--on the one hand, self-love, and on the
+other, love for parents and children, friendship and love for humanity
+in general, and also devotion to concrete objects and to abstract ideas.
+Our justification lies in the fact that psycho-analytic research has
+taught us that all these tendencies are an expression of the same
+instinctive activities; in relations between the sexes these instincts
+force their way towards sexual union, but in other circumstances they
+are diverted from this aim or are prevented from reaching it, though
+always preserving enough of their original nature to keep their identity
+recognizable (as in such features as the longing for proximity, and
+self-sacrifice).
+
+We are of opinion, then, that language has carried out an entirely
+justifiable piece of unification in creating the word 'love' with its
+numerous uses, and that we cannot do better than take it as the basis of
+our scientific discussions and expositions as well. By coming to this
+decision, psycho-analysis has let loose a storm of indignation, as
+though it had been guilty of an act of outrageous innovation. Yet
+psycho-analysis has done nothing original in taking love in this 'wider'
+sense. In its origin, function, and relation to sexual love, the
+'_Eros_' of the philosopher Plato coincides exactly with the love force,
+the libido, of psycho-analysis, as has been shown in detail by
+Nachmansohn and Pfister;[25] and when the apostle Paul, in his famous
+epistle to the Corinthians, prizes love above all else, he certainly
+understands it in the same 'wider' sense.[26] But this only shows that
+men do not always take their great thinkers seriously, even when they
+profess most to admire them.
+
+Psycho-analysis, then, gives these love instincts the name of sexual
+instincts, a _potiori_ and by reason of their origin. The majority of
+'educated' people have taken their revenge by retorting upon
+psycho-analysis with the reproach of 'pan-sexualism'. Anyone who
+considers sex as something mortifying and humiliating to human nature is
+at liberty to make use of the more genteel expressions 'Eros' and
+'erotic'. I might have done so myself from the first and thus have
+spared myself much opposition. But I did not want to, for I like to
+avoid concessions to faint-heartedness. One can never tell where that
+road may lead one; one gives way first in words, and then little by
+little in substance too. I cannot see any merit in being ashamed of sex;
+the Greek word 'Eros', which is to soften the affront, is in the end
+nothing more than a translation of our German word _Liebe_ [love]; and
+finally, he who knows how to wait need make no concessions.
+
+We will try our fortune, then, with the supposition that love
+relationships (or, to use a more neutral expression, emotional ties)
+also constitute the essence of the group mind. Let us remember that the
+authorities make no mention of any such relations. What would correspond
+to them is evidently concealed behind the shelter, the screen, of
+suggestion. Our hypothesis finds support in the first instance from two
+passing thoughts. First, that a group is clearly held together by a
+power of some kind: and to what power could this feat be better ascribed
+than to Eros, who holds together everything in the world? Secondly, that
+if an individual gives up his distinctiveness in a group and lets its
+other members influence him by suggestion, it gives one the impression
+that he does it because he feels the need of being in harmony with them
+rather than in opposition to them--so that perhaps after all he does it
+'_ihnen zu Liebe_'.[27]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+TWO ARTIFICIAL GROUPS: THE CHURCH AND THE ARMY
+
+
+We may recall from what we know of the morphology of groups that it is
+possible to distinguish very different kinds of groups and opposing
+lines in their development. There are very fleeting groups and extremely
+lasting ones; homogeneous ones, made up of the same sorts of
+individuals, and unhomogeneous ones; natural groups, and artificial
+ones, requiring an external force to keep them together; primitive
+groups, and highly organised ones with a definite structure. But for
+reasons which have yet to be explained we should like to lay particular
+stress upon a distinction to which the authorities have rather given too
+little attention; I refer to that between leaderless groups and those
+with leaders. And, in complete opposition to the usual practice, we
+shall not choose a relatively simple group formation as our point of
+departure, but shall begin with highly organised, lasting and artificial
+groups. The most interesting example of such structures are
+churches--communities of believers--and armies.
+
+A church and an army are artificial groups, that is, a certain external
+force is employed to prevent them from disintegrating and to check
+alterations in their structure. As a rule a person is not consulted or
+is given no choice, as to whether he wants to enter such a group; any
+attempt at leaving it is usually met with persecution or with severe
+punishment, or has quite definite conditions attached to it. It is quite
+outside our present interest to enquire why these associations need such
+special safeguards. We are only attracted by one circumstance, namely
+that certain facts, which are far more concealed in other cases, can be
+observed very clearly in those highly organised groups which are
+protected from dissolution in the manner that has been mentioned. In a
+church (and we may with advantage take the Catholic Church as a type) as
+well as in an army, however different the two may be in other respects,
+the same illusion holds good of there being a head--in the Catholic
+Church Christ, in an army its Commander-in-Chief--who loves all the
+individuals in the group with an equal love. Everything depends upon
+this illusion; if it were to be dropped, then both Church and army would
+dissolve, so far as the external force permitted them to. This equal
+love was expressly enunciated by Christ: 'Inasmuch as ye have done it
+unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.' He
+stands to the individual members of the group of believers in the
+relation of a kind elder brother; he is their father surrogate. All the
+demands that are made upon the individual are derived from this love of
+Christ's. A democratic character runs through the Church, for the very
+reason that before Christ everyone is equal, and that everyone has an
+equal share in his love. It is not without a deep reason that the
+similarity between the Christian community and a family is invoked, and
+that believers call themselves brothers in Christ, that is, brothers
+through the love which Christ has for them. There is no doubt that the
+tie which unites each individual with Christ is also the cause of the
+tie which unites them with one another. The like holds good of an army.
+The Commander-in-Chief is a father who loves all his soldiers equally,
+and for that reason they are comrades among themselves. The army differs
+structurally from the Church in being built up of a series of such
+groups. Every captain is, as it were, the Commander-in-Chief and the
+father of his company, and so is every non-commissioned officer of his
+section. It is true that a similar hierarchy has been constructed in the
+Church, but it does not play the same part in it economically; for more
+knowledge and care about individuals may be attributed to Christ than
+to a human Commander-in-Chief.[28]
+
+It is to be noticed that in these two artificial groups each individual
+is bound by libidinal[29] ties on the one hand to the leader (Christ,
+the Commander-in-Chief) and on the other hand to the other members of
+the group. How these two ties are related to each other, whether they
+are of the same kind and the same value, and how they are to be
+described psychologically--these questions must be reserved for
+subsequent enquiry. But we shall venture even now upon a mild reproach
+against the authorities for not having sufficiently appreciated the
+importance of the leader in the psychology of the group, while our own
+choice of a first object for investigation has brought us into a more
+favourable position. It would appear as though we were on the right road
+towards an explanation of the principal phenomenon of Group
+Psychology--the individual's lack of freedom in a group. If each
+individual is bound in two directions by such an intense emotional tie,
+we shall find no difficulty in attributing to that circumstance the
+alteration and limitation which have been observed in his personality.
+
+A hint to the same effect, that the essence of a group lies in the
+libidinal ties existing in it, is also to be found in the phenomenon of
+panic, which is best studied in military groups. A panic arises if a
+group of that kind becomes disintegrated. Its characteristics are that
+none of the orders given by superiors are any longer listened to, and
+that each individual is only solicitous on his own account, and without
+any consideration for the rest. The mutual ties have ceased to exist,
+and a gigantic and senseless dread [_Angst_] is set free. At this point,
+again, the objection will naturally be made that it is rather the other
+way round; and that the dread has grown so great as to be able to
+disregard all ties and all feelings of consideration for others.
+McDougall has even (p. 24) made use of the case of panic (though not of
+military panic) as a typical instance of that intensification of emotion
+by contagion ('primary induction') upon which he lays so much emphasis.
+But nevertheless this rational method of explanation is here quite
+inadequate. The very question that needs explanation is why the dread
+has become so gigantic. The greatness of the danger cannot be
+responsible, for the same army which now falls a victim to panic may
+previously have faced equally great or greater danger with complete
+success; it is of the very essence of panic that it bears no relation to
+the danger that threatens, and often breaks out upon the most trivial
+occasions. If an individual in panic dread begins to be solicitous only
+on his own account, he bears witness in so doing to the fact that the
+emotional ties, which have hitherto made the danger seem small to him,
+have ceased to exist. Now that he is by himself in facing the danger,
+he may surely think it greater. The fact is, therefore, that panic dread
+presupposes a relaxation in the libidinal structure of the group and
+reacts to it in a justifiable manner, and the contrary view--that the
+libidinal ties of the group are destroyed owing to dread in the face of
+the danger--can be refuted.
+
+The contention that dread in a group is increased to enormous
+proportions by means of induction (contagion) is not in the least
+contradicted by these remarks. McDougall's view meets the case entirely
+when the danger is a really great one and when the group has no strong
+emotional ties--conditions which are fulfilled, for instance, when a
+fire breaks out in a theatre or a place of amusement. But the really
+instructive case and the one which can be best employed for our purposes
+is that mentioned above, in which a body of troops breaks into a panic
+although the danger has not increased beyond a degree that is usual and
+has often been previously faced. It is not to be expected that the usage
+of the word 'panic' should be clearly and unambiguously determined.
+Sometimes it is used to describe any collective dread, sometimes even
+dread in an individual when it exceeds all bounds, and often the name
+seems to be reserved for cases in which the outbreak of dread is not
+warranted by the occasion. If we take the word 'panic' in the sense of
+collective dread, we can establish a far-reaching analogy. Dread in an
+individual is provoked either by the greatness of a danger or by the
+cessation of emotional ties (libidinal cathexes[30]
+[_Libidobesetzungen_]); the latter is the case of neurotic dread.[31] In
+just the same way panic arises either owing to an increase of the common
+danger or owing to the disappearance of the emotional ties which hold
+the group together; and the latter case is analogous to that of neurotic
+dread.[32]
+
+Anyone who, like McDougall (l.c.), describes a panic as one of the
+plainest functions of the 'group mind', arrives at the paradoxical
+position that this group mind does away with itself in one of its most
+striking manifestations. It is impossible to doubt that panic means the
+disintegration of a group; it involves the cessation of all the feelings
+of consideration which the members of the group otherwise show one
+another.
+
+The typical occasion of the outbreak of a panic is very much as it is
+represented in Nestroy's parody of Hebbel's play about Judith and
+Holofernes. A soldier cries out: "The general has lost his head!" and
+thereupon all the Assyrians take to flight. The loss of the leader in
+some sense or other, the birth, of misgivings about him, brings on the
+outbreak of panic, though the danger remains the same; the mutual ties
+between the members of the group disappear, as a rule, at the same time
+as the tie with their leader. The group vanishes in dust, like a Bologna
+flask when its top is broken off.
+
+The dissolution of a religious group is not so easy to observe. A short
+time ago there came into my hands an English novel of Catholic origin,
+recommended by the Bishop of London, with the title _When It Was Dark_.
+It gave a clever and, as it seems to me, a convincing picture of such a
+possibility and its consequences. The novel, which is supposed to
+relate to the present day, tells how a conspiracy of enemies of the
+figure of Christ and of the Christian faith succeed in arranging for a
+sepulchre to be discovered in Jerusalem. In this sepulchre is an
+inscription, in which Joseph of Arimathaea confesses that for reasons of
+piety he secretly removed the body of Christ from its grave on the third
+day after its entombment and buried it in this spot. The resurrection of
+Christ and his divine nature are by this means disposed of, and the
+result of this archaeological discovery is a convulsion in European
+civilisation and an extraordinary increase in all crimes and acts of
+violence, which only ceases when the forgers' plot has been revealed.
+
+The phenomenon which accompanies the dissolution that is here supposed
+to overtake a religious group is not dread, for which the occasion is
+wanting. Instead of it ruthless and hostile impulses towards other
+people make their appearance, which, owing to the equal love of Christ,
+they had previously been unable to do.[33] But even during the kingdom
+of Christ those people who do not belong to the community of believers,
+who do not love him, and whom he does not love, stand outside this tie.
+Therefore a religion, even if it calls itself the religion of love,
+must be hard and unloving to those who do not belong to it.
+Fundamentally indeed every religion is in this same way a religion of
+love for all those whom it embraces; while cruelty and intolerance
+towards those who do not belong to it are natural to every religion.
+However difficult we may find it personally, we ought not to reproach
+believers too severely on this account; people who are unbelieving or
+indifferent are so much better off psychologically in this respect. If
+to-day that intolerance no longer shows itself so violent and cruel as
+in former centuries, we can scarcely conclude that there has been a
+softening in human manners. The cause is rather to be found in the
+undeniable weakening of religious feelings and the libidinal ties which
+depend upon them. If another group tie takes the place of the religious
+one--and the socialistic tie seems to be succeeding in doing so--, then
+there will be the same intolerance towards outsiders as in the age of
+the Wars of Religion; and if differences between scientific opinions
+could ever attain a similar significance for groups, the same result
+would again be repeated with this new motivation.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+FURTHER PROBLEMS AND LINES OF WORK
+
+
+We have hitherto considered two artificial groups and have found that
+they are dominated by two emotional ties. One of these, the tie with the
+leader, seems (at all events for these cases) to be more of a ruling
+factor than the other, which holds between the members of the group.
+
+Now much else remains to be examined and described in the morphology of
+groups. We should have to start from the ascertained fact that a mere
+collection of people is not a group, so long as these ties have not been
+established in it; but we should have to admit that in any collection of
+people the tendency to form a psychological group may very easily become
+prominent. We should have to give our attention to the different kinds
+of groups, more or less stable, that arise spontaneously, and to study
+the conditions of their origin and of their dissolution. We should above
+all be concerned with the distinction between groups which have a
+leader and leaderless groups. We should consider whether groups with
+leaders may not be the more primitive and complete, whether in the
+others an idea, an abstraction, may not be substituted for the leader (a
+state of things to which religious groups, with their invisible head,
+form a transition stage), and whether a common tendency, a wish in which
+a number of people can have a share, may not in the same way serve as a
+substitute. This abstraction, again, might be more or less completely
+embodied in the figure of what we might call a secondary leader, and
+interesting varieties would arise from the relation between the idea and
+the leader. The leader or the leading idea might also, so to speak, be
+negative; hatred against a particular person or institution might
+operate in just the same unifying way, and might call up the same kind
+of emotional ties as positive attachment. Then the question would also
+arise whether a leader is really indispensable to the essence of a
+group--and other questions besides.
+
+But all these questions, which may, moreover, have been dealt with in
+part in the literature of Group Psychology, will not succeed in
+diverting our interest from the fundamental psychological problems that
+confront us in the structure of a group. And our attention will first be
+attracted by a consideration which promises to bring us in the most
+direct way to a proof that libidinal ties are what characterize a
+group.
+
+Let us keep before our eyes the nature of the emotional relations which
+hold between men in general. According to Schopenhauer's famous simile
+of the freezing porcupines no one can tolerate a too intimate approach
+to his neighbour.[34]
+
+The evidence of psycho-analysis shows that almost every intimate
+emotional relation between two people which lasts for some
+time--marriage, friendship, the relations between parents and
+children[35]--leaves a sediment of feelings of aversion and hostility,
+which have first to be eliminated by repression. This is less disguised
+in the common wrangles between business partners or in the grumbles of a
+subordinate at his superior. The same thing happens when men come
+together in larger units. Every time two families become connected by a
+marriage, each of them thinks itself superior to or of better birth than
+the other. Of two neighbouring towns each is the other's most jealous
+rival; every little canton looks down upon the others with contempt.
+Closely related races keep one another at arm's length; the South German
+cannot endure the North German, the Englishman casts every kind of
+aspersion upon the Scotchman, the Spaniard despises the Portuguese. We
+are no longer astonished that greater differences should lead to an
+almost insuperable repugnance, such as the Gallic people feel for the
+German, the Aryan for the Semite, and the white races for the coloured.
+
+When this hostility is directed against people who are otherwise loved
+we describe it as ambivalence of feeling; and we explain the fact, in
+what is probably far too rational a manner, by means of the numerous
+occasions for conflicts of interest which arise precisely in such
+intimate relations. In the undisguised antipathies and aversions which
+people feel towards strangers with whom they have to do we may recognize
+the expression of self-love--of narcissism. This self-love works for the
+self-assertion of the individual, and behaves as though the occurrence
+of any divergence from his own particular lines of development involved
+a criticism of them and a demand for their alteration. We do not know
+why such sensitiveness should have been directed to just these details
+of differentiation; but it is unmistakable that in this whole connection
+men give evidence of a readiness for hatred, an aggressiveness, the
+source of which is unknown, and to which one is tempted to ascribe an
+elementary character.[36]
+
+But the whole of this intolerance vanishes, temporarily or permanently,
+as the result of the formation of a group, and in a group. So long as a
+group formation persists or so far as it extends, individuals behave as
+though they were uniform, tolerate other people's peculiarities, put
+themselves on an equal level with them, and have no feeling of aversion
+towards them. Such a limitation of narcissism can, according to our
+theoretical views, only be produced by one factor, a libidinal tie with
+other people. Love for oneself knows only one barrier--love for others,
+love for objects.[37] The question will at once be raised whether
+community of interest in itself, without any addition of libido, must
+not necessarily lead to the toleration of other people and to
+considerateness for them. This objection may be met by the reply that
+nevertheless no lasting limitation of narcissism is effected in this
+way, since this tolerance does not persist longer than the immediate
+advantage gained from the other people's collaboration. But the
+practical importance of the discussion is less than might be supposed,
+for experience has shown that in cases of collaboration libidinal ties
+are regularly formed between the fellow-workers which prolong and
+solidify the relation between them to a point beyond what is merely
+profitable. The same thing occurs in men's social relations as has
+become familiar to psycho-analytic research in the course of the
+development of the individual libido. The libido props itself upon the
+satisfaction of the great vital needs, and chooses as its first objects
+the people who have a share in that process. And in the development of
+mankind as a whole, just as in individuals, love alone acts as the
+civilizing factor in the sense that it brings a change from egoism to
+altruism. And this is true both of the sexual love for women, with all
+the obligations which it involves of sparing what women are fond of, and
+also of the desexualised, sublimated homosexual love for other men,
+which springs from work in common. If therefore in groups narcissistic
+self-love is subject to limitations which do not operate outside them,
+that is cogent evidence that the essence of a group formation consists
+in a new kind of libidinal ties among the members of the group.
+
+But our interest now leads us on to the pressing question as to what may
+be the nature of these ties which exist in groups. In the
+psycho-analytic study of neuroses we have hitherto been occupied almost
+exclusively with ties that unite with their objects those love instincts
+which still pursue directly sexual aims. In groups there can evidently
+be no question of sexual aims of that kind. We are concerned here with
+love instincts which have been diverted from their original aims, though
+they do not operate with less energy on that account. Now we have
+already observed within the range of the usual sexual object-cathexis
+[_Objektbesetzung_] phenomena which represent a diversion of the
+instinct from its sexual aim. We have described them as degrees of being
+in love, and have recognized that they involve a certain encroachment
+upon the ego. We shall now turn our attention more closely to these
+phenomena of being in love, in the firm expectation of finding in them
+conditions which can be transferred to the ties that exist in groups.
+But we should also like to know whether this kind of object-cathexis, as
+we know it in sexual life, represents the only manner of emotional tie
+with other people, or whether we must take other mechanisms of the sort
+into account. As a matter of fact we learn from psycho-analysis that
+there do exist other mechanisms for emotional ties, the so-called
+_identifications_, insufficiently-known processes and hard to describe,
+the investigation of which will for some time keep us away from the
+subject of Group Psychology.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+IDENTIFICATION
+
+
+Identification is known to psycho-analysis as the earliest expression of
+an emotional tie with another person. It plays a part in the early
+history of the Oedipus complex. A little boy will exhibit a special
+interest in his father; he would like to grow like him and be like him,
+and take his place everywhere. We may say simply that he takes his
+father as his ideal. This behaviour has nothing to do with a passive or
+feminine attitude towards his father (and towards males in general); it
+is on the contrary typically masculine. It fits in very well with the
+Oedipus complex, for which it helps to prepare the way.
+
+At the same time as this identification with his father, or a little
+later, the boy has begun to develop a true object-cathexis towards his
+mother according to the anaclitic type [_Anlehnungstypus_].[38] He then
+exhibits, therefore, two psychologically distinct ties: a
+straightforward sexual object-cathexis towards his mother and a typical
+identification towards his father. The two subsist side by side for a
+time without any mutual influence or interference. In consequence of the
+irresistible advance towards a unification of mental life they come
+together at last; and the normal Oedipus complex originates from their
+confluence. The little boy notices that his father stands in his way
+with his mother. His identification with his father then takes on a
+hostile colouring and becomes identical with the wish to replace his
+father in regard to his mother as well. Identification, in fact, is
+ambivalent from the very first; it can turn into an expression of
+tenderness as easily as into a wish for someone's removal. It behaves
+like a derivative of the first _oral_ phase of the organisation of the
+libido, in which the object that we long for and prize is assimilated by
+eating and is in that way annihilated as such. The cannibal, as we know,
+has remained at this standpoint; he has a devouring affection for his
+enemies and only devours people of whom he is fond.[39]
+
+The subsequent history of this identification with the father may easily
+be lost sight of. It may happen that the Oedipus complex becomes
+inverted, and that the father is taken as the object of a feminine
+attitude, an object from which the directly sexual instincts look for
+satisfaction; in that event the identification with the father has
+become the precursor of an object tie with the father. The same holds
+good, with the necessary substitutions, of the baby daughter as well.
+
+It is easy to state in a formula the distinction between an
+identification with the father and the choice of the father as an
+object. In the first case one's father is what one would like to _be_,
+and in the second he is what one would like to _have_. The distinction,
+that is, depends upon whether the tie attaches to the subject or to the
+object of the ego. The former is therefore already possible before any
+sexual object-choice has been made. It is much more difficult to give a
+clear metapsychological representation of the distinction. We can only
+see that identification endeavours to mould a person's own ego after the
+fashion of the one that has been taken as a 'model'.
+
+Let us disentangle identification as it occurs in the structure of a
+neurotic symptom from its rather complicated connections. Supposing that
+a little girl (and we will keep to her for the present) develops the
+same painful symptom as her mother--for instance, the same tormenting
+cough. Now this may come about in various ways. The identification may
+come from the Oedipus complex; in that case it signifies a hostile
+desire on the girl's part to take her mother's place, and the symptom
+expresses her object love towards her father, and brings about a
+realisation, under the influence of a sense of guilt, of her desire to
+take her mother's place: 'You wanted to be your mother, and now you
+_are_--anyhow as far as the pain goes'. This is the complete mechanism
+of the structure of a hysterical symptom. Or, on the other hand, the
+symptom may be the same as that of the person who is loved--(so, for
+instance, Dora in the 'Bruchst�ck einer Hysterieanalyse'[40] imitated
+her father's cough); in that case we can only describe the state of
+things by saying that _identification has appeared instead of
+object-choice, and that object-choice has regressed to identification_.
+We have heard that identification is the earliest and original form of
+emotional tie; it often happens that under the conditions in which
+symptoms are constructed, that is, where there is repression and where
+the mechanisms of the unconscious are dominant, object-choice is turned
+back into identification--the ego, that is, assumes the characteristics
+of the object. It is noticeable that in these identifications the ego
+sometimes copies the person who is not loved and sometimes the one who
+is loved. It must also strike us that in both cases the identification
+is a partial and extremely limited one and only borrows a single trait
+from the person who is its object.
+
+There is a third particularly frequent and important case of symptom
+formation, in which the identification leaves any object relation to the
+person who is being copied entirely out of account. Supposing, for
+instance, that one of the girls in a boarding school has had a letter
+from someone with whom she is secretly in love which arouses her
+jealousy, and that she reacts to it with a fit of hysterics; then some
+of her friends who know about it will contract the fit, as we say, by
+means of mental infection. The mechanism is that of identification based
+upon the possibility or desire of putting oneself in the same
+situation. The other girls would like to have a secret love affair too,
+and under the influence of a sense of guilt they also accept the pain
+involved in it. It would be wrong to suppose that they take on the
+symptom out of sympathy. On the contrary, the sympathy only arises out
+of the identification, and this is proved by the fact that infection or
+imitation of this kind takes place in circumstances where even less
+pre-existing sympathy is to be assumed than usually exists between
+friends in a girls' school. One ego has perceived a significant analogy
+with another upon one point--in our example upon a similar readiness for
+emotion; an identification is thereupon constructed on this point, and,
+under the influence of the pathogenic situation, is displaced on to the
+symptom which the one ego has produced. The identification by means of
+the symptom has thus become the mark of a point of coincidence between
+the two egos which has to be kept repressed.
+
+What we have learned from these three sources may be summarised as
+follows. First, identification is the original form of emotional tie
+with an object; secondly, in a regressive way it becomes a substitute
+for a libidinal object tie, as it were by means of the introjection of
+the object into the ego; and thirdly, it may arise with every new
+perception of a common quality shared with some other person who is not
+an object of the sexual instinct. The more important this common
+quality is, the more successful may this partial identification become,
+and it may thus represent the beginning of a new tie.
+
+We already begin to divine that the mutual tie between members of a
+group is in the nature of an identification of this kind, based upon an
+important emotional common quality; and we may suspect that this common
+quality lies in the nature of the tie with the leader. Another suspicion
+may tell us that we are far from having exhausted the problem of
+identification, and that we are faced by the process which psychology
+calls 'empathy [_Einf�hlung_]' and which plays the largest part in our
+understanding of what is inherently foreign to our ego in other people.
+But we shall here limit ourselves to the immediate emotional effects of
+identification, and shall leave on one side its significance for our
+intellectual life.
+
+Psycho-analytic research, which has already occasionally attacked the
+more difficult problems of the psychoses, has also been able to exhibit
+identification to us in some other cases which are not immediately
+comprehensible. I shall treat two of these cases in detail as material
+for our further consideration.
+
+The genesis of male homosexuality in a large class of cases is as
+follows. A young man has been unusually long and intensely fixated upon
+his mother in the sense of the Oedipus complex. But at last, after the
+end of his puberty, the time comes for exchanging his mother for some
+other sexual object. Things take a sudden turn: the young man does not
+abandon his mother, but identifies himself with her; he transforms
+himself into her, and now looks about for objects which can replace his
+ego for him, and on which he can bestow such love and care as he has
+experienced from his mother. This is a frequent process, which can be
+confirmed as often as one likes, and which is naturally quite
+independent of any hypothesis that may be made as to the organic driving
+force and the motives of the sudden transformation. A striking thing
+about this identification is its ample scale; it remoulds the ego in one
+of its important features--in its sexual character--upon the model of
+what has hitherto been the object. In this process the object itself is
+renounced--whether entirely or in the sense of being preserved only in
+the unconscious is a question outside the present discussion.
+Identification with an object that is renounced or lost as a substitute
+for it, introjection of this object into the ego, is indeed no longer a
+novelty to us. A process of the kind may sometimes be directly observed
+in small children. A short time ago an observation of this sort was
+published in the _Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse_. A child
+who was unhappy over the loss of a kitten declared straight out that now
+he himself was the kitten, and accordingly crawled about on all fours,
+would not eat at table, etc.[41]
+
+Another such instance of introjection of the object has been provided by
+the analysis of melancholia, an affection which counts among the most
+remarkable of its exciting causes the real or emotional loss of a loved
+object. A leading characteristic of these cases is a cruel
+self-depreciation of the ego combined with relentless self-criticism and
+bitter self-reproaches. Analyses have shown that this disparagement and
+these reproaches apply at bottom to the object and represent the ego's
+revenge upon it. The shadow of the object has fallen upon the ego, as I
+have said elsewhere.[42] The introjection of the object is here
+unmistakably clear.
+
+But these melancholias also show us something else, which may be of
+importance for our later discussions. They show us the ego divided,
+fallen into two pieces, one of which rages against the second. This
+second piece is the one which has been altered by introjection and which
+contains the lost object. But the piece which behaves so cruelly is not
+unknown to us either. It comprises the conscience, a critical faculty
+[_Instanz_][43] within the ego, which even in normal times takes up a
+critical attitude towards the ego, though never so relentlessly and so
+unjustifiably. On previous occasions we have been driven to the
+hypothesis[44] that some such faculty develops in our ego which may cut
+itself off from the rest of the ego and come into conflict with it. We
+have called it the 'ego ideal', and by way of functions we have ascribed
+to it self-observation, the moral conscience, the censorship of dreams,
+and the chief influence in repression. We have said that it is the heir
+to the original narcissism in which the childish ego found its
+self-sufficiency; it gradually gathers up from the influences of the
+environment the demands which that environment makes upon the ego and
+which the ego cannot always rise to; so that a man, when he cannot be
+satisfied with his ego itself, may nevertheless be able to find
+satisfaction in the ego ideal which has been differentiated out of the
+ego. In delusions of observation, as we have further shown, the
+disintegration of this faculty has become patent, and has thus revealed
+its origin in the influence of superior powers, and above all of
+parents.[45] But we have not forgotten to add that the amount of
+distance between this ego ideal and the real ego is very variable from
+one individual to another, and that with many people this
+differentiation within the ego does not go further than with children.
+
+But before we can employ this material for understanding the libidinal
+organisation of groups, we must take into account some other examples of
+the mutual relations between the object and the ego.[46]
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+BEING IN LOVE AND HYPNOSIS
+
+
+Even in its caprices the usage of language remains true to some kind of
+reality. Thus it gives the name of 'love' to a great many kinds of
+emotional relationship which we too group together theoretically as
+love; but then again it feels a doubt whether this love is real, true,
+actual love, and so hints at a whole scale of possibilities within the
+range of the phenomena of love. We shall have no difficulty in making
+the same discovery empirically.
+
+In one class of cases being in love is nothing more than object-cathexis
+on the part of the sexual instincts with a view to directly sexual
+satisfaction, a cathexis which expires, moreover, when this aim has been
+reached; this is what is called common, sensual love. But, as we know,
+the libidinal situation rarely remains so simple. It was possible to
+calculate with certainty upon the revival of the need which had just
+expired; and this must no doubt have been the first motive for
+directing a lasting cathexis upon the sexual object and for 'loving' it
+in the passionless intervals as well.
+
+To this must be added another factor derived from the astonishing course
+of development which is pursued by the erotic life of man. In his first
+phase, which has usually come to an end by the time he is five years
+old, a child has found the first object for his love in one or other of
+his parents, and all of his sexual instincts with their demand for
+satisfaction have been united upon this object. The repression which
+then sets in compels him to renounce the greater number of these
+infantile sexual aims, and leaves behind a profound modification in his
+relation to his parents. The child still remains tied to his parents,
+but by instincts which must be described as being 'inhibited in their
+aim [_zielgehemmte_]'. The emotions which he feels henceforward towards
+these objects of his love are characterized as 'tender'. It is well
+known that the earlier 'sensual' tendencies remain more or less strongly
+preserved in the unconscious, so that in a certain sense the whole of
+the original current continues to exist.[47]
+
+At puberty, as we know, there set in new and very strong tendencies with
+directly sexual aims. In unfavourable cases they remain separate, in the
+form of a sensual current, from the 'tender' emotional trends which
+persist. We are then faced by a picture the two aspects of which certain
+movements in literature take such delight in idealising. A man of this
+kind will show a sentimental enthusiasm for women whom he deeply
+respects but who do not excite him to sexual activities, and he will
+only be potent with other women whom he does not 'love' but thinks
+little of or even despises.[48] More often, however, the adolescent
+succeeds in bringing about a certain degree of synthesis between the
+unsensual, heavenly love and the sensual, earthly love, and his relation
+to his sexual object is characterised by the interaction of uninhibited
+instincts and of instincts inhibited in their aim. The depth to which
+anyone is in love, as contrasted with his purely sensual desire, may be
+measured by the size of the share taken by the inhibited instincts of
+tenderness.
+
+In connection with this question of being in love we have always been
+struck by the phenomenon of sexual over-estimation--the fact that the
+loved object enjoys a certain amount of freedom from criticism, and that
+all its characteristics are valued more highly than those of people who
+are not loved, or than its own were at a time when it itself was not
+loved. If the sensual tendencies are somewhat more effectively
+repressed or set aside, the illusion is produced that the object has
+come to be sensually loved on account of its spiritual merits, whereas
+on the contrary these merits may really only have been lent to it by its
+sensual charm.
+
+The tendency which falsifies judgement in this respect is that of
+_idealisation_. But this makes it easier for us to find our way about.
+We see that the object is being treated in the same way as our own ego,
+so that when we are in love a considerable amount of narcissistic libido
+overflows on to the object. It is even obvious, in many forms of love
+choice, that the object serves as a substitute for some unattained ego
+ideal of our own. We love it on account of the perfections which we have
+striven to reach for our own ego, and which we should now like to
+procure in this roundabout way as a means of satisfying our narcissism.
+
+If the sexual over-estimation and the being in love increase even
+further, then the interpretation of the picture becomes still more
+unmistakable. The tendencies whose trend is towards directly sexual
+satisfaction may now be pushed back entirely, as regularly happens, for
+instance, with the young man's sentimental passion; the ego becomes more
+and more unassuming and modest, and the object more and more sublime and
+precious, until at last it gets possession of the entire self-love of
+the ego, whose self-sacrifice thus follows as a natural consequence. The
+object has, so to speak, consumed the ego. Traits of humility, of the
+limitation of narcissism, and of self-injury occur in every case of
+being in love; in the extreme case they are only intensified, and as a
+result of the withdrawal of the sensual claims they remain in solitary
+supremacy.
+
+This happens especially easily with love that is unhappy and cannot be
+satisfied; for in spite of everything each sexual satisfaction always
+involves a reduction in sexual over-estimation. Contemporaneously with
+this 'devotion' of the ego to the object, which is no longer to be
+distinguished from a sublimated devotion to an abstract idea, the
+functions allotted to the ego ideal entirely cease to operate. The
+criticism exercised by that faculty is silent; everything that the
+object does and asks for is right and blameless. Conscience has no
+application to anything that is done for the sake of the object; in the
+blindness of love remorselessness is carried to the pitch of crime. The
+whole situation can be completely summarised in a formula: _The object
+has taken the place of the ego ideal._
+
+It is now easy to define the distinction between identification and such
+extreme developments of being in love as may be described as fascination
+or infatuation. In the former case the ego has enriched itself with the
+properties of the object, it has 'introjected' the object into itself,
+as Ferenczi expresses it. In the second case it is impoverished, it has
+surrendered itself to the object, it has substituted the object for its
+most important constituent. Closer consideration soon makes it plain,
+however, that this kind of account creates an illusion of
+contradistinctions that have no real existence. Economically there is no
+question of impoverishment or enrichment; it is even possible to
+describe an extreme case of being in love as a state in which the ego
+has introjected the object into itself. Another distinction is perhaps
+better calculated to meet the essence of the matter. In the case of
+identification the object has been lost or given up; it is then set up
+again inside the ego, and the ego makes a partial alteration in itself
+after the model of the lost object. In the other case the object is
+retained, and there is a hyper-cathexis of it by the ego and at the
+ego's expense. But here again a difficulty presents itself. Is it quite
+certain that identification presupposes that object-cathexis has been
+given up? Can there be no identification with the object retained? And
+before we embark upon a discussion of this delicate question, the
+perception may already be beginning to dawn on us that yet another
+alternative embraces the real essence of the matter, namely, _whether
+the object is put in the place of the ego or of the ego ideal_.
+
+From being in love to hypnosis is evidently only a short step. The
+respects in which the two agree are obvious. There is the same humble
+subjection, the same compliance, the same absence of criticism, towards
+the hypnotist just as towards the loved object. There is the same
+absorption of one's own initiative; no one can doubt that the hypnotist
+has stepped into the place of the ego ideal. It is only that everything
+is even clearer and more intense in hypnosis, so that it would be more
+to the point to explain being in love by means of hypnosis than the
+other way round. The hypnotist is the sole object, and no attention is
+paid to any but him. The fact that the ego experiences in a dream-like
+way whatever he may request or assert reminds us that we omitted to
+mention among the functions of the ego ideal the business of testing the
+reality of things.[49] No wonder that the ego takes a perception for
+real if its reality is vouched for by the mental faculty which
+ordinarily discharges the duty of testing the reality of things. The
+complete absence of tendencies which are uninhibited in their sexual
+aims contributes further towards the extreme purity of the phenomena.
+The hypnotic relation is the devotion of someone in love to an unlimited
+degree but with sexual satisfaction excluded; whereas in the case of
+being in love this kind of satisfaction is only temporarily kept back,
+and remains in the background as a possible aim at some later time.
+
+But on the other hand we may also say that the hypnotic relation is (if
+the expression is permissible) a group formation with two members.
+Hypnosis is not a good object for comparison with a group formation,
+because it is truer to say that it is identical with it. Out of the
+complicated fabric of the group it isolates one element for us--the
+behaviour of the individual to the leader. Hypnosis is distinguished
+from a group formation by this limitation of number, just as it is
+distinguished from being in love by the absence of directly sexual
+tendencies. In this respect it occupies a middle position between the
+two.
+
+It is interesting to see that it is precisely those sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims which achieve such lasting ties between
+men. But this can easily be understood from the fact that they are not
+capable of complete satisfaction, while sexual tendencies which are
+uninhibited in their aims suffer an extraordinary reduction through the
+discharge of energy every time the sexual aim is attained. It is the
+fate of sensual love to become extinguished when it is satisfied; for it
+to be able to last, it must from the first be mixed with purely tender
+components--with such, that is, as are inhibited in their aims--or it
+must itself undergo a transformation of this kind.
+
+Hypnosis would solve the riddle of the libidinal constitution of groups
+for us straight away, if it were not that it itself exhibits some
+features which are not met by the rational explanation we have hitherto
+given of it as a state of being in love with the directly sexual
+tendencies excluded. There is still a great deal in it which we must
+recognise as unexplained and mystical. It contains an additional element
+of paralysis derived from the relation between someone with superior
+power and someone who is without power and helpless--which may afford a
+transition to the hypnosis of terror which occurs in animals. The manner
+in which it is produced and its relationship to sleep are not clear; and
+the puzzling way in which some people are subject to it, while others
+resist it completely, points to some factor still unknown which is
+realised in it and which perhaps alone makes possible the purity of the
+attitudes of the libido which it exhibits. It is noticeable that, even
+when there is complete suggestive compliance in other respects, the
+moral conscience of the person hypnotized may show resistance. But this
+may be due to the fact that in hypnosis as it is usually practised some
+knowledge may be retained that what is happening is only a game, an
+untrue reproduction of another situation of far more importance to life.
+
+But after the preceding discussions we are quite in a position to give
+the formula for the libidinal constitution of groups: or at least of
+such groups as we have hitherto considered, namely, those that have a
+leader and have not been able by means of too much 'organisation' to
+acquire secondarily the characteristics of an individual. _A primary
+group of this kind is a number of individuals who have substituted one
+and the same object for their ego ideal and have consequently identified
+themselves with one another in their ego._ This condition admits of
+graphic representation:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE HERD INSTINCT
+
+
+We cannot for long enjoy the illusion that we have solved the riddle of
+the group with this formula. It is impossible to escape the immediate
+and disturbing recollection that all we have really done has been to
+shift the question on to the riddle of hypnosis, about which so many
+points have yet to be cleared up. And now another objection shows us our
+further path.
+
+It might be said that the intense emotional ties which we observe in
+groups are quite sufficient to explain one of their characteristics--the
+lack of independence and initiative in their members, the similarity in
+the reactions of all of them, their reduction, so to speak, to the level
+of group individuals. But if we look at it as a whole, a group shows us
+more than this. Some of its features--the weakness of intellectual
+ability, the lack of emotional restraint, the incapacity for moderation
+and delay, the inclination to exceed every limit in the expression of
+emotion and to work it off completely in the form of action--these and
+similar features, which we find so impressively described in Le Bon,
+show an unmistakable picture of a regression of mental activity to an
+earlier stage such as we are not surprised to find among savages or
+children. A regression of this sort is in particular an essential
+characteristic of common groups, while, as we have heard, in organized
+and artificial groups it can to a large extent be checked.
+
+We thus have an impression of a state in which an individual's separate
+emotion and personal intellectual act are too weak to come to anything
+by themselves and are absolutely obliged to wait till they are
+reinforced through being repeated in a similar way in the other members
+of the group. We are reminded of how many of these phenomena of
+dependence are part of the normal constitution of human society, of how
+little originality and personal courage are to be found in it, of how
+much every individual is ruled by those attitudes of the group mind
+which exhibit themselves in such forms as racial characteristics, class
+prejudices, public opinion, etc. The influence of suggestion becomes a
+greater riddle for us when we admit that it is not exercised only by the
+leader, but by every individual upon every other individual; and we must
+reproach ourselves with having unfairly emphasized the relation to the
+leader and with having kept the other factor of mutual suggestion too
+much in the background.
+
+After this encouragement to modesty, we shall be inclined to listen to
+another voice, which promises us an explanation based upon simpler
+grounds. Such a one is to be found in Trotter's thoughtful book upon the
+herd instinct, concerning which my only regret is that it does not
+entirely escape the antipathies that were set loose by the recent great
+war.[50]
+
+Trotter derives the mental phenomena that are described as occurring in
+groups from a herd instinct ('gregariousness'), which is innate in human
+beings just as in other species of animals. Biologically this
+gregariousness is an analogy to multicellularity and as it were a
+continuation of it. From the standpoint of the libido theory it is a
+further manifestation of the inclination, which proceeds from the
+libido, and which is felt by all living beings of the same kind, to
+combine in more and more comprehensive units.[51] The individual feels
+'incomplete' if he is alone. The dread shown by small children would
+seem already to be an expression of this herd instinct. Opposition to
+the herd is as good as separation from it, and is therefore anxiously
+avoided. But the herd turns away from anything that is new or unusual.
+The herd instinct would appear to be something primary, something
+'which cannot be split up'.
+
+Trotter gives as the list of instincts which he considers as primary
+those of self-preservation, of nutrition, of sex, and of the herd. The
+last often comes into opposition with the others. The feelings of guilt
+and of duty are the peculiar possessions of a gregarious animal. Trotter
+also derives from the herd instinct the repressive forces which
+psycho-analysis has shown to exist in the ego, and from the same source
+accordingly the resistances which the physician comes up against in
+psycho-analytic treatment. Speech owes its importance to its aptitude
+for mutual understanding in the herd, and upon it the identification of
+the individuals with one another largely rests.
+
+While Le Bon is principally concerned with typical transient group
+formations, and McDougall with stable associations, Trotter has chosen
+as the centre of his interest the most generalised form of assemblage in
+which man, that [Greek: z�on politikon], passes his life, and he gives
+us its psychological basis. But Trotter is under no necessity of tracing
+back the herd instinct, for he characterizes it as primary and not
+further reducible. Boris Sidis's attempt, to which he refers, at tracing
+the herd instinct back to suggestibility is fortunately superfluous as
+far as he is concerned; it is an explanation of a familiar and
+unsatisfactory type, and the converse proposition--that suggestibility
+is a derivative of the herd instinct--would seem to me to throw far more
+light on the subject.
+
+But Trotter's exposition, with even more justice than the others', is
+open to the objection that it takes too little account of the leader's
+part in a group, while we incline rather to the opposite judgement, that
+it is impossible to grasp the nature of a group if the leader is
+disregarded. The herd instinct leaves no room at all for the leader; he
+is merely thrown in along with the herd, almost by chance; it follows,
+too, that no path leads from this instinct to the need for a God; the
+herd is without a herdsman. But besides this Trotter's exposition can be
+undermined psychologically; that is to say, it can be made at all events
+probable that the herd instinct is not irreducible, that it is not
+primary in the same sense as the instinct of self-preservation and the
+sexual instinct.
+
+It is naturally no easy matter to trace the ontogenesis of the herd
+instinct. The dread which is shown by small children when they are left
+alone, and which Trotter claims as being already a manifestation of the
+instinct, nevertheless suggests more readily another interpretation. The
+dread relates to the child's mother, and later to other familiar
+persons, and it is the expression of an unfulfilled desire, which the
+child does not yet know how to deal with in any way except by turning
+it into dread.[52] Nor is the child's dread when it is alone pacified by
+the sight of any haphazard 'member of the herd', but on the contrary it
+is only brought into existence by the approach of a 'stranger' of this
+sort. Then for a long time nothing in the nature of herd instinct or
+group feeling is to be observed in children. Something like it grows up
+first of all, in a nursery containing many children, out of the
+children's relation to their parents, and it does so as a reaction to
+the initial envy with which the elder child receives the younger one.
+The elder child would certainly like to put its successor jealously
+aside, to keep it away from the parents, and to rob it of all its
+privileges; but in face of the fact that this child (like all that come
+later) is loved by the parents in just the same way, and in consequence
+of the impossibility of maintaining its hostile attitude without
+damaging itself, it is forced into identifying itself with the other
+children. So there grows up in the troop of children a communal or group
+feeling, which is then further developed at school. The first demand
+made by this reaction-formation is for justice, for equal treatment for
+all. We all know how loudly and implacably this claim is put forward at
+school. If one cannot be the favourite oneself, at all events nobody
+else shall be the favourite. This transformation--the replacing of
+jealousy by a group feeling in the nursery and classroom--might be
+considered improbable, if the same process could not later on be
+observed again in other circumstances. We have only to think of the
+troop of women and girls, all of them in love in an enthusiastically
+sentimental way, who crowd round a singer or pianist after his
+performance. It would certainly be easy for each of them to be jealous
+of the rest; but, in face of their numbers and the consequent
+impossibility of their reaching the aim of their love, they renounce it,
+and, instead of pulling out one another's hair, they act as a united
+group, do homage to the hero of the occasion with their common actions,
+and would probably be glad to have a share of his flowing locks.
+Originally rivals, they have succeeded in identifying themselves with
+one another by means of a similar love for the same object. When, as is
+usual, a situation in the field of the instincts is capable of various
+outcomes, we need not be surprised if the actual outcome is one which
+involves the possibility of a certain amount of satisfaction, while
+another, even though in itself more obvious, is passed over because the
+circumstances of life prevent its attaining this aim.
+
+What appears later on in society in the shape of _Gemeingeist_, _esprit
+de corps_, 'group spirit', etc., does not belie its derivation from what
+was originally envy. No one must want to put himself forward, every one
+must be the same and have the same. Social justice means that we deny
+ourselves many things so that others may have to do without them as
+well, or, what is the same thing, may not be able to ask for them. This
+demand for equality is the root of social conscience and the sense of
+duty. It reveals itself unexpectedly in the syphilitic's dread of
+infecting other people, which psycho-analysis has taught us to
+understand. The dread exhibited by these poor wretches corresponds to
+their violent struggles against the unconscious wish to spread their
+infection on to other people; for why should they alone be infected and
+cut off from so much? why not other people as well? And the same germ is
+to be found in the pretty anecdote of the judgement of Solomon. If one
+woman's child is dead, the other shall not have a live one either. The
+bereaved woman is recognized by this wish.
+
+Thus social feeling is based upon the reversal of what was first a
+hostile feeling into a positively-toned tie of the nature of an
+identification. So far as we have hitherto been able to follow the
+course of events, this reversal appears to be effected under the
+influence of a common tender tie with a person outside the group. We do
+not ourselves regard our analysis of identification as exhaustive, but
+it is enough for our present purpose that we should revert to this one
+feature--its demand that equalization shall be consistently carried
+through. We have already heard in the discussion of the two artificial
+groups, church and army, that their preliminary condition is that all
+their members should be loved in the same way by one person, the leader.
+Do not let us forget, however, that the demand for equality in a group
+applies only to its members and not to the leader. All the members must
+be equal to one another, but they all want to be ruled by one person.
+Many equals, who can identify themselves with one another, and a single
+person superior to them all--that is the situation that we find realised
+in groups which are capable of subsisting. Let us venture, then, to
+correct Trotter's pronouncement that man is a herd animal and assert
+that he is rather a horde animal, an individual creature in a horde led
+by a chief.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE GROUP AND THE PRIMAL HORDE
+
+
+In 1912 I took up a conjecture of Darwin's to the effect that the
+primitive form of human society was that of a horde ruled over
+despotically by a powerful male. I attempted to show that the fortunes
+of this horde have left indestructible traces upon the history of human
+descent; and, especially, that the development of totemism, which
+comprises in itself the beginnings of religion, morality, and social
+organisation, is connected with the killing of the chief by violence and
+the transformation of the paternal horde into a community of
+brothers.[53] To be sure, this is only a hypothesis, like so many others
+with which archaeologists endeavour to lighten the darkness of
+prehistoric times--a 'Just-So Story', as it was amusingly called by a
+not unkind critic (Kroeger); but I think it is creditable to such a
+hypothesis if it proves able to bring coherence and understanding into
+more and more new regions.
+
+Human groups exhibit once again the familiar picture of an individual of
+superior strength among a troop of similar companions, a picture which
+is also contained in our idea of the primal horde. The psychology of
+such a group, as we know it from the descriptions to which we have so
+often referred--the dwindling of the conscious individual personality,
+the focussing of thoughts and feelings into a common direction, the
+predominance of the emotions and of the unconscious mental life, the
+tendency to the immediate carrying out of intentions as they emerge--all
+this corresponds to a state of regression to a primitive mental
+activity, of just such a sort as we should be inclined to ascribe to the
+primal horde.[54]
+
+Thus the group appears to us as a revival of the primal horde. Just as
+primitive man virtually survives in every individual, so the primal
+horde may arise once more out of any random crowd; in so far as men are
+habitually under the sway of group formation we recognise in it the
+survival of the primal horde. We must conclude that the psychology of
+the group is the oldest human psychology; what we have isolated as
+individual psychology, by neglecting all traces of the group, has only
+since come into prominence out of the old group psychology, by a gradual
+process which may still, perhaps, be described as incomplete. We shall
+later venture upon an attempt at specifying the point of departure of
+this development.
+
+Further reflection will show us in what respect this statement requires
+correction. Individual psychology must, on the contrary, be just as old
+as group psychology, for from the first there were two kinds of
+psychologies, that of the individual members of the group and that of
+the father, chief, or leader. The members of the group were subject to
+ties just as we see them to-day, but the father of the primal horde was
+free. His intellectual acts were strong and independent even in
+isolation, and his will needed no reinforcement from others. Consistency
+leads us to assume that his ego had few libidinal ties; he loved no one
+but himself, or other people only in so far as they served his needs. To
+objects his ego gave away no more than was barely necessary.
+
+He, at the very beginning of the history of mankind, was the _Superman_
+whom Nietzsche only expected from the future. Even to-day the members of
+a group stand in need of the illusion that they are equally and justly
+loved by their leader; but the leader himself need love no one else, he
+may be of a masterly nature, absolutely narcissistic, but self-confident
+and independent. We know that love puts a check upon narcissism, and it
+would be possible to show how, by operating in this way, it became a
+factor of civilisation.
+
+The primal father of the horde was not yet immortal, as he later became
+by deification. If he died, he had to be replaced; his place was
+probably taken by a youngest son, who had up to then been a member of
+the group like any other. There must therefore be a possibility of
+transforming group psychology into individual psychology; a condition
+must be discovered under which such a transformation is easily
+accomplished, just as it is possible for bees in case of necessity to
+turn a larva into a queen instead of into a worker. One can imagine only
+one possibility: the primal father had prevented his sons from
+satisfying their directly sexual tendencies; he forced them into
+abstinence and consequently into the emotional ties with him and with
+one another which could arise out of those of their tendencies that were
+inhibited in their sexual aim. He forced them, so to speak, into group
+psychology. His sexual jealousy and intolerance became in the last
+resort the causes of group psychology.[55]
+
+Whoever became his successor was also given the possibility of sexual
+satisfaction, and was by that means offered a way out of the conditions
+of group psychology. The fixation of the libido to woman and the
+possibility of satisfaction without any need for delay or accumulation
+made and end of the importance of those of his sexual tendencies that
+were inhibited in their aim, and allowed his narcissism always to rise
+to its full height. We shall return in a postscript to this connection
+between love and character formation.
+
+We may further emphasize, as being specially instructive, the relation
+that holds between the contrivance by means of which an artificial group
+is held together and the constitution of the primal horde. We have seen
+that with an army and a church this contrivance is the illusion that
+the leader loves all of the individuals equally and justly. But this is
+simply an idealistic remodelling of the state of affairs in the primal
+horde, where all of the sons knew that they were equally persecuted by
+the primal father, and feared him equally. This same recasting upon
+which all social duties are built up is already presupposed by the next
+form of human society, the totemistic clan. The indestructible strength
+of the family as a natural group formation rests upon the fact that this
+necessary presupposition of the father's equal love can have a real
+application in the family.
+
+But we expect even more of this derivation of the group from the primal
+horde. It ought also to help us to understand what is still
+incomprehensible and mysterious in group formations--all that lies
+hidden behind the enigmatic words hypnosis and suggestion. And I think
+it can succeed in this too. Let us recall that hypnosis has something
+positively uncanny about it; but the characteristic of uncanniness
+suggests something old and familiar that has undergone repression.[56]
+Let us consider how hypnosis is induced. The hypnotist asserts that he
+is in possession of a mysterious power which robs the subject of his own
+will, or, which is the same thing, the subject believes it of him. This
+mysterious power (which is even now often described popularly as animal
+magnetism) must be the same that is looked upon by primitive people as
+the source of taboo, the same that emanates from kings and chieftains
+and makes it dangerous to approach them (_mana_). The hypnotist, then,
+is supposed to be in possession of this power; and how does he manifest
+it? By telling the subject to look him in the eyes; his most typical
+method of hypnotising is by his look. But it is precisely the sight of
+the chieftain that is dangerous and unbearable for primitive people,
+just as later that of the Godhead is for mortals. Even Moses had to act
+as an intermediary between his people and Jehovah, since the people
+could not support the sight of God; and when he returned from the
+presence of God his face shone--some of the _mana_ had been transferred
+on to him, just as happens with the intermediary among primitive
+people.[57]
+
+It is true that hypnosis can also be evoked in other ways, for instance
+by fixing the eyes upon a bright object or by listening to a monotonous
+sound. This is misleading and has given occasion to inadequate
+physiological theories. As a matter of fact these procedures merely
+serve to divert conscious attention and to hold it riveted. The
+situation is the same as if the hypnotist had said to the subject: 'Now
+concern yourself exclusively with my person; the rest of the world is
+quite uninteresting.' It would of course be technically inexpedient for
+a hypnotist to make such a speech; it would tear the subject away from
+his unconscious attitude and stimulate him to conscious opposition. The
+hypnotist avoids directing the subject's conscious thoughts towards his
+own intentions, and makes the person upon whom he is experimenting sink
+into an activity in which the world is bound to seem uninteresting to
+him; but at the same time the subject is in reality unconsciously
+concentrating his whole attention upon the hypnotist, and is getting
+into an attitude of _rapport_, of transference on to him. Thus the
+indirect methods of hypnotising, like many of the technical procedures
+used in making jokes, have the effect of checking certain distributions
+of mental energy which would interfere with the course of events in the
+unconscious, and they lead eventually to the same result as the direct
+methods of influence by means of staring or stroking.[58]
+
+Ferenczi has made the true discovery that when a hypnotist gives the
+command to sleep, which is often done at the beginning of hypnosis, he
+is putting himself in the place of the subject's parents. He thinks that
+two sorts of hypnosis are to be distinguished: one coaxing and soothing,
+which he considers is modelled upon the mother, and another threatening,
+which is derived from the father.[59] Now the command to sleep in
+hypnosis means nothing more nor less than an order to withdraw all
+interest from the world and to concentrate it upon the person of the
+hypnotist. And it is so understood by the subject; for in this
+withdrawal of interest from the outer world lies the psychological
+characteristic of sleep, and the kinship between sleep and the state of
+hypnosis is based upon it.
+
+By the measures that he takes, then, the hypnotist awakens in the
+subject a portion of his archaic inheritance which had also made him
+compliant towards his parents and which had experienced an individual
+re-animation in his relation to his father; what is thus awakened is the
+idea of a paramount and dangerous personality, towards whom only a
+passive-masochistic attitude is possible, to whom one's will has to be
+surrendered,--while to be alone with him, 'to look him in the face',
+appears a hazardous enterprise. It is only in some such way as this that
+we can picture the relation of the individual member of the primal horde
+to the primal father. As we know from other reactions, individuals have
+preserved a variable degree of personal aptitude for reviving old
+situations of this kind. Some knowledge that in spite of everything
+hypnosis is only a game, a deceptive renewal of these old impressions,
+may however remain behind and take care that there is a resistance
+against any too serious consequences of the suspension of the will in
+hypnosis.
+
+The uncanny and coercive characteristics of group formations, which are
+shown in their suggestion phenomena, may therefore with justice be
+traced back to the fact of their origin from the primal horde. The
+leader of the group is still the dreaded primal father; the group still
+wishes to be governed by unrestricted force; it has an extreme passion
+for authority; in Le Bon's phrase, it has a thirst for obedience. The
+primal father is the group ideal, which governs the ego in the place of
+the ego ideal. Hypnosis has a good claim to being described as a group
+of two; there remains as a definition for suggestion--a conviction which
+is not based upon perception and reasoning but upon an erotic tie.[60]
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+A DIFFERENTIATING GRADE IN THE EGO
+
+
+If we survey the life of an individual man of to-day, bearing in mind
+the mutually complementary accounts of group psychology given by the
+authorities, we may lose the courage, in face of the complications that
+are revealed, to attempt a comprehensive exposition. Each individual is
+a component part of numerous groups, he is bound by ties of
+identification in many directions, and he has built up his ego ideal
+upon the most various models. Each individual therefore has a share in
+numerous group minds--those of his race, of his class, of his creed, of
+his nationality, etc.--and he can also raise himself above them to the
+extent of having a scrap of independence and originality. Such stable
+and lasting group formations, with their uniform and constant effects,
+are less striking to an observer than the rapidly formed and transient
+groups from which Le Bon has made his brilliant psychological character
+sketch of the group mind. And it is just in these noisy ephemeral
+groups, which are as it were superimposed upon the others, that we are
+met by the prodigy of the complete, even though only temporary,
+disappearance of exactly what we have recognized as individual
+acquirements.
+
+We have interpreted this prodigy as meaning that the individual gives up
+his ego ideal and substitutes for it the group ideal as embodied in the
+leader. And we must add by way of correction that the prodigy is not
+equally great in every case. In many individuals the separation between
+the ego and the ego ideal is not very far advanced; the two still
+coincide readily; the ego has often preserved its earlier
+self-complacency. The selection of the leader is very much facilitated
+by this circumstance. He need only possess the typical qualities of the
+individuals concerned in a particularly clearly marked and pure form,
+and need only give an impression of greater force and of more freedom of
+libido; and in that case the need for a strong chief will often meet him
+half-way and invest him with a predominance to which he would otherwise
+perhaps have had no claim. The other members of the group, whose ego
+ideal would not, apart from this, have become embodied in his person
+without some correction, are then carried away with the rest by
+'suggestion', that is to say, by means of identification.
+
+We are aware that what we have been able to contribute towards the
+explanation of the libidinal structure of groups leads back to the
+distinction between the ego and the ego ideal and to the double kind of
+tie which this makes possible--identification, and substitution of the
+object for the ego ideal. The assumption of this kind of differentiating
+grade [_Stufe_] in the ego as a first step in an analysis of the ego
+must gradually establish its justification in the most various regions
+of psychology. In my paper 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus' I have put
+together all the pathological material that could at the moment be used
+in support of this separation. But it may be expected that when we
+penetrate deeper into the psychology of the psychoses its significance
+will be discovered to be far greater. Let us reflect that the ego now
+appears in the relation of an object to the ego ideal which has been
+developed out of it, and that all the interplay between an outer object
+and the ego as a whole, with which our study of the neuroses has made us
+acquainted, may possibly be repeated upon this new scene of action
+inside the ego.
+
+In this place I shall only follow up one of the consequences which seem
+possible from this point of view, thus resuming the discussion of a
+problem which I was obliged to leave unsolved elsewhere.[61] Each of the
+mental differentiations that we have become acquainted with represents a
+fresh aggravation of the difficulties of mental functioning, increases
+its instability, and may become the starting-point for its breakdown,
+that is, for the onset of a disease. Thus, by being born we have made
+the step from an absolutely self-sufficient narcissism to the perception
+of a changing outer world and to the beginnings of the discovery of
+objects. And with this is associated the fact that we cannot endure the
+new state of things for long, that we periodically revert from it, in
+our sleep, to our former condition of absence of stimulation and
+avoidance of objects. It is true, however, that in this we are following
+a hint from the outer world, which, by means of the periodical change of
+day and night, temporarily withdraws the greater part of the stimuli
+that affect us. The second example, which is pathologically more
+important, is not subject to any such qualification. In the course of
+our development we have effected a separation of our mental existence
+into a coherent ego and into an unconscious and repressed portion which
+is left outside it; and we know that the stability of this new
+acquisition is exposed to constant shocks. In dreams and in neuroses
+what is thus excluded knocks for admission at the gates, guarded though
+they are by resistances; and in our waking health we make use of special
+artifices for allowing what is repressed to circumvent the resistances
+and for receiving it temporarily into our ego to the increase of our
+pleasure. Wit and humour, and to some extent the comic in general, may
+be regarded in this light. Everyone acquainted with the psychology of
+the neuroses will think of similar examples of less importance; but I
+hasten on to the application I have in view.
+
+It is quite conceivable that the separation of the ego ideal from the
+ego cannot be borne for long either, and has to be temporarily undone.
+In all renunciations and limitations imposed upon the ego a periodical
+infringement of the prohibition is the rule; this indeed is shown by the
+institution of festivals, which in origin are nothing more nor less than
+excesses provided by law and which owe their cheerful character to the
+release which they bring.[62] The Saturnalia of the Romans and our
+modern carnival agree in this essential feature with the festivals of
+primitive people, which usually end in debaucheries of every kind and
+the transgression of what are at other times the most sacred
+commandments. But the ego ideal comprises the sum of all the limitations
+in which the ego has to acquiesce, and for that reason the abrogation of
+the ideal would necessarily be a magnificent festival for the ego, which
+might then once again feel satisfied with itself.[63]
+
+There is always a feeling of triumph when something in the ego coincides
+with the ego ideal. And the sense of guilt (as well as the sense of
+inferiority) can also be understood as an expression of tension between
+the ego and the ego ideal.
+
+It is well known that there are people the general colour of whose mood
+oscillates periodically from an excessive depression through some kind
+of intermediate state to an exalted sense of well-being. These
+oscillations appear in very different degrees of amplitude, from what is
+just noticeable to those extreme instances which, in the shape of
+melancholia and mania, make the most painful or disturbing inroads upon
+the life of the person concerned. In typical cases of this cyclical
+depression outer exciting causes do not seem to play any decisive part;
+as regards inner motives, nothing more (or nothing different) is to be
+found in these patients than in all others. It has consequently become
+the custom to consider these cases as not being psychogenic. We shall
+refer later on to those other exactly similar cases of cyclical
+depression which can nevertheless easily be traced back to mental
+traumata.
+
+Thus the foundation of these spontaneous oscillations of mood is
+unknown; we are without insight into the mechanism of the displacement
+of a melancholia by a mania. So we are free to suppose that these
+patients are people in whom our conjecture might find an actual
+application--their ego ideal might be temporarily resolved into their
+ego after having previously ruled it with especial strictness.
+
+Let us keep to what is clear: On the basis of our analysis of the ego it
+cannot be doubted that in cases of mania the ego and the ego ideal have
+fused together, so that the person, in a mood of triumph and
+self-satisfaction, disturbed by no self-criticism, can enjoy the
+abolition of his inhibitions, his feelings of consideration for others,
+and his self-reproaches. It is not so obvious, but nevertheless very
+probable, that the misery of the melancholiac is the expression of a
+sharp conflict between the two faculties of his ego, a conflict in which
+the ideal, in an excess of sensitiveness, relentlessly exhibits its
+condemnation of the ego in delusions of inferiority and in
+self-depreciation. The only question is whether we are to look for the
+causes of these altered relations between the ego and the ego ideal in
+the periodic rebellions, which we have postulated above, against the new
+institution, or whether we are to make other circumstances responsible
+for them.
+
+A change into mania is not an indispensable feature of the
+symptomatology of melancholic depression. There are simple melancholias,
+some in single and some in recurring attacks, which never show this
+development. On the other hand there are melancholias in which the
+exciting cause clearly plays an aetiological part. They are those which
+occur after the loss of a loved object, whether by death or as a result
+of circumstances which have necessitated the withdrawal of the libido
+from the object. A psychogenic melancholia of this sort can end in
+mania, and this cycle can be repeated several times, just as easily as
+in a case which appears to be spontaneous. Thus the state of things is
+somewhat obscure, especially as only a few forms and cases of
+melancholia have been submitted to psycho-analytical investigation.[64]
+So far we only understand those cases in which the object is given up
+because it has shown itself unworthy of love. It is then set up again
+inside the ego, by means of identification, and severely condemned by
+the ego ideal. The reproaches and attacks directed towards the object
+come to light in the shape of melancholic self-reproaches.[65]
+
+A melancholia of this kind may also end in a change to mania; so that
+the possibility of this happening represents a feature which is
+independent of the other characteristics in the symptomatology.
+
+Nevertheless I see no difficulty in assigning to the factor of the
+periodical rebellion of the ego against the ego ideal a share in both
+kinds of melancholia, the psychogenic as well as the spontaneous. In the
+spontaneous kind it may be supposed that the ego ideal is inclined to
+display a peculiar strictness, which then results automatically in its
+temporary suspension. In the psychogenic kind the ego would be incited
+to rebellion by ill-treatment on the part of its ideal--an ill-treatment
+which it encounters when there has been identification with a rejected
+object.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+
+In the course of the enquiry which has just been brought to a
+provisional end we came across a number of side-paths which we avoided
+pursuing in the first instance but in which there was much that offered
+us promises of insight. We propose now to take up a few of the points
+that have been left on one side in this way.
+
+A. The distinction between identification of the ego with an object and
+replacement of the ego ideal by an object finds an interesting
+illustration in the two great artificial groups which we began by
+studying, the army and the Christian church.
+
+It is obvious that a soldier takes his superior, that is, really, the
+leader of the army, as his ideal, while he identifies himself with his
+equals, and derives from this community of their egos the obligations
+for giving mutual help and for sharing possessions which comradeship
+implies. But he becomes ridiculous if he tries to identify himself with
+the general. The soldier in _Wallensteins Lager_ laughs at the sergeant
+for this very reason:
+
+    Wie er r�uspert und wie er spuckt,
+    Das habt ihr ihm gl�cklich abgeguckt![66]
+
+It is otherwise in the Catholic Church. Every Christian loves Christ as
+his ideal and feels himself united with all other Christians by the tie
+of identification. But the Church requires more of him. He has also to
+identify himself with Christ and love all other Christians as Christ
+loved them. At both points, therefore, the Church requires that the
+position of the libido which is given by a group formation should be
+supplemented. Identification has to be added where object-choice has
+taken place, and object love where there is identification. This
+addition evidently goes beyond the constitution of the group. One can be
+a good Christian and yet be far from the idea of putting oneself in
+Christ's place and of having like him an all-embracing love for mankind.
+One need not think oneself capable, weak mortal that one is, of the
+Saviour's largeness of soul and strength of love. But this further
+development in the distribution of libido in the group is probably the
+factor upon which Christianity bases its claim to have reached a higher
+ethical level.
+
+B. We have said that it would be possible to specify the point in the
+mental development of man at which the advance from group to individual
+psychology was also achieved by the individual members of the group.[67]
+
+For this purpose we must return for a moment to the scientific myth of
+the father of the primal horde. He was later on exalted into the creator
+of the world, and with justice, for he had produced all the sons who
+composed the first group. He was the ideal of each one of them, at once
+feared and honoured, a fact which led later to the idea of taboo. These
+many individuals eventually banded themselves together, killed him and
+cut him in pieces. None of the group of victors could take his place,
+or, if one of them did, the battles began afresh, until they understood
+that they must all renounce their father's heritage. They then formed
+the totemistic community of brothers, all with equal rights and united
+by the totem prohibitions which were to preserve and to expiate the
+memory of the murder. But the dissatisfaction with what had been
+achieved still remained, and it became the source of new developments.
+The persons who were united in this group of brothers gradually came
+towards a revival of the old state of things at a new level. Man became
+once more the chief of a family, and broke down the prerogatives of the
+gynaecocracy which had become established during the fatherless period.
+As a compensation for this he may at that time have acknowledged the
+mother deities, whose priests were castrated for the mother's
+protection, after the example that had been given by the father of the
+primal horde. And yet the new family was only a shadow of the old one;
+there were numbers of fathers and each one was limited by the rights of
+the others.
+
+It was then, perhaps, that some individual, in the exigency of his
+longing, may have been moved to free himself from the group and take
+over the father's part. He who did this was the first epic poet; and the
+advance was achieved in his imagination. This poet disguised the truth
+with lies in accordance with his longing. He invented the heroic myth.
+The hero was a man who by himself had slain the father--the father who
+still appeared in the myth as a totemistic monster. Just as the father
+had been the boy's first ideal, so in the hero who aspires to the
+father's place the poet now created the first ego ideal. The transition
+to the hero was probably afforded by the youngest son, the mother's
+favourite, whom she had protected from paternal jealousy, and who, in
+the era of the primal horde, had been the father's successor. In the
+lying poetic fancies of prehistoric times the woman, who had been the
+prize of battle and the allurement to murder, was probably turned into
+the seducer and instigator to the crime.
+
+The hero claims to have acted alone in accomplishing the deed, which
+certainly only the horde as a whole would have ventured upon. But, as
+Rank has observed, fairy tales have preserved clear traces of the facts
+which were disavowed. For we often find in them that the hero who has to
+carry out some difficult task (usually a youngest son, and not
+infrequently one who has represented himself to the father surrogate as
+being stupid, that is to say, harmless)--we often find, then, that this
+hero can carry out his task only by the help of a crowd of small
+animals, such as bees or ants. These would be the brothers in the primal
+horde, just as in the same way in dream symbolism insects or vermin
+signify brothers and sisters (contemptuously, considered as babies).
+Moreover every one of the tasks in myths and fairy tales is easily
+recognisable as a substitute for the heroic deed.
+
+The myth, then, is the step by which the individual emerges from group
+psychology. The first myth was certainly the psychological, the hero
+myth; the explanatory nature myth must have followed much later. The
+poet who had taken this step and had in this way set himself free from
+the group in his imagination, is nevertheless able (as Rank has further
+observed) to find his way back to it in reality. For he goes and relates
+to the group his hero's deeds which he has invented. At bottom this hero
+is no one but himself. Thus he lowers himself to the level of reality,
+and raises his hearers to the level of imagination. But his hearers
+understand the poet, and, in virtue of their having the same relation of
+longing towards the primal father, they can identify themselves with the
+hero.[68]
+
+The lie of the heroic myth culminates in the deification of the hero.
+Perhaps the deified hero may have been earlier than the Father God and
+may have been a precursor to the return of the primal father as a deity.
+The series of gods, then, would run chronologically: Mother
+Goddess--Hero--Father God. But it is only with the elevation of the
+never forgotten primal father that the deity acquires the features that
+we still recognise in him to-day.[69]
+
+C. A great deal has been said in this paper about directly sexual
+instincts and those that are inhibited in their aims, and it may be
+hoped that this distinction will not meet with too much resistance. But
+a detailed discussion of the question will not be out of place, even if
+it only repeats what has to a great extent already been said before.
+
+The development of the libido in children has made us acquainted with
+the first but also the best example of sexual instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims. All the feelings which a child has towards its
+parents and those who look after it pass by an easy transition into the
+wishes which give expression to the child's sexual tendencies. The child
+claims from these objects of its love all the signs of affection which
+it knows of; it wants to kiss them, touch them, and look at them; it is
+curious to see their genitals, and to be with them when they perform
+their intimate excremental functions; it promises to marry its mother or
+nurse--whatever it may understand by that; it proposes to itself to bear
+its father a child, etc. Direct observation, as well as the subsequent
+analytic investigation of the residue of childhood, leave no doubt as to
+the complete fusion of tender and jealous feelings and of sexual
+intentions, and show us in what a fundamental way the child makes the
+person it loves into the object of all its incompletely centred sexual
+tendencies.[70]
+
+This first configuration of the child's love, which in typical cases is
+co-ordinated with the Oedipus complex, succumbs, as we know, from the
+beginning of the period of latency onwards to a wave of repression. Such
+of it as is left over shows itself as a purely tender emotional tie,
+which relates to the same people, but is no longer to be described as
+'sexual'. Psycho-analysis, which illuminates the depths of mental life,
+has no difficulty in showing that the sexual ties of the earliest years
+of childhood also persist, though repressed and unconscious. It gives us
+courage to assert that wherever we come across a tender feeling it is
+the successor to a completely 'sensual' object tie with the person in
+question or rather with that person's prototype (or _imago_). It cannot
+indeed disclose to us without a special investigation whether in a given
+case this former complete sexual current still exists under repression
+or whether it has already been exhausted. To put it still more
+precisely: it is quite certain that it is still there as a form and
+possibility, and can always be charged with cathectic energy and put
+into activity again by means of regression; the only question is (and it
+cannot always be answered) what degree of cathexis and operative force
+it still has at the present moment. Equal care must be taken in this
+connection to avoid two sources of error--the Scylla of under-estimating
+the importance of the repressed unconscious, and the Charybdis of
+judging the normal entirely by the standards of the pathological.
+
+A psychology which will not or cannot penetrate the depths of what is
+repressed regards tender emotional ties as being invariably the
+expression of tendencies which have no sexual aim, even though they are
+derived from tendencies which have such an aim.[71]
+
+We are justified in saying that they have been diverted from these
+sexual aims, even though there is some difficulty in giving a
+representation of such a diversion of aim which will conform to the
+requirements of metapsychology. Moreover, those instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims always preserve some few of their original
+sexual aims; even an affectionate devotee, even a friend or an admirer,
+desires the physical proximity and the sight of the person who is now
+loved only in the 'Pauline' sense. If we choose, we may recognise in
+this diversion of aim a beginning of the _sublimation_ of the sexual
+instincts, or on the other hand we may fix the limits of sublimation at
+some more distant point. Those sexual instincts which are inhibited in
+their aims have a great functional advantage over those which are
+uninhibited. Since they are not capable of really complete
+satisfaction, they are especially adapted to create permanent ties;
+while those instincts which are directly sexual incur a loss of energy
+each time they are satisfied, and must wait to be renewed by a fresh
+accumulation of sexual libido, so that meanwhile the object may have
+been changed. The inhibited instincts are capable of any degree of
+admixture with the uninhibited; they can be transformed back into them,
+just as they arose out of them. It is well known how easily erotic
+wishes develop out of emotional relations of a friendly character, based
+upon appreciation and admiration, (compare Moli�re's 'Embrassez-moi pour
+l'amour du grec'), between a master and a pupil, between a performer and
+a delighted listener, and especially in the case of women. In fact the
+growth of emotional ties of this kind, with their purposeless
+beginnings, provides a much frequented pathway to sexual object-choice.
+Pfister, in his _Fr�mmigkeit des Grafen von Zinzendorf_,[72] has given
+an extremely clear and certainly not an isolated example of how easily
+even an intense religious tie can revert to ardent sexual excitement. On
+the other hand it is also very usual for directly sexual tendencies,
+short-lived in themselves, to be transformed into a lasting and purely
+tender tie; and the consolidation of a passionate love marriage rests
+to a large extent upon this process.
+
+We shall naturally not be surprised to hear that the sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims arise out of the directly sexual ones
+when inner or outer obstacles make the sexual aims unattainable. The
+repression during the period of latency is an inner obstacle of this
+kind--or rather one which has become inner. We have assumed that the
+father of the primal horde owing to his sexual intolerance compelled all
+his sons to be abstinent, and thus forced them into ties that were
+inhibited in their aims, while he reserved for himself freedom of sexual
+enjoyment and in this way remained without ties. All the ties upon which
+a group depends are of the character of instincts that are inhibited in
+their aims. But here we have approached the discussion of a new subject,
+which deals with the relation between directly sexual instincts and the
+formation of groups.
+
+D. The last two remarks will have prepared us for finding that directly
+sexual tendencies are unfavourable to the formation of groups. In the
+history of the development of the family there have also, it is true,
+been group relations of sexual love (group marriages); but the more
+important sexual love became for the ego, and the more it developed the
+characteristics of being in love, the more urgently it required to be
+limited to two people--_una cum uno_--as is prescribed by the nature of
+the genital aim. Polygamous inclinations had to be content to find
+satisfaction in a succession of changing objects.
+
+Two people coming together for the purpose of sexual satisfaction, in so
+far as they seek for solitude, are making a demonstration against the
+herd instinct, the group feeling. The more they are in love, the more
+completely they suffice for each other. The rejection of the group's
+influence is manifested in the shape of a sense of shame. The extremely
+violent feelings of jealousy are summoned up in order to protect the
+sexual object-choice from being encroached upon by a group tie. It is
+only when the tender, that is, the personal, factor of a love relation
+gives place entirely to the sensual one, that it is possible for two
+people to have sexual intercourse in the presence of others or for there
+to be simultaneous sexual acts in a group as occurs at an orgy. But at
+that point a regression has taken place to an early stage in sexual
+relations, at which being in love as yet played no part, and all sexual
+objects were judged to be of equal value, somewhat in the sense of
+Bernard Shaw's malicious aphorism to the effect that being in love means
+greatly exaggerating the difference between one woman and another.
+
+There are abundant indications that being in love only made its
+appearance late on in the sexual relations between men and women; so
+that the opposition between sexual love and group ties is also a late
+development. Now it may seem as though this assumption were incompatible
+with our myth of the primal family. For it was after all by their love
+for their mothers and sisters that the troop of brothers was, as we have
+supposed, driven to parricide; and it is difficult to imagine this love
+as being anything but unbroken and primitive--that is, as an intimate
+union of the tender and the sensual. But further consideration resolves
+this objection into a confirmation. One of the reactions to the
+parricide was after all the institution of totemistic exogamy; the
+prohibition of any sexual relation with those women of the family who
+had been tenderly loved since childhood. In this way a wedge was driven
+in between a man's tender and sensual feelings, one still firmly fixed
+in his erotic life to-day.[73] As a result of this exogamy the sensual
+needs of men had to be satisfied with strange and unloved women.
+
+In the great artificial groups, the church and the army, there is no
+room for woman as a sexual object. The love relation between men and
+women remains outside these organisations. Even where groups are formed
+which are composed of both men and women the distinction between the
+sexes plays no part. There is scarcely any sense in asking whether the
+libido which keeps groups together is of a homosexual or of a
+heterosexual nature, for it is not differentiated according to the
+sexes, and particularly shows a complete disregard for the aims of the
+genital organisation of the libido.
+
+Even in a person who has in other respects become absorbed in a group
+the directly sexual tendencies preserve a little of his individual
+activity. If they become too strong they disintegrate every group
+formation. The Catholic Church had the best of motives for recommending
+its followers to remain unmarried and for imposing celibacy upon its
+priests; but falling in love has often driven even priests to leave the
+church. In the same way love for women breaks through the group ties of
+race, of national separation, and of the social class system, and it
+thus produces important effects as a factor in civilization. It seems
+certain that homosexual love is far more compatible with group ties,
+even when it takes the shape of uninhibited sexual tendencies--a
+remarkable fact, the explanation of which might carry us far.
+
+The psycho-analytic investigation of the psycho-neuroses has taught us
+that their symptoms are to be traced back to directly sexual tendencies
+which are repressed but still remain active. We can complete this
+formula by adding to it: or, to tendencies inhibited in their aims,
+whose inhibition has not been entirely successful or has made room for
+a return to the repressed sexual aim. It is in accordance with this that
+a neurosis should make its victim asocial and should remove him from the
+usual group formations. It may be said that a neurosis has the same
+disintegrating effect upon a group as being in love. On the other hand
+it appears that where a powerful impetus has been given to group
+formation, neuroses may diminish and at all events temporarily
+disappear. Justifiable attempts have also been made to turn this
+antagonism between neuroses and group formation to therapeutic account.
+Even those who do not regret the disappearance of religious illusions
+from the civilized world of to-day will admit that so long as they were
+in force they offered those who were bound by them the most powerful
+protection against the danger of neurosis. Nor is it hard to discern in
+all the ties with mystico-religious or philosophico-religious sects and
+communities the manifestation of distorted cures of all kinds of
+neuroses. All of this is bound up with the contrast between directly
+sexual tendencies and those which are inhibited in their aims.
+
+If he is left to himself, a neurotic is obliged to replace by his own
+symptom formations the great group formations from which he is excluded.
+He creates his own world of imagination for himself, his religion, his
+own system of delusions, and thus recapitulates the institutions of
+humanity in a distorted way which is clear evidence of the dominating
+part played by the directly sexual tendencies.[74]
+
+E. In conclusion, we will add a comparative estimate, from the
+standpoint of the libido theory, of the states with which we have been
+concerned, of being in love, of hypnosis, of group formation, and of the
+neurosis.
+
+_Being in love_ is based upon the simultaneous presence of directly
+sexual tendencies and of sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their
+aims, so that the object draws a part of the narcissistic ego-libido to
+itself. It is a condition in which there is only room for the ego and
+the object.
+
+_Hypnosis_ resembles being in love in being limited to these two
+persons, but it is based entirely upon sexual tendencies that are
+inhibited in their aims and substitutes the object for the ego ideal.
+
+_The group_ multiplies this process; it agrees with hypnosis in the
+nature of the instincts which hold it together, and in the replacement
+of the ego ideal by the object; but to this it adds identification with
+other individuals, which was perhaps originally made possible by their
+having the same relation to the object.
+
+Both states, hypnosis and group formation, are an inherited deposit from
+the phylogenesis of the human libido--hypnosis in the form of a
+predisposition, and the group, besides this, as a direct survival. The
+replacement of the directly sexual tendencies by those that are
+inhibited in their aims promotes in both states a separation between the
+ego and the ego ideal, a separation with which a beginning has already
+been made in the state of being in love.
+
+_The neurosis_ stands outside this series. It also is based upon a
+peculiarity in the development of the human libido--the twice repeated
+start made by the directly sexual function, with an intervening period
+of latency.[75] To this extent it resembles hypnosis and group formation
+in having the character of a regression, which is absent from being in
+love. It makes its appearance wherever the advance from directly sexual
+instincts to those that are inhibited in their aims has not been
+completely successful; and it represents a _conflict_ between those
+instincts which have been received into the ego after having passed
+through this development and those portions of the same instincts which,
+like other instinctive desires that have been completely repressed,
+strive, from the repressed unconscious, to attain direct satisfaction.
+The neurosis is extraordinarily rich in content, for it embraces all
+possible relations between the ego and the object--both those in which
+the object is retained and others in which it is abandoned or erected
+inside the ego itself--and also the conflicting relations between the
+ego and its ego ideal.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+_Abraham_, 62, 108.
+
+Affectivity. _See under_ Emotion.
+
+Altruism, 57.
+
+Ambivalence, 18, 55, 61.
+
+Anaclitic type, 60.
+
+Archaic inheritance, 10, 99.
+
+Army 42-6, 89, 94, 110, 122.
+
+Autistic mental acts, 2.
+
+
+_Bernheim_, 35, 100
+
+_Bleuler_, 2.
+
+Brothers, 43, 114.
+  in Christ, 43.
+  Community of, 90, 112, 122.
+
+_Brugeilles_, 34.
+
+
+_Caesar_, 44.
+
+Cathexis, 18, 20, 28, 117.
+  Object-, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
+
+Catholic Church, 42-3, 111, 123.
+
+Celibacy of priests, 123.
+
+Censorship of dreams, 16, 69.
+
+Chieftains, Mana in, 96.
+
+Children, 14, 16, 18-19, 30, 67 82, 91.
+  Dread in, 83, 85-6.
+  Parents and, 54, 86, 116.
+  Sexual object of, 72, 116.
+  Unconscious of, 18.
+
+_Christ_, 42-5, 50, 111.
+  Equal love of, 50.
+  Identification with, 111.
+
+Church, 42-3, 89, 94, 110-11, 122-3.
+
+Commander-in-Chief, 42-5.
+
+Conflict, 18, 107, 126.
+
+Conscience, 10, 28, 68-9, 75, 79
+  Social, 88.
+
+Contagion, Emotional, 10-13, 27, 34-5, 46-7.
+
+Crowd, 1, 3, 26, 92.
+
+
+Danger, Effect on groups, 46-9.
+
+_Darwin_, 90.
+
+Delusions:
+  of inferiority, 107.
+  of observation, 69.
+
+Devotion to abstract idea, 17, 75.
+
+Doubt:
+  absence in groups, 15-16
+  interpretation in dreams, 15-16.
+
+Dread:
+  Children's, 83, 85-6.
+  in a group, 46-8, 50.
+  in an individual, 47-8.
+  Neurotic, 48.
+  of society, 10.
+  Panic, 45-9.
+
+Dream, 20, 69, 104.
+  Interpretation of doubt and uncertainty in, 15-16.
+  symbolism, 114.
+
+Duty, Sense of, 84, 88, 95.
+
+
+Ego, 10, 18-19, 62-70, 74, 84, 93, 100-9, 120, 125-7.
+  Relations between ego ideal and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
+  Relations between object and, 62-70, 74-6, 108-10.
+
+Ego ideal, 68-70, 74-7, 80, 100-3, 105-10, 113, 126-7.
+  Abrogation of the, 105.
+  Hypnotist in the place of, 77.
+  Object as substitute for, 74-6, 80, 103, 110.
+  Relations between ego and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
+  Testing reality of things, 77.
+  The first, 113.
+
+Egoism, 57.
+
+Emotion:
+  Ambivalent, 18, 55.
+  Charge of, 28.
+  Contagion of. _See_ Contagion.
+  Intensification of, in groups, 16, 23, 27-30, 33, 46, 81.
+  Primitive induction of, 27, 34, 46-7.
+  Tender, 72-3, 78, 116-17.
+
+Emotional tie, 40, 43, 45, 52-3, 59-60, 64-5, 81, 88, 91, 94, 100, 117-20.
+  Cessation of, 46-9.
+
+Empathy, relation to identification, 66, 70.
+
+Enthusiasm, in groups, 25.
+
+Envy, 87-8.
+
+Equality, demand for, 88, 89.
+
+Eros, 38-40.
+
+Esprit de corps, origin of, 87.
+
+Ethical:
+  conduct of a group, 18.
+  level of Christianity, 111.
+  standards of individual, 24-5.
+
+
+Fairy tales, the hero in, 114.
+
+Family, 70, 95, 100, 113, 120.
+  a group formation, 95.
+  and Christian community, 43.
+  and social instinct, 3.
+  Primal, 122.
+
+Fascination, 11, 13, 21, 75.
+
+Father, 43, 92, 98-9.
+  Equal love of, 95.
+  God, 115.
+  Identification with, 60-2.
+  Object tie with, 62.
+  Primal, 92, 94-5, 99-100, 112-13, 115, 120.
+    Deification of, 93, 115.
+    Killing the, 94, 112-13, 122.
+  Surrogate, 43, 114.
+
+_Federn, P._, 50.
+
+_Felszeghy, Bela v._, 48.
+
+_Ferenczi_, 76, 98.
+
+Festivals, 105.
+
+Folk-lore, 25.
+
+Folk-song, 25.
+
+French Revolution, 26.
+
+Function:
+  for testing reality, 20, 77.
+  (Instanz), 15.
+
+
+Gemeingeist, origin of, 87.
+
+Genital organisation, 19.
+
+God, 85, 96.
+  Father, 115.
+
+Gregariousness, 83-4, 92.
+
+Group:
+  Artificial, 41-2, 52, 82, 89, 94, 110, 122.
+  Different kinds of, 26, 41.
+  Disintegration of, 49-51.
+  Dread in, 47.
+  Equality in, 89.
+  feeling, 86-7, 121.
+  Heightened affectivity in. _See under_ Emotion.
+  ideal, 100, 102.
+  Intellectual capacity of, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.
+  Intensification of emotion in. _See under_ Emotion.
+  Leaders of. _See under_ Leader.
+  Libidinal structure of, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 51, 53-4, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
+  marriages, 120.
+  Mental change of the individual in, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
+  mind, 3, 5-27, 40, 49, 82.
+  Organisation in, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.
+  Primitive, 31, 33, 41, 80.
+  psychological character of, 6-32.
+  psychology, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92-4, 101, 112, 114.
+  Revolutionary, 26.
+  Sexual instincts and, 120.
+  spirit, 37.
+  Stable, 26, 41, 84, 101.
+  Suggestibility of, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.
+  Transient, 25, 41, 84, 101.
+
+Guilt, Sense of, 20, 63, 65, 84, 106.
+
+Gynaecocracy, 113.
+
+
+Hatred, 53, 56.
+
+_Hebbel_, 49.
+
+Herd, 83-5, 89.
+  instinct, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.
+
+Hero, 17, 113-15.
+
+Homosexuality, 57, 66-7, 94, 123.
+
+Horde Primal, 89-95, 99, 113-14, 120.
+  Father of the. _See under_ Father.
+
+Hypnosis, 10-13, 20-1, 77-9, 81, 95-100, 125-6.
+  a group of two, 78, 100.
+  and sleep, 79, 98.
+  of terror, 79.
+
+Hypnotist, 13, 77, 95-9.
+
+Hysteria, Identification in, 63-5.
+
+
+Idealisation, 74.
+  Identification, 59-70, 75-6, 84, 86-9, 94, 101-3, 111, 125.
+  Ambivalent, 61.
+  in hysterical symptom, 63-5.
+  Regression of object-choice to, 64.
+  with a lost or rejected object, 67-8, 108-9.
+  with Christ, 111.
+  with the father, 60-2.
+  with the hero, 115.
+  with the leader, 110-11.
+
+Imitation, 34-5, 65, 70.
+
+Individual:
+  a member of many groups, 101.
+  Dread in, 47-8.
+  Mental change in a group, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
+  Psychology, 1-2, 92-3, 112, 114.
+
+Induction of Emotion, 27, 34, 46-7.
+
+Infection, mental, 64-65.
+
+Inferiority, Delusions of, 57, 106-7.
+
+Inheritance, archaic, 10, 99.
+
+Inhibition:
+  Collective, of intellectual functioning, 23, 33.
+  Removal of, 17, 28, 33.
+
+Instinct:
+  Herd, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.
+  inhibited in aim, 72-3, 78, 115-26.
+  Life and death, 56.
+  Love, 37, 39, 58.
+  Nutrition, 85.
+  Primary, 84-5.
+  Self-preservative, 34, 85.
+  Sexual, 19, 39, 56, 71-8, 85-5, 94, 115-26.
+  Social, 3.
+  unhibited in aim, 73, 77-8, 94, 115-26.
+  Unconscious, 10.
+
+Intellectual ability, lowering of,
+  in groups, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.
+
+Introjection, of object into ego, 65, 67-8, 76.
+
+
+Jealousy, 121.
+
+
+Kings, Mana in, 96.
+
+_Kra[)s]kovi[)c], B. Jnr._, 23.
+
+_Kroeger_, 90.
+
+
+Language, 25, 38, 71.
+
+Latency, period of, 72, 117, 120, 126.
+
+Leader, 20-2, 41, 44-5, 78, 82, 85, 89, 92, 99, 110.
+  Abstractions as substitutes for, 53.
+  Equal love of, 93, 95.
+  Identification with, 110-11.
+  Killing the, 90.
+  Loss of, 49.
+  Negative, 53.
+  Prestige of, 21-2.
+  the group ideal, 100, 102, 110.
+  Tie with, 49, 52, 66.
+
+_Le Bon_, 5-25, 29, 34, 82, 84, 100-1.
+
+Libidinal:
+  structure of the group, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 53, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
+  The word, 44.
+  ties, 44, 56-8, 65, 93, 100.
+  in the group, 45, 51, 54.
+
+Libido, 33-40, 44, 57, 79, 83, 102, 111, 116, 119, 123, 126.
+  Narcissistic, 58, 74, 93, 104, 125.
+  Oral phase of, 61.
+  theory, 57, 83, 125.
+  Unification of, 19.
+  Withdrawal of, 108.
+
+Love, 37-40, 42, 73, 87, 108, 122.
+  a factor of civilisation, 57, 93.
+  and character formation, 94, 118-20.
+  and hatred, 56.
+  Being in, 58, 71-9, 120-1, 124-6.
+  Child's, 116-17.
+  Christ's, 43.
+  Equal, 42, 50, 89, 93.
+  Pauline, 118.
+  Self-. _See under_ Narcissism.
+  Sensual, 71-3, 78, 117.
+  Sexual, 37-8, 57, 120-2.
+  Sublimated homosexual, 57.
+  The word, 37-9, 71.
+  Unhappy, 75.
+  Unsensual, 73.
+
+
+_McDougall_, 1, 26-31, 34-6, 46-7, 49, 84.
+
+Magical power of words, 19.
+
+Magnetic influence, 11.
+
+Magnetism, animal, 96.
+
+Mana, 96.
+
+Mania, 106-9.
+
+_Marcuszewicz_, 68.
+
+Marriage, 54, 120.
+
+Melancholia, 68, 106-9.
+
+Metapsychology, 63, 118.
+
+_Moede, Walter_, 24.
+
+_Moli�re_, 119.
+
+Morality, Totemism the origin of, 90.
+
+Mother deities, 113, 115.
+
+Multicellularity, 7, 32, 83.
+
+Myth, 113-15.
+
+
+_Nachmansohn_, 39.
+
+Names, Taboo upon, 19.
+
+_Napoleon_, 44.
+
+Narcissism, 2, 38, 54-8, 69, 74-5, 93, 94, 104.
+
+_Nestroy_, 49.
+
+Neurosis, 18, 20, 37, 44, 58, 63, 103-4, 123-26.
+
+_Nietzsche_, 93.
+
+Nutrition, Instinct of, 84.
+
+
+Object, 57-8, 62, 68, 74, 87, 93, 104, 125, 127.
+  cathexis, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
+  Change of, 18, 119, 121.
+  Child's, 72.
+  -choice, 54, 62, 64, 74, 111, 119, 121.
+  Eating the, 61-62.
+  Hyper-cathexis of, 76.
+  Identification with ego, 108.
+  Less or Renunciation of, 68, 108.
+  -love, 56, 63, 74, 111.
+  Relations with the ego, 65, 67-8, 70, 76.
+  Sexual, 67, 72-3, 116.
+  Substituted for ego ideal, 74, 80, 103, 125.
+
+Observation, delusions of, 69.
+
+Oedipus complex, 60-61, 63, 66, 117.
+  Inverted, 62.
+
+Oral phase of organisation of the libido, 61.
+
+Organisation in groups, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.
+
+Orgy, 121.
+
+
+Panic, 45-9.
+
+Pan-sexualism, 39.
+
+_Paul, Saint_, 39, 118.
+
+_Pfister_, 39, 119.
+
+_Plato_, 38.
+
+Poet, the first epic, 113-114.
+
+Power, 9, 15, 28.
+  of leaders, 21.
+  of words, 19.
+
+Prestige, 21-2, 34.
+
+Primitive peoples, 14, 18-19, 24, 92, 96, 105.
+
+Psycho-Analysis, 4, 7, 14, 18, 36, 38-9, 59-60, 84, 97.
+
+Psychology:
+  Group, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92, 94, 101.
+  Group and individual, 1-2, 92-93, 112, 114.
+
+Psychoses, 66, 103.
+
+Puberty, 67, 72-73.
+
+
+Races, repugnance between related, 55.
+
+_Rank, Otto_, 112, 114.
+
+Rapport, 97.
+
+Reality:
+  Function for testing, 20, 77.
+  Contrast between Objective and Psychological, 20.
+
+Regression, 82, 91, 117, 121, 126.
+
+Religion, 51, 90.
+  Wars of, 51.
+
+Repressed:
+  Sexual tendencies, 74, 117, 123-4.
+  The, 10, 104, 117-18, 126.
+
+Repression, 9, 54, 64-5, 69, 72, 84, 95, 105, 117, 120.
+
+Resistance, 84, 104.
+
+Responsibility, Sense of, 9-10, 29-30.
+
+_Richter, Konrad_, 36.
+
+
+_Sachs, Hanns_, 16, 115.
+
+_Schopenhauer_, 54.
+
+Self-:
+  consciousness, 30-1.
+  depreciation, 107.
+  love. _See under_ Narcissism.
+  observation, 69.
+  preservation, 15, 34, 84-5.
+  sacrifice, 11, 38, 75.
+
+Sex, 39.
+
+Sexual:
+  act, 92, 121.
+  aims, 58, 72.
+    Diversion of instinct from, 58.
+    Infantile, 72.
+    Obstacles to, 120.
+  life, 19, 72.
+  over-estimation, 53-5.
+  Tendencies, Inhibited and uninhibited. 72-3, 77-8, 94, 115-16, 125-26.
+  union, 37-8.
+
+_Shaw, Bernard_, 121.
+
+_Sidis, Boris_, 84
+
+_Sighele_, 24-5.
+
+_Simmel, E._, 44.
+
+Sleep, 98, 104.
+  and hypnosis, 98.
+
+_Smith, Robertson_, 70.
+
+Social:
+  duties, 88, 95.
+  relations, 2-3, 57.
+
+Socialistic tie, 51.
+
+Society, 24, 26, 28, 90.
+  Dread of, 10.
+
+Sociology. _See under_ Group Psychology.
+
+Speech, 84.
+
+Sublimated:
+  devotion, 17, 75.
+  homosexual love, 57.
+
+Sublimation, 118.
+
+Suggestibility, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.
+
+Suggestion, 12-13, 17, 29, 34-7, 40, 82, 95, 99, 102.
+  Counter-, 35.
+  Definition for, 100.
+  Mutual, 12, 27, 34, 82.
+
+Superman, 93.
+
+
+Taboo, 19, 96, 112.
+
+_Tarde_, 34.
+
+Totemism, 90, 112-13.
+
+Totemistic:
+  clan, 95.
+  community of brothers, 112.
+  exogamy, 122.
+
+Tradition, 17, 21.
+  of the group, 31.
+  of the individual, 32.
+
+Transference, 97-8.
+
+_Trotter_, 32, 83-5, 89, 105.
+
+
+Uncanniness, 95, 99.
+
+Uncertainty, absence in groups, 15-16.
+  interpretation in dreams, 15-16.
+
+Unconscious, 8, 10, 12, 14-16, 18, 23-4, 64, 67, 72, 97, 100, 104.
+  Groups led by, 14.
+  instincts, 10.
+  _Le Bon's_, 10, 14, 24.
+  of children, 18, 117.
+  of neurotics, 18.
+  Racial, 9.
+
+
+_Wallenstein_, 44.
+
+War neuroses, 44.
+
+War, The, 44.
+
+_Wilson, President_, 44.
+
+Wishes, Affective cathexis of, 20.
+
+Words, magical power of, 19.
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY. Edited by ERNEST JONES
+
+     No. 1. ADDRESSES ON PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. BY J.J. Putnam, M.D. Emeritus
+     Professor of Neurology, Harvard University. With a Preface by Sigm.
+     Freud, M.D., LL.D.
+
+     No. 2. PSYCHO-ANALYSIS AND THE WAR NEUROSES. By Drs. S. Ferenczi
+     (Budapest), Karl Abraham (Berlin), Ernst Simmel (Berlin) and Ernest
+     Jones (London). Introduction by Prof. Sigm. Freud (Vienna).
+
+     No. 3. THE PSYCHO-ANALYTIC STUDY OF THE FAMILY. By J. C. Fl�gel,
+     B.A.
+
+     No. 4. BEYOND THE PLEASURE PRINCIPLE. By Sigm. Freud M.D., LL.D.
+     Authorized Translation from the second German Edition by C. J. M.
+     Hubback.
+
+     No. 5. ESSAYS IN APPLIED PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. By Ernest Jones M.D.
+     President of the International Psycho-Analytical Association.
+
+     No. 6. GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO. By Sigm. Freud
+     M.D., LL.D. Authorized Translation by James Strachey.
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS Directed by Sigm. Freud
+
+Official Organ of the INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL ASSOCIATION
+
+Edited by Ernest Jones President of the Association
+
+With the Assistance of DOUGLAS BRYAN, J. C. FL�GEL (London) A. A. BRILL,
+H. W. FRINK, C. P. OBERNDORF (New York)
+
+Issued Quarterly Subscription 30s. per Volume of Four Parts (c. 500 pp.)
+the parts not being sold separately.
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS
+
+Printed by K. Liebel in Vienna, II. Gro�e Mohrengasse 23
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] ['Group' is used throughout this translation as equivalent to the
+rather more comprehensive German '_Masse_'. The author uses this latter
+word to render both McDougall's 'group', and also Le Bon's '_foule_',
+which would more naturally be translated 'crowd' in English. For the
+sake of uniformity, however, 'group' has been preferred in this case as
+well, and has been substituted for 'crowd' even in the extracts from the
+English translation of Le Bon.--_Translator._.]
+
+[2] _The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind._ Fisher Unwin 12th.
+Impression, 1920.
+
+[3] [See footnote page 1.]
+
+[4] [References are to the English translation.--_Translator._]
+
+[5] [The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author, reads
+'_bewusster_'; the English translation has 'unconscious'; and the
+original French text '_inconscients_'.--_Translator._]
+
+[6] [The English translation reads 'which we ourselves ignore'--a
+misunderstanding of the French word '_ignor�es_'.--_Translator._]
+
+[7] There is some difference between Le Bon's view and ours owing to his
+concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding with the one adopted by
+psycho-analysis. Le Bon's unconscious more especially contains the most
+deeply buried features of the racial mind, which as a matter of fact
+lies outside the scope of psycho-analysis. We do not fail to recognize,
+indeed, that the ego's nucleus, which comprises the 'archaic
+inheritance' of the human mind, is unconscious; but in addition to this
+we distinguish the 'unconscious repressed', which arose from a portion
+of that inheritance. This concept of the repressed is not to be found in
+Le Bon.
+
+[8] Compare Schiller's couplet:
+
+  Jeder, sieht man ihn einzeln, ist leidlich klug und verst�ndig;
+        Sind sie in corpore, gleich wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus.
+  [Everyone, seen by himself, is passably shrewd and discerning;
+        When they're _in corpore_, then straightway you'll find he's an ass.]
+
+
+[9] 'Unconscious' is used here correctly by Le Bon in the descriptive
+sense, where it does not only mean the 'repressed'.
+
+[10] Compare _Totem und Tabu_, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und Allmacht der
+Gedanken.' [_Totem and Taboo._ New York, Moffat, 1918. London, Kegan
+Paul, 1919.]
+
+[11] [See footnote p. 69.]
+
+[12] In the interpretation of dreams, to which, indeed, we owe our best
+knowledge of unconscious mental life, we follow a technical rule of
+disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative of the dream, and of
+treating every element of the manifest dream as being quite certain. We
+attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of the censorship to
+which the dream-work is subjected, and we assume that the primary
+dream-thoughts are not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty as critical
+processes. They may naturally be present, like everything else, as part
+of the content of the day's residue which leads to the dream. (See _Die
+Traumdeutung_, 6. Auflage, 1921, S. 386. [_The Interpretation of
+Dreams._ Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 1913, p. 409.])
+
+[13] The same extreme and unmeasured intensification of every emotion is
+also a feature of the affective life of children, and it is present as
+well in dream life. Thanks to the isolation of the single emotions in
+the unconscious, a slight annoyance during the day will express itself
+in a dream as a wish for the offending person's death, or a breath of
+temptation may give the impetus to the portrayal in the dream of a
+criminal action. Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark on this
+point: 'If we try to discover in consciousness all that the dream has
+made known to us of its bearing upon the present (upon reality), we need
+not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under the microscope of
+analysis now reappears as an infusorium.' (_Die Traumdeutung_, S. 457.
+[Translation p. 493.])
+
+[14] In young children, for instance, ambivalent emotional attitudes
+towards those who are nearest to them exist side by side for a long
+time, without either of them interfering with the expression of the
+other and contrary one. If eventually a conflict breaks out between the
+two, it often settled by the child making a change of object and
+displacing one of the ambivalent emotions on to a substitute. The
+history of the development of a neurosis in an adult will also show that
+a suppressed emotion may frequently persist for a long time in
+unconscious or even in conscious phantasies, the content of which
+naturally runs directly counter to some predominant tendency, and yet
+that this antagonism does not result in any proceedings on the part of
+the ego against what it has repudiated. The phantasy is tolerated for
+quite a long time, until suddenly one day, usually as a result of an
+increase in the affective cathexis [see footnote page 48] of the
+phantasy, a conflict breaks out between it and the ego with all the
+usual consequences. In the process of a child's development into a
+mature adult there is a more and more extensive integration of its
+personality, a co-ordination of the separate instinctive feelings and
+desires which have grown up in him independently of one another. The
+analogous process in the domain of sexual life has long been known to us
+as the co-ordination of all the sexual instincts into a definitive
+genital organisation. (_Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905.
+[_Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory._ Nervous and Mental Disease
+Monograph Series, No. 7, 1910.]) Moreover, that the unification of the
+ego is liable to the same interferences as that of the libido is shown
+by numerous familiar instances, such as that of men of science who have
+preserved their faith in the Bible, and the like.
+
+[15] See Totem and Tabu.
+
+[16] [See footnote p. 48.]
+
+[17] B. Kra[)s]kovi[)c], jun.: _Die Psychologie der Kollektivit�ten_.
+Translated [into German] from the Croatian by Siegmund von Posavec.
+Vukovar, 1915. See the body of the work as well as the bibliography.
+
+[18] See Walter Moede: 'Die Massen-und Sozialpsychologie im kritischen
+�berblick.' Meumann and Scheibner's _Zeitschrift f�r p�dagogische
+Psychologie und experimentelle P�dagogik_. 1915, XVI.
+
+[19] Cambridge University Press, 1920.
+
+[20] _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin, 1916.
+
+[21] Brugeilles: 'L'essence du ph�nom�na social: la suggestion.' _Revue
+philosophique_, 1913, XXV.
+
+[22] Konrad Richter: 'Der deutsche S. Christoph.' Berlin, 1896, _Acta
+Germanica_, V, I.
+
+[23] [Literally:"Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the whole world;
+Say, where did Christopher then put his foot?']
+
+[24] Thus, McDougall: 'A Note on Suggestion.' _Journal of Neurology and
+Psychopathology_, 1920, Vol. I, No. I.
+
+[25] Nachmansohn: 'Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der Eroslehre
+Platos'. _Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse_, 1915, Bd. III;
+Pfister: 'Plato als Vorl�ufer der Psychoanalyse', ibid., 1921, Bd. VII.
+['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'. _International Journal of
+Psycho-Analysis_, 1922, Vol. III.]
+
+[26] 'Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not
+love, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'
+
+[27] [An idiom meaning 'for their sake'. Literally: 'for love of
+them'.--_Translator._]
+
+[28] An objection will justly be raised against this conception of the
+libidinal [see next foot-note] structure of an army on the ground that
+no place has been found in it for such ideas as those of one's country,
+of national glory, etc., which are of such importance in holding an army
+together. The answer is that that is a different instance of a group
+tie, and no longer such a simple one; for the examples of great
+generals, like Caesar, Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show that such ideas
+are not indispensable to the existence of an army. We shall presently
+touch upon the possibility of a leading idea being substituted for a
+leader and upon the relations between the two. The neglect of this
+libidinal factor in an army, even when it is not the only factor
+operative, seems to be not merely a theoretical omission but also a
+practical danger. Prussian militarism, which was just as unpsychological
+as German science, may have had to suffer the consequences of this in
+the great war. We know that the war neuroses which ravaged the German
+army have been recognized as being a protest of the individual against
+the part he was expected to play in the army; and according to the
+communication of E. Simmel (_Kriegsneurosen and 'Psychisches Trauma'._
+Munich, 1918), the hard treatment of the men by their superiors may be
+considered as foremost among the motive forces of the disease. If the
+importance of the libido's claims on this score had been better
+appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American President's fourteen
+points would probably not have been believed so easily, and the splendid
+instrument would not have broken in the hands of the German leaders.
+
+[29] [Here and elsewhere the German 'libidin�s' is used simply as an
+adjectival derivative from the technical term '_Libido_'; 'libidinal' is
+accordingly introduced in the translation in order to avoid the
+highly-coloured connotation of the English 'libidinous'.--_Translator._]
+
+[30] ['Cathexis', from the Greek 'katech�', 'I occupy'. The German word
+'_Besetzung_' has become of fundamental importance in the exposition of
+psycho-analytical theory. Any attempt at a short definition or
+description is likely to be misleading, but speaking very loosely, we
+may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy of an electric charge,
+and that it means the concentration or accumulation of mental energy in
+some particular channel. Thus, when we speak of the existence in someone
+of a libidinal cathexis of an object, or, more shortly, of an
+object-cathexis, we mean that the libidinal energy is directed towards,
+or rather infused into, the idea (_Vorstellung_) of some object in the
+outer world. Readers who desire to obtain a more precise knowledge of
+the term are referred to the discussions in 'Zur Einf�hrung des
+Narzissmus' and the essays on metapsychology in _Kleine Schriften zur
+Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge.--_Translator._]
+
+[31] See _Vorlesungen zur Einf�hrung in die Psychoanalyse_. XXV, 3.
+Auflage, 1920. [_Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis._ Lecture XXV.
+George Allen and Unwin, 1922.]
+
+[32] Compare Bela v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat fantastic
+paper 'Panik und Pankomplex'. _Imago_, 1920, Bd. VI.
+
+[33] Compare the explanation of similar phenomena after the abolition of
+the paternal authority of the sovereign given in P. Federn's _Die
+vaterlose Gesellschaft_. Vienna, Anzengruber-Verlag, 1919.
+
+[34] 'A company of porcupines crowded themselves very close together one
+cold winter's day so as to profit by one another's warmth and so save
+themselves from being frozen to death. But soon they felt one another's
+quills, which induced them to separate again. And now, when the need for
+warmth brought them nearer together again, the second evil arose once
+more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards from one trouble
+to the other, until they had discovered a mean distance at which they
+could most tolerably exist.' (_Parerga und Paralipomena_, II. Teil,
+XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.)
+
+[35] Perhaps with the solitary exception of the relation of a mother to
+her son, which is based upon narcissism, is not disturbed by subsequent
+rivalry, and is reinforced by a rudimentary attempt at sexual
+object-choice.
+
+[36] In a recently published study, _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_ (1920)
+[_Beyond the Pleasure Principle_, International Psycho-Analytical
+Library, No. 4], I have attempted to connect the polarity of love and
+hatred with a hypothetical opposition between instincts of life and
+death, and to establish the sexual instincts as the purest examples of
+the former, the instincts of life.
+
+[37] See 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus', 1914. _Kleine Schriften zur
+Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[38] [Literally, 'leaning-up-against type'; from the Greek 'anaklino' 'I
+lean up against'. In the first phase of their development the sexual
+instincts have no independent means of finding satisfaction; they do so
+by propping themselves upon or 'leaning up against' the
+self-preservative instincts. The individual's first choice of a sexual
+object is said to be of the 'anaclitic type' when it follows this path;
+that is, when he choses as his first sexual object the same person who
+has satisfied his early non-sexual needs. For a full discussion of the
+anaclitic and narcissistic types of object-choice compare 'Zur
+Einf�hrung des Narzissmus.--_Translator._]
+
+[39] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, and Abraham's
+'Untersuchungen �ber die fr�heste pr�genitale Entwicklungsstufe der
+Libido', _Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse_, 1916, Bd, IV;
+also included in his _Klinische Beitr�ge zur Psychoanalyse_
+(Internationale psychoanalytische Bibliothek. Nr. 10, 1921).
+
+[40] [_Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre._ Zweite Folge.]
+
+[41] Marcuszewicz: 'Beitrag zum autistischen Denken bei Kindern.'
+_Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI.
+
+[42] ['Trauer und Melancholie.' _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_,
+Vierte Folge, 1918.]
+
+[43] ['_Instanz_'--like 'instance' in the phrase 'court of first
+instance'--was originally a legal term. It is now used in the sense of
+one of a hierarchy of authorities or functions.--_Translator._]
+
+[44] 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus', 'Trauer und Melancholie.'
+
+[45] 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus.'
+
+[46] We are very well aware that we have not exhausted the nature of
+identification with these samples taken from pathology, and that we have
+consequently left part of the riddle of group formations untouched. A
+far more fundamental and comprehensive psychological analysis would have
+to intervene at this point. A path leads from identification by way of
+imitation to empathy, that is, to the comprehension of the mechanism by
+means of which we are enabled to take up any attitude at all towards
+another mental life. Moreover there is still much to be explained in the
+manifestations of existing identifications. These result among other
+things in a person limiting his aggressiveness towards those with whom
+he has identified himself, and in his sparing them and giving them help.
+The study of such identifications, like those, for instance, which lie
+at the root of clan feeling, led Robertson Smith to the surprising
+result that they rest upon the recognition of a common substance
+(_Kinship and Marriage_, 1885), and may even therefore be brought about
+by a meal eaten in common. This feature makes it possible to connect
+this kind of identification with the early history of the human family
+which I constructed in _Totem und Tabu_.
+
+[47] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, l.c.
+
+[48] '�ber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.' _Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[49] Cf. 'Metapsychologische Erg�nzung zur Traumlehre.' _Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[50] W. Trotter: _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin,
+1916.
+
+[51] See my essay _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_.
+
+[52] See the remarks upon Dread in _Vorlesungen zur Einf�hrung in die
+Psychoanalyse_. XXV.
+
+[53] _Totem und Tabu._
+
+[54] What we have just described in our general characterisation of
+mankind must apply especially to the primal horde. The will of the
+individual was too weak; he did not venture upon action. No impulses
+whatever came into play except collective ones; there was only a common
+will, there were no single ones. An idea did not dare to turn itself
+into a volition unless it felt itself reinforced by a perception of its
+general diffusion. This weakness of the idea is to be explained by the
+strength of the emotional tie which is shared by all the members of the
+horde; but the similarity in the circumstances of their life and the
+absence of any private property assist in determining the uniformity of
+their individual mental acts. As we may observe with children and
+soldiers, common activity is not excluded even in the excremental
+functions. The one great exception is provided by the sexual act, in
+which a third person is at the best superfluous and in the extreme case
+is condemned to a state of painful expectancy. As to the reaction of the
+sexual need (for genital gratification) towards gregariousness, see
+below.
+
+[55] It may perhaps also be assumed that the sons, when they were driven
+out and separated from their father, advanced from identification with
+one another to homosexual object love, and in this way won freedom to
+kill their father.
+
+[56] 'Das Unheimliche.' _Imago_, 1919, Bd. V.
+
+[57] See _Totem und Tabu_ and the sources there quoted.
+
+[58] This situation, in which the subject's attitude is unconsciously
+directed towards the hypnotist, while he is consciously occupied with
+the monotonous and uninteresting perceptions, finds a parallel among the
+events of psycho-analytic treatment, which deserves to be mentioned
+here. At least once in the course of every analysis a moment comes when
+the patient obstinately maintains that just now positively nothing
+whatever occurs to his mind. His free associations come to a stop and
+the usual incentives for putting them in motion fail in their effect. As
+a result of pressure the patient is at last induced to admit that he is
+thinking of the view from the consulting-room window, of the wall-paper
+that he sees before him, or of the gas-lamp hanging from the ceiling.
+Then one knows at once that he has gone off into the transference and
+that he is engaged upon what are still unconscious thoughts relating to
+the physician; and one sees the stoppage in the patient's associations
+disappear, as soon as he has been given this explanation.
+
+[59] Ferenczi: 'Introjektion und �bertragung.' _Jahrbuch der
+Psychoanalyse_, 1909, Bd. I [_Contributions to Psycho-Analysis._ Boston,
+Badger, 1916, Chapter II.]
+
+[60] It seems to me worth emphasizing the fact that the discussions in
+this section have induced us to give up Bernheim's conception of
+hypnosis and go back to the _na�f_ earlier one. According to Bernheim
+all hypnotic phenomena are to be traced to the factor of suggestion,
+which is not itself capable of further explanation. We have come to the
+conclusion that suggestion is a partial manifestation of the state of
+hypnosis, and that hypnosis is solidly founded upon a predisposition
+which has survived in the unconscious from the early history of the
+human family.
+
+[61] 'Trauer und Melancholie.'
+
+[62] _Totem und Tabu._
+
+[63] Trotter traces repression back to the herd instinct. It is a
+translation of this into another form of expression rather than a
+contradiction when I say in my 'Einf�hrung des Narzissmus' that on the
+part of the ego the construction of an ideal is the condition of
+repression.
+
+[64] Cf. Abraham: 'Ans�tze zur psychoanalytischen Erforschung und
+Behandlung des manisch-depressiven Irreseins', 1912, in _Klinische
+Beitr�ge zur Psychoanalyse_, 1921.
+
+[65] To speak more accurately, they conceal themselves behind the
+reproaches directed towards the person's own ego, and lend them the
+fixity, tenacity, and imperativeness which characterize the
+self-reproaches of a melancholiac.
+
+[66] [Literally: 'How he clears his throat and how he spits, that you
+have cleverly copied from him.']
+
+[67] What follows at this point was written under the influence of an
+exchange of ideas with Otto Rank.
+
+[68] Cf. Hanns Sachs: 'Gemeinsame Tagtr�ume', a summary made by the
+lecturer himself of a paper read at the Sixth Psycho-analytical
+Congress, held at the Hague in 1920. _Internationale Zeitschrift f�r
+Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI. ['Day-Dreams in Common'. _International
+Journal of Psycho-Analysis_, 1920, Vol. I.]
+
+[69] In this brief exposition I have made no attempt to bring forward
+any of the material existing in legends, myths, fairy tales, the history
+of manners, etc., in support of the construction.
+
+[70] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_.
+
+[71] Hostile feelings, which are a little more complicated in their
+construction, offer no exception to this rule.
+
+[72] [_Schriften zur angewandten Seelenkunde._ Heft 8. Vienna, Deuticke,
+1910.]
+
+[73] See '�ber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.'
+
+[74] See _Totem und Tabu_, towards the end of Part II, 'Das Tabu und die
+Ambivalenz'.
+
+[75] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 4. Auflage, 1920, S. 96.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego, by 
+Sigmund Freud
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
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+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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+Title: Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego
+
+Author: Sigmund Freud
+
+Translator: James Strachey
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2011 [EBook #35877]
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+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p class="cb">THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY<br />
+No. 6</p>
+
+<h1>GROUP PSYCHOLOGY<br />
+<small>AND<br />
+THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO</small></h1>
+
+<p class="cb">BY<br />
+SIGM. FREUD, M. D., LL. D.</p>
+
+<p class="cb"><small>AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION<br />
+BY<br />
+JAMES STRACHEY</small></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 75px;">
+<img src="images/colophon.png" width="75" height="75" alt="colophon" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="c">THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS<br />
+LONDON &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;MCMXXII &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; VIENNA</p>
+
+<p class="c">Copyright 1922</p>
+
+<h3><a name="TRANSLATORS_NOTE" id="TRANSLATORS_NOTE"></a>TRANSLATOR'S NOTE</h3>
+
+<p>A comparison of the following pages with the German original
+(<i>Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse</i>, Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
+Verlag, Vienna, 1921) will show that certain passages have been
+transferred in the English version from the text to the footnotes. This
+alteration has been carried out at the author's express desire.</p>
+
+<p>All technical terms have been translated in accordance with the Glossary
+to be published as a supplement to the <i>International Journal of
+Psycho-Analysis</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="r">J. S.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="right" colspan="3"><small>Page</small></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#I">I</a></td><td>Introduction </td><td align="right"><a href="#page_001">1</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#II">II</a></td><td>Le Bon's Description of the Group Mind</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_005">5</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#III">III</a></td><td>Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_023">23</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#IV">IV</a></td><td>Suggestion and Libido</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_033">33</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#V">V</a></td><td>Two Artificial Groups: the Church and the Army</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_041">41</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#VI">VI</a></td><td>Further Problems and Lines of Work</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#VII">VII</a></td><td>Identification</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#VIII">VIII</a></td><td>Being in Love and Hypnosis</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_071">71</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#IX">IX</a></td><td>The Herd Instinct</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_081">81</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#X">X</a></td><td>The Group and the Primal Horde</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_090">90</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#XI">XI</a></td><td>A Differentiating Grade in the Ego</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#XII">XII</a></td><td>Postscript</td><td align="right"><a href="#page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan="2"><a href="#FOOTNOTES">Footnotes</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan="2"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><a name="page_001" id="page_001"></a></p>
+
+<h1>GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO</h1>
+
+<h3><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br /><br />
+INTRODUCTION</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">The contrast between Individual Psychology and Social or Group<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+Psychology, which at a first glance may seem to be full of significance,
+loses a great deal of its sharpness when it is examined more closely. It
+is true that Individual Psychology is concerned with the individual man
+and explores the paths by which he seeks to find satisfaction for his
+instincts; but only rarely and under certain exceptional conditions is
+Individual Psychology in a position to disregard the relations of this
+individual to others. In the individual's mental life someone else is
+invariably involved, as a<a name="page_002" id="page_002"></a> model, as an object, as a helper, as an
+opponent, and so from the very first Individual Psychology is at the
+same time Social Psychology as well&mdash;in this extended but entirely
+justifiable sense of the words.</p>
+
+<p>The relations of an individual to his parents and to his brothers and
+sisters, to the object of his love, and to his physician&mdash;in fact all
+the relations which have hitherto been the chief subject of
+psycho-analytic research&mdash;may claim to be considered as social
+phenomena; and in this respect they may be contrasted with certain other
+processes, described by us as 'narcissistic', in which the satisfaction
+of the instincts is partially or totally withdrawn from the influence of
+other people. The contrast between social and narcissistic&mdash;Bleuler
+would perhaps call them 'autistic'&mdash;mental acts therefore falls wholly
+within the domain of Individual Psychology, and is not well calculated
+to differentiate it from a Social or Group Psychology.</p>
+
+<p>The individual in the relations which have already been mentioned&mdash;to
+his parents and to his brothers and sisters, to the person he is in love
+with, to his friend, and to his physician&mdash;comes under the influence of
+only a single person, or of a very small number of persons, each one of
+whom has become enormously important to him. Now in speaking of Social
+or Group Psychology it has become usual to leave these relations on one
+side and to isolate as the subject of<a name="page_003" id="page_003"></a> inquiry the influencing of an
+individual by a large number of people simultaneously, people with whom
+he is connected by something, though otherwise they may in many respects
+be strangers to him. Group Psychology is therefore concerned with the
+individual man as a member of a race, of a nation, of a caste, of a
+profession, of an institution, or as a component part of a crowd of
+people who have been organised into a group at some particular time for
+some definite purpose. When once natural continuity has been severed in
+this way, it is easy to regard the phenomena that appear under these
+special conditions as being expressions of a special instinct that is
+not further reducible, the social instinct ('herd instinct', 'group
+mind'), which does not come to light in any other situations. But we may
+perhaps venture to object that it seems difficult to attribute to the
+factor of number a significance so great as to make it capable by itself
+or arousing in our mental life a new instinct that is otherwise not
+brought into play. Our expectation is therefore directed towards two
+other possibilities: that the social instinct may not be a primitive one
+and insusceptible of dissection, and that it may be possible to discover
+the beginnings of its development in a narrower circle, such as that of
+the family.</p>
+
+<p>Although Group Psychology is only in its infancy, it embraces an immense
+number of separate issues<a name="page_004" id="page_004"></a> and offers to investigators countless
+problems which have hitherto not even been properly distinguished from
+one another. The mere classification of the different forms of group
+formation and the description of the mental phenomena produced by them
+require a great expenditure of observation and exposition, and have
+already given rise to a copious literature. Anyone who compares the
+narrow dimensions of this little book with the extent of Group
+Psychology will at once be able to guess that only a few points chosen
+from the whole material are to be dealt with here. And they will in fact
+only be a few questions with which the depth-psychology of
+psycho-analysis is specially concerned.<a name="page_005" id="page_005"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br /><br />
+LE BON'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUP MIND</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">Instead of starting from a definition, it seems more useful to begin
+with some indication of the range of the phenomena under review, and to
+select from among them a few specially striking and characteristic facts
+to which our inquiry can be attached. We can achieve both of these aims
+by means of quotation from Le Bon's deservedly famous work <i>Psychologie
+des foules</i>.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p>Let us make the matter clear once again. If a Psychology, concerned with
+exploring the predispositions, the instincts, the motives and the aims
+of an individual man down to his actions and his relations with those
+who are nearest to him, had completely achieved its task, and had
+cleared up the whole of these matters with their inter-connections, it
+would then suddenly find itself confronted by a new task which would lie
+before it unachieved. It would be<a name="page_006" id="page_006"></a> obliged to explain the surprising
+fact that under a certain condition this individual whom it had come to
+understand thought, felt, and acted in quite a different way from what
+would have been expected. And this condition is his insertion into a
+collection of people which has acquired the characteristic of a
+'psychological group'. What, then, is a 'group'? How does it acquire the
+capacity for exercising such a decisive influence over the mental life
+of the individual? And what is the nature of the mental change which it
+forces upon the individual?</p>
+
+<p>It is the task of a theoretical Group Psychology to answer these three
+questions. The best way of approaching them is evidently to start with
+the third. Observation of the changes in the individual's reactions is
+what provides Group Psychology with its material; for every attempt at
+an explanation must be preceded by a description of the thing that is to
+be explained.</p>
+
+<p>I will now let Le Bon speak for himself. He says: 'The most striking
+peculiarity presented by a psychological group<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> is the following.
+Whoever be the individuals that compose it, however like or unlike be
+their mode of life, their occupations, their character, or their
+intelligence, the fact that they have been transformed into a group puts
+them in possession of a sort of collective mind which makes<a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a> them feel,
+think, and act in a manner quite different from that in which each
+individual of them would feel, think, and act were he in a state of
+isolation. There are certain ideas and feelings which do not come into
+being, or do not transform themselves into acts except in the case of
+individuals forming a group. The psychological group is a provisional
+being formed of heterogeneous elements, which for a moment are combined,
+exactly as the cells which constitute a living body form by their
+reunion a new being which displays characteristics very different from
+those possessed by each of the cells singly.' (p. 29.)<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>We shall take the liberty of interrupting Le Bon's exposition with
+glosses of our own, and shall accordingly insert an observation at this
+point. If the individuals in the group are combined into a unity, there
+must surely be something to unite them, and this bond might be precisely
+the thing that is characteristic of a group. But Le Bon does not answer
+this question; he goes on to consider the alteration which the
+individual undergoes when in a group and describes it in terms which
+harmonize well with the fundamental postulates of our own
+depth-psychology.</p>
+
+<p>'It is easy to prove how much the individual forming part of a group
+differs from the isolated individual, but it is less easy to discover
+the causes of this difference.<a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a></p>
+
+<p>'To obtain at any rate a glimpse of them it is necessary in the first
+place to call to mind the truth established by modern psychology, that
+unconscious phenomena play an altogether preponderating part not only in
+organic life, but also in the operations of the intelligence. The
+conscious life of the mind is of small importance in comparison with its
+unconscious life. The most subtle analyst, the most acute observer, is
+scarcely successful in discovering more than a very small number of the
+conscious<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> motives that determine his conduct. Our conscious acts are
+the outcome of an unconscious substratum created in the mind in the main
+by hereditary influences. This substratum consists of the innumerable
+common characteristics handed down from generation to generation, which
+constitute the genius of a race. Behind the avowed causes of our acts
+there undoubtedly lie secret causes that we do not avow, but behind
+these secret causes there are many others more secret still, of which we
+ourselves are ignorant.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> The greater part of our daily actions are the
+result of hidden motives which escape our observation.' (p. 30.)<a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a></p>
+
+<p>Le Bon thinks that the particular acquirements of individuals become
+obliterated in a group, and that in this way their distinctiveness
+vanishes. The racial unconscious emerges; what is heterogeneous is
+submerged in what is homogeneous. We may say that the mental
+superstructure, the development of which in individuals shows such
+dissimilarities, is removed, and that the unconscious foundations, which
+are similar in everyone, stand exposed to view.</p>
+
+<p>In this way individuals in a group would come to show an average
+character. But Le Bon believes that they also display new
+characteristics which they have not previously possessed, and he seeks
+the reason for this in three different factors.</p>
+
+<p>'The first is that the individual forming part of a group acquires,
+solely from numerical considerations, a sentiment of invincible power
+which allows him to yield to instincts which, had he been alone, he
+would perforce have kept under restraint. He will be the less disposed
+to check himself from the consideration that, a group being anonymous,
+and in consequence irresponsible, the sentiment of responsibility which
+always controls individuals disappears entirely.' (p. 33.)</p>
+
+<p>From our point of view we need not attribute so much importance to the
+appearance of new characteristics. For us it would be enough to say that
+in a group the individual is brought under conditions which allow him to
+throw off the repressions<a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a> of his unconscious instincts. The apparently
+new characteristics which he then displays are in fact the
+manifestations of this unconscious, in which all that is evil in the
+human mind is contained as a predisposition. We can find no difficulty
+in understanding the disappearance of conscience or of a sense of
+responsibility in these circumstances. It has long been our contention
+that 'dread of society [<i>soziale Angst</i>]' is the essence of what is
+called conscience.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>'The second cause, which is contagion, also intervenes to determine the
+manifestation in groups of their special characteristics, and at the
+same time the trend they are to take. Contagion is a phenomenon of which
+it is easy to establish the presence, but that it is not easy to
+explain. It must be classed among those phenomena of a hypnotic order,
+which we shall shortly study. In a group every sentiment and act is
+contagious, and contagious to such a<a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a> degree that an individual readily
+sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an
+aptitude very contrary to his nature, and of which a man is scarcely
+capable, except when he makes part of a group.' (p. 33.)</p>
+
+<p>We shall later on base an important conjecture upon this last statement.</p>
+
+<p>'A third cause, and by far the most important, determines in the
+individuals of a group special characteristics which are quite contrary
+at times to those presented by the isolated individual. I allude to that
+suggestibility of which, moreover, the contagion mentioned above is only
+an effect.</p>
+
+<p>'To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to bear in mind certain
+recent physiological discoveries. We know to-day that by various
+processes an individual may be brought into such a condition that,
+having entirely lost his conscious personality, he obeys all the
+suggestions of the operator who has deprived him of it, and commits acts
+in utter contradiction with his character and habits. The most careful
+investigations seem to prove that an individual immersed for some length
+of time in a group in action soon finds himself&mdash;either in consequence
+of the magnetic influence given out by the group, or from some other
+cause of which we are ignorant&mdash;in a special state, which much resembles
+the state of fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds<a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a>
+himself in the hands of the hypnotiser.... The conscious personality has
+entirely vanished; will and discernment are lost. All feelings and
+thoughts are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser.</p>
+
+<p>'Such also is approximately the state of the individual forming part of
+a psychological group. He is no longer conscious of his acts. In his
+case, as in the case of the hypnotised subject, at the same time that
+certain faculties are destroyed, others may be brought to a high degree
+of exaltation. Under the influence of a suggestion, he will undertake
+the accomplishment of certain acts with irresistible impetuosity. This
+impetuosity is the more irresistible in the case of groups than in that
+of the hypnotised subject, from the fact that, the suggestion being the
+same for all the individuals of the group, it gains in strength by
+reciprocity.' (p. 34.)</p>
+
+<p>'We see, then, that the disappearance of the conscious personality, the
+predominance of the unconscious personality, the turning by means of
+suggestion and contagion of feelings and ideas in an identical
+direction, the tendency to immediately transform the suggested ideas
+into acts; these, we see, are the principal characteristics of the
+individual forming part of a group. He is no longer himself, but has
+become an automaton who has ceased to be guided by his will.' (p. 35.)<a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a></p>
+
+<p>I have quoted this passage so fully in order to make it quite clear that
+Le Bon explains the condition of an individual in a group as being
+actually hypnotic, and does not merely make a comparison between the two
+states. We have no intention of raising any objection at this point, but
+wish only to emphasize the fact that the two last causes of an
+individual becoming altered in a group (the contagion and the heightened
+suggestibility) are evidently not on a par, since the contagion seems
+actually to be a manifestation of the suggestibility. Moreover the
+effects of the two factors do not seem to be sharply differentiated in
+the text of Le Bon's remarks. We may perhaps best interpret his
+statement if we connect the contagion with the effects of the individual
+members of the group upon one another, while we point to another source
+for those manifestations of suggestion in the group which are put on a
+level with the phenomena of hypnotic influence. But to what source? We
+cannot avoid being struck with a sense of deficiency when we notice that
+one of the chief elements of the comparison, namely the person who is to
+replace the hypnotist in the case of the group, is not mentioned in Le
+Bon's exposition. But he nevertheless distinguishes between this
+influence of fascination which remains plunged in obscurity and the
+contagious effect which the individuals exercise upon one another and by
+which the original suggestion is strengthened.<a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a></p>
+
+<p>Here is yet another important consideration for helping us to understand
+the individual in a group: 'Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms
+part of an organised group, a man descends several rungs in the ladder
+of civilisation. Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a
+crowd, he is a barbarian&mdash;that is, a creature acting by instinct. He
+possesses the spontaneity, the violence, the ferocity, and also the
+enthusiasm and heroism of primitive beings.' (p. 36.) He then dwells
+especially upon the lowering in intellectual ability which an individual
+experiences when he becomes merged in a group.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>Let us now leave the individual, and turn to the group mind, as it has
+been outlined by Le Bon. It shows not a single feature which a
+psycho-analyst would find any difficulty in placing or in deriving from
+its source. Le Bon himself shows us the way by pointing to its
+similarity with the mental life of primitive people and of children (p.
+40).</p>
+
+<p>A group is impulsive, changeable and irritable. It is led almost
+exclusively by the unconscious.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The<a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a> impulses which a group obeys may
+according to circumstances be generous or cruel, heroic or cowardly, but
+they are always so imperious that no personal interest, not even that of
+self-preservation, can make itself felt (p. 41). Nothing about it is
+premeditated. Though it may desire things passionately, yet this is
+never so for long, for it is incapable of perseverance. It cannot
+tolerate any delay between its desire and the fulfilment of what it
+desires. It has a sense of omnipotence; the notion of impossibility
+disappears for the individual in a group.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>A group is extraordinarily credulous and open to influence, it has no
+critical faculty, and the improbable does not exist for it. It thinks in
+images, which call one another up by association (just as they arise
+with individuals in states of free imagination), and whose agreement
+with reality is never checked by any reasonable function
+[<i>Instanz</i>].<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> The feelings of a group are always very simple and very
+exaggerated. So that a group knows neither doubt nor uncertainty.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a><a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a></p>
+
+<p>It goes directly to extremes; if a suspicion is expressed, it is
+instantly changed into an incontrovertible certainty; a trace of
+antipathy is turned into furious hatred (p. 56).<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<p>Inclined as it itself is to all extremes, a group can only be excited by
+an excessive stimulus. Anyone who wishes to produce an effect upon it
+needs no logical adjustment in his arguments; he must paint<a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a> in the most
+forcible colours, he must exaggerate, and he must repeat the same thing
+again and again.</p>
+
+<p>Since a group is in no doubt as to what constitutes truth or error, and
+is conscious, moreover, of its own great strength, it is as intolerant
+as it is obedient to authority. It respects force and can only be
+slightly influenced by kindness, which it regards merely as a form of
+weakness. What it demands of its heroes is strength, or even violence.
+It wants to be ruled and oppressed and to fear its masters.
+Fundamentally it is entirely conservative, and it has a deep aversion
+from all innovations and advances and an unbounded respect for tradition
+(p. 62).</p>
+
+<p>In order to make a correct judgement upon the morals of groups, one must
+take into consideration the fact that when individuals come together in
+a group all their individual inhibitions fall away and all the cruel,
+brutal and destructive instincts, which lie dormant in individuals as
+relics of a primitive epoch, are stirred up to find free gratification.
+But under the influence of suggestion groups are also capable of high
+achievements in the shape of abnegation, unselfishness, and devotion to
+an ideal. While with isolated individuals personal interest is almost
+the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely prominent. It is
+possible to speak of an individual<a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a> having his moral standards raised by
+a group (p. 65). Whereas the intellectual capacity of a group is always
+far below that of an individual, its ethical conduct may rise as high
+above his as it may sink deep below it.</p>
+
+<p>Some other features in Le Bon's description show in a clear light how
+well justified is the identification of the group mind with the mind of
+primitive people. In groups the most contradictory ideas can exist side
+by side and tolerate each other, without any conflict arising from the
+logical contradiction between them. But this is also the case in the
+unconscious mental life of individuals, of children and of neurotics, as
+psycho-analysis has long pointed out.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a><a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a></p>
+
+<p>A group, further, is subject to the truly magical power of words; they
+can evoke the most formidable tempests in the group mind, and are also
+capable of stilling them (p. 117). 'Reason and arguments are incapable
+of combating certain words and formulas. They are uttered with solemnity
+in the presence of groups, and as soon as they have been pronounced an
+expression of respect is visible on every countenance, and all heads are
+bowed. By many they are considered as natural forces, as supernatural
+powers.' (p. 117.) It is only necessary in this connection to remember
+the taboo upon names among primitive people and the magical powers which
+they ascribe to names and words.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>And, finally, groups have never thirsted after truth. They demand
+illusions, and cannot do without<a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a> them. They constantly give what is
+unreal precedence over what is real; they are almost as strongly
+influenced by what is untrue as by what is true. They have an evident
+tendency not to distinguish between the two (p. 77).</p>
+
+<p>We have pointed out that this predominance of the life of phantasy and
+of the illusion born of an unfulfilled wish is the ruling factor in the
+psychology of neuroses. We have found that what neurotics are guided by
+is not ordinary objective reality but psychological reality. A
+hysterical symptom is based upon phantasy instead of upon the repetition
+of real experience, and the sense of guilt in an obsessional neurosis is
+based upon the fact of an evil intention which was never carried out.
+Indeed, just as in dreams and in hypnosis, in the mental operations of a
+group the function for testing the reality of things falls into the
+background in comparison with the strength of wishes with their
+affective cathexis.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<p>What Le Bon says on the subject of leaders of groups is less exhaustive,
+and does not enable us to make out an underlying principle so clearly.
+He thinks that as soon as living beings are gathered together in certain
+numbers, no matter whether they are a herd of animals or a collection of
+human beings, they place themselves instinctively under the<a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a> authority
+of a chief (p. 134). A group is an obedient herd, which could never live
+without a master. It has such a thirst for obedience that it submits
+instinctively to anyone who appoints himself its master.</p>
+
+<p>Although in this way the needs of a group carry it half-way to meet the
+leader, yet he too must fit in with it in his personal qualities. He
+must himself be held in fascination by a strong faith (in an idea) in
+order to awaken the group's faith; he must possess a strong and imposing
+will, which the group, which has no will of its own, can accept from
+him. Le Bon then discusses the different kinds of leaders, and the means
+by which they work upon the group. On the whole he believes that the
+leaders make themselves felt by means of the ideas in which they
+themselves are fanatical believers.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, he ascribes both to the ideas and to the leaders a mysterious
+and irresistible power, which he calls 'prestige'. Prestige is a sort of
+domination exercised over us by an individual, a work or an idea. It
+entirely paralyses our critical faculty, and fills us with astonishment
+and respect. It would seem to arouse a feeling like that of fascination
+in hypnosis (p. 148). He distinguishes between acquired or artificial
+and personal prestige. The former is attached to persons in virtue of
+their name, fortune and reputation, and to opinions, works of art, etc.,
+in virtue of tradition. Since in every case it harks back to<a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a> the past,
+it cannot be of much help to us in understanding this puzzling
+influence. Personal prestige is attached to a few people, who become
+leaders by means of it, and it has the effect of making everything obey
+them as though by the operation of some magnetic magic. All prestige,
+however, is also dependent upon success, and is lost in the event of
+failure (p. 159).</p>
+
+<p>We cannot feel that Le Bon has brought the function of the leader and
+the importance of prestige completely into harmony with his brilliantly
+executed picture of the group mind.<a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<br /><br />
+OTHER ACCOUNTS OF COLLECTIVE MENTAL LIFE</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">We have made use of Le Bon's description by way of introduction, because
+it fits in so well with our own Psychology in the emphasis which it lays
+upon unconscious mental life. But we must now add that as a matter of
+fact none of that author's statements bring forward anything new.
+Everything that he says to the detriment and depreciation of the
+manifestations of the group mind had already been said by others before
+him with equal distinctness and equal hostility, and has been repeated
+in unison by thinkers, statesmen and writers since the earliest periods
+of literature.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The two theses which comprise the most important of
+Le Bon's opinions, those touching upon the collective inhibition of
+intellectual functioning and the heightening of affectivity in groups,<a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a>
+had been formulated shortly before by Sighele.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> At bottom, all that
+is left over as being peculiar to Le Bon are the two notions of the
+unconscious and of the comparison with the mental life of primitive
+people, and even these had naturally often been alluded to before him.</p>
+
+<p>But, what is more, the description and estimate of the group mind as
+they have been given by Le Bon and the rest have not by any means been
+left undisputed. There is no doubt that all the phenomena of the group
+mind which have just been mentioned have been correctly observed, but it
+is also possible to distinguish other manifestations of the group
+formation, which operate in a precisely opposite sense, and from which a
+much higher opinion of the group mind must necessarily follow.</p>
+
+<p>Le Bon himself was prepared to admit that in certain circumstances the
+morals of a group can be higher than those of the individuals that
+compose it, and that only collectivities are capable of a high degree of
+unselfishness and devotion. 'While with isolated individuals personal
+interest is almost the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely
+prominent.' (p. 65.) Other writers adduce the fact that it is only
+society which prescribes any ethical<a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a> standards at all for the
+individual, while he as a rule fails in one way or another to come up to
+its high demands. Or they point out that in exceptional circumstances
+there may arise in communities the phenomenon of enthusiasm, which has
+made the most splendid group achievements possible.</p>
+
+<p>As regards intellectual work it remains a fact, indeed, that great
+decisions in the realm of thought and momentous discoveries and
+solutions of problems are only possible to an individual, working in
+solitude. But even the group mind is capable of genius in intellectual
+creation, as is shown above all by language itself, as well as by
+folk-song, folk-lore and the like. It remains an open question,
+moreover, how much the individual thinker or writer owes to the
+stimulation of the group in which he lives, or whether he does more than
+perfect a mental work in which the others have had a simultaneous share.</p>
+
+<p>In face of these completely contradictory accounts, it looks as though
+the work of Group Psychology were bound to come to an ineffectual end.
+But it is easy to find a more hopeful escape from the dilemma. A number
+of very different formations have probably been merged under the term
+'group' and may require to be distinguished. The assertions of Sighele,
+Le Bon and the rest relate to groups of a short-lived character, which
+some passing interest has hastily agglomerated out of various sorts of
+individuals.<a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a> The characteristics of revolutionary groups, and
+especially those of the great French Revolution, have unmistakably
+influenced their descriptions. The opposite opinions owe their origin to
+the consideration of those stable groups or associations in which
+mankind pass their lives, and which are embodied in the institutions of
+society. Groups of the first kind stand in the same sort of relation to
+those of the second as a high but choppy sea to a ground swell.</p>
+
+<p>McDougall, in his book on <i>The Group Mind</i>,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> starts out from the same
+contradiction that has just been mentioned, and finds a solution for it
+in the factor of organisation. In the simplest case, he says, the
+'group' possesses no organisation at all or one scarcely deserving the
+name. He describes a group of this kind as a 'crowd'. But he admits that
+a crowd of human beings can hardly come together without possessing at
+all events the rudiments of an organisation, and that precisely in these
+simple groups many of the fundamental facts of Collective Psychology can
+be observed with special ease (p. 22). Before the members of a random
+crowd of people can constitute something in the nature of a group in the
+psychological sense of the word, a condition has to be fulfilled; these
+individuals must have something in common with one another, a common
+interest in<a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a> an object, a similar emotional bias in some situation or
+other, and ('consequently', I should like to interpolate) 'some degree
+of reciprocal influence' (p. 23). The higher the degree of 'this mental
+homogeneity', the more readily do the individuals form a psychological
+group, and the more striking are the manifestations of a group mind.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable and also the most important result of the formation
+of a group is the 'exaltation or intensification of emotion' produced in
+every member of it (p. 24). In McDougall's opinion men's emotions are
+stirred in a group to a pitch that they seldom or never attain under
+other conditions; and it is a pleasurable experience for those who are
+concerned to surrender themselves so unreservedly to their passions and
+thus to become merged in the group and to lose the sense of the limits
+of their individuality. The manner in which individuals are thus carried
+away by a common impulse is explained by McDougall by means of what he
+calls the 'principle of direct induction of emotion by way of the
+primitive sympathetic response' (p. 25), that is, by means of the
+emotional contagion with which we are already familiar. The fact is that
+the perception of the signs of an emotional state is calculated
+automatically to arouse the same emotion in the person who perceives
+them. The greater the number of people in whom the same emotion can<a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a> be
+simultaneously observed, the stronger does this automatic compulsion
+grow. The individual loses his power of criticism, and lets himself slip
+into the same emotion. But in so doing he increases the excitement of
+the other people, who had produced this effect upon him, and thus the
+emotional charge of the individuals becomes intensified by mutual
+interaction. Something is unmistakably at work in the nature of a
+compulsion to do the same as the others, to remain in harmony with the
+many. The coarser and simpler emotions are the more apt to spread
+through a group in this way (p. 39).</p>
+
+<p>This mechanism for the intensification of emotion is favoured by some
+other influences which emanate from groups. A group impresses the
+individual with a sense of unlimited power and of insurmountable peril.
+For the moment it replaces the whole of human society, which is the
+wielder of authority, whose punishments the individual fears, and for
+whose sake he has submitted to so many inhibitions. It is clearly
+perilous for him to put himself in opposition to it, and it will be
+safer to follow the example of those around him and perhaps even 'hunt
+with the pack'. In obedience to the new authority he may put his former
+'conscience' out of action, and so surrender to the attraction of the
+increased pleasure that is certainly obtained from the removal of
+inhibitions. On the whole, therefore, it is not so<a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a> remarkable that we
+should see an individual in a group doing or approving things which he
+would have avoided in the normal conditions of life; and in this way we
+may even hope to clear up a little of the mystery which is so often
+covered by the enigmatic word 'suggestion'.</p>
+
+<p>McDougall does not dispute the thesis as to the collective inhibition of
+intelligence in groups (p. 41). He says that the minds of lower
+intelligence bring down those of a higher order to their own level. The
+latter are obstructed in their activity, because in general an
+intensification of emotion creates unfavourable conditions for sound
+intellectual work, and further because the individuals are intimidated
+by the group and their mental activity is not free, and because there is
+a lowering in each individual of his sense of responsibility for his own
+performances.</p>
+
+<p>The judgement with which McDougall sums up the psychological behaviour
+of a simple 'unorganised' group is no more friendly than that of Le Bon.
+Such a group 'is excessively emotional, impulsive, violent, fickle,
+inconsistent, irresolute and extreme in action, displaying only the
+coarser emotions and the less refined sentiments; extremely suggestible,
+careless in deliberation, hasty in judgment, incapable of any but the
+simpler and imperfect forms of reasoning; easily swayed and led,<a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a>
+lacking in self-consciousness, devoid of self-respect and of sense of
+responsibility, and apt to be carried away by the consciousness of its
+own force, so that it tends to produce all the manifestations we have
+learnt to expect of any irresponsible and absolute power. Hence its
+behaviour is like that of an unruly child or an untutored passionate
+savage in a strange situation, rather than like that of its average
+member; and in the worst cases it is like that of a wild beast, rather
+than like that of human beings.' (p. 45.)</p>
+
+<p>Since McDougall contrasts the behaviour of a highly organised group with
+what has just been described, we shall be particularly interested to
+learn in what this organisation consists, and by what factors it is
+produced. The author enumerates five 'principal conditions' for raising
+collective mental life to a higher level.</p>
+
+<p>The first and fundamental condition is that there should be some degree
+of continuity of existence in the group. This may be either material or
+formal; the former, if the same individuals persist in the group for
+some time; and the latter, if there is developed within the group a
+system of fixed positions which are occupied by a succession of
+individuals.</p>
+
+<p>The second condition is that in the individual member of the group some
+definite idea should be formed of the nature, composition, functions and
+capacities of the group, so that from this he may<a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a> develop an emotional
+relation to the group as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>The third is that the group should be brought into interaction (perhaps
+in the form of rivalry) with other groups similar to it but differing
+from it in many respects.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth is that the group should possess traditions, customs and
+habits, and especially such as determine the relations of its members to
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth is that the group should have a definite structure, expressed
+in the specialisation and differentiation of the functions of its
+constituents.</p>
+
+<p>According to McDougall, if these conditions are fulfilled, the
+psychological disadvantages of the group formation are removed. The
+collective lowering of intellectual ability is avoided by withdrawing
+the performance of intellectual tasks from the group and reserving them
+for individual members of it.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to us that the condition which McDougall designates as the
+'organisation' of a group can with more justification be described in
+another way. The problem consists in how to procure for the group
+precisely those features which were characteristic of the individual and
+which are extinguished in him by the formation of the group. For the
+individual, outside the primitive group, possessed his own continuity,
+his self-consciousness,<a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a> his traditions and customs, his own particular
+functions and position, and kept apart from his rivals. Owing to his
+entry into an 'unorganised' group he had lost this distinctiveness for a
+time. If we thus recognise that the aim is to equip the group with the
+attributes of the individual, we shall be reminded of a valuable remark
+of Trotter's,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> to the effect that the tendency towards the formation
+of groups is biologically a continuation of the multicellular character
+of all the higher organisms.<a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV<br /><br />
+SUGGESTION AND LIBIDO</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">We started from the fundamental fact that an individual in a group is
+subjected through its influence to what is often a profound alteration
+in his mental activity. His emotions become extraordinarily intensified,
+while his intellectual ability becomes markedly reduced, both processes
+being evidently in the direction of an approximation to the other
+individuals in the group; and this result can only be reached by the
+removal of those inhibitions upon his instincts which are peculiar to
+each individual, and by his resigning those expressions of his
+inclinations which are especially his own. We have heard that these
+often unwelcome consequences are to some extent at least prevented by a
+higher 'organisation' of the group; but this does not contradict the
+fundamental fact of Group Psychology&mdash;the two theses as to the
+intensification of the emotions and the inhibition of the intellect in
+primitive groups. Our interest is<a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a> now directed to discovering the
+psychological explanation of this mental change which is experienced by
+the individual in a group.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that rational factors (such as the intimidation of the
+individual which has already been mentioned, that is, the action of his
+instinct of self-preservation) do not cover the observable phenomena.
+Beyond this what we are offered as an explanation by authorities upon
+Sociology and Group Psychology is always the same, even though it is
+given various names, and that is&mdash;the magic word 'suggestion'. Tarde
+calls it 'imitation'; but we cannot help agreeing with a writer who
+protests that imitation comes under the concept of suggestion, and is in
+fact one of its results.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Le Bon traces back all the puzzling
+features of social phenomena to two factors: the mutual suggestion of
+individuals and the prestige of leaders. But prestige, again, is only
+recognizable by its capacity for evoking suggestion. McDougall for a
+moment gives us an impression that his principle of 'primitive induction
+of emotion' might enable us to do without the assumption of suggestion.
+But on further consideration we are forced to perceive that this
+principle says no more than the familiar assertions about 'imitation' or
+'contagion', except<a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a> for a decided stress upon the emotional factor.
+There is no doubt that something exists in us which, when we become
+aware of signs of an emotion in someone else, tends to make us fall into
+the same emotion; but how often do we not successfully oppose it, resist
+the emotion, and react in quite an opposite way? Why, therefore, do we
+invariably give way to this contagion when we are in a group? Once more
+we should have to say that what compels us to obey this tendency is
+imitation, and what induces the emotion in us is the group's suggestive
+influence. Moreover, quite apart from this, McDougall does not enable us
+to evade suggestion; we hear from him as well as from other writers that
+groups are distinguished by their special suggestibility.</p>
+
+<p>We shall therefore be prepared for the statement that suggestion (or
+more correctly suggestibility) is actually an irreducible, primitive
+phenomenon, a fundamental fact in the mental life of man. Such, too, was
+the opinion of Bernheim, of whose astonishing arts I was a witness in
+the year 1889. But I can remember even then feeling a muffled hostility
+to this tyranny of suggestion. When a patient who showed himself
+unamenable was met with the shout: 'What are you doing? <i>Vous vous
+contresuggestionnez!</i>', I said to myself that this was an evident
+injustice and an act of violence. For the man certainly had a right to
+counter-suggestions if they were trying to<a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a> subdue him with suggestions.
+Later on my resistance took the direction of protesting against the view
+that suggestion, which explained everything, was itself to be preserved
+from explanation. Thinking of it, I repeated the old conundrum:<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Christoph trug Christum,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Christus trug die ganze Welt,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sag' wo hat Christoph</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Damals hin den Fuss gestellt?<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+<p class="c">Christophorus Christum, sed Christus sustulit orbem:<br />
+Constiterit pedibus dic ubi Christophorus?</p>
+
+<p>Now that I once more approach the riddle of suggestion after having kept
+away from it for some thirty years, I find there is no change in the
+situation. To this statement I can discover only a single exception,
+which I need not mention, since it is one which bears witness to the
+influence of psycho-analysis. I notice that particular efforts are being
+made to formulate the concept of suggestion correctly, that is, to fix
+the conventional use of the name.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> And this<a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a> is by no means
+superfluous, for the word is acquiring a more and more extended use and
+a looser and looser meaning, and will soon come to designate any sort of
+influence whatever, just as in English, where 'to suggest' and
+'suggestion' correspond to our <i>nahelegen</i> and <i>Anregung</i>. But there has
+been no explanation of the nature of suggestion, that is, of the
+conditions under which influence without adequate logical foundation
+takes place. I should not avoid the task of supporting this statement by
+an analysis of the literature of the last thirty years, if I were not
+aware that an exhaustive inquiry is being undertaken close at hand which
+has in view the fulfilment of this very task.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of this I shall make an attempt at using the concept of <i>libido</i>
+for the purpose of throwing light upon Group Psychology, a concept which
+has done us such good service in the study of psycho-neuroses.</p>
+
+<p>Libido is an expression taken from the theory of the emotions. We call
+by that name the energy (regarded as a quantitative magnitude, though
+not at present actually mensurable) of those instincts which have to do
+with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'. The nucleus of
+what we mean by love naturally consists (and this is what is commonly
+called love, and what the poets sing of) in sexual love with sexual
+union as its aim. But we<a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a> do not separate from this&mdash;what in any case
+has a share in the name 'love'&mdash;on the one hand, self-love, and on the
+other, love for parents and children, friendship and love for humanity
+in general, and also devotion to concrete objects and to abstract ideas.
+Our justification lies in the fact that psycho-analytic research has
+taught us that all these tendencies are an expression of the same
+instinctive activities; in relations between the sexes these instincts
+force their way towards sexual union, but in other circumstances they
+are diverted from this aim or are prevented from reaching it, though
+always preserving enough of their original nature to keep their identity
+recognizable (as in such features as the longing for proximity, and
+self-sacrifice).</p>
+
+<p>We are of opinion, then, that language has carried out an entirely
+justifiable piece of unification in creating the word 'love' with its
+numerous uses, and that we cannot do better than take it as the basis of
+our scientific discussions and expositions as well. By coming to this
+decision, psycho-analysis has let loose a storm of indignation, as
+though it had been guilty of an act of outrageous innovation. Yet
+psycho-analysis has done nothing original in taking love in this 'wider'
+sense. In its origin, function, and relation to sexual love, the
+'<i>Eros</i>' of the philosopher Plato coincides exactly with the love force,
+the libido, of psycho-analysis, as has been shown in detail by<a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a>
+Nachmansohn and Pfister;<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> and when the apostle Paul, in his famous
+epistle to the Corinthians, prizes love above all else, he certainly
+understands it in the same 'wider' sense.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> But this only shows that
+men do not always take their great thinkers seriously, even when they
+profess most to admire them.</p>
+
+<p>Psycho-analysis, then, gives these love instincts the name of sexual
+instincts, a <i>potiori</i> and by reason of their origin. The majority of
+'educated' people have taken their revenge by retorting upon
+psycho-analysis with the reproach of 'pan-sexualism'. Anyone who
+considers sex as something mortifying and humiliating to human nature is
+at liberty to make use of the more genteel expressions 'Eros' and
+'erotic'. I might have done so myself from the first and thus have
+spared myself much opposition. But I did not want to, for I like to
+avoid concessions to faint-heartedness. One can never tell where that
+road may lead one; one gives way first in words, and then little by
+little in substance too. I cannot see any merit in being ashamed of sex;
+the Greek word 'Eros',<a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a> which is to soften the affront, is in the end
+nothing more than a translation of our German word <i>Liebe</i> [love]; and
+finally, he who knows how to wait need make no concessions.</p>
+
+<p>We will try our fortune, then, with the supposition that love
+relationships (or, to use a more neutral expression, emotional ties)
+also constitute the essence of the group mind. Let us remember that the
+authorities make no mention of any such relations. What would correspond
+to them is evidently concealed behind the shelter, the screen, of
+suggestion. Our hypothesis finds support in the first instance from two
+passing thoughts. First, that a group is clearly held together by a
+power of some kind: and to what power could this feat be better ascribed
+than to Eros, who holds together everything in the world? Secondly, that
+if an individual gives up his distinctiveness in a group and lets its
+other members influence him by suggestion, it gives one the impression
+that he does it because he feels the need of being in harmony with them
+rather than in opposition to them&mdash;so that perhaps after all he does it
+'<i>ihnen zu Liebe</i>'.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a><a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="V" id="V"></a>V<br /><br />
+TWO ARTIFICIAL GROUPS: THE CHURCH AND THE ARMY</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">We may recall from what we know of the morphology of groups that it is
+possible to distinguish very different kinds of groups and opposing
+lines in their development. There are very fleeting groups and extremely
+lasting ones; homogeneous ones, made up of the same sorts of
+individuals, and unhomogeneous ones; natural groups, and artificial
+ones, requiring an external force to keep them together; primitive
+groups, and highly organised ones with a definite structure. But for
+reasons which have yet to be explained we should like to lay particular
+stress upon a distinction to which the authorities have rather given too
+little attention; I refer to that between leaderless groups and those
+with leaders. And, in complete opposition to the usual practice, we
+shall not choose a relatively simple group formation as our point of
+departure, but shall begin with highly organised, lasting and artificial
+groups. The most<a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a> interesting example of such structures are
+churches&mdash;communities of believers&mdash;and armies.</p>
+
+<p>A church and an army are artificial groups, that is, a certain external
+force is employed to prevent them from disintegrating and to check
+alterations in their structure. As a rule a person is not consulted or
+is given no choice, as to whether he wants to enter such a group; any
+attempt at leaving it is usually met with persecution or with severe
+punishment, or has quite definite conditions attached to it. It is quite
+outside our present interest to enquire why these associations need such
+special safeguards. We are only attracted by one circumstance, namely
+that certain facts, which are far more concealed in other cases, can be
+observed very clearly in those highly organised groups which are
+protected from dissolution in the manner that has been mentioned. In a
+church (and we may with advantage take the Catholic Church as a type) as
+well as in an army, however different the two may be in other respects,
+the same illusion holds good of there being a head&mdash;in the Catholic
+Church Christ, in an army its Commander-in-Chief&mdash;who loves all the
+individuals in the group with an equal love. Everything depends upon
+this illusion; if it were to be dropped, then both Church and army would
+dissolve, so far as the external force permitted them to. This equal
+love was expressly enunciated by Christ: 'Inasmuch<a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a> as ye have done it
+unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.' He
+stands to the individual members of the group of believers in the
+relation of a kind elder brother; he is their father surrogate. All the
+demands that are made upon the individual are derived from this love of
+Christ's. A democratic character runs through the Church, for the very
+reason that before Christ everyone is equal, and that everyone has an
+equal share in his love. It is not without a deep reason that the
+similarity between the Christian community and a family is invoked, and
+that believers call themselves brothers in Christ, that is, brothers
+through the love which Christ has for them. There is no doubt that the
+tie which unites each individual with Christ is also the cause of the
+tie which unites them with one another. The like holds good of an army.
+The Commander-in-Chief is a father who loves all his soldiers equally,
+and for that reason they are comrades among themselves. The army differs
+structurally from the Church in being built up of a series of such
+groups. Every captain is, as it were, the Commander-in-Chief and the
+father of his company, and so is every non-commissioned officer of his
+section. It is true that a similar hierarchy has been constructed in the
+Church, but it does not play the same part in it economically; for more
+knowledge and care about individuals may be<a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a> attributed to Christ than
+to a human Commander-in-Chief.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is to be noticed that in these two artificial groups each individual
+is bound by libidinal<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> ties on<a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a> the one hand to the leader (Christ,
+the Commander-in-Chief) and on the other hand to the other members of
+the group. How these two ties are related to each other, whether they
+are of the same kind and the same value, and how they are to be
+described psychologically&mdash;these questions must be reserved for
+subsequent enquiry. But we shall venture even now upon a mild reproach
+against the authorities for not having sufficiently appreciated the
+importance of the leader in the psychology of the group, while our own
+choice of a first object for investigation has brought us into a more
+favourable position. It would appear as though we were on the right road
+towards an explanation of the principal phenomenon of Group
+Psychology&mdash;the individual's lack of freedom in a group. If each
+individual is bound in two directions by such an intense emotional tie,
+we shall find no difficulty in attributing to that circumstance the
+alteration and limitation which have been observed in his personality.</p>
+
+<p>A hint to the same effect, that the essence of a group lies in the
+libidinal ties existing in it, is also to be found in the phenomenon of
+panic, which is best studied in military groups. A panic arises if a
+group of that kind becomes disintegrated. Its<a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a> characteristics are that
+none of the orders given by superiors are any longer listened to, and
+that each individual is only solicitous on his own account, and without
+any consideration for the rest. The mutual ties have ceased to exist,
+and a gigantic and senseless dread [<i>Angst</i>] is set free. At this point,
+again, the objection will naturally be made that it is rather the other
+way round; and that the dread has grown so great as to be able to
+disregard all ties and all feelings of consideration for others.
+McDougall has even (p. 24) made use of the case of panic (though not of
+military panic) as a typical instance of that intensification of emotion
+by contagion ('primary induction') upon which he lays so much emphasis.
+But nevertheless this rational method of explanation is here quite
+inadequate. The very question that needs explanation is why the dread
+has become so gigantic. The greatness of the danger cannot be
+responsible, for the same army which now falls a victim to panic may
+previously have faced equally great or greater danger with complete
+success; it is of the very essence of panic that it bears no relation to
+the danger that threatens, and often breaks out upon the most trivial
+occasions. If an individual in panic dread begins to be solicitous only
+on his own account, he bears witness in so doing to the fact that the
+emotional ties, which have hitherto made the danger seem small to him,
+have<a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a> ceased to exist. Now that he is by himself in facing the danger,
+he may surely think it greater. The fact is, therefore, that panic dread
+presupposes a relaxation in the libidinal structure of the group and
+reacts to it in a justifiable manner, and the contrary view&mdash;that the
+libidinal ties of the group are destroyed owing to dread in the face of
+the danger&mdash;can be refuted.</p>
+
+<p>The contention that dread in a group is increased to enormous
+proportions by means of induction (contagion) is not in the least
+contradicted by these remarks. McDougall's view meets the case entirely
+when the danger is a really great one and when the group has no strong
+emotional ties&mdash;conditions which are fulfilled, for instance, when a
+fire breaks out in a theatre or a place of amusement. But the really
+instructive case and the one which can be best employed for our purposes
+is that mentioned above, in which a body of troops breaks into a panic
+although the danger has not increased beyond a degree that is usual and
+has often been previously faced. It is not to be expected that the usage
+of the word 'panic' should be clearly and unambiguously determined.
+Sometimes it is used to describe any collective dread, sometimes even
+dread in an individual when it exceeds all bounds, and often the name
+seems to be reserved for cases in which the outbreak of dread is not
+warranted by the occasion. If we<a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a> take the word 'panic' in the sense of
+collective dread, we can establish a far-reaching analogy. Dread in an
+individual is provoked either by the greatness of a danger or by the
+cessation of emotional ties (libidinal cathexes<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+[<i>Libidobesetzungen</i>]); the latter is the case of neurotic dread.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> In
+just the same way panic arises either owing to an increase of the common
+danger or owing to the disappearance of the emotional ties which hold
+the group together; and the latter case is analogous to that of neurotic
+dread.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a><a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a></p>
+
+<p>Anyone who, like McDougall (l.c.), describes a panic as one of the
+plainest functions of the 'group mind', arrives at the paradoxical
+position that this group mind does away with itself in one of its most
+striking manifestations. It is impossible to doubt that panic means the
+disintegration of a group; it involves the cessation of all the feelings
+of consideration which the members of the group otherwise show one
+another.</p>
+
+<p>The typical occasion of the outbreak of a panic is very much as it is
+represented in Nestroy's parody of Hebbel's play about Judith and
+Holofernes. A soldier cries out: "The general has lost his head!" and
+thereupon all the Assyrians take to flight. The loss of the leader in
+some sense or other, the birth, of misgivings about him, brings on the
+outbreak of panic, though the danger remains the same; the mutual ties
+between the members of the group disappear, as a rule, at the same time
+as the tie with their leader. The group vanishes in dust, like a Bologna
+flask when its top is broken off.</p>
+
+<p>The dissolution of a religious group is not so easy to observe. A short
+time ago there came into my hands an English novel of Catholic origin,
+recommended by the Bishop of London, with the title <i>When It Was Dark</i>.
+It gave a clever and, as it seems to me, a convincing picture of such a
+possibility and its consequences. The novel, which is<a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a> supposed to
+relate to the present day, tells how a conspiracy of enemies of the
+figure of Christ and of the Christian faith succeed in arranging for a
+sepulchre to be discovered in Jerusalem. In this sepulchre is an
+inscription, in which Joseph of Arimathaea confesses that for reasons of
+piety he secretly removed the body of Christ from its grave on the third
+day after its entombment and buried it in this spot. The resurrection of
+Christ and his divine nature are by this means disposed of, and the
+result of this archaeological discovery is a convulsion in European
+civilisation and an extraordinary increase in all crimes and acts of
+violence, which only ceases when the forgers' plot has been revealed.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomenon which accompanies the dissolution that is here supposed
+to overtake a religious group is not dread, for which the occasion is
+wanting. Instead of it ruthless and hostile impulses towards other
+people make their appearance, which, owing to the equal love of Christ,
+they had previously been unable to do.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> But even during the kingdom
+of Christ those people who do not belong to the community of believers,
+who do not love him, and whom he does not love, stand outside this tie.
+Therefore<a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a> a religion, even if it calls itself the religion of love,
+must be hard and unloving to those who do not belong to it.
+Fundamentally indeed every religion is in this same way a religion of
+love for all those whom it embraces; while cruelty and intolerance
+towards those who do not belong to it are natural to every religion.
+However difficult we may find it personally, we ought not to reproach
+believers too severely on this account; people who are unbelieving or
+indifferent are so much better off psychologically in this respect. If
+to-day that intolerance no longer shows itself so violent and cruel as
+in former centuries, we can scarcely conclude that there has been a
+softening in human manners. The cause is rather to be found in the
+undeniable weakening of religious feelings and the libidinal ties which
+depend upon them. If another group tie takes the place of the religious
+one&mdash;and the socialistic tie seems to be succeeding in doing so&mdash;, then
+there will be the same intolerance towards outsiders as in the age of
+the Wars of Religion; and if differences between scientific opinions
+could ever attain a similar significance for groups, the same result
+would again be repeated with this new motivation.<a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI<br /><br />
+FURTHER PROBLEMS AND LINES OF WORK</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">We have hitherto considered two artificial groups and have found that
+they are dominated by two emotional ties. One of these, the tie with the
+leader, seems (at all events for these cases) to be more of a ruling
+factor than the other, which holds between the members of the group.</p>
+
+<p>Now much else remains to be examined and described in the morphology of
+groups. We should have to start from the ascertained fact that a mere
+collection of people is not a group, so long as these ties have not been
+established in it; but we should have to admit that in any collection of
+people the tendency to form a psychological group may very easily become
+prominent. We should have to give our attention to the different kinds
+of groups, more or less stable, that arise spontaneously, and to study
+the conditions of their origin and of their dissolution. We should above
+all be concerned with the distinction<a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a> between groups which have a
+leader and leaderless groups. We should consider whether groups with
+leaders may not be the more primitive and complete, whether in the
+others an idea, an abstraction, may not be substituted for the leader (a
+state of things to which religious groups, with their invisible head,
+form a transition stage), and whether a common tendency, a wish in which
+a number of people can have a share, may not in the same way serve as a
+substitute. This abstraction, again, might be more or less completely
+embodied in the figure of what we might call a secondary leader, and
+interesting varieties would arise from the relation between the idea and
+the leader. The leader or the leading idea might also, so to speak, be
+negative; hatred against a particular person or institution might
+operate in just the same unifying way, and might call up the same kind
+of emotional ties as positive attachment. Then the question would also
+arise whether a leader is really indispensable to the essence of a
+group&mdash;and other questions besides.</p>
+
+<p>But all these questions, which may, moreover, have been dealt with in
+part in the literature of Group Psychology, will not succeed in
+diverting our interest from the fundamental psychological problems that
+confront us in the structure of a group. And our attention will first be
+attracted by a consideration which promises to bring us in the most
+direct way<a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a> to a proof that libidinal ties are what characterize a
+group.</p>
+
+<p>Let us keep before our eyes the nature of the emotional relations which
+hold between men in general. According to Schopenhauer's famous simile
+of the freezing porcupines no one can tolerate a too intimate approach
+to his neighbour.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>The evidence of psycho-analysis shows that almost every intimate
+emotional relation between two people which lasts for some
+time&mdash;marriage, friendship, the relations between parents and
+children<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>&mdash;leaves a sediment of feelings of aversion and hostility,
+which have first to be eliminated by repression. This is less disguised
+in the common wrangles between business partners or in the grumbles of a
+subordinate<a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a> at his superior. The same thing happens when men come
+together in larger units. Every time two families become connected by a
+marriage, each of them thinks itself superior to or of better birth than
+the other. Of two neighbouring towns each is the other's most jealous
+rival; every little canton looks down upon the others with contempt.
+Closely related races keep one another at arm's length; the South German
+cannot endure the North German, the Englishman casts every kind of
+aspersion upon the Scotchman, the Spaniard despises the Portuguese. We
+are no longer astonished that greater differences should lead to an
+almost insuperable repugnance, such as the Gallic people feel for the
+German, the Aryan for the Semite, and the white races for the coloured.</p>
+
+<p>When this hostility is directed against people who are otherwise loved
+we describe it as ambivalence of feeling; and we explain the fact, in
+what is probably far too rational a manner, by means of the numerous
+occasions for conflicts of interest which arise precisely in such
+intimate relations. In the undisguised antipathies and aversions which
+people feel towards strangers with whom they have to do we may recognize
+the expression of self-love&mdash;of narcissism. This self-love works for the
+self-assertion of the individual, and behaves as though the occurrence
+of any divergence from his own particular<a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a> lines of development involved
+a criticism of them and a demand for their alteration. We do not know
+why such sensitiveness should have been directed to just these details
+of differentiation; but it is unmistakable that in this whole connection
+men give evidence of a readiness for hatred, an aggressiveness, the
+source of which is unknown, and to which one is tempted to ascribe an
+elementary character.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the whole of this intolerance vanishes, temporarily or permanently,
+as the result of the formation of a group, and in a group. So long as a
+group formation persists or so far as it extends, individuals behave as
+though they were uniform, tolerate other people's peculiarities, put
+themselves on an equal level with them, and have no feeling of aversion
+towards them. Such a limitation of narcissism can, according to our
+theoretical views, only be produced by one factor, a libidinal tie with
+other people. Love for oneself knows only one barrier&mdash;love for others,
+love for objects.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> The question will at once be raised<a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a> whether
+community of interest in itself, without any addition of libido, must
+not necessarily lead to the toleration of other people and to
+considerateness for them. This objection may be met by the reply that
+nevertheless no lasting limitation of narcissism is effected in this
+way, since this tolerance does not persist longer than the immediate
+advantage gained from the other people's collaboration. But the
+practical importance of the discussion is less than might be supposed,
+for experience has shown that in cases of collaboration libidinal ties
+are regularly formed between the fellow-workers which prolong and
+solidify the relation between them to a point beyond what is merely
+profitable. The same thing occurs in men's social relations as has
+become familiar to psycho-analytic research in the course of the
+development of the individual libido. The libido props itself upon the
+satisfaction of the great vital needs, and chooses as its first objects
+the people who have a share in that process. And in the development of
+mankind as a whole, just as in individuals, love alone acts as the
+civilizing factor in the sense that it brings a change from egoism to
+altruism. And this is true both of the sexual love for women, with all
+the obligations which it involves of sparing what women are fond of, and
+also of the desexualised, sublimated homosexual love for other men,
+which springs from work in common.<a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a> If therefore in groups narcissistic
+self-love is subject to limitations which do not operate outside them,
+that is cogent evidence that the essence of a group formation consists
+in a new kind of libidinal ties among the members of the group.</p>
+
+<p>But our interest now leads us on to the pressing question as to what may
+be the nature of these ties which exist in groups. In the
+psycho-analytic study of neuroses we have hitherto been occupied almost
+exclusively with ties that unite with their objects those love instincts
+which still pursue directly sexual aims. In groups there can evidently
+be no question of sexual aims of that kind. We are concerned here with
+love instincts which have been diverted from their original aims, though
+they do not operate with less energy on that account. Now we have
+already observed within the range of the usual sexual object-cathexis
+[<i>Objektbesetzung</i>] phenomena which represent a diversion of the
+instinct from its sexual aim. We have described them as degrees of being
+in love, and have recognized that they involve a certain encroachment
+upon the ego. We shall now turn our attention more closely to these
+phenomena of being in love, in the firm expectation of finding in them
+conditions which can be transferred to the ties that exist in groups.
+But we should also like to know whether this kind of object-cathexis, as
+we know it in sexual life, represents the only manner<a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a> of emotional tie
+with other people, or whether we must take other mechanisms of the sort
+into account. As a matter of fact we learn from psycho-analysis that
+there do exist other mechanisms for emotional ties, the so-called
+<i>identifications</i>, insufficiently-known processes and hard to describe,
+the investigation of which will for some time keep us away from the
+subject of Group Psychology.<a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII<br /><br />
+IDENTIFICATION</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">Identification is known to psycho-analysis as the earliest expression of
+an emotional tie with another person. It plays a part in the early
+history of the Oedipus complex. A little boy will exhibit a special
+interest in his father; he would like to grow like him and be like him,
+and take his place everywhere. We may say simply that he takes his
+father as his ideal. This behaviour has nothing to do with a passive or
+feminine attitude towards his father (and towards males in general); it
+is on the contrary typically masculine. It fits in very well with the
+Oedipus complex, for which it helps to prepare the way.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time as this identification with his father, or a little
+later, the boy has begun to develop a true object-cathexis towards his
+mother according to the anaclitic type [<i>Anlehnungstypus</i>].<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> He then<a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>
+exhibits, therefore, two psychologically distinct ties: a
+straightforward sexual object-cathexis towards his mother and a typical
+identification towards his father. The two subsist side by side for a
+time without any mutual influence or interference. In consequence of the
+irresistible advance towards a unification of mental life they come
+together at last; and the normal Oedipus complex originates from their
+confluence. The little boy notices that his father stands in his way
+with his mother. His identification with his father then takes on a
+hostile colouring and becomes identical with the wish to replace his
+father in regard to his mother as well. Identification, in fact, is
+ambivalent from the very first; it can turn into an expression of
+tenderness as easily as into a wish for someone's removal. It behaves
+like a derivative of the first <i>oral</i> phase of the organisation of the
+libido, in which the object that we long for and prize is assimilated by
+eating and is in that way annihilated as such. The cannibal, as we know,
+has remained at<a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a> this standpoint; he has a devouring affection for his
+enemies and only devours people of whom he is fond.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>The subsequent history of this identification with the father may easily
+be lost sight of. It may happen that the Oedipus complex becomes
+inverted, and that the father is taken as the object of a feminine
+attitude, an object from which the directly sexual instincts look for
+satisfaction; in that event the identification with the father has
+become the precursor of an object tie with the father. The same holds
+good, with the necessary substitutions, of the baby daughter as well.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to state in a formula the distinction between an
+identification with the father and the choice of the father as an
+object. In the first case one's father is what one would like to <i>be</i>,
+and in the second he is what one would like to <i>have</i>. The distinction,
+that is, depends upon whether the tie attaches to the subject or to the
+object of the ego. The former is therefore already possible before any
+sexual object-choice has been made. It is much more<a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a> difficult to give a
+clear metapsychological representation of the distinction. We can only
+see that identification endeavours to mould a person's own ego after the
+fashion of the one that has been taken as a 'model'.</p>
+
+<p>Let us disentangle identification as it occurs in the structure of a
+neurotic symptom from its rather complicated connections. Supposing that
+a little girl (and we will keep to her for the present) develops the
+same painful symptom as her mother&mdash;for instance, the same tormenting
+cough. Now this may come about in various ways. The identification may
+come from the Oedipus complex; in that case it signifies a hostile
+desire on the girl's part to take her mother's place, and the symptom
+expresses her object love towards her father, and brings about a
+realisation, under the influence of a sense of guilt, of her desire to
+take her mother's place: 'You wanted to be your mother, and now you
+<i>are</i>&mdash;anyhow as far as the pain goes'. This is the complete mechanism
+of the structure of a hysterical symptom. Or, on the other hand, the
+symptom may be the same as that of the person who is loved&mdash;(so, for
+instance, Dora in the 'Bruchst�ck einer Hysterieanalyse'<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> imitated
+her father's cough); in that case we can only describe<a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a> the state of
+things by saying that <i>identification has appeared instead of
+object-choice, and that object-choice has regressed to identification</i>.
+We have heard that identification is the earliest and original form of
+emotional tie; it often happens that under the conditions in which
+symptoms are constructed, that is, where there is repression and where
+the mechanisms of the unconscious are dominant, object-choice is turned
+back into identification&mdash;the ego, that is, assumes the characteristics
+of the object. It is noticeable that in these identifications the ego
+sometimes copies the person who is not loved and sometimes the one who
+is loved. It must also strike us that in both cases the identification
+is a partial and extremely limited one and only borrows a single trait
+from the person who is its object.</p>
+
+<p>There is a third particularly frequent and important case of symptom
+formation, in which the identification leaves any object relation to the
+person who is being copied entirely out of account. Supposing, for
+instance, that one of the girls in a boarding school has had a letter
+from someone with whom she is secretly in love which arouses her
+jealousy, and that she reacts to it with a fit of hysterics; then some
+of her friends who know about it will contract the fit, as we say, by
+means of mental infection. The mechanism is that of identification based
+upon the possibility or desire of putting oneself in the same<a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a>
+situation. The other girls would like to have a secret love affair too,
+and under the influence of a sense of guilt they also accept the pain
+involved in it. It would be wrong to suppose that they take on the
+symptom out of sympathy. On the contrary, the sympathy only arises out
+of the identification, and this is proved by the fact that infection or
+imitation of this kind takes place in circumstances where even less
+pre-existing sympathy is to be assumed than usually exists between
+friends in a girls' school. One ego has perceived a significant analogy
+with another upon one point&mdash;in our example upon a similar readiness for
+emotion; an identification is thereupon constructed on this point, and,
+under the influence of the pathogenic situation, is displaced on to the
+symptom which the one ego has produced. The identification by means of
+the symptom has thus become the mark of a point of coincidence between
+the two egos which has to be kept repressed.</p>
+
+<p>What we have learned from these three sources may be summarised as
+follows. First, identification is the original form of emotional tie
+with an object; secondly, in a regressive way it becomes a substitute
+for a libidinal object tie, as it were by means of the introjection of
+the object into the ego; and thirdly, it may arise with every new
+perception of a common quality shared with some other person who is not
+an object of the sexual instinct. The more important<a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a> this common
+quality is, the more successful may this partial identification become,
+and it may thus represent the beginning of a new tie.</p>
+
+<p>We already begin to divine that the mutual tie between members of a
+group is in the nature of an identification of this kind, based upon an
+important emotional common quality; and we may suspect that this common
+quality lies in the nature of the tie with the leader. Another suspicion
+may tell us that we are far from having exhausted the problem of
+identification, and that we are faced by the process which psychology
+calls 'empathy [<i>Einf�hlung</i>]' and which plays the largest part in our
+understanding of what is inherently foreign to our ego in other people.
+But we shall here limit ourselves to the immediate emotional effects of
+identification, and shall leave on one side its significance for our
+intellectual life.</p>
+
+<p>Psycho-analytic research, which has already occasionally attacked the
+more difficult problems of the psychoses, has also been able to exhibit
+identification to us in some other cases which are not immediately
+comprehensible. I shall treat two of these cases in detail as material
+for our further consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The genesis of male homosexuality in a large class of cases is as
+follows. A young man has been unusually long and intensely fixated upon
+his mother in the sense of the Oedipus complex. But<a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a> at last, after the
+end of his puberty, the time comes for exchanging his mother for some
+other sexual object. Things take a sudden turn: the young man does not
+abandon his mother, but identifies himself with her; he transforms
+himself into her, and now looks about for objects which can replace his
+ego for him, and on which he can bestow such love and care as he has
+experienced from his mother. This is a frequent process, which can be
+confirmed as often as one likes, and which is naturally quite
+independent of any hypothesis that may be made as to the organic driving
+force and the motives of the sudden transformation. A striking thing
+about this identification is its ample scale; it remoulds the ego in one
+of its important features&mdash;in its sexual character&mdash;upon the model of
+what has hitherto been the object. In this process the object itself is
+renounced&mdash;whether entirely or in the sense of being preserved only in
+the unconscious is a question outside the present discussion.
+Identification with an object that is renounced or lost as a substitute
+for it, introjection of this object into the ego, is indeed no longer a
+novelty to us. A process of the kind may sometimes be directly observed
+in small children. A short time ago an observation of this sort was
+published in the <i>Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse</i>. A child
+who was unhappy over the loss of a kitten declared straight out that now
+he himself was the kitten, and<a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a> accordingly crawled about on all fours,
+would not eat at table, etc.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another such instance of introjection of the object has been provided by
+the analysis of melancholia, an affection which counts among the most
+remarkable of its exciting causes the real or emotional loss of a loved
+object. A leading characteristic of these cases is a cruel
+self-depreciation of the ego combined with relentless self-criticism and
+bitter self-reproaches. Analyses have shown that this disparagement and
+these reproaches apply at bottom to the object and represent the ego's
+revenge upon it. The shadow of the object has fallen upon the ego, as I
+have said elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The introjection of the object is here
+unmistakably clear.</p>
+
+<p>But these melancholias also show us something else, which may be of
+importance for our later discussions. They show us the ego divided,
+fallen into two pieces, one of which rages against the second. This
+second piece is the one which has been altered by introjection and which
+contains the lost object. But the piece which behaves so cruelly is not
+unknown to us either. It comprises the conscience, a<a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a> critical faculty
+[<i>Instanz</i>]<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> within the ego, which even in normal times takes up a
+critical attitude towards the ego, though never so relentlessly and so
+unjustifiably. On previous occasions we have been driven to the
+hypothesis<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> that some such faculty develops in our ego which may cut
+itself off from the rest of the ego and come into conflict with it. We
+have called it the 'ego ideal', and by way of functions we have ascribed
+to it self-observation, the moral conscience, the censorship of dreams,
+and the chief influence in repression. We have said that it is the heir
+to the original narcissism in which the childish ego found its
+self-sufficiency; it gradually gathers up from the influences of the
+environment the demands which that environment makes upon the ego and
+which the ego cannot always rise to; so that a man, when he cannot be
+satisfied with his ego itself, may nevertheless be able to find
+satisfaction in the ego ideal which has been differentiated out of the
+ego. In delusions of observation, as we have further shown, the
+disintegration of this faculty has become patent, and has thus revealed
+its origin in the influence of<a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a> superior powers, and above all of
+parents.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> But we have not forgotten to add that the amount of
+distance between this ego ideal and the real ego is very variable from
+one individual to another, and that with many people this
+differentiation within the ego does not go further than with children.</p>
+
+<p>But before we can employ this material for understanding the libidinal
+organisation of groups, we must take into account some other examples of
+the mutual relations between the object and the ego.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a><a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII<br /><br />
+BEING IN LOVE AND HYPNOSIS</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">Even in its caprices the usage of language remains true to some kind of
+reality. Thus it gives the name of 'love' to a great many kinds of
+emotional relationship which we too group together theoretically as
+love; but then again it feels a doubt whether this love is real, true,
+actual love, and so hints at a whole scale of possibilities within the
+range of the phenomena of love. We shall have no difficulty in making
+the same discovery empirically.</p>
+
+<p>In one class of cases being in love is nothing more than object-cathexis
+on the part of the sexual instincts with a view to directly sexual
+satisfaction, a cathexis which expires, moreover, when this aim has been
+reached; this is what is called common, sensual love. But, as we know,
+the libidinal situation rarely remains so simple. It was possible to
+calculate with certainty upon the revival of the need which had just
+expired; and this must no doubt have been the first<a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a> motive for
+directing a lasting cathexis upon the sexual object and for 'loving' it
+in the passionless intervals as well.</p>
+
+<p>To this must be added another factor derived from the astonishing course
+of development which is pursued by the erotic life of man. In his first
+phase, which has usually come to an end by the time he is five years
+old, a child has found the first object for his love in one or other of
+his parents, and all of his sexual instincts with their demand for
+satisfaction have been united upon this object. The repression which
+then sets in compels him to renounce the greater number of these
+infantile sexual aims, and leaves behind a profound modification in his
+relation to his parents. The child still remains tied to his parents,
+but by instincts which must be described as being 'inhibited in their
+aim [<i>zielgehemmte</i>]'. The emotions which he feels henceforward towards
+these objects of his love are characterized as 'tender'. It is well
+known that the earlier 'sensual' tendencies remain more or less strongly
+preserved in the unconscious, so that in a certain sense the whole of
+the original current continues to exist.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>At puberty, as we know, there set in new and very strong tendencies with
+directly sexual aims. In unfavourable cases they remain separate, in the
+form<a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a> of a sensual current, from the 'tender' emotional trends which
+persist. We are then faced by a picture the two aspects of which certain
+movements in literature take such delight in idealising. A man of this
+kind will show a sentimental enthusiasm for women whom he deeply
+respects but who do not excite him to sexual activities, and he will
+only be potent with other women whom he does not 'love' but thinks
+little of or even despises.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> More often, however, the adolescent
+succeeds in bringing about a certain degree of synthesis between the
+unsensual, heavenly love and the sensual, earthly love, and his relation
+to his sexual object is characterised by the interaction of uninhibited
+instincts and of instincts inhibited in their aim. The depth to which
+anyone is in love, as contrasted with his purely sensual desire, may be
+measured by the size of the share taken by the inhibited instincts of
+tenderness.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with this question of being in love we have always been
+struck by the phenomenon of sexual over-estimation&mdash;the fact that the
+loved object enjoys a certain amount of freedom from criticism, and that
+all its characteristics are valued more highly than those of people who
+are not loved, or than its own were at a time when it itself was not
+loved. If the sensual<a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a> tendencies are somewhat more effectively
+repressed or set aside, the illusion is produced that the object has
+come to be sensually loved on account of its spiritual merits, whereas
+on the contrary these merits may really only have been lent to it by its
+sensual charm.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency which falsifies judgement in this respect is that of
+<i>idealisation</i>. But this makes it easier for us to find our way about.
+We see that the object is being treated in the same way as our own ego,
+so that when we are in love a considerable amount of narcissistic libido
+overflows on to the object. It is even obvious, in many forms of love
+choice, that the object serves as a substitute for some unattained ego
+ideal of our own. We love it on account of the perfections which we have
+striven to reach for our own ego, and which we should now like to
+procure in this roundabout way as a means of satisfying our narcissism.</p>
+
+<p>If the sexual over-estimation and the being in love increase even
+further, then the interpretation of the picture becomes still more
+unmistakable. The tendencies whose trend is towards directly sexual
+satisfaction may now be pushed back entirely, as regularly happens, for
+instance, with the young man's sentimental passion; the ego becomes more
+and more unassuming and modest, and the object more and more sublime and
+precious, until at last it gets possession<a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a> of the entire self-love of
+the ego, whose self-sacrifice thus follows as a natural consequence. The
+object has, so to speak, consumed the ego. Traits of humility, of the
+limitation of narcissism, and of self-injury occur in every case of
+being in love; in the extreme case they are only intensified, and as a
+result of the withdrawal of the sensual claims they remain in solitary
+supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>This happens especially easily with love that is unhappy and cannot be
+satisfied; for in spite of everything each sexual satisfaction always
+involves a reduction in sexual over-estimation. Contemporaneously with
+this 'devotion' of the ego to the object, which is no longer to be
+distinguished from a sublimated devotion to an abstract idea, the
+functions allotted to the ego ideal entirely cease to operate. The
+criticism exercised by that faculty is silent; everything that the
+object does and asks for is right and blameless. Conscience has no
+application to anything that is done for the sake of the object; in the
+blindness of love remorselessness is carried to the pitch of crime. The
+whole situation can be completely summarised in a formula: <i>The object
+has taken the place of the ego ideal.</i></p>
+
+<p>It is now easy to define the distinction between identification and such
+extreme developments of being in love as may be described as fascination
+or infatuation. In the former case the ego has enriched itself<a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a> with the
+properties of the object, it has 'introjected' the object into itself,
+as Ferenczi expresses it. In the second case it is impoverished, it has
+surrendered itself to the object, it has substituted the object for its
+most important constituent. Closer consideration soon makes it plain,
+however, that this kind of account creates an illusion of
+contradistinctions that have no real existence. Economically there is no
+question of impoverishment or enrichment; it is even possible to
+describe an extreme case of being in love as a state in which the ego
+has introjected the object into itself. Another distinction is perhaps
+better calculated to meet the essence of the matter. In the case of
+identification the object has been lost or given up; it is then set up
+again inside the ego, and the ego makes a partial alteration in itself
+after the model of the lost object. In the other case the object is
+retained, and there is a hyper-cathexis of it by the ego and at the
+ego's expense. But here again a difficulty presents itself. Is it quite
+certain that identification presupposes that object-cathexis has been
+given up? Can there be no identification with the object retained? And
+before we embark upon a discussion of this delicate question, the
+perception may already be beginning to dawn on us that yet another
+alternative embraces the real essence of the matter, namely, <i>whether
+the object is put in the place of the ego or of the ego ideal</i>.<a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a></p>
+
+<p>From being in love to hypnosis is evidently only a short step. The
+respects in which the two agree are obvious. There is the same humble
+subjection, the same compliance, the same absence of criticism, towards
+the hypnotist just as towards the loved object. There is the same
+absorption of one's own initiative; no one can doubt that the hypnotist
+has stepped into the place of the ego ideal. It is only that everything
+is even clearer and more intense in hypnosis, so that it would be more
+to the point to explain being in love by means of hypnosis than the
+other way round. The hypnotist is the sole object, and no attention is
+paid to any but him. The fact that the ego experiences in a dream-like
+way whatever he may request or assert reminds us that we omitted to
+mention among the functions of the ego ideal the business of testing the
+reality of things.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> No wonder that the ego takes a perception for
+real if its reality is vouched for by the mental faculty which
+ordinarily discharges the duty of testing the reality of things. The
+complete absence of tendencies which are uninhibited in their sexual
+aims contributes further towards the extreme purity of the phenomena.
+The hypnotic relation is the devotion of someone in love to an unlimited
+degree but with sexual satisfaction excluded;<a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a> whereas in the case of
+being in love this kind of satisfaction is only temporarily kept back,
+and remains in the background as a possible aim at some later time.</p>
+
+<p>But on the other hand we may also say that the hypnotic relation is (if
+the expression is permissible) a group formation with two members.
+Hypnosis is not a good object for comparison with a group formation,
+because it is truer to say that it is identical with it. Out of the
+complicated fabric of the group it isolates one element for us&mdash;the
+behaviour of the individual to the leader. Hypnosis is distinguished
+from a group formation by this limitation of number, just as it is
+distinguished from being in love by the absence of directly sexual
+tendencies. In this respect it occupies a middle position between the
+two.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to see that it is precisely those sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims which achieve such lasting ties between
+men. But this can easily be understood from the fact that they are not
+capable of complete satisfaction, while sexual tendencies which are
+uninhibited in their aims suffer an extraordinary reduction through the
+discharge of energy every time the sexual aim is attained. It is the
+fate of sensual love to become extinguished when it is satisfied; for it
+to be able to last, it must from the first be mixed with purely tender
+components&mdash;with such, that is, as are inhibited in their aims&mdash;or it
+must itself undergo a transformation of this kind.<a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a></p>
+
+<p>Hypnosis would solve the riddle of the libidinal constitution of groups
+for us straight away, if it were not that it itself exhibits some
+features which are not met by the rational explanation we have hitherto
+given of it as a state of being in love with the directly sexual
+tendencies excluded. There is still a great deal in it which we must
+recognise as unexplained and mystical. It contains an additional element
+of paralysis derived from the relation between someone with superior
+power and someone who is without power and helpless&mdash;which may afford a
+transition to the hypnosis of terror which occurs in animals. The manner
+in which it is produced and its relationship to sleep are not clear; and
+the puzzling way in which some people are subject to it, while others
+resist it completely, points to some factor still unknown which is
+realised in it and which perhaps alone makes possible the purity of the
+attitudes of the libido which it exhibits. It is noticeable that, even
+when there is complete suggestive compliance in other respects, the
+moral conscience of the person hypnotized may show resistance. But this
+may be due to the fact that in hypnosis as it is usually practised some
+knowledge may be retained that what is happening is only a game, an
+untrue reproduction of another situation of far more importance to life.</p>
+
+<p>But after the preceding discussions we are quite in a position to give
+the formula for the libidinal<a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a> constitution of groups: or at least of
+such groups as we have hitherto considered, namely, those that have a
+leader and have not been able by means of too much 'organisation' to
+acquire secondarily the characteristics of an individual. <i>A primary
+group of this kind is a number of individuals who have substituted one
+and the same object for their ego ideal and have consequently identified
+themselves with one another in their ego.</i> This condition admits of
+graphic representation:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;">
+<img src="images/illpg_080.png" width="489" height="176" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX<br /><br />
+THE HERD INSTINCT</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">We cannot for long enjoy the illusion that we have solved the riddle of
+the group with this formula. It is impossible to escape the immediate
+and disturbing recollection that all we have really done has been to
+shift the question on to the riddle of hypnosis, about which so many
+points have yet to be cleared up. And now another objection shows us our
+further path.</p>
+
+<p>It might be said that the intense emotional ties which we observe in
+groups are quite sufficient to explain one of their characteristics&mdash;the
+lack of independence and initiative in their members, the similarity in
+the reactions of all of them, their reduction, so to speak, to the level
+of group individuals. But if we look at it as a whole, a group shows us
+more than this. Some of its features&mdash;the weakness of intellectual
+ability, the lack of emotional restraint, the incapacity for moderation
+and delay, the inclination to exceed every limit in the expression of
+emotion and to work<a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a> it off completely in the form of action&mdash;these and
+similar features, which we find so impressively described in Le Bon,
+show an unmistakable picture of a regression of mental activity to an
+earlier stage such as we are not surprised to find among savages or
+children. A regression of this sort is in particular an essential
+characteristic of common groups, while, as we have heard, in organized
+and artificial groups it can to a large extent be checked.</p>
+
+<p>We thus have an impression of a state in which an individual's separate
+emotion and personal intellectual act are too weak to come to anything
+by themselves and are absolutely obliged to wait till they are
+reinforced through being repeated in a similar way in the other members
+of the group. We are reminded of how many of these phenomena of
+dependence are part of the normal constitution of human society, of how
+little originality and personal courage are to be found in it, of how
+much every individual is ruled by those attitudes of the group mind
+which exhibit themselves in such forms as racial characteristics, class
+prejudices, public opinion, etc. The influence of suggestion becomes a
+greater riddle for us when we admit that it is not exercised only by the
+leader, but by every individual upon every other individual; and we must
+reproach ourselves with having unfairly emphasized the relation to the
+leader and with having kept the other factor of mutual suggestion too
+much in the background.<a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a></p>
+
+<p>After this encouragement to modesty, we shall be inclined to listen to
+another voice, which promises us an explanation based upon simpler
+grounds. Such a one is to be found in Trotter's thoughtful book upon the
+herd instinct, concerning which my only regret is that it does not
+entirely escape the antipathies that were set loose by the recent great
+war.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>Trotter derives the mental phenomena that are described as occurring in
+groups from a herd instinct ('gregariousness'), which is innate in human
+beings just as in other species of animals. Biologically this
+gregariousness is an analogy to multicellularity and as it were a
+continuation of it. From the standpoint of the libido theory it is a
+further manifestation of the inclination, which proceeds from the
+libido, and which is felt by all living beings of the same kind, to
+combine in more and more comprehensive units.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The individual feels
+'incomplete' if he is alone. The dread shown by small children would
+seem already to be an expression of this herd instinct. Opposition to
+the herd is as good as separation from it, and is therefore anxiously
+avoided. But the herd turns away from anything that is new or unusual.
+The herd instinct<a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a> would appear to be something primary, something
+'which cannot be split up'.</p>
+
+<p>Trotter gives as the list of instincts which he considers as primary
+those of self-preservation, of nutrition, of sex, and of the herd. The
+last often comes into opposition with the others. The feelings of guilt
+and of duty are the peculiar possessions of a gregarious animal. Trotter
+also derives from the herd instinct the repressive forces which
+psycho-analysis has shown to exist in the ego, and from the same source
+accordingly the resistances which the physician comes up against in
+psycho-analytic treatment. Speech owes its importance to its aptitude
+for mutual understanding in the herd, and upon it the identification of
+the individuals with one another largely rests.</p>
+
+<p>While Le Bon is principally concerned with typical transient group
+formations, and McDougall with stable associations, Trotter has chosen
+as the centre of his interest the most generalised form of assemblage in
+which man, that &#986;&#8033;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8001;&#957;, passes his life, and he gives
+us its psychological basis. But Trotter is under no necessity of tracing
+back the herd instinct, for he characterizes it as primary and not
+further reducible. Boris Sidis's attempt, to which he refers, at tracing
+the herd instinct back to suggestibility is fortunately superfluous as
+far as he is concerned; it is an explanation of a familiar and
+unsatisfactory type, and the<a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a> converse proposition&mdash;that suggestibility
+is a derivative of the herd instinct&mdash;would seem to me to throw far more
+light on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>But Trotter's exposition, with even more justice than the others', is
+open to the objection that it takes too little account of the leader's
+part in a group, while we incline rather to the opposite judgement, that
+it is impossible to grasp the nature of a group if the leader is
+disregarded. The herd instinct leaves no room at all for the leader; he
+is merely thrown in along with the herd, almost by chance; it follows,
+too, that no path leads from this instinct to the need for a God; the
+herd is without a herdsman. But besides this Trotter's exposition can be
+undermined psychologically; that is to say, it can be made at all events
+probable that the herd instinct is not irreducible, that it is not
+primary in the same sense as the instinct of self-preservation and the
+sexual instinct.</p>
+
+<p>It is naturally no easy matter to trace the ontogenesis of the herd
+instinct. The dread which is shown by small children when they are left
+alone, and which Trotter claims as being already a manifestation of the
+instinct, nevertheless suggests more readily another interpretation. The
+dread relates to the child's mother, and later to other familiar
+persons, and it is the expression of an unfulfilled desire, which the
+child does not yet know how to deal with in any way<a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a> except by turning
+it into dread.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> Nor is the child's dread when it is alone pacified by
+the sight of any haphazard 'member of the herd', but on the contrary it
+is only brought into existence by the approach of a 'stranger' of this
+sort. Then for a long time nothing in the nature of herd instinct or
+group feeling is to be observed in children. Something like it grows up
+first of all, in a nursery containing many children, out of the
+children's relation to their parents, and it does so as a reaction to
+the initial envy with which the elder child receives the younger one.
+The elder child would certainly like to put its successor jealously
+aside, to keep it away from the parents, and to rob it of all its
+privileges; but in face of the fact that this child (like all that come
+later) is loved by the parents in just the same way, and in consequence
+of the impossibility of maintaining its hostile attitude without
+damaging itself, it is forced into identifying itself with the other
+children. So there grows up in the troop of children a communal or group
+feeling, which is then further developed at school. The first demand
+made by this reaction-formation is for justice, for equal treatment for
+all. We all know how loudly and implacably this claim is put forward at
+school. If one cannot be the favourite oneself, at all events nobody
+else<a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a> shall be the favourite. This transformation&mdash;the replacing of
+jealousy by a group feeling in the nursery and classroom&mdash;might be
+considered improbable, if the same process could not later on be
+observed again in other circumstances. We have only to think of the
+troop of women and girls, all of them in love in an enthusiastically
+sentimental way, who crowd round a singer or pianist after his
+performance. It would certainly be easy for each of them to be jealous
+of the rest; but, in face of their numbers and the consequent
+impossibility of their reaching the aim of their love, they renounce it,
+and, instead of pulling out one another's hair, they act as a united
+group, do homage to the hero of the occasion with their common actions,
+and would probably be glad to have a share of his flowing locks.
+Originally rivals, they have succeeded in identifying themselves with
+one another by means of a similar love for the same object. When, as is
+usual, a situation in the field of the instincts is capable of various
+outcomes, we need not be surprised if the actual outcome is one which
+involves the possibility of a certain amount of satisfaction, while
+another, even though in itself more obvious, is passed over because the
+circumstances of life prevent its attaining this aim.</p>
+
+<p>What appears later on in society in the shape of <i>Gemeingeist</i>, <i>esprit
+de corps</i>, 'group spirit', etc., does not belie its derivation from what
+was originally<a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a> envy. No one must want to put himself forward, every one
+must be the same and have the same. Social justice means that we deny
+ourselves many things so that others may have to do without them as
+well, or, what is the same thing, may not be able to ask for them. This
+demand for equality is the root of social conscience and the sense of
+duty. It reveals itself unexpectedly in the syphilitic's dread of
+infecting other people, which psycho-analysis has taught us to
+understand. The dread exhibited by these poor wretches corresponds to
+their violent struggles against the unconscious wish to spread their
+infection on to other people; for why should they alone be infected and
+cut off from so much? why not other people as well? And the same germ is
+to be found in the pretty anecdote of the judgement of Solomon. If one
+woman's child is dead, the other shall not have a live one either. The
+bereaved woman is recognized by this wish.</p>
+
+<p>Thus social feeling is based upon the reversal of what was first a
+hostile feeling into a positively-toned tie of the nature of an
+identification. So far as we have hitherto been able to follow the
+course of events, this reversal appears to be effected under the
+influence of a common tender tie with a person outside the group. We do
+not ourselves regard our analysis of identification as exhaustive, but
+it is enough for our present purpose that we should revert to this one<a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a>
+feature&mdash;its demand that equalization shall be consistently carried
+through. We have already heard in the discussion of the two artificial
+groups, church and army, that their preliminary condition is that all
+their members should be loved in the same way by one person, the leader.
+Do not let us forget, however, that the demand for equality in a group
+applies only to its members and not to the leader. All the members must
+be equal to one another, but they all want to be ruled by one person.
+Many equals, who can identify themselves with one another, and a single
+person superior to them all&mdash;that is the situation that we find realised
+in groups which are capable of subsisting. Let us venture, then, to
+correct Trotter's pronouncement that man is a herd animal and assert
+that he is rather a horde animal, an individual creature in a horde led
+by a chief.<a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="X" id="X"></a>X<br /><br />
+THE GROUP AND THE PRIMAL HORDE</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">In 1912 I took up a conjecture of Darwin's to the effect that the
+primitive form of human society was that of a horde ruled over
+despotically by a powerful male. I attempted to show that the fortunes
+of this horde have left indestructible traces upon the history of human
+descent; and, especially, that the development of totemism, which
+comprises in itself the beginnings of religion, morality, and social
+organisation, is connected with the killing of the chief by violence and
+the transformation of the paternal horde into a community of
+brothers.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> To be sure, this is only a hypothesis, like so many others
+with which archaeologists endeavour to lighten the darkness of
+prehistoric times&mdash;a 'Just-So Story', as it was amusingly called by a
+not unkind critic (Kroeger); but I think it is creditable to such a
+hypothesis if it proves able to<a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a> bring coherence and understanding into
+more and more new regions.</p>
+
+<p>Human groups exhibit once again the familiar picture of an individual of
+superior strength among a troop of similar companions, a picture which
+is also contained in our idea of the primal horde. The psychology of
+such a group, as we know it from the descriptions to which we have so
+often referred&mdash;the dwindling of the conscious individual personality,
+the focussing of thoughts and feelings into a common direction, the
+predominance of the emotions and of the unconscious mental life, the
+tendency to the immediate carrying out of intentions as they emerge&mdash;all
+this corresponds to a state of regression to a primitive mental
+activity, of just such a sort as we should be inclined to ascribe to the
+primal horde.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a><a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a></p>
+
+<p>Thus the group appears to us as a revival of the primal horde. Just as
+primitive man virtually survives in every individual, so the primal
+horde may arise once more out of any random crowd; in so far as men are
+habitually under the sway of group formation we recognise in it the
+survival of the primal horde. We must conclude that the psychology of
+the group is the oldest human psychology; what we have isolated as
+individual psychology, by neglecting all traces of the group, has only
+since come into prominence out of the old group psychology, by a gradual
+process which may still, perhaps, be described as incomplete. We shall
+later venture upon an attempt at specifying the point of departure of
+this development.</p>
+
+<p>Further reflection will show us in what respect this statement requires
+correction. Individual psychology must, on the contrary, be just as old
+as group psychology, for from the first there were two kinds of
+psychologies, that of the individual members of the group and that of
+the father, chief, or leader. The members of the group were subject to
+ties just as we see them to-day, but the father of the primal horde was
+free. His intellectual acts were strong and<a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a> independent even in
+isolation, and his will needed no reinforcement from others. Consistency
+leads us to assume that his ego had few libidinal ties; he loved no one
+but himself, or other people only in so far as they served his needs. To
+objects his ego gave away no more than was barely necessary.</p>
+
+<p>He, at the very beginning of the history of mankind, was the <i>Superman</i>
+whom Nietzsche only expected from the future. Even to-day the members of
+a group stand in need of the illusion that they are equally and justly
+loved by their leader; but the leader himself need love no one else, he
+may be of a masterly nature, absolutely narcissistic, but self-confident
+and independent. We know that love puts a check upon narcissism, and it
+would be possible to show how, by operating in this way, it became a
+factor of civilisation.</p>
+
+<p>The primal father of the horde was not yet immortal, as he later became
+by deification. If he died, he had to be replaced; his place was
+probably taken by a youngest son, who had up to then been a member of
+the group like any other. There must therefore be a possibility of
+transforming group psychology into individual psychology; a condition
+must be discovered under which such a transformation is easily
+accomplished, just as it is possible for bees in case of necessity to
+turn a larva into a queen instead of into a worker. One can imagine only
+one possibility:<a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a> the primal father had prevented his sons from
+satisfying their directly sexual tendencies; he forced them into
+abstinence and consequently into the emotional ties with him and with
+one another which could arise out of those of their tendencies that were
+inhibited in their sexual aim. He forced them, so to speak, into group
+psychology. His sexual jealousy and intolerance became in the last
+resort the causes of group psychology.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>Whoever became his successor was also given the possibility of sexual
+satisfaction, and was by that means offered a way out of the conditions
+of group psychology. The fixation of the libido to woman and the
+possibility of satisfaction without any need for delay or accumulation
+made and end of the importance of those of his sexual tendencies that
+were inhibited in their aim, and allowed his narcissism always to rise
+to its full height. We shall return in a postscript to this connection
+between love and character formation.</p>
+
+<p>We may further emphasize, as being specially instructive, the relation
+that holds between the contrivance by means of which an artificial group
+is held together and the constitution of the primal horde. We have seen
+that with an army and a church this<a name="page_095" id="page_095"></a> contrivance is the illusion that
+the leader loves all of the individuals equally and justly. But this is
+simply an idealistic remodelling of the state of affairs in the primal
+horde, where all of the sons knew that they were equally persecuted by
+the primal father, and feared him equally. This same recasting upon
+which all social duties are built up is already presupposed by the next
+form of human society, the totemistic clan. The indestructible strength
+of the family as a natural group formation rests upon the fact that this
+necessary presupposition of the father's equal love can have a real
+application in the family.</p>
+
+<p>But we expect even more of this derivation of the group from the primal
+horde. It ought also to help us to understand what is still
+incomprehensible and mysterious in group formations&mdash;all that lies
+hidden behind the enigmatic words hypnosis and suggestion. And I think
+it can succeed in this too. Let us recall that hypnosis has something
+positively uncanny about it; but the characteristic of uncanniness
+suggests something old and familiar that has undergone repression.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>
+Let us consider how hypnosis is induced. The hypnotist asserts that he
+is in possession of a mysterious power which robs the subject of his own
+will, or, which is the same thing, the subject believes it of him. This
+mysterious power (which is even now<a name="page_096" id="page_096"></a> often described popularly as animal
+magnetism) must be the same that is looked upon by primitive people as
+the source of taboo, the same that emanates from kings and chieftains
+and makes it dangerous to approach them (<i>mana</i>). The hypnotist, then,
+is supposed to be in possession of this power; and how does he manifest
+it? By telling the subject to look him in the eyes; his most typical
+method of hypnotising is by his look. But it is precisely the sight of
+the chieftain that is dangerous and unbearable for primitive people,
+just as later that of the Godhead is for mortals. Even Moses had to act
+as an intermediary between his people and Jehovah, since the people
+could not support the sight of God; and when he returned from the
+presence of God his face shone&mdash;some of the <i>mana</i> had been transferred
+on to him, just as happens with the intermediary among primitive
+people.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is true that hypnosis can also be evoked in other ways, for instance
+by fixing the eyes upon a bright object or by listening to a monotonous
+sound. This is misleading and has given occasion to inadequate
+physiological theories. As a matter of fact these procedures merely
+serve to divert conscious attention and to hold it riveted. The
+situation is the same as if the hypnotist had said to the subject:<a name="page_097" id="page_097"></a> 'Now
+concern yourself exclusively with my person; the rest of the world is
+quite uninteresting.' It would of course be technically inexpedient for
+a hypnotist to make such a speech; it would tear the subject away from
+his unconscious attitude and stimulate him to conscious opposition. The
+hypnotist avoids directing the subject's conscious thoughts towards his
+own intentions, and makes the person upon whom he is experimenting sink
+into an activity in which the world is bound to seem uninteresting to
+him; but at the same time the subject is in reality unconsciously
+concentrating his whole attention upon the hypnotist, and is getting
+into an attitude of <i>rapport</i>, of transference on to him. Thus the
+indirect methods of hypnotising, like many of the technical procedures
+used in making jokes, have the effect of checking certain distributions
+of mental energy which would interfere with the course of events in the
+unconscious, and they lead eventually to the same result as the direct
+methods of influence by means of staring or stroking.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a><a name="page_098" id="page_098"></a></p>
+
+<p>Ferenczi has made the true discovery that when a hypnotist gives the
+command to sleep, which is often done at the beginning of hypnosis, he
+is putting himself in the place of the subject's parents. He thinks that
+two sorts of hypnosis are to be distinguished: one coaxing and soothing,
+which he considers is modelled upon the mother, and another threatening,
+which is derived from the father.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Now the command to sleep in
+hypnosis means nothing more nor less than an order to withdraw all
+interest from the world and to concentrate it upon the person of the
+hypnotist. And it is so understood by the subject; for in this
+withdrawal of interest from the outer world lies the psychological
+characteristic of sleep, and the kinship between sleep and the state of
+hypnosis is based upon it.<a name="page_099" id="page_099"></a></p>
+
+<p>By the measures that he takes, then, the hypnotist awakens in the
+subject a portion of his archaic inheritance which had also made him
+compliant towards his parents and which had experienced an individual
+re-animation in his relation to his father; what is thus awakened is the
+idea of a paramount and dangerous personality, towards whom only a
+passive-masochistic attitude is possible, to whom one's will has to be
+surrendered,&mdash;while to be alone with him, 'to look him in the face',
+appears a hazardous enterprise. It is only in some such way as this that
+we can picture the relation of the individual member of the primal horde
+to the primal father. As we know from other reactions, individuals have
+preserved a variable degree of personal aptitude for reviving old
+situations of this kind. Some knowledge that in spite of everything
+hypnosis is only a game, a deceptive renewal of these old impressions,
+may however remain behind and take care that there is a resistance
+against any too serious consequences of the suspension of the will in
+hypnosis.</p>
+
+<p>The uncanny and coercive characteristics of group formations, which are
+shown in their suggestion phenomena, may therefore with justice be
+traced back to the fact of their origin from the primal horde. The
+leader of the group is still the dreaded primal father; the group still
+wishes to be governed by unrestricted force; it has an extreme passion
+for<a name="page_100" id="page_100"></a> authority; in Le Bon's phrase, it has a thirst for obedience. The
+primal father is the group ideal, which governs the ego in the place of
+the ego ideal. Hypnosis has a good claim to being described as a group
+of two; there remains as a definition for suggestion&mdash;a conviction which
+is not based upon perception and reasoning but upon an erotic tie.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a><a name="page_101" id="page_101"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI<br /><br />
+A DIFFERENTIATING GRADE IN THE EGO</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">If we survey the life of an individual man of to-day, bearing in mind
+the mutually complementary accounts of group psychology given by the
+authorities, we may lose the courage, in face of the complications that
+are revealed, to attempt a comprehensive exposition. Each individual is
+a component part of numerous groups, he is bound by ties of
+identification in many directions, and he has built up his ego ideal
+upon the most various models. Each individual therefore has a share in
+numerous group minds&mdash;those of his race, of his class, of his creed, of
+his nationality, etc.&mdash;and he can also raise himself above them to the
+extent of having a scrap of independence and originality. Such stable
+and lasting group formations, with their uniform and constant effects,
+are less striking to an observer than the rapidly formed and transient
+groups from which Le Bon has made his brilliant psychological character
+sketch of the group mind. And it is just in these noisy ephemeral
+groups, which are as it<a name="page_102" id="page_102"></a> were superimposed upon the others, that we are
+met by the prodigy of the complete, even though only temporary,
+disappearance of exactly what we have recognized as individual
+acquirements.</p>
+
+<p>We have interpreted this prodigy as meaning that the individual gives up
+his ego ideal and substitutes for it the group ideal as embodied in the
+leader. And we must add by way of correction that the prodigy is not
+equally great in every case. In many individuals the separation between
+the ego and the ego ideal is not very far advanced; the two still
+coincide readily; the ego has often preserved its earlier
+self-complacency. The selection of the leader is very much facilitated
+by this circumstance. He need only possess the typical qualities of the
+individuals concerned in a particularly clearly marked and pure form,
+and need only give an impression of greater force and of more freedom of
+libido; and in that case the need for a strong chief will often meet him
+half-way and invest him with a predominance to which he would otherwise
+perhaps have had no claim. The other members of the group, whose ego
+ideal would not, apart from this, have become embodied in his person
+without some correction, are then carried away with the rest by
+'suggestion', that is to say, by means of identification.</p>
+
+<p>We are aware that what we have been able to contribute towards the
+explanation of the libidinal<a name="page_103" id="page_103"></a> structure of groups leads back to the
+distinction between the ego and the ego ideal and to the double kind of
+tie which this makes possible&mdash;identification, and substitution of the
+object for the ego ideal. The assumption of this kind of differentiating
+grade [<i>Stufe</i>] in the ego as a first step in an analysis of the ego
+must gradually establish its justification in the most various regions
+of psychology. In my paper 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus' I have put
+together all the pathological material that could at the moment be used
+in support of this separation. But it may be expected that when we
+penetrate deeper into the psychology of the psychoses its significance
+will be discovered to be far greater. Let us reflect that the ego now
+appears in the relation of an object to the ego ideal which has been
+developed out of it, and that all the interplay between an outer object
+and the ego as a whole, with which our study of the neuroses has made us
+acquainted, may possibly be repeated upon this new scene of action
+inside the ego.</p>
+
+<p>In this place I shall only follow up one of the consequences which seem
+possible from this point of view, thus resuming the discussion of a
+problem which I was obliged to leave unsolved elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> Each of the
+mental differentiations that we have become acquainted with represents a
+fresh aggravation of the difficulties of mental functioning, increases
+its<a name="page_104" id="page_104"></a> instability, and may become the starting-point for its breakdown,
+that is, for the onset of a disease. Thus, by being born we have made
+the step from an absolutely self-sufficient narcissism to the perception
+of a changing outer world and to the beginnings of the discovery of
+objects. And with this is associated the fact that we cannot endure the
+new state of things for long, that we periodically revert from it, in
+our sleep, to our former condition of absence of stimulation and
+avoidance of objects. It is true, however, that in this we are following
+a hint from the outer world, which, by means of the periodical change of
+day and night, temporarily withdraws the greater part of the stimuli
+that affect us. The second example, which is pathologically more
+important, is not subject to any such qualification. In the course of
+our development we have effected a separation of our mental existence
+into a coherent ego and into an unconscious and repressed portion which
+is left outside it; and we know that the stability of this new
+acquisition is exposed to constant shocks. In dreams and in neuroses
+what is thus excluded knocks for admission at the gates, guarded though
+they are by resistances; and in our waking health we make use of special
+artifices for allowing what is repressed to circumvent the resistances
+and for receiving it temporarily into our ego to the increase of our
+pleasure. Wit and humour, and to some extent the comic in general,<a name="page_105" id="page_105"></a> may
+be regarded in this light. Everyone acquainted with the psychology of
+the neuroses will think of similar examples of less importance; but I
+hasten on to the application I have in view.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite conceivable that the separation of the ego ideal from the
+ego cannot be borne for long either, and has to be temporarily undone.
+In all renunciations and limitations imposed upon the ego a periodical
+infringement of the prohibition is the rule; this indeed is shown by the
+institution of festivals, which in origin are nothing more nor less than
+excesses provided by law and which owe their cheerful character to the
+release which they bring.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> The Saturnalia of the Romans and our
+modern carnival agree in this essential feature with the festivals of
+primitive people, which usually end in debaucheries of every kind and
+the transgression of what are at other times the most sacred
+commandments. But the ego ideal comprises the sum of all the limitations
+in which the ego has to acquiesce, and for that reason the abrogation of
+the ideal would necessarily be a magnificent festival for the ego, which
+might then once again feel satisfied with itself.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a><a name="page_106" id="page_106"></a></p>
+
+<p>There is always a feeling of triumph when something in the ego coincides
+with the ego ideal. And the sense of guilt (as well as the sense of
+inferiority) can also be understood as an expression of tension between
+the ego and the ego ideal.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that there are people the general colour of whose mood
+oscillates periodically from an excessive depression through some kind
+of intermediate state to an exalted sense of well-being. These
+oscillations appear in very different degrees of amplitude, from what is
+just noticeable to those extreme instances which, in the shape of
+melancholia and mania, make the most painful or disturbing inroads upon
+the life of the person concerned. In typical cases of this cyclical
+depression outer exciting causes do not seem to play any decisive part;
+as regards inner motives, nothing more (or nothing different) is to be
+found in these patients than in all others. It has consequently become
+the custom to consider these cases as not being psychogenic. We shall
+refer later on to those other exactly similar cases of cyclical
+depression which can nevertheless easily be traced back to mental
+traumata.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the foundation of these spontaneous oscillations of mood is
+unknown; we are without insight into the mechanism of the displacement
+of a melancholia by a mania. So we are free to suppose that these
+patients are people in whom our conjecture<a name="page_107" id="page_107"></a> might find an actual
+application&mdash;their ego ideal might be temporarily resolved into their
+ego after having previously ruled it with especial strictness.</p>
+
+<p>Let us keep to what is clear: On the basis of our analysis of the ego it
+cannot be doubted that in cases of mania the ego and the ego ideal have
+fused together, so that the person, in a mood of triumph and
+self-satisfaction, disturbed by no self-criticism, can enjoy the
+abolition of his inhibitions, his feelings of consideration for others,
+and his self-reproaches. It is not so obvious, but nevertheless very
+probable, that the misery of the melancholiac is the expression of a
+sharp conflict between the two faculties of his ego, a conflict in which
+the ideal, in an excess of sensitiveness, relentlessly exhibits its
+condemnation of the ego in delusions of inferiority and in
+self-depreciation. The only question is whether we are to look for the
+causes of these altered relations between the ego and the ego ideal in
+the periodic rebellions, which we have postulated above, against the new
+institution, or whether we are to make other circumstances responsible
+for them.</p>
+
+<p>A change into mania is not an indispensable feature of the
+symptomatology of melancholic depression. There are simple melancholias,
+some in single and some in recurring attacks, which never show this
+development. On the other hand there are melancholias in which the
+exciting cause clearly plays an aetiological<a name="page_108" id="page_108"></a> part. They are those which
+occur after the loss of a loved object, whether by death or as a result
+of circumstances which have necessitated the withdrawal of the libido
+from the object. A psychogenic melancholia of this sort can end in
+mania, and this cycle can be repeated several times, just as easily as
+in a case which appears to be spontaneous. Thus the state of things is
+somewhat obscure, especially as only a few forms and cases of
+melancholia have been submitted to psycho-analytical investigation.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>
+So far we only understand those cases in which the object is given up
+because it has shown itself unworthy of love. It is then set up again
+inside the ego, by means of identification, and severely condemned by
+the ego ideal. The reproaches and attacks directed towards the object
+come to light in the shape of melancholic self-reproaches.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a></p>
+
+<p>A melancholia of this kind may also end in a change to mania; so that
+the possibility of this happening represents a feature which is
+independent of the other characteristics in the symptomatology.<a name="page_109" id="page_109"></a></p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless I see no difficulty in assigning to the factor of the
+periodical rebellion of the ego against the ego ideal a share in both
+kinds of melancholia, the psychogenic as well as the spontaneous. In the
+spontaneous kind it may be supposed that the ego ideal is inclined to
+display a peculiar strictness, which then results automatically in its
+temporary suspension. In the psychogenic kind the ego would be incited
+to rebellion by ill-treatment on the part of its ideal&mdash;an ill-treatment
+which it encounters when there has been identification with a rejected
+object.<a name="page_110" id="page_110"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII<br /><br />
+POSTSCRIPT</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">In the course of the enquiry which has just been brought to a
+provisional end we came across a number of side-paths which we avoided
+pursuing in the first instance but in which there was much that offered
+us promises of insight. We propose now to take up a few of the points
+that have been left on one side in this way.</p>
+
+<p>A. The distinction between identification of the ego with an object and
+replacement of the ego ideal by an object finds an interesting
+illustration in the two great artificial groups which we began by
+studying, the army and the Christian church.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that a soldier takes his superior, that is, really, the
+leader of the army, as his ideal, while he identifies himself with his
+equals, and derives from this community of their egos the obligations
+for giving mutual help and for sharing possessions which comradeship
+implies. But he becomes ridiculous if he tries to identify himself with
+the general. The<a name="page_111" id="page_111"></a> soldier in <i>Wallensteins Lager</i> laughs at the sergeant
+for this very reason:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Wie er r�uspert und wie er spuckt,</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Das habt ihr ihm gl�cklich abgeguckt!<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>It is otherwise in the Catholic Church. Every Christian loves Christ as
+his ideal and feels himself united with all other Christians by the tie
+of identification. But the Church requires more of him. He has also to
+identify himself with Christ and love all other Christians as Christ
+loved them. At both points, therefore, the Church requires that the
+position of the libido which is given by a group formation should be
+supplemented. Identification has to be added where object-choice has
+taken place, and object love where there is identification. This
+addition evidently goes beyond the constitution of the group. One can be
+a good Christian and yet be far from the idea of putting oneself in
+Christ's place and of having like him an all-embracing love for mankind.
+One need not think oneself capable, weak mortal that one is, of the
+Saviour's largeness of soul and strength of love. But this further
+development in the distribution of libido in the group is probably the
+factor upon which Christianity bases its claim to have reached a higher
+ethical level.<a name="page_112" id="page_112"></a></p>
+
+<p>B. We have said that it would be possible to specify the point in the
+mental development of man at which the advance from group to individual
+psychology was also achieved by the individual members of the group.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<p>For this purpose we must return for a moment to the scientific myth of
+the father of the primal horde. He was later on exalted into the creator
+of the world, and with justice, for he had produced all the sons who
+composed the first group. He was the ideal of each one of them, at once
+feared and honoured, a fact which led later to the idea of taboo. These
+many individuals eventually banded themselves together, killed him and
+cut him in pieces. None of the group of victors could take his place,
+or, if one of them did, the battles began afresh, until they understood
+that they must all renounce their father's heritage. They then formed
+the totemistic community of brothers, all with equal rights and united
+by the totem prohibitions which were to preserve and to expiate the
+memory of the murder. But the dissatisfaction with what had been
+achieved still remained, and it became the source of new developments.
+The persons who were united in this group of brothers gradually came
+towards a revival<a name="page_113" id="page_113"></a> of the old state of things at a new level. Man became
+once more the chief of a family, and broke down the prerogatives of the
+gynaecocracy which had become established during the fatherless period.
+As a compensation for this he may at that time have acknowledged the
+mother deities, whose priests were castrated for the mother's
+protection, after the example that had been given by the father of the
+primal horde. And yet the new family was only a shadow of the old one;
+there were numbers of fathers and each one was limited by the rights of
+the others.</p>
+
+<p>It was then, perhaps, that some individual, in the exigency of his
+longing, may have been moved to free himself from the group and take
+over the father's part. He who did this was the first epic poet; and the
+advance was achieved in his imagination. This poet disguised the truth
+with lies in accordance with his longing. He invented the heroic myth.
+The hero was a man who by himself had slain the father&mdash;the father who
+still appeared in the myth as a totemistic monster. Just as the father
+had been the boy's first ideal, so in the hero who aspires to the
+father's place the poet now created the first ego ideal. The transition
+to the hero was probably afforded by the youngest son, the mother's
+favourite, whom she had protected from paternal jealousy, and who, in
+the era of the primal horde, had been the father's successor. In the
+lying poetic fancies of<a name="page_114" id="page_114"></a> prehistoric times the woman, who had been the
+prize of battle and the allurement to murder, was probably turned into
+the seducer and instigator to the crime.</p>
+
+<p>The hero claims to have acted alone in accomplishing the deed, which
+certainly only the horde as a whole would have ventured upon. But, as
+Rank has observed, fairy tales have preserved clear traces of the facts
+which were disavowed. For we often find in them that the hero who has to
+carry out some difficult task (usually a youngest son, and not
+infrequently one who has represented himself to the father surrogate as
+being stupid, that is to say, harmless)&mdash;we often find, then, that this
+hero can carry out his task only by the help of a crowd of small
+animals, such as bees or ants. These would be the brothers in the primal
+horde, just as in the same way in dream symbolism insects or vermin
+signify brothers and sisters (contemptuously, considered as babies).
+Moreover every one of the tasks in myths and fairy tales is easily
+recognisable as a substitute for the heroic deed.</p>
+
+<p>The myth, then, is the step by which the individual emerges from group
+psychology. The first myth was certainly the psychological, the hero
+myth; the explanatory nature myth must have followed much later. The
+poet who had taken this step and had in this way set himself free from
+the group in his imagination, is nevertheless able (as Rank has further<a name="page_115" id="page_115"></a>
+observed) to find his way back to it in reality. For he goes and relates
+to the group his hero's deeds which he has invented. At bottom this hero
+is no one but himself. Thus he lowers himself to the level of reality,
+and raises his hearers to the level of imagination. But his hearers
+understand the poet, and, in virtue of their having the same relation of
+longing towards the primal father, they can identify themselves with the
+hero.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>The lie of the heroic myth culminates in the deification of the hero.
+Perhaps the deified hero may have been earlier than the Father God and
+may have been a precursor to the return of the primal father as a deity.
+The series of gods, then, would run chronologically: Mother
+Goddess&mdash;Hero&mdash;Father God. But it is only with the elevation of the
+never forgotten primal father that the deity acquires the features that
+we still recognise in him to-day.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>C. A great deal has been said in this paper about directly sexual
+instincts and those that are inhibited<a name="page_116" id="page_116"></a> in their aims, and it may be
+hoped that this distinction will not meet with too much resistance. But
+a detailed discussion of the question will not be out of place, even if
+it only repeats what has to a great extent already been said before.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the libido in children has made us acquainted with
+the first but also the best example of sexual instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims. All the feelings which a child has towards its
+parents and those who look after it pass by an easy transition into the
+wishes which give expression to the child's sexual tendencies. The child
+claims from these objects of its love all the signs of affection which
+it knows of; it wants to kiss them, touch them, and look at them; it is
+curious to see their genitals, and to be with them when they perform
+their intimate excremental functions; it promises to marry its mother or
+nurse&mdash;whatever it may understand by that; it proposes to itself to bear
+its father a child, etc. Direct observation, as well as the subsequent
+analytic investigation of the residue of childhood, leave no doubt as to
+the complete fusion of tender and jealous feelings and of sexual
+intentions, and show us in what a fundamental way the child makes the
+person it loves into the object of all its incompletely centred sexual
+tendencies.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a><a name="page_117" id="page_117"></a></p>
+
+<p>This first configuration of the child's love, which in typical cases is
+co-ordinated with the Oedipus complex, succumbs, as we know, from the
+beginning of the period of latency onwards to a wave of repression. Such
+of it as is left over shows itself as a purely tender emotional tie,
+which relates to the same people, but is no longer to be described as
+'sexual'. Psycho-analysis, which illuminates the depths of mental life,
+has no difficulty in showing that the sexual ties of the earliest years
+of childhood also persist, though repressed and unconscious. It gives us
+courage to assert that wherever we come across a tender feeling it is
+the successor to a completely 'sensual' object tie with the person in
+question or rather with that person's prototype (or <i>imago</i>). It cannot
+indeed disclose to us without a special investigation whether in a given
+case this former complete sexual current still exists under repression
+or whether it has already been exhausted. To put it still more
+precisely: it is quite certain that it is still there as a form and
+possibility, and can always be charged with cathectic energy and put
+into activity again by means of regression; the only question is (and it
+cannot always be answered) what degree of cathexis and operative force
+it still has at the present moment. Equal care must be taken in this
+connection to avoid two sources of error&mdash;the Scylla of under-estimating
+the importance of the repressed unconscious, and the Charybdis of<a name="page_118" id="page_118"></a>
+judging the normal entirely by the standards of the pathological.</p>
+
+<p>A psychology which will not or cannot penetrate the depths of what is
+repressed regards tender emotional ties as being invariably the
+expression of tendencies which have no sexual aim, even though they are
+derived from tendencies which have such an aim.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<p>We are justified in saying that they have been diverted from these
+sexual aims, even though there is some difficulty in giving a
+representation of such a diversion of aim which will conform to the
+requirements of metapsychology. Moreover, those instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims always preserve some few of their original
+sexual aims; even an affectionate devotee, even a friend or an admirer,
+desires the physical proximity and the sight of the person who is now
+loved only in the 'Pauline' sense. If we choose, we may recognise in
+this diversion of aim a beginning of the <i>sublimation</i> of the sexual
+instincts, or on the other hand we may fix the limits of sublimation at
+some more distant point. Those sexual instincts which are inhibited in
+their aims have a great functional advantage over those which are
+uninhibited. Since they are not capable of really<a name="page_119" id="page_119"></a> complete
+satisfaction, they are especially adapted to create permanent ties;
+while those instincts which are directly sexual incur a loss of energy
+each time they are satisfied, and must wait to be renewed by a fresh
+accumulation of sexual libido, so that meanwhile the object may have
+been changed. The inhibited instincts are capable of any degree of
+admixture with the uninhibited; they can be transformed back into them,
+just as they arose out of them. It is well known how easily erotic
+wishes develop out of emotional relations of a friendly character, based
+upon appreciation and admiration, (compare Moli�re's 'Embrassez-moi pour
+l'amour du grec'), between a master and a pupil, between a performer and
+a delighted listener, and especially in the case of women. In fact the
+growth of emotional ties of this kind, with their purposeless
+beginnings, provides a much frequented pathway to sexual object-choice.
+Pfister, in his <i>Fr�mmigkeit des Grafen von Zinzendorf</i>,<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> has given
+an extremely clear and certainly not an isolated example of how easily
+even an intense religious tie can revert to ardent sexual excitement. On
+the other hand it is also very usual for directly sexual tendencies,
+short-lived in themselves, to be transformed into a lasting and purely
+tender tie;<a name="page_120" id="page_120"></a> and the consolidation of a passionate love marriage rests
+to a large extent upon this process.</p>
+
+<p>We shall naturally not be surprised to hear that the sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims arise out of the directly sexual ones
+when inner or outer obstacles make the sexual aims unattainable. The
+repression during the period of latency is an inner obstacle of this
+kind&mdash;or rather one which has become inner. We have assumed that the
+father of the primal horde owing to his sexual intolerance compelled all
+his sons to be abstinent, and thus forced them into ties that were
+inhibited in their aims, while he reserved for himself freedom of sexual
+enjoyment and in this way remained without ties. All the ties upon which
+a group depends are of the character of instincts that are inhibited in
+their aims. But here we have approached the discussion of a new subject,
+which deals with the relation between directly sexual instincts and the
+formation of groups.</p>
+
+<p>D. The last two remarks will have prepared us for finding that directly
+sexual tendencies are unfavourable to the formation of groups. In the
+history of the development of the family there have also, it is true,
+been group relations of sexual love (group marriages); but the more
+important sexual love became for the ego, and the more it developed the
+characteristics of being in love, the more urgently it required to be
+limited to two people&mdash;<i>una cum<a name="page_121" id="page_121"></a> uno</i>&mdash;as is prescribed by the nature of
+the genital aim. Polygamous inclinations had to be content to find
+satisfaction in a succession of changing objects.</p>
+
+<p>Two people coming together for the purpose of sexual satisfaction, in so
+far as they seek for solitude, are making a demonstration against the
+herd instinct, the group feeling. The more they are in love, the more
+completely they suffice for each other. The rejection of the group's
+influence is manifested in the shape of a sense of shame. The extremely
+violent feelings of jealousy are summoned up in order to protect the
+sexual object-choice from being encroached upon by a group tie. It is
+only when the tender, that is, the personal, factor of a love relation
+gives place entirely to the sensual one, that it is possible for two
+people to have sexual intercourse in the presence of others or for there
+to be simultaneous sexual acts in a group as occurs at an orgy. But at
+that point a regression has taken place to an early stage in sexual
+relations, at which being in love as yet played no part, and all sexual
+objects were judged to be of equal value, somewhat in the sense of
+Bernard Shaw's malicious aphorism to the effect that being in love means
+greatly exaggerating the difference between one woman and another.</p>
+
+<p>There are abundant indications that being in love only made its
+appearance late on in the sexual relations between men and women; so
+that the<a name="page_122" id="page_122"></a> opposition between sexual love and group ties is also a late
+development. Now it may seem as though this assumption were incompatible
+with our myth of the primal family. For it was after all by their love
+for their mothers and sisters that the troop of brothers was, as we have
+supposed, driven to parricide; and it is difficult to imagine this love
+as being anything but unbroken and primitive&mdash;that is, as an intimate
+union of the tender and the sensual. But further consideration resolves
+this objection into a confirmation. One of the reactions to the
+parricide was after all the institution of totemistic exogamy; the
+prohibition of any sexual relation with those women of the family who
+had been tenderly loved since childhood. In this way a wedge was driven
+in between a man's tender and sensual feelings, one still firmly fixed
+in his erotic life to-day.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a> As a result of this exogamy the sensual
+needs of men had to be satisfied with strange and unloved women.</p>
+
+<p>In the great artificial groups, the church and the army, there is no
+room for woman as a sexual object. The love relation between men and
+women remains outside these organisations. Even where groups are formed
+which are composed of both men and women the distinction between the
+sexes plays no part. There is scarcely any sense in asking whether<a name="page_123" id="page_123"></a> the
+libido which keeps groups together is of a homosexual or of a
+heterosexual nature, for it is not differentiated according to the
+sexes, and particularly shows a complete disregard for the aims of the
+genital organisation of the libido.</p>
+
+<p>Even in a person who has in other respects become absorbed in a group
+the directly sexual tendencies preserve a little of his individual
+activity. If they become too strong they disintegrate every group
+formation. The Catholic Church had the best of motives for recommending
+its followers to remain unmarried and for imposing celibacy upon its
+priests; but falling in love has often driven even priests to leave the
+church. In the same way love for women breaks through the group ties of
+race, of national separation, and of the social class system, and it
+thus produces important effects as a factor in civilization. It seems
+certain that homosexual love is far more compatible with group ties,
+even when it takes the shape of uninhibited sexual tendencies&mdash;a
+remarkable fact, the explanation of which might carry us far.</p>
+
+<p>The psycho-analytic investigation of the psycho-neuroses has taught us
+that their symptoms are to be traced back to directly sexual tendencies
+which are repressed but still remain active. We can complete this
+formula by adding to it: or, to tendencies inhibited in their aims,
+whose inhibition has not been entirely<a name="page_124" id="page_124"></a> successful or has made room for
+a return to the repressed sexual aim. It is in accordance with this that
+a neurosis should make its victim asocial and should remove him from the
+usual group formations. It may be said that a neurosis has the same
+disintegrating effect upon a group as being in love. On the other hand
+it appears that where a powerful impetus has been given to group
+formation, neuroses may diminish and at all events temporarily
+disappear. Justifiable attempts have also been made to turn this
+antagonism between neuroses and group formation to therapeutic account.
+Even those who do not regret the disappearance of religious illusions
+from the civilized world of to-day will admit that so long as they were
+in force they offered those who were bound by them the most powerful
+protection against the danger of neurosis. Nor is it hard to discern in
+all the ties with mystico-religious or philosophico-religious sects and
+communities the manifestation of distorted cures of all kinds of
+neuroses. All of this is bound up with the contrast between directly
+sexual tendencies and those which are inhibited in their aims.</p>
+
+<p>If he is left to himself, a neurotic is obliged to replace by his own
+symptom formations the great group formations from which he is excluded.
+He creates his own world of imagination for himself, his religion, his
+own system of delusions, and thus<a name="page_125" id="page_125"></a> recapitulates the institutions of
+humanity in a distorted way which is clear evidence of the dominating
+part played by the directly sexual tendencies.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<p>E. In conclusion, we will add a comparative estimate, from the
+standpoint of the libido theory, of the states with which we have been
+concerned, of being in love, of hypnosis, of group formation, and of the
+neurosis.</p>
+
+<p><i>Being in love</i> is based upon the simultaneous presence of directly
+sexual tendencies and of sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their
+aims, so that the object draws a part of the narcissistic ego-libido to
+itself. It is a condition in which there is only room for the ego and
+the object.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypnosis</i> resembles being in love in being limited to these two
+persons, but it is based entirely upon sexual tendencies that are
+inhibited in their aims and substitutes the object for the ego ideal.</p>
+
+<p><i>The group</i> multiplies this process; it agrees with hypnosis in the
+nature of the instincts which hold it together, and in the replacement
+of the ego ideal by the object; but to this it adds identification with
+other individuals, which was perhaps originally made possible by their
+having the same relation to the object.<a name="page_126" id="page_126"></a></p>
+
+<p>Both states, hypnosis and group formation, are an inherited deposit from
+the phylogenesis of the human libido&mdash;hypnosis in the form of a
+predisposition, and the group, besides this, as a direct survival. The
+replacement of the directly sexual tendencies by those that are
+inhibited in their aims promotes in both states a separation between the
+ego and the ego ideal, a separation with which a beginning has already
+been made in the state of being in love.</p>
+
+<p><i>The neurosis</i> stands outside this series. It also is based upon a
+peculiarity in the development of the human libido&mdash;the twice repeated
+start made by the directly sexual function, with an intervening period
+of latency.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a>
+<a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> To this extent it resembles hypnosis and group formation
+in having the character of a regression, which is absent from being in
+love. It makes its appearance wherever the advance from directly sexual
+instincts to those that are inhibited in their aims has not been
+completely successful; and it represents a <i>conflict</i> between those
+instincts which have been received into the ego after having passed
+through this development and those portions of the same instincts which,
+like other instinctive desires that have been completely repressed,
+strive, from the repressed unconscious, to attain direct satisfaction.
+The neurosis<a name="page_127" id="page_127"></a> is extraordinarily rich in content, for it embraces all
+possible relations between the ego and the object&mdash;both those in which
+the object is retained and others in which it is abandoned or erected
+inside the ego itself&mdash;and also the conflicting relations between the
+ego and its ego ideal.</p>
+
+<p><a name="page_128" id="page_128"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="page_129" id="page_129"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3>
+
+<p class="nind">
+<i>Abraham</i>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Affectivity. <i>See under</i> Emotion.<br />
+<br />
+Altruism, <a href="#page_057">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ambivalence, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a>, <a href="#page_061">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Anaclitic type, <a href="#page_060">60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Archaic inheritance, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Army <a href="#page_042">42-6</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Autistic mental acts, <a href="#page_002">2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Bernheim</i>, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Bleuler</i>, <a href="#page_002">2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brothers, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Christ, <a href="#page_043">43</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Community of, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Brugeilles</i>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Caesar</i>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cathexis, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Object-, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_060">60-1</a>, <a href="#page_071">71-2</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Catholic Church, <a href="#page_042">42-3</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Celibacy of priests, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Censorship of dreams, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chieftains, Mana in, <a href="#page_096">96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Children, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_018">18-19</a>, <a href="#page_030">30</a>, 67 <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dread in, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_085">85-6</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parents and, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_086">86</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sexual object of, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unconscious of, <a href="#page_018">18</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Christ</i>, <a href="#page_042">42-5</a>, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Equal love of, <a href="#page_050">50</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Identification with, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Church, <a href="#page_042">42-3</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_110">110-11</a>, <a href="#page_122">122-3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commander-in-Chief, <a href="#page_042">42-5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Conflict, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_107">107</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Conscience, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_068">68-9</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Social, <a href="#page_088">88</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Contagion, Emotional, <a href="#page_010">10-13</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_034">34-5</a>, <a href="#page_046">46-7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Crowd, <a href="#page_001">1</a>, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Danger, Effect on groups, <a href="#page_046">46-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Darwin</i>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Delusions:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of inferiority, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of observation, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Devotion to abstract idea, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Doubt:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">absence in groups, <a href="#page_015">15-16</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interpretation in dreams, <a href="#page_015">15-16</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dread:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Children's, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_085">85-6</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in a group, <a href="#page_046">46-8</a>, <a href="#page_050">50</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in an individual, <a href="#page_047">47-8</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Neurotic, <a href="#page_048">48</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of society, <a href="#page_010">10</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Panic, <a href="#page_045">45-9</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dream, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Interpretation of doubt and uncertainty in, <a href="#page_015">15-16</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symbolism, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Duty, Sense of, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ego, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_018">18-19</a>, <a href="#page_062">62-70</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_100">100-9</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_125">125-7</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Relations between ego ideal and, <a href="#page_068">68-70</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_105">105-10</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Relations between object and, <a href="#page_062">62-70</a>, <a href="#page_074">74-6</a>, <a href="#page_108">108-10</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Ego ideal, <a href="#page_068">68-70</a>, <a href="#page_074">74-7</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_100">100-3</a>, <a href="#page_105">105-10</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_126">126-7</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abrogation of the, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hypnotist in the place of, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Object as substitute for, <a href="#page_074">74-6</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Relations between ego and, <a href="#page_068">68-70</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_105">105-10</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Testing reality of things, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The first, <a href="#page_113">113</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Egoism, <a href="#page_057">57</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Emotion:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ambivalent, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_055">55</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Charge of, <a href="#page_028">28</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Contagion of. <i>See</i> Contagion.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intensification of, in groups, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_027">27-30</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_046">46</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primitive induction of, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_046">46-7</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tender, <a href="#page_072">72-3</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_116">116-17</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Emotional tie, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_052">52-3</a>, <a href="#page_059">59-60</a>, <a href="#page_064">64-5</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_117">117-20</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cessation of, <a href="#page_046">46-9</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Empathy, relation to identification, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Enthusiasm, in groups, <a href="#page_025">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Envy, <a href="#page_087">87-8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Equality, demand for, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eros, <a href="#page_038">38-40</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Esprit de corps, origin of, <a href="#page_087">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ethical:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conduct of a group, <a href="#page_018">18</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">level of Christianity, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standards of individual, <a href="#page_024">24-5</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fairy tales, the hero in, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Family, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a group formation, <a href="#page_095">95</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Christian community, <a href="#page_043">43</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and social instinct, <a href="#page_003">3</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primal, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Fascination, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Father, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_098">98-9</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Equal love of, <a href="#page_095">95</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">God, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Identification with, <a href="#page_060">60-2</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Object tie with, <a href="#page_062">62</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primal, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_094">94-5</a>, <a href="#page_099">99-100</a>, <a href="#page_112">112-13</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Deification of, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Killing the, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_112">112-13</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Surrogate, <a href="#page_043">43</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Federn, P.</i>, <a href="#page_050">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Felszeghy, Bela v.</i>, <a href="#page_048">48</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Ferenczi</i>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_098">98</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Festivals, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Folk-lore, <a href="#page_025">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Folk-song, <a href="#page_025">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+French Revolution, <a href="#page_026">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Function:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for testing reality, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(Instanz), <a href="#page_015">15</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Gemeingeist, origin of, <a href="#page_087">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Genital organisation, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+God, <a href="#page_085">85</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Father, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gregariousness, <a href="#page_083">83-4</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Group:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Artificial, <a href="#page_041">41-2</a>, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Different kinds of, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Disintegration of, <a href="#page_049">49-51</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dread in, <a href="#page_047">47</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Equality in, <a href="#page_089">89</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling, <a href="#page_086">86-7</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Heightened affectivity in. <i>See under</i> Emotion.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ideal, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intellectual capacity of, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Intensification of emotion in. <i>See under</i> Emotion.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Leaders of. <i>See under</i> Leader.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Libidinal structure of, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_044">44-5</a>, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_053">53-4</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_079">79-80</a>, <a href="#page_102">102-3</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marriages, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mental change of the individual in, <a href="#page_006">6-14</a>, <a href="#page_033">33-4</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mind, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_005">5-27</a>, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Organisation in, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_030">30-1</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_041">41-2</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primitive, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychological character of, <a href="#page_006">6-32</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychology, <a href="#page_001">1-4</a>, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_025">25-6</a>, <a href="#page_033">33-4</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_092">92-4</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Revolutionary, <a href="#page_026">26</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sexual instincts and, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">spirit, <a href="#page_037">37</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stable, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suggestibility of, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_084">84-5</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Transient, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Guilt, Sense of, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_106">106</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gynaecocracy, <a href="#page_113">113</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hatred, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Hebbel</i>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Herd, <a href="#page_083">83-5</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instinct, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_083">83-6</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hero, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_113">113-15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Homosexuality, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_066">66-7</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Horde Primal, <a href="#page_089">89-95</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_113">113-14</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Father of the. <i>See under</i> Father.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hypnosis, <a href="#page_010">10-13</a>, <a href="#page_020">20-1</a>, <a href="#page_077">77-9</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_095">95-100</a>, <a href="#page_125">125-6</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a group of two, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and sleep, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_098">98</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of terror, <a href="#page_079">79</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Hypnotist, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>, <a href="#page_095">95-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hysteria, Identification in, <a href="#page_063">63-5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Idealisation, <a href="#page_074">74</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Identification, <a href="#page_059">59-70</a>, <a href="#page_075">75-6</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_086">86-9</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_101">101-3</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ambivalent, <a href="#page_061">61</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in hysterical symptom, <a href="#page_063">63-5</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Regression of object-choice to, <a href="#page_064">64</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with a lost or rejected object, <a href="#page_067">67-8</a>, <a href="#page_108">108-9</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Christ, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with the father, <a href="#page_060">60-2</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with the hero, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with the leader, <a href="#page_110">110-11</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Imitation, <a href="#page_034">34-5</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Individual:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a member of many groups, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dread in, <a href="#page_047">47-8</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mental change in a group, <a href="#page_006">6-14</a>, <a href="#page_033">33-4</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Psychology, <a href="#page_001">1-2</a>, <a href="#page_092">92-3</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Induction of Emotion, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_046">46-7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Infection, mental, <a href="#page_064">64-65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Inferiority, Delusions of, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_106">106-7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Inheritance, archaic, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Inhibition:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Collective, of intellectual functioning, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Removal of, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Instinct:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Herd, <a href="#page_003">3</a>, <a href="#page_083">83-6</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inhibited in aim, <a href="#page_072">72-3</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_115">115-26</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Life and death, <a href="#page_056">56</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Love, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nutrition, <a href="#page_085">85</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Primary, <a href="#page_084">84-5</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Self-preservative, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sexual, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_071">71-8</a>, <a href="#page_085">85-5</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_115">115-26</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Social, <a href="#page_003">3</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unhibited in aim, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_077">77-8</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_115">115-26</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unconscious, <a href="#page_010">10</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Intellectual ability, lowering of,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in groups, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_031">31</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Introjection, of object into ego, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_067">67-8</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jealousy, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kings, Mana in, <a href="#page_096">96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Kra&#353;kovi&#269;, B. Jnr.</i>, <a href="#page_023">23</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Kroeger</i>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Language, <a href="#page_025">25</a>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Latency, period of, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Leader, <a href="#page_020">20-2</a>, <a href="#page_041">41</a>, <a href="#page_044">44-5</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_085">85</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Abstractions as substitutes for, <a href="#page_053">53</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Equal love of, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Identification with, <a href="#page_110">110-11</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Killing the, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Loss of, <a href="#page_049">49</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Negative, <a href="#page_053">53</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prestige of, <a href="#page_021">21-2</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the group ideal, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_110">110</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tie with, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_052">52</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Le Bon</i>, <a href="#page_005">5-25</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_100">100-1</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Libidinal:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">structure of the group, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_044">44-5</a>, <a href="#page_047">47</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_079">79-80</a>, <a href="#page_102">102-3</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The word, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ties, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_056">56-8</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the group, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Libido, <a href="#page_033">33-40</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_123">123</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Narcissistic, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Oral phase of, <a href="#page_061">61</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theory, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unification of, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Withdrawal of, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Love, <a href="#page_037">37-40</a>, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a factor of civilisation, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and character formation, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_118">118-20</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and hatred, <a href="#page_056">56</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Being in, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_071">71-9</a>, <a href="#page_120">120-1</a>, <a href="#page_124">124-6</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Child's, <a href="#page_116">116-17</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Christ's, <a href="#page_043">43</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Equal, <a href="#page_042">42</a>, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pauline, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Self-. <i>See under</i> Narcissism.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sensual, <a href="#page_071">71-3</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sexual, <a href="#page_037">37-8</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>, <a href="#page_120">120-2</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sublimated homosexual, <a href="#page_057">57</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The word, <a href="#page_037">37-9</a>, <a href="#page_071">71</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unhappy, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Unsensual, <a href="#page_073">73</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>McDougall</i>, <a href="#page_001">1</a>, <a href="#page_026">26-31</a>, <a href="#page_034">34-6</a>, <a href="#page_046">46-7</a>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magical power of words, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magnetic influence, <a href="#page_011">11</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magnetism, animal, <a href="#page_096">96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mana, <a href="#page_096">96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mania, <a href="#page_106">106-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Marcuszewicz</i>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marriage, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Melancholia, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_106">106-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Metapsychology, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Moede, Walter</i>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Moli�re</i>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Morality, Totemism the origin of, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mother deities, <a href="#page_113">113</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Multicellularity, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_083">83</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Myth, <a href="#page_113">113-15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Nachmansohn</i>, <a href="#page_039">39</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Names, Taboo upon, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Napoleon</i>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Narcissism, <a href="#page_002">2</a>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_054">54-8</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_074">74-5</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Nestroy</i>, <a href="#page_049">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Neurosis, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_103">103-4</a>, <a href="#page_123">123-26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Nietzsche</i>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nutrition, Instinct of, <a href="#page_084">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Object, <a href="#page_057">57-8</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_087">87</a>, <a href="#page_093">93</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>, <a href="#page_127">127</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cathexis, <a href="#page_048">48</a>, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_060">60-1</a>, <a href="#page_071">71-2</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Change of, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Child's, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">-choice, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Eating the, <a href="#page_061">61-62</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Hyper-cathexis of, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Identification with ego, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Less or Renunciation of, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_108">108</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">-love, <a href="#page_056">56</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Relations with the ego, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_067">67-8</a>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sexual, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_072">72-3</a>, <a href="#page_116">116</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Substituted for ego ideal, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>, <a href="#page_125">125</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Observation, delusions of, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oedipus complex, <a href="#page_060">60-61</a>, <a href="#page_063">63</a>, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Inverted, <a href="#page_062">62</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Oral phase of organisation of the libido, <a href="#page_061">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Organisation in groups, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_030">30-1</a>, <a href="#page_033">33</a>, <a href="#page_041">41-2</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Orgy, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Panic, <a href="#page_045">45-9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pan-sexualism, <a href="#page_039">39</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Paul, Saint</i>, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Pfister</i>, <a href="#page_039">39</a>, <a href="#page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Plato</i>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Poet, the first epic, <a href="#page_113">113-114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Power, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_015">15</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of leaders, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of words, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Prestige, <a href="#page_021">21-2</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Primitive peoples, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_018">18-19</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Psycho-Analysis, <a href="#page_004">4</a>, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>, <a href="#page_038">38-9</a>, <a href="#page_059">59-60</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Psychology:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Group, <a href="#page_001">1-4</a>, <a href="#page_006">6</a>, <a href="#page_025">25-6</a>, <a href="#page_033">33-4</a>, <a href="#page_037">37</a>, <a href="#page_045">45</a>, <a href="#page_053">53</a>, <a href="#page_059">59</a>, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_101">101</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Group and individual, <a href="#page_001">1-2</a>, <a href="#page_092">92-93</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Psychoses, <a href="#page_066">66</a>, <a href="#page_103">103</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Puberty, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_072">72-73</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Races, repugnance between related, <a href="#page_055">55</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Rank, Otto</i>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>, <a href="#page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rapport, <a href="#page_097">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reality:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Function for testing, <a href="#page_020">20</a>, <a href="#page_077">77</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Contrast between Objective and Psychological, <a href="#page_020">20</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Regression, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_091">91</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Religion, <a href="#page_051">51</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wars of, <a href="#page_051">51</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Repressed:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Sexual tendencies, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_123">123-4</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">The, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>, <a href="#page_117">117-18</a>, <a href="#page_126">126</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Repression, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_054">54</a>, <a href="#page_064">64-5</a>, <a href="#page_069">69</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Resistance, <a href="#page_084">84</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Responsibility, Sense of, <a href="#page_009">9-10</a>, <a href="#page_029">29-30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Richter, Konrad</i>, <a href="#page_036">36</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sachs, Hanns</i>, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Schopenhauer</i>, <a href="#page_054">54</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Self-:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">consciousness, <a href="#page_030">30-1</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">depreciation, <a href="#page_107">107</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">love. <i>See under</i> Narcissism.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">observation, <a href="#page_069">69</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preservation, <a href="#page_015">15</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_084">84-5</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sacrifice, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_038">38</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Sex, <a href="#page_039">39</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sexual:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">act, <a href="#page_092">92</a>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">aims, <a href="#page_058">58</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Diversion of instinct from, <a href="#page_058">58</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Infantile, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Obstacles to, <a href="#page_120">120</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">life, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">over-estimation, <a href="#page_053">53-5</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Tendencies, Inhibited and uninhibited. <a href="#page_072">72-3</a>, <a href="#page_077">77-8</a>, <a href="#page_094">94</a>, <a href="#page_115">115-16</a>, <a href="#page_125">125-26</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">union, <a href="#page_037">37-8</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Shaw, Bernard</i>, <a href="#page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sidis, Boris</i>, 84<br />
+<br />
+<i>Sighele</i>, <a href="#page_024">24-5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Simmel, E.</i>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sleep, <a href="#page_098">98</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and hypnosis, <a href="#page_098">98</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Smith, Robertson</i>, <a href="#page_070">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Social:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">duties, <a href="#page_088">88</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations, <a href="#page_002">2-3</a>, <a href="#page_057">57</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Socialistic tie, <a href="#page_051">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Society, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_026">26</a>, <a href="#page_028">28</a>, <a href="#page_090">90</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dread of, <a href="#page_010">10</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Sociology. <i>See under</i> Group Psychology.<br />
+<br />
+Speech, <a href="#page_084">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sublimated:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">devotion, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">homosexual love, <a href="#page_057">57</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Sublimation, <a href="#page_118">118</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Suggestibility, <a href="#page_011">11</a>, <a href="#page_013">13</a>, <a href="#page_035">35</a>, <a href="#page_084">84-5</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Suggestion, <a href="#page_012">12-13</a>, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_029">29</a>, <a href="#page_034">34-7</a>, <a href="#page_040">40</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>, <a href="#page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Counter-, <a href="#page_035">35</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Definition for, <a href="#page_100">100</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mutual, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_027">27</a>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>, <a href="#page_082">82</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Superman, <a href="#page_093">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Taboo, <a href="#page_019">19</a>, <a href="#page_096">96</a>, <a href="#page_112">112</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Tarde</i>, <a href="#page_034">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Totemism, <a href="#page_090">90</a>, <a href="#page_112">112-13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Totemistic:<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clan, <a href="#page_095">95</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">community of brothers, <a href="#page_112">112</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">exogamy, <a href="#page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Tradition, <a href="#page_017">17</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the group, <a href="#page_031">31</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the individual, <a href="#page_032">32</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Transference, <a href="#page_097">97-8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Trotter</i>, <a href="#page_032">32</a>, <a href="#page_083">83-5</a>, <a href="#page_089">89</a>, <a href="#page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Uncanniness, <a href="#page_095">95</a>, <a href="#page_099">99</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Uncertainty, absence in groups, <a href="#page_015">15-16</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interpretation in dreams, <a href="#page_015">15-16</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Unconscious, <a href="#page_008">8</a>, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_012">12</a>, <a href="#page_014">14-16</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_023">23-4</a>, <a href="#page_064">64</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a>, <a href="#page_072">72</a>, <a href="#page_097">97</a>, <a href="#page_100">100</a>, <a href="#page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Groups led by, <a href="#page_014">14</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instincts, <a href="#page_010">10</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Le Bon's</i>, <a href="#page_010">10</a>, <a href="#page_014">14</a>, <a href="#page_024">24</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of children, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_117">117</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of neurotics, <a href="#page_018">18</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Racial, <a href="#page_009">9</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Wallenstein</i>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+War neuroses, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+War, The, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Wilson, President</i>, <a href="#page_044">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wishes, Affective cathexis of, <a href="#page_020">20</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Words, magical power of, <a href="#page_019">19</a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<br />
+</p>
+
+<div class="boxx">
+<p class="c">THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY. Edited by ERNEST JONES</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr valign="top"><td>No.&nbsp;1.</td><td>ADDRESSES ON PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. BY J.J. Putnam, M.D. Emeritus
+Professor of Neurology, Harvard University. With a Preface by Sigm.
+Freud, M.D., LL.D.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td>No.&nbsp;2.</td><td> PSYCHO-ANALYSIS AND THE WAR NEUROSES. By Drs. S. Ferenczi
+(Budapest), Karl Abraham (Berlin), Ernst Simmel (Berlin) and Ernest
+Jones (London). Introduction by Prof. Sigm. Freud (Vienna).</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td>No.&nbsp;3.</td><td> THE PSYCHO-ANALYTIC STUDY OF THE FAMILY. By J. C. Fl�gel,
+B.A.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td>No.&nbsp;4.</td><td> BEYOND THE PLEASURE PRINCIPLE. By Sigm. Freud M.D., LL.D.
+Authorized Translation from the second German Edition by C. J. M.
+Hubback.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td>No.&nbsp;5.</td><td> ESSAYS IN APPLIED PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. By Ernest Jones M.D.
+President of the International Psycho-Analytical Association.</td></tr>
+
+<tr valign="top"><td>No.&nbsp;6.</td><td> GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO. By Sigm. Freud
+M.D., LL.D. Authorized Translation by James Strachey.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="sml" />
+
+<p class="c">THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS<br />
+Directed by Sigm. Freud</p>
+
+<p class="c">Official Organ of the<br />
+INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL ASSOCIATION</p>
+
+<p class="c">Edited by Ernest Jones<br />
+President of the Association</p>
+
+<p class="c">With the Assistance of DOUGLAS BRYAN, J. C. FL�GEL (London)<br />
+A. A. BRILL, H. W. FRINK, C. P. OBERNDORF (New York)</p>
+
+<p class="c">Issued Quarterly<br />
+Subscription 30s. per Volume of Four Parts (c. 500 pp.)<br />
+the parts not being sold separately.</p>
+
+<hr class="sml" />
+
+<p class="c">THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS</p>
+
+<p class="c"><small>Printed by K. Liebel in Vienna, II.<br />
+Gro�e Mohrengasse 23</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> ['Group' is used throughout this translation as equivalent
+to the rather more comprehensive German '<i>Masse</i>'. The author uses this
+latter word to render both McDougall's 'group', and also Le Bon's
+'<i>foule</i>', which would more naturally be translated 'crowd' in English.
+For the sake of uniformity, however, 'group' has been preferred in this
+case as well, and has been substituted for 'crowd' even in the extracts
+from the English translation of Le Bon.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind.</i> Fisher Unwin
+12th. Impression, 1920.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> [See footnote page 1.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> [References are to the English
+translation.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> [The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author,
+reads '<i>bewusster</i>'; the English translation has 'unconscious'; and the
+original French text '<i>inconscients</i>'.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> [The English translation reads 'which we ourselves
+ignore'&mdash;a misunderstanding of the French word
+'<i>ignor�es</i>'.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> There is some difference between Le Bon's view and ours
+owing to his concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding with the
+one adopted by psycho-analysis. Le Bon's unconscious more especially
+contains the most deeply buried features of the racial mind, which as a
+matter of fact lies outside the scope of psycho-analysis. We do not fail
+to recognize, indeed, that the ego's nucleus, which comprises the
+'archaic inheritance' of the human mind, is unconscious; but in addition
+to this we distinguish the 'unconscious repressed', which arose from a
+portion of that inheritance. This concept of the repressed is not to be
+found in Le Bon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Compare Schiller's couplet:
+</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Jeder, sieht man ihn einzeln, ist leidlich klug und verst�ndig;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; Sind sie in corpore, gleich wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">[Everyone, seen by himself, is passably shrewd and discerning;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp; &nbsp; When they're <i>in corpore</i>, then straightway you'll find he's an ass.]</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> 'Unconscious' is used here correctly by Le Bon in the
+descriptive sense, where it does not only mean the 'repressed'.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Compare <i>Totem und Tabu</i>, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und
+Allmacht der Gedanken.' [<i>Totem and Taboo.</i> New York, Moffat, 1918.
+London, Kegan Paul, 1919.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> [See footnote p. 69.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> In the interpretation of dreams, to which, indeed, we owe
+our best knowledge of unconscious mental life, we follow a technical
+rule of disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative of the
+dream, and of treating every element of the manifest dream as being
+quite certain. We attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of
+the censorship to which the dream-work is subjected, and we assume that
+the primary dream-thoughts are not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty
+as critical processes. They may naturally be present, like everything
+else, as part of the content of the day's residue which leads to the
+dream. (See <i>Die Traumdeutung</i>, 6. Auflage, 1921, S. 386. [<i>The
+Interpretation of Dreams.</i> Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 1913, p.
+409.])</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> The same extreme and unmeasured intensification of every
+emotion is also a feature of the affective life of children, and it is
+present as well in dream life. Thanks to the isolation of the single
+emotions in the unconscious, a slight annoyance during the day will
+express itself in a dream as a wish for the offending person's death, or
+a breath of temptation may give the impetus to the portrayal in the
+dream of a criminal action. Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark
+on this point: 'If we try to discover in consciousness all that the
+dream has made known to us of its bearing upon the present (upon
+reality), we need not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under
+the microscope of analysis now reappears as an infusorium.' (<i>Die
+Traumdeutung</i>, S. 457. [Translation p. 493.])</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> In young children, for instance, ambivalent emotional
+attitudes towards those who are nearest to them exist side by side for a
+long time, without either of them interfering with the expression of the
+other and contrary one. If eventually a conflict breaks out between the
+two, it often settled by the child making a change of object and
+displacing one of the ambivalent emotions on to a substitute. The
+history of the development of a neurosis in an adult will also show that
+a suppressed emotion may frequently persist for a long time in
+unconscious or even in conscious phantasies, the content of which
+naturally runs directly counter to some predominant tendency, and yet
+that this antagonism does not result in any proceedings on the part of
+the ego against what it has repudiated. The phantasy is tolerated for
+quite a long time, until suddenly one day, usually as a result of an
+increase in the affective cathexis [see footnote page 48] of the
+phantasy, a conflict breaks out between it and the ego with all the
+usual consequences. In the process of a child's development into a
+mature adult there is a more and more extensive integration of its
+personality, a co-ordination of the separate instinctive feelings and
+desires which have grown up in him independently of one another. The
+analogous process in the domain of sexual life has long been known to us
+as the co-ordination of all the sexual instincts into a definitive
+genital organisation. (<i>Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>, 1905.
+[<i>Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory.</i> Nervous and Mental Disease
+Monograph Series, No. 7, 1910.]) Moreover, that the unification of the
+ego is liable to the same interferences as that of the libido is shown
+by numerous familiar instances, such as that of men of science who have
+preserved their faith in the Bible, and the like.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See Totem and Tabu.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> [See footnote p. 48.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> B. Kra&#353;kovi&#269; jun.: <i>Die Psychologie der
+Kollektivit�ten</i>. Translated [into German] from the Croatian by Siegmund
+von Posavec. Vukovar, 1915. See the body of the work as well as the
+bibliography.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> See Walter Moede: 'Die Massen-und Sozialpsychologie im
+kritischen �berblick.' Meumann and Scheibner's <i>Zeitschrift f�r
+p�dagogische Psychologie und experimentelle P�dagogik</i>. 1915, XVI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Cambridge University Press, 1920.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War.</i> Fisher Unwin,
+1916.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Brugeilles: 'L'essence du ph�nom�na social: la
+suggestion.' <i>Revue philosophique</i>, 1913, XXV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Konrad Richter: 'Der deutsche S. Christoph.' Berlin, 1896,
+<i>Acta Germanica</i>, V, I.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> [Literally:"Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the whole
+world; Say, where did Christopher then put his foot?']</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Thus, McDougall: 'A Note on Suggestion.' <i>Journal of
+Neurology and Psychopathology</i>, 1920, Vol. I, No. <span class="smcap">I</span>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Nachmansohn: 'Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der
+Eroslehre Platos'. <i>Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse</i>, 1915,
+Bd. III; Pfister: 'Plato als Vorl�ufer der Psychoanalyse', ibid., 1921,
+Bd. VII. ['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'. <i>International
+Journal of Psycho-Analysis</i>, 1922, Vol. III.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> 'Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and
+have not love, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> [An idiom meaning 'for their sake'. Literally: 'for love
+of them'.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> An objection will justly be raised against this conception
+of the libidinal [see next foot-note] structure of an army on the ground
+that no place has been found in it for such ideas as those of one's
+country, of national glory, etc., which are of such importance in
+holding an army together. The answer is that that is a different
+instance of a group tie, and no longer such a simple one; for the
+examples of great generals, like Caesar, Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show
+that such ideas are not indispensable to the existence of an army. We
+shall presently touch upon the possibility of a leading idea being
+substituted for a leader and upon the relations between the two. The
+neglect of this libidinal factor in an army, even when it is not the
+only factor operative, seems to be not merely a theoretical omission but
+also a practical danger. Prussian militarism, which was just as
+unpsychological as German science, may have had to suffer the
+consequences of this in the great war. We know that the war neuroses
+which ravaged the German army have been recognized as being a protest of
+the individual against the part he was expected to play in the army; and
+according to the communication of E. Simmel (<i>Kriegsneurosen and
+'Psychisches Trauma'.</i> Munich, 1918), the hard treatment of the men by
+their superiors may be considered as foremost among the motive forces of
+the disease. If the importance of the libido's claims on this score had
+been better appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American
+President's fourteen points would probably not have been believed so
+easily, and the splendid instrument would not have broken in the hands
+of the German leaders.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> [Here and elsewhere the German 'libidin�s' is used simply
+as an adjectival derivative from the technical term '<i>Libido</i>';
+'libidinal' is accordingly introduced in the translation in order to
+avoid the highly-coloured connotation of the English
+'libidinous'.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> ['Cathexis', from the Greek '&#954;&#945;&#964;&#7953;&#967;&#969;', 'I
+occupy'. The German word '<i>Besetzung</i>' has become of fundamental
+importance in the exposition of psycho-analytical theory. Any attempt at
+a short definition or description is likely to be misleading, but
+speaking very loosely, we may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy
+of an electric charge, and that it means the concentration or
+accumulation of mental energy in some particular channel. Thus, when we
+speak of the existence in someone of a libidinal cathexis of an object,
+or, more shortly, of an object-cathexis, we mean that the libidinal
+energy is directed towards, or rather infused into, the idea
+(<i>Vorstellung</i>) of some object in the outer world. Readers who desire to
+obtain a more precise knowledge of the term are referred to the
+discussions in 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus' and the essays on
+metapsychology in <i>Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</i>, Vierte
+Folge.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> See <i>Vorlesungen zur Einf�hrung in die Psychoanalyse</i>.
+XXV, 3. Auflage, 1920. [<i>Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis.</i>
+Lecture XXV. George Allen and Unwin, 1922.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Compare Bela v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat
+fantastic paper 'Panik und Pankomplex'. <i>Imago</i>, 1920, Bd. VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Compare the explanation of similar phenomena after the
+abolition of the paternal authority of the sovereign given in P.
+Federn's <i>Die vaterlose Gesellschaft</i>. Vienna, Anzengruber-Verlag,
+1919.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> 'A company of porcupines crowded themselves very close
+together one cold winter's day so as to profit by one another's warmth
+and so save themselves from being frozen to death. But soon they felt
+one another's quills, which induced them to separate again. And now,
+when the need for warmth brought them nearer together again, the second
+evil arose once more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards
+from one trouble to the other, until they had discovered a mean distance
+at which they could most tolerably exist.' (<i>Parerga und Paralipomena</i>,
+II. Teil, XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Perhaps with the solitary exception of the relation of a
+mother to her son, which is based upon narcissism, is not disturbed by
+subsequent rivalry, and is reinforced by a rudimentary attempt at sexual
+object-choice.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> In a recently published study, <i>Jenseits des Lustprinzips</i>
+(1920) [<i>Beyond the Pleasure Principle</i>, International Psycho-Analytical
+Library, No. 4], I have attempted to connect the polarity of love and
+hatred with a hypothetical opposition between instincts of life and
+death, and to establish the sexual instincts as the purest examples of
+the former, the instincts of life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus', 1914. <i>Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</i>, Vierte Folge, 1918.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> [Literally, 'leaning-up-against type'; from the Greek
+'&#7937;&#957;&#945;&#954;&#955;&#7985;&#957;&#969;' 'I lean up against'. In the first phase of their
+development the sexual instincts have no independent means of finding
+satisfaction; they do so by propping themselves upon or 'leaning up
+against' the self-preservative instincts. The individual's first choice
+of a sexual object is said to be of the 'anaclitic type' when it follows
+this path; that is, when he choses as his first sexual object the same
+person who has satisfied his early non-sexual needs. For a full
+discussion of the anaclitic and narcissistic types of object-choice
+compare 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> See <i>Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>, and Abraham's
+'Untersuchungen �ber die fr�heste pr�genitale Entwicklungsstufe der
+Libido', <i>Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse</i>, 1916, Bd, IV;
+also included in his <i>Klinische Beitr�ge zur Psychoanalyse</i>
+(Internationale psychoanalytische Bibliothek. Nr. 10, 1921).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> [<i>Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre.</i> Zweite Folge.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Marcuszewicz: 'Beitrag zum autistischen Denken bei
+Kindern.' <i>Internationale Zeitschrift f�r Psychoanalyse</i>, 1920, Bd. VI.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> ['Trauer und Melancholie.' <i>Kleine Schriften zur
+Neurosenlehre</i>, Vierte Folge, 1918.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> ['<i>Instanz</i>'&mdash;like 'instance' in the phrase 'court of
+first instance'&mdash;was originally a legal term. It is now used in the
+sense of one of a hierarchy of authorities or
+functions.&mdash;<i>Translator.</i>]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus', 'Trauer und
+Melancholie.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> 'Zur Einf�hrung des Narzissmus.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> We are very well aware that we have not exhausted the
+nature of identification with these samples taken from pathology, and
+that we have consequently left part of the riddle of group formations
+untouched. A far more fundamental and comprehensive psychological
+analysis would have to intervene at this point. A path leads from
+identification by way of imitation to empathy, that is, to the
+comprehension of the mechanism by means of which we are enabled to take
+up any attitude at all towards another mental life. Moreover there is
+still much to be explained in the manifestations of existing
+identifications. These result among other things in a person limiting
+his aggressiveness towards those with whom he has identified himself,
+and in his sparing them and giving them help. The study of such
+identifications, like those, for instance, which lie at the root of clan
+feeling, led Robertson Smith to the surprising result that they rest
+upon the recognition of a common substance (<i>Kinship and Marriage</i>,
+1885), and may even therefore be brought about by a meal eaten in
+common. This feature makes it possible to connect this kind of
+identification with the early history of the human family which I
+constructed in <i>Totem und Tabu</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Cf. <i>Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>, l.c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> '�ber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.'
+<i>Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</i>, Vierte Folge, 1918.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Cf. 'Metapsychologische Erg�nzung zur Traumlehre.' <i>Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</i>, Vierte Folge, 1918.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> W. Trotter: <i>Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War.</i>
+Fisher Unwin, 1916.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See my essay <i>Jenseits des Lustprinzips</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See the remarks upon Dread in <i>Vorlesungen zur Einf�hrung
+in die Psychoanalyse</i>. XXV.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Totem und Tabu.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> What we have just described in our general
+characterisation of mankind must apply especially to the primal horde.
+The will of the individual was too weak; he did not venture upon action.
+No impulses whatever came into play except collective ones; there was
+only a common will, there were no single ones. An idea did not dare to
+turn itself into a volition unless it felt itself reinforced by a
+perception of its general diffusion. This weakness of the idea is to be
+explained by the strength of the emotional tie which is shared by all
+the members of the horde; but the similarity in the circumstances of
+their life and the absence of any private property assist in determining
+the uniformity of their individual mental acts. As we may observe with
+children and soldiers, common activity is not excluded even in the
+excremental functions. The one great exception is provided by the sexual
+act, in which a third person is at the best superfluous and in the
+extreme case is condemned to a state of painful expectancy. As to the
+reaction of the sexual need (for genital gratification) towards
+gregariousness, see below.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> It may perhaps also be assumed that the sons, when they
+were driven out and separated from their father, advanced from
+identification with one another to homosexual object love, and in this
+way won freedom to kill their father.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> 'Das Unheimliche.' <i>Imago</i>, 1919, Bd. V.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> See <i>Totem und Tabu</i> and the sources there quoted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> This situation, in which the subject's attitude is
+unconsciously directed towards the hypnotist, while he is consciously
+occupied with the monotonous and uninteresting perceptions, finds a
+parallel among the events of psycho-analytic treatment, which deserves
+to be mentioned here. At least once in the course of every analysis a
+moment comes when the patient obstinately maintains that just now
+positively nothing whatever occurs to his mind. His free associations
+come to a stop and the usual incentives for putting them in motion fail
+in their effect. As a result of pressure the patient is at last induced
+to admit that he is thinking of the view from the consulting-room
+window, of the wall-paper that he sees before him, or of the gas-lamp
+hanging from the ceiling. Then one knows at once that he has gone off
+into the transference and that he is engaged upon what are still
+unconscious thoughts relating to the physician; and one sees the
+stoppage in the patient's associations disappear, as soon as he has been
+given this explanation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Ferenczi: 'Introjektion und �bertragung.' <i>Jahrbuch der
+Psychoanalyse</i>, 1909, Bd. I [<i>Contributions to Psycho-Analysis.</i> Boston,
+Badger, 1916, Chapter II.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> It seems to me worth emphasizing the fact that the
+discussions in this section have induced us to give up Bernheim's
+conception of hypnosis and go back to the <i>na�f</i> earlier one. According
+to Bernheim all hypnotic phenomena are to be traced to the factor of
+suggestion, which is not itself capable of further explanation. We have
+come to the conclusion that suggestion is a partial manifestation of the
+state of hypnosis, and that hypnosis is solidly founded upon a
+predisposition which has survived in the unconscious from the early
+history of the human family.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> 'Trauer und Melancholie.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> <i>Totem und Tabu.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Trotter traces repression back to the herd instinct. It is
+a translation of this into another form of expression rather than a
+contradiction when I say in my 'Einf�hrung des Narzissmus' that on the
+part of the ego the construction of an ideal is the condition of
+repression.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Cf. Abraham: 'Ans�tze zur psychoanalytischen Erforschung
+und Behandlung des manisch-depressiven Irreseins', 1912, in <i>Klinische
+Beitr�ge zur Psychoanalyse</i>, 1921.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> To speak more accurately, they conceal themselves behind
+the reproaches directed towards the person's own ego, and lend them the
+fixity, tenacity, and imperativeness which characterize the
+self-reproaches of a melancholiac.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> [Literally: 'How he clears his throat and how he spits,
+that you have cleverly copied from him.']</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> What follows at this point was written under the influence
+of an exchange of ideas with Otto Rank.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Cf. Hanns Sachs: 'Gemeinsame Tagtr�ume', a summary made by
+the lecturer himself of a paper read at the Sixth Psycho-analytical
+Congress, held at the Hague in 1920. <i>Internationale Zeitschrift f�r
+Psychoanalyse</i>, 1920, Bd. VI. ['Day-Dreams in Common'. <i>International
+Journal of Psycho-Analysis</i>, 1920, Vol. I.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> In this brief exposition I have made no attempt to bring
+forward any of the material existing in legends, myths, fairy tales, the
+history of manners, etc., in support of the construction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> Cf. <i>Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Hostile feelings, which are a little more complicated in
+their construction, offer no exception to this rule.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> [<i>Schriften zur angewandten Seelenkunde.</i> Heft 8. Vienna,
+Deuticke, 1910.]</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> See '�ber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des
+Liebeslebens.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> See <i>Totem und Tabu</i>, towards the end of Part II, 'Das
+Tabu und die Ambivalenz'.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> See <i>Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>, 4. Auflage,
+1920, S. 96.</p></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego, by
+Sigmund Freud
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Group Psychology and The Analysis of The Ego
+
+Author: Sigmund Freud
+
+Translator: James Strachey
+
+Release Date: April 15, 2011 [EBook #35877]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GROUP PSYCHOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif, University of Michigan and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY
+No. 6
+
+
+
+
+GROUP PSYCHOLOGY
+AND
+THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
+
+BY
+SIGM. FREUD, M. D., LL. D.
+
+AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION
+BY
+JAMES STRACHEY
+
+[Illustration: colophon]
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS
+LONDON MCMXXII VIENNA
+
+Copyright 1922
+
+
+
+
+TRANSLATOR'S NOTE
+
+
+A comparison of the following pages with the German original
+(_Massenpsychologie und Ich-Analyse_, Internationaler Psychoanalytischer
+Verlag, Vienna, 1921) will show that certain passages have been
+transferred in the English version from the text to the footnotes. This
+alteration has been carried out at the author's express desire.
+
+All technical terms have been translated in accordance with the Glossary
+to be published as a supplement to the _International Journal of
+Psycho-Analysis_.
+
+J. S.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                       Page
+
+   I Introduction                                         1
+
+  II Le Bon's Description of the Group Mind               5
+
+ III Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life            23
+
+  IV Suggestion and Libido                               33
+
+   V Two Artificial Groups: the Church and the Army      41
+
+  VI Further Problems and Lines of Work                  52
+
+ VII Identification                                      60
+
+VIII Being in Love and Hypnosis                          71
+
+  IX The Herd Instinct                                   81
+
+   X The Group and the Primal Horde                      90
+
+  XI A Differentiating Grade in the Ego                 101
+
+ XII Postscript                                         110
+
+
+
+
+GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The contrast between Individual Psychology and Social or Group[1]
+Psychology, which at a first glance may seem to be full of significance,
+loses a great deal of its sharpness when it is examined more closely. It
+is true that Individual Psychology is concerned with the individual man
+and explores the paths by which he seeks to find satisfaction for his
+instincts; but only rarely and under certain exceptional conditions is
+Individual Psychology in a position to disregard the relations of this
+individual to others. In the individual's mental life someone else is
+invariably involved, as a model, as an object, as a helper, as an
+opponent, and so from the very first Individual Psychology is at the
+same time Social Psychology as well--in this extended but entirely
+justifiable sense of the words.
+
+The relations of an individual to his parents and to his brothers and
+sisters, to the object of his love, and to his physician--in fact all
+the relations which have hitherto been the chief subject of
+psycho-analytic research--may claim to be considered as social
+phenomena; and in this respect they may be contrasted with certain other
+processes, described by us as 'narcissistic', in which the satisfaction
+of the instincts is partially or totally withdrawn from the influence of
+other people. The contrast between social and narcissistic--Bleuler
+would perhaps call them 'autistic'--mental acts therefore falls wholly
+within the domain of Individual Psychology, and is not well calculated
+to differentiate it from a Social or Group Psychology.
+
+The individual in the relations which have already been mentioned--to
+his parents and to his brothers and sisters, to the person he is in love
+with, to his friend, and to his physician--comes under the influence of
+only a single person, or of a very small number of persons, each one of
+whom has become enormously important to him. Now in speaking of Social
+or Group Psychology it has become usual to leave these relations on one
+side and to isolate as the subject of inquiry the influencing of an
+individual by a large number of people simultaneously, people with whom
+he is connected by something, though otherwise they may in many respects
+be strangers to him. Group Psychology is therefore concerned with the
+individual man as a member of a race, of a nation, of a caste, of a
+profession, of an institution, or as a component part of a crowd of
+people who have been organised into a group at some particular time for
+some definite purpose. When once natural continuity has been severed in
+this way, it is easy to regard the phenomena that appear under these
+special conditions as being expressions of a special instinct that is
+not further reducible, the social instinct ('herd instinct', 'group
+mind'), which does not come to light in any other situations. But we may
+perhaps venture to object that it seems difficult to attribute to the
+factor of number a significance so great as to make it capable by itself
+or arousing in our mental life a new instinct that is otherwise not
+brought into play. Our expectation is therefore directed towards two
+other possibilities: that the social instinct may not be a primitive one
+and insusceptible of dissection, and that it may be possible to discover
+the beginnings of its development in a narrower circle, such as that of
+the family.
+
+Although Group Psychology is only in its infancy, it embraces an immense
+number of separate issues and offers to investigators countless
+problems which have hitherto not even been properly distinguished from
+one another. The mere classification of the different forms of group
+formation and the description of the mental phenomena produced by them
+require a great expenditure of observation and exposition, and have
+already given rise to a copious literature. Anyone who compares the
+narrow dimensions of this little book with the extent of Group
+Psychology will at once be able to guess that only a few points chosen
+from the whole material are to be dealt with here. And they will in fact
+only be a few questions with which the depth-psychology of
+psycho-analysis is specially concerned.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+LE BON'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUP MIND
+
+
+Instead of starting from a definition, it seems more useful to begin
+with some indication of the range of the phenomena under review, and to
+select from among them a few specially striking and characteristic facts
+to which our inquiry can be attached. We can achieve both of these aims
+by means of quotation from Le Bon's deservedly famous work _Psychologie
+des foules_.[2]
+
+Let us make the matter clear once again. If a Psychology, concerned with
+exploring the predispositions, the instincts, the motives and the aims
+of an individual man down to his actions and his relations with those
+who are nearest to him, had completely achieved its task, and had
+cleared up the whole of these matters with their inter-connections, it
+would then suddenly find itself confronted by a new task which would lie
+before it unachieved. It would be obliged to explain the surprising
+fact that under a certain condition this individual whom it had come to
+understand thought, felt, and acted in quite a different way from what
+would have been expected. And this condition is his insertion into a
+collection of people which has acquired the characteristic of a
+'psychological group'. What, then, is a 'group'? How does it acquire the
+capacity for exercising such a decisive influence over the mental life
+of the individual? And what is the nature of the mental change which it
+forces upon the individual?
+
+It is the task of a theoretical Group Psychology to answer these three
+questions. The best way of approaching them is evidently to start with
+the third. Observation of the changes in the individual's reactions is
+what provides Group Psychology with its material; for every attempt at
+an explanation must be preceded by a description of the thing that is to
+be explained.
+
+I will now let Le Bon speak for himself. He says: 'The most striking
+peculiarity presented by a psychological group[3] is the following.
+Whoever be the individuals that compose it, however like or unlike be
+their mode of life, their occupations, their character, or their
+intelligence, the fact that they have been transformed into a group puts
+them in possession of a sort of collective mind which makes them feel,
+think, and act in a manner quite different from that in which each
+individual of them would feel, think, and act were he in a state of
+isolation. There are certain ideas and feelings which do not come into
+being, or do not transform themselves into acts except in the case of
+individuals forming a group. The psychological group is a provisional
+being formed of heterogeneous elements, which for a moment are combined,
+exactly as the cells which constitute a living body form by their
+reunion a new being which displays characteristics very different from
+those possessed by each of the cells singly.' (p. 29.)[4]
+
+We shall take the liberty of interrupting Le Bon's exposition with
+glosses of our own, and shall accordingly insert an observation at this
+point. If the individuals in the group are combined into a unity, there
+must surely be something to unite them, and this bond might be precisely
+the thing that is characteristic of a group. But Le Bon does not answer
+this question; he goes on to consider the alteration which the
+individual undergoes when in a group and describes it in terms which
+harmonize well with the fundamental postulates of our own
+depth-psychology.
+
+'It is easy to prove how much the individual forming part of a group
+differs from the isolated individual, but it is less easy to discover
+the causes of this difference.
+
+'To obtain at any rate a glimpse of them it is necessary in the first
+place to call to mind the truth established by modern psychology, that
+unconscious phenomena play an altogether preponderating part not only in
+organic life, but also in the operations of the intelligence. The
+conscious life of the mind is of small importance in comparison with its
+unconscious life. The most subtle analyst, the most acute observer, is
+scarcely successful in discovering more than a very small number of the
+conscious[5] motives that determine his conduct. Our conscious acts are
+the outcome of an unconscious substratum created in the mind in the main
+by hereditary influences. This substratum consists of the innumerable
+common characteristics handed down from generation to generation, which
+constitute the genius of a race. Behind the avowed causes of our acts
+there undoubtedly lie secret causes that we do not avow, but behind
+these secret causes there are many others more secret still, of which we
+ourselves are ignorant.[6] The greater part of our daily actions are the
+result of hidden motives which escape our observation.' (p. 30.)
+
+Le Bon thinks that the particular acquirements of individuals become
+obliterated in a group, and that in this way their distinctiveness
+vanishes. The racial unconscious emerges; what is heterogeneous is
+submerged in what is homogeneous. We may say that the mental
+superstructure, the development of which in individuals shows such
+dissimilarities, is removed, and that the unconscious foundations, which
+are similar in everyone, stand exposed to view.
+
+In this way individuals in a group would come to show an average
+character. But Le Bon believes that they also display new
+characteristics which they have not previously possessed, and he seeks
+the reason for this in three different factors.
+
+'The first is that the individual forming part of a group acquires,
+solely from numerical considerations, a sentiment of invincible power
+which allows him to yield to instincts which, had he been alone, he
+would perforce have kept under restraint. He will be the less disposed
+to check himself from the consideration that, a group being anonymous,
+and in consequence irresponsible, the sentiment of responsibility which
+always controls individuals disappears entirely.' (p. 33.)
+
+From our point of view we need not attribute so much importance to the
+appearance of new characteristics. For us it would be enough to say that
+in a group the individual is brought under conditions which allow him to
+throw off the repressions of his unconscious instincts. The apparently
+new characteristics which he then displays are in fact the
+manifestations of this unconscious, in which all that is evil in the
+human mind is contained as a predisposition. We can find no difficulty
+in understanding the disappearance of conscience or of a sense of
+responsibility in these circumstances. It has long been our contention
+that 'dread of society [_soziale Angst_]' is the essence of what is
+called conscience.[7]
+
+'The second cause, which is contagion, also intervenes to determine the
+manifestation in groups of their special characteristics, and at the
+same time the trend they are to take. Contagion is a phenomenon of which
+it is easy to establish the presence, but that it is not easy to
+explain. It must be classed among those phenomena of a hypnotic order,
+which we shall shortly study. In a group every sentiment and act is
+contagious, and contagious to such a degree that an individual readily
+sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an
+aptitude very contrary to his nature, and of which a man is scarcely
+capable, except when he makes part of a group.' (p. 33.)
+
+We shall later on base an important conjecture upon this last statement.
+
+'A third cause, and by far the most important, determines in the
+individuals of a group special characteristics which are quite contrary
+at times to those presented by the isolated individual. I allude to that
+suggestibility of which, moreover, the contagion mentioned above is only
+an effect.
+
+'To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to bear in mind certain
+recent physiological discoveries. We know to-day that by various
+processes an individual may be brought into such a condition that,
+having entirely lost his conscious personality, he obeys all the
+suggestions of the operator who has deprived him of it, and commits acts
+in utter contradiction with his character and habits. The most careful
+investigations seem to prove that an individual immersed for some length
+of time in a group in action soon finds himself--either in consequence
+of the magnetic influence given out by the group, or from some other
+cause of which we are ignorant--in a special state, which much resembles
+the state of fascination in which the hypnotised individual finds
+himself in the hands of the hypnotiser.... The conscious personality has
+entirely vanished; will and discernment are lost. All feelings and
+thoughts are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser.
+
+'Such also is approximately the state of the individual forming part of
+a psychological group. He is no longer conscious of his acts. In his
+case, as in the case of the hypnotised subject, at the same time that
+certain faculties are destroyed, others may be brought to a high degree
+of exaltation. Under the influence of a suggestion, he will undertake
+the accomplishment of certain acts with irresistible impetuosity. This
+impetuosity is the more irresistible in the case of groups than in that
+of the hypnotised subject, from the fact that, the suggestion being the
+same for all the individuals of the group, it gains in strength by
+reciprocity.' (p. 34.)
+
+'We see, then, that the disappearance of the conscious personality, the
+predominance of the unconscious personality, the turning by means of
+suggestion and contagion of feelings and ideas in an identical
+direction, the tendency to immediately transform the suggested ideas
+into acts; these, we see, are the principal characteristics of the
+individual forming part of a group. He is no longer himself, but has
+become an automaton who has ceased to be guided by his will.' (p. 35.)
+
+I have quoted this passage so fully in order to make it quite clear that
+Le Bon explains the condition of an individual in a group as being
+actually hypnotic, and does not merely make a comparison between the two
+states. We have no intention of raising any objection at this point, but
+wish only to emphasize the fact that the two last causes of an
+individual becoming altered in a group (the contagion and the heightened
+suggestibility) are evidently not on a par, since the contagion seems
+actually to be a manifestation of the suggestibility. Moreover the
+effects of the two factors do not seem to be sharply differentiated in
+the text of Le Bon's remarks. We may perhaps best interpret his
+statement if we connect the contagion with the effects of the individual
+members of the group upon one another, while we point to another source
+for those manifestations of suggestion in the group which are put on a
+level with the phenomena of hypnotic influence. But to what source? We
+cannot avoid being struck with a sense of deficiency when we notice that
+one of the chief elements of the comparison, namely the person who is to
+replace the hypnotist in the case of the group, is not mentioned in Le
+Bon's exposition. But he nevertheless distinguishes between this
+influence of fascination which remains plunged in obscurity and the
+contagious effect which the individuals exercise upon one another and by
+which the original suggestion is strengthened.
+
+Here is yet another important consideration for helping us to understand
+the individual in a group: 'Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms
+part of an organised group, a man descends several rungs in the ladder
+of civilisation. Isolated, he may be a cultivated individual; in a
+crowd, he is a barbarian--that is, a creature acting by instinct. He
+possesses the spontaneity, the violence, the ferocity, and also the
+enthusiasm and heroism of primitive beings.' (p. 36.) He then dwells
+especially upon the lowering in intellectual ability which an individual
+experiences when he becomes merged in a group.[8]
+
+Let us now leave the individual, and turn to the group mind, as it has
+been outlined by Le Bon. It shows not a single feature which a
+psycho-analyst would find any difficulty in placing or in deriving from
+its source. Le Bon himself shows us the way by pointing to its
+similarity with the mental life of primitive people and of children (p.
+40).
+
+A group is impulsive, changeable and irritable. It is led almost
+exclusively by the unconscious.[9] The impulses which a group obeys may
+according to circumstances be generous or cruel, heroic or cowardly, but
+they are always so imperious that no personal interest, not even that of
+self-preservation, can make itself felt (p. 41). Nothing about it is
+premeditated. Though it may desire things passionately, yet this is
+never so for long, for it is incapable of perseverance. It cannot
+tolerate any delay between its desire and the fulfilment of what it
+desires. It has a sense of omnipotence; the notion of impossibility
+disappears for the individual in a group.[10]
+
+A group is extraordinarily credulous and open to influence, it has no
+critical faculty, and the improbable does not exist for it. It thinks in
+images, which call one another up by association (just as they arise
+with individuals in states of free imagination), and whose agreement
+with reality is never checked by any reasonable function
+[_Instanz_].[11] The feelings of a group are always very simple and very
+exaggerated. So that a group knows neither doubt nor uncertainty.[12]
+
+It goes directly to extremes; if a suspicion is expressed, it is
+instantly changed into an incontrovertible certainty; a trace of
+antipathy is turned into furious hatred (p. 56).[13]
+
+Inclined as it itself is to all extremes, a group can only be excited by
+an excessive stimulus. Anyone who wishes to produce an effect upon it
+needs no logical adjustment in his arguments; he must paint in the most
+forcible colours, he must exaggerate, and he must repeat the same thing
+again and again.
+
+Since a group is in no doubt as to what constitutes truth or error, and
+is conscious, moreover, of its own great strength, it is as intolerant
+as it is obedient to authority. It respects force and can only be
+slightly influenced by kindness, which it regards merely as a form of
+weakness. What it demands of its heroes is strength, or even violence.
+It wants to be ruled and oppressed and to fear its masters.
+Fundamentally it is entirely conservative, and it has a deep aversion
+from all innovations and advances and an unbounded respect for tradition
+(p. 62).
+
+In order to make a correct judgement upon the morals of groups, one must
+take into consideration the fact that when individuals come together in
+a group all their individual inhibitions fall away and all the cruel,
+brutal and destructive instincts, which lie dormant in individuals as
+relics of a primitive epoch, are stirred up to find free gratification.
+But under the influence of suggestion groups are also capable of high
+achievements in the shape of abnegation, unselfishness, and devotion to
+an ideal. While with isolated individuals personal interest is almost
+the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely prominent. It is
+possible to speak of an individual having his moral standards raised by
+a group (p. 65). Whereas the intellectual capacity of a group is always
+far below that of an individual, its ethical conduct may rise as high
+above his as it may sink deep below it.
+
+Some other features in Le Bon's description show in a clear light how
+well justified is the identification of the group mind with the mind of
+primitive people. In groups the most contradictory ideas can exist side
+by side and tolerate each other, without any conflict arising from the
+logical contradiction between them. But this is also the case in the
+unconscious mental life of individuals, of children and of neurotics, as
+psycho-analysis has long pointed out.[14]
+
+A group, further, is subject to the truly magical power of words; they
+can evoke the most formidable tempests in the group mind, and are also
+capable of stilling them (p. 117). 'Reason and arguments are incapable
+of combating certain words and formulas. They are uttered with solemnity
+in the presence of groups, and as soon as they have been pronounced an
+expression of respect is visible on every countenance, and all heads are
+bowed. By many they are considered as natural forces, as supernatural
+powers.' (p. 117.) It is only necessary in this connection to remember
+the taboo upon names among primitive people and the magical powers which
+they ascribe to names and words.[15]
+
+And, finally, groups have never thirsted after truth. They demand
+illusions, and cannot do without them. They constantly give what is
+unreal precedence over what is real; they are almost as strongly
+influenced by what is untrue as by what is true. They have an evident
+tendency not to distinguish between the two (p. 77).
+
+We have pointed out that this predominance of the life of phantasy and
+of the illusion born of an unfulfilled wish is the ruling factor in the
+psychology of neuroses. We have found that what neurotics are guided by
+is not ordinary objective reality but psychological reality. A
+hysterical symptom is based upon phantasy instead of upon the repetition
+of real experience, and the sense of guilt in an obsessional neurosis is
+based upon the fact of an evil intention which was never carried out.
+Indeed, just as in dreams and in hypnosis, in the mental operations of a
+group the function for testing the reality of things falls into the
+background in comparison with the strength of wishes with their
+affective cathexis.[16]
+
+What Le Bon says on the subject of leaders of groups is less exhaustive,
+and does not enable us to make out an underlying principle so clearly.
+He thinks that as soon as living beings are gathered together in certain
+numbers, no matter whether they are a herd of animals or a collection of
+human beings, they place themselves instinctively under the authority
+of a chief (p. 134). A group is an obedient herd, which could never live
+without a master. It has such a thirst for obedience that it submits
+instinctively to anyone who appoints himself its master.
+
+Although in this way the needs of a group carry it half-way to meet the
+leader, yet he too must fit in with it in his personal qualities. He
+must himself be held in fascination by a strong faith (in an idea) in
+order to awaken the group's faith; he must possess a strong and imposing
+will, which the group, which has no will of its own, can accept from
+him. Le Bon then discusses the different kinds of leaders, and the means
+by which they work upon the group. On the whole he believes that the
+leaders make themselves felt by means of the ideas in which they
+themselves are fanatical believers.
+
+Moreover, he ascribes both to the ideas and to the leaders a mysterious
+and irresistible power, which he calls 'prestige'. Prestige is a sort of
+domination exercised over us by an individual, a work or an idea. It
+entirely paralyses our critical faculty, and fills us with astonishment
+and respect. It would seem to arouse a feeling like that of fascination
+in hypnosis (p. 148). He distinguishes between acquired or artificial
+and personal prestige. The former is attached to persons in virtue of
+their name, fortune and reputation, and to opinions, works of art, etc.,
+in virtue of tradition. Since in every case it harks back to the past,
+it cannot be of much help to us in understanding this puzzling
+influence. Personal prestige is attached to a few people, who become
+leaders by means of it, and it has the effect of making everything obey
+them as though by the operation of some magnetic magic. All prestige,
+however, is also dependent upon success, and is lost in the event of
+failure (p. 159).
+
+We cannot feel that Le Bon has brought the function of the leader and
+the importance of prestige completely into harmony with his brilliantly
+executed picture of the group mind.
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+OTHER ACCOUNTS OF COLLECTIVE MENTAL LIFE
+
+
+We have made use of Le Bon's description by way of introduction, because
+it fits in so well with our own Psychology in the emphasis which it lays
+upon unconscious mental life. But we must now add that as a matter of
+fact none of that author's statements bring forward anything new.
+Everything that he says to the detriment and depreciation of the
+manifestations of the group mind had already been said by others before
+him with equal distinctness and equal hostility, and has been repeated
+in unison by thinkers, statesmen and writers since the earliest periods
+of literature.[17] The two theses which comprise the most important of
+Le Bon's opinions, those touching upon the collective inhibition of
+intellectual functioning and the heightening of affectivity in groups,
+had been formulated shortly before by Sighele.[18] At bottom, all that
+is left over as being peculiar to Le Bon are the two notions of the
+unconscious and of the comparison with the mental life of primitive
+people, and even these had naturally often been alluded to before him.
+
+But, what is more, the description and estimate of the group mind as
+they have been given by Le Bon and the rest have not by any means been
+left undisputed. There is no doubt that all the phenomena of the group
+mind which have just been mentioned have been correctly observed, but it
+is also possible to distinguish other manifestations of the group
+formation, which operate in a precisely opposite sense, and from which a
+much higher opinion of the group mind must necessarily follow.
+
+Le Bon himself was prepared to admit that in certain circumstances the
+morals of a group can be higher than those of the individuals that
+compose it, and that only collectivities are capable of a high degree of
+unselfishness and devotion. 'While with isolated individuals personal
+interest is almost the only motive force, with groups it is very rarely
+prominent.' (p. 65.) Other writers adduce the fact that it is only
+society which prescribes any ethical standards at all for the
+individual, while he as a rule fails in one way or another to come up to
+its high demands. Or they point out that in exceptional circumstances
+there may arise in communities the phenomenon of enthusiasm, which has
+made the most splendid group achievements possible.
+
+As regards intellectual work it remains a fact, indeed, that great
+decisions in the realm of thought and momentous discoveries and
+solutions of problems are only possible to an individual, working in
+solitude. But even the group mind is capable of genius in intellectual
+creation, as is shown above all by language itself, as well as by
+folk-song, folk-lore and the like. It remains an open question,
+moreover, how much the individual thinker or writer owes to the
+stimulation of the group in which he lives, or whether he does more than
+perfect a mental work in which the others have had a simultaneous share.
+
+In face of these completely contradictory accounts, it looks as though
+the work of Group Psychology were bound to come to an ineffectual end.
+But it is easy to find a more hopeful escape from the dilemma. A number
+of very different formations have probably been merged under the term
+'group' and may require to be distinguished. The assertions of Sighele,
+Le Bon and the rest relate to groups of a short-lived character, which
+some passing interest has hastily agglomerated out of various sorts of
+individuals. The characteristics of revolutionary groups, and
+especially those of the great French Revolution, have unmistakably
+influenced their descriptions. The opposite opinions owe their origin to
+the consideration of those stable groups or associations in which
+mankind pass their lives, and which are embodied in the institutions of
+society. Groups of the first kind stand in the same sort of relation to
+those of the second as a high but choppy sea to a ground swell.
+
+McDougall, in his book on _The Group Mind_,[19] starts out from the same
+contradiction that has just been mentioned, and finds a solution for it
+in the factor of organisation. In the simplest case, he says, the
+'group' possesses no organisation at all or one scarcely deserving the
+name. He describes a group of this kind as a 'crowd'. But he admits that
+a crowd of human beings can hardly come together without possessing at
+all events the rudiments of an organisation, and that precisely in these
+simple groups many of the fundamental facts of Collective Psychology can
+be observed with special ease (p. 22). Before the members of a random
+crowd of people can constitute something in the nature of a group in the
+psychological sense of the word, a condition has to be fulfilled; these
+individuals must have something in common with one another, a common
+interest in an object, a similar emotional bias in some situation or
+other, and ('consequently', I should like to interpolate) 'some degree
+of reciprocal influence' (p. 23). The higher the degree of 'this mental
+homogeneity', the more readily do the individuals form a psychological
+group, and the more striking are the manifestations of a group mind.
+
+The most remarkable and also the most important result of the formation
+of a group is the 'exaltation or intensification of emotion' produced in
+every member of it (p. 24). In McDougall's opinion men's emotions are
+stirred in a group to a pitch that they seldom or never attain under
+other conditions; and it is a pleasurable experience for those who are
+concerned to surrender themselves so unreservedly to their passions and
+thus to become merged in the group and to lose the sense of the limits
+of their individuality. The manner in which individuals are thus carried
+away by a common impulse is explained by McDougall by means of what he
+calls the 'principle of direct induction of emotion by way of the
+primitive sympathetic response' (p. 25), that is, by means of the
+emotional contagion with which we are already familiar. The fact is that
+the perception of the signs of an emotional state is calculated
+automatically to arouse the same emotion in the person who perceives
+them. The greater the number of people in whom the same emotion can be
+simultaneously observed, the stronger does this automatic compulsion
+grow. The individual loses his power of criticism, and lets himself slip
+into the same emotion. But in so doing he increases the excitement of
+the other people, who had produced this effect upon him, and thus the
+emotional charge of the individuals becomes intensified by mutual
+interaction. Something is unmistakably at work in the nature of a
+compulsion to do the same as the others, to remain in harmony with the
+many. The coarser and simpler emotions are the more apt to spread
+through a group in this way (p. 39).
+
+This mechanism for the intensification of emotion is favoured by some
+other influences which emanate from groups. A group impresses the
+individual with a sense of unlimited power and of insurmountable peril.
+For the moment it replaces the whole of human society, which is the
+wielder of authority, whose punishments the individual fears, and for
+whose sake he has submitted to so many inhibitions. It is clearly
+perilous for him to put himself in opposition to it, and it will be
+safer to follow the example of those around him and perhaps even 'hunt
+with the pack'. In obedience to the new authority he may put his former
+'conscience' out of action, and so surrender to the attraction of the
+increased pleasure that is certainly obtained from the removal of
+inhibitions. On the whole, therefore, it is not so remarkable that we
+should see an individual in a group doing or approving things which he
+would have avoided in the normal conditions of life; and in this way we
+may even hope to clear up a little of the mystery which is so often
+covered by the enigmatic word 'suggestion'.
+
+McDougall does not dispute the thesis as to the collective inhibition of
+intelligence in groups (p. 41). He says that the minds of lower
+intelligence bring down those of a higher order to their own level. The
+latter are obstructed in their activity, because in general an
+intensification of emotion creates unfavourable conditions for sound
+intellectual work, and further because the individuals are intimidated
+by the group and their mental activity is not free, and because there is
+a lowering in each individual of his sense of responsibility for his own
+performances.
+
+The judgement with which McDougall sums up the psychological behaviour
+of a simple 'unorganised' group is no more friendly than that of Le Bon.
+Such a group 'is excessively emotional, impulsive, violent, fickle,
+inconsistent, irresolute and extreme in action, displaying only the
+coarser emotions and the less refined sentiments; extremely suggestible,
+careless in deliberation, hasty in judgment, incapable of any but the
+simpler and imperfect forms of reasoning; easily swayed and led,
+lacking in self-consciousness, devoid of self-respect and of sense of
+responsibility, and apt to be carried away by the consciousness of its
+own force, so that it tends to produce all the manifestations we have
+learnt to expect of any irresponsible and absolute power. Hence its
+behaviour is like that of an unruly child or an untutored passionate
+savage in a strange situation, rather than like that of its average
+member; and in the worst cases it is like that of a wild beast, rather
+than like that of human beings.' (p. 45.)
+
+Since McDougall contrasts the behaviour of a highly organised group with
+what has just been described, we shall be particularly interested to
+learn in what this organisation consists, and by what factors it is
+produced. The author enumerates five 'principal conditions' for raising
+collective mental life to a higher level.
+
+The first and fundamental condition is that there should be some degree
+of continuity of existence in the group. This may be either material or
+formal; the former, if the same individuals persist in the group for
+some time; and the latter, if there is developed within the group a
+system of fixed positions which are occupied by a succession of
+individuals.
+
+The second condition is that in the individual member of the group some
+definite idea should be formed of the nature, composition, functions and
+capacities of the group, so that from this he may develop an emotional
+relation to the group as a whole.
+
+The third is that the group should be brought into interaction (perhaps
+in the form of rivalry) with other groups similar to it but differing
+from it in many respects.
+
+The fourth is that the group should possess traditions, customs and
+habits, and especially such as determine the relations of its members to
+one another.
+
+The fifth is that the group should have a definite structure, expressed
+in the specialisation and differentiation of the functions of its
+constituents.
+
+According to McDougall, if these conditions are fulfilled, the
+psychological disadvantages of the group formation are removed. The
+collective lowering of intellectual ability is avoided by withdrawing
+the performance of intellectual tasks from the group and reserving them
+for individual members of it.
+
+It seems to us that the condition which McDougall designates as the
+'organisation' of a group can with more justification be described in
+another way. The problem consists in how to procure for the group
+precisely those features which were characteristic of the individual and
+which are extinguished in him by the formation of the group. For the
+individual, outside the primitive group, possessed his own continuity,
+his self-consciousness, his traditions and customs, his own particular
+functions and position, and kept apart from his rivals. Owing to his
+entry into an 'unorganised' group he had lost this distinctiveness for a
+time. If we thus recognise that the aim is to equip the group with the
+attributes of the individual, we shall be reminded of a valuable remark
+of Trotter's,[20] to the effect that the tendency towards the formation
+of groups is biologically a continuation of the multicellular character
+of all the higher organisms.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+SUGGESTION AND LIBIDO
+
+
+We started from the fundamental fact that an individual in a group is
+subjected through its influence to what is often a profound alteration
+in his mental activity. His emotions become extraordinarily intensified,
+while his intellectual ability becomes markedly reduced, both processes
+being evidently in the direction of an approximation to the other
+individuals in the group; and this result can only be reached by the
+removal of those inhibitions upon his instincts which are peculiar to
+each individual, and by his resigning those expressions of his
+inclinations which are especially his own. We have heard that these
+often unwelcome consequences are to some extent at least prevented by a
+higher 'organisation' of the group; but this does not contradict the
+fundamental fact of Group Psychology--the two theses as to the
+intensification of the emotions and the inhibition of the intellect in
+primitive groups. Our interest is now directed to discovering the
+psychological explanation of this mental change which is experienced by
+the individual in a group.
+
+It is clear that rational factors (such as the intimidation of the
+individual which has already been mentioned, that is, the action of his
+instinct of self-preservation) do not cover the observable phenomena.
+Beyond this what we are offered as an explanation by authorities upon
+Sociology and Group Psychology is always the same, even though it is
+given various names, and that is--the magic word 'suggestion'. Tarde
+calls it 'imitation'; but we cannot help agreeing with a writer who
+protests that imitation comes under the concept of suggestion, and is in
+fact one of its results.[21] Le Bon traces back all the puzzling
+features of social phenomena to two factors: the mutual suggestion of
+individuals and the prestige of leaders. But prestige, again, is only
+recognizable by its capacity for evoking suggestion. McDougall for a
+moment gives us an impression that his principle of 'primitive induction
+of emotion' might enable us to do without the assumption of suggestion.
+But on further consideration we are forced to perceive that this
+principle says no more than the familiar assertions about 'imitation' or
+'contagion', except for a decided stress upon the emotional factor.
+There is no doubt that something exists in us which, when we become
+aware of signs of an emotion in someone else, tends to make us fall into
+the same emotion; but how often do we not successfully oppose it, resist
+the emotion, and react in quite an opposite way? Why, therefore, do we
+invariably give way to this contagion when we are in a group? Once more
+we should have to say that what compels us to obey this tendency is
+imitation, and what induces the emotion in us is the group's suggestive
+influence. Moreover, quite apart from this, McDougall does not enable us
+to evade suggestion; we hear from him as well as from other writers that
+groups are distinguished by their special suggestibility.
+
+We shall therefore be prepared for the statement that suggestion (or
+more correctly suggestibility) is actually an irreducible, primitive
+phenomenon, a fundamental fact in the mental life of man. Such, too, was
+the opinion of Bernheim, of whose astonishing arts I was a witness in
+the year 1889. But I can remember even then feeling a muffled hostility
+to this tyranny of suggestion. When a patient who showed himself
+unamenable was met with the shout: 'What are you doing? _Vous vous
+contresuggestionnez!_', I said to myself that this was an evident
+injustice and an act of violence. For the man certainly had a right to
+counter-suggestions if they were trying to subdue him with suggestions.
+Later on my resistance took the direction of protesting against the view
+that suggestion, which explained everything, was itself to be preserved
+from explanation. Thinking of it, I repeated the old conundrum:[22]
+
+            Christoph trug Christum,
+            Christus trug die ganze Welt,
+            Sag' wo hat Christoph
+            Damals hin den Fuss gestellt?[23]
+
+Christophorus Christum, sed Christus sustulit orbem:
+    Constiterit pedibus dic ubi Christophorus?
+
+Now that I once more approach the riddle of suggestion after having kept
+away from it for some thirty years, I find there is no change in the
+situation. To this statement I can discover only a single exception,
+which I need not mention, since it is one which bears witness to the
+influence of psycho-analysis. I notice that particular efforts are being
+made to formulate the concept of suggestion correctly, that is, to fix
+the conventional use of the name.[24] And this is by no means
+superfluous, for the word is acquiring a more and more extended use and
+a looser and looser meaning, and will soon come to designate any sort of
+influence whatever, just as in English, where 'to suggest' and
+'suggestion' correspond to our _nahelegen_ and _Anregung_. But there has
+been no explanation of the nature of suggestion, that is, of the
+conditions under which influence without adequate logical foundation
+takes place. I should not avoid the task of supporting this statement by
+an analysis of the literature of the last thirty years, if I were not
+aware that an exhaustive inquiry is being undertaken close at hand which
+has in view the fulfilment of this very task.
+
+Instead of this I shall make an attempt at using the concept of _libido_
+for the purpose of throwing light upon Group Psychology, a concept which
+has done us such good service in the study of psycho-neuroses.
+
+Libido is an expression taken from the theory of the emotions. We call
+by that name the energy (regarded as a quantitative magnitude, though
+not at present actually mensurable) of those instincts which have to do
+with all that may be comprised under the word 'love'. The nucleus of
+what we mean by love naturally consists (and this is what is commonly
+called love, and what the poets sing of) in sexual love with sexual
+union as its aim. But we do not separate from this--what in any case
+has a share in the name 'love'--on the one hand, self-love, and on the
+other, love for parents and children, friendship and love for humanity
+in general, and also devotion to concrete objects and to abstract ideas.
+Our justification lies in the fact that psycho-analytic research has
+taught us that all these tendencies are an expression of the same
+instinctive activities; in relations between the sexes these instincts
+force their way towards sexual union, but in other circumstances they
+are diverted from this aim or are prevented from reaching it, though
+always preserving enough of their original nature to keep their identity
+recognizable (as in such features as the longing for proximity, and
+self-sacrifice).
+
+We are of opinion, then, that language has carried out an entirely
+justifiable piece of unification in creating the word 'love' with its
+numerous uses, and that we cannot do better than take it as the basis of
+our scientific discussions and expositions as well. By coming to this
+decision, psycho-analysis has let loose a storm of indignation, as
+though it had been guilty of an act of outrageous innovation. Yet
+psycho-analysis has done nothing original in taking love in this 'wider'
+sense. In its origin, function, and relation to sexual love, the
+'_Eros_' of the philosopher Plato coincides exactly with the love force,
+the libido, of psycho-analysis, as has been shown in detail by
+Nachmansohn and Pfister;[25] and when the apostle Paul, in his famous
+epistle to the Corinthians, prizes love above all else, he certainly
+understands it in the same 'wider' sense.[26] But this only shows that
+men do not always take their great thinkers seriously, even when they
+profess most to admire them.
+
+Psycho-analysis, then, gives these love instincts the name of sexual
+instincts, a _potiori_ and by reason of their origin. The majority of
+'educated' people have taken their revenge by retorting upon
+psycho-analysis with the reproach of 'pan-sexualism'. Anyone who
+considers sex as something mortifying and humiliating to human nature is
+at liberty to make use of the more genteel expressions 'Eros' and
+'erotic'. I might have done so myself from the first and thus have
+spared myself much opposition. But I did not want to, for I like to
+avoid concessions to faint-heartedness. One can never tell where that
+road may lead one; one gives way first in words, and then little by
+little in substance too. I cannot see any merit in being ashamed of sex;
+the Greek word 'Eros', which is to soften the affront, is in the end
+nothing more than a translation of our German word _Liebe_ [love]; and
+finally, he who knows how to wait need make no concessions.
+
+We will try our fortune, then, with the supposition that love
+relationships (or, to use a more neutral expression, emotional ties)
+also constitute the essence of the group mind. Let us remember that the
+authorities make no mention of any such relations. What would correspond
+to them is evidently concealed behind the shelter, the screen, of
+suggestion. Our hypothesis finds support in the first instance from two
+passing thoughts. First, that a group is clearly held together by a
+power of some kind: and to what power could this feat be better ascribed
+than to Eros, who holds together everything in the world? Secondly, that
+if an individual gives up his distinctiveness in a group and lets its
+other members influence him by suggestion, it gives one the impression
+that he does it because he feels the need of being in harmony with them
+rather than in opposition to them--so that perhaps after all he does it
+'_ihnen zu Liebe_'.[27]
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+TWO ARTIFICIAL GROUPS: THE CHURCH AND THE ARMY
+
+
+We may recall from what we know of the morphology of groups that it is
+possible to distinguish very different kinds of groups and opposing
+lines in their development. There are very fleeting groups and extremely
+lasting ones; homogeneous ones, made up of the same sorts of
+individuals, and unhomogeneous ones; natural groups, and artificial
+ones, requiring an external force to keep them together; primitive
+groups, and highly organised ones with a definite structure. But for
+reasons which have yet to be explained we should like to lay particular
+stress upon a distinction to which the authorities have rather given too
+little attention; I refer to that between leaderless groups and those
+with leaders. And, in complete opposition to the usual practice, we
+shall not choose a relatively simple group formation as our point of
+departure, but shall begin with highly organised, lasting and artificial
+groups. The most interesting example of such structures are
+churches--communities of believers--and armies.
+
+A church and an army are artificial groups, that is, a certain external
+force is employed to prevent them from disintegrating and to check
+alterations in their structure. As a rule a person is not consulted or
+is given no choice, as to whether he wants to enter such a group; any
+attempt at leaving it is usually met with persecution or with severe
+punishment, or has quite definite conditions attached to it. It is quite
+outside our present interest to enquire why these associations need such
+special safeguards. We are only attracted by one circumstance, namely
+that certain facts, which are far more concealed in other cases, can be
+observed very clearly in those highly organised groups which are
+protected from dissolution in the manner that has been mentioned. In a
+church (and we may with advantage take the Catholic Church as a type) as
+well as in an army, however different the two may be in other respects,
+the same illusion holds good of there being a head--in the Catholic
+Church Christ, in an army its Commander-in-Chief--who loves all the
+individuals in the group with an equal love. Everything depends upon
+this illusion; if it were to be dropped, then both Church and army would
+dissolve, so far as the external force permitted them to. This equal
+love was expressly enunciated by Christ: 'Inasmuch as ye have done it
+unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.' He
+stands to the individual members of the group of believers in the
+relation of a kind elder brother; he is their father surrogate. All the
+demands that are made upon the individual are derived from this love of
+Christ's. A democratic character runs through the Church, for the very
+reason that before Christ everyone is equal, and that everyone has an
+equal share in his love. It is not without a deep reason that the
+similarity between the Christian community and a family is invoked, and
+that believers call themselves brothers in Christ, that is, brothers
+through the love which Christ has for them. There is no doubt that the
+tie which unites each individual with Christ is also the cause of the
+tie which unites them with one another. The like holds good of an army.
+The Commander-in-Chief is a father who loves all his soldiers equally,
+and for that reason they are comrades among themselves. The army differs
+structurally from the Church in being built up of a series of such
+groups. Every captain is, as it were, the Commander-in-Chief and the
+father of his company, and so is every non-commissioned officer of his
+section. It is true that a similar hierarchy has been constructed in the
+Church, but it does not play the same part in it economically; for more
+knowledge and care about individuals may be attributed to Christ than
+to a human Commander-in-Chief.[28]
+
+It is to be noticed that in these two artificial groups each individual
+is bound by libidinal[29] ties on the one hand to the leader (Christ,
+the Commander-in-Chief) and on the other hand to the other members of
+the group. How these two ties are related to each other, whether they
+are of the same kind and the same value, and how they are to be
+described psychologically--these questions must be reserved for
+subsequent enquiry. But we shall venture even now upon a mild reproach
+against the authorities for not having sufficiently appreciated the
+importance of the leader in the psychology of the group, while our own
+choice of a first object for investigation has brought us into a more
+favourable position. It would appear as though we were on the right road
+towards an explanation of the principal phenomenon of Group
+Psychology--the individual's lack of freedom in a group. If each
+individual is bound in two directions by such an intense emotional tie,
+we shall find no difficulty in attributing to that circumstance the
+alteration and limitation which have been observed in his personality.
+
+A hint to the same effect, that the essence of a group lies in the
+libidinal ties existing in it, is also to be found in the phenomenon of
+panic, which is best studied in military groups. A panic arises if a
+group of that kind becomes disintegrated. Its characteristics are that
+none of the orders given by superiors are any longer listened to, and
+that each individual is only solicitous on his own account, and without
+any consideration for the rest. The mutual ties have ceased to exist,
+and a gigantic and senseless dread [_Angst_] is set free. At this point,
+again, the objection will naturally be made that it is rather the other
+way round; and that the dread has grown so great as to be able to
+disregard all ties and all feelings of consideration for others.
+McDougall has even (p. 24) made use of the case of panic (though not of
+military panic) as a typical instance of that intensification of emotion
+by contagion ('primary induction') upon which he lays so much emphasis.
+But nevertheless this rational method of explanation is here quite
+inadequate. The very question that needs explanation is why the dread
+has become so gigantic. The greatness of the danger cannot be
+responsible, for the same army which now falls a victim to panic may
+previously have faced equally great or greater danger with complete
+success; it is of the very essence of panic that it bears no relation to
+the danger that threatens, and often breaks out upon the most trivial
+occasions. If an individual in panic dread begins to be solicitous only
+on his own account, he bears witness in so doing to the fact that the
+emotional ties, which have hitherto made the danger seem small to him,
+have ceased to exist. Now that he is by himself in facing the danger,
+he may surely think it greater. The fact is, therefore, that panic dread
+presupposes a relaxation in the libidinal structure of the group and
+reacts to it in a justifiable manner, and the contrary view--that the
+libidinal ties of the group are destroyed owing to dread in the face of
+the danger--can be refuted.
+
+The contention that dread in a group is increased to enormous
+proportions by means of induction (contagion) is not in the least
+contradicted by these remarks. McDougall's view meets the case entirely
+when the danger is a really great one and when the group has no strong
+emotional ties--conditions which are fulfilled, for instance, when a
+fire breaks out in a theatre or a place of amusement. But the really
+instructive case and the one which can be best employed for our purposes
+is that mentioned above, in which a body of troops breaks into a panic
+although the danger has not increased beyond a degree that is usual and
+has often been previously faced. It is not to be expected that the usage
+of the word 'panic' should be clearly and unambiguously determined.
+Sometimes it is used to describe any collective dread, sometimes even
+dread in an individual when it exceeds all bounds, and often the name
+seems to be reserved for cases in which the outbreak of dread is not
+warranted by the occasion. If we take the word 'panic' in the sense of
+collective dread, we can establish a far-reaching analogy. Dread in an
+individual is provoked either by the greatness of a danger or by the
+cessation of emotional ties (libidinal cathexes[30]
+[_Libidobesetzungen_]); the latter is the case of neurotic dread.[31] In
+just the same way panic arises either owing to an increase of the common
+danger or owing to the disappearance of the emotional ties which hold
+the group together; and the latter case is analogous to that of neurotic
+dread.[32]
+
+Anyone who, like McDougall (l.c.), describes a panic as one of the
+plainest functions of the 'group mind', arrives at the paradoxical
+position that this group mind does away with itself in one of its most
+striking manifestations. It is impossible to doubt that panic means the
+disintegration of a group; it involves the cessation of all the feelings
+of consideration which the members of the group otherwise show one
+another.
+
+The typical occasion of the outbreak of a panic is very much as it is
+represented in Nestroy's parody of Hebbel's play about Judith and
+Holofernes. A soldier cries out: "The general has lost his head!" and
+thereupon all the Assyrians take to flight. The loss of the leader in
+some sense or other, the birth, of misgivings about him, brings on the
+outbreak of panic, though the danger remains the same; the mutual ties
+between the members of the group disappear, as a rule, at the same time
+as the tie with their leader. The group vanishes in dust, like a Bologna
+flask when its top is broken off.
+
+The dissolution of a religious group is not so easy to observe. A short
+time ago there came into my hands an English novel of Catholic origin,
+recommended by the Bishop of London, with the title _When It Was Dark_.
+It gave a clever and, as it seems to me, a convincing picture of such a
+possibility and its consequences. The novel, which is supposed to
+relate to the present day, tells how a conspiracy of enemies of the
+figure of Christ and of the Christian faith succeed in arranging for a
+sepulchre to be discovered in Jerusalem. In this sepulchre is an
+inscription, in which Joseph of Arimathaea confesses that for reasons of
+piety he secretly removed the body of Christ from its grave on the third
+day after its entombment and buried it in this spot. The resurrection of
+Christ and his divine nature are by this means disposed of, and the
+result of this archaeological discovery is a convulsion in European
+civilisation and an extraordinary increase in all crimes and acts of
+violence, which only ceases when the forgers' plot has been revealed.
+
+The phenomenon which accompanies the dissolution that is here supposed
+to overtake a religious group is not dread, for which the occasion is
+wanting. Instead of it ruthless and hostile impulses towards other
+people make their appearance, which, owing to the equal love of Christ,
+they had previously been unable to do.[33] But even during the kingdom
+of Christ those people who do not belong to the community of believers,
+who do not love him, and whom he does not love, stand outside this tie.
+Therefore a religion, even if it calls itself the religion of love,
+must be hard and unloving to those who do not belong to it.
+Fundamentally indeed every religion is in this same way a religion of
+love for all those whom it embraces; while cruelty and intolerance
+towards those who do not belong to it are natural to every religion.
+However difficult we may find it personally, we ought not to reproach
+believers too severely on this account; people who are unbelieving or
+indifferent are so much better off psychologically in this respect. If
+to-day that intolerance no longer shows itself so violent and cruel as
+in former centuries, we can scarcely conclude that there has been a
+softening in human manners. The cause is rather to be found in the
+undeniable weakening of religious feelings and the libidinal ties which
+depend upon them. If another group tie takes the place of the religious
+one--and the socialistic tie seems to be succeeding in doing so--, then
+there will be the same intolerance towards outsiders as in the age of
+the Wars of Religion; and if differences between scientific opinions
+could ever attain a similar significance for groups, the same result
+would again be repeated with this new motivation.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+FURTHER PROBLEMS AND LINES OF WORK
+
+
+We have hitherto considered two artificial groups and have found that
+they are dominated by two emotional ties. One of these, the tie with the
+leader, seems (at all events for these cases) to be more of a ruling
+factor than the other, which holds between the members of the group.
+
+Now much else remains to be examined and described in the morphology of
+groups. We should have to start from the ascertained fact that a mere
+collection of people is not a group, so long as these ties have not been
+established in it; but we should have to admit that in any collection of
+people the tendency to form a psychological group may very easily become
+prominent. We should have to give our attention to the different kinds
+of groups, more or less stable, that arise spontaneously, and to study
+the conditions of their origin and of their dissolution. We should above
+all be concerned with the distinction between groups which have a
+leader and leaderless groups. We should consider whether groups with
+leaders may not be the more primitive and complete, whether in the
+others an idea, an abstraction, may not be substituted for the leader (a
+state of things to which religious groups, with their invisible head,
+form a transition stage), and whether a common tendency, a wish in which
+a number of people can have a share, may not in the same way serve as a
+substitute. This abstraction, again, might be more or less completely
+embodied in the figure of what we might call a secondary leader, and
+interesting varieties would arise from the relation between the idea and
+the leader. The leader or the leading idea might also, so to speak, be
+negative; hatred against a particular person or institution might
+operate in just the same unifying way, and might call up the same kind
+of emotional ties as positive attachment. Then the question would also
+arise whether a leader is really indispensable to the essence of a
+group--and other questions besides.
+
+But all these questions, which may, moreover, have been dealt with in
+part in the literature of Group Psychology, will not succeed in
+diverting our interest from the fundamental psychological problems that
+confront us in the structure of a group. And our attention will first be
+attracted by a consideration which promises to bring us in the most
+direct way to a proof that libidinal ties are what characterize a
+group.
+
+Let us keep before our eyes the nature of the emotional relations which
+hold between men in general. According to Schopenhauer's famous simile
+of the freezing porcupines no one can tolerate a too intimate approach
+to his neighbour.[34]
+
+The evidence of psycho-analysis shows that almost every intimate
+emotional relation between two people which lasts for some
+time--marriage, friendship, the relations between parents and
+children[35]--leaves a sediment of feelings of aversion and hostility,
+which have first to be eliminated by repression. This is less disguised
+in the common wrangles between business partners or in the grumbles of a
+subordinate at his superior. The same thing happens when men come
+together in larger units. Every time two families become connected by a
+marriage, each of them thinks itself superior to or of better birth than
+the other. Of two neighbouring towns each is the other's most jealous
+rival; every little canton looks down upon the others with contempt.
+Closely related races keep one another at arm's length; the South German
+cannot endure the North German, the Englishman casts every kind of
+aspersion upon the Scotchman, the Spaniard despises the Portuguese. We
+are no longer astonished that greater differences should lead to an
+almost insuperable repugnance, such as the Gallic people feel for the
+German, the Aryan for the Semite, and the white races for the coloured.
+
+When this hostility is directed against people who are otherwise loved
+we describe it as ambivalence of feeling; and we explain the fact, in
+what is probably far too rational a manner, by means of the numerous
+occasions for conflicts of interest which arise precisely in such
+intimate relations. In the undisguised antipathies and aversions which
+people feel towards strangers with whom they have to do we may recognize
+the expression of self-love--of narcissism. This self-love works for the
+self-assertion of the individual, and behaves as though the occurrence
+of any divergence from his own particular lines of development involved
+a criticism of them and a demand for their alteration. We do not know
+why such sensitiveness should have been directed to just these details
+of differentiation; but it is unmistakable that in this whole connection
+men give evidence of a readiness for hatred, an aggressiveness, the
+source of which is unknown, and to which one is tempted to ascribe an
+elementary character.[36]
+
+But the whole of this intolerance vanishes, temporarily or permanently,
+as the result of the formation of a group, and in a group. So long as a
+group formation persists or so far as it extends, individuals behave as
+though they were uniform, tolerate other people's peculiarities, put
+themselves on an equal level with them, and have no feeling of aversion
+towards them. Such a limitation of narcissism can, according to our
+theoretical views, only be produced by one factor, a libidinal tie with
+other people. Love for oneself knows only one barrier--love for others,
+love for objects.[37] The question will at once be raised whether
+community of interest in itself, without any addition of libido, must
+not necessarily lead to the toleration of other people and to
+considerateness for them. This objection may be met by the reply that
+nevertheless no lasting limitation of narcissism is effected in this
+way, since this tolerance does not persist longer than the immediate
+advantage gained from the other people's collaboration. But the
+practical importance of the discussion is less than might be supposed,
+for experience has shown that in cases of collaboration libidinal ties
+are regularly formed between the fellow-workers which prolong and
+solidify the relation between them to a point beyond what is merely
+profitable. The same thing occurs in men's social relations as has
+become familiar to psycho-analytic research in the course of the
+development of the individual libido. The libido props itself upon the
+satisfaction of the great vital needs, and chooses as its first objects
+the people who have a share in that process. And in the development of
+mankind as a whole, just as in individuals, love alone acts as the
+civilizing factor in the sense that it brings a change from egoism to
+altruism. And this is true both of the sexual love for women, with all
+the obligations which it involves of sparing what women are fond of, and
+also of the desexualised, sublimated homosexual love for other men,
+which springs from work in common. If therefore in groups narcissistic
+self-love is subject to limitations which do not operate outside them,
+that is cogent evidence that the essence of a group formation consists
+in a new kind of libidinal ties among the members of the group.
+
+But our interest now leads us on to the pressing question as to what may
+be the nature of these ties which exist in groups. In the
+psycho-analytic study of neuroses we have hitherto been occupied almost
+exclusively with ties that unite with their objects those love instincts
+which still pursue directly sexual aims. In groups there can evidently
+be no question of sexual aims of that kind. We are concerned here with
+love instincts which have been diverted from their original aims, though
+they do not operate with less energy on that account. Now we have
+already observed within the range of the usual sexual object-cathexis
+[_Objektbesetzung_] phenomena which represent a diversion of the
+instinct from its sexual aim. We have described them as degrees of being
+in love, and have recognized that they involve a certain encroachment
+upon the ego. We shall now turn our attention more closely to these
+phenomena of being in love, in the firm expectation of finding in them
+conditions which can be transferred to the ties that exist in groups.
+But we should also like to know whether this kind of object-cathexis, as
+we know it in sexual life, represents the only manner of emotional tie
+with other people, or whether we must take other mechanisms of the sort
+into account. As a matter of fact we learn from psycho-analysis that
+there do exist other mechanisms for emotional ties, the so-called
+_identifications_, insufficiently-known processes and hard to describe,
+the investigation of which will for some time keep us away from the
+subject of Group Psychology.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+IDENTIFICATION
+
+
+Identification is known to psycho-analysis as the earliest expression of
+an emotional tie with another person. It plays a part in the early
+history of the Oedipus complex. A little boy will exhibit a special
+interest in his father; he would like to grow like him and be like him,
+and take his place everywhere. We may say simply that he takes his
+father as his ideal. This behaviour has nothing to do with a passive or
+feminine attitude towards his father (and towards males in general); it
+is on the contrary typically masculine. It fits in very well with the
+Oedipus complex, for which it helps to prepare the way.
+
+At the same time as this identification with his father, or a little
+later, the boy has begun to develop a true object-cathexis towards his
+mother according to the anaclitic type [_Anlehnungstypus_].[38] He then
+exhibits, therefore, two psychologically distinct ties: a
+straightforward sexual object-cathexis towards his mother and a typical
+identification towards his father. The two subsist side by side for a
+time without any mutual influence or interference. In consequence of the
+irresistible advance towards a unification of mental life they come
+together at last; and the normal Oedipus complex originates from their
+confluence. The little boy notices that his father stands in his way
+with his mother. His identification with his father then takes on a
+hostile colouring and becomes identical with the wish to replace his
+father in regard to his mother as well. Identification, in fact, is
+ambivalent from the very first; it can turn into an expression of
+tenderness as easily as into a wish for someone's removal. It behaves
+like a derivative of the first _oral_ phase of the organisation of the
+libido, in which the object that we long for and prize is assimilated by
+eating and is in that way annihilated as such. The cannibal, as we know,
+has remained at this standpoint; he has a devouring affection for his
+enemies and only devours people of whom he is fond.[39]
+
+The subsequent history of this identification with the father may easily
+be lost sight of. It may happen that the Oedipus complex becomes
+inverted, and that the father is taken as the object of a feminine
+attitude, an object from which the directly sexual instincts look for
+satisfaction; in that event the identification with the father has
+become the precursor of an object tie with the father. The same holds
+good, with the necessary substitutions, of the baby daughter as well.
+
+It is easy to state in a formula the distinction between an
+identification with the father and the choice of the father as an
+object. In the first case one's father is what one would like to _be_,
+and in the second he is what one would like to _have_. The distinction,
+that is, depends upon whether the tie attaches to the subject or to the
+object of the ego. The former is therefore already possible before any
+sexual object-choice has been made. It is much more difficult to give a
+clear metapsychological representation of the distinction. We can only
+see that identification endeavours to mould a person's own ego after the
+fashion of the one that has been taken as a 'model'.
+
+Let us disentangle identification as it occurs in the structure of a
+neurotic symptom from its rather complicated connections. Supposing that
+a little girl (and we will keep to her for the present) develops the
+same painful symptom as her mother--for instance, the same tormenting
+cough. Now this may come about in various ways. The identification may
+come from the Oedipus complex; in that case it signifies a hostile
+desire on the girl's part to take her mother's place, and the symptom
+expresses her object love towards her father, and brings about a
+realisation, under the influence of a sense of guilt, of her desire to
+take her mother's place: 'You wanted to be your mother, and now you
+_are_--anyhow as far as the pain goes'. This is the complete mechanism
+of the structure of a hysterical symptom. Or, on the other hand, the
+symptom may be the same as that of the person who is loved--(so, for
+instance, Dora in the 'Bruchstueck einer Hysterieanalyse'[40] imitated
+her father's cough); in that case we can only describe the state of
+things by saying that _identification has appeared instead of
+object-choice, and that object-choice has regressed to identification_.
+We have heard that identification is the earliest and original form of
+emotional tie; it often happens that under the conditions in which
+symptoms are constructed, that is, where there is repression and where
+the mechanisms of the unconscious are dominant, object-choice is turned
+back into identification--the ego, that is, assumes the characteristics
+of the object. It is noticeable that in these identifications the ego
+sometimes copies the person who is not loved and sometimes the one who
+is loved. It must also strike us that in both cases the identification
+is a partial and extremely limited one and only borrows a single trait
+from the person who is its object.
+
+There is a third particularly frequent and important case of symptom
+formation, in which the identification leaves any object relation to the
+person who is being copied entirely out of account. Supposing, for
+instance, that one of the girls in a boarding school has had a letter
+from someone with whom she is secretly in love which arouses her
+jealousy, and that she reacts to it with a fit of hysterics; then some
+of her friends who know about it will contract the fit, as we say, by
+means of mental infection. The mechanism is that of identification based
+upon the possibility or desire of putting oneself in the same
+situation. The other girls would like to have a secret love affair too,
+and under the influence of a sense of guilt they also accept the pain
+involved in it. It would be wrong to suppose that they take on the
+symptom out of sympathy. On the contrary, the sympathy only arises out
+of the identification, and this is proved by the fact that infection or
+imitation of this kind takes place in circumstances where even less
+pre-existing sympathy is to be assumed than usually exists between
+friends in a girls' school. One ego has perceived a significant analogy
+with another upon one point--in our example upon a similar readiness for
+emotion; an identification is thereupon constructed on this point, and,
+under the influence of the pathogenic situation, is displaced on to the
+symptom which the one ego has produced. The identification by means of
+the symptom has thus become the mark of a point of coincidence between
+the two egos which has to be kept repressed.
+
+What we have learned from these three sources may be summarised as
+follows. First, identification is the original form of emotional tie
+with an object; secondly, in a regressive way it becomes a substitute
+for a libidinal object tie, as it were by means of the introjection of
+the object into the ego; and thirdly, it may arise with every new
+perception of a common quality shared with some other person who is not
+an object of the sexual instinct. The more important this common
+quality is, the more successful may this partial identification become,
+and it may thus represent the beginning of a new tie.
+
+We already begin to divine that the mutual tie between members of a
+group is in the nature of an identification of this kind, based upon an
+important emotional common quality; and we may suspect that this common
+quality lies in the nature of the tie with the leader. Another suspicion
+may tell us that we are far from having exhausted the problem of
+identification, and that we are faced by the process which psychology
+calls 'empathy [_Einfuehlung_]' and which plays the largest part in our
+understanding of what is inherently foreign to our ego in other people.
+But we shall here limit ourselves to the immediate emotional effects of
+identification, and shall leave on one side its significance for our
+intellectual life.
+
+Psycho-analytic research, which has already occasionally attacked the
+more difficult problems of the psychoses, has also been able to exhibit
+identification to us in some other cases which are not immediately
+comprehensible. I shall treat two of these cases in detail as material
+for our further consideration.
+
+The genesis of male homosexuality in a large class of cases is as
+follows. A young man has been unusually long and intensely fixated upon
+his mother in the sense of the Oedipus complex. But at last, after the
+end of his puberty, the time comes for exchanging his mother for some
+other sexual object. Things take a sudden turn: the young man does not
+abandon his mother, but identifies himself with her; he transforms
+himself into her, and now looks about for objects which can replace his
+ego for him, and on which he can bestow such love and care as he has
+experienced from his mother. This is a frequent process, which can be
+confirmed as often as one likes, and which is naturally quite
+independent of any hypothesis that may be made as to the organic driving
+force and the motives of the sudden transformation. A striking thing
+about this identification is its ample scale; it remoulds the ego in one
+of its important features--in its sexual character--upon the model of
+what has hitherto been the object. In this process the object itself is
+renounced--whether entirely or in the sense of being preserved only in
+the unconscious is a question outside the present discussion.
+Identification with an object that is renounced or lost as a substitute
+for it, introjection of this object into the ego, is indeed no longer a
+novelty to us. A process of the kind may sometimes be directly observed
+in small children. A short time ago an observation of this sort was
+published in the _Internationale Zeitschrift fuer Psychoanalyse_. A child
+who was unhappy over the loss of a kitten declared straight out that now
+he himself was the kitten, and accordingly crawled about on all fours,
+would not eat at table, etc.[41]
+
+Another such instance of introjection of the object has been provided by
+the analysis of melancholia, an affection which counts among the most
+remarkable of its exciting causes the real or emotional loss of a loved
+object. A leading characteristic of these cases is a cruel
+self-depreciation of the ego combined with relentless self-criticism and
+bitter self-reproaches. Analyses have shown that this disparagement and
+these reproaches apply at bottom to the object and represent the ego's
+revenge upon it. The shadow of the object has fallen upon the ego, as I
+have said elsewhere.[42] The introjection of the object is here
+unmistakably clear.
+
+But these melancholias also show us something else, which may be of
+importance for our later discussions. They show us the ego divided,
+fallen into two pieces, one of which rages against the second. This
+second piece is the one which has been altered by introjection and which
+contains the lost object. But the piece which behaves so cruelly is not
+unknown to us either. It comprises the conscience, a critical faculty
+[_Instanz_][43] within the ego, which even in normal times takes up a
+critical attitude towards the ego, though never so relentlessly and so
+unjustifiably. On previous occasions we have been driven to the
+hypothesis[44] that some such faculty develops in our ego which may cut
+itself off from the rest of the ego and come into conflict with it. We
+have called it the 'ego ideal', and by way of functions we have ascribed
+to it self-observation, the moral conscience, the censorship of dreams,
+and the chief influence in repression. We have said that it is the heir
+to the original narcissism in which the childish ego found its
+self-sufficiency; it gradually gathers up from the influences of the
+environment the demands which that environment makes upon the ego and
+which the ego cannot always rise to; so that a man, when he cannot be
+satisfied with his ego itself, may nevertheless be able to find
+satisfaction in the ego ideal which has been differentiated out of the
+ego. In delusions of observation, as we have further shown, the
+disintegration of this faculty has become patent, and has thus revealed
+its origin in the influence of superior powers, and above all of
+parents.[45] But we have not forgotten to add that the amount of
+distance between this ego ideal and the real ego is very variable from
+one individual to another, and that with many people this
+differentiation within the ego does not go further than with children.
+
+But before we can employ this material for understanding the libidinal
+organisation of groups, we must take into account some other examples of
+the mutual relations between the object and the ego.[46]
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+BEING IN LOVE AND HYPNOSIS
+
+
+Even in its caprices the usage of language remains true to some kind of
+reality. Thus it gives the name of 'love' to a great many kinds of
+emotional relationship which we too group together theoretically as
+love; but then again it feels a doubt whether this love is real, true,
+actual love, and so hints at a whole scale of possibilities within the
+range of the phenomena of love. We shall have no difficulty in making
+the same discovery empirically.
+
+In one class of cases being in love is nothing more than object-cathexis
+on the part of the sexual instincts with a view to directly sexual
+satisfaction, a cathexis which expires, moreover, when this aim has been
+reached; this is what is called common, sensual love. But, as we know,
+the libidinal situation rarely remains so simple. It was possible to
+calculate with certainty upon the revival of the need which had just
+expired; and this must no doubt have been the first motive for
+directing a lasting cathexis upon the sexual object and for 'loving' it
+in the passionless intervals as well.
+
+To this must be added another factor derived from the astonishing course
+of development which is pursued by the erotic life of man. In his first
+phase, which has usually come to an end by the time he is five years
+old, a child has found the first object for his love in one or other of
+his parents, and all of his sexual instincts with their demand for
+satisfaction have been united upon this object. The repression which
+then sets in compels him to renounce the greater number of these
+infantile sexual aims, and leaves behind a profound modification in his
+relation to his parents. The child still remains tied to his parents,
+but by instincts which must be described as being 'inhibited in their
+aim [_zielgehemmte_]'. The emotions which he feels henceforward towards
+these objects of his love are characterized as 'tender'. It is well
+known that the earlier 'sensual' tendencies remain more or less strongly
+preserved in the unconscious, so that in a certain sense the whole of
+the original current continues to exist.[47]
+
+At puberty, as we know, there set in new and very strong tendencies with
+directly sexual aims. In unfavourable cases they remain separate, in the
+form of a sensual current, from the 'tender' emotional trends which
+persist. We are then faced by a picture the two aspects of which certain
+movements in literature take such delight in idealising. A man of this
+kind will show a sentimental enthusiasm for women whom he deeply
+respects but who do not excite him to sexual activities, and he will
+only be potent with other women whom he does not 'love' but thinks
+little of or even despises.[48] More often, however, the adolescent
+succeeds in bringing about a certain degree of synthesis between the
+unsensual, heavenly love and the sensual, earthly love, and his relation
+to his sexual object is characterised by the interaction of uninhibited
+instincts and of instincts inhibited in their aim. The depth to which
+anyone is in love, as contrasted with his purely sensual desire, may be
+measured by the size of the share taken by the inhibited instincts of
+tenderness.
+
+In connection with this question of being in love we have always been
+struck by the phenomenon of sexual over-estimation--the fact that the
+loved object enjoys a certain amount of freedom from criticism, and that
+all its characteristics are valued more highly than those of people who
+are not loved, or than its own were at a time when it itself was not
+loved. If the sensual tendencies are somewhat more effectively
+repressed or set aside, the illusion is produced that the object has
+come to be sensually loved on account of its spiritual merits, whereas
+on the contrary these merits may really only have been lent to it by its
+sensual charm.
+
+The tendency which falsifies judgement in this respect is that of
+_idealisation_. But this makes it easier for us to find our way about.
+We see that the object is being treated in the same way as our own ego,
+so that when we are in love a considerable amount of narcissistic libido
+overflows on to the object. It is even obvious, in many forms of love
+choice, that the object serves as a substitute for some unattained ego
+ideal of our own. We love it on account of the perfections which we have
+striven to reach for our own ego, and which we should now like to
+procure in this roundabout way as a means of satisfying our narcissism.
+
+If the sexual over-estimation and the being in love increase even
+further, then the interpretation of the picture becomes still more
+unmistakable. The tendencies whose trend is towards directly sexual
+satisfaction may now be pushed back entirely, as regularly happens, for
+instance, with the young man's sentimental passion; the ego becomes more
+and more unassuming and modest, and the object more and more sublime and
+precious, until at last it gets possession of the entire self-love of
+the ego, whose self-sacrifice thus follows as a natural consequence. The
+object has, so to speak, consumed the ego. Traits of humility, of the
+limitation of narcissism, and of self-injury occur in every case of
+being in love; in the extreme case they are only intensified, and as a
+result of the withdrawal of the sensual claims they remain in solitary
+supremacy.
+
+This happens especially easily with love that is unhappy and cannot be
+satisfied; for in spite of everything each sexual satisfaction always
+involves a reduction in sexual over-estimation. Contemporaneously with
+this 'devotion' of the ego to the object, which is no longer to be
+distinguished from a sublimated devotion to an abstract idea, the
+functions allotted to the ego ideal entirely cease to operate. The
+criticism exercised by that faculty is silent; everything that the
+object does and asks for is right and blameless. Conscience has no
+application to anything that is done for the sake of the object; in the
+blindness of love remorselessness is carried to the pitch of crime. The
+whole situation can be completely summarised in a formula: _The object
+has taken the place of the ego ideal._
+
+It is now easy to define the distinction between identification and such
+extreme developments of being in love as may be described as fascination
+or infatuation. In the former case the ego has enriched itself with the
+properties of the object, it has 'introjected' the object into itself,
+as Ferenczi expresses it. In the second case it is impoverished, it has
+surrendered itself to the object, it has substituted the object for its
+most important constituent. Closer consideration soon makes it plain,
+however, that this kind of account creates an illusion of
+contradistinctions that have no real existence. Economically there is no
+question of impoverishment or enrichment; it is even possible to
+describe an extreme case of being in love as a state in which the ego
+has introjected the object into itself. Another distinction is perhaps
+better calculated to meet the essence of the matter. In the case of
+identification the object has been lost or given up; it is then set up
+again inside the ego, and the ego makes a partial alteration in itself
+after the model of the lost object. In the other case the object is
+retained, and there is a hyper-cathexis of it by the ego and at the
+ego's expense. But here again a difficulty presents itself. Is it quite
+certain that identification presupposes that object-cathexis has been
+given up? Can there be no identification with the object retained? And
+before we embark upon a discussion of this delicate question, the
+perception may already be beginning to dawn on us that yet another
+alternative embraces the real essence of the matter, namely, _whether
+the object is put in the place of the ego or of the ego ideal_.
+
+From being in love to hypnosis is evidently only a short step. The
+respects in which the two agree are obvious. There is the same humble
+subjection, the same compliance, the same absence of criticism, towards
+the hypnotist just as towards the loved object. There is the same
+absorption of one's own initiative; no one can doubt that the hypnotist
+has stepped into the place of the ego ideal. It is only that everything
+is even clearer and more intense in hypnosis, so that it would be more
+to the point to explain being in love by means of hypnosis than the
+other way round. The hypnotist is the sole object, and no attention is
+paid to any but him. The fact that the ego experiences in a dream-like
+way whatever he may request or assert reminds us that we omitted to
+mention among the functions of the ego ideal the business of testing the
+reality of things.[49] No wonder that the ego takes a perception for
+real if its reality is vouched for by the mental faculty which
+ordinarily discharges the duty of testing the reality of things. The
+complete absence of tendencies which are uninhibited in their sexual
+aims contributes further towards the extreme purity of the phenomena.
+The hypnotic relation is the devotion of someone in love to an unlimited
+degree but with sexual satisfaction excluded; whereas in the case of
+being in love this kind of satisfaction is only temporarily kept back,
+and remains in the background as a possible aim at some later time.
+
+But on the other hand we may also say that the hypnotic relation is (if
+the expression is permissible) a group formation with two members.
+Hypnosis is not a good object for comparison with a group formation,
+because it is truer to say that it is identical with it. Out of the
+complicated fabric of the group it isolates one element for us--the
+behaviour of the individual to the leader. Hypnosis is distinguished
+from a group formation by this limitation of number, just as it is
+distinguished from being in love by the absence of directly sexual
+tendencies. In this respect it occupies a middle position between the
+two.
+
+It is interesting to see that it is precisely those sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims which achieve such lasting ties between
+men. But this can easily be understood from the fact that they are not
+capable of complete satisfaction, while sexual tendencies which are
+uninhibited in their aims suffer an extraordinary reduction through the
+discharge of energy every time the sexual aim is attained. It is the
+fate of sensual love to become extinguished when it is satisfied; for it
+to be able to last, it must from the first be mixed with purely tender
+components--with such, that is, as are inhibited in their aims--or it
+must itself undergo a transformation of this kind.
+
+Hypnosis would solve the riddle of the libidinal constitution of groups
+for us straight away, if it were not that it itself exhibits some
+features which are not met by the rational explanation we have hitherto
+given of it as a state of being in love with the directly sexual
+tendencies excluded. There is still a great deal in it which we must
+recognise as unexplained and mystical. It contains an additional element
+of paralysis derived from the relation between someone with superior
+power and someone who is without power and helpless--which may afford a
+transition to the hypnosis of terror which occurs in animals. The manner
+in which it is produced and its relationship to sleep are not clear; and
+the puzzling way in which some people are subject to it, while others
+resist it completely, points to some factor still unknown which is
+realised in it and which perhaps alone makes possible the purity of the
+attitudes of the libido which it exhibits. It is noticeable that, even
+when there is complete suggestive compliance in other respects, the
+moral conscience of the person hypnotized may show resistance. But this
+may be due to the fact that in hypnosis as it is usually practised some
+knowledge may be retained that what is happening is only a game, an
+untrue reproduction of another situation of far more importance to life.
+
+But after the preceding discussions we are quite in a position to give
+the formula for the libidinal constitution of groups: or at least of
+such groups as we have hitherto considered, namely, those that have a
+leader and have not been able by means of too much 'organisation' to
+acquire secondarily the characteristics of an individual. _A primary
+group of this kind is a number of individuals who have substituted one
+and the same object for their ego ideal and have consequently identified
+themselves with one another in their ego._ This condition admits of
+graphic representation:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+THE HERD INSTINCT
+
+
+We cannot for long enjoy the illusion that we have solved the riddle of
+the group with this formula. It is impossible to escape the immediate
+and disturbing recollection that all we have really done has been to
+shift the question on to the riddle of hypnosis, about which so many
+points have yet to be cleared up. And now another objection shows us our
+further path.
+
+It might be said that the intense emotional ties which we observe in
+groups are quite sufficient to explain one of their characteristics--the
+lack of independence and initiative in their members, the similarity in
+the reactions of all of them, their reduction, so to speak, to the level
+of group individuals. But if we look at it as a whole, a group shows us
+more than this. Some of its features--the weakness of intellectual
+ability, the lack of emotional restraint, the incapacity for moderation
+and delay, the inclination to exceed every limit in the expression of
+emotion and to work it off completely in the form of action--these and
+similar features, which we find so impressively described in Le Bon,
+show an unmistakable picture of a regression of mental activity to an
+earlier stage such as we are not surprised to find among savages or
+children. A regression of this sort is in particular an essential
+characteristic of common groups, while, as we have heard, in organized
+and artificial groups it can to a large extent be checked.
+
+We thus have an impression of a state in which an individual's separate
+emotion and personal intellectual act are too weak to come to anything
+by themselves and are absolutely obliged to wait till they are
+reinforced through being repeated in a similar way in the other members
+of the group. We are reminded of how many of these phenomena of
+dependence are part of the normal constitution of human society, of how
+little originality and personal courage are to be found in it, of how
+much every individual is ruled by those attitudes of the group mind
+which exhibit themselves in such forms as racial characteristics, class
+prejudices, public opinion, etc. The influence of suggestion becomes a
+greater riddle for us when we admit that it is not exercised only by the
+leader, but by every individual upon every other individual; and we must
+reproach ourselves with having unfairly emphasized the relation to the
+leader and with having kept the other factor of mutual suggestion too
+much in the background.
+
+After this encouragement to modesty, we shall be inclined to listen to
+another voice, which promises us an explanation based upon simpler
+grounds. Such a one is to be found in Trotter's thoughtful book upon the
+herd instinct, concerning which my only regret is that it does not
+entirely escape the antipathies that were set loose by the recent great
+war.[50]
+
+Trotter derives the mental phenomena that are described as occurring in
+groups from a herd instinct ('gregariousness'), which is innate in human
+beings just as in other species of animals. Biologically this
+gregariousness is an analogy to multicellularity and as it were a
+continuation of it. From the standpoint of the libido theory it is a
+further manifestation of the inclination, which proceeds from the
+libido, and which is felt by all living beings of the same kind, to
+combine in more and more comprehensive units.[51] The individual feels
+'incomplete' if he is alone. The dread shown by small children would
+seem already to be an expression of this herd instinct. Opposition to
+the herd is as good as separation from it, and is therefore anxiously
+avoided. But the herd turns away from anything that is new or unusual.
+The herd instinct would appear to be something primary, something
+'which cannot be split up'.
+
+Trotter gives as the list of instincts which he considers as primary
+those of self-preservation, of nutrition, of sex, and of the herd. The
+last often comes into opposition with the others. The feelings of guilt
+and of duty are the peculiar possessions of a gregarious animal. Trotter
+also derives from the herd instinct the repressive forces which
+psycho-analysis has shown to exist in the ego, and from the same source
+accordingly the resistances which the physician comes up against in
+psycho-analytic treatment. Speech owes its importance to its aptitude
+for mutual understanding in the herd, and upon it the identification of
+the individuals with one another largely rests.
+
+While Le Bon is principally concerned with typical transient group
+formations, and McDougall with stable associations, Trotter has chosen
+as the centre of his interest the most generalised form of assemblage in
+which man, that [Greek: zoon politikon], passes his life, and he gives
+us its psychological basis. But Trotter is under no necessity of tracing
+back the herd instinct, for he characterizes it as primary and not
+further reducible. Boris Sidis's attempt, to which he refers, at tracing
+the herd instinct back to suggestibility is fortunately superfluous as
+far as he is concerned; it is an explanation of a familiar and
+unsatisfactory type, and the converse proposition--that suggestibility
+is a derivative of the herd instinct--would seem to me to throw far more
+light on the subject.
+
+But Trotter's exposition, with even more justice than the others', is
+open to the objection that it takes too little account of the leader's
+part in a group, while we incline rather to the opposite judgement, that
+it is impossible to grasp the nature of a group if the leader is
+disregarded. The herd instinct leaves no room at all for the leader; he
+is merely thrown in along with the herd, almost by chance; it follows,
+too, that no path leads from this instinct to the need for a God; the
+herd is without a herdsman. But besides this Trotter's exposition can be
+undermined psychologically; that is to say, it can be made at all events
+probable that the herd instinct is not irreducible, that it is not
+primary in the same sense as the instinct of self-preservation and the
+sexual instinct.
+
+It is naturally no easy matter to trace the ontogenesis of the herd
+instinct. The dread which is shown by small children when they are left
+alone, and which Trotter claims as being already a manifestation of the
+instinct, nevertheless suggests more readily another interpretation. The
+dread relates to the child's mother, and later to other familiar
+persons, and it is the expression of an unfulfilled desire, which the
+child does not yet know how to deal with in any way except by turning
+it into dread.[52] Nor is the child's dread when it is alone pacified by
+the sight of any haphazard 'member of the herd', but on the contrary it
+is only brought into existence by the approach of a 'stranger' of this
+sort. Then for a long time nothing in the nature of herd instinct or
+group feeling is to be observed in children. Something like it grows up
+first of all, in a nursery containing many children, out of the
+children's relation to their parents, and it does so as a reaction to
+the initial envy with which the elder child receives the younger one.
+The elder child would certainly like to put its successor jealously
+aside, to keep it away from the parents, and to rob it of all its
+privileges; but in face of the fact that this child (like all that come
+later) is loved by the parents in just the same way, and in consequence
+of the impossibility of maintaining its hostile attitude without
+damaging itself, it is forced into identifying itself with the other
+children. So there grows up in the troop of children a communal or group
+feeling, which is then further developed at school. The first demand
+made by this reaction-formation is for justice, for equal treatment for
+all. We all know how loudly and implacably this claim is put forward at
+school. If one cannot be the favourite oneself, at all events nobody
+else shall be the favourite. This transformation--the replacing of
+jealousy by a group feeling in the nursery and classroom--might be
+considered improbable, if the same process could not later on be
+observed again in other circumstances. We have only to think of the
+troop of women and girls, all of them in love in an enthusiastically
+sentimental way, who crowd round a singer or pianist after his
+performance. It would certainly be easy for each of them to be jealous
+of the rest; but, in face of their numbers and the consequent
+impossibility of their reaching the aim of their love, they renounce it,
+and, instead of pulling out one another's hair, they act as a united
+group, do homage to the hero of the occasion with their common actions,
+and would probably be glad to have a share of his flowing locks.
+Originally rivals, they have succeeded in identifying themselves with
+one another by means of a similar love for the same object. When, as is
+usual, a situation in the field of the instincts is capable of various
+outcomes, we need not be surprised if the actual outcome is one which
+involves the possibility of a certain amount of satisfaction, while
+another, even though in itself more obvious, is passed over because the
+circumstances of life prevent its attaining this aim.
+
+What appears later on in society in the shape of _Gemeingeist_, _esprit
+de corps_, 'group spirit', etc., does not belie its derivation from what
+was originally envy. No one must want to put himself forward, every one
+must be the same and have the same. Social justice means that we deny
+ourselves many things so that others may have to do without them as
+well, or, what is the same thing, may not be able to ask for them. This
+demand for equality is the root of social conscience and the sense of
+duty. It reveals itself unexpectedly in the syphilitic's dread of
+infecting other people, which psycho-analysis has taught us to
+understand. The dread exhibited by these poor wretches corresponds to
+their violent struggles against the unconscious wish to spread their
+infection on to other people; for why should they alone be infected and
+cut off from so much? why not other people as well? And the same germ is
+to be found in the pretty anecdote of the judgement of Solomon. If one
+woman's child is dead, the other shall not have a live one either. The
+bereaved woman is recognized by this wish.
+
+Thus social feeling is based upon the reversal of what was first a
+hostile feeling into a positively-toned tie of the nature of an
+identification. So far as we have hitherto been able to follow the
+course of events, this reversal appears to be effected under the
+influence of a common tender tie with a person outside the group. We do
+not ourselves regard our analysis of identification as exhaustive, but
+it is enough for our present purpose that we should revert to this one
+feature--its demand that equalization shall be consistently carried
+through. We have already heard in the discussion of the two artificial
+groups, church and army, that their preliminary condition is that all
+their members should be loved in the same way by one person, the leader.
+Do not let us forget, however, that the demand for equality in a group
+applies only to its members and not to the leader. All the members must
+be equal to one another, but they all want to be ruled by one person.
+Many equals, who can identify themselves with one another, and a single
+person superior to them all--that is the situation that we find realised
+in groups which are capable of subsisting. Let us venture, then, to
+correct Trotter's pronouncement that man is a herd animal and assert
+that he is rather a horde animal, an individual creature in a horde led
+by a chief.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+THE GROUP AND THE PRIMAL HORDE
+
+
+In 1912 I took up a conjecture of Darwin's to the effect that the
+primitive form of human society was that of a horde ruled over
+despotically by a powerful male. I attempted to show that the fortunes
+of this horde have left indestructible traces upon the history of human
+descent; and, especially, that the development of totemism, which
+comprises in itself the beginnings of religion, morality, and social
+organisation, is connected with the killing of the chief by violence and
+the transformation of the paternal horde into a community of
+brothers.[53] To be sure, this is only a hypothesis, like so many others
+with which archaeologists endeavour to lighten the darkness of
+prehistoric times--a 'Just-So Story', as it was amusingly called by a
+not unkind critic (Kroeger); but I think it is creditable to such a
+hypothesis if it proves able to bring coherence and understanding into
+more and more new regions.
+
+Human groups exhibit once again the familiar picture of an individual of
+superior strength among a troop of similar companions, a picture which
+is also contained in our idea of the primal horde. The psychology of
+such a group, as we know it from the descriptions to which we have so
+often referred--the dwindling of the conscious individual personality,
+the focussing of thoughts and feelings into a common direction, the
+predominance of the emotions and of the unconscious mental life, the
+tendency to the immediate carrying out of intentions as they emerge--all
+this corresponds to a state of regression to a primitive mental
+activity, of just such a sort as we should be inclined to ascribe to the
+primal horde.[54]
+
+Thus the group appears to us as a revival of the primal horde. Just as
+primitive man virtually survives in every individual, so the primal
+horde may arise once more out of any random crowd; in so far as men are
+habitually under the sway of group formation we recognise in it the
+survival of the primal horde. We must conclude that the psychology of
+the group is the oldest human psychology; what we have isolated as
+individual psychology, by neglecting all traces of the group, has only
+since come into prominence out of the old group psychology, by a gradual
+process which may still, perhaps, be described as incomplete. We shall
+later venture upon an attempt at specifying the point of departure of
+this development.
+
+Further reflection will show us in what respect this statement requires
+correction. Individual psychology must, on the contrary, be just as old
+as group psychology, for from the first there were two kinds of
+psychologies, that of the individual members of the group and that of
+the father, chief, or leader. The members of the group were subject to
+ties just as we see them to-day, but the father of the primal horde was
+free. His intellectual acts were strong and independent even in
+isolation, and his will needed no reinforcement from others. Consistency
+leads us to assume that his ego had few libidinal ties; he loved no one
+but himself, or other people only in so far as they served his needs. To
+objects his ego gave away no more than was barely necessary.
+
+He, at the very beginning of the history of mankind, was the _Superman_
+whom Nietzsche only expected from the future. Even to-day the members of
+a group stand in need of the illusion that they are equally and justly
+loved by their leader; but the leader himself need love no one else, he
+may be of a masterly nature, absolutely narcissistic, but self-confident
+and independent. We know that love puts a check upon narcissism, and it
+would be possible to show how, by operating in this way, it became a
+factor of civilisation.
+
+The primal father of the horde was not yet immortal, as he later became
+by deification. If he died, he had to be replaced; his place was
+probably taken by a youngest son, who had up to then been a member of
+the group like any other. There must therefore be a possibility of
+transforming group psychology into individual psychology; a condition
+must be discovered under which such a transformation is easily
+accomplished, just as it is possible for bees in case of necessity to
+turn a larva into a queen instead of into a worker. One can imagine only
+one possibility: the primal father had prevented his sons from
+satisfying their directly sexual tendencies; he forced them into
+abstinence and consequently into the emotional ties with him and with
+one another which could arise out of those of their tendencies that were
+inhibited in their sexual aim. He forced them, so to speak, into group
+psychology. His sexual jealousy and intolerance became in the last
+resort the causes of group psychology.[55]
+
+Whoever became his successor was also given the possibility of sexual
+satisfaction, and was by that means offered a way out of the conditions
+of group psychology. The fixation of the libido to woman and the
+possibility of satisfaction without any need for delay or accumulation
+made and end of the importance of those of his sexual tendencies that
+were inhibited in their aim, and allowed his narcissism always to rise
+to its full height. We shall return in a postscript to this connection
+between love and character formation.
+
+We may further emphasize, as being specially instructive, the relation
+that holds between the contrivance by means of which an artificial group
+is held together and the constitution of the primal horde. We have seen
+that with an army and a church this contrivance is the illusion that
+the leader loves all of the individuals equally and justly. But this is
+simply an idealistic remodelling of the state of affairs in the primal
+horde, where all of the sons knew that they were equally persecuted by
+the primal father, and feared him equally. This same recasting upon
+which all social duties are built up is already presupposed by the next
+form of human society, the totemistic clan. The indestructible strength
+of the family as a natural group formation rests upon the fact that this
+necessary presupposition of the father's equal love can have a real
+application in the family.
+
+But we expect even more of this derivation of the group from the primal
+horde. It ought also to help us to understand what is still
+incomprehensible and mysterious in group formations--all that lies
+hidden behind the enigmatic words hypnosis and suggestion. And I think
+it can succeed in this too. Let us recall that hypnosis has something
+positively uncanny about it; but the characteristic of uncanniness
+suggests something old and familiar that has undergone repression.[56]
+Let us consider how hypnosis is induced. The hypnotist asserts that he
+is in possession of a mysterious power which robs the subject of his own
+will, or, which is the same thing, the subject believes it of him. This
+mysterious power (which is even now often described popularly as animal
+magnetism) must be the same that is looked upon by primitive people as
+the source of taboo, the same that emanates from kings and chieftains
+and makes it dangerous to approach them (_mana_). The hypnotist, then,
+is supposed to be in possession of this power; and how does he manifest
+it? By telling the subject to look him in the eyes; his most typical
+method of hypnotising is by his look. But it is precisely the sight of
+the chieftain that is dangerous and unbearable for primitive people,
+just as later that of the Godhead is for mortals. Even Moses had to act
+as an intermediary between his people and Jehovah, since the people
+could not support the sight of God; and when he returned from the
+presence of God his face shone--some of the _mana_ had been transferred
+on to him, just as happens with the intermediary among primitive
+people.[57]
+
+It is true that hypnosis can also be evoked in other ways, for instance
+by fixing the eyes upon a bright object or by listening to a monotonous
+sound. This is misleading and has given occasion to inadequate
+physiological theories. As a matter of fact these procedures merely
+serve to divert conscious attention and to hold it riveted. The
+situation is the same as if the hypnotist had said to the subject: 'Now
+concern yourself exclusively with my person; the rest of the world is
+quite uninteresting.' It would of course be technically inexpedient for
+a hypnotist to make such a speech; it would tear the subject away from
+his unconscious attitude and stimulate him to conscious opposition. The
+hypnotist avoids directing the subject's conscious thoughts towards his
+own intentions, and makes the person upon whom he is experimenting sink
+into an activity in which the world is bound to seem uninteresting to
+him; but at the same time the subject is in reality unconsciously
+concentrating his whole attention upon the hypnotist, and is getting
+into an attitude of _rapport_, of transference on to him. Thus the
+indirect methods of hypnotising, like many of the technical procedures
+used in making jokes, have the effect of checking certain distributions
+of mental energy which would interfere with the course of events in the
+unconscious, and they lead eventually to the same result as the direct
+methods of influence by means of staring or stroking.[58]
+
+Ferenczi has made the true discovery that when a hypnotist gives the
+command to sleep, which is often done at the beginning of hypnosis, he
+is putting himself in the place of the subject's parents. He thinks that
+two sorts of hypnosis are to be distinguished: one coaxing and soothing,
+which he considers is modelled upon the mother, and another threatening,
+which is derived from the father.[59] Now the command to sleep in
+hypnosis means nothing more nor less than an order to withdraw all
+interest from the world and to concentrate it upon the person of the
+hypnotist. And it is so understood by the subject; for in this
+withdrawal of interest from the outer world lies the psychological
+characteristic of sleep, and the kinship between sleep and the state of
+hypnosis is based upon it.
+
+By the measures that he takes, then, the hypnotist awakens in the
+subject a portion of his archaic inheritance which had also made him
+compliant towards his parents and which had experienced an individual
+re-animation in his relation to his father; what is thus awakened is the
+idea of a paramount and dangerous personality, towards whom only a
+passive-masochistic attitude is possible, to whom one's will has to be
+surrendered,--while to be alone with him, 'to look him in the face',
+appears a hazardous enterprise. It is only in some such way as this that
+we can picture the relation of the individual member of the primal horde
+to the primal father. As we know from other reactions, individuals have
+preserved a variable degree of personal aptitude for reviving old
+situations of this kind. Some knowledge that in spite of everything
+hypnosis is only a game, a deceptive renewal of these old impressions,
+may however remain behind and take care that there is a resistance
+against any too serious consequences of the suspension of the will in
+hypnosis.
+
+The uncanny and coercive characteristics of group formations, which are
+shown in their suggestion phenomena, may therefore with justice be
+traced back to the fact of their origin from the primal horde. The
+leader of the group is still the dreaded primal father; the group still
+wishes to be governed by unrestricted force; it has an extreme passion
+for authority; in Le Bon's phrase, it has a thirst for obedience. The
+primal father is the group ideal, which governs the ego in the place of
+the ego ideal. Hypnosis has a good claim to being described as a group
+of two; there remains as a definition for suggestion--a conviction which
+is not based upon perception and reasoning but upon an erotic tie.[60]
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+A DIFFERENTIATING GRADE IN THE EGO
+
+
+If we survey the life of an individual man of to-day, bearing in mind
+the mutually complementary accounts of group psychology given by the
+authorities, we may lose the courage, in face of the complications that
+are revealed, to attempt a comprehensive exposition. Each individual is
+a component part of numerous groups, he is bound by ties of
+identification in many directions, and he has built up his ego ideal
+upon the most various models. Each individual therefore has a share in
+numerous group minds--those of his race, of his class, of his creed, of
+his nationality, etc.--and he can also raise himself above them to the
+extent of having a scrap of independence and originality. Such stable
+and lasting group formations, with their uniform and constant effects,
+are less striking to an observer than the rapidly formed and transient
+groups from which Le Bon has made his brilliant psychological character
+sketch of the group mind. And it is just in these noisy ephemeral
+groups, which are as it were superimposed upon the others, that we are
+met by the prodigy of the complete, even though only temporary,
+disappearance of exactly what we have recognized as individual
+acquirements.
+
+We have interpreted this prodigy as meaning that the individual gives up
+his ego ideal and substitutes for it the group ideal as embodied in the
+leader. And we must add by way of correction that the prodigy is not
+equally great in every case. In many individuals the separation between
+the ego and the ego ideal is not very far advanced; the two still
+coincide readily; the ego has often preserved its earlier
+self-complacency. The selection of the leader is very much facilitated
+by this circumstance. He need only possess the typical qualities of the
+individuals concerned in a particularly clearly marked and pure form,
+and need only give an impression of greater force and of more freedom of
+libido; and in that case the need for a strong chief will often meet him
+half-way and invest him with a predominance to which he would otherwise
+perhaps have had no claim. The other members of the group, whose ego
+ideal would not, apart from this, have become embodied in his person
+without some correction, are then carried away with the rest by
+'suggestion', that is to say, by means of identification.
+
+We are aware that what we have been able to contribute towards the
+explanation of the libidinal structure of groups leads back to the
+distinction between the ego and the ego ideal and to the double kind of
+tie which this makes possible--identification, and substitution of the
+object for the ego ideal. The assumption of this kind of differentiating
+grade [_Stufe_] in the ego as a first step in an analysis of the ego
+must gradually establish its justification in the most various regions
+of psychology. In my paper 'Zur Einfuehrung des Narzissmus' I have put
+together all the pathological material that could at the moment be used
+in support of this separation. But it may be expected that when we
+penetrate deeper into the psychology of the psychoses its significance
+will be discovered to be far greater. Let us reflect that the ego now
+appears in the relation of an object to the ego ideal which has been
+developed out of it, and that all the interplay between an outer object
+and the ego as a whole, with which our study of the neuroses has made us
+acquainted, may possibly be repeated upon this new scene of action
+inside the ego.
+
+In this place I shall only follow up one of the consequences which seem
+possible from this point of view, thus resuming the discussion of a
+problem which I was obliged to leave unsolved elsewhere.[61] Each of the
+mental differentiations that we have become acquainted with represents a
+fresh aggravation of the difficulties of mental functioning, increases
+its instability, and may become the starting-point for its breakdown,
+that is, for the onset of a disease. Thus, by being born we have made
+the step from an absolutely self-sufficient narcissism to the perception
+of a changing outer world and to the beginnings of the discovery of
+objects. And with this is associated the fact that we cannot endure the
+new state of things for long, that we periodically revert from it, in
+our sleep, to our former condition of absence of stimulation and
+avoidance of objects. It is true, however, that in this we are following
+a hint from the outer world, which, by means of the periodical change of
+day and night, temporarily withdraws the greater part of the stimuli
+that affect us. The second example, which is pathologically more
+important, is not subject to any such qualification. In the course of
+our development we have effected a separation of our mental existence
+into a coherent ego and into an unconscious and repressed portion which
+is left outside it; and we know that the stability of this new
+acquisition is exposed to constant shocks. In dreams and in neuroses
+what is thus excluded knocks for admission at the gates, guarded though
+they are by resistances; and in our waking health we make use of special
+artifices for allowing what is repressed to circumvent the resistances
+and for receiving it temporarily into our ego to the increase of our
+pleasure. Wit and humour, and to some extent the comic in general, may
+be regarded in this light. Everyone acquainted with the psychology of
+the neuroses will think of similar examples of less importance; but I
+hasten on to the application I have in view.
+
+It is quite conceivable that the separation of the ego ideal from the
+ego cannot be borne for long either, and has to be temporarily undone.
+In all renunciations and limitations imposed upon the ego a periodical
+infringement of the prohibition is the rule; this indeed is shown by the
+institution of festivals, which in origin are nothing more nor less than
+excesses provided by law and which owe their cheerful character to the
+release which they bring.[62] The Saturnalia of the Romans and our
+modern carnival agree in this essential feature with the festivals of
+primitive people, which usually end in debaucheries of every kind and
+the transgression of what are at other times the most sacred
+commandments. But the ego ideal comprises the sum of all the limitations
+in which the ego has to acquiesce, and for that reason the abrogation of
+the ideal would necessarily be a magnificent festival for the ego, which
+might then once again feel satisfied with itself.[63]
+
+There is always a feeling of triumph when something in the ego coincides
+with the ego ideal. And the sense of guilt (as well as the sense of
+inferiority) can also be understood as an expression of tension between
+the ego and the ego ideal.
+
+It is well known that there are people the general colour of whose mood
+oscillates periodically from an excessive depression through some kind
+of intermediate state to an exalted sense of well-being. These
+oscillations appear in very different degrees of amplitude, from what is
+just noticeable to those extreme instances which, in the shape of
+melancholia and mania, make the most painful or disturbing inroads upon
+the life of the person concerned. In typical cases of this cyclical
+depression outer exciting causes do not seem to play any decisive part;
+as regards inner motives, nothing more (or nothing different) is to be
+found in these patients than in all others. It has consequently become
+the custom to consider these cases as not being psychogenic. We shall
+refer later on to those other exactly similar cases of cyclical
+depression which can nevertheless easily be traced back to mental
+traumata.
+
+Thus the foundation of these spontaneous oscillations of mood is
+unknown; we are without insight into the mechanism of the displacement
+of a melancholia by a mania. So we are free to suppose that these
+patients are people in whom our conjecture might find an actual
+application--their ego ideal might be temporarily resolved into their
+ego after having previously ruled it with especial strictness.
+
+Let us keep to what is clear: On the basis of our analysis of the ego it
+cannot be doubted that in cases of mania the ego and the ego ideal have
+fused together, so that the person, in a mood of triumph and
+self-satisfaction, disturbed by no self-criticism, can enjoy the
+abolition of his inhibitions, his feelings of consideration for others,
+and his self-reproaches. It is not so obvious, but nevertheless very
+probable, that the misery of the melancholiac is the expression of a
+sharp conflict between the two faculties of his ego, a conflict in which
+the ideal, in an excess of sensitiveness, relentlessly exhibits its
+condemnation of the ego in delusions of inferiority and in
+self-depreciation. The only question is whether we are to look for the
+causes of these altered relations between the ego and the ego ideal in
+the periodic rebellions, which we have postulated above, against the new
+institution, or whether we are to make other circumstances responsible
+for them.
+
+A change into mania is not an indispensable feature of the
+symptomatology of melancholic depression. There are simple melancholias,
+some in single and some in recurring attacks, which never show this
+development. On the other hand there are melancholias in which the
+exciting cause clearly plays an aetiological part. They are those which
+occur after the loss of a loved object, whether by death or as a result
+of circumstances which have necessitated the withdrawal of the libido
+from the object. A psychogenic melancholia of this sort can end in
+mania, and this cycle can be repeated several times, just as easily as
+in a case which appears to be spontaneous. Thus the state of things is
+somewhat obscure, especially as only a few forms and cases of
+melancholia have been submitted to psycho-analytical investigation.[64]
+So far we only understand those cases in which the object is given up
+because it has shown itself unworthy of love. It is then set up again
+inside the ego, by means of identification, and severely condemned by
+the ego ideal. The reproaches and attacks directed towards the object
+come to light in the shape of melancholic self-reproaches.[65]
+
+A melancholia of this kind may also end in a change to mania; so that
+the possibility of this happening represents a feature which is
+independent of the other characteristics in the symptomatology.
+
+Nevertheless I see no difficulty in assigning to the factor of the
+periodical rebellion of the ego against the ego ideal a share in both
+kinds of melancholia, the psychogenic as well as the spontaneous. In the
+spontaneous kind it may be supposed that the ego ideal is inclined to
+display a peculiar strictness, which then results automatically in its
+temporary suspension. In the psychogenic kind the ego would be incited
+to rebellion by ill-treatment on the part of its ideal--an ill-treatment
+which it encounters when there has been identification with a rejected
+object.
+
+
+
+
+XII
+
+POSTSCRIPT
+
+
+In the course of the enquiry which has just been brought to a
+provisional end we came across a number of side-paths which we avoided
+pursuing in the first instance but in which there was much that offered
+us promises of insight. We propose now to take up a few of the points
+that have been left on one side in this way.
+
+A. The distinction between identification of the ego with an object and
+replacement of the ego ideal by an object finds an interesting
+illustration in the two great artificial groups which we began by
+studying, the army and the Christian church.
+
+It is obvious that a soldier takes his superior, that is, really, the
+leader of the army, as his ideal, while he identifies himself with his
+equals, and derives from this community of their egos the obligations
+for giving mutual help and for sharing possessions which comradeship
+implies. But he becomes ridiculous if he tries to identify himself with
+the general. The soldier in _Wallensteins Lager_ laughs at the sergeant
+for this very reason:
+
+    Wie er raeuspert und wie er spuckt,
+    Das habt ihr ihm gluecklich abgeguckt![66]
+
+It is otherwise in the Catholic Church. Every Christian loves Christ as
+his ideal and feels himself united with all other Christians by the tie
+of identification. But the Church requires more of him. He has also to
+identify himself with Christ and love all other Christians as Christ
+loved them. At both points, therefore, the Church requires that the
+position of the libido which is given by a group formation should be
+supplemented. Identification has to be added where object-choice has
+taken place, and object love where there is identification. This
+addition evidently goes beyond the constitution of the group. One can be
+a good Christian and yet be far from the idea of putting oneself in
+Christ's place and of having like him an all-embracing love for mankind.
+One need not think oneself capable, weak mortal that one is, of the
+Saviour's largeness of soul and strength of love. But this further
+development in the distribution of libido in the group is probably the
+factor upon which Christianity bases its claim to have reached a higher
+ethical level.
+
+B. We have said that it would be possible to specify the point in the
+mental development of man at which the advance from group to individual
+psychology was also achieved by the individual members of the group.[67]
+
+For this purpose we must return for a moment to the scientific myth of
+the father of the primal horde. He was later on exalted into the creator
+of the world, and with justice, for he had produced all the sons who
+composed the first group. He was the ideal of each one of them, at once
+feared and honoured, a fact which led later to the idea of taboo. These
+many individuals eventually banded themselves together, killed him and
+cut him in pieces. None of the group of victors could take his place,
+or, if one of them did, the battles began afresh, until they understood
+that they must all renounce their father's heritage. They then formed
+the totemistic community of brothers, all with equal rights and united
+by the totem prohibitions which were to preserve and to expiate the
+memory of the murder. But the dissatisfaction with what had been
+achieved still remained, and it became the source of new developments.
+The persons who were united in this group of brothers gradually came
+towards a revival of the old state of things at a new level. Man became
+once more the chief of a family, and broke down the prerogatives of the
+gynaecocracy which had become established during the fatherless period.
+As a compensation for this he may at that time have acknowledged the
+mother deities, whose priests were castrated for the mother's
+protection, after the example that had been given by the father of the
+primal horde. And yet the new family was only a shadow of the old one;
+there were numbers of fathers and each one was limited by the rights of
+the others.
+
+It was then, perhaps, that some individual, in the exigency of his
+longing, may have been moved to free himself from the group and take
+over the father's part. He who did this was the first epic poet; and the
+advance was achieved in his imagination. This poet disguised the truth
+with lies in accordance with his longing. He invented the heroic myth.
+The hero was a man who by himself had slain the father--the father who
+still appeared in the myth as a totemistic monster. Just as the father
+had been the boy's first ideal, so in the hero who aspires to the
+father's place the poet now created the first ego ideal. The transition
+to the hero was probably afforded by the youngest son, the mother's
+favourite, whom she had protected from paternal jealousy, and who, in
+the era of the primal horde, had been the father's successor. In the
+lying poetic fancies of prehistoric times the woman, who had been the
+prize of battle and the allurement to murder, was probably turned into
+the seducer and instigator to the crime.
+
+The hero claims to have acted alone in accomplishing the deed, which
+certainly only the horde as a whole would have ventured upon. But, as
+Rank has observed, fairy tales have preserved clear traces of the facts
+which were disavowed. For we often find in them that the hero who has to
+carry out some difficult task (usually a youngest son, and not
+infrequently one who has represented himself to the father surrogate as
+being stupid, that is to say, harmless)--we often find, then, that this
+hero can carry out his task only by the help of a crowd of small
+animals, such as bees or ants. These would be the brothers in the primal
+horde, just as in the same way in dream symbolism insects or vermin
+signify brothers and sisters (contemptuously, considered as babies).
+Moreover every one of the tasks in myths and fairy tales is easily
+recognisable as a substitute for the heroic deed.
+
+The myth, then, is the step by which the individual emerges from group
+psychology. The first myth was certainly the psychological, the hero
+myth; the explanatory nature myth must have followed much later. The
+poet who had taken this step and had in this way set himself free from
+the group in his imagination, is nevertheless able (as Rank has further
+observed) to find his way back to it in reality. For he goes and relates
+to the group his hero's deeds which he has invented. At bottom this hero
+is no one but himself. Thus he lowers himself to the level of reality,
+and raises his hearers to the level of imagination. But his hearers
+understand the poet, and, in virtue of their having the same relation of
+longing towards the primal father, they can identify themselves with the
+hero.[68]
+
+The lie of the heroic myth culminates in the deification of the hero.
+Perhaps the deified hero may have been earlier than the Father God and
+may have been a precursor to the return of the primal father as a deity.
+The series of gods, then, would run chronologically: Mother
+Goddess--Hero--Father God. But it is only with the elevation of the
+never forgotten primal father that the deity acquires the features that
+we still recognise in him to-day.[69]
+
+C. A great deal has been said in this paper about directly sexual
+instincts and those that are inhibited in their aims, and it may be
+hoped that this distinction will not meet with too much resistance. But
+a detailed discussion of the question will not be out of place, even if
+it only repeats what has to a great extent already been said before.
+
+The development of the libido in children has made us acquainted with
+the first but also the best example of sexual instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims. All the feelings which a child has towards its
+parents and those who look after it pass by an easy transition into the
+wishes which give expression to the child's sexual tendencies. The child
+claims from these objects of its love all the signs of affection which
+it knows of; it wants to kiss them, touch them, and look at them; it is
+curious to see their genitals, and to be with them when they perform
+their intimate excremental functions; it promises to marry its mother or
+nurse--whatever it may understand by that; it proposes to itself to bear
+its father a child, etc. Direct observation, as well as the subsequent
+analytic investigation of the residue of childhood, leave no doubt as to
+the complete fusion of tender and jealous feelings and of sexual
+intentions, and show us in what a fundamental way the child makes the
+person it loves into the object of all its incompletely centred sexual
+tendencies.[70]
+
+This first configuration of the child's love, which in typical cases is
+co-ordinated with the Oedipus complex, succumbs, as we know, from the
+beginning of the period of latency onwards to a wave of repression. Such
+of it as is left over shows itself as a purely tender emotional tie,
+which relates to the same people, but is no longer to be described as
+'sexual'. Psycho-analysis, which illuminates the depths of mental life,
+has no difficulty in showing that the sexual ties of the earliest years
+of childhood also persist, though repressed and unconscious. It gives us
+courage to assert that wherever we come across a tender feeling it is
+the successor to a completely 'sensual' object tie with the person in
+question or rather with that person's prototype (or _imago_). It cannot
+indeed disclose to us without a special investigation whether in a given
+case this former complete sexual current still exists under repression
+or whether it has already been exhausted. To put it still more
+precisely: it is quite certain that it is still there as a form and
+possibility, and can always be charged with cathectic energy and put
+into activity again by means of regression; the only question is (and it
+cannot always be answered) what degree of cathexis and operative force
+it still has at the present moment. Equal care must be taken in this
+connection to avoid two sources of error--the Scylla of under-estimating
+the importance of the repressed unconscious, and the Charybdis of
+judging the normal entirely by the standards of the pathological.
+
+A psychology which will not or cannot penetrate the depths of what is
+repressed regards tender emotional ties as being invariably the
+expression of tendencies which have no sexual aim, even though they are
+derived from tendencies which have such an aim.[71]
+
+We are justified in saying that they have been diverted from these
+sexual aims, even though there is some difficulty in giving a
+representation of such a diversion of aim which will conform to the
+requirements of metapsychology. Moreover, those instincts which are
+inhibited in their aims always preserve some few of their original
+sexual aims; even an affectionate devotee, even a friend or an admirer,
+desires the physical proximity and the sight of the person who is now
+loved only in the 'Pauline' sense. If we choose, we may recognise in
+this diversion of aim a beginning of the _sublimation_ of the sexual
+instincts, or on the other hand we may fix the limits of sublimation at
+some more distant point. Those sexual instincts which are inhibited in
+their aims have a great functional advantage over those which are
+uninhibited. Since they are not capable of really complete
+satisfaction, they are especially adapted to create permanent ties;
+while those instincts which are directly sexual incur a loss of energy
+each time they are satisfied, and must wait to be renewed by a fresh
+accumulation of sexual libido, so that meanwhile the object may have
+been changed. The inhibited instincts are capable of any degree of
+admixture with the uninhibited; they can be transformed back into them,
+just as they arose out of them. It is well known how easily erotic
+wishes develop out of emotional relations of a friendly character, based
+upon appreciation and admiration, (compare Moliere's 'Embrassez-moi pour
+l'amour du grec'), between a master and a pupil, between a performer and
+a delighted listener, and especially in the case of women. In fact the
+growth of emotional ties of this kind, with their purposeless
+beginnings, provides a much frequented pathway to sexual object-choice.
+Pfister, in his _Froemmigkeit des Grafen von Zinzendorf_,[72] has given
+an extremely clear and certainly not an isolated example of how easily
+even an intense religious tie can revert to ardent sexual excitement. On
+the other hand it is also very usual for directly sexual tendencies,
+short-lived in themselves, to be transformed into a lasting and purely
+tender tie; and the consolidation of a passionate love marriage rests
+to a large extent upon this process.
+
+We shall naturally not be surprised to hear that the sexual tendencies
+that are inhibited in their aims arise out of the directly sexual ones
+when inner or outer obstacles make the sexual aims unattainable. The
+repression during the period of latency is an inner obstacle of this
+kind--or rather one which has become inner. We have assumed that the
+father of the primal horde owing to his sexual intolerance compelled all
+his sons to be abstinent, and thus forced them into ties that were
+inhibited in their aims, while he reserved for himself freedom of sexual
+enjoyment and in this way remained without ties. All the ties upon which
+a group depends are of the character of instincts that are inhibited in
+their aims. But here we have approached the discussion of a new subject,
+which deals with the relation between directly sexual instincts and the
+formation of groups.
+
+D. The last two remarks will have prepared us for finding that directly
+sexual tendencies are unfavourable to the formation of groups. In the
+history of the development of the family there have also, it is true,
+been group relations of sexual love (group marriages); but the more
+important sexual love became for the ego, and the more it developed the
+characteristics of being in love, the more urgently it required to be
+limited to two people--_una cum uno_--as is prescribed by the nature of
+the genital aim. Polygamous inclinations had to be content to find
+satisfaction in a succession of changing objects.
+
+Two people coming together for the purpose of sexual satisfaction, in so
+far as they seek for solitude, are making a demonstration against the
+herd instinct, the group feeling. The more they are in love, the more
+completely they suffice for each other. The rejection of the group's
+influence is manifested in the shape of a sense of shame. The extremely
+violent feelings of jealousy are summoned up in order to protect the
+sexual object-choice from being encroached upon by a group tie. It is
+only when the tender, that is, the personal, factor of a love relation
+gives place entirely to the sensual one, that it is possible for two
+people to have sexual intercourse in the presence of others or for there
+to be simultaneous sexual acts in a group as occurs at an orgy. But at
+that point a regression has taken place to an early stage in sexual
+relations, at which being in love as yet played no part, and all sexual
+objects were judged to be of equal value, somewhat in the sense of
+Bernard Shaw's malicious aphorism to the effect that being in love means
+greatly exaggerating the difference between one woman and another.
+
+There are abundant indications that being in love only made its
+appearance late on in the sexual relations between men and women; so
+that the opposition between sexual love and group ties is also a late
+development. Now it may seem as though this assumption were incompatible
+with our myth of the primal family. For it was after all by their love
+for their mothers and sisters that the troop of brothers was, as we have
+supposed, driven to parricide; and it is difficult to imagine this love
+as being anything but unbroken and primitive--that is, as an intimate
+union of the tender and the sensual. But further consideration resolves
+this objection into a confirmation. One of the reactions to the
+parricide was after all the institution of totemistic exogamy; the
+prohibition of any sexual relation with those women of the family who
+had been tenderly loved since childhood. In this way a wedge was driven
+in between a man's tender and sensual feelings, one still firmly fixed
+in his erotic life to-day.[73] As a result of this exogamy the sensual
+needs of men had to be satisfied with strange and unloved women.
+
+In the great artificial groups, the church and the army, there is no
+room for woman as a sexual object. The love relation between men and
+women remains outside these organisations. Even where groups are formed
+which are composed of both men and women the distinction between the
+sexes plays no part. There is scarcely any sense in asking whether the
+libido which keeps groups together is of a homosexual or of a
+heterosexual nature, for it is not differentiated according to the
+sexes, and particularly shows a complete disregard for the aims of the
+genital organisation of the libido.
+
+Even in a person who has in other respects become absorbed in a group
+the directly sexual tendencies preserve a little of his individual
+activity. If they become too strong they disintegrate every group
+formation. The Catholic Church had the best of motives for recommending
+its followers to remain unmarried and for imposing celibacy upon its
+priests; but falling in love has often driven even priests to leave the
+church. In the same way love for women breaks through the group ties of
+race, of national separation, and of the social class system, and it
+thus produces important effects as a factor in civilization. It seems
+certain that homosexual love is far more compatible with group ties,
+even when it takes the shape of uninhibited sexual tendencies--a
+remarkable fact, the explanation of which might carry us far.
+
+The psycho-analytic investigation of the psycho-neuroses has taught us
+that their symptoms are to be traced back to directly sexual tendencies
+which are repressed but still remain active. We can complete this
+formula by adding to it: or, to tendencies inhibited in their aims,
+whose inhibition has not been entirely successful or has made room for
+a return to the repressed sexual aim. It is in accordance with this that
+a neurosis should make its victim asocial and should remove him from the
+usual group formations. It may be said that a neurosis has the same
+disintegrating effect upon a group as being in love. On the other hand
+it appears that where a powerful impetus has been given to group
+formation, neuroses may diminish and at all events temporarily
+disappear. Justifiable attempts have also been made to turn this
+antagonism between neuroses and group formation to therapeutic account.
+Even those who do not regret the disappearance of religious illusions
+from the civilized world of to-day will admit that so long as they were
+in force they offered those who were bound by them the most powerful
+protection against the danger of neurosis. Nor is it hard to discern in
+all the ties with mystico-religious or philosophico-religious sects and
+communities the manifestation of distorted cures of all kinds of
+neuroses. All of this is bound up with the contrast between directly
+sexual tendencies and those which are inhibited in their aims.
+
+If he is left to himself, a neurotic is obliged to replace by his own
+symptom formations the great group formations from which he is excluded.
+He creates his own world of imagination for himself, his religion, his
+own system of delusions, and thus recapitulates the institutions of
+humanity in a distorted way which is clear evidence of the dominating
+part played by the directly sexual tendencies.[74]
+
+E. In conclusion, we will add a comparative estimate, from the
+standpoint of the libido theory, of the states with which we have been
+concerned, of being in love, of hypnosis, of group formation, and of the
+neurosis.
+
+_Being in love_ is based upon the simultaneous presence of directly
+sexual tendencies and of sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their
+aims, so that the object draws a part of the narcissistic ego-libido to
+itself. It is a condition in which there is only room for the ego and
+the object.
+
+_Hypnosis_ resembles being in love in being limited to these two
+persons, but it is based entirely upon sexual tendencies that are
+inhibited in their aims and substitutes the object for the ego ideal.
+
+_The group_ multiplies this process; it agrees with hypnosis in the
+nature of the instincts which hold it together, and in the replacement
+of the ego ideal by the object; but to this it adds identification with
+other individuals, which was perhaps originally made possible by their
+having the same relation to the object.
+
+Both states, hypnosis and group formation, are an inherited deposit from
+the phylogenesis of the human libido--hypnosis in the form of a
+predisposition, and the group, besides this, as a direct survival. The
+replacement of the directly sexual tendencies by those that are
+inhibited in their aims promotes in both states a separation between the
+ego and the ego ideal, a separation with which a beginning has already
+been made in the state of being in love.
+
+_The neurosis_ stands outside this series. It also is based upon a
+peculiarity in the development of the human libido--the twice repeated
+start made by the directly sexual function, with an intervening period
+of latency.[75] To this extent it resembles hypnosis and group formation
+in having the character of a regression, which is absent from being in
+love. It makes its appearance wherever the advance from directly sexual
+instincts to those that are inhibited in their aims has not been
+completely successful; and it represents a _conflict_ between those
+instincts which have been received into the ego after having passed
+through this development and those portions of the same instincts which,
+like other instinctive desires that have been completely repressed,
+strive, from the repressed unconscious, to attain direct satisfaction.
+The neurosis is extraordinarily rich in content, for it embraces all
+possible relations between the ego and the object--both those in which
+the object is retained and others in which it is abandoned or erected
+inside the ego itself--and also the conflicting relations between the
+ego and its ego ideal.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+_Abraham_, 62, 108.
+
+Affectivity. _See under_ Emotion.
+
+Altruism, 57.
+
+Ambivalence, 18, 55, 61.
+
+Anaclitic type, 60.
+
+Archaic inheritance, 10, 99.
+
+Army 42-6, 89, 94, 110, 122.
+
+Autistic mental acts, 2.
+
+
+_Bernheim_, 35, 100
+
+_Bleuler_, 2.
+
+Brothers, 43, 114.
+  in Christ, 43.
+  Community of, 90, 112, 122.
+
+_Brugeilles_, 34.
+
+
+_Caesar_, 44.
+
+Cathexis, 18, 20, 28, 117.
+  Object-, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
+
+Catholic Church, 42-3, 111, 123.
+
+Celibacy of priests, 123.
+
+Censorship of dreams, 16, 69.
+
+Chieftains, Mana in, 96.
+
+Children, 14, 16, 18-19, 30, 67 82, 91.
+  Dread in, 83, 85-6.
+  Parents and, 54, 86, 116.
+  Sexual object of, 72, 116.
+  Unconscious of, 18.
+
+_Christ_, 42-5, 50, 111.
+  Equal love of, 50.
+  Identification with, 111.
+
+Church, 42-3, 89, 94, 110-11, 122-3.
+
+Commander-in-Chief, 42-5.
+
+Conflict, 18, 107, 126.
+
+Conscience, 10, 28, 68-9, 75, 79
+  Social, 88.
+
+Contagion, Emotional, 10-13, 27, 34-5, 46-7.
+
+Crowd, 1, 3, 26, 92.
+
+
+Danger, Effect on groups, 46-9.
+
+_Darwin_, 90.
+
+Delusions:
+  of inferiority, 107.
+  of observation, 69.
+
+Devotion to abstract idea, 17, 75.
+
+Doubt:
+  absence in groups, 15-16
+  interpretation in dreams, 15-16.
+
+Dread:
+  Children's, 83, 85-6.
+  in a group, 46-8, 50.
+  in an individual, 47-8.
+  Neurotic, 48.
+  of society, 10.
+  Panic, 45-9.
+
+Dream, 20, 69, 104.
+  Interpretation of doubt and uncertainty in, 15-16.
+  symbolism, 114.
+
+Duty, Sense of, 84, 88, 95.
+
+
+Ego, 10, 18-19, 62-70, 74, 84, 93, 100-9, 120, 125-7.
+  Relations between ego ideal and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
+  Relations between object and, 62-70, 74-6, 108-10.
+
+Ego ideal, 68-70, 74-7, 80, 100-3, 105-10, 113, 126-7.
+  Abrogation of the, 105.
+  Hypnotist in the place of, 77.
+  Object as substitute for, 74-6, 80, 103, 110.
+  Relations between ego and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
+  Testing reality of things, 77.
+  The first, 113.
+
+Egoism, 57.
+
+Emotion:
+  Ambivalent, 18, 55.
+  Charge of, 28.
+  Contagion of. _See_ Contagion.
+  Intensification of, in groups, 16, 23, 27-30, 33, 46, 81.
+  Primitive induction of, 27, 34, 46-7.
+  Tender, 72-3, 78, 116-17.
+
+Emotional tie, 40, 43, 45, 52-3, 59-60, 64-5, 81, 88, 91, 94, 100, 117-20.
+  Cessation of, 46-9.
+
+Empathy, relation to identification, 66, 70.
+
+Enthusiasm, in groups, 25.
+
+Envy, 87-8.
+
+Equality, demand for, 88, 89.
+
+Eros, 38-40.
+
+Esprit de corps, origin of, 87.
+
+Ethical:
+  conduct of a group, 18.
+  level of Christianity, 111.
+  standards of individual, 24-5.
+
+
+Fairy tales, the hero in, 114.
+
+Family, 70, 95, 100, 113, 120.
+  a group formation, 95.
+  and Christian community, 43.
+  and social instinct, 3.
+  Primal, 122.
+
+Fascination, 11, 13, 21, 75.
+
+Father, 43, 92, 98-9.
+  Equal love of, 95.
+  God, 115.
+  Identification with, 60-2.
+  Object tie with, 62.
+  Primal, 92, 94-5, 99-100, 112-13, 115, 120.
+    Deification of, 93, 115.
+    Killing the, 94, 112-13, 122.
+  Surrogate, 43, 114.
+
+_Federn, P._, 50.
+
+_Felszeghy, Bela v._, 48.
+
+_Ferenczi_, 76, 98.
+
+Festivals, 105.
+
+Folk-lore, 25.
+
+Folk-song, 25.
+
+French Revolution, 26.
+
+Function:
+  for testing reality, 20, 77.
+  (Instanz), 15.
+
+
+Gemeingeist, origin of, 87.
+
+Genital organisation, 19.
+
+God, 85, 96.
+  Father, 115.
+
+Gregariousness, 83-4, 92.
+
+Group:
+  Artificial, 41-2, 52, 82, 89, 94, 110, 122.
+  Different kinds of, 26, 41.
+  Disintegration of, 49-51.
+  Dread in, 47.
+  Equality in, 89.
+  feeling, 86-7, 121.
+  Heightened affectivity in. _See under_ Emotion.
+  ideal, 100, 102.
+  Intellectual capacity of, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.
+  Intensification of emotion in. _See under_ Emotion.
+  Leaders of. _See under_ Leader.
+  Libidinal structure of, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 51, 53-4, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
+  marriages, 120.
+  Mental change of the individual in, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
+  mind, 3, 5-27, 40, 49, 82.
+  Organisation in, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.
+  Primitive, 31, 33, 41, 80.
+  psychological character of, 6-32.
+  psychology, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92-4, 101, 112, 114.
+  Revolutionary, 26.
+  Sexual instincts and, 120.
+  spirit, 37.
+  Stable, 26, 41, 84, 101.
+  Suggestibility of, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.
+  Transient, 25, 41, 84, 101.
+
+Guilt, Sense of, 20, 63, 65, 84, 106.
+
+Gynaecocracy, 113.
+
+
+Hatred, 53, 56.
+
+_Hebbel_, 49.
+
+Herd, 83-5, 89.
+  instinct, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.
+
+Hero, 17, 113-15.
+
+Homosexuality, 57, 66-7, 94, 123.
+
+Horde Primal, 89-95, 99, 113-14, 120.
+  Father of the. _See under_ Father.
+
+Hypnosis, 10-13, 20-1, 77-9, 81, 95-100, 125-6.
+  a group of two, 78, 100.
+  and sleep, 79, 98.
+  of terror, 79.
+
+Hypnotist, 13, 77, 95-9.
+
+Hysteria, Identification in, 63-5.
+
+
+Idealisation, 74.
+  Identification, 59-70, 75-6, 84, 86-9, 94, 101-3, 111, 125.
+  Ambivalent, 61.
+  in hysterical symptom, 63-5.
+  Regression of object-choice to, 64.
+  with a lost or rejected object, 67-8, 108-9.
+  with Christ, 111.
+  with the father, 60-2.
+  with the hero, 115.
+  with the leader, 110-11.
+
+Imitation, 34-5, 65, 70.
+
+Individual:
+  a member of many groups, 101.
+  Dread in, 47-8.
+  Mental change in a group, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
+  Psychology, 1-2, 92-3, 112, 114.
+
+Induction of Emotion, 27, 34, 46-7.
+
+Infection, mental, 64-65.
+
+Inferiority, Delusions of, 57, 106-7.
+
+Inheritance, archaic, 10, 99.
+
+Inhibition:
+  Collective, of intellectual functioning, 23, 33.
+  Removal of, 17, 28, 33.
+
+Instinct:
+  Herd, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.
+  inhibited in aim, 72-3, 78, 115-26.
+  Life and death, 56.
+  Love, 37, 39, 58.
+  Nutrition, 85.
+  Primary, 84-5.
+  Self-preservative, 34, 85.
+  Sexual, 19, 39, 56, 71-8, 85-5, 94, 115-26.
+  Social, 3.
+  unhibited in aim, 73, 77-8, 94, 115-26.
+  Unconscious, 10.
+
+Intellectual ability, lowering of,
+  in groups, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.
+
+Introjection, of object into ego, 65, 67-8, 76.
+
+
+Jealousy, 121.
+
+
+Kings, Mana in, 96.
+
+_Kra[)s]kovi[)c], B. Jnr._, 23.
+
+_Kroeger_, 90.
+
+
+Language, 25, 38, 71.
+
+Latency, period of, 72, 117, 120, 126.
+
+Leader, 20-2, 41, 44-5, 78, 82, 85, 89, 92, 99, 110.
+  Abstractions as substitutes for, 53.
+  Equal love of, 93, 95.
+  Identification with, 110-11.
+  Killing the, 90.
+  Loss of, 49.
+  Negative, 53.
+  Prestige of, 21-2.
+  the group ideal, 100, 102, 110.
+  Tie with, 49, 52, 66.
+
+_Le Bon_, 5-25, 29, 34, 82, 84, 100-1.
+
+Libidinal:
+  structure of the group, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 53, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
+  The word, 44.
+  ties, 44, 56-8, 65, 93, 100.
+  in the group, 45, 51, 54.
+
+Libido, 33-40, 44, 57, 79, 83, 102, 111, 116, 119, 123, 126.
+  Narcissistic, 58, 74, 93, 104, 125.
+  Oral phase of, 61.
+  theory, 57, 83, 125.
+  Unification of, 19.
+  Withdrawal of, 108.
+
+Love, 37-40, 42, 73, 87, 108, 122.
+  a factor of civilisation, 57, 93.
+  and character formation, 94, 118-20.
+  and hatred, 56.
+  Being in, 58, 71-9, 120-1, 124-6.
+  Child's, 116-17.
+  Christ's, 43.
+  Equal, 42, 50, 89, 93.
+  Pauline, 118.
+  Self-. _See under_ Narcissism.
+  Sensual, 71-3, 78, 117.
+  Sexual, 37-8, 57, 120-2.
+  Sublimated homosexual, 57.
+  The word, 37-9, 71.
+  Unhappy, 75.
+  Unsensual, 73.
+
+
+_McDougall_, 1, 26-31, 34-6, 46-7, 49, 84.
+
+Magical power of words, 19.
+
+Magnetic influence, 11.
+
+Magnetism, animal, 96.
+
+Mana, 96.
+
+Mania, 106-9.
+
+_Marcuszewicz_, 68.
+
+Marriage, 54, 120.
+
+Melancholia, 68, 106-9.
+
+Metapsychology, 63, 118.
+
+_Moede, Walter_, 24.
+
+_Moliere_, 119.
+
+Morality, Totemism the origin of, 90.
+
+Mother deities, 113, 115.
+
+Multicellularity, 7, 32, 83.
+
+Myth, 113-15.
+
+
+_Nachmansohn_, 39.
+
+Names, Taboo upon, 19.
+
+_Napoleon_, 44.
+
+Narcissism, 2, 38, 54-8, 69, 74-5, 93, 94, 104.
+
+_Nestroy_, 49.
+
+Neurosis, 18, 20, 37, 44, 58, 63, 103-4, 123-26.
+
+_Nietzsche_, 93.
+
+Nutrition, Instinct of, 84.
+
+
+Object, 57-8, 62, 68, 74, 87, 93, 104, 125, 127.
+  cathexis, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
+  Change of, 18, 119, 121.
+  Child's, 72.
+  -choice, 54, 62, 64, 74, 111, 119, 121.
+  Eating the, 61-62.
+  Hyper-cathexis of, 76.
+  Identification with ego, 108.
+  Less or Renunciation of, 68, 108.
+  -love, 56, 63, 74, 111.
+  Relations with the ego, 65, 67-8, 70, 76.
+  Sexual, 67, 72-3, 116.
+  Substituted for ego ideal, 74, 80, 103, 125.
+
+Observation, delusions of, 69.
+
+Oedipus complex, 60-61, 63, 66, 117.
+  Inverted, 62.
+
+Oral phase of organisation of the libido, 61.
+
+Organisation in groups, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.
+
+Orgy, 121.
+
+
+Panic, 45-9.
+
+Pan-sexualism, 39.
+
+_Paul, Saint_, 39, 118.
+
+_Pfister_, 39, 119.
+
+_Plato_, 38.
+
+Poet, the first epic, 113-114.
+
+Power, 9, 15, 28.
+  of leaders, 21.
+  of words, 19.
+
+Prestige, 21-2, 34.
+
+Primitive peoples, 14, 18-19, 24, 92, 96, 105.
+
+Psycho-Analysis, 4, 7, 14, 18, 36, 38-9, 59-60, 84, 97.
+
+Psychology:
+  Group, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92, 94, 101.
+  Group and individual, 1-2, 92-93, 112, 114.
+
+Psychoses, 66, 103.
+
+Puberty, 67, 72-73.
+
+
+Races, repugnance between related, 55.
+
+_Rank, Otto_, 112, 114.
+
+Rapport, 97.
+
+Reality:
+  Function for testing, 20, 77.
+  Contrast between Objective and Psychological, 20.
+
+Regression, 82, 91, 117, 121, 126.
+
+Religion, 51, 90.
+  Wars of, 51.
+
+Repressed:
+  Sexual tendencies, 74, 117, 123-4.
+  The, 10, 104, 117-18, 126.
+
+Repression, 9, 54, 64-5, 69, 72, 84, 95, 105, 117, 120.
+
+Resistance, 84, 104.
+
+Responsibility, Sense of, 9-10, 29-30.
+
+_Richter, Konrad_, 36.
+
+
+_Sachs, Hanns_, 16, 115.
+
+_Schopenhauer_, 54.
+
+Self-:
+  consciousness, 30-1.
+  depreciation, 107.
+  love. _See under_ Narcissism.
+  observation, 69.
+  preservation, 15, 34, 84-5.
+  sacrifice, 11, 38, 75.
+
+Sex, 39.
+
+Sexual:
+  act, 92, 121.
+  aims, 58, 72.
+    Diversion of instinct from, 58.
+    Infantile, 72.
+    Obstacles to, 120.
+  life, 19, 72.
+  over-estimation, 53-5.
+  Tendencies, Inhibited and uninhibited. 72-3, 77-8, 94, 115-16, 125-26.
+  union, 37-8.
+
+_Shaw, Bernard_, 121.
+
+_Sidis, Boris_, 84
+
+_Sighele_, 24-5.
+
+_Simmel, E._, 44.
+
+Sleep, 98, 104.
+  and hypnosis, 98.
+
+_Smith, Robertson_, 70.
+
+Social:
+  duties, 88, 95.
+  relations, 2-3, 57.
+
+Socialistic tie, 51.
+
+Society, 24, 26, 28, 90.
+  Dread of, 10.
+
+Sociology. _See under_ Group Psychology.
+
+Speech, 84.
+
+Sublimated:
+  devotion, 17, 75.
+  homosexual love, 57.
+
+Sublimation, 118.
+
+Suggestibility, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.
+
+Suggestion, 12-13, 17, 29, 34-7, 40, 82, 95, 99, 102.
+  Counter-, 35.
+  Definition for, 100.
+  Mutual, 12, 27, 34, 82.
+
+Superman, 93.
+
+
+Taboo, 19, 96, 112.
+
+_Tarde_, 34.
+
+Totemism, 90, 112-13.
+
+Totemistic:
+  clan, 95.
+  community of brothers, 112.
+  exogamy, 122.
+
+Tradition, 17, 21.
+  of the group, 31.
+  of the individual, 32.
+
+Transference, 97-8.
+
+_Trotter_, 32, 83-5, 89, 105.
+
+
+Uncanniness, 95, 99.
+
+Uncertainty, absence in groups, 15-16.
+  interpretation in dreams, 15-16.
+
+Unconscious, 8, 10, 12, 14-16, 18, 23-4, 64, 67, 72, 97, 100, 104.
+  Groups led by, 14.
+  instincts, 10.
+  _Le Bon's_, 10, 14, 24.
+  of children, 18, 117.
+  of neurotics, 18.
+  Racial, 9.
+
+
+_Wallenstein_, 44.
+
+War neuroses, 44.
+
+War, The, 44.
+
+_Wilson, President_, 44.
+
+Wishes, Affective cathexis of, 20.
+
+Words, magical power of, 19.
+
+
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY. Edited by ERNEST JONES
+
+     No. 1. ADDRESSES ON PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. BY J.J. Putnam, M.D. Emeritus
+     Professor of Neurology, Harvard University. With a Preface by Sigm.
+     Freud, M.D., LL.D.
+
+     No. 2. PSYCHO-ANALYSIS AND THE WAR NEUROSES. By Drs. S. Ferenczi
+     (Budapest), Karl Abraham (Berlin), Ernst Simmel (Berlin) and Ernest
+     Jones (London). Introduction by Prof. Sigm. Freud (Vienna).
+
+     No. 3. THE PSYCHO-ANALYTIC STUDY OF THE FAMILY. By J. C. Fluegel,
+     B.A.
+
+     No. 4. BEYOND THE PLEASURE PRINCIPLE. By Sigm. Freud M.D., LL.D.
+     Authorized Translation from the second German Edition by C. J. M.
+     Hubback.
+
+     No. 5. ESSAYS IN APPLIED PSYCHO-ANALYSIS. By Ernest Jones M.D.
+     President of the International Psycho-Analytical Association.
+
+     No. 6. GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO. By Sigm. Freud
+     M.D., LL.D. Authorized Translation by James Strachey.
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHO-ANALYSIS Directed by Sigm. Freud
+
+Official Organ of the INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL ASSOCIATION
+
+Edited by Ernest Jones President of the Association
+
+With the Assistance of DOUGLAS BRYAN, J. C. FLUeGEL (London) A. A. BRILL,
+H. W. FRINK, C. P. OBERNDORF (New York)
+
+Issued Quarterly Subscription 30s. per Volume of Four Parts (c. 500 pp.)
+the parts not being sold separately.
+
+
+THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL PRESS
+
+Printed by K. Liebel in Vienna, II. Grosse Mohrengasse 23
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] ['Group' is used throughout this translation as equivalent to the
+rather more comprehensive German '_Masse_'. The author uses this latter
+word to render both McDougall's 'group', and also Le Bon's '_foule_',
+which would more naturally be translated 'crowd' in English. For the
+sake of uniformity, however, 'group' has been preferred in this case as
+well, and has been substituted for 'crowd' even in the extracts from the
+English translation of Le Bon.--_Translator._.]
+
+[2] _The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind._ Fisher Unwin 12th.
+Impression, 1920.
+
+[3] [See footnote page 1.]
+
+[4] [References are to the English translation.--_Translator._]
+
+[5] [The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author, reads
+'_bewusster_'; the English translation has 'unconscious'; and the
+original French text '_inconscients_'.--_Translator._]
+
+[6] [The English translation reads 'which we ourselves ignore'--a
+misunderstanding of the French word '_ignorees_'.--_Translator._]
+
+[7] There is some difference between Le Bon's view and ours owing to his
+concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding with the one adopted by
+psycho-analysis. Le Bon's unconscious more especially contains the most
+deeply buried features of the racial mind, which as a matter of fact
+lies outside the scope of psycho-analysis. We do not fail to recognize,
+indeed, that the ego's nucleus, which comprises the 'archaic
+inheritance' of the human mind, is unconscious; but in addition to this
+we distinguish the 'unconscious repressed', which arose from a portion
+of that inheritance. This concept of the repressed is not to be found in
+Le Bon.
+
+[8] Compare Schiller's couplet:
+
+  Jeder, sieht man ihn einzeln, ist leidlich klug und verstaendig;
+        Sind sie in corpore, gleich wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus.
+  [Everyone, seen by himself, is passably shrewd and discerning;
+        When they're _in corpore_, then straightway you'll find he's an ass.]
+
+
+[9] 'Unconscious' is used here correctly by Le Bon in the descriptive
+sense, where it does not only mean the 'repressed'.
+
+[10] Compare _Totem und Tabu_, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und Allmacht der
+Gedanken.' [_Totem and Taboo._ New York, Moffat, 1918. London, Kegan
+Paul, 1919.]
+
+[11] [See footnote p. 69.]
+
+[12] In the interpretation of dreams, to which, indeed, we owe our best
+knowledge of unconscious mental life, we follow a technical rule of
+disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative of the dream, and of
+treating every element of the manifest dream as being quite certain. We
+attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of the censorship to
+which the dream-work is subjected, and we assume that the primary
+dream-thoughts are not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty as critical
+processes. They may naturally be present, like everything else, as part
+of the content of the day's residue which leads to the dream. (See _Die
+Traumdeutung_, 6. Auflage, 1921, S. 386. [_The Interpretation of
+Dreams._ Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 1913, p. 409.])
+
+[13] The same extreme and unmeasured intensification of every emotion is
+also a feature of the affective life of children, and it is present as
+well in dream life. Thanks to the isolation of the single emotions in
+the unconscious, a slight annoyance during the day will express itself
+in a dream as a wish for the offending person's death, or a breath of
+temptation may give the impetus to the portrayal in the dream of a
+criminal action. Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark on this
+point: 'If we try to discover in consciousness all that the dream has
+made known to us of its bearing upon the present (upon reality), we need
+not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under the microscope of
+analysis now reappears as an infusorium.' (_Die Traumdeutung_, S. 457.
+[Translation p. 493.])
+
+[14] In young children, for instance, ambivalent emotional attitudes
+towards those who are nearest to them exist side by side for a long
+time, without either of them interfering with the expression of the
+other and contrary one. If eventually a conflict breaks out between the
+two, it often settled by the child making a change of object and
+displacing one of the ambivalent emotions on to a substitute. The
+history of the development of a neurosis in an adult will also show that
+a suppressed emotion may frequently persist for a long time in
+unconscious or even in conscious phantasies, the content of which
+naturally runs directly counter to some predominant tendency, and yet
+that this antagonism does not result in any proceedings on the part of
+the ego against what it has repudiated. The phantasy is tolerated for
+quite a long time, until suddenly one day, usually as a result of an
+increase in the affective cathexis [see footnote page 48] of the
+phantasy, a conflict breaks out between it and the ego with all the
+usual consequences. In the process of a child's development into a
+mature adult there is a more and more extensive integration of its
+personality, a co-ordination of the separate instinctive feelings and
+desires which have grown up in him independently of one another. The
+analogous process in the domain of sexual life has long been known to us
+as the co-ordination of all the sexual instincts into a definitive
+genital organisation. (_Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905.
+[_Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory._ Nervous and Mental Disease
+Monograph Series, No. 7, 1910.]) Moreover, that the unification of the
+ego is liable to the same interferences as that of the libido is shown
+by numerous familiar instances, such as that of men of science who have
+preserved their faith in the Bible, and the like.
+
+[15] See Totem and Tabu.
+
+[16] [See footnote p. 48.]
+
+[17] B. Kra[)s]kovi[)c], jun.: _Die Psychologie der Kollektivitaeten_.
+Translated [into German] from the Croatian by Siegmund von Posavec.
+Vukovar, 1915. See the body of the work as well as the bibliography.
+
+[18] See Walter Moede: 'Die Massen-und Sozialpsychologie im kritischen
+Ueberblick.' Meumann and Scheibner's _Zeitschrift fuer paedagogische
+Psychologie und experimentelle Paedagogik_. 1915, XVI.
+
+[19] Cambridge University Press, 1920.
+
+[20] _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin, 1916.
+
+[21] Brugeilles: 'L'essence du phenomena social: la suggestion.' _Revue
+philosophique_, 1913, XXV.
+
+[22] Konrad Richter: 'Der deutsche S. Christoph.' Berlin, 1896, _Acta
+Germanica_, V, I.
+
+[23] [Literally:"Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the whole world;
+Say, where did Christopher then put his foot?']
+
+[24] Thus, McDougall: 'A Note on Suggestion.' _Journal of Neurology and
+Psychopathology_, 1920, Vol. I, No. I.
+
+[25] Nachmansohn: 'Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der Eroslehre
+Platos'. _Internationale Zeitschrift fuer Psychoanalyse_, 1915, Bd. III;
+Pfister: 'Plato als Vorlaeufer der Psychoanalyse', ibid., 1921, Bd. VII.
+['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'. _International Journal of
+Psycho-Analysis_, 1922, Vol. III.]
+
+[26] 'Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not
+love, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'
+
+[27] [An idiom meaning 'for their sake'. Literally: 'for love of
+them'.--_Translator._]
+
+[28] An objection will justly be raised against this conception of the
+libidinal [see next foot-note] structure of an army on the ground that
+no place has been found in it for such ideas as those of one's country,
+of national glory, etc., which are of such importance in holding an army
+together. The answer is that that is a different instance of a group
+tie, and no longer such a simple one; for the examples of great
+generals, like Caesar, Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show that such ideas
+are not indispensable to the existence of an army. We shall presently
+touch upon the possibility of a leading idea being substituted for a
+leader and upon the relations between the two. The neglect of this
+libidinal factor in an army, even when it is not the only factor
+operative, seems to be not merely a theoretical omission but also a
+practical danger. Prussian militarism, which was just as unpsychological
+as German science, may have had to suffer the consequences of this in
+the great war. We know that the war neuroses which ravaged the German
+army have been recognized as being a protest of the individual against
+the part he was expected to play in the army; and according to the
+communication of E. Simmel (_Kriegsneurosen and 'Psychisches Trauma'._
+Munich, 1918), the hard treatment of the men by their superiors may be
+considered as foremost among the motive forces of the disease. If the
+importance of the libido's claims on this score had been better
+appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American President's fourteen
+points would probably not have been believed so easily, and the splendid
+instrument would not have broken in the hands of the German leaders.
+
+[29] [Here and elsewhere the German 'libidinoes' is used simply as an
+adjectival derivative from the technical term '_Libido_'; 'libidinal' is
+accordingly introduced in the translation in order to avoid the
+highly-coloured connotation of the English 'libidinous'.--_Translator._]
+
+[30] ['Cathexis', from the Greek 'katecho', 'I occupy'. The German word
+'_Besetzung_' has become of fundamental importance in the exposition of
+psycho-analytical theory. Any attempt at a short definition or
+description is likely to be misleading, but speaking very loosely, we
+may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy of an electric charge,
+and that it means the concentration or accumulation of mental energy in
+some particular channel. Thus, when we speak of the existence in someone
+of a libidinal cathexis of an object, or, more shortly, of an
+object-cathexis, we mean that the libidinal energy is directed towards,
+or rather infused into, the idea (_Vorstellung_) of some object in the
+outer world. Readers who desire to obtain a more precise knowledge of
+the term are referred to the discussions in 'Zur Einfuehrung des
+Narzissmus' and the essays on metapsychology in _Kleine Schriften zur
+Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge.--_Translator._]
+
+[31] See _Vorlesungen zur Einfuehrung in die Psychoanalyse_. XXV, 3.
+Auflage, 1920. [_Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis._ Lecture XXV.
+George Allen and Unwin, 1922.]
+
+[32] Compare Bela v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat fantastic
+paper 'Panik und Pankomplex'. _Imago_, 1920, Bd. VI.
+
+[33] Compare the explanation of similar phenomena after the abolition of
+the paternal authority of the sovereign given in P. Federn's _Die
+vaterlose Gesellschaft_. Vienna, Anzengruber-Verlag, 1919.
+
+[34] 'A company of porcupines crowded themselves very close together one
+cold winter's day so as to profit by one another's warmth and so save
+themselves from being frozen to death. But soon they felt one another's
+quills, which induced them to separate again. And now, when the need for
+warmth brought them nearer together again, the second evil arose once
+more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards from one trouble
+to the other, until they had discovered a mean distance at which they
+could most tolerably exist.' (_Parerga und Paralipomena_, II. Teil,
+XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.)
+
+[35] Perhaps with the solitary exception of the relation of a mother to
+her son, which is based upon narcissism, is not disturbed by subsequent
+rivalry, and is reinforced by a rudimentary attempt at sexual
+object-choice.
+
+[36] In a recently published study, _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_ (1920)
+[_Beyond the Pleasure Principle_, International Psycho-Analytical
+Library, No. 4], I have attempted to connect the polarity of love and
+hatred with a hypothetical opposition between instincts of life and
+death, and to establish the sexual instincts as the purest examples of
+the former, the instincts of life.
+
+[37] See 'Zur Einfuehrung des Narzissmus', 1914. _Kleine Schriften zur
+Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[38] [Literally, 'leaning-up-against type'; from the Greek 'anaklino' 'I
+lean up against'. In the first phase of their development the sexual
+instincts have no independent means of finding satisfaction; they do so
+by propping themselves upon or 'leaning up against' the
+self-preservative instincts. The individual's first choice of a sexual
+object is said to be of the 'anaclitic type' when it follows this path;
+that is, when he choses as his first sexual object the same person who
+has satisfied his early non-sexual needs. For a full discussion of the
+anaclitic and narcissistic types of object-choice compare 'Zur
+Einfuehrung des Narzissmus.--_Translator._]
+
+[39] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, and Abraham's
+'Untersuchungen ueber die frueheste praegenitale Entwicklungsstufe der
+Libido', _Internationale Zeitschrift fuer Psychoanalyse_, 1916, Bd, IV;
+also included in his _Klinische Beitraege zur Psychoanalyse_
+(Internationale psychoanalytische Bibliothek. Nr. 10, 1921).
+
+[40] [_Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre._ Zweite Folge.]
+
+[41] Marcuszewicz: 'Beitrag zum autistischen Denken bei Kindern.'
+_Internationale Zeitschrift fuer Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI.
+
+[42] ['Trauer und Melancholie.' _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_,
+Vierte Folge, 1918.]
+
+[43] ['_Instanz_'--like 'instance' in the phrase 'court of first
+instance'--was originally a legal term. It is now used in the sense of
+one of a hierarchy of authorities or functions.--_Translator._]
+
+[44] 'Zur Einfuehrung des Narzissmus', 'Trauer und Melancholie.'
+
+[45] 'Zur Einfuehrung des Narzissmus.'
+
+[46] We are very well aware that we have not exhausted the nature of
+identification with these samples taken from pathology, and that we have
+consequently left part of the riddle of group formations untouched. A
+far more fundamental and comprehensive psychological analysis would have
+to intervene at this point. A path leads from identification by way of
+imitation to empathy, that is, to the comprehension of the mechanism by
+means of which we are enabled to take up any attitude at all towards
+another mental life. Moreover there is still much to be explained in the
+manifestations of existing identifications. These result among other
+things in a person limiting his aggressiveness towards those with whom
+he has identified himself, and in his sparing them and giving them help.
+The study of such identifications, like those, for instance, which lie
+at the root of clan feeling, led Robertson Smith to the surprising
+result that they rest upon the recognition of a common substance
+(_Kinship and Marriage_, 1885), and may even therefore be brought about
+by a meal eaten in common. This feature makes it possible to connect
+this kind of identification with the early history of the human family
+which I constructed in _Totem und Tabu_.
+
+[47] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, l.c.
+
+[48] 'Ueber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.' _Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[49] Cf. 'Metapsychologische Ergaenzung zur Traumlehre.' _Kleine
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.
+
+[50] W. Trotter: _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin,
+1916.
+
+[51] See my essay _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_.
+
+[52] See the remarks upon Dread in _Vorlesungen zur Einfuehrung in die
+Psychoanalyse_. XXV.
+
+[53] _Totem und Tabu._
+
+[54] What we have just described in our general characterisation of
+mankind must apply especially to the primal horde. The will of the
+individual was too weak; he did not venture upon action. No impulses
+whatever came into play except collective ones; there was only a common
+will, there were no single ones. An idea did not dare to turn itself
+into a volition unless it felt itself reinforced by a perception of its
+general diffusion. This weakness of the idea is to be explained by the
+strength of the emotional tie which is shared by all the members of the
+horde; but the similarity in the circumstances of their life and the
+absence of any private property assist in determining the uniformity of
+their individual mental acts. As we may observe with children and
+soldiers, common activity is not excluded even in the excremental
+functions. The one great exception is provided by the sexual act, in
+which a third person is at the best superfluous and in the extreme case
+is condemned to a state of painful expectancy. As to the reaction of the
+sexual need (for genital gratification) towards gregariousness, see
+below.
+
+[55] It may perhaps also be assumed that the sons, when they were driven
+out and separated from their father, advanced from identification with
+one another to homosexual object love, and in this way won freedom to
+kill their father.
+
+[56] 'Das Unheimliche.' _Imago_, 1919, Bd. V.
+
+[57] See _Totem und Tabu_ and the sources there quoted.
+
+[58] This situation, in which the subject's attitude is unconsciously
+directed towards the hypnotist, while he is consciously occupied with
+the monotonous and uninteresting perceptions, finds a parallel among the
+events of psycho-analytic treatment, which deserves to be mentioned
+here. At least once in the course of every analysis a moment comes when
+the patient obstinately maintains that just now positively nothing
+whatever occurs to his mind. His free associations come to a stop and
+the usual incentives for putting them in motion fail in their effect. As
+a result of pressure the patient is at last induced to admit that he is
+thinking of the view from the consulting-room window, of the wall-paper
+that he sees before him, or of the gas-lamp hanging from the ceiling.
+Then one knows at once that he has gone off into the transference and
+that he is engaged upon what are still unconscious thoughts relating to
+the physician; and one sees the stoppage in the patient's associations
+disappear, as soon as he has been given this explanation.
+
+[59] Ferenczi: 'Introjektion und Uebertragung.' _Jahrbuch der
+Psychoanalyse_, 1909, Bd. I [_Contributions to Psycho-Analysis._ Boston,
+Badger, 1916, Chapter II.]
+
+[60] It seems to me worth emphasizing the fact that the discussions in
+this section have induced us to give up Bernheim's conception of
+hypnosis and go back to the _naif_ earlier one. According to Bernheim
+all hypnotic phenomena are to be traced to the factor of suggestion,
+which is not itself capable of further explanation. We have come to the
+conclusion that suggestion is a partial manifestation of the state of
+hypnosis, and that hypnosis is solidly founded upon a predisposition
+which has survived in the unconscious from the early history of the
+human family.
+
+[61] 'Trauer und Melancholie.'
+
+[62] _Totem und Tabu._
+
+[63] Trotter traces repression back to the herd instinct. It is a
+translation of this into another form of expression rather than a
+contradiction when I say in my 'Einfuehrung des Narzissmus' that on the
+part of the ego the construction of an ideal is the condition of
+repression.
+
+[64] Cf. Abraham: 'Ansaetze zur psychoanalytischen Erforschung und
+Behandlung des manisch-depressiven Irreseins', 1912, in _Klinische
+Beitraege zur Psychoanalyse_, 1921.
+
+[65] To speak more accurately, they conceal themselves behind the
+reproaches directed towards the person's own ego, and lend them the
+fixity, tenacity, and imperativeness which characterize the
+self-reproaches of a melancholiac.
+
+[66] [Literally: 'How he clears his throat and how he spits, that you
+have cleverly copied from him.']
+
+[67] What follows at this point was written under the influence of an
+exchange of ideas with Otto Rank.
+
+[68] Cf. Hanns Sachs: 'Gemeinsame Tagtraeume', a summary made by the
+lecturer himself of a paper read at the Sixth Psycho-analytical
+Congress, held at the Hague in 1920. _Internationale Zeitschrift fuer
+Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI. ['Day-Dreams in Common'. _International
+Journal of Psycho-Analysis_, 1920, Vol. I.]
+
+[69] In this brief exposition I have made no attempt to bring forward
+any of the material existing in legends, myths, fairy tales, the history
+of manners, etc., in support of the construction.
+
+[70] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_.
+
+[71] Hostile feelings, which are a little more complicated in their
+construction, offer no exception to this rule.
+
+[72] [_Schriften zur angewandten Seelenkunde._ Heft 8. Vienna, Deuticke,
+1910.]
+
+[73] See 'Ueber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.'
+
+[74] See _Totem und Tabu_, towards the end of Part II, 'Das Tabu und die
+Ambivalenz'.
+
+[75] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 4. Auflage, 1920, S. 96.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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