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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus
+Christ, by David Low Dodge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ
+
+Author: David Low Dodge
+
+Release Date: April 16, 2011 [EBook #35883]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR INCONSISTENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Rose Mawhorter and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DAVID LOW DODGE]
+
+
+
+
+  WAR INCONSISTENT
+  WITH THE
+  RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST
+
+  BY
+  DAVID LOW DODGE
+
+  WITH AN INTRODUCTION
+  BY
+  EDWIN D. MEAD
+
+  PUBLISHED FOR THE INTERNATIONAL UNION
+  GINN & COMPANY, BOSTON
+  1905
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY
+  THE INTERNATIONAL UNION
+
+  ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+  55.8
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                       vii
+
+WAR INCONSISTENT WITH THE RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST                   1
+
+  WAR IS INHUMAN:
+
+     I. Because it hardens the heart and blunts the tender
+          feelings of mankind                                        2
+
+    II. War is inhuman, as in its nature and tendency it
+          abuses God's animal creation                               6
+
+   III. War is inhuman, as it oppresses the poor                     8
+
+    IV. War is inhuman, as it spreads terror and distress
+          among mankind                                             12
+
+     V. War is inhuman, as it involves men in fatigue, famine,
+          and all the pains of mutilated bodies                     14
+
+    VI. War is inhuman, as it destroys the youth and cuts
+          off the hope of gray hairs                                16
+
+   VII. War is inhuman, as it multiplies widows and orphans,
+          and clothes the land in mourning                          18
+
+  WAR IS UNWISE:
+
+      I. Because, instead of preventing, it provokes insult
+           and mischief                                             23
+
+     II. War is unwise, for instead of diminishing, it increases
+           difficulties                                             26
+
+    III. War is unwise, because it destroys property                28
+
+     IV. War is unwise, as it is dangerous to the liberties of
+           men                                                      30
+
+      V. War is unwise, as it diminishes the happiness of
+           mankind                                                  34
+
+     VI. War is unwise, as it does not mend, but injures, the
+           morals of society                                        36
+
+    VII. War is unwise, as it is hazarding eternal things for
+           only the chance of defending temporal things             42
+
+   VIII. War is unwise, as it does not answer the professed
+           end for which it is intended                             44
+
+  WAR IS CRIMINAL:
+
+      I. Going to war is not keeping from the appearance
+           of evil, but is running into temptation                  47
+
+     II. War is criminal, as it naturally inflames the pride
+           of man                                                   49
+
+    III. War necessarily infringes on the consciences of
+           men, and therefore is criminal                           52
+
+     IV. War is criminal, as it is opposed to patient suffering
+           under unjust and cruel treatment                         56
+
+      V. War is criminal, as it is not doing to others as we
+           should wish them to do to us                             60
+
+     VI. War is inconsistent with mercy, and is therefore
+           criminal 61
+
+    VII. War is criminal, as the practice of it is inconsistent
+           with forgiving trespasses as we wish to be forgiven
+           by the final judge                                       63
+
+   VIII. Engaging in war is not manifesting love to enemies
+           or returning good for evil                               64
+
+     IX. War is criminal, because it is actually rendering
+           evil for evil                                            67
+
+      X. War is criminal, as it is actually doing evil that good
+           may come; and this is the best apology that can
+           be made for it                                           71
+
+     XI. War is opposed to the example of the Son of God,
+           and is therefore criminal                                72
+
+  OBJECTIONS ANSWERED                                               77
+
+HYMN                                                               121
+
+THE MEDIATOR'S KINGDOM NOT OF THIS WORLD: BUT SPIRITUAL            123
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+To David Low Dodge of New York belongs the high honor of having written
+the first pamphlets published in America directed expressly against the
+war system of nations, and of having founded the first peace society
+ever organized in America or in the world. His first pamphlet, _The
+Mediator's Kingdom not of this World_, was published in 1809. His second
+and more important pamphlet, _War Inconsistent with the Religion of
+Jesus Christ_, was prepared for the press in 1812. This was two years
+before the publication of Noah Worcester's _Solemn Review of the Custom
+of War_, which was issued in Boston on Christmas Day, 1814. Early in
+1812 Mr. Dodge and his friends in New York deliberated on the expediency
+of forming a peace society; but on account of the excitement attending
+the war with Great Britain this was postponed until 1815. In August of
+that year the New York Peace Society, the first in the world, was
+organized, with Mr. Dodge as its president. This was four months before
+the organization of the Massachusetts Peace Society (December 26, 1815)
+under the leadership of Noah Worcester, and nearly a year before the
+English Peace Society, the first in Europe, was formed (June 14, 1816)
+in London.
+
+The preëminent historical interest attaching to Mr. Dodge's pioneering
+work in the peace cause in this country would alone justify and indeed
+seem to command the republication of his pamphlets at this time, when
+the great ideas for which he so courageously and prophetically stood are
+at last winning the general recognition of humane and thoughtful men.
+But it is not merely historical interest which warrants a revival of
+attention to these almost forgotten papers. Their intrinsic power and
+worth are such as make their reading, especially that of the second
+essay, _War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ_, which
+stands first in the present volume, edifying and inspiring to-day.
+Marked by few literary graces and cast in a theological mold which the
+critical thought of the present has in large measure outgrown, there is
+a force of thought, a moral earnestness, a persevering logic, a common
+sense, a hatred of inhumanity, a passion for justice, a penetration and
+a virtue in them, which commends them to the abiding and reverent regard
+of all who work for the peace and order of the world. Among such workers
+to-day are men of various political philosophies, and perhaps only a
+small minority are nonresistants of the extreme type of David L. Dodge;
+but to that minority, we cannot fail to remark, belongs the greatest and
+most influential of all the peace prophets of this time, Leo Tolstoi.
+None can read these old essays without being impressed by the fact that
+their arguments are essentially the same as those of the great Russian.
+There is little indeed of the Tolstoian thunder and lightning, the
+pathos, wrath, and rhetoric, the poetry and prophecy, in these
+old-fashioned pages; but the doctrine is the same as that of _Bethink
+Yourselves!_ and _Patriotism versus Christianity_. In his central
+thought and purpose, in his religious trust and reliance upon the
+Christian principle, the New York merchant was a Tolstoi a hundred years
+before his time.
+
+David Low Dodge was born June 14, 1774, in that part of Pomfret,
+Connecticut, now called Brooklyn. This was the home of Israel Putnam;
+and David Dodge's father, a farmer and carpenter, was Putnam's neighbor
+and friend,--may well have been near him when in April, 1775, upon
+hearing of the battle of Lexington, he left his plow in the furrow and
+started to join the forces gathering at Cambridge. David Dodge's father,
+grandfather, and great-grandfather each bore the name of David Dodge.
+The great-grandfather was a Congregational minister, who was understood
+to have come from Wales,--a learned and wealthy man, who was for a while
+settled in the vicinity of Cape Ann in Massachusetts. The grandfather,
+who also received a liberal education, probably in England, came into
+the possession of his father's estate, for that day a large one, and we
+are not informed whether he followed any profession or regular business.
+He was a man fully six feet tall, of great muscular power, and a lover
+of good horses, on which he spent much time and money. He married Ann
+Low, from a wealthy Massachusetts family, and settled in Beverly, where
+their sons David and Samuel were born, and where the family fortunes
+became much embarrassed. About 1757 the family removed to Pomfret,
+Connecticut, and the boys, whose education at the hands of their mother
+had been but slight, were apprenticed, David to a carpenter and Samuel
+to a shoemaker. Their father, obtaining at this time a commission in the
+army invading Canada, met his death in a bateau which attempted to
+descend the falls of the Oswego and was dashed to pieces on the rocks
+with the loss of every soul on board.
+
+David Low Dodge's mother, when a girl, was Mary Stuart, and when she
+married his father, in 1768, was a widow bearing the name of Earl. The
+young husband hired a small farm, the wife by her industry and economy
+had furniture sufficient to begin housekeeping, and the little home was
+founded in which David Low Dodge's only sister Mary was born in 1770.
+Three years later the father hired a more expensive place in the same
+town, where the boy was born in 1774. "During that year," he writes in
+his autobiography, "my father became serious, and commenced family
+prayer. He was educated in the old semi-Arminian views of his mother and
+the halfway covenant. My mother was a rigid Calvinist of the Whitefield
+school. Neither of them ever made a public profession of religion, but
+they were careful to observe external ordinances, catechize their
+children, and give religious instruction. They were honest, industrious,
+temperate, kind-hearted people, universally respected and esteemed by
+all who were acquainted with them."
+
+Such was the atmosphere in which the boy grew up. "The American
+Revolution at this period was convulsing the whole country, drafting and
+enlisting soldiers. Wagons were needed for the army, and by the advice
+of the Putnams, the old general and his son Israel, who was about two
+years younger than my father, he was induced to engage in the
+manufacture of continental wagons. He hired a convenient place for
+carpenters and blacksmiths, took several journeymen into the family,
+and embarked all his earnings in the business." The boy's half-brothers,
+William and Jesse Earl, entered the army at the tender ages of fourteen
+and sixteen, endured battles, sickness, and every privation, and both
+died towards the close of the war, the event almost wrecking the nervous
+system of the mother, a woman of acute sensibility. Thus early were the
+horrors of war brought personally home to the boy. He remembered hearing
+the distant cannonading when New London was burned by the British, and
+the exclamation of the man beside him, "Blood is flowing to-day." "News
+came the next morning that the forts were stormed, the garrisons put to
+the sword, New London burnt, and the British were marching upon Norwich,
+and would proceed up into the country. My mother wrung her hands, and
+asked my father if we had not better pack up some things to secrete
+them."
+
+The boy's education was slight and fragmentary. The summer he was six
+years old he attended the school of a venerable Irish maiden lady about
+sixty years of age, learning Watts' _Divine Songs_, texts of Scripture,
+and the _Shorter Catechism_. From the age of seven to fourteen--the
+family now living on a farm in the neighboring town of Hampton--he
+attended the district school for two terms each winter, having no access
+to any other books than the primer, spelling book, arithmetic, and
+Bible. "I used often, when not at work in the shop evenings, to retire
+to the old kitchen fireplace, put my lamp into the oven, and, sitting
+with my back against it, take my arithmetic, slate, and pencil, and try
+to cipher a little. I often think how I should have been delighted to
+have had one fifth part of the advantages enjoyed by most of my
+descendants." Confined to the house for seven weeks a little later as
+the result of accidents, he turned hungrily to such books as he could
+secure--Dilworth's _Arithmetic_, Webster's _Abridged Grammar_, and
+Salmon's _Universal English Geography_. "This opened a new and
+astonishing field to me for contemplation. I now obtained the first
+glimpse of the boundaries of land and water, of the lofty mountains, and
+of the mighty rivers which had cut their channels through the earth. I
+read and surveyed the maps and meditated upon them until I began to
+lecture to my young companions, and was considered quite learned in
+geography. Having an object in view, I began to thirst for knowledge,
+and succeeded in borrowing in succession _The Travels of Cyrus_,
+_Xerxes' Expedition into Greece_, _The History of Alexander the Great_,
+and _Hannibal's Invasion of Rome_." He proposed and brought about the
+formation of a society of young men in the town, for the improvement of
+minds and manners. There were fourteen young men, with an equal number
+of young women presently added, each furnishing a useful book as the
+beginning of a library. "We obtained some of the British classics, such
+as the _Spectator_, _Guardian_, etc., with a few histories; the subjects
+formed a foundation for conversation when we met together."
+
+Now the young man's ambition turned from farming to school-teaching. He
+began with district schools, becoming a successful teacher from the
+start, prosecuting his own studies assiduously in every leisure hour,
+fired with a desire to improve the schools, which were everywhere as
+wretched as can well be imagined. For some months in 1795 he left
+teaching to join other young men in building a bridge at Tiverton, Rhode
+Island. Then he attended the academy at North Canterbury, Connecticut,
+under the charge of the eminent teacher, John Adams. "This was the only
+opportunity I ever enjoyed of attending a good school, and this was
+abridged to fulfill my engagement to teach the town school in
+Mansfield." In 1796 he opened a private school in Norwich, adding the
+next year a morning school for young ladies and an evening school for
+apprentices and clerks, all of which flourished. During this time he was
+profoundly interested in religious matters, attending many revivals and
+becoming more and more concerned with moral and social problems. Now,
+too, he married, his wife being a daughter of Aaron Cleveland of
+Norwich, a strong character, afterwards a clergyman, "whose name you
+will find enrolled among the poets of Connecticut," and who as early as
+1775 published a poem on slavery, which, condemning slavery as wholly
+antichristian, attracted a good deal of notice. He was the first man in
+Connecticut to arraign slavery publicly. Elected to the General Assembly
+from Norwich on that issue, he introduced a bill in behalf of
+emancipation.
+
+With health somewhat impaired and with family cares increasing, David
+Dodge now turned from teaching to trade. First it was as a clerk in
+Norwich, then as a partner in a general store, then as head of various
+dry goods establishments in Hartford and other Connecticut towns, always
+and everywhere successful. In 1805 Messrs. S. and H. Higginson of
+Boston, cousins of his wife, a firm of high standing and large capital,
+made him a proposition to enter into a copartnership with a view to
+establishing an extensive importing and jobbing store in the city of New
+York; and he accepted the proposition, going to New York the next year
+to take charge of the concern in that city. He took a store in Pearl
+Street, and the year afterwards the family took possession of the house
+connected with the store, still reserving the house in Hartford as a
+retreat in case of yellow fever in New York. From this time until his
+death, April 23, 1852, New York was, with occasional interruptions, his
+home and the center of his varied and ever enlarging activities. Just
+before the outbreak of the war with England his partners became bankrupt
+through losses in extensive shipping of American produce to Europe.
+"Bonaparte sprung his trap upon more than a million dollars of their
+property." Mr. Dodge now established cotton factories in Connecticut,
+and later commenced anew the dry goods business in New York, his home
+for years alternating between New York and the Norwich neighborhood; and
+for the nine years following 1835 he occupied a large farm in
+Plainfield, New Jersey.
+
+Active as was his business life, and faithful his devotion to his large
+business affairs,--and he came to rank with the most prominent mercantile
+men of his day,--his mind was always intent upon social and religious
+subjects. "During the years of 1808 to 1811 our business became extensive
+and demanded much thought and attention; yet I think my affections were on
+the subject of religion." Revivals of religion, the interests of his
+church in Norwich or New York, the improvement of the lives of his
+factory operatives, the organization in New York of the Christian Friendly
+Society for the Promotion of Morals and Religion,--such were the objects
+which commanded him. Throughout his long residence in New York he was a
+prominent worker in the Presbyterian church, for many years an elder in
+the church. He took a leading part in organizing the New York Bible
+Society and the New York Tract Society, was much engaged in the early
+missionary movements in New York, and in promoting the education of young
+men for the ministry. He was a lover of knowledge, a great reader, and one
+who thought and wrote as he read. Deeply interested in history, ancient
+and modern, his chief interest was in theological discussion. He was
+familiar with the chief theological controversies of the day, and upon
+many of them committed his views to writing. His knowledge of the Bible
+was remarkable; he read it through critically in course forty-two times.
+He held firmly the Calvinistic system of doctrine, and he addressed to his
+children a series of letters, characterized by great ability and logical
+force, in defense of the faith, and constituting together a compendious
+system of theology.
+
+Several of these letters are included in the memorial volume published
+for the family in 1854 under the editorial supervision of Rev. Matson M.
+Smith. This volume contains, besides the two essays on war here
+reprinted, and various verses and letters, the interesting autobiography
+which he prepared, at the request of his children, a few years before
+his death, and a supplementary biographical sketch by his pastor, Rev.
+Asa D. Smith. In the mass of manuscripts which he left behind was an
+essay upon "The Relation of the Church to the World," and one upon
+"Retributive Judgment and Capital Punishment,"--to which he was sharply
+opposed. He was opposed indeed to so much in human governments as now
+constituted,--"whose ultimate reliance," he said, "is the sword," and
+whose laws he felt to be so often contrary to the laws of Christ to
+which he gave his sole allegiance,--that he would neither vote nor hold
+office. Strict and inflexible as he was in his views of political and
+religious duty, he was one of the most genial and delightful of men, a
+Christian in whom there was no guile, fond of the young, affectionate,
+courteous, "given to hospitality," "careful habitually to make even the
+conventionalities of life a fitting accompaniment and expression of the
+inward principle of kindness." A face as strong as it is gentle, and as
+gentle as it is strong, is that which looks at us in the beautiful
+portrait preserved in the family treasures, and a copy of which forms
+the frontispiece of the present volume.
+
+The character and influence of the family which he founded in New York,
+during the three generations which have followed, constitute an
+impressive witness to David Dodge's force and worth, his religious
+consecration, and high public spirit. At the junction of Broadway and
+Sixth Avenue stands the statue of his son, William Earl Dodge, whose
+life of almost fourscore years ended in 1883. For long years the head of
+the great house of Phelps, Dodge & Co., the manager of immense railway,
+lumber, and mining interests, the president of the New York Chamber of
+Commerce, a representative of New York in Congress, a leader in large
+work for temperance, for the freedmen, for the Indians, for theological
+education, for a score of high patriotic and philanthropic interests,
+New York had in his time no more representative, more useful, or more
+honored citizen. And what is said of him may be said in almost the same
+words of William Earl Dodge, his son, who died but yesterday, and who
+combined broad business and philanthropic activities in the same strong
+and influential way as his father and grandfather before him. President
+of many religious and benevolent associations, he was pre-eminently a
+patriot and an international man. The logic of his life and of his
+heritage placed him naturally at the head of the National Arbitration
+Committee, which was appointed at the great conference on international
+arbitration held at Washington in the spring of 1896, following the
+anxiety attendant upon President Cleveland's Venezuelan message,--a
+committee which, under his chairmanship, and since his death that of
+Hon. John W. Foster, has during the decade rendered such great service
+to the peace and arbitration cause in this country. It is to be noted
+also that the names of his son and daughter, Cleveland H. Dodge and
+Grace H. Dodge, names so conspicuously associated to-day with
+charitable, religious, and educational efforts in New York, are
+associated, too, like his with the commanding cause of the world's peace
+and better organization; both names stand upon the American Committee of
+the Thirteenth International Peace Congress, which met in Boston in
+1904. Thus have the generations which have followed him well learned and
+strongly emphasized the lesson taught by David Dodge almost a century
+ago, that war is "inhuman, unwise, and criminal," and "inconsistent with
+the religion of Jesus Christ."
+
+It was in 1805 that a startling personal experience prompted the train
+of thought which soon and forever made David L. Dodge the advocate of
+the thorough-going peace principles with which his name is chiefly
+identified, and led him to condemn all violence, even in self-defense,
+in dealings between men, as between nations. Accustomed to carry pistols
+when traveling with large sums of money, he was almost led to shoot his
+landlord in a tavern at Providence, Rhode Island, who by some blunder
+had come into his room at night and suddenly waked him. The thought of
+what his situation and feelings would have been had he taken the man's
+life shocked him into most searching thinking. For two or three years
+his mind dwelt on the question. He turned to the teaching and example of
+Christ, and became persuaded that these were inconsistent with violence
+and the carrying of deadly weapons, and with war. The common churchman
+sanctioned such things, but not the early Christians; and he found
+strong words condemning war in Luther and Erasmus, the Moravians and
+Quakers. Discussing the matter with many pious and Christian men, he
+found them generally avoiding the gospel standard. He was shocked by the
+"general want of faith in the promises"; but he himself laid aside at
+once his pistols and the fear of robbers. He became absolutely convinced
+that fighting and warfare were "unlawful for the followers of Christ";
+and from now on he began to bear public testimony against the war
+spirit.
+
+Early in the spring of 1809 he published his essay, _The Mediator's
+Kingdom not of this World_, which attracted so much attention that in
+two weeks nearly a thousand copies were sold. Three literary men joined
+in preparing a spirited and sarcastic criticism of it; and he
+immediately published a rejoinder. _The Mediator's Kingdom_ was
+republished in Philadelphia and in Providence, and Mr. Dodge writes
+truly: "These publications gave the first impulse in America, if we
+except the uniform influence of the Friends, to inquiry into the
+lawfulness of war by Christians. Some who were favorable to the
+doctrines of peace judged that, with a bold hand, I had carried the
+subject too far; and doubtless, as it was new and had not been much
+discussed, I wrote too unguardedly, not sufficiently defining my terms.
+The Rev. Dr. Noah Worcester was one who so judged, and a few years after
+he published his very spirited and able essay, _The Solemn Review of
+War_." This famous essay of Worcester's represents the platform of the
+great body of American peace workers for a century, the position of men
+like Channing and Ladd and Jay and Sumner; but to a nonresistant and
+opponent even of self-defense, like David Dodge, these seemed the
+exponents of a halfway covenant.
+
+Mr. Dodge entered into private correspondence on the lawfulness of war
+with Rev. Lyman Beecher, Rev. Aaron Cleveland, his father-in-law, Rev.
+John B. Romeyn, and Rev. Walter King. He preserved among his manuscripts
+letters of twenty-five pages from Dr. Romeyn and Mr. Cleveland, and
+copies of his reply to Dr. Romeyn (one hundred and thirty-two pages) and
+to Dr. Beecher (forty-four pages). Important letters from Dr. Beecher
+and Governor Jay he had lost. All these took the position of Dr.
+Worcester, sanctioning strictly defensive war in extreme cases,--all
+except Mr. Cleveland, who finally came into complete accord with Mr.
+Dodge, and published two able sermons on "The Life of Man Inviolable by
+the Laws of Christ."
+
+Early in 1812 the friends of peace whom Mr. Dodge had gathered about him
+in New York conferred upon the forming of a peace society, "wholly
+confined to decided evangelical Christians, with a view to diffusing
+peace principles in the churches, avoiding all party questions." There
+being at this juncture, however, intense political feeling over the
+threatened war with Great Britain, they feared their motives would be
+misapprehended, and decided for the moment simply to act individually in
+diffusing information. Mr. Dodge was appointed to prepare an essay on
+the subject of war, stating and answering objections; and, removing at
+this time to Norwich, he there, in a period of great business
+perplexity, completed his remarkable paper on "War Inconsistent with the
+Christian Religion," which was published in the very midst of the war
+with England.
+
+Upon his return to New York, the friends of peace there had two or three
+meetings relative to the organization of a society; and in August, 1815,
+they formed the New York Peace Society, of between thirty and forty
+members, their strict articles of association condemning all war,
+offensive and defensive, as wholly opposed to the example and spirit and
+precepts of Christ. The peace societies formed immediately afterwards in
+Massachusetts, Ohio, Rhode Island, and London were organized, according
+to Mr. Dodge, without any knowledge of each other, the movements being
+the simultaneous separate results of a common impulse. Of the New York
+society Mr. Dodge was unanimously elected president. Monthly meetings
+were arranged, and at the first of these Mr. Dodge read an address upon
+"The Kingdom of Peace under the Benign Reign of Messiah," of which a
+thousand copies were at once printed and circulated. Within two years
+the society had increased to sixty members, men active not only against
+war--which the society regarded as "the greatest temporal evil, as
+almost every immorality is generated in its prosecution, and poverty,
+distress, famine, and pestilence follow in its train"--but in all the
+benevolent enterprises of that day. "Several respectable clergymen
+united with the society,--Rev. Drs. E. D. Griffin and M. L. Parvine,
+Rev. E. W. Baldwin (to whose pen we were much indebted), Rev. Samuel
+Whelpley, and his son, Rev. Melancthon Whelpley, Rev. H. G. Ufford, and
+Rev. S. H. Cox. Dr. Cox, however, afterwards entertained different views
+on the subject."
+
+The New York Peace Society had friendly correspondence with all the
+other peace societies, and for several years took two hundred copies of
+Dr. Worcester's _Friend of Peace_. This seems finally to have
+contributed to divide the society, some relinquishing the nonresistant
+views of Mr. Dodge and adopting Worcester's less extreme position. But
+our brave Tolstoian was a "thorough," and never wavered. "If it was
+morally wrong for individuals to quarrel and fight, instead of returning
+good for evil,"--these are his last words on the subject in his
+autobiography,--"it was much more criminal for communities and nations
+to return evil for evil, and not strive to overcome evil with good. In
+fact, the great barrier to our progress was the example of our fathers
+in the American Revolution. That they were generally true patriots, in
+the political sense of the term, and many hopefully pious, I would not
+call in question, while I consider them as ill directed by education as
+St. Paul was when on his way to Damascus."
+
+The New York Peace Society maintained its existence and work for many
+years. In 1828 it united with other societies in the creation of the
+American Peace Society, which was organized in New York on May 8 of that
+year on the initiative of William Ladd. After this the New York society
+seems to have done little separate work, and finally its independent
+existence ceased. Mr. Dodge assisted in the organization of the new
+national society, and presided at its first annual meeting, May 13,
+1829. He was chosen a member of its board of directors, and later became
+a life director, maintaining his connection with the society until his
+death in 1852, faithful to the end to the radical views by which he had
+become so powerfully possessed almost half a century before.
+
+For two generations New York has been without a local peace society. The
+services of eminent individual citizens of the city and state of New
+York for the peace cause during that period, however, have been signal.
+Judge William Jay of New York was for a decade president of the American
+Peace Society,--the important decade covering the great peace congresses
+in Europe at the middle of the last century; and it was his proposal
+that an arbitration clause should be attached to all future commercial
+treaties which furnished the basis for the most constructive debates of
+the first congress, that at London in 1843. The three really important
+members of the American delegation at The Hague Conference were citizens
+of New York,--Andrew D. White, Seth Low, and Frederick W. Holls. A
+remarkable plan adopted by the New York State Bar Association suggested
+important features of The Hague Court as finally constituted. It is a
+citizen of New York, Andrew Carnegie, who has given $1,500,000 for a
+worthy building for the court at The Hague,--a temple of peace. Mr.
+Carnegie, whose influence in behalf of international fraternity is
+perhaps second to that of no other to-day, has also given $5,000,000 to
+establish a pension fund for "heroes of peace," whose heroism, too long
+comparatively neglected, he rightly sees to be not less than the heroism
+of the soldier. The most important series of arbitration conferences in
+recent times have been those at Lake Mohonk, in the state of New York,
+arranged by Albert K. Smiley,--conferences of growing size and
+importance, commanding world-wide attention, and performing for this
+country almost the same service performed for France and England by
+their national peace congresses. Finally, it must not be forgotten that
+Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States, through whose
+initiative the second Hague Conference will presently meet, is also a
+citizen of New York.
+
+At this very time a promising movement is gaining head to organize once
+more in David Dodge's city a New York Peace Society. At one of the
+recent Mohonk conferences a large committee of New York men, under the
+chairmanship of Mr. Warner Van Norden, was formed for conference with
+this end in view. Upon the American committee of the International Peace
+Congress which met in Boston in 1904 were no less than sixteen residents
+of the city of New York,--Andrew Carnegie, Hon. Oscar S. Straus, Hon.
+George F. Seward, Walter S. Logan, Felix Adler, William D. Howells, Mrs.
+Charles Russell Lowell, Mrs. Anna Garlin Spencer, Miss Grace H. Dodge,
+Rev. Josiah Strong, Rev. Charles E. Jefferson, Cleveland H. Dodge,
+George Foster Peabody, Professor John B. Clark, Leander T. Chamberlain,
+and J. G. Phelps Stokes. In the week following the Boston congress a
+series of great peace meetings was held in New York, at the Cooper Union
+and elsewhere, arranged by members of this committee; and out of all
+this a new impulse has come to plans for local organization in New York.
+As one result a strong society was formed by the Germans of the city,
+and a large Women's Peace Circle has since been organized and begun
+important educational work. The larger New York Peace Society is now
+certainly a thing of the near future. To the men and women who will
+constitute that society, the noble body of those now working in their
+various ways in the great city for the cause of peace, is dedicated
+especially this republication of the old essays of David Dodge, the
+founder of the first peace society in the world, who by his pioneering
+and prophetic service gave to New York a place so significant in the
+history of what is to-day the world's most commanding cause.
+
+  SEPTEMBER, 1905                                   EDWIN D. MEAD
+
+
+
+
+WAR INCONSISTENT WITH THE RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST
+
+Humanity, wisdom, and goodness at once combine all that can be great and
+lovely in man. Inhumanity, folly, and wickedness reverse the picture,
+and at once represent all that can be odious and hateful. The former is
+the spirit of Heaven, and the latter the offspring of hell. The spirit
+of the gospel not only breathes "glory to God in the highest, but on
+earth peace, and good will to men." The wisdom from above is first pure,
+then peaceable, gentle, easy to be entreated; but the wisdom from
+beneath is earthly, sensual, and devilish.
+
+It is exceedingly strange that any one under the light of the gospel,
+professing to be guided by its blessed precepts, with the Bible in his
+hand, while the whole creation around him is so often groaning under the
+weight and terrors of war, should have doubts whether any kind of wars
+under the gospel dispensation, except spiritual warfare, can be the
+dictate of any kind of wisdom except that from beneath; and much more
+so, to believe that they are the fruit of the Divine Spirit, which is
+love, joy, and peace.
+
+An inspired apostle has informed us from whence come wars and fightings.
+They come from the lusts of men that war in their members. Ever since
+the fall, mankind have had naturally within them a spirit of pride,
+avarice, and revenge. The gospel is directly opposed to this spirit. It
+teaches humility, it inculcates love, it breathes pity and forgiveness
+even to enemies, and forbids rendering evil for evil to any man.
+
+Believing as I do, after much reflection and, as I trust, prayerful
+investigation of the subject, that all kinds of carnal warfare are
+unlawful upon gospel principles, I shall now endeavor to prove that WAR
+is INHUMAN, UNWISE, and CRIMINAL, and then make some general remarks,
+and state and answer several objections. In attempting to do this I
+shall not always confine myself strictly to this order of the subject,
+but shall occasionally make such remarks as may occur, directly or
+indirectly, to show that the whole genius of war is contrary to the
+spirit and precepts of the gospel.
+
+
+
+
+WAR IS INHUMAN
+
+
+I. BECAUSE IT HARDENS THE HEART AND BLUNTS THE TENDER FEELINGS OF
+MANKIND
+
+That it is the duty of mankind to be tender-hearted, feeling for the
+distress of others, and to do all in their power to prevent and
+alleviate their misery, is evident not only from the example of the Son
+of God but the precepts of the gospel.
+
+When the Saviour of sinners visited this dark and cruel world he became
+a man of sorrow and was acquainted with grief, so that he was touched
+with the feeling of our infirmities. He went about continually healing
+the sick, opening the eyes of the blind, unstopping the ears of the
+deaf, raising the dead, as well as preaching the gospel of peace to the
+poor. He visited the houses of affliction and poured the balm of
+consolation into the wounded heart. He mourned with those who mourned,
+and wept with those that wept. Love to God and man flowed from his soul
+pure as the river of life, refreshing the thirsty desert around him. He
+was not only affectionate to his friends but kind to his enemies. He
+returned love for their hatred, and blessing for their cursing. When he
+was surrounded by all the powers of darkness and resigned himself into
+the hands of sinners to expiate their guilt, and they smote him on the
+cheek and plucked off the hair, he "was dumb and opened not his mouth."
+While suffering all the contempt and torture which men and devils could
+invent, instead of returning evil for evil he prayed for his murderers
+and apologized for his persecutors, saying, "Father, forgive them, for
+they know not what they do."
+
+The apostle exhorts Christians, saying, "Be ye kind and tender-hearted,
+forgiving one another, even as God for Christ's sake hath forgiven you."
+
+Authority in abundance might be quoted to show that the spirit of the
+gospel absolutely requires the exercise of love, pity, and forgiveness,
+even to enemies.
+
+But who will undertake to prove that soldiers are usually kind and
+tender-hearted, and that their employment has a natural tendency to
+promote active benevolence, while it requires all their study of mind
+and strength of body to injure their enemies to the greatest extent?
+
+Though we often hear of the generosity and attention of soldiers to
+prisoners, and notwithstanding I am willing to allow that feelings of
+humanity are not altogether obliterated from every soldier, yet much of
+this apparent kindness may flow from a desire of better treatment
+themselves should circumstances be reversed, or from a hope of the
+applause of mankind. My object, however, is not to prove that all
+soldiers are destitute of humanity, but that their occupation has a
+natural tendency and actually does weaken their kind and tender
+feelings, and harden their hearts.
+
+Is it not a fact that those who are engaged in the spirit of war, either
+in the council or in the field, are not usually so meek, lowly, kind,
+and tender-hearted as other men? Does the soldier usually become kind
+and tender-hearted while trained to the art of killing his fellow-man,
+or more so when engaged in the heat of the battle, stepping forward over
+the wounded and hearing the groans of the expiring? Does he actually put
+on bowels of tenderness, mercy, and forgiveness, while he bathes his
+sword in the blood of his brother? Do these scenes generally change the
+lion into the lamb? On the contrary, do not the history of ages and the
+voice of millions bear testimony that the whole trade of war has a
+natural tendency to blunt the tender edge of mercy and chill all the
+sympathizing feelings of the human heart? Who that is a parent, having
+an uncommonly hard-hearted and unfeeling son, would send him into the
+camp to subdue his inhumanity and to stamp upon him kind and tender
+feelings? If war has not a natural tendency to harden the heart, permit
+me to inquire why mankind do not usually feel as much at the distress
+occasioned by war as by other calamities?
+
+It would be truly astonishing, were it not so common, to see with what
+composure the generality of mankind hear the account of barbarous and
+destructive battles. They may have some little excitement when they hear
+of savages--whose religion teaches them revenge--using the tomahawk and
+scalping knife; but when thousands are torn to pieces with shot and
+shells and butchered with polished steels, then it becomes a very polite
+and civil business, and those who perish are contemplated as only
+reclining on a bed of honor. If an individual in common life breaks a
+bone or fractures a limb, all around him not only sympathize but are
+ready to aid in alleviating his distress; but when thousands are slain
+and ten thousand wounded in the field of battle, the shock is but
+trifling, and the feelings are soon lost in admiring the gallantry of
+this hero and the prowess of that veteran. And why all this sensibility
+at the pains of an individual, and all this indifference at the
+sufferings of thousands, if war has not a natural tendency to harden the
+heart and destroy the tender feelings of mankind?
+
+It is a fact, however, so notorious that the spirit and practice of war
+do actually harden the heart and chill the kind and tender feelings of
+mankind, that I think few will be found to deny it, and none who have
+ever known or felt the spirit of Christ.
+
+The spirit of war must be very unlike the spirit of the gospel, for the
+gospel enforces no duty the practice of which has a natural tendency to
+harden men's hearts, but in proportion as they are influenced by its
+spirit and actuated by its principles they will be humane; therefore, if
+war hardens men's hearts it is not a Christian duty, and of course it
+cannot be right for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+II. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IN ITS NATURE AND TENDENCY IT ABUSES GOD'S ANIMAL
+CREATION
+
+When God at first created man, he gave him authority over the beasts of
+the field, the fowls of the air, and the fishes of the deep. After he
+had swept away the old ungodly world of mankind for their violence with
+all the animal creation, except those in the ark, he was pleased to
+renew to Noah the same privilege of being lord over the animal world.
+
+It may not perhaps be improper here to digress a little and remark that
+this appears to have been the original bounds of man's authority,--that
+of having dominion only over the animal world and not over his
+fellow-man. It appears that God reserved to himself the government of
+man, whom he originally created in his own image; from which it may be
+inferred that man has no lawful authority for governing his fellow-man
+except as the special executor of divine command, and that no government
+can be morally right except that which acknowledges and looks up to God
+as the supreme head and governor.
+
+But to return: although the animal world is put under the dominion of
+man for his use, yet he has no authority to exercise cruelty towards it.
+"For the merciful man regardeth the life of his beast." God is very
+merciful to his creatures; he not only hears the young ravens when they
+cry but he opens his hand and supplies the wants of the cattle upon a
+thousand hills.
+
+Though God has decorated the earth with beauty and richly clothed it
+with food for man and beast, yet where an all-devouring army passes,
+notwithstanding the earth before them is like the garden of Eden, it is
+behind them a desolate wilderness; the lowing ox and bleating sheep may
+cry for food, but, alas! the destroyer hath destroyed it.
+
+The noble horse, which God has made for the use and pleasure of man,
+shares largely in this desolating evil. He is often taken, without his
+customary food, to run with an express, until, exhausted by fatigue, he
+falls lifeless beneath his rider. Multitudes of them are chained to the
+harness with scanty food, and goaded forward to drag the baggage of an
+army and the thundering engines of death, until their strength has
+failed, their breath exhausted, and the kindness they then receive is
+the lash of the whip or the point of a spear. In such scenes the comfort
+of beasts is not thought of, except by a selfish owner who fears the
+loss of his property.
+
+But all this is trifling compared with what these noble animals, who
+tamely bow to the yoke of man, suffer in the charge of the battle; the
+horse rushes into the combat not knowing that torture and death are
+before him. His sides are often perforated with the spur of his rider,
+notwithstanding he exerts all his strength to rush into the heat of the
+battle, while the strokes of the sabers and the wounds of the bullets
+lacerate his body, and instead of having God's pure air to breathe to
+alleviate his pains, he can only snuff up the dust of his feet and the
+sulphurous smoke of the cannon, emblem of the infernal abode. Thus he
+has no ease for his pains unless God commissions the bayonet or the
+bullet to take away his life.
+
+But if such is the cruelty to beasts in prosecuting war, what is the
+cruelty to man, born for immortality?
+
+No wonder that those who feel so little for their fellow-men should feel
+less for beasts.
+
+If war is an inhuman and cruel employment, it must be wrong for
+Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+III. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT OPPRESSES THE POOR
+
+To oppress the poor is everywhere in the Scriptures considered as a
+great sin: "For the oppression of the poor, for the sighing of the
+needy, now will I arise, saith the Lord"; "Whoso stoppeth his ears at
+the cry of the poor, he also shall cry himself and not be heard"; "What
+mean ye that ye beat my people to pieces, and grind the faces of the
+poor? saith the Lord God of hosts."
+
+The threatenings against those who oppress the poor, and the blessings
+pronounced upon those who plead their cause, are very numerous in the
+Scriptures. The threatenings are so tremendous and awful that all men
+ought to consider well before they are active in any step which has a
+natural tendency to oppress the poor and needy.
+
+That war actually does oppress the poor may be heard from ten thousand
+wretched tongues who have felt its woe. Very few, comparatively, who are
+instigators of war actually take the field of battle, and are seldom
+seen in the front of the fire. It is usually those who are rioting on
+the labors of the poor that fan up the flame of war. The great mass of
+soldiers are generally from the poor of a country. They must gird on the
+harness and for a few cents per day endure all the hardships of a camp
+and be led forward like sheep to the slaughter. Though multitudes are
+fascinated to enlist by the intoxicating cup, the glitter of arms, the
+vainglory of heroes, and the empty sound of patriotism, yet many more
+are called away contrary to their wishes by the iron hand of despotic
+laws. Perhaps a parent is enrolled whose daily labor was hardly
+sufficient to supply a scanty pittance for a numerous offspring, who are
+in his absence crying for bread. And why all this sorrow in this poor
+and needy family? Because the husband and father is gone, and probably
+gone forever, most likely to gratify the wishes of some ambitious men
+who care as little as they think of his anxious family. Perhaps an only
+son is taken from old, decrepit parents, the only earthly prop of their
+declining years; and with cold poverty and sorrow their gray hairs are
+brought down to the dust.
+
+War cannot be prosecuted without enormous expenses. The money that has
+been expended the last twenty years in war would doubtless have been
+sufficient not only to have rendered every poor person on earth
+comfortable--so far as money could do it--during the same period, but,
+if the residue had been applied to cultivate the earth, it would have
+literally turned the desert into a fruitful field. Only the interest of
+the money that has been expended in a few years by the European nations
+in prosecuting war would have been sufficient, under proper direction,
+to educate every poor child on earth in the common rudiments of
+learning, and to support missionaries in abundance to convey the gospel
+of peace to every creature. What a noble employment if those nations had
+exerted their powers for these objects as much as they have for injuring
+each other! And what a difference would have appeared in the world!
+Blessings would have fallen on millions ready to perish, instead of
+desolation, terror, and death.
+
+The vast expenses of war must be met by corresponding taxes, whether by
+duties on merchandise or direct taxes on real estate; yet they fall most
+heavily on the poor. Whatever duty the merchant pays to the customhouse,
+he adds the amount to the price of his goods, so that the consumer
+actually pays the tax. If a tax is levied on real estate, the product of
+that estate is raised to meet it, and whoever consumes the product pays
+the tax. In times of war the prices of the necessaries of life are
+generally very much increased, but the prices of the labor of the poor
+do not usually rise in the same proportion, therefore it falls very
+heavily on them. When the honest laborers are suddenly called from the
+plow to take the sword and leave the tilling of the ground, either its
+seed is but sparingly sown or its fruit but partially gathered, scarcity
+ensues, high prices are the consequence, and the difficulty greatly
+increased for the poor to obtain the necessaries of life, especially if
+they were dependent on the product of a scanty farm which they are now
+deprived of cultivating. Many a poor widow, who has been able in times
+of peace to support her fatherless children, has been obliged in times
+of war in a great measure to depend on the cold hand of charity to
+supply their wants.
+
+The calamities of war necessarily fall more on the poor than on the
+rich, because the poor of a country are generally a large majority of
+its inhabitants.
+
+These are some of the evils of war at a distance, but when it comes to
+their doors, if they are favored personally to escape the ferocity of
+the soldiers, they fly from their habitations, leaving their little all
+to the fire and pillage, glad to escape with their lives, though
+destitute and dependent; and when they cast round their eyes for relief,
+they only meet a fellow-sufferer, who can sympathize with them but not
+supply their wants. Thus does war not only oppress the poor but adds
+multitudes to their number who before were comfortable.
+
+If war actually does oppress the poor, then we may infer that in its
+nature and tendency it is very unlike the genius of the gospel, and not
+right for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+IV. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT SPREADS TERROR AND DISTRESS AMONG MANKIND
+
+In the benign reign of Messiah the earth will be filled with the
+abundance of peace; there will be nothing to hurt or destroy; every one
+will sit quietly under his own vine and fig tree, having nothing to
+molest or make him afraid. But in times of war, mankind are usually full
+of anxiety, their hearts failing them for fear, looking for those things
+which are coming upon our wicked world.
+
+One of the most delightful scenes on earth is a happy family where all
+the members dwell together in love, being influenced by the blessed
+precepts of the gospel of peace. But how soon does the sound of war
+disturb and distress the happy circle! If it is only the distant thunder
+of the cannon that salutes the ear, the mother starts from her repose,
+and all the children gather round her with looks full of anxiety to know
+the cause. Few women can so command their feelings as to hide the cause;
+and let it be said to the honor of the female sex that they have
+generally tender feelings, which cannot easily be disguised at the
+distress of their fellow-beings. Perhaps a mother's heart is now wrung
+with anguish in the prospect that either the partner of her life or the
+sons of her care and sorrow, or both, are about to be called into the
+bloody field of battle. Perhaps the decrepit parent views his darling
+son leaving his peaceful abode to enter the ensanguined field, never
+more to return. How soon are these joyful little circles turned into
+mourning and sorrow!
+
+Who can describe the distress of a happy village suddenly encompassed by
+two contending armies--perhaps so early and suddenly that its
+inhabitants are aroused from their peaceful slumbers by the confused
+noise of the warriors more ferocious than the beasts that prowl in the
+forest? Were it not for the tumult of the battle, shrieks of distress
+from innocent women and children might be heard from almost every abode.
+Children run to the arms of their distracted mothers, who are as unable
+to find a refuge for themselves as for their offspring. If they fly to
+the streets they are in the midst of death: hundreds of cannon are
+vomiting destruction in every quarter; the hoofs of horses trampling
+down everything in their way; bullets, stones, bricks, and splinters
+flying in every direction; houses pierced with cannon shot and shells
+which carry desolation in their course; without, multitudes of men
+rushing with deadly weapons upon each other with all the rage of tigers,
+plunging each other into eternity, until the streets are literally
+drenched with the blood of men. To increase the distress, the village is
+taken and retaken several times at the point of the bayonet. If the
+inhabitants fly to their cellars to escape the fury of the storm, their
+buildings may soon be wrapt in flames over their heads.
+
+And for what, it may be asked, is all this inhuman sacrifice made?
+Probably to gain the empty bubble called honor,--a standard of right and
+wrong without form or dimensions. Let no one say that the writer's
+imagination is heated while it is not in the power of his feeble pen to
+half describe the horror and distress of the scenes which are by no
+means uncommon in a state of war.
+
+If such are some of the effects of war, then it must be a very inhuman
+employment, and wrong for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+V. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT INVOLVES MEN IN FATIGUE, FAMINE, AND ALL THE
+PAINS OF MUTILATED BODIES
+
+To describe the fatigues and hardships of a soldier's life would require
+the experience of a soldier, so that only some of their common
+sufferings can be touched upon by a person who is a stranger to the
+miseries of a camp.
+
+A great majority of those who enter the ranks of an army are persons
+unaccustomed to great privations and severe fatigues; hence the great
+proportion of mortality among fresh recruits. Their habits and strength
+are unable to endure the hard fare, rapid and constant marches generally
+imposed upon them in active service.
+
+The young soldier commonly exchanges a wholesome table, a comfortable
+dwelling, an easy bed, for bad food, the field for his house, the cold
+earth for his bed, and the heavens over him for his covering. He must
+stand at his post day and night, summer and winter; face the scorching
+sun, the chilling tempest, and be exposed to all the storms of the
+season, without any comfortable repose; perhaps during most of the time
+with a scanty allowance of the coarsest food, and often destitute of
+any, except the miserable supply he may have chance to plunder,--not
+enough to satisfy but only to keep alive the craving demands of nature;
+often compelled to march and countermarch several days and nights in
+succession, without a moment to prepare his provisions to nourish him
+and glad to get a little raw to sustain his life. Frequently this
+hardship is endured in the cold and inclement season, while his tattered
+clothing is only the remains of his summer dress. Barefooted and half
+naked, fatigued and chilled, he becomes a prey to disease, and is often
+left to perish without a human being to administer to him the least
+comfort. If he is carried to a hospital, he is there surrounded by the
+pestilential breath of hundreds of his poor fellow-sufferers, where the
+best comforts that can be afforded are but scanty and dismal.
+
+But all this is comparatively trifling to the sufferings of the wounded
+on the field of battle. There thousands of mangled bodies lie on the
+cold ground hours, and sometimes days, without a friendly hand to bind
+up a wound; not a voice is heard except the dying groans of their
+fellow-sufferers around them. No one can describe the horrors of the
+scene: here lies one with a fractured skull, there another with a
+severed limb, and a third with a lacerated body; some fainting with the
+loss of blood, others distracted, and others again crying for help.
+
+If such are some of the faint outlines of the fatigues and sufferings of
+soldiers, then their occupation must be an inhuman employment, for they
+are instrumental in bringing the same calamities on others which they
+suffer themselves; and of course it is unfriendly to the spirit of the
+gospel, and wrong for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+VI. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT DESTROYS THE YOUTH AND CUTS OFF THE HOPE OF
+GRAY HAIRS
+
+Mankind are speedily hastening into eternity, and it might be supposed
+sufficiently fast without the aid of all the ingenuity and strength of
+man to hurry them forward; yet it is a melancholy truth that a great
+proportion of the wealth, talents, and labors of men are actually
+employed in inventing and using means for the premature destruction of
+their fellow-beings.
+
+One generation passes away, and another follows in quick succession. The
+young are always the stay and hope of the aged; parents labor and toil
+for their children to supply their wants and to educate them to be
+happy, respectable, and useful, and then depend upon them to be their
+stay and comfort in their declining years. Alas, how many expectations
+of fond parents are blasted! Their sons are taken away from them and
+hurried into the field of slaughter.
+
+In times of war the youth--the flower, strength, and beauty of the
+country--are called from their sober, honest, and useful employments, to
+the field of battle; and if they do not lose their lives or limbs, they
+generally lose their habits of morality and industry. Alas! few ever
+return again to the bosom of their friends. Though from their mistaken
+and fascinating views of a soldier's life and honor they may be
+delighted in enlisting, and merry in their departure from their peaceful
+homes, yet their joy is soon turned into pain and sorrow. Unthinking
+youth, like the horse, rushes thoughtlessly into the battle. Repentance
+is then too late; to shrink back is death, and to go forward is only a
+faint hope of life. Here on the dreadful field are thousands and
+hundreds of thousands driven together to slaughter each other by a few
+ambitious men, perhaps none of whom are present. A large proportion are
+probably the youth of their country, the delight and comfort of their
+parents. All these opposing numbers are most likely persons who never
+knew or heard of each other, having no personal ill-will, most of whom
+would in any other circumstances not only not injure each other but be
+ready to aid in any kind office; yet by the act of war they are ranged
+against each other in all the hellish rage of revenge and slaughter.
+
+No pen, much less that of the writer's, can describe the inhumanity and
+horrors of a battle. All is confusion and dismay, dust and smoke
+arising, horses running, trumpets blasting, cannon roaring, bullets
+whistling, and the shrieks of the wounded and dying vibrating from every
+quarter. Column after column of men charge upon each other in furious
+onset, with the awful crash of bayonets and sabers, with eyes flashing
+and visages frightfully distorted with rage, rushing upon each other
+with the violence of brutish monsters; and when these are literally cut
+to pieces others march in quick succession, only to share the same cruel
+and bloody tragedy. Hundreds are parrying the blows; hundreds more are
+thrusting their bayonets into the bowels of their fellow-mortals, and
+many, while extricating them, have their own heads cleft asunder by
+swords and sabers; and all are hurried together before the tribunal of
+their Judge, with hearts full of rage and hands dyed in the blood of
+their brethren.
+
+O horrid and debasing scene! my heart melts at the contemplation, and I
+forbear to dwell upon the inhuman employment.
+
+
+VII. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT MULTIPLIES WIDOWS AND ORPHANS, AND CLOTHES
+THE LAND IN MOURNING
+
+The widow and fatherless are special objects of divine compassion, and
+Christianity binds men under the strongest obligation to be kind and
+merciful towards them, as their situation is peculiarly tender and
+afflicting.
+
+"A father of the fatherless, and a judge of the widow, is God in his
+holy habitation." "Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father
+is this, to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction."
+
+To be active in any measure which has a natural tendency to wantonly
+multiply widows and orphans in a land is the height of inhumanity as
+well as daring impiety.
+
+I will venture to say that no one circumstance in our world has so
+greatly multiplied widows and fatherless children as that of war. What
+has humanity ever gained by war to counterbalance simply the afflictions
+of the widow and fatherless? I verily believe nothing comparatively. I
+am well aware that a very popular plea for war is to defend, as it is
+styled, "our firesides, our wives and children"; but this generally is
+only a specious address to the feelings, to rouse up a martial spirit
+which makes thousands of women and children wretched where one is made
+happy. I am sensible that those will sneer at my opinion who regard more
+the honor that comes from men than they do the consolation of the widow
+and the fatherless.
+
+In times of war thousands of virtuous women are deprived of their
+husbands and ten thousands of helpless children of their fathers. The
+little tender children may now gather round their disconsolate mothers,
+anxiously inquiring about their fathers, remembering their kind visages,
+recollecting how they used fondly to dandle them on their knees and
+affectionately instruct them; but now they are torn from their embraces
+by the cruelty of war, and they have no fathers left them but their
+Father in heaven.
+
+It is probably no exaggeration to suppose that in Europe there are now
+two hundred thousand widows and a million fatherless children occasioned
+by war. What a mass of affliction! humanity bleeds at the thought! These
+children must now roam about without a father to provide for, protect,
+or instruct them. They now become an easy prey to all kinds of vice;
+many probably will be trained up for ignominious death, and most of them
+fit only for a soldier's life, to slaughter and to be slaughtered,
+unless some humane hand kindly takes them under its protection.
+
+And here I cannot help admiring the spirit of Christianity. It is owing
+to the blessed spirit and temper of the gospel of peace that many of the
+evils of war are so much ameliorated at the present day as well as the
+inhuman slavery of men.
+
+The numerous asylums that now exist for the relief of the needy, the
+widow, and the fatherless are some of the precious fruits of
+Christianity; and if this spirit were universal the bow would soon be
+broken to pieces, the spear cut asunder, and the chariots of war burnt
+with fire, and wars would cease to the ends of the earth.
+
+And is it not the duty of all who name the name of Christ to do all in
+their power to counteract this destroying evil?
+
+War not only multiplies widows and orphans but clothes the land in
+mourning. In times of war multitudes of people are clothed with ensigns
+of mourning. Here are gray-headed parents shrouded in blackness, weeping
+for the loss of darling sons; there are widows covered with veils
+mourning the loss of husbands, and refusing to be comforted; children
+crying because their fathers are no more. Cities and villages are
+covered in darkness and desolation; weeping and mourning arise from
+almost every abode.
+
+And it may be asked, What inhuman hand is the cause of all this sorrow?
+Perhaps some rash man, in the impetuosity of his spirit, has taken some
+unjust, high ground, and is too proud to retrace a step, and had rather
+see millions wretched than to nobly confess that he had been in the
+wrong.
+
+Surely Christians cannot be active in such measures without incurring
+the displeasure of God, who styles himself the father of the fatherless
+and the judge and avenger of the widow.
+
+Thus I have shown that war is inhuman and therefore wholly inconsistent
+with Christianity, by proving that it tends to destroy humane
+dispositions; that it hardens the hearts and blunts the tender feelings
+of men; that it involves the abuse of God's animal creation; that it
+oppresses the poor; that it spreads terror and distress among mankind;
+that it subjects soldiers to cruel privations and sufferings; that it
+destroys the youth and cuts off the hope of the aged; and that it
+multiplies widows and orphans and occasions mourning and sorrow.
+
+The fact that war is inhuman is indeed one of those obvious truths which
+it is difficult to render more plain by argument; those who know in what
+war consists cannot help knowing that it is inhuman.
+
+What Mr. Windham said with reference to the inhumanity of slavery may be
+said of the inhumanity of war. In one of his speeches in the House of
+Commons against the slave trade he stated his difficulty in arguing
+against such a trade to be of that kind which is felt in arguing in
+favor of a self-evident proposition. "If it were denied that two and two
+made four, it would not be a very easy task," he said, "to find
+arguments to support the affirmative side of the question. Precisely
+similar was his embarrassment in having to prove that the slave trade
+was unjust and inhuman."
+
+Whoever admits that the slave trade is inhuman must admit that war is
+inhuman in a greater variety of ways and on a much larger scale.
+
+The inhumanity of the slave trade was the great and, finally, triumphant
+argument by which it was proved to be inconsistent with Christianity.
+
+The advocates of slavery, like the advocates of war, resorted to the Old
+Testament for support; but it appeared that slavery, as it appears that
+war, was permitted and approved of for reasons and on principles
+peculiar to the ancient economy. This is apparent as well from the
+difference between the general design of the old and new dispensations
+as from the whole genius and spirit of the gospel. Hence those who
+opposed the slave trade argued from the general nature and spirit of
+Christianity as the strongest ground which could be taken. If slavery
+was inconsistent with this, it ought not to be tolerated; but slavery is
+inhuman and is therefore inconsistent with Christianity. Exactly the
+same is true of war, nor can anything short of an express revelation
+from God, commanding war or slavery, render either of them justifiable.
+
+It deserves to be distinctly considered that the gospel contains little
+or nothing directly by way of precept against slavery; but slavery is
+inconsistent with its general requirements and inculcations and is
+therefore wrong. But war, besides being inconsistent with the genius and
+spirit of the gospel, is prohibited by those precepts which forbid
+retaliation and revenge and those which require forgiveness and good
+will.
+
+It is plain, then, that he who does not advocate and defend the slave
+trade, to be consistent, must grant that war is incompatible with
+Christianity, and that it is a violation of the gospel to countenance
+it.
+
+
+
+
+WAR IS UNWISE
+
+
+That the principles and practice of war are unwise I argue:
+
+
+I. BECAUSE, INSTEAD OF PREVENTING, THEY PROVOKE INSULT AND MISCHIEF
+
+The maxim, that in order to preserve peace, mankind must be prepared for
+war, has become so common, and sanctioned by such high authority, that
+few question its wisdom or policy; but if stripped of its specious garb,
+it may appear to proceed not from that wisdom which came down from
+above, which is "first pure, then peaceable, gentle, easy to be
+entreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and
+without hypocrisy"; and if it is not the wisdom from above, then it must
+be the wisdom from beneath.
+
+Are not pride, avarice, and revenge the seeds of all kinds of carnal
+warfare? From these grow all the quarreling among children, the discord
+among families, the bickerings, law suits, and broils among neighbors,
+the boxing among bullies, the dueling among modern gentlemen, and wars
+among nations. They all originate from one and the same spirit.
+
+Now, is the mild, meek, and peaceable man, unarmed, more liable to
+inspire jealousy in others that he is about to insult and abuse them
+than the high-toned duelist who constantly carries with him deathly
+weapons? Does he, in fact, so often get into difficulty, quarreling and
+fighting? The respectable Society of Friends stands a living monument to
+answer the question.
+
+On the principles of self-defense, as they are styled, if one man
+suspects an injury from another, unless he is naturally a more powerful
+man, he must take a cane, as the principles of self-defense require a
+superior power in your own hand, either by art or muscular strength.
+When the other learns the suspicions and sees the preparation, he in his
+turn must take a bludgeon to preserve the balance of power and proclaim
+a threatening to awe his antagonist, who must now take a sword and
+return a threatening in order to maintain his dignity; for it will not
+do for men of honor to retract, however much they may be in the wrong.
+The other, again, must take a deathly weapon for his defense, and
+nothing is now wanting but an unhappy meeting to set each other's blood
+a flowing.
+
+Much in the same way do nations often get into desperate warfare. One
+nation is busily increasing its military strength on the plausible maxim
+of preserving peace and maintaining its rights. Another nation views the
+preparations with a jealous eye, and also goes to work on the same
+principle to make formidable preparations. All the nations around take
+the alarm, and on the same principle begin active preparations, all
+vying with each other to become the most formidable. If one sends an
+ambassador to inquire the cause of the great preparations, the answer
+always is, let the motive be what it may, _For their own defense_. Then
+the other makes new exertions and begins to fortify towns on the
+confines of his neighbor, who must not only do the same but march a
+large army for the defense of his frontier; and the other must do
+likewise. By this time, if no old quarrel remained unsettled, perhaps
+one charges the other with encroachment on territory; the other denies
+the charge, and contends sharply for his pretended rights. Ministers may
+be interchanged, and while negotiations are pending a high tone must be
+taken by both parties, for this is an essential principle in the
+doctrine of self-defense; the contrary would betray weakness and fear.
+Newspapers must be ushered forth with flaming pieces to rouse, as it is
+called, the spirit of the countries, so as to impress upon the populace
+the idea that the approaching war is just and necessary, for all wars
+must be just and necessary on both sides. In the meantime envoys
+extraordinary may be sent to other powers by each party to enlist their
+aid,--most of whom are already prepared for war,--and each one selects
+his side according to his interests and feelings. At length the
+_ultimatum_ is given and refused, and the dreadful conflict commences.
+Few wars, however, begin in this slow and progressive mode; a trifling
+aggression is sufficient to blow up the flame with nations already
+prepared.
+
+Thus, we see, nations resemble bulldogs who happen to meet. They will
+first raise their hairs, show their teeth, then growl, and then seize
+upon each other with all their strength and fury; and bulldogs have
+something of the same kind of honor, for they scorn to retreat.
+
+Hence we see that the acknowledged principles of defensive war are the
+vital springs of most of the wars that agitate and desolate our world.
+The pretended distinction between offensive and defensive war is but a
+name. All parties engaged in war proclaim to the world that they only
+are fighting in defense of their rights, and that their enemies are the
+aggressors; while it may be impossible for man to decide which are most
+in the wrong.
+
+The popular maxim of being prepared for war in order to be at peace may
+be seen to be erroneous in fact, for the history of nations abundantly
+shows that few nations ever made great preparations for war and remained
+long in peace. When nations prepare for war they actually go to war, and
+tell the world that their preparations were not a mere show.
+
+Thus we may see that the principles and preparations of war actually
+engender war instead of promoting peace; and of course they are unwise,
+and, if unwise, then it is folly for Christians to engage in them.
+
+
+II. WAR IS UNWISE, FOR INSTEAD OF DIMINISHING, IT INCREASES DIFFICULTIES
+
+As the principles and preparations of war have a natural tendency to
+generate war and are actually the cause of a great proportion of the
+wars which do exist, so actual hostilities have a natural tendency to
+increase difficulties and to spread abroad the destroying evil.
+
+It is almost impossible for any two nations to be long engaged in war
+without interfering with the rights and privileges of other nations,
+which generally awakes their jealousy and resentment, so that most of
+the surrounding nations are drawn into the destructive vortex, which is
+the more easily done, as war inflames the martial spirit in other
+nations not engaged, and rouses up the desperate passions of men.
+Besides, the belligerent nations are not content with suffering
+themselves, but use every art and persuasion to get the neighboring
+nations to join them; and they are generally too successful, for it
+seldom happens that two nations engage in war for a length of time and
+conclude a peace before they have involved other nations in their
+difficulties and distresses, and often a great proportion of the world
+is in arms.
+
+Moreover, the nations who first engage in the contest always widen the
+breach between themselves by war.
+
+It is much easier settling difficulties between individuals or nations
+before actual hostilities commence than afterwards. Mankind are not apt
+to be any more mild and accommodating in a state of actual warfare.
+Besides, new difficulties constantly arise. The passions become
+inflamed, and charges are often made of violating the established laws
+of civilized warfare, which laws, however, are generally bounded only by
+the strength of power. If one party makes an incursion into the other's
+territory and storms a fortified place and burns the town, the other
+party must then make a desperate effort to retaliate the same kind of
+destruction, to a double degree, on the towns of their enemy.
+Retaliation, or "rendering evil for evil," is not only allowed by
+Mahometans and pagans, but is an open and avowed principle in the
+doctrine of self-defense among professed Christian nations; not only is
+it sanctioned by the laity, but too often by the priests who minister in
+the name of Jesus Christ.
+
+Both of the contending parties generally seize on each other's
+possessions wherever they can get hold of them, whether on the seas or
+on the land. The barbarous spoliations on each other stir up the
+passions of the great mass of their inhabitants, until they esteem it a
+virtue to view each other as natural and perpetual enemies, and then
+their rulers can prosecute the war with what they call vigor.
+
+Can the wound now be so easily healed as it could have been before it
+became thus lacerated and inflamed? Facts speak to the contrary, and
+nations seldom attempt negotiations for peace under such circumstances.
+They generally prosecute the war with all their power until one party or
+the other is overcome, or until both have exhausted their strength, and
+then they may mutually agree to a temporary peace to gain a little
+respite, when perhaps the original matter of dispute has become
+comparatively so trifling that it is almost left out of the account.
+
+With a small spirit of forbearance and accommodation how easily might
+the difficulties have been settled before such an immense loss of blood
+and treasure!
+
+If war does actually increase, instead of diminishing, difficulties,
+then it must be very unwise to engage in it.
+
+
+III. WAR IS UNWISE, BECAUSE IT DESTROYS PROPERTY
+
+Property is what a great proportion of mankind are struggling to obtain,
+and many at the hazard of their lives. Though in some instances they may
+misuse it, yet it is the gift of God, and when made subservient to more
+important things, it may be a blessing to individuals and communities.
+It has in it, therefore, a real value, and ought not to be wantonly
+destroyed while it may be used as an instrument for benefiting mankind.
+
+It is a notorious fact that war does make a great destruction of
+property. Thousands of individuals on sea and on land lose their all,
+for the acquisition of which they may have spent the prime of their
+lives. Ships on the high seas are taken, often burnt or scuttled, and
+valuable cargoes sent to the bottom of the deep, some possibly laden
+with the necessaries of life and bound to ports where the innocent
+inhabitants were in a state of famine. Whole countries are laid waste by
+only the passing of an immense army: houses are defaced, furniture
+broken to pieces, the stores of families eaten up, cornfields trodden
+down, fences torn away and used for fuel, and everything swept in its
+train as with the besom of destruction more terrible to the inhabitants
+than the storms of heaven when sent in judgment. Beautiful towns are
+often literally torn to pieces with shot and shells. Venerable cities,
+the labor and pride of ages, are buried in ashes amid devouring flames,
+while in melancholy grandeur the fire and smoke rise to heaven and seem
+to cry for vengeance on the destroyers.
+
+Notwithstanding an avaricious individual or nation may occasionally in
+war acquire by plunder from their brethren a little wealth, yet they
+usually lose on the whole more than they gain. On the general scale the
+loss is incalculable. It is not my object to examine the subject in
+relation to any particular nation or war, but upon the general scale in
+application to all warlike nations and all wars under the light of the
+gospel.
+
+If war does destroy property, reduce individuals to beggary, and
+impoverish nations, then it is unwise to engage in it.
+
+
+IV. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT IS DANGEROUS TO THE LIBERTIES OF MEN
+
+Liberty is the gift of God, and ought to be dear to every man; not,
+however, that licentious liberty which is not in subordination to his
+commands. Men are not independent of God. He is their creator,
+preserver, and benefactor. In his hand their breath is, and he has a
+right to do what he will with his own; and the Judge of all the earth
+will do right. As man is not the creator and proprietor of man, he has
+no right to infringe on his liberty or life without his express divine
+command; and then he acts only as the executor of God. Man, therefore,
+bears a very different relation to God from what he does to his
+fellow-man.
+
+The whole system of war is tyrannical and subversive of the fundamental
+principles of liberty. It often brings the great mass of community under
+the severe bondage of military despotism, so that their lives and
+fortunes are at the sport of a tyrant. Where martial law is proclaimed,
+liberty is cast down, and despotism raises her horrid ensign in its
+place and fills the dungeons and scaffolds with her victims.
+
+Soldiers in actual service are reduced to the most abject slavery, not
+able to command their time for a moment, and are constantly driven about
+like beasts by petty tyrants. In them is exhibited the ridiculous
+absurdity of men rushing into bondage and destruction to preserve or
+acquire their liberty and save their lives.
+
+When the inhabitants of a country are cruelly oppressed by a despotic
+government, and they rise in mass to throw off the yoke, they are as
+often as otherwise crushed beneath the weight of the power under which
+they groaned, and then their sufferings are greatly increased; and if
+they gain their object after a long and sanguinary struggle, they
+actually suffer more on the whole than they would have suffered had they
+remained in peace. It is generally the providence of God, too, to make a
+people who have thrown off the yoke of their oppressor smart more
+severely under the government of their own choice than they did under
+the government which they destroyed. This fact ought well to be
+considered by every one of a revolutionary spirit.
+
+War actually generates a spirit of anarchy and rebellion which is
+destructive to liberty. When the inhabitants of a country are engaged in
+the peaceable employments of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce,
+anarchy and rebellion seldom happen. When these useful employments
+flourish, abundance flows in on every side, gentleness and humanity cast
+a smile over the land, and pleasure beams in almost every countenance.
+To turn the attention of a nation from these honest employments to _that
+of war_ is an evil of unspeakable magnitude. The great object in times
+of war is to rouse up what is styled the spirit of the country,--which,
+in fact, is nothing but inflaming the most destructive passions against
+its own peace and safety. If you infuse into a nation the spirit of war
+for the sake of fighting a foreign enemy, you do that which is often
+most dangerous to its own liberties; for if you make peace with the
+common enemy, you do not destroy the spirit of war among your own
+inhabitants; pride, discontent, and revenge will generally agitate the
+whole body, so that anarchy and confusion will fill the land, and
+nothing but a despotic power can restrain it; and often absolute
+despotism is too feeble to withstand it, and the only remedy is again to
+seek a common enemy. Nations have sometimes waged war against other
+nations because there was such a spirit of war among their own
+inhabitants that they could not be restrained from fighting, and if they
+had not a common foe they would fight one another. So when a nation once
+unsheathes the sword, it cannot easily return the sword again to the
+scabbard, but must keep it crimsoned with the blood of man until "they
+who take the sword shall perish with the sword," agreeably to the
+denunciation of Heaven.
+
+To inflame a mild republic with the _spirit of war_ is putting all its
+liberties to the utmost hazard, and is an evil that few appear to
+understand or appreciate. No person can calculate the greatness of the
+evil to transform the citizens of a peaceful, industrious republic into
+a band of furious soldiers; and yet the unhappy policy of nations is to
+cultivate a martial spirit that they may appear grand, powerful, and
+terrific, when in fact they are kindling flames that will eventually
+burn them up root and branch.
+
+In confirmation of what has been said, if we examine the history of
+nations we shall find that they have generally lost their liberties in
+consequence of the spirit and practice of war. Thus have republics who
+have boasted of their freedom lost their liberty one after another, and
+that this has resulted from the very nature of war and its inseparable
+evils is evident from the fact that so violent and deadly is this
+current of ruin, republics have generally sunk down to the lowest abyss
+of tyranny and despotism, or have been annihilated and their inhabitants
+scattered to the four winds of heaven. Indeed, what nation that has
+become extinct did not first lose its liberty by war, and then hasten to
+its end under the dominion of those passions which war inflames?
+
+Do nations ever enjoy so much liberty as when most free from the spirit
+of war? Are their liberties ever so little endangered as when this
+spirit is allayed and all its foreign excitements removed? Do not
+nations that have partially lost their civil liberties gradually regain
+them in proportion as they continue long without war? Is it not a common
+sentiment that the liberties of a people are in danger when war
+engrosses their attention? On the whole, is it not undeniable that peace
+is favorable to liberty, and that war is its enemy and its ruin? If so,
+what can be more unwise, what more opposite to every dictate of sound
+wisdom and policy, than the spirit and practice of war?
+
+
+V. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DIMINISHES THE HAPPINESS OF MANKIND
+
+Happiness is the professed object which most men are striving to obtain.
+Alas! few, comparatively, seek it where it is alone to be found. But
+that happiness which flows from the benevolent spirit of the gospel is
+to be prized far above rubies; it is a treasure infinitely surpassing
+anything that can be found merely in riches, honors, and pleasures.
+
+But war always diminishes the aggregate of happiness in the world. When
+nations wage war upon each other, all classes of their inhabitants are
+more or less oppressed. They are subjected to various privations;
+prosperity declines; external sources of happiness are mostly dried up;
+anxiety for friends, loss of relations, loss of property, the fear of
+pillage, severe services, great privations, and the dread of conquest
+keep them constantly distressed. They are like the troubled sea that
+cannot rest, whose waters cast up mire and dirt.
+
+Those actually engaged in war generally suffer privations and hardships
+of the severest kind. Even the sage counselors who declare wars are
+often in so great anxiety and pain as to the result of their enterprises
+as to be unable quietly to refresh themselves with food or sleep.
+
+All the rejoicings occasioned by military success are fully counterbalanced
+by the pain and mortification of the vanquished; and, in short, all the
+interest and happiness resulting from war to individuals and nations are
+dearly bought, and are at the expense of other individuals and nations.
+
+It is because war has no tendency to increase, but does in fact greatly
+diminish, happiness that it is so universally regarded and lamented as
+the greatest evil that visits our world. Hence fasting has generally
+been practiced by warlike Christian nations to deplore the calamity, to
+humble themselves before God, and to supplicate his mercy in turning
+away the judgment.
+
+Though fasting and deep humility before God is highly suitable for
+sinners, with a hearty turning away from their sins and humble
+supplication for God's mercy through the mediation of Christ, yet those
+fasts of nations who have voluntarily engaged in war and are determined
+to prosecute it until their lusts and passions are gratified do not
+appear to be such fasts as God requires.
+
+Does it not appear absurd for nations voluntarily to engage in war, and
+then to proclaim a fast to humble themselves before God for its evils,
+while they have no desire to turn away from them, but, on the contrary,
+make it an express object to seek the divine aid in assisting them
+successfully to perpetuate it?
+
+We often see contending nations, all of whom cannot be right, on any
+principle, proclaiming fasts, and chanting forth their solemn _Te Deums_
+as each may occasionally be victorious. Though such clashing hymns
+cannot mingle in the golden censer, yet few Christians seem to question
+the propriety of quarreling and fighting nations each in their turn
+supplicating aid in their unhallowed undertakings and returning thanks
+in case of success. Doubtless many would consider it as solemn mockery
+to see two duelists before their meeting supplicating God's blessing
+and protection in the hour of conflict, and then to see the victor
+returning thanks for his success in shedding the blood of his brother;
+and yet, when nations carry on the business by wholesale (if I may be
+allowed the expression) it is considered a very pious employment. The
+Lord has said, "And when ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine
+eyes from you: yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear; your
+hands are full of blood."
+
+Penitent Christians may weep and mourn with propriety for their own sins
+and the sins of the nations, with a hearty desire not only to forsake
+their own iniquities, but that the nations may be brought to confess and
+forsake their sins and turn from them to the living God. It is true that
+war is a judgment in God's providence. It is also a sin of the highest
+magnitude and ought to be repented of. It is a crime so provoking to
+Heaven that other calamities generally attend it. The famine, fire, and
+pestilence often attend its horrors and spread distress through a land.
+War with its attending evils unquestionably diminishes the aggregate of
+happiness in the world, and is therefore unwise.
+
+
+VI. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DOES NOT MEND, BUT INJURES, THE MORALS OF
+SOCIETY
+
+The strength, defense, and glory of a country consists primarily in the
+good moral character of its inhabitants. The virtuous and the good are
+the salt that preserve it from ruin. Says the Rev. Dr. Miller in his
+sermon on the death of Dr. Rogers (pages 366 and 388 of the Memoirs),
+"It is manifest from the whole tenor of his word that God is slow to
+inflict heavy judgments upon a nation in which many of his people dwell;
+that he often spares it, spreads over it the protection of his
+providence, and finally delivers it for their sake; and, of course, that
+the presence of his beloved children, speaking after the manner of men,
+is a better defense than chariots and horsemen, a better defense than
+all the plans of _mere_ politicians, than all the skill, courage, and
+activity of _mere_ warriors." Again, "I have no doubt that it is as
+great and precious a truth at this day as it ever was, that a praying
+people are, under God, the greatest security of a nation."
+
+When the inhabitants of a country become generally profane and dissolute
+in their manners, slaves to dissipation and vice, it is usually God's
+providence soon to visit them in his wrath and let loose the instruments
+of his destroying vengeance; how important, therefore, in a temporal
+point of view, is the preservation of good morals to a nation. But no
+event has so powerful a tendency to destroy the morals of a people as
+that of actual war. It draws the attention of the inhabitants from
+useful employments; it generates curiosity, dissipation, and idleness,
+and awakes all the furious passions of men.
+
+War occasions a great profanation of the Sabbath. Under God's providence
+the Sabbath has always been a great barrier against vice, and the
+observance of it is indispensable to good morals.
+
+In time of war the Sabbath among soldiers is often a day of parade. In
+the streets of the best-regulated cities may be seen soldiers marching,
+flags flying, drums and fifes playing, and a rabble of children
+following in the train. Now all this is not only calculated to dissipate
+all reverential respect for the solemnities of the day among the
+soldiers, but is calculated to destroy the respect and observance of the
+day with which the children and youth have been inspired. Add to this,
+flags are suspended from the windows of taverns and grogshops to entice
+in the youth by the intoxicating cup. In the camp the Sabbath is almost
+forgotten and rendered a common day. Armies from professing Christian
+nations as often begin offensive operations on the Sabbath as on any
+other day; and professing Christians not only tolerate all this but
+approve of it as a work of necessity and mercy.
+
+War occasions dishonesty. In countries where armies are raised by
+voluntary enlistment all kinds of deception and art are practiced by
+recruiting officers, and connived at by their governments, to induce the
+heedless youth to enlist. The honor and glory of the employment is held
+up to view in false colors; the importance of their bounty and wages are
+magnified; the lightness of the duty and opportunities for amusements
+and recreation are held out; and probably one half have the assurances
+of being noncommissioned officers, with a flattering prospect of a
+speedy advancement; and prospects of plunder are also held out to their
+cupidity. These deceptive motives are daily urged under the stimulating
+power of ardent spirits and the fascinating charms of martial music and
+military finery. Many a young man who has entered the rendezvous from
+curiosity or for the sake of a dram, without the least idea of joining
+the army, has been entrapped into intoxication, and his hand then
+grasped the pen to seal his fate.
+
+Recruits after joining the army find from experience that most of the
+allurements held out to them to enlist were but a deception, and from
+lust and want they often become petty thieves and plunderers to repay
+them for their great privations, fatigues, and sufferings.
+
+War occasions drunkenness,--one of the greatest evils and most
+destructive to morality, as a multitude of other vices necessarily
+follow in its train. Many a young man has entered the military ranks
+_temperate_, and has returned from them a _sot_. All the enticements of
+liquor are exhibited in the most inviting forms to youth in the streets
+by the recruiting officer, to tempt them to enlist; and while those who
+have enrolled themselves remain at the rendezvous, they are probably
+every day intoxicated with the inebriating poison, soul and body, and
+soon the habit becomes confirmed. While in actual service their fatigues
+are so great that they greedily lay hold on the destroying liquor
+wherever they can find it to exhilarate their languid frames, even if
+they had not before acquired an insatiable thirst; and soon this
+detestable evil will become so enchanting that they will not only barter
+away their wages for it but their necessary clothing. If they survive
+the campaign and return to their homes, they are often the visitors of
+grogshops and taverns, and by their marvelous stories attract the
+populace around them, who must join them in circulating the cup; and
+thus they spread this destroying evil all around.
+
+War occasions profaneness. Profaneness is an abomination in the sight of
+God: "For the Lord will not hold him guiltless who taketh his name in
+vain." Profaneness draws down the judgments of heaven, "for because of
+swearing the land mourneth."
+
+That soldiers are generally considered more profane than other men is
+evident, because it has become a proverb that "such a person is as
+profane as a soldier, or a man-of-war's man." Young men who have been
+taught to revere the name of the God of their fathers may shudder at the
+awful profanations that fill their ears when they first enter an army;
+but if destitute of grace in the heart, the sound will soon cease to
+offend, and they will eagerly inhale the blasphemous breath and become
+champions in impiety. For want of habit they may not swear with so easy
+a grace as the older soldiers; they will for that reason make great
+exertions and invent new oaths, which will stimulate their fellows again
+to exceed in daring impiety. Seldom does a soldier return from the camp
+without the foul mouth of profanity. Astonishing to think that those who
+are most exposed to death should be most daring in wickedness!
+
+War occasions gambling. A great proportion of the amusements of the camp
+are petty plays at chance, and the stake usually a drink of grog. The
+play is fascinating. Multitudes of soldiers become established gamblers
+to the extent of their ability, and often, if they return to society,
+spread the evil among their neighbors.
+
+War begets a spirit of quarreling, boxing, and dueling; and no wonder
+that it should, for the whole business of war is nothing else but
+quarreling and fighting. The soldier's ambition is to be a bully, a
+hero, and to be careless of his own life and the lives of others. He is
+therefore impatient in contradiction, receives an insult where none was
+intended, and is ready to redress the supposed injury with the valor of
+his own arms; for it will not do for soldiers to shrink from the contest
+and be cowards.
+
+War destroys the habits of industry and produces idleness. Industry is
+necessary to good morals as well as to the wealth and happiness of a
+country, and every wise government will take all laudable means to
+encourage it; but a large proportion of common soldiers who may return
+from the armies have lost the relish and habits of manual labor and are
+often found loitering about in public places, and if they engage in any
+kinds of labor, it is with a heavy hand and generally to little purpose.
+They therefore make bad husbands, unhappy neighbors, and are worse than
+a dead weight in society. Their children are badly educated and provided
+for, and trained up to demoralizing habits, which are handed down from
+generation to generation.
+
+These immoralities, and many more that might be named, are not confined
+to soldiers in time of war, but they are diffused more or less through
+the whole mass of community; and war produces a general corruption in a
+nation, and is therefore unwise, even in a temporal point of view. But
+when we consider the natural effects of these immoralities on the souls
+of men, all temporal advantages are in comparison annihilated. In this
+school of vice millions are ripening for eternal woe. The destroying
+influence will spread and diffuse itself through the whole mass of
+society unless the spirit of the Lord lifts up a standard against it.
+
+The state of morals, so much depressed by the American Revolution, was
+only raised by the blessed effusions of God's holy spirit.
+
+If war does actually demoralize a people, then no wise person can
+consistently engage in it.
+
+
+VII. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT IS HAZARDING ETERNAL THINGS FOR ONLY THE
+CHANCE OF DEFENDING TEMPORAL THINGS
+
+Says our blessed Saviour: "For what is a man profited, if he should gain
+the whole world, and lose his own soul?"
+
+The loss of a soul infinitely exceeds all finite calculations. It is not
+only deprived forever and ever of all good but is plunged into misery
+inexpressible and everlasting. All temporal things dwindle to nothing
+when placed in comparison with eternal realities. The rights, liberties,
+and wealth of nations are of little value compared with one immortal
+soul. But astonishing to think that millions and millions have been put
+at everlasting hazard only for the chance of defending temporal things!
+
+The habits and manners of a soldier's life are calculated, as we have
+already seen, to demoralize them, to obliterate all early serious
+impressions, to introduce and confirm them in the most daring wickedness
+and fit them for everlasting destruction. And notwithstanding God may
+have occasionally, to display his sovereign power, snatched some
+soldiers from the ranks of rebellion and made them the heirs of his
+grace, yet no sober Christian will say that the army is a likely place
+to promote their salvation; but, on the contrary, must acknowledge that
+it is a dangerous place for the souls of men. It may be assumed as an
+undeniable fact that the great mass of soldiers are notoriously depraved
+and wicked. With but few exceptions their impiety grows more daring the
+longer they practice war; and when it is considered that thousands and
+thousands of such are hurried by war prematurely into eternity, with all
+their sins unpardoned, what an amazing sacrifice appears only for some
+supposed temporal good. But when it is remembered that this infinite
+sacrifice is made merely for the chance of obtaining some temporal
+advantage, the folly of war appears in more glaring colors, as the
+battle is not always to the strong. Those who are contending for their
+rights, and are least in the wrong, are about as often unsuccessful as
+otherwise, and then they very much increase their evils in a temporal
+point of view. A wise man would not engage in a lawsuit to recover a
+cent, admitting that it was his just due, if the trial put to the hazard
+his whole estate. But this bears no comparison with _one soul_ in
+competition with all temporal things; and yet men, professing to be
+_wise_, not only put one soul at hazard but millions, not for the
+_chance_ of defending all temporal good, but often for a mere bubble,
+the hollow sound of honor; and many of those who are watching for souls,
+and must give an account, instead of sounding the alarm, approve of it.
+
+All who engage in war, either in the field or otherwise, practically
+regard _time_ more than eternity, and _temporal_ more than _eternal_
+things.
+
+If souls are of more value than temporal things, and eternity of more
+consequence than time, it must be _unwise_ to engage in a war and put
+souls to immediate hazard of everlasting ruin, and totally wrong for
+Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+VIII. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DOES NOT ANSWER THE PROFESSED END FOR WHICH
+IT IS INTENDED
+
+The professed object of war generally is to preserve liberty and produce
+a lasting peace; but war never did and never will preserve liberty and
+produce a lasting peace, for it is a divine decree that all nations who
+take the sword shall perish with the sword. War is no more adapted to
+preserve liberty and produce a lasting peace than midnight darkness is
+to produce noonday light.
+
+The principles of war and the principles of the gospel are as unlike as
+heaven and hell. The principles of war are terror and force, but the
+principles of the gospel are mildness and persuasion. Overcome a man by
+the former and you subdue only his natural power, but not his spirit;
+overcome a man by the latter, and you conquer his spirit and render his
+natural power harmless. Evil can never be subdued by evil. It is
+returning good for evil that overcomes evil effectually. It is,
+therefore, alone the spirit of the gospel that can preserve liberty and
+produce a lasting peace. Wars can never cease until the principles and
+spirit of war are abolished.
+
+Mankind have been making the experiment with war for ages to secure
+liberty and a lasting peace; or, rather, they have ostensibly held out
+these objects as a cover to their lusts and passions. And what has been
+the result? Generally the loss of liberty, the overturning of empires,
+the destruction of human happiness, and the drenching of the earth with
+the blood of man.
+
+In most other pursuits mankind generally gain wisdom by experience; but
+the experiment of war has not been undertaken to acquire wisdom. It has,
+in fact, been undertaken and perpetuated for ages to gratify the corrupt
+desires of men. The worst of men have delighted in the honors of
+military fame and it is what they have a strong propensity for; and how
+can a Christian take pleasure in that employment which is the highest
+ambition of ungodly men? The things that are highly esteemed among men
+are an abomination in the sight of God. Is it not, therefore, important
+that every one naming the name of Christ should bear open testimony
+against the spirit and practice of war and exhibit the spirit and temper
+of the gospel before the world that lieth in wickedness, and let their
+lights shine before men?
+
+But what can the men of the world think of such Christians as are daily
+praying that wars may cease to the ends of the earth, while they have
+done nothing and are doing nothing to counteract its destructive
+tendency? Alas! too many are doing much by their lives and conversation
+to support its spirit and principles. Can unbelievers rationally
+suppose such prayers to be sincere? Will they not rather conclude that
+they are perfect mockery? What would be thought of a man daily praying
+that the means used for his sick child might be blessed for his
+recovery, when he was constantly administering to him known poison? With
+the same propriety do those Christians pray that war may come to a final
+end, while they are supporting its vital principles.
+
+It is contrary to fact that war is calculated to preserve liberty and
+secure a lasting peace; for it has done little else but destroy liberty
+and peace and make the earth groan under the weight of its terror and
+distress.
+
+It is contrary to the word of God that war is calculated to promote
+peace on earth and good will toward men. The law that is to produce this
+happy effect will not be emitted from the council of war or the smoke of
+a camp; but the law shall go forth out of Zion, and the Lord shall
+rebuke the strong nations and they shall beat their swords into
+plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; then nations shall no
+more lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn the art of
+war any more; then shall the earth be filled with the abundance of peace
+and there shall be nothing to hurt or destroy. It is reserved alone for
+the triumph of the gospel to produce peace on earth and good will to
+men.
+
+If war does actually provoke insult and mischief; if it increases
+difficulties, destroys property and liberty; if it diminishes happiness,
+injures the morals of society, hazards eternal for only the chance of
+defending temporal things, and, finally, does not answer the end for
+which it was intended, then it must be _very unwise_ to engage in it,
+and it must be wrong for Christians to do anything to promote it, and
+right to do all in their power to prevent it.
+
+
+
+
+WAR IS CRIMINAL
+
+
+I am now to show that war, when judged of on the principles of the
+gospel, is highly criminal.
+
+
+I. GOING TO WAR IS NOT KEEPING FROM THE APPEARANCE OF EVIL, BUT IS
+RUNNING INTO TEMPTATION
+
+... I would have it understood that I consider every act of mankind
+which is palpably contrary to the spirit and precepts of the gospel
+_criminal_.
+
+It is an express precept of the gospel to abstain from all appearance of
+evil. "Watch and pray that ye enter not into temptation" is also an
+express command of Christ.
+
+A person desiring not only to abstain from evil, but from the very
+appearance of it, will suffer wrong rather than hazard that conduct
+which may involve doing wrong. He will be so guarded that if he errs at
+all he will be likely to give up his right when he might retain it
+without injuring others.
+
+No person, it is believed, will attempt to maintain that there is no
+appearance of evil in carnal warfare, or that it is not a scene of great
+temptation.
+
+One great object of the gospel is to produce good morals, to subdue the
+irascible passions of men and bring them into sweet subjection to the
+gospel of peace.
+
+But war cannot be prosecuted without rousing the corrupt passions of
+mankind. In fact, it is altogether the effect of lust and passion. In
+times of war almost every measure is taken for the express purpose of
+inflaming the passions of men, because they are the vital springs of
+war, and it would not exist without them. Those who are engaged in war,
+both in the council and in the field, have a feverish passion, which
+varies as circumstances may happen to change. Those who are actually
+engaged in the heat of battle are usually intoxicated with rage. Should
+this be denied by any one, I would appeal to the general approbation
+bestowed on the artist who displays most skill in painting scenes of
+this kind. He who can represent the muscular powers most strongly
+exerted, the passions most inflamed, and the visage most distorted with
+rage, will gain the highest applause. The truth of the assertion is,
+therefore, generally admitted. Some men, perhaps, may be so much under
+the influence of pride as to have the appearance of stoical indifference
+when their antagonists are at some distance, but let them meet sword in
+hand and the scene is at once changed.
+
+The temptations for those who constitute, or those who encourage and
+support, armies to commit or to connive at immorality are too various
+and too multiplied to be distinctly mentioned.
+
+Who can deny that war is altogether a business of strife? But, says an
+inspired apostle, "where envying and strife is, there is confusion and
+every evil work."
+
+Now, if war is a scene of confusion and strife and every evil work, it
+is impossible for any one to engage in it and avoid the appearance of
+evil or be out of the way of temptation; those who are armed with
+deathly weapons and thirsting for the blood of their fellow-mortals
+surely cannot be said to exhibit no appearance of evil. But if engaging
+in wars is putting on the appearance of evil and running into
+temptation, then it is highly criminal to engage in it.
+
+
+II. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT NATURALLY INFLAMES THE PRIDE OF MAN
+
+One of the abominable things which proceed out of the corrupt heart of
+man, as represented by our Saviour, is pride. "God resisteth the proud,
+but giveth grace to the humble." "The Lord hates a proud look." "Every
+one that is proud in heart is an abomination to the Lord." That pride is
+criminal and that humility is commendable will doubtless be admitted by
+all who believe the Scriptures.
+
+Pride, however, is one of the chief sources of war. It is pride that
+makes men glory in their strength and prowess; it is pride that hinders
+them from confessing their faults and repairing the injury done to
+others.
+
+Although pride is commonly condemned in the abstract, yet it is
+generally commended in soldiers and fanned by every species of art and
+adulation, not only by men of the world but too often by those who bear
+the Christian name. And why is it necessary to inflame the pride of
+soldiers? Because it is well understood that soldiers without pride are
+not fit for their business.
+
+If war is a Christian duty, why should not the example and precepts of
+Christ, instead of the example of the heroes of this world, be exhibited
+to those who fight to stimulate them? Is not Christ as worthy of
+imitation as the Cæsars and Alexanders of this world? He was a
+triumphant conqueror; he vanquished death and hell, and purchased
+eternal redemption for his people; but he conquered by resignation and
+triumphed by his death. Here is an example worthy of the highest
+emulation. And why not animate soldiers by it? Only because it would
+unnerve their arms for war and render them harmless to their foes.
+
+It is so common to compliment the pride of soldiers that, instead of
+considering it that abominable thing which the Lord hates, they consider
+it a virtue. We frequently hear "gentlemen of the sword," as they are
+styled, in reply to the flattery bestowed upon them, frankly declare
+that it is their highest ambition to obtain the praise of their
+fellow-citizens; and, of course, they confess that they are seeking the
+praise of men more than the praise of God. These gentlemen, however, are
+far less criminal than those who lavish flattery on them; for doubtless
+most of them are sincere and think themselves in the way of their duty,
+while their profession often leads them, necessarily, from the means of
+knowing correctly what is duty. While professing Christians have been
+taught from their cradles that the profession of arms is not merely an
+allowable but a noble employment, it is easy for them to slide into the
+current and go with the multitude to celebrate victories and to eulogize
+heroes, without once reflecting whether they are imitating their Lord
+and Master. But is it not time for Christians to examine and ascertain
+if war is tolerated in the gospel of peace before they join in
+festivities to celebrate its bloody feats? How would a pagan be
+astonished if he had been taught the meek, lowly, and forgiving spirit
+and principles of the gospel, without knowing the practice of
+Christians, to see a host of men, professing to be influenced by these
+blessed principles, marshaled in all the pomp of military parade,
+threatening destruction to their fellow-mortals! Would he not conclude
+that either he or they had mistaken the genius of the gospel, or that
+they believed it to be but a fable?
+
+It is a notorious fact, which requires no confirmation, that military
+men, decorated with finery and clad in the glitter of arms, instead of
+being meek and lowly in their temper and deportment, are generally
+flushed with pride and haughtiness; and, indeed, what purpose do their
+decorations and pageantry answer but that of swelling their vanity?
+Their employment is not soft and delicate. Other men who follow rough
+employments wear rough clothing; but the soldier's occupation is not
+less rough than the butcher's, though, in the world's opinion, it is
+more honorable to kill men than to kill cattle.
+
+But if war has a natural tendency to inflame, and does inflame and
+increase the pride of men, it is criminal; it does that which the Lord
+hates, and it must be highly criminal to engage in it.
+
+
+III. WAR NECESSARILY INFRINGES ON THE CONSCIENCES OF MEN, AND THEREFORE
+IS CRIMINAL
+
+Liberty of conscience is a sacred right delegated to man by his Creator,
+who has given no authority to man to infringe in the least on the
+conscience of his fellow-man. Though a man, by following the dictates of
+his conscience, may be injured by men, yet they have no authority to
+deprive him of the rights of conscience. To control the conscience is
+alone the prerogative of God. That man has no right to violate the
+conscience of his fellow-man is a truth which few, under the light of
+the gospel, since the days of ignorance and superstition, have ventured
+to call in question.
+
+But military governments, from their very nature, necessarily infringe
+on the consciences of men. Though the word of God requires implicit
+obedience to rulers in all things not contrary to the Scriptures, it
+utterly forbids compliance with such commands as are inconsistent with
+the gospel. We must obey God rather than man, and fear God as well as
+honor the king. But governments, whether monarchial or republican, make
+laws as they please, and compel obedience at the point of the sword.
+They declare wars, and call upon all their subjects to support them.
+
+Offensive war, by all professing Christians, is considered a violation
+of the laws of Heaven; but offensive war is openly prosecuted by
+professing Christians under the specious name of self-defense. France
+invaded Spain, Germany, and Russia; England invaded Holland and
+Denmark; and the United States invaded Canada, under the pretense of
+defensive war. The fact is, however, that no man can, on gospel
+principles, draw a line of distinction between offensive and defensive
+war so as to make the former a crime and the latter a duty, simply
+because the gospel has made no such distinction. But while many
+Christians profess to make the distinction, and to consider offensive
+war criminal, they ought to have the liberty to judge, when war is
+waged, whether it is offensive or defensive, and to give or withhold
+their aid accordingly; otherwise they are not permitted the free
+exercise of their consciences.
+
+But suppose this principle adopted by governments. Could they prosecute
+war while they left every individual in the free exercise of his
+conscience to judge whether such war was offensive or defensive and to
+regulate his conduct accordingly? Would it be possible for governments
+to carry on war if they depended for support on the uncertain opinion of
+every individual? No; such a procedure would extinguish the vital
+strength of war and lay the sword in the dust. The fact is well known,
+and monarchs declare war and force their subjects to support it. The
+majority in republican governments declare war and demand and enforce
+obedience from the minority.
+
+Though the constitutions of governments may, in the most solemn manner,
+guarantee to citizens the free exercise of their consciences, yet
+governments find it necessary practically to make an exception in
+relation to war, and a man may plead conscientious motives in vain to
+free himself from contributing to the support of war.
+
+I think it proper here to notice what has appeared to me a gross
+absurdity among some Christians in this land. They have openly declared
+that in their opinion the late war was offensive; that it was contrary
+to the laws of God, and that they were opposed to it; but though they
+wished not to support it because it was criminal, yet they said, if they
+were called on in a constitutional way, they would support it. Thus did
+they publicly declare that they would, under certain circumstances, obey
+man rather than God.
+
+But soldiers actually resign up their consciences to their commanders,
+without reserving any right to obey only in such cases as they may judge
+not contrary to the laws of God. Were they at liberty to judge whether
+commands were morally right or not, before they yielded obedience, it
+would be totally impracticable for nations to prosecute war. Ask a
+general if his soldiers have the privilege of determining whether his
+commands are right or not, and he will tell you it is their duty only to
+obey.
+
+Suppose that a general and his army are shut up in a city in their own
+country, and that provisions are failing; that an army is advancing for
+their relief, but cannot reach the place until all means of sustenance
+will be consumed; that the inhabitants cannot be let out without
+admitting the besiegers; and that in this extremity, to preserve his
+army for the defense of his country, the commander orders his men to
+slay the inhabitants, doing this evil that good may come. But some
+conscientious soldiers refuse to obey a command to put the innocent to
+the sword for any supposed good. What must be the consequence? Their
+lives must answer for their disobedience. Nor is this contrary to the
+usages of war. And Christians satisfy their consciences upon the false
+principle that soldiers are not accountable for their conduct, be it
+ever so criminal, if they obey their commanders; all the blame must fall
+on the officers, which involves the absurdity of obeying man rather than
+God. Thus soldiers must be metamorphosed into something besides moral
+and accountable beings in order to prosecute war; and, in fact, they are
+treated generally not as moral agents but as a sort of machinery to
+execute the worst of purposes.
+
+The only plausible method of which I can conceive to avoid the above
+consequences requires that soldiers should not practically resign their
+consciences, but, when commands which are morally wrong are given, that
+they should refuse obedience and die as martyrs. But to enter an army
+with such views would be to belie the very oath of obedience which they
+take. Besides, who could execute the martyrs and be innocent? In this
+way all might become martyrs, and the army be annihilated.
+
+But if war does not admit the free exercise of conscience on Christian
+principles, then it is criminal for Christians to become soldiers, and
+the principles of war must be inconsistent with the principles of
+Christianity.
+
+
+IV. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS OPPOSED TO PATIENT SUFFERING UNDER UNJUST
+AND CRUEL TREATMENT
+
+That patient suffering under unjust and cruel treatment from mankind is
+everywhere in the gospel held up to view as the highest Christian virtue
+probably few professing Christians will deny.
+
+But notwithstanding this truth is generally admitted, there is very
+commonly introduced a carnal, sophistical mode of reasoning to limit, or
+explain away, this precious doctrine, which is peculiar to the gospel
+and which distinguishes it from all other kinds of morality and religion
+on earth. It has relation, it is said, only to matters of religion and
+religious persecution,--as if the gospel required mankind actually to
+regard a little wealth and a few temporal things more than all religious
+privileges and life itself; for, by this human maxim, men may fight to
+defend the former, but not the latter. And this maxim is built on the
+supposition that Christians are not bound strictly by gospel precepts in
+relation to temporal things, but only in relation to spiritual things.
+Hence it is said that the martyrs conducted nobly in refusing to fight
+for the privilege of worshiping the true God, but if Christians now
+refuse to fight to defend their money and their political freedom they
+act in a dastardly manner and violate the first principles of nature.
+Thus are temporal regarded more than spiritual and everlasting things.
+
+The precepts of the gospel, however, unequivocally forbid returning evil
+for evil, and enjoin patient sufferings under injurious and cruel
+treatment. A few instances shall be quoted: "Now we exhort you,
+brethren, warn them that are unruly, comfort the feeble-minded, support
+the weak, be patient towards all men. See that none render evil for evil
+to any man; but ever follow that which is good, both among yourselves,
+and unto all men." "If, when ye do well, and suffer for it, ye take it
+patiently, this is acceptable with God." The apostle James, in his
+solemn denunciation against oppressors, says, "Ye have condemned and
+killed the just, and he doth not resist you"; he then immediately
+exhorts the Christians, saying, "Be patient therefore, brethren, unto
+the coming of the Lord." "Finally, be ye all of one mind, having
+compassion one for another, love as brethren, be pitiful, be courteous,
+not rendering evil for evil, railing for railing; but contrariwise
+blessings, knowing that ye are thereunto called, that ye should inherit
+a blessing." "For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous, and his
+ears are open to their prayers; but the face of the Lord is against them
+that do evil. And who is he that will harm you, if ye be followers of
+that which is good?"
+
+A patient, forbearing, suffering disposition is peculiar to the lamblike
+temper of the gospel, and is wholly opposed to the bold, contending,
+daring spirit of the world which leads mankind into quarreling and
+fighting.
+
+It is generally admitted, I believe, that it is the duty of Christians
+patiently to suffer the loss of all temporal things, and even life
+itself, rather than willfully violate any of God's commands. If, then,
+it is the duty of a Christian patiently to suffer death rather than
+bear false witness against his neighbor, be he friend or foe, is it not
+equally his duty patiently to suffer death rather than kill his
+neighbor, whether friend or foe? Not merely taking away the life of our
+neighbor is forbidden, but every exercise of heart and hand which may
+have a natural tendency to injure him. But which is the greatest
+evil,--telling a lie, or killing a man? By human maxims you may do the
+latter to save your life, but not the former; though the former might
+injure no one but yourself, while the latter, besides injuring yourself,
+might send your neighbor to eternal destruction.
+
+The spirit of martyrdom is the true spirit of Christianity. Christ
+himself meekly and submissively died by the hands of his enemies, and
+instead of resistance, even by words, he prayed, "Father, forgive them,
+for they know not what they do." Stephen, when expiring under a shower
+of stones from his infuriate murderers, prayed, "Lord, lay not this sin
+to their charge." St. Paul testified that he was not only ready to be
+bound but to die for the Lord Jesus. The early martyrs resigned up their
+lives with patient submission as witnesses for Jesus,--and this at a
+time, when, Sir Henry Moncrief Wellwood in his Sermons, page 335, says,
+"Tertullian has told us that Christians were sufficiently numerous to
+have defended themselves against the persecutions excited against them
+by the heathen, if their religion had permitted them to have recourse to
+the sword."
+
+The spirit of martyrdom is the crowning test of Christianity. The martyr
+takes joyfully the spoiling of his goods, and counts not his life dear
+to himself.
+
+But how opposite is the spirit of war to the spirit of martyrdom! The
+former is bold and vindictive, ready to defend property and honor at the
+hazard of life, ready to shed the blood of an enemy. The latter is meek
+and submissive, ready to resign property and life rather than injure
+even an enemy. Surely patient submission under cruel and unjust
+treatment is not only the highest Christian virtue but the most extreme
+contrast to the spirit of war.
+
+Now if it is a duty required by the gospel not to return evil for evil,
+but to overcome evil with good; to suffer injustice and to receive
+injury with a mild, patient, and forgiving disposition,--not only in
+words but in actions,--then all kinds of carnal contention and warfare
+are criminal and totally repugnant to the gospel, whether engaged in by
+individuals or by communities.
+
+Can it be right for Christians to attempt to defend with hostile weapons
+the things which they profess but little to regard? They profess to have
+their treasure not in this world but in heaven above, which is beyond
+the reach of earthly invaders, so that it is not in the power of earth
+or hell to take away their dearest interests. There may be a propriety
+in the men of the world exclaiming that their dearest rights are invaded
+when their property and political interests are infringed upon; but it
+is a shame for Christians to make this exclamation, while they profess
+to believe that their dearest interest is in the hand of Omnipotence,
+and that the Lord God of hosts is their defense.
+
+Whoever, without divine command, dares to lift his hand with a deathly
+weapon against the life of his fellow-man for any supposed injury denies
+the Christian character in the very act, and relies on his own arm
+instead of relying on God for defense.
+
+
+V. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS NOT DOING TO OTHERS AS WE SHOULD WISH THEM
+TO DO TO US
+
+Says our blessed Saviour, "All things whatsoever ye would that men
+should do to you, do ye even so to them; for this is the law and the
+prophets." Now if we wish men to be kind and forbearing to us, we must
+be kind and forbearing to them; if we wish them to return love for
+hatred and good for evil, then we must return love for hatred and good
+for evil; if we wish not to be injured by men, then we must not injure
+them; if we wish not to be killed, then we must not kill.
+
+But what is the practical language of war? Does the man who is fighting
+his fellow-man and exerting all his strength to overcome him really wish
+to be overcome himself and to be treated as he is striving to treat his
+enemy? Can it be believed that England, in the late war, wished France
+to do to her what she endeavored to do to France; or that the latter
+really desired in return what she endeavored to inflict on England? If
+not, both violated this express precept of Christ.
+
+None can say, consistently with the principles of the gospel, that they
+wish to be killed by their enemies; therefore none can, consistently
+with those principles, kill their enemies. But professing Christians do
+kill their enemies, and, notwithstanding all they may say to the
+contrary, their actions speak louder than their words. It is folly for a
+man to say he does not wish to do a thing while he is voluntarily
+exerting all his powers to accomplish it.
+
+But if the act of war does violate this express precept of Christ, then
+it must be exceedingly criminal to engage in it.
+
+
+VI. WAR IS INCONSISTENT WITH MERCY, AND IS THEREFORE CRIMINAL
+
+Mercy is the grand characteristic of the gospel, and the practice of
+mercy is the indispensable duty of man. "Be ye merciful, as your Father
+also is merciful"; "For he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the
+good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust"; "Blessed are the
+merciful, for they shall obtain mercy"; "For he shall have judgment
+without mercy, that hath showed no mercy."
+
+Mercy is that disposition which inclines us to relieve distress, to
+forgive injuries, and to promote the best good of those who are ill
+deserving. Mercy in us towards our enemies implies seeking and pursuing
+their best good for time and eternity. It is sinful to exercise any
+affection towards enemies short of that benevolence or mercy which
+involves the advancement of their best good, and Christians may not
+suspend this disposition, or do evil that any supposed good may come;
+for no law can be of higher authority than the express precept of
+Christ which requires this disposition towards enemies, and of course no
+other consideration can be paramount to this, for nations are as much
+bound as individuals.
+
+It is surely too grossly absurd for any to pretend that destroying the
+property and lives of enemies is treating them mercifully, or pursuing
+their best good for time and eternity. Nor can any so impose upon their
+imaginations as to think that injuring mankind is treating them with
+benevolence or mercy.
+
+But the direct object of war is injury to enemies; and the conduct of
+soldiers generally speaks a language not easily to be misunderstood.
+Though soldiers are not always as bad as they might be, their tender
+mercies are often but cruelty. When they storm a fortified place and do
+not put all the captives to the sword, they are complimented for
+exercising mercy, merely because they were not so cruel as they might
+have been. But shall a highway robber be called an honest man because he
+takes but half the money of him whom he robs? Is it an act of mercy,
+when a man encroaches on your property, to take away his life? Do
+nations exercise mercy towards each other when they enter into bloody
+wars in consequence of a dispute which shall govern a small portion of
+territory? or does a nation show mercy to another that has actually
+invaded its rights by falling upon the aggressor and doing all the
+injury in its power? This surely is not forgiving injuries. And when two
+contending armies come in contact and rush on each other with all the
+frightful engines of death and cut each other to pieces they do not
+appear to me as merciful, kind, and tender-hearted, forgiving one
+another in love, even as God for Christ's sake forgives his children.
+Yet this is the rule by which they should act and by which they will at
+last be judged.
+
+But the whole system of war is opposed to mercy, and is therefore
+altogether unlike the spirit of the gospel, and must be criminal.
+
+
+VII. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS THE PRACTICE OF IT IS INCONSISTENT WITH
+FORGIVING TRESPASSES AS WE WISH TO BE FORGIVEN BY THE FINAL JUDGE
+
+Our Saviour says: "If ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly
+Father will also forgive you; but if ye forgive not men their
+trespasses, neither will your heavenly Father forgive your trespasses";
+"Forgive, and ye shall be forgiven."
+
+Here it is evident that the everlasting salvation of men depends on
+their exercising forgiveness towards their enemies; for if they forgive
+not, they will not be forgiven of God, and with what measure they mete
+to others, it will be measured to them again.
+
+To forgive is to pass by an offense, treating the offender not according
+to his desert, but as though he had done nothing amiss.
+
+But do the principles of war lead individuals or nations to pass by
+offenses and to treat offenders as if they were innocent? Do they not,
+on the contrary, require justice and exact the very last mite? Has it
+the aspect of forgiveness for us, when an enemy trespasses on our
+rights, to arm with weapons of slaughter and meet him on the field of
+battle? Who, while piercing the heart of his enemy with a sword, can
+consistently utter this prayer: "Father, forgive my trespasses, as I
+have forgiven the trespasses of this my enemy"? But this, in reference
+to this subject, is the only prayer the gospel warrants him to make. And
+professing Christian nations, while at war and bathing their swords in
+each other's blood to redress mutual trespasses, are daily in their
+public litanies offering this prayer; but is it not obvious that either
+their prayers are perfect mockery, or they desire not to be forgiven but
+to be punished to the extent of their deserts?
+
+If individuals or nations desire that God would forgive their
+trespasses, then they must not only pray for it, but actually exercise
+forgiveness towards those who trespass against them; and then they may
+beat their useless swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning
+hooks and learn war no more.
+
+But it must be very criminal to engage in war, or to tolerate it in any
+way, if it is inconsistent with the forgiveness of injuries as we hope
+to be forgiven, and in this respect violates the precepts of the gospel.
+
+
+VIII. ENGAGING IN WAR IS NOT MANIFESTING LOVE TO ENEMIES OR RETURNING
+GOOD FOR EVIL
+
+Returning good for evil and manifesting benevolence to enemies is,
+perhaps, the most elevated and noble part of Christian practice,--the
+inculcation of which in the gospel exalts Christianity far above any
+other form of religion and proves it to be not only divine but
+efficacious to subdue the turbulent and corrupt passions of men; and for
+these reasons this part of duty ought to be zealously advocated and
+diligently performed by every one who bears the Christian name.
+
+The ablest writers who have defended the divine origin of the Scriptures
+against infidels have urged this topic as constituting conclusive
+evidence in their favor; and unbelievers, instead of attempting to meet
+the argument fairly, have urged the inconsistency of Christians in
+acting contrary to so conspicuous a rule of duty; and such is and ever
+has been the most powerful weapon that infidels can wield against
+Christianity. But it is the will of God that by welldoing we should put
+to silence the ignorance of foolish men. Let Christians act in strict
+conformity to this part of Christian practice, and they will wrest from
+the infidel's hand his strongest weapon.
+
+That exercising benevolence towards enemies and returning good for evil
+is inculcated as one of the most important doctrines of the gospel is
+evident as well from the whole tenor of the New Testament as from the
+express commands of the Son of God: "I say unto you, Love your enemies,
+bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for
+them that despitefully use you and persecute you, that ye may be the
+children of your Father in heaven"; "If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if
+he thirst, give him drink; for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire
+on his head"; "Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good."
+
+Such are some of the divine precepts on this subject. So different,
+however, are the laws of war among Christian nations, that rendering
+comfort or relief to enemies is considered high treason, and they punish
+with death the performance of the very duty which God commands as a
+condition of eternal life!
+
+The common sense of every man revolts from the idea that resisting an
+enemy by war is returning good for evil. Who would receive the thrust of
+a sword as an act of kindness? Was it ever considered that killing a man
+was doing good to him? Has not death always been considered the greatest
+evil which could be returned for capital crimes? But the principles of
+war not only allow enemies to return evil for evil by killing one
+another, but secure the highest praise to him who kills the most. It is
+often said of those who distinguish themselves in butchering their
+fellow-men, that "they cover themselves with glory!"
+
+Nations, when they go to war, do not so much as pretend to be actuated
+by love to their enemies; they do not hesitate to declare in the face of
+Heaven that their object is to _avenge_ their wrongs. But, says an
+inspired apostle, "Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but give place
+unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith
+the Lord." Retributive judgment, the execution of strict justice, or
+vengeance, God declares often, belongs to him. He has reserved it in his
+own hand as his sovereign prerogative.
+
+It is not very surprising that savage pagans should glory in revenge,
+but that those should do so who have the Bible in their hands, and
+profess to take it as the rule of their faith and practice, is truly
+astonishing. Still more astonishing is it that some ministers of the
+gospel not only connive at but approve of the spirit and practice of
+revenge by war.
+
+But though the whole tenor of the gospel absolutely enjoins returning
+good for evil and blessing for cursing; yet the open and avowed
+principles of war are to return evil for evil, violence for violence.
+
+Now if the principles of war are so directly opposed to the principles
+of the gospel, if the practice of war is so perfectly contrary to
+Christian practice, then it must be very criminal for Christians not to
+bear open testimony against war, and much more criminal to do anything
+to promote it.
+
+
+IX. WAR IS CRIMINAL, BECAUSE IT IS ACTUALLY RENDERING EVIL FOR EVIL
+
+It is a fact which can neither be disguised nor controverted that the
+whole trade of war is returning evil for evil. This is a fundamental
+principle in the system of self-defense. Therefore every exertion in the
+power of contending nations is made to inflict mutual injury, not merely
+upon persons in public employment and upon public property, but
+indiscriminately upon all persons and property. Hence it is an
+established rule of what is styled "civilized warfare" that if one party
+takes a person suspected of being a spy, they put him to death; which
+act is retaliated by the other the first opportunity. If one party
+storms a fortified place and puts the garrison or the inhabitants to the
+sword, the other, in their defense, must retaliate the same thing, and,
+if possible, to a greater degree. If one side executes a number of
+captives for some alleged extraordinary act, the other, on the
+principles of self-defense, may execute double the number; the first may
+then, on the same principles, double this number; and so they may
+proceed to return evil for evil, till one or the other yields.
+
+The principles of self-defense require not merely an eye for an eye and a
+tooth for a tooth, but for one eye two eyes, for one tooth two teeth. They
+require the retaliation of an injury to a double degree,--otherwise, there
+would be no balance in favor of the defensive side; but as both parties
+must always be on the defense, both must, of course, retaliate to a double
+degree. Thus war is aggravated and inflamed, and its criminality raised to
+the highest pitch.
+
+The doctrine of retaliation is not only openly avowed and practiced by
+professing Christian nations, but is sometimes defended before national
+councils by professing Christians of high standing in churches. "O! tell
+it not in Gath! publish it not in the streets of Askelon! lest the
+daughters of the uncircumcised triumph!"
+
+That the retaliation of injury, of whatever kind it may be and to
+whomsoever it may be offered, is most absolutely and unequivocally
+forbidden by the whole spirit of the gospel dispensation, as well as by
+its positive precepts, surely can never be fairly controverted.
+
+Says the great Author and finisher of our faith, "Ye have heard that it
+hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: but I say
+unto you that ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on the
+right cheek, turn to him the other also." Whether the literal import of
+these words be contended for or not, they cannot fairly be construed as
+teaching anything short of a positive and unconditional prohibition of
+the retaliation of injury. Had our Lord added to these words the maxim
+of the world, "If any man assaults you with deathly weapons, you may
+repel him with deathly weapons," it would have directly contradicted the
+spirit of this command and made his sayings like a house divided against
+itself.
+
+The apostles largely insist upon this doctrine of their divine Master,
+thus: "Recompense to no man evil for evil"; "Be ye all of one mind, not
+rendering evil for evil, or railing for railing"; "See that none render
+evil for evil to any man." These comprehensive passages make no
+conditions or limitations, and are, therefore, applicable to all men and
+binding upon all in all situations and circumstances under the light of
+the gospel; but had they added, "If any man injures you, you may return
+him an injury and repel violence with violence," it would have been most
+palpably absurd, and the precepts of the gospel would have been truly
+what infidels have asserted they are,--a series of gross contradictions.
+
+But I repeat that the open and avowed principles of war, even among
+Christian nations, are those of returning evil for evil. Surely, nations
+neither aim nor pretend to aim at the best good of their enemies; but,
+on the contrary, their real and professed object in the sight of God and
+man is to do them, while at war, all the injury in their power. What
+means that language which conveys instructions to those who command
+ships of war, to _sink_, _burn_, and _destroy_, if it does not mean evil
+to enemies? Why do nations encourage the cupidity of men by licensing
+and letting loose swarms of picaroons on their enemies, if it is not to
+inflict evil on them? But all this is sanctioned under the notion of
+self-defense, and, as though it were a light thing for men thus publicly
+to trample on the laws of the gospel, they lift up their daring hands to
+heaven and supplicate God's help to assist them in violating his own
+commands! No apology can be made for such proceedings until it is shown
+that war is not returning evil for evil.
+
+But what is it to return evil for evil?
+
+When one man is injured by another and returns injury, he returns evil
+for evil and violates those precepts of the gospel which have been
+quoted. When one association of men is injured by another association
+and the injured returns an injury, evil is returned for evil and those
+precepts are violated. When one nation infringes on the rights of
+another and they in return infringe on the aggressor's rights, they
+return evil for evil and violate those precepts. When one nation
+declares war against another and is repelled by war, evil is returned
+for evil and those precepts are violated. But these things are
+constantly practiced, without a blush or a question as to their
+propriety; and God is supplicated to aid in the business.
+
+To what a state has sin reduced our world? Is not the church covered
+with darkness and the people with gross darkness? A man may now engage
+in war with his fellow-man and openly return evil for evil, and still
+remain in respectable standing in most of the churches, being at the
+same time highly applauded and caressed by the world lying in
+wickedness!
+
+But if we are here to be directed and at last to be judged by the
+gospel, no man can return evil for evil, in war or otherwise, without
+aggravated guilt.
+
+
+X. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS ACTUALLY DOING EVIL THAT GOOD MAY COME; AND
+THIS IS THE BEST APOLOGY THAT CAN BE MADE FOR IT
+
+That it is an evil to spread distress, desolation, and misery through a
+land and to stain it with the blood of men probably none will deny. War,
+with its attending horrors, is considered by all, even those who
+advocate and prosecute it, to be the greatest evil that ever befalls
+this wicked, bleeding, suffering world.
+
+Though men go to war primarily to gratify their corrupt passions,--for
+they can never propose the attainment of any good by war which shall be
+commensurate with the natural and moral evils that will be occasioned by
+the acquisition,--yet the prospect of attaining some supposed good must
+be held out as a lure to the multitude and a means of self-justification.
+
+Usually the object of war is pompously represented to be to preserve
+liberty, to produce honorable and lasting peace, and promote the
+happiness of mankind; to accomplish which, liberty, property, and
+honor--that honor which comes from men--must be defended, though war is
+the very thing that generally destroys liberty, property, and happiness,
+and prevents lasting peace. Such is the good proposed to be attained by
+the certain and overwhelming evil of war.
+
+But no maxim is more corrupt, more false in its nature, or more ruinous
+in its results than that which tolerates doing evil that good may come.
+Nor can any defend this maxim without taking the part of infidels and
+atheists, to whom it appropriately belongs, and with whose principles
+and practice alone it is consistent.
+
+The apostle Paul reprobates this maxim in the severest terms, and he
+considered it the greatest scandal of Christian character to be accused
+of approving it: "As we be slanderously reported," says he, "and as some
+affirm that we say, Let us do evil that good may come; whose damnation
+is just."
+
+Now if war is in fact an evil, and it is prosecuted with a view to
+attain some good, then going to war is doing evil that good may come. It
+is therefore doing that which scandalizes Christian character; that
+which is wholly irreconcilable with the principles of the gospel, and
+which it is highly criminal for any man or nation to do.
+
+
+XI. WAR IS OPPOSED TO THE EXAMPLE OF THE SON OF GOD, AND IS THEREFORE
+CRIMINAL
+
+The example of the Son of God is the only perfect model of moral
+excellence, and his moral conduct, so far as he acted as man, remains a
+perfect example for Christians.
+
+But did he appear in this world as a great military character, wearing a
+sword of steel, clothed with military finery, and surrounded by
+glittering soldiers, marching in the pomp and parade of a warrior? No;
+he was the meek and lowly Jesus, despised and rejected of men. He was
+King of kings and Lord of lords, but his kingdom was not of this world.
+Had his kingdom been of this world, then would he have appeared as an
+earthly conqueror, and his servants would have been warriors.
+
+Though a prince, he was the Prince of Peace. At his advent the angels
+sang, "Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace, good will to men."
+"He came not to destroy men's lives, but to save them." He was the Lamb
+of God, meek and lowly. He followed peace with all men; he returned good
+for evil and blessing for cursing, and "when he was reviled he reviled
+not again." Finally, he was "brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as
+a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth." That
+he did this as a necessary part of his mediatorial work need not be
+denied; but that he intended it also as an example to his followers is
+fully confirmed by an inspired apostle, who says, "If, when ye do well,
+and suffer for it, ye take it patiently, this is acceptable with God.
+For hereunto were ye called: because Christ also suffered for us,
+leaving us an example, that ye should follow his steps: who did no sin,
+neither was guile found in his mouth: who, when he was reviled, reviled
+not again; when he suffered, threatened not; but committed himself to
+him who judgeth righteously."
+
+Christ taught his disciples the doctrines of peace, and commanded them
+to take up the cross and follow him; to live in peace and to follow
+peace with all men. His last gift to them was peace. He said to them,
+when about to send them into the world, "Behold I send you forth as
+lambs among wolves"; thus teaching them what treatment they might expect
+and what character they must maintain among wicked men. The nature of
+lambs and wolves is too well known for any one to mistake this
+figurative representation. Wolves are fierce, bloody, and ravenous
+beasts; but lambs are mild, inoffensive, and unresisting, having no
+means of relief but by flight. Now if a host of professing Christian
+warriors, marshaled under the ensign of a preying eagle or a prowling
+lion, clothed in all the splendor of deathly armor, and rushing forward
+to destroy their fellow-creatures, are in figurative language but
+_lambs_, I confess I am at a loss where to look for the _wolves_! Do
+these warlike Christians appear mild as lambs and harmless as doves,
+kind and tender-hearted, doing good to all, to friends and foes, as they
+have opportunity? Can fighting be living peaceably with all men? Is it
+returning good for evil, and overcoming evil with good? If not, it is
+not imitating the example of Christ.
+
+If Christians were like Christ, their warfare would not be carnal, but
+spiritual, corresponding with the armor which he has provided. They
+would conquer by faith and overcome by the blood of the Lamb, not
+counting their lives dear to themselves.
+
+On the whole, if to engage in war is not avoiding the appearance of
+evil, but is running into temptation; if it inflates the pride of men;
+if it infringes on the rights of conscience; if it is not forgiving
+trespasses as we wish to be forgiven; if it is not patient suffering
+under unjust and cruel treatment; if it is not doing to others as we
+would have them do to us; if it is not manifesting love to enemies and
+returning good for evil; if it is rendering evil for evil; if it is
+doing evil that good may come; and if it is inconsistent with the
+example of Christ, then it is altogether contrary to the spirit and
+precepts of the gospel and is highly criminal. Then Christians cannot
+engage in war or approve of it without incurring the displeasure of
+Heaven.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In view of the subject, if what has been said is in substance correct,
+and of this I desire the reader conscientiously to judge, then the
+criminality of war and its inconsistency with the gospel are undeniable.
+
+It is admitted by all that war cannot exist without criminality
+somewhere, and generally where quarreling and strife are, there is blame
+on both sides. And how it is that many Christians who manifest a
+laudable zeal to expose and counteract vice and wickedness in various
+other forms are silent on the subject of war, silent as to those parts
+or practices of war which are manifestly and undisputably criminal, is
+to me mysterious. There has been a noble and persevering opposition
+against the inhuman and cruel practice of the slave trade; and by the
+blessing of God the efforts against it have been successful, probably,
+for the time, beyond the most sanguine expectations. When the lawfulness
+of this practice was first called in question, it was violently defended
+as well by professing Christians as by others. Comparatively few
+Christians fifty years ago doubted the propriety of buying and holding
+slaves; but now a man advocating the slave trade could hardly hold in
+this vicinity a charitable standing in any of the churches. But whence
+has arisen so great a revolution in the minds of the mass of professing
+Christians on this subject? It has happened not because the spirit or
+precepts of the gospel have changed, but because they are better
+understood.
+
+Christians who have been early educated to believe that a doctrine is
+correct, and who cherish a respect for the instructions of their parents
+and teachers, seldom inquire for themselves, after arriving at years of
+maturity, unless something special calls up their attention; and then
+they are too apt to defend the doctrine they have imbibed before they
+examine it, and to exert themselves only to find evidence in its favor.
+Thus error is perpetuated from generation to generation until God, in
+his providence, raises up some to bear open testimony against it; and as
+it becomes a subject of controversy, one after another gains light, and
+truth is at length disclosed and established. Hence it is the solemn
+duty of every one, however feeble his powers, to bear open testimony
+against whatever error prevails, for God is able from small means to
+produce great effects.
+
+There is at present in many of our churches a noble standard lifted up
+against the abominable sin of intemperance, the greatest evil, perhaps,
+war excepted, in the land, and this destructive vice has already
+received a check from which it will never recover unless Christians
+relax their exertions. But if war is a greater evil than drunkenness,
+how can Christians remain silent respecting it and be innocent?
+
+Public teachers consider it to be their duty boldly and openly to oppose
+vice. From the press and from the pulpit they denounce theft,
+profaneness, Sabbath breaking, and intemperance; but war is a greater
+evil than all these, for these and many other evils follow in its train.
+
+Most Christians believe that in the millennial day all weapons of war
+will be converted into harmless utensils of use, that wars will cease to
+the ends of the earth, and that the benign spirit of peace will cover
+the earth as the waters do the seas. But there will be then no new
+gospel, no new doctrines of peace; the same blessed gospel which we
+enjoy will produce "peace on earth and good will to men." And is it not
+the duty of every Christian now to exhibit the same spirit and temper
+which will be then manifested? If so, let every one "follow the things
+that make for peace," and the God of peace shall bless him.
+
+
+OBJECTIONS ANSWERED
+
+As was proposed, a number of objections to the general sentiments that
+have been advocated shall be stated and answered.
+
+_Objection first._ Shall we stand still and suffer an assassin to enter
+our houses without resistance and let him murder ourselves and families?
+
+_Answer._ I begin with this because it is generally the first objection
+that is made to the doctrine of peace by all persons, high and low,
+learned and unlearned; notwithstanding it is an objection derived from
+a fear of consequences and not from a conviction of duty, and might with
+the same propriety have been made to the martyrs who, for conscience'
+sake, refused to repel their murderers with carnal weapons, as to
+Christians who, for conscience' sake, refuse at this day to resist evil.
+No Christian will pretend that defense with carnal weapons is not
+criminal, if the gospel really forbids it, let the consequences of
+nonresistance be what they may. For the requisitions of the gospel are
+the rule of duty. But I presume the objection above stated arises
+altogether from an apprehension of consequences rather than from regard
+to duty.
+
+Every candid person must admit that this objection is of no force, until
+the question whether the gospel does or does not prohibit resistance
+with deathly weapons is first settled. It might, therefore, justly be
+dismissed without further remark; but as mankind are often more
+influenced by supposed consequences than by considerations of duty, and
+as the objection is very popular, it may deserve a more particular
+reply.
+
+In the first place, I would observe that the supposition of the objector
+relates to a very extreme case, a case which has very rarely, if ever,
+occurred to Christians holding to nonresistance with deathly weapons,
+and it bears little or no resemblance to the general principles or
+practices of war which are openly advocated and promoted by professing
+Christians. Should an event like that supposed in the objection take
+place, it would be a moment of surprise and agitation in which few could
+act collectedly from principle. What was done would probably be done in
+perturbation of mind. But war between nations is a business of
+calculation and debate, affording so much time for reflection that men
+need not act from sudden and violent impulse, but may act from fixed
+principle. In this respect, therefore, war is a very different thing
+from what is involved in the objection which does not in the least
+affect the principles or practice of systematic warfare. It is not
+uncommon to hear persons who are hopefully pious, when pressed by the
+example and the precepts of Christ against war, acknowledge that most of
+the wars which have existed since the gospel dispensation cannot be
+justified on Christian principles; yet these very persons are never
+heard to disapprove of the common principles of war, or to counteract
+them by their lives and conversation before a wicked world; but, on the
+contrary, they will often eulogize heroes, join in the celebration of
+victories, and take as deep an interest in the result of battles as the
+warriors of this world; and if their conduct is called in question, they
+will attempt to justify it by pleading the necessity of self-defense,
+and immediately introduce the above objection which is by no means
+parallel with the general principles and practices of all wars.
+
+The truth is, war is a very popular thing among mankind, because it is
+so congenial to their natural dispositions; and, however gravely some
+men may, at times, profess to deplore its calamity and wickedness, it is
+too evident that they take a secret pleasure in the approbation of the
+multitude and in the fascinating glory of arms; and we have reason to
+believe that this objection is often made merely to ward off the arrows
+of conviction which would otherwise pierce their consciences.
+
+The objection, however, wholly overlooks the providence and promise of
+God. Assassins do not stroll out of the circle of God's providence. Not
+only is their breath in his hand, but the weapons they hold are under
+his control. Besides, God's children are dear to him, and he shields
+them by his protecting care, not suffering any event to befall them
+except such as shall be for his glory and their good. Whoever touches
+them touches the apple of his eye. He has promised to be a very present
+help to them in every time of need, and to deliver them that trust in
+him out of all their trouble. He will make even their enemies to be at
+peace with them. For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous and his
+ears are open to their prayers, but the face of the Lord is against them
+that do evil; and who is he that will harm you if ye be followers of
+that which is good? But if ye suffer for righteousness' sake, happy are
+ye, and be not afraid of their terror, neither be troubled. If God be
+thus for his children, who can be against them? Is not the arm of the
+Lord powerful to save, and a better defense to all who trust in him than
+swords and guns? Whoever found him unfaithful to his promises or feeble
+to save? Are not the hosts of heaven at his command? Are not his angels
+swift to do his will? "Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth
+to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation?" "The angel of the
+Lord encampeth round about them that fear him, and delivereth them." If
+the Lord is on their side, Christians have no cause to fear what man
+can do unto them. Says the blessed Saviour, "Whosoever will save his
+life shall lose it, and whosoever shall lose his life for my sake shall
+find it."
+
+If consequences are rightly examined, they may prove to be of more
+importance than at first supposed. If the gospel does forbid resistance
+with deathly weapons, then he who saves his temporal life by killing his
+enemy may lose his eternal life; while he who loses his life for
+Christ's sake is sure of everlasting life. Thus the Christian, if he is
+killed, goes to heaven; but the assassin, if he is killed, goes to hell,
+and the soul of the slayer is in danger of following. Whoever kills
+another to prevent being killed himself, does it on presumption; for,
+whatever may be the appearances, God only can know whether one man will
+assassinate another, before the event has taken place. Men, however,
+seem to think little of killing or being killed by fighting, whether in
+single combat or on the field of general battle, though they shudder at
+the idea of being put to death by an assassin, unless they can inflict
+or attempt to inflict on him the same evil.
+
+But the objection is usually made on the supposition that the doctrine
+in question requires Christians to stand still and rather court the
+dagger than otherwise. This is an unfair statement, for it would be
+presumption to stand still when there was a chance of escape. Besides,
+the Christian must act on the defensive, not with carnal, but with
+spiritual weapons, which are more powerful when exercised in faith than
+swords or spears.
+
+Probably no instance can be found of robbers murdering such as
+conscientiously held to nonresistance. It is resistance that provokes
+violence; forbearance and good will repress it. But if instances of this
+kind may be found, it is no evidence against the doctrine in question
+any more than against the principles of the Martyrs. God may, for wise
+reasons, call away some of his children by the hands of murderers; if
+so, instead of losing, they save their lives.
+
+_Objection second._ Self-defense, and, if necessary, with deathly
+weapons, is the first law of nature. All the animal creation are armed
+with means of defense, and the principles of the gospel are not contrary
+to the principles of nature; therefore self-defense is not inconsistent
+with Christianity.
+
+_Answer._ It is admitted that the laws of the gospel are not contrary to
+the primitive laws of nature; but it is by no means granted that they
+are consistent with the laws of corrupt nature. In consequence of the
+revolt of man the earth was cursed for his sake. It appears probable
+that before the fall of man animals were harmless and docile; and it is
+not improbable that when the curse shall be removed, when the earth
+shall be filled with righteousness and peace, the lion and the lamb may
+literally lie down together. At present, indeed, the dove, the lamb, and
+some other animals have no means of defense, unless flight be considered
+such. And while warriors are figuratively represented by ferocious
+beasts, real Christians are represented by lambs and doves. So far as
+nature is made to speak fairly on the subject, it speaks in favor of the
+doctrine which has been advocated.
+
+But corrupt nature strongly dictates many things quite contrary to the
+precepts of the gospel; and no doctrine will be given up more
+reluctantly by corrupt nature than that of the lawfulness of war,
+because no doctrine is more congenial with the depraved feelings and
+propensities of unsanctified men, for their "feet are swift to shed
+blood; destruction and misery are in their ways, and the way of peace
+have they not known; there is no fear of God before their eyes."
+
+_Objection third._ The precepts of the gospel are consistent with the
+moral law, or the eternal nature of things, which is forever the
+standard of right and wrong to all moral beings in the universe; and war
+has been prosecuted consistently with this rule of right and wrong;
+therefore war cannot be contrary to the precepts of the gospel.
+
+_Answer._ This is an objection founded on an undefinable something aside
+from divine precept; yet as some terms in it have been much used in
+polemic divinity by men of eminent talents and piety, whose praise is in
+the churches, I think it neither proper nor modest to dissent from so
+high authority without offering some reasons. I shall, therefore, make a
+few general observations on what is called the moral law, the eternal
+rule of right and wrong, or the nature of things; all of which phrases,
+I believe, have been occasionally used by eminent writers as conveying
+the same ideas.
+
+I cannot agree with such as suppose that a moral law or nature of things
+exists independently of the will of God and is the common law of God and
+man. It appears to me as inconsistent to suppose a law to exist without
+a lawgiver as to suppose a world to exist without a creator. If God is
+the only eternal and independent Being in the universe, and if all
+things are the work of his power and goodness, then the supposition that
+an eternal law exists independently of him appears to me to be absurd,
+as on this supposition there exists a law without a lawgiver and an
+effect without a cause. If God is not the author of all things, then
+there must be more than one eternal cause of things.
+
+To suppose that the reason and fitness of things independently of the
+will of God, either in his works, his providence, or word, can be a rule
+of man's duty appears to me as inconsistent as to suppose that men might
+institute divine worship from such fitness of things independently of
+the existence of God; for the will of God to man seems as necessary to
+lay a foundation of moral obligation and to direct man's obedience as
+the existence of God is necessary to lay a foundation of religious
+worship. Should it be asked whether the laws of God are not founded on
+the eternal nature and fitness of things, I would answer that such a
+supposition appears to me no more reasonable than to suppose that his
+power is founded on the eternal capacity of things; for the capacity of
+things has just as much reality and eternity in it to found the
+omnipotence of God upon, as the reason and nature of things have to
+found his infinite wisdom or justice upon.
+
+I therefore dissent from all standard of moral obligation which are
+supposed to exist aside from, and independently of, the divine will; and
+fully agree with the Assembly's Shorter Catechism, in the answer to
+this question: "What is the duty which God requires of man? Answer: The
+duty which God requires of man is obedience to his revealed will."
+Should it, however, be said that things do exist aside from the divine
+will, that it does not depend on the divine will, but on the nature of
+things, that two and two make four, or that a thing cannot be in motion
+and at rest at the same time, it is by no means admitted that this order
+or constitution of things exists independently of God; but it is
+believed to be as much the effect of his power and goodness as anything
+else. And if God is not the author of all the laws both in the natural
+and moral world, it may reasonably be inquired, who is?
+
+If God is the moral governor of the world, then all his laws over men,
+as moral beings, must be moral laws; and to make a distinction between
+the laws designed to regulate the moral conduct of men, and to call some
+of them moral and others by different names, seems to me not necessary,
+while I find no such distinction in the Scriptures. Because some of
+God's laws were intended to be temporary, under certain circumstances,
+they were no less of a moral nature on that account; neither was it any
+less criminal to violate them.
+
+As created things are in some respects constantly changing, and as the
+relations of things are often varied, so a law may be relatively right
+at one time and relatively wrong at another. But as man is frail and
+short-sighted, and is incapable of seeing the end from the beginning, he
+is totally unable of himself to judge what is and what is not right, all
+things considered; hence the necessity of a revelation from God to
+direct his steps.
+
+That there is a fitness of things and a standard of moral right and
+wrong cannot be denied; but, instead of being founded in a supposed
+nature of things independent of God, it originates in the very nature
+and perfections of God himself, and can never be known by man any
+farther than the nature and perfections of God are known. A standard of
+right and wrong independent of God, whether by the name of moral law or
+nature of things, is what never has been and never can be intelligibly
+defined. It is like a form without dimensions, like a foundation resting
+on nothing. It is, therefore, in my opinion, as extravagant to talk of
+an eternal nature of things, without reference to the laws of God, as it
+would be to talk of an eternal wisdom or an eternal omnipotence,
+independent of the existence of God.
+
+But if the statement of the objector is meant only to imply a rule of
+right and wrong emanating from the nature and perfections of God, and
+coincident with his laws, then, admitting the propriety of the terms
+moral law, nature of things, etc., the objection, if it proves anything,
+may prove quite too much for its advocates; for under certain
+circumstances it has been consistent with this rule of moral right and
+wrong utterly to exterminate nations, to destroy men, women, and
+children, and show them no mercy.
+
+Besides, the whole force of the objection rests on the supposition that
+no laws which have existed, and which were not contrary to the moral
+law, can be abrogated under the Christian dispensation or be
+inconsistent with the precepts of the gospel. It hence follows that
+whatever has been morally right and lawful for men to do must forever
+remain right and lawful to be done. This is a necessary result from the
+premises; but no Christian can consistently subscribe to this. The
+premises must, therefore, be unsound and the objection of no force.
+
+If literal sacrifices, slavery, and many other practices which are
+totally abolished under the Christian dispensation were not contrary to
+the moral law under the Old Testament economy, why may not the same be
+true of war? Why may not the gospel forbid war as consistently as it can
+forbid slavery?
+
+_Objection fourth._ The nature of religion and morality under the
+ancient dispensation was the same as under the new. Love to God and man
+was the substance of the law and the prophets; and though truth under
+the former was inculcated more by types and ceremonies, yet the essence
+of religion was the same under that as under the present dispensation;
+and as war was not inconsistent with the nature and precepts of religion
+then, it cannot be inconsistent with the nature and precepts of religion
+now, under like circumstances.
+
+_Answer._ It is readily admitted that the essence of religion is the
+same under the present as under the former dispensation, both requiring
+at all times and in all actions holy exercises of heart in cordial
+obedience to divine command; yet the laws for external conduct under the
+two dispensations differ widely, and the practice of war involves much
+of the external conduct of men. It was never right for men to indulge
+unholy feelings in the act of war, but the external act was required as
+a means of executing the divine vengeance; the gospel does not command,
+but seems plainly to forbid, the external act of war.
+
+But to suppose that saints under the gospel can ever be placed in
+circumstances like those of the ancient church is to suppose that they
+may be put under the same typical economy which has vanished away, given
+place to the substance, and ceased to be binding even on the natural
+Israelites. To be in like circumstances they must also be made the
+executors of God's wrath, to inflict vengeance, by his particular
+command, on idolatrous and rebellious nations. The Israelites had the
+same high authority to exterminate the Canaanites and subdue the
+idolatrous nations about Palestine that the holy angels had to destroy
+Sodom and Gomorrah.
+
+It is perfectly plain that if God should positively command Christians
+to take the weapons of war and not only repel invasion but actually
+exterminate nations, it would be their duty to obey, and a refusal would
+be open rebellion against God. The Old Testament saints received such
+commands, but Christians have no such authority, which makes a material
+difference in circumstances.
+
+Some general observations relative to the different dispensations of the
+church of God may illustrate this topic more fully.
+
+The Old Testament economy has sometimes, perhaps without reason, been
+divided into the Adamic, Patriarchal, and Mosaic dispensations of the
+church; but as the latter was more full and complete, and as the
+distinction between the Mosaic and Christian dispensations is common, I
+shall confine my remarks chiefly to that distinction, though I consider
+the great distinction to be between the Old and New Testament economies.
+
+The Old Testament economy, in general, was typical of the New. Under the
+former dispensation literal and temporal things typified spiritual and
+everlasting things under the latter. The nation of Israel, chosen and
+separated from all other nations, typified the true Israel of God, who
+are chosen out of every nation and sanctified and set apart as a holy
+nation and peculiar people, to offer up spiritual sacrifices to God. The
+land of Canaan was a type of the heavenly Canaan. Jerusalem was a type
+of the New Jerusalem from above. Mount Zion and the royal throne of
+Israel, which were in Jerusalem, typified the heavenly Zion and the
+throne of the true David who now reigns in glory. The sacrifices were
+types of spiritual offerings. The Israelites had enemies within and foes
+without, literal weapons of war and literal warfare, typical of
+spiritual foes, spiritual armor, and spiritual warfare.[1] Their kings
+were seated on the throne of the Lord (see 1 Chron. xxix. 23). At the
+command of God they judged and made war and conquered their enemies and
+thus typified the Son of God who is now on the throne of his Father
+David, and who in righteousness judges and makes war and rides forth
+conquering and to conquer. The ancient promises and threatenings were
+mostly temporal, but typical of spiritual and everlasting promises and
+threatenings. Doubtless the gospel was preached by types and figures
+under the Old Testament economy, and the saints of old looked upon those
+temporal things merely as shadows representing a more enduring
+substance. When they looked upon Canaan, the land of promise, they
+viewed it as a type of the heavenly Canaan, and confessed that they were
+strangers and pilgrims on earth seeking a better country. When they
+looked on the bleeding lamb they beheld, by the eye of faith, the Lamb
+of God who taketh away the sins of the world.
+
+Thus we may see that almost the whole of the Old Testament economy was
+typical and temporary, and not intended to be perfect and everlasting.
+But under the gospel dispensation we have a new covenant and better
+promises which are intended to be perfect and everlasting. It is
+therefore more proper for those who live under this new and perfect
+dispensation to look at the substance than at the shadow for a rule of
+duty. Errors are often and easily propagated by reasoning from analogy
+and introducing it as proof of sentiments instead of illustration. This
+is frequently done in relation to the Old Testament economy and common
+political government. It is not uncommon to hear ministers, in their
+political sermons, reason and infer just as if there were a perfect
+parallel between the Jewish theocracy and political governments, when at
+the head of one was the Lord of hosts and at the head of the others are
+but men; when one was the church of the living God, and the others are
+but human institutions. They not unfrequently speak of God's driving out
+the heathen before his American Israel and planting them in a goodly
+land, as though there were a perfect parallel between the Americans
+driving the Indians from their native soil and taking possession of it
+themselves, without divine commission, and the Israelites going at the
+express command of God and taking possession of Canaan. Thus they
+endeavor to keep up a parallel between God's ancient church and civil
+governments. The economy of God's ancient covenant people was by no
+means a political institution in the popular sense, but it was a
+dispensation of the church of God, and in its rites, ceremonies, and
+government was typical of the kingdom of Messiah under his mediatorial
+reign, and differed widely in its nature, origin, and design from mere
+political governments; therefore all reasoning drawn from a supposed
+analogy between them is specious and false. The Israelites had no
+authority to enact laws or to alter God's laws one iota; their duty was
+implicitly to obey them.
+
+But if Christians take their authority for going to war from the
+practice of the Old Testament saints, their example will prove too much;
+it will not only allow war, but _offensive war_ in its most dreadful
+forms.
+
+_Objection fifth._ Abraham went to war, not like the Israelites at the
+command of God, yet he met with the divine approbation when he returned
+from the slaughter of the kings; he, therefore, must have acted on a
+universal law still in force; and as Christians are called the children
+of Abraham they ought, of course, to imitate his example in such things
+as God approved.
+
+_Answer._ Abraham, like the Israelites, was under a typical dispensation
+and practiced rites and ceremonies which were a shadow of good things to
+come. That he acted without divine command, in the war referred to, is
+more than we are warranted to say. He was a prophet and the friend of
+God and probably was acquainted with the divine will on this subject.
+
+Christians are not called the children of Abraham because they imitate
+his example in war, but because they exercise like precious faith with
+him. If Christians are warranted to imitate the example of Abraham in
+all things which were tolerated by God, then they may sacrifice cattle,
+practice polygamy, and buy and hold slaves. But if they object to his
+example as a rule of duty in these instances, why not object to his
+example as a rule of duty in the case of war?
+
+But to say that he acted from some universal law still in force is
+taking for granted the question in dispute, and cannot be admitted
+without evidence.
+
+The war waged by Abraham against the kings was, I apprehend, offensive
+rather than defensive; for Lot, his brother's son, whom he rescued, did
+not then belong to his family or kingdom, but was separated from him and
+was also a patriarch, a father of nations, and a prince or head over his
+own house or kingdom.
+
+It appears very evident that offensive as well as defensive war was
+tolerated under the patriarchal economy, as may be seen from the words
+of the inspired Jacob when blessing his sons (Gen. xlviii. 22). That,
+as well as the Mosaic dispensation, was typical, and doubtless war was
+allowed under both for the same reasons.
+
+But there can be no doubt that whoever attempts to justify war by the
+example of Abraham may equally justify the slavery of our fellow-men;
+and whoever depends on his example for authority for engaging in war, to
+be consistent, must advocate and defend the doctrine of slavery.
+
+_Objection sixth._ It appears to be a universal law of God that "whoso
+sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed." If one man, or
+one nation, attacks another and sheds his blood, his own must be shed in
+return. Hence this precept not only authorizes taking away the life of a
+murderer, but authorizes nations to repel by war nations that wage war
+against them.
+
+_Answer._ Whether this was a precept given to man as a rule of duty or
+not is very questionable, though it has generally been so construed, at
+least since the dark ages of the church; and it is still more
+questionable whether it is a universal and perpetual law.
+
+If we attend to the phraseology of this decree of God, we shall find it
+to be very different from that of the precepts, generally, delivered to
+Moses. God did not say to Noah, as he often did to Moses, thou shalt do
+this, or that, but he said, "_I will require the life of man_," etc. If
+God had designed to delegate executive authority to Noah and his
+descendants to execute retributive judgment on the manslayer, the
+connection of the whole language must have been altered, for God
+declared what he would do himself. It appears, therefore, to have been
+God's _decree_, and the promulgation of _his_ law by which he would
+inflict righteous judgment on the guilty; the penalty was intended as a
+warning to deter mankind from violence, the sin for which the old world
+was swept away. And I see no reason why this threatening should not be
+considered parallel with the decrees of Christ,--that "all they that
+take the sword shall perish with the sword; he that leadeth into
+captivity shall go into captivity; he that killeth with the sword must
+be killed with the sword; here is the faith and the patience of the
+saints." Why the former should be considered as a rule of obedience for
+man, and these latter passages not so, I am unable to say. "He that
+killeth with the sword must be killed with the sword" is as positive as
+"whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed."
+
+It may be observed that the faith and patience of the saints is here
+spoken of in such a way as to imply that they exercised and manifested
+their faith and patience when they were put to death by violence or
+carried into captivity. And, indeed, how could their faith and patience
+appear if they, like the wicked world, returned evil for evil, carried
+into captivity, and killed with the sword?
+
+The original threatening has been fulfilled by the providence, and
+sometimes by the express command, of God. As Noah was the head of the
+new world and the father of nations, it seems to have had reference to
+nations rather than to individuals; and all nations that have shed blood
+in war must, in their turn, have their own blood shed; so that all they
+that take the sword may perish with the sword agreeably to the
+threatening made known to Noah, and to those announced by Christ.
+
+But, admitting that the law quoted in the objection was intended as a
+rule of duty for man, it does not appear that it was designed to be
+universal and perpetual. Before the flood no authority appears in any
+sense to have been delegated to man to shed the blood of man. So far
+from executing the penalty of death or causing it to be executed upon
+Cain, who was of the wicked one and slew his brother, notwithstanding
+his guilty forebodings, God threatened a sevenfold vengeance on him who
+should presume to do it.
+
+Under the Mosaic dispensation many crimes were punishable with death
+according to positive precept; but God, for wise reasons, did not always
+have the penalty executed. David was guilty of murder and adultery, both
+capital crimes; yet he was permitted to live.
+
+All kinds of vindictive punishment under the Christian dispensation
+appear to be absolutely forbidden. By vindictive I mean that which is
+intended to vindicate the law, as executing strict justice, and prevent
+offenses only, as taking away life, but which is not designed to promote
+the individual good of the person punished. That punishment which is
+designed and which has a tendency to promote the good of the punished,
+as well as to deter offenders, I consider to be strictly disciplinary or
+corrective, and consistent with the spirit and precepts of the gospel.
+Says an apostle, "Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but give place
+unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith
+the Lord." "For the wrath of man worketh not the righteousness of God."
+It has been said that this only forbids a revengeful temper, but this
+evasion will not do; for Christians are here forbidden to do the very
+thing which God declares he will do himself, and he does nothing but
+what is holy.
+
+"Render to no man evil for evil," is a positive precept without any
+limitation, and which admits of no evasion; and it must plainly rescind
+the law of shedding man's blood because he had shed the blood of man.
+
+But the exclamation is often made, What, not punish a murderer with
+death! Little do those who make this exclamation think that they
+themselves also are sinners and that every sin deserves not only
+temporal death but God's wrath and curse forever, and that they are in
+like condemnation unless redeemed by the blood of the Lamb. For such, it
+might be well to inquire if they know "what manner of spirit they are
+of."
+
+The most prominent characteristic of Messiah's reign over men in this
+world is mercy, since he has secured the rights and honor of the divine
+government by the sacrifice of himself so that the guilty may live. He
+has given his life as a ransom and taken the world into his hands as the
+ruler, judge, and rewarder, and offers the chief of sinners mercy; and
+the merits of his blood are sufficient to cleanse from all sin as well
+against man as against God. And who can help being astonished at the
+amazing difference between his laws and his dealings with men, and those
+sanguinary laws of men according to which under the light of the gospel
+they punish with death.
+
+The professed principle and design of these laws is strict justice; but
+were men dealt with according to strict justice by him who rules above,
+who would be able to stand? These laws of men accept no atonement for
+capital offenses; no mercy is offered, for none is provided for those
+who incur their penalty; but the gospel offers mercy to the chief of
+sinners while it condemns those who reject the offers. Capital offenders
+will never be condemned by civil governments for the rejection of
+offered mercy, for no mercy is provided for them. How unlike the divine
+government! But Christians are commanded to be merciful, as their Father
+in heaven is merciful, who showers down blessings on the evil and
+unthankful. Our Master has told us that with what judgment we judge we
+shall be judged; and with what measure we mete it shall be measured to
+us again; that if we forgive we shall be forgiven; and if we forgive not
+we shall not be forgiven; and that if we show no mercy we shall have
+judgment without mercy.
+
+Christians ought to ponder the subject well before they advocate the
+consistency and safety of dispensing justice without mercy. Let them
+learn what that meaneth, "I will have mercy and not sacrifice."
+
+_Objection seventh._ "Every purpose is established by counsel, and with
+good advice make war"; "For by wise counsel thou shalt make war," etc.
+Here war is recognized as a duty under certain circumstances, and the
+manner in which it is to be undertaken is pointed out, viz., by wise
+counsel.
+
+_Answer._ The inspired Proverbs are maxims of wisdom illustrated, for
+the most part, by some familiar subject that existed at the time they
+were delivered. The object here is not to inculcate the lawfulness of
+war but the necessity of sound wisdom in relation to the actions of men;
+and the subject of war appears to be introduced merely to illustrate
+this idea. The counsel and wisdom of men in relation to their temporal
+and worldly concerns are often worthy of imitation in reference to
+spiritual things; for the children of this world are, in some sense,
+wiser in their generation than the children of light, and the conduct of
+worldly men is often very appropriately introduced to illustrate
+Christian duty. Our Lord says, "What king, going to war with another
+king, sitteth not down first, and consulteth whether he be able with ten
+thousand to meet him that cometh against him with twenty thousand?"
+Doubtless our Lord's design was to warn people to count the cost before
+they professed to be followers of him, that they might not be deceived
+and discouraged, and that they might act from principle and not from
+hypocrisy. But he inculcated these things by referring to the example of
+kings in their consultations about war. And it is believed that the
+passages before cited are of similar import. These references to war,
+being introduced merely for the illustration of other subjects, will no
+more prove the lawfulness of war than the reference of the apostle to
+the Olympic games, for illustration, will prove the lawfulness of those
+heathen feats. But if this explanation should not be satisfactory, it
+may be observed that the Proverbs were written under the Old Testament
+economy which tolerated offensive as well as defensive war; whence it
+does not appear that any war can be undertaken under the present
+dispensation, "by wise counsel," except that which is spiritual; so that
+if the ancient was typical of the new dispensation, then the passages
+quoted will now apply only to spiritual warfare.
+
+_Objection eighth._ When the soldiers demanded of John the Baptist what
+they should do, one of the directions which he gave them was to be
+content with their wages. If their occupation had been unlawful, then he
+would not have directed them to be contented with the wages of
+wickedness.
+
+_Answer._ John the Baptist was under the Mosaic economy, the new
+dispensation not having commenced. He was but the forerunner of the
+Lord, a herald to sound his approach. But he gave the soldiers another
+direction, viz., to "do violence to no man," obedience to which is
+totally incompatible with war, as that is nothing else but violence.
+Only hinder soldiers from doing violence to any man and you stop at once
+the whole progress of war; therefore, if the directions of John are
+insisted on as gospel authority, they will prove, probably, much more
+against the lawfulness of war than in favor of it.
+
+_Objection ninth._ The Centurion and Cornelius were Christians and
+soldiers and highly approved of God for their faith and piety; nor were
+they directed by Christ or his apostles to renounce their profession;
+therefore the profession of arms is not inconsistent with Christian
+duty.
+
+_Answer._ They were first soldiers and then Christians; and we have no
+evidence that they continued in the profession of arms; nor are we
+warranted to say that they were not directed to renounce that
+profession, as the Scriptures are silent on the subject. Peter, it
+appears, tarried a number of days with Cornelius, and he doubtless
+explained to him the spirit and precepts of the gospel; and it is very
+probable that neither Cornelius nor the Centurion continued soldiers in
+any other sense than they were soldiers of Christ, as the idolatrous
+rites enjoined on the Roman soldiers were totally inconsistent with the
+Christian character, aside from the unlawfulness of war itself. Besides,
+the Roman soldiers were as often engaged in offensive as in defensive
+war; therefore, if the argument has any force on the question, it will
+tolerate not only defensive but offensive war, and also the idolatrous
+rites of the Roman armies.
+
+_Objection tenth._ Our Lord paid tribute money, which went to support
+military power, but he would not contribute to the support of a wicked
+thing, therefore war is not inconsistent with Christianity.
+
+_Answer._ A distinguished trait of the Christian religion is peace. The
+command is, "Follow peace with all men." "Blessed are the peacemakers:
+for they shall be called the children of God."
+
+Our Lord set the example of giving no just cause of offense to any.
+Tribute was demanded of him unjustly according to the existing laws, but
+lest fault should be found, he wrought a miracle and paid it. Money is a
+temporal thing, and belongs to the governments of this world, as the
+various coins bear the ensign of the nation by whom they were made; but
+the Christian's treasure is not in this world, and when the rulers of this
+world call for that which bears their own image and superscription,
+Christians have no right to withhold from them their dues, for they must
+"render to Cæsar the things that are Cæsar's." For this cause they ought
+to pay tribute and resign up temporal things without a murmur to temporal
+governments, and leave it with Cæsar to manage the things of Cæsar. Thus
+far are Christians warranted to act, from the example of Christ and the
+precepts of the gospel; but how does the lawfulness of war follow from
+Christians rendering to Cæsar his due? Is it because some of the money
+goes to support war? Probably, of the money which our Lord paid as much
+went to the support of idolatry and the games of the day as to the support
+of war. Now if the argument is sound, we may not only prove by it the
+lawfulness of war but the lawfulness of idolatry and many other abominable
+things practiced by the heathen governments.
+
+_Objection eleventh._ Our Lord, just before his crucifixion, commanded
+his disciples to take swords, and, if any were destitute, to sell their
+garments and procure them, as they would no longer have his personal
+presence to protect them; and as they were to encounter great trials and
+difficulties, they must, besides relying on providence, take all prudent
+means for their defense and preservation.
+
+_Answer._ That our Lord did not direct them to take swords for
+self-defense is evident because he told them that two were enough, and
+because the disciples never made any use of them after their Master
+directed Peter to put up his and pronounced a penalty on all who should
+have recourse to swords afterwards. But the design seems to have been to
+show by example in the most trying situation where self-defense was
+justifiable, if in any case, that the use of the sword was utterly
+prohibited under the gospel economy, and to show the criminality and
+danger of ever using deathly weapons against mankind afterwards. If
+Christ's kingdom had been of this world, then, he tells us, his servants
+would have fought; but his kingdom being not of this world, the weapons
+of their warfare were not carnal but spiritual. He therefore rebuked
+them for their mistaken zeal, healed the wound they made, and forbade
+the use of the sword.
+
+_Objection twelfth._ Christians are commanded to be in subjection to
+civil rulers who are God's ministers to execute wrath on the wicked and
+are ministers of good to the church; therefore Christians are bound to
+take the sword at their command; for civil government is ordained of God
+and civil rulers are not to bear the sword in vain, and Christians may
+lawfully do what God ordains to be done.
+
+_Answer._ That civil government, so called in distinction from religious
+government, is ordained by God is fully admitted, and also that God
+ordains whatsoever comes to pass. But there is a great difference
+between his decretive and his preceptive will. The former is not a rule
+of duty for man without the latter; the latter is always a rule of duty.
+This fact might be proved by a multitude of instances from Scripture.
+Persons therefore may be very wicked in doing what God ordains to be
+done, if they act without his command.
+
+That civil governments and civil rulers exist only by God's decretive
+will, which is fulfilled by his providence and not by his preceptive
+will, is evident because God has never authorized the appointment of
+them or given any precepts or any commands as a code of laws to any
+denomination or class of people as such, distinct from his own covenant
+people or church; and this fact I beg leave to submit as a conclusive
+evidence that civil governments and civil rulers exist only by God's
+decretive will and not by his preceptive will. Under the ancient
+dispensation no laws or directions were given to any class of men, as
+such, other than God's own covenant people or church, unless some
+special commands on singular occasions, or the general command to repent
+and turn to God, be excepted.
+
+The king on the throne of Israel was as truly an officer in the church
+of God as the high priest who entered into the holy of holies. Both were
+set apart and anointed with the holy oil, at the command of God, and
+both were types of the Son of God. The king as much typified his kingly
+office as the priest did his priestly office. Both were necessary parts
+of that complete shadow of good things then to come.
+
+Under the gospel dispensation no authority from God is to be found for
+appointing and setting apart civil rulers, nor are there any directions
+given to civil rulers, _as such_, how to conduct in their office, unless
+those who rule in the church are called civil rulers. All the precepts
+and directions in the gospel, excepting such as were special (as those
+which related only to the apostles) or such as are universal (relating
+alike to all men), are given to the disciples as members of Christ's
+kingdom, who are not of this world, even as he was not of this world.
+
+The Son of God came into the world to set up the kingdom of heaven,
+which is a perfect and everlasting kingdom and distinct from all other
+kingdoms which are to be destroyed to give place to his divine and
+heavenly reign. He came in the likeness of men, sin excepted, and laid
+down his life a ransom for the world, and then rose a triumphant
+conqueror, and in the complex character of God and man, as Mediator, he
+took the universe, his purchased possession, into his hands as a
+lawgiver, judge, and rewarder. He took the scepter when it departed from
+Judah, and is exalted far above all principality and power and might and
+dominion, and has a name above every name, all executive power in heaven
+and earth being given to him as Mediator. Thus, as Mediator, the kingdom
+of heaven is his kingdom. He reigns not only as King of kings and Lord
+of lords but seated on the throne of his father David, he is forever
+King in Zion and is head over all things to his church. His kingdom is
+not of this world, neither are his subjects of this world, though some
+of them are in it.
+
+He sent out his disciples to appear in a distinct character from the
+world and to be a light to it by imitating his example and by exhibiting
+his spirit and temper. They ought not to say, as the Jews did, that they
+have no king but Cæsar, for they have an everlasting King and kingdom
+and laws perfect and eternal. They should, therefore, set their
+affections on things above and not on things beneath.
+
+While the kingdoms of this world exist, Christians must remain in
+captivity to them and must obey all their laws which are not contrary to
+the laws of the gospel; otherwise they cannot remain peaceful, harmless,
+and blameless in the midst of a wicked world before whom they must shine
+as lights.
+
+Though the church is now in captivity, yet her redemption draweth nigh,
+for God will soon "overthrow the throne of kingdoms," and the thrones
+will be cast down and the princes of this world will come to naught. The
+stone which was cut out of the mountain without hands will dash them to
+pieces, as the potter's vessel is shivered, and will become a great
+mountain and fill the whole earth; then the kingdom and the dominion and
+the greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven shall be given to
+the people of the saints of the most high God whose kingdom is an
+everlasting kingdom and of whose dominion there shall be no end.
+
+Though God, by his decree, has ordained civil governments and
+established kingdoms, and will by his providence make them subservient
+to the good of his church and people, and notwithstanding it is the duty
+of Christians to be in subjection to them and pay tribute, yet it does
+not follow that their genius and laws may not often be contrary to the
+genius and laws of the gospel, and when they are so Christians must not
+obey them nor count their lives dear to themselves. It should be
+distinctly remembered that when Christians were exhorted and commanded
+to be obedient to civil rulers, they were under heathen, idolatrous,
+civil governments, and those civil governments were by no means
+congenial with the spirit and precepts of the gospel; still Christians
+were commanded to be in subjection to them; not, however, without
+limitation, for they utterly refused obedience in many instances and
+nobly suffered or died as martyrs.
+
+Thus civil government may be an ordinance of God, may be subservient to
+the good of the church, may be an instrument in God's hands of executing
+his wrath, and Christians may be bound to obey magistrates in all things
+not contrary to the gospel; and yet it will not follow that Christians
+may consistently with the gospel take up the sword or do anything to
+countenance war.
+
+If it be the duty of Christians to take the sword and enter the field of
+battle at the command of their civil rulers, then there could be no
+impropriety in having armies wholly made up of real Christians,
+especially since it is the duty of every man to become a Christian; and
+as professing Christian nations are almost constantly fighting each
+other, it would be perfectly proper for hosts of pious saints to be
+daily engaged in shedding each other's blood. But how would it appear,
+how does it appear, for those who have drunk into the same peaceful and
+heavenly spirit, who are united together by the tender ties of the
+Redeemer's blood, who are all members of the same family, and who hope
+through divine grace to dwell together in everlasting love and
+blessedness, to be fighting one another here with relentless fury?
+
+Let us contemplate the subject, in this point of view, a little further.
+Suppose an English and an American frigate in the time of war, both
+manned entirely with real Christians, should meet in a neutral port.
+Ought they not then to conduct towards each other as brethren of one
+common Lord? As they are all members of the same family and have all
+been redeemed by the same blood, and sanctified by the same divine
+spirit, they surely must have the most tender affection for each other,
+and it would be highly proper for them to meet together for Christian
+fellowship, worship, and communion. Suppose, then, that they
+occasionally go on board each other's ships for religious worship; that
+their chaplains lead in their devotions, using such petitions as
+these--praying that they may be all of one heart and one mind in the
+knowledge of Christ, knit together in the bonds of Christian love; that
+they may have much of the wisdom from above which is first pure, then
+peaceable, gentle, easy to be entreated; that they may do good to all as
+they have opportunity, especially to the household of faith; that they
+may be meek and gentle as lambs and harmless as doves; that they may be
+kind and forgiving and that, like their Divine Master, they may return
+good for evil and have their affections on things above and not on
+things beneath; after which they unitedly partake of the symbols of
+Christ's broken body and shed blood, and then part with the tenderest
+tokens of Christian fellowship and love. They leave the port and meet
+again at sea. It now becomes their duty, on the principles of war,
+instead of meeting as Christian brethren, to meet as raging tigers and
+discharge the flaming engines of death on each other; and in order to
+perform "their duty to their God and country," they must exert all their
+power and skill to destroy one another. The dreadful struggle and
+carnage must be continued by both parties as long as both can fight.
+When half of their crews are wallowing in their blood and expiring in
+agonies, a violent effort must be made by one or both to board the other
+and end the contest sword in hand. Those hands which recently saluted
+each other with Christian love now plunge the envenomed steel into their
+brethren's bosoms. At length one is vanquished and yields to the other.
+Those who remain alive after the conflict again unite in prayer and give
+thanks to God that he has given them courage and strength to fight so
+nobly, and that he has shielded their lives in the hour of battle. Thus
+they again resume their Christian fellowship and communion. This mutual
+fellowship, communion, and love are perfectly consistent with Christian
+character and are required by it. The conduct which has been supposed as
+enemies when fighting is also entirely consistent with the principles of
+war and with the character of warriors, and is such as would be highly
+applauded and admired by the world. But is it not obviously and
+perfectly absurd and perfectly incompatible with the principles of the
+gospel for Christians to act in this twofold character? If, however, it
+is the duty of Christians to obey the command of their rulers and engage
+in war, then it would be perfectly proper for what has been supposed to
+take place. Christians may one day surround the table of the Lord
+together, and the next kill and destroy each other.
+
+The god of this world, not being yet chained down to hell, deceives the
+nations and gathers them together to battle; but the children of peace,
+the citizens of Zion, ought not to mingle with them or listen to the
+deceiver. They should take to themselves not carnal weapons but the
+whole armor of God, that they may be able to stand in an evil day and to
+quench all the fiery darts of Satan.
+
+_Objection thirteenth._ To deny the right of the magistrate to call on
+his subjects to take the sword is to deny that he is an avenger to
+execute wrath, though the gospel expressly declares that he is.
+
+_Answer._ This conclusion does not follow unless it is a fact that God
+cannot and does not actually make him the instrument of doing it, by his
+providence, without his command; for, as we have already observed, men
+may fulfill the decrees of God under his providence, without his
+command, and be very criminal in the deed. God raised up the king of
+Assyria and made him the rod of his anger, to chastise his people and to
+execute wrath upon the ungodly nations around. "Howbeit he meant not so,
+but it was in his heart to _cut off_ nations not a few." And God
+declared, with reference to him, "that when he had performed his whole
+work he would punish the fruit of his stout heart and the glory of his
+high looks." It will not be contended that warlike nations are commanded
+by God to destroy and trample down the nations of the earth as the dust
+of their feet; yet, when they do so, they doubtless fulfill his high
+decree and are avengers to execute his wrath on a wicked world.
+
+The beast represented in the Revelation with seven heads and ten horns
+has generally been considered as an emblem of nations. These ten horns,
+or powers, are to hate the great harlot of Babylon; to eat her flesh
+and burn her with fire; and though they destroy the greatest enemy of
+the church, and in this way are ministers of good to her, yet they
+receive their power and their seat and their authority from the old
+serpent, the dragon. And a magistrate or king may be a minister of good
+to the church and an avenger to execute wrath, and still be very wicked
+in the deed and use very unlawful means to accomplish the end. While he
+fulfills the decree of Heaven, he acts not in obedience to the command
+of God, but to the dictates of his own lusts and passions.
+
+_Objection fourteenth._ The passages of Scripture which have been quoted
+against retaliation and which inculcate love to enemies and the
+returning of good for evil have reference to individuals in their
+conduct towards each other, but have no relation to civil government and
+are not intended as a rule of duty for one nation towards another; they
+therefore have no bearing on the subject of war.
+
+_Answer._ Those precepts of the gospel appear to be binding universally
+without any limitation, and men have no right to limit that which God
+has not limited. If the commands of the gospel are binding upon every
+one in his individual capacity, then they must be binding upon every one
+in any collective body, so that whatever is morally wrong for every
+individual must be equally wrong for a collective body; and a nation is
+only a large number of individuals united so as to act collectively as
+one person. Therefore, if it is criminal for an individual to lie,
+steal, quarrel, and fight, it is also criminal for nations to lie,
+steal, quarrel, and fight. If it is the duty of an individual to be kind
+and tender-hearted and to have a forgiving and merciful disposition, it
+is likewise the duty of nations to be kind, forgiving, and merciful. If
+it is the duty of an individual to return good for evil, then it is the
+duty of nations to return good for evil.
+
+It is self-evident that individuals cannot delegate power to communities
+which they do not possess themselves. Therefore, if every individual is
+bound to obey the precepts of the gospel and cannot as an individual be
+released from the obligation, then individuals have no power to release
+any collective body from that obligation. To say that God has given to
+nations a right to return evil for evil is begging the question, for it
+does not appear and cannot be shown that God has restricted the precepts
+of the gospel to individuals, or that he has given any precepts to
+nations as such, or to any other community than his own covenant people
+or church. This objection makes government an abstraction according with
+the common saying, "Government is without a soul."
+
+No practice has a more corrupt tendency than that of attempting to limit
+the Scriptures so as to make them trim with the corrupt practices of
+mankind. Whoever, for the sake of supporting war, attempts to limit
+these precepts of the gospel to individuals and denies that they are
+binding upon nations destroys one of the main pillars by which the
+lawfulness of war is upheld. The right of nations to defend themselves
+with the sword is argued on the supposed right of individual
+self-preservation; as it is said to be right for individuals to defend
+themselves with deathly weapons, so it is lawful for nations to have
+recourse to the sword for defense of their rights. But if these passages
+are applicable to individuals and prohibit them from acts of
+retaliation, and if the rights of nations are founded on the rights of
+individuals, then nations have no right to retaliate injury.
+
+_Objection fifteenth._ Christians, with comparatively few exceptions,
+have not doubted the lawfulness of war, and many have actually fought
+and bled on the field of battle and considered themselves in the way of
+their duty. And shall all our pious forefathers be condemned for
+engaging in war?
+
+_Answer._ It is admitted that many pious people have engaged in war, but
+they might have been in an error on this subject as well as on many
+other subjects. Many of our pious forefathers engaged in the slavery of
+their fellow-men, and thought themselves in the way of their duty; but
+does it follow that they were not in an error? The circumstance that
+multitudes defend a sentiment is no certain evidence of its truth. Some
+of the reformers were objected to because the multitude were against
+them. Popularity, however, ever has influenced and ever will influence
+mankind more than plain gospel duty, until the earth shall be filled
+with the abundance of peace. But notwithstanding this, it is not right
+to follow the multitude to do evil. All ought to remember that they have
+no right to follow the example of any one any further than that example
+coincides with the example of Christ or the precepts of the gospel; all
+other standards are fallible and dangerous.
+
+If real Christians have, from mistaken zeal, prayed against each other
+and fought each other and shed each other's blood, this does not justify
+war.
+
+_Objection sixteenth._ If Christians generally should adopt these
+sentiments, it would be impossible for them to subsist in this world in
+its present state, and if they did continue it must be in abject
+slavery. They would become hewers of wood and drawers of water to the
+tyrannical and oppressive, and would only encourage them in their deeds
+of wickedness. The injustice of men must be restrained or the earth will
+again be filled with violence. The necessity of the case is such that
+mankind would be warranted to take up arms to maintain their rights and
+repel oppressors, if the Scriptures were silent on the subject.[2]
+
+_Answer._ We have the history of the heathen world to teach us what
+mankind are without the light of revelation. They are full of all
+unrighteousness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of enmity, murder,
+debate, deceit, malignity; they are proud, boasters, without natural
+affection, implacable, unmerciful. Now the very design of the gospel is
+to subdue and overcome these abominable passions and dispositions; not
+however by returning violence for violence but by producing virtues
+directly contrary. The great duty of Christians is to be a light to this
+wicked world by exhibiting in their conduct and conversation the spirit
+and temper of the gospel. If such were the practice of Christians, we
+have reason to believe that wicked men would be overawed and deterred
+from their violence in a great measure. Besides, if all real Christians
+should utterly refuse to bear arms for the destruction of their
+fellow-men, it would greatly diminish the strength and boldness of
+warlike nations, so that it would be impracticable for them to prosecute
+war with the vigor and fury that they now do.
+
+But if the gospel prohibits war, then to urge the necessity of the case
+against the commands of God is open rebellion against his government as
+well as total distrust of his word and providence.
+
+If Christians live in habitual obedience to God's commands, they have
+the promise that all things shall work together for their good, and they
+have no reason to fear them that kill the body and after that "have no
+more that they can do."
+
+It is strange that Christians should have so great a reluctance to
+suffer inconvenience in worldly things for the sake of the gospel. The
+scoffs and persecutions of the world and the fear of the loss of worldly
+things are powerful barriers against _Christian_ warfare. The gospel
+teaches us that all who live godly in Christ Jesus shall suffer
+persecution, and that through much tribulation the saints must enter
+into the kingdom of heaven; and is it not plainly owing wholly to their
+conformity to the world that they now suffer so little persecution and
+practice so little self-denial? If there is reserved for them an eternal
+weight of glory, what if they, like their Divine Master, should not have
+where to lay their heads? If they are to inherit a crown of immortal
+glory, what if they are called to suffer the loss of earthly things? If
+they are hereafter to reign as kings and priests unto God, what if they
+are not ranked among the great and honorable of the earth? If they
+suffer with Christ, then will they also reign with him; but if they deny
+him, he also will deny them; and if they are ashamed of him, he will
+also be ashamed of them before his Father and the holy angels. Let
+Christians then obey his commands and trust to his protection while they
+resolutely abstain from the wicked practices of the world.
+
+_Objection seventeenth._ It is the duty of mankind to use means for the
+preservation of life and liberty; they must till the ground, if they
+expect a crop. It would be presumptuous for them to pray for and to
+expect their daily bread without using such means as God has put in
+their power to obtain it; and it would be equally presumptuous to expect
+the preservation of their lives and liberties without using such means
+to preserve and defend them as God has put into their hand; they must
+act as well as pray.
+
+_Answer._ That using means is the duty of Christians, there can be no
+doubt; but they must be such as God has appointed, and not such as human
+wisdom may dictate. There is no dispute as to the propriety of using
+means, but only as to the kind of means which Christians ought to use.
+The weapons of their warfare are not carnal, but spiritual, and they are
+mighty through God to the pulling down the strongholds of sin and Satan.
+It is often said, If you wish to put a stop to war, spread the gospel
+through the world. We would inquire, If the gospel tolerates war, how
+will its universal diffusion put a stop to war?
+
+As has already been observed, it would be open rebellion to do what God
+has forbidden, and high-handed presumption to ask his aid in the things
+which he has prohibited.
+
+_Objection eighteenth._ Some ecclesiastical historians inform us that
+Christians in the early ages of the church, though they contended so
+firmly for the faith as to suffer martyrdom rather than submit to
+idolatry, yet did not refuse to bear arms in defense of their country,
+even when called upon by heathen magistrates, and their example ought to
+have weight with us.
+
+_Answer._ The testimony of the early Fathers is entitled to regard, but
+must not be considered as infallible authority, for they were men of
+like passions with others and cannot be followed safely any farther than
+they followed Christ. But the weight of their testimony on the subject,
+I apprehend, will be found to stand directly against the lawfulness of
+war on Christian principles.
+
+Erasmus, who was an eminent scholar, and who was probably as well
+acquainted with the sentiments of the primitive Fathers as any modern
+writer, in his _Antipolemus, or Plea against War_, replies to the
+advocates of war as follows: "They further object those opinions or
+decrees of the Fathers in which war seems to be approved. Of this sort
+there are some, but they are only late writers, who appeared when the
+true spirit of Christianity began to languish, and they are very few;
+while, on the other hand, there are innumerable ones among the writers
+of acknowledged sanctity which absolutely forbid war; and why should the
+few rather than the many intrude themselves into our mind?"
+
+Barclay, who examined the writings of the Fathers on this subject, says,
+"It is as easy to obscure the sun at midday as to deny that the
+primitive Christians renounced all revenge and war."
+
+Clarkson, who also examined the Fathers, declares that "every Christian
+writer of the second century who notices the subject makes it unlawful
+for Christians to bear arms."
+
+Clarkson has made copious extracts from the writings of the Fathers
+against war, a few of which, as quoted by him and others, shall be
+inserted here.
+
+Justin Martyr and Tatian both considered the devil the author of war.
+
+Justin Martyr, while speaking of the prophecies relating to the days of
+peace, says, "That this prophecy is fulfilled you have good reason to
+believe, for we who in times past killed one another do not now fight
+with our enemies." Clarkson adds, "It is observable that the word
+'fight' does not mean to strike, beat, or give a blow, but to fight in
+war; and the word 'enemy' does not mean a common adversary who has
+injured us, but an enemy of state."
+
+Irenæus says that Christians in his day "had changed their swords and
+their lances into instruments of peace, and that they knew not how to
+fight."
+
+Maximilian and a number of others in the second century actually
+suffered martyrdom for refusing, on gospel principles, to bear arms.
+
+Celsus made it one of his charges against the Christians that they
+refused to bear arms for the Emperor. Origen, in the following century,
+admitted the fact and justified the Christians on the ground of the
+unlawfulness of war itself.
+
+Tertullian, in his discourse to Scapula, tells us "that no Christians
+were to be found in the Roman armies."
+
+In his declaration on the worship of idols he says, "Though the soldiers
+came to John and received a certain form to be observed, and though the
+Centurion believed, yet Jesus Christ, by disarming Peter disarmed every
+soldier afterwards; for custom can never sanction an illicit act."
+
+Again, in his _Soldier's Garland_, he says: "Can a soldier's life be
+lawful, when Christ has pronounced that he who lives by the sword shall
+perish by the sword? Can one who professes the peaceable doctrine of the
+gospel be a soldier when it is his duty not so much as to go to law? And
+shall he who is not to avenge his own wrongs be instrumental in bringing
+others into chains, imprisonment, torment, and death?"
+
+He tells us, also, that the Christians in his day were sufficiently
+numerous to have defended themselves if their religion had permitted
+them to have recourse to the sword.
+
+There are some marvelous accounts of Christian soldiers related by
+Eusebius; but Valesius, in his annotations on these accounts, has
+abundantly proved them to be fabulous, though he was not opposed to war
+and could have had no other object but to support the truth. Eusebius,
+in his orations on Constantine, uses such extravagant adulation, which
+falls but little short of idolatry, that his account of Christian
+warriors ought to be received with great caution, especially when we
+recollect that church and state were, in his day, united.
+
+On the whole, it is very evident that the early Christians did refuse to
+bear arms, and although one of their objections was the idolatrous rites
+connected with military service, yet they did object on account of the
+unlawfulness of war itself.
+
+We have no good evidence of Christians being found in the armies until
+we have evidence of great corruption in the church. But admitting that
+we had good evidence that there were professing Christians in the army
+at an early period of the church, I apprehend it would be of little
+importance, for the idolatrous rites and ceremonies of the heathen
+armies were of such a nature as to be totally inconsistent with
+Christian character, and the example of idolatrous Christians surely
+ought to have no weight.
+
+Some objections of less importance might be stated which have from time
+to time been made against the sentiments here advocated; but to state
+and reply to everything that might be said is not necessary. Specious
+objections have been and still are made to almost every doctrine of
+Christianity. Mankind can generally find some plausible arguments to
+support whatever they wish to believe. The pleas in favor of war are
+very congenial with the natural feelings of the human heart, and unless
+men will examine with a serious, candid, and prayerful disposition to
+ascertain the truth as it is in Jesus, they will be very likely to
+imbibe and defend error.[3]
+
+The writer, though far from supposing that everything he has said on a
+subject that has been so little discussed is free from error, is
+conscious of having endeavored to examine it with seriousness and
+candor, and feels satisfied that the general sentiments he has advanced
+are according to godliness. He sincerely hopes that every one who may
+peruse these pages will do it in the meek and unbiased spirit of the
+gospel, and then judge whether war can be reconciled with the lamblike
+example of Christ; whether it is really forgiving the trespasses of
+enemies, loving and doing them good, and returning good for evil; for if
+it is not, it is unquestionably inconsistent with the spirit and the
+precepts of Christianity.
+
+All who earnestly desire and look for the millennial glory of the church
+should consider that it can never arrive until the spirit and practice
+of war are abolished. All who love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity
+cannot but ardently desire that wars may cease to the ends of the earth
+and that mankind should embrace each other as brethren. If so, is it not
+their duty to do all in their power to promote so benevolent an object?
+Ought not every individual Christian to conduct in such a manner that if
+every other person imitated his example it would be best for the whole?
+If so, would they not immediately renounce everything that leads to wars
+and fightings and embrace everything which would promote that glorious
+reign of righteousness and peace for which they earnestly hope, long,
+and pray? "The work of righteousness shall be peace, and the effect of
+righteousness, quietness and assurance forever."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Says the Rev. Dr. Scott, in his Essay, p. 422: "We ought not
+therefore to fear our enemies because he will be with us, and if God be
+for us, who can be against us? Or who can doubt but he that is in us is
+greater than he that is in the world? This was typically intimated in
+the promises made to Israel respecting their wars with the Canaanites
+and other nations, which were shadows and figures of the good fight of
+faith." Bishop Horne, in his preface to the Psalms, views the subject in
+the same light.
+
+[2] All these objections introduced are carefully selected from some of
+the ablest advocates for the lawfulness of war.
+
+[3] The last point American Christians will give up is the justification
+of their fathers in the War of the Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+HYMN
+
+SUGGESTED BY THE PRECEDING TRAIN OF THOUGHT, AND APPENDED TO THE
+ORIGINAL EDITION OF THE ESSAY ON WAR
+
+    Great Sun of glory, rise and shine,
+      Dispel the gloom of night;
+    Let the foul spirits stretch their wings,
+      And fly before thy light.
+
+    Rebuke the nations, stop their rage,
+      Destroy the warrior's skill,
+    Hush all the tumults of the earth;
+      O speak! say, "Peace, be still."
+
+    Break, break the cruel warrior's sword,
+      Asunder cut his bow,
+    Command him by thy sovereign word
+      To let the captives go.
+
+    No more let heroes' glory sound,
+      No more their triumphs tell,
+    Bring all the pride of nations down--
+      Let war return to hell.
+
+    Then let thy blessed kingdom come,
+      With all its heavenly train,
+    And pour thy peaceful spirit down,
+      Like gentle showers of rain.
+
+    Then shall the prowling beasts of prey,
+      Like lambs be meek and mild;
+    Vipers and asps shall harmless twine
+      Around the weaned child.
+
+    The happy sons of Zion sit
+      Secure beneath their vines;
+    Or, shadowed by their fig-tree's tops,
+      Shall drink their cheering wines.
+
+    The nations to thy scepter bow,
+      And own "thy gentle sway";
+    Then all the wandering tribes of men
+      To thee their tribute pay.
+
+    Angelic hosts shall view the scene,
+      Delighted, spread their wings;
+    Down to the earth again they fly,
+      And strike their lofty strings.
+
+    The listening nations catch the sound,
+      And join the heavenly choir,
+    To swell aloud the song of praise,
+      And vie with sacred fire.
+
+    "Glory to God on high!" they sound,
+      In strains of angels' mirth;
+    "Good will and peace" to men, they sing,
+      Since heaven is brought to earth.
+
+
+
+
+THE MEDIATOR'S KINGDOM NOT OF THIS WORLD: BUT SPIRITUAL
+
+BY AN INQUIRER
+
+    The writer of the following pages has, for a considerable time,
+    doubted the propriety of some of the common practices of
+    Christians. To satisfy himself he has, if he is not deceived,
+    candidly and diligently examined the Scriptures with a view to
+    ascertain and practice the truth. After considerable inquiry his
+    doubts increased. He then applied to some highly respectable and
+    pious friends, who frankly acknowledged that they had never
+    fully examined the subject, as they had never had any doubt
+    concerning it. They judged the matter weighty and advised him to
+    arrange his thoughts and commit them to paper. This he has
+    endeavored to do as well as a very infirm state of body and a
+    press of commercial business would admit. After submitting what
+    he had written to some of his friends, they unanimously advised
+    him to lay it before the public, hoping that it might have a
+    tendency to call the subject into notice and lead to a more
+    complete and full examination. With this view he has ventured to
+    commit the following sheets to the press. He has only to beg
+    that the Christian who may take the trouble to read them will
+    not be so solicitous to reply to the arguments as to examine and
+    illustrate the truth.
+
+The kingdom of our glorious Mediator is but little noticed in the world,
+yet it is precious in the eyes of the Lord. The Lord hath chosen Zion.
+She is the redeemed of the Lord. He hath said, he who touches her
+touches the apple of his eye. She is purchased by the blood of the Lamb,
+sanctified by the Spirit of grace, and defended by the arm of
+Omnipotence. Notwithstanding she may still be covered with sackcloth,
+the days of her mourning have an end. The Lord will raise her from the
+dust and make her an eternal excellency and the joy of many generations.
+The mystical body of Christ is composed of that innumerable company
+which no man can number,--out of every nation and kindred and people and
+tongue,--which will finally stand before the throne of God and the Lamb,
+clothed with white robes and palms in their hands. It is but one body,
+although composed of many members. The temple, which was a symbol of the
+church, was composed of many stones, although but one building. The
+spiritual temple is built of lively stones upon the foundation of the
+apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner
+stone. This spiritual temple will continue to rise under different
+dispensations until the elect are gathered together from the four winds
+of heaven and the top stone is carried up with shouts of Grace, Grace,
+unto it!
+
+The Mediator's kingdom is not of this world. "Jesus answered, My kingdom
+is not of this world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my
+servants fight, that I should not be delivered to the Jews" (John xviii.
+36). In remarking upon these words we are naturally led to consider,
+
+    I. What the Mediator's kingdom is.
+   II. Its nature.
+  III. Its laws.
+
+From which we propose to make several inferences and illustrations for
+improvement.
+
+Agreeably to the arrangement of our subject, we shall first endeavor to
+ascertain what the kingdom of the Mediator is; or that kingdom which he
+so emphatically calls "My Kingdom," in distinction from all other
+kingdoms. "Jesus answered, My kingdom----" Our glorious Mediator takes
+to himself the majesty of a sovereign and claims a kingdom. In his
+mediatorial character he possesses, in an extensive sense, universal
+empire. He is exalted far above all principality and power and might and
+dominion, and has a name which is above every name. He is King of kings
+and Lord of lords. He is not only king on his holy hill of Zion but
+rules amongst the nations. He is, however, in an appropriate sense, king
+of saints under the gospel dispensation, as he governs the worlds with a
+view to his own glory and their exaltation.
+
+That the church, under the gospel dispensation, is in a special manner
+the kingdom of heaven or the kingdom which Christ so often called his
+kingdom appears evident (it is thought) from many passages of Scripture.
+The prophet Daniel, while interpreting the symbols of the four great
+empires which were to arise in the earth, adds that "in the days of
+these kings shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom which shall never
+be destroyed." This kingdom could not be the Church Universal, for that
+was established in the family of Adam and had continued without being
+broken in a line of holy men down to the prophet's day. It must
+therefore have a special reference to something future. When John the
+Baptist came preaching, he said, "Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven
+is at hand," fully implying that it had not then commenced. He preached
+repentance preparatory to ushering in that kingdom which the God of
+heaven was about to set up. In the days of the fourth great kingdom
+mentioned in the prophecy of Daniel the Lord Jesus Christ came into our
+world to establish his kingdom. As he entered upon his ministry he
+declared that the time was fulfilled and that the kingdom of God was at
+hand. When he first commissioned his disciples and sent them forth to
+preach, he directed them to say to their hearers, "The kingdom of God is
+come nigh unto you." In speaking of John the Baptist, he says, He was
+the greatest of prophets; but adds, "He that is least in the kingdom of
+God is greater than he"; which must be conclusive evidence that John the
+Baptist was not in the kingdom of God. At the Last Supper, after our
+Lord had blessed and partaken of the bread, he said to his disciples, "I
+will not any more eat thereof until it be fulfilled in the kingdom of
+God." In like manner, after taking the cup, he said, "I will not drink
+of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God shall come." All of
+which seems fully to imply that the kingdom which the God of heaven was
+about to set up did not commence before the gospel dispensation. Christ
+came under the Mosaic dispensation, that is, under the law, to redeem
+those who were under the law, by the sacrifice of himself; "and being
+found in the fashion of a man, he humbled himself, and became obedient
+unto death, even the death of the cross. Wherefore God hath highly
+exalted him, and hath given him a name which is above every name." After
+he arose from the dead he appeared to his disciples "by many infallible
+proofs, being seen of them forty days, and speaking of the things
+pertaining to the kingdom of God." "And Jesus came and spake unto them,
+saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth. Go ye
+therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the
+Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost: teaching them to observe
+all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you
+always, even unto the end of the world. Amen." Here we see the Mediator
+possessing a kingdom and giving laws to his subjects and commanding
+obedience. Although his kingdom was then small, like a little leaven,
+yet it had the power to leaven the whole lump. The stone which was cut
+out of the mountain without hands will become a great mountain and fill
+the whole earth. Every knee must finally bow to his scepter and every
+tongue confess that he is Lord to the glory of God the Father.
+
+From this concise view of the subject we conclude that the kingdom of
+God, or Christ's kingdom, is in a special manner the gospel dispensation
+which was not completely established until after the resurrection of our
+Lord.
+
+II. The next point of inquiry is its nature. "Jesus answered, My kingdom
+is not of this world." By this we understand the Mediator's kingdom, not
+being of this world, supposes that its nature, its laws, and its
+government are all distinct from the nature, laws, and governments of
+this world. That the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, but
+spiritual, heavenly, and divine, will fully appear, it is apprehended,
+from the following reasons.
+
+1st. From the character of the King. He was not born like the kings of
+the earth. He was the Son of the living God and Heir of all things. He
+was conceived by the power of the Holy Ghost and born of a virgin. His
+birth was not celebrated with the earthly pomp of princes, but by a few
+humble shepherds and a choir of angels. His palace was a stable and his
+cradle a manger. When a child he was not amused with toys, but was about
+his Father's business. When he was dedicated to his ministry, it was not
+by the appointment of kings, or the consecration of bishops, but by the
+baptism of his humble forerunner, and the descent of the Holy Ghost in a
+bodily shape like a dove, and a voice from the excellent glory, saying,
+"This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." His companions were
+the despised fishermen of Galilee and the angels of heaven. He was "a
+man of sorrow and acquainted with grief"; yet he was the eternal Son of
+the eternal Father. Nature owned his voice and devils trembled at his
+power; but he was despised and rejected of men. When he fed the hungry
+multitude, they were gratified with the loaves and fishes and sought to
+make him a king; but he departed out of the place; for his kingdom was
+not of this world. When Satan, the god of this world, offered him all
+the kingdoms of this world and the glory of them if he would only fall
+down and worship him, he rebuked him with holy contempt and said, Get
+thee hence, Satan; for his kingdom was not of this world. The Mediator
+did not intermeddle with the affairs of the governments of this world;
+for his kingdom was not of this world. When he was solicited to command
+a brother to divide his earthly substance, instead of complying with the
+request he only gave a pointed admonition and said, "Man, who made me a
+judge, or a divider, over you?" When his enemies endeavored to catch him
+in his words by extorting from him something unfavorable to the laws of
+Cæsar, Jesus answered them and said, "Render to Cæsar the things which
+are Cæsar's, and to God the things which are God's." When they demanded
+of him tribute, and that unjustly, according to their own laws, he paid
+it without a murmur, to set an example of peace and quietness for his
+disciples. In all things he avoided interfering or meddling with the
+governments of this world.
+
+2dly. From the representations of the Bible, "The kingdom of God is
+righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost." The Mediator's kingdom
+is founded in right. His scepter is a right scepter. He rules in
+righteousness. "The unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of God."
+Righteousness is opposed to all injustice, oppression, and cruelty; it
+regards the rights of God and man; it requires love to the Lord our God
+with all our heart, with all our mind, and with all our strength, and to
+our neighbors as ourselves. His kingdom is a kingdom of peace; he is the
+Prince of Peace. At his birth the angels sang, "Peace on earth, and good
+will to men." Peace is opposed directly to all contention, war, and
+tumult, whether it regards individuals, societies, or nations. It
+forbids all wrath, clamor, and evil speaking. It forbids the resistance
+of evil or retaliation, and requires good for evil, blessing for
+cursing, and prayer for persecution. Our glorious Mediator not only
+exhibited a pattern of peace in his life but preached peace in the great
+congregation. His last and richest legacy to his disciples was the gift
+of peace: "My peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you: not as
+the world giveth, give I unto you." Christ came in the power of the
+Spirit, and was full of the Holy Ghost. It is the communion of the Holy
+Ghost which fills the kingdom of heaven with that joy which is
+unspeakable and full of glory. "Except a man be born of the Spirit, he
+cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven." Finally, we have his own
+express declaration, "My kingdom is not of this world."
+
+From what has been said it may be concluded that the Mediator's kingdom
+is, in a special sense, the gospel dispensation, or the kingdom of
+heaven, and that it is not of this world, but spiritual, heavenly, and
+divine. And this brings us to notice,
+
+III. The laws by which it is governed. It is governed by the same laws
+which regulate the heavenly hosts. "Be ye therefore perfect, even as
+your Father in heaven is perfect," is the command of our Divine Master.
+It is the kingdom of heaven. "Jesus said, My kingdom is not of this
+world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight,
+that I should not be delivered to the Jews." The laws of the Mediator's
+kingdom require supreme love to God. Jesus said, "Thou shalt love the
+Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy
+mind; this is the first and great commandment." This implies right
+apprehension of his being and perfections, and supreme love to his word
+and delight in his law, such as the sweet singer of Israel expressed: O
+how I love thy law! it is my meditation day and night. It implies
+unlimited confidence in God and unshaken belief in the testimony he has
+given of his Son and a spirit of filial obedience to all his precepts.
+
+The laws of the Mediator's kingdom require love to man: "Thou shall love
+thy neighbour as thyself." This prohibits rendering to any man evil for
+evil; but, contrariwise, it demands blessing. It utterly forbids wrath,
+hatred, malice, envy, pride, revenge, and fighting; but requires, on the
+contrary, meekness, forgiveness, long-suffering, tenderness, compassion,
+and mercy. The subjects of the Mediator's kingdom are commanded to do
+good to all as they have opportunity; but especially to those of the
+household of faith. This command extends not only to the gentle and kind
+but to the disobedient and froward; to friends and to enemies. "If thine
+enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink," is the command of
+our Lord. This injunction, it is apprehended, is directly opposed to
+resisting the oppression of enemies by force. Jesus said, "If my kingdom
+were of this world, then would my servants fight"; but, instead of
+avenging wrongs, the explicit direction is "to overcome evil with good."
+The Mediator is the only avenger of the wrongs done to his subjects:
+"For it is written, Vengeance is mine, and I will repay, saith the
+Lord." In a special manner the subjects of the Mediator must love the
+brethren. They must visit the widow, the fatherless, and the afflicted,
+and live unspotted from the world. The Lord accepts every act of
+kindness done to the brethren as done to himself, and regards every act
+of injustice, cruelty, and revenge towards them as expressed towards
+himself. He considers them his own property, the purchase of his blood.
+He will, therefore, not only be their portion but their defense; a wall
+of fire round about them and a glory in the midst. The Mediator sits as
+King upon his holy hill of Zion, and is swaying his scepter in
+righteousness throughout his vast dominions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Having very briefly considered what the Mediator's kingdom in a special
+manner is, its nature and its laws, we now pass, as was proposed, to
+make several inferences and illustrations.
+
+1st. If the Mediator's kingdom is in a special manner the gospel
+dispensation, and its nature and laws are not of this world, but
+spiritual, heavenly, and divine, then we may infer that the kingdoms of
+this world are not united to the kingdom of our Lord, but are opposed to
+it. If they are not for him, they are against him; and if they gather
+not with him, they scatter abroad. They must, therefore, be at war with
+the Lamb; but the Lamb shall overcome them, for he hath on his vesture
+and on his thigh a name written, King of kings and Lord of lords. The
+great conflict in our world is between the kingdom of the Mediator and
+the kingdom of Satan; but the victory is not uncertain. Although the
+"heathen rage, and the people imagine a vain thing, the kings of the
+earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the
+Lord, and against his Anointed, saying, Let us break their bands
+asunder, and cast away their cords from us. He that sitteth in the
+heavens shall laugh: the Lord shall have them in derision. Then shall he
+speak to them in his wrath, and vex them in his sore displeasure." "Out
+of his mouth goeth a sharp sword, that with it he should smite the
+nations; and he shall rule them with a rod of iron: and he treadeth the
+winepress of the fierceness and wrath of Almighty God."
+
+The Psalmist, by the Holy Ghost, says of Christ, "Thou shalt break them
+with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them to pieces like a potter's
+vessel." Again, "He shall cut off the spirit of princes; he is terrible
+to the kings of the earth." Isaiah, by the revealing spirit, had the
+scenes of futurity opened to his view. He saw the glorious Redeemer
+marching through the earth in the greatness of his power; for he saw, by
+prophetic vision, the great day of his wrath appear, and none but his
+redeemed were able to stand. In view of the dreadful scene his soul was
+filled with astonishment, and he exclaims: "Who is this that cometh from
+Edom, with dyed garments from Bozrah? this that is glorious in his
+apparel, travelling in the greatness of his strength? I that speak in
+righteousness, mighty to save. Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel,
+and thy garments like him that treadeth in the winefat? I have trodden
+the winepress alone; and of the people there was none with me: for I
+will tread them in my anger, and trample them in my fury; and their
+blood shall be sprinkled upon my garments. For the day of vengeance is
+in my heart, and the year of my redeemed is come. I looked, and there
+was none to help; and I wondered there was none to uphold: therefore
+mine arm brought salvation unto me; and my fury, it upheld me. And I
+will tread down the people in my anger, and make them drunk in my fury,
+and I will bring down their strength to the earth." From this it appears
+that the nations of the earth will be gathered like the grapes of a
+vineyard, and cast into the great wine press of the wrath of God
+Almighty; and the great Redeemer will thresh them in his anger and
+trample them in his fury. Their destruction must be inevitable if their
+laws and governments are directly opposed to the Mediator's kingdom.
+When he shall come out of his place to shake terribly the nations of the
+earth, then the _earth_[4] will no longer cover the blood of the slain;
+for he will make inquisition for blood, and write up the nations. Then
+he will stain the pride of all glory and bring into contempt all the
+honorable of the earth. The nations will be like stubble before the
+devouring fire, and will be chased away like chaff before the whirlwind,
+and no place will be found for them.
+
+The interpretation of the symbols of the four great empires by the
+prophet Daniel fully confirms this idea. In first describing the vision
+to Nebuchadnezzar he says: "Thou sawest till that a stone was cut out
+without hands, which smote the image upon his feet that were of iron and
+clay, and brake them to pieces. Then was the iron, the clay, the brass,
+the silver, and the gold, broken to pieces together, and became like
+the chaff of the summer threshingfloors; and the wind carried them away,
+that no place was found for them: and the stone that smote the image
+became a great mountain, and filled the whole earth." The prophet thus
+interprets the vision: "And in the days of these kings shall the God of
+heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed: and the kingdom
+shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and
+consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever. Forasmuch as
+thou sawest that the stone was cut out of the mountain without hands,
+and that it brake in pieces the iron, the brass, the clay, the silver,
+and the gold; the great God hath made known to the king what shall come
+to pass hereafter."
+
+Thus we see that the kingdoms of the world by not submitting to the
+kingdom of our Lord, but by making war with the Lamb, are devoted to
+awful destruction, for the Lamb will overcome them. His kingdom will
+stand, for it is an everlasting kingdom; and of his dominion there shall
+be no end. The gospel dispensation (or the kingdom of heaven) must
+remain forever, as it is governed by the same spirit which prevails in
+the eternal fountain of blessedness himself. It is therefore
+emphatically called the kingdom of God not only in distinction from the
+kingdoms of this world but in distinction from all the other
+dispensations of the church. It is not of this world; it is the kingdom
+of heaven,--the reign of righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy
+Ghost.
+
+2. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, but spiritual,
+heavenly, and divine, and the kingdoms of this world are opposed to it,
+then we may infer that the kingdoms of this world must belong to the
+kingdom of Satan. There are but two kingdoms in our world. At the head
+of one is the Mediator, and at the head of the other is Satan. Satan is
+the god of this world and reigns without a rival in the hearts of the
+children of disobedience. He is the prince of the power of the air. All
+the kingdoms of this world and the glory of them are given to him[5]
+until the time that God shall write up the nations and make inquisition
+for blood. Then the great battle of God Almighty will be fought, and the
+beast and the false prophet will be cast into a lake of fire; and Satan
+will be bound a thousand years; and the saints will take the kingdom and
+possess it; and wars shall cease from under heaven. After the thousand
+years Satan will again be let loose, "and shall go out to deceive the
+nations which are in the four quarters of the earth, Gog and Magog, to
+gather them together to battle: the number of whom is as the sand of the
+sea." "And the devil who deceived them was cast into the lake of fire
+and brimstone, where the beast and the false prophet are, and shall be
+tormented day and night for ever and ever." Thus it appears that Satan
+is the mainspring of all warlike powers, and when he is bound wars will
+cease; but as soon as he is again let loose they will rage. The writer
+is sensible that this will be a very unpopular doctrine with the men of
+this world, and with those worldly Christians who are struggling and
+teasing and panting for the profits and the honors of this world. If it
+is a fact that the nature and laws of the Mediator's kingdom are
+diametrically opposite to the kingdoms of this world, then the inference
+is irresistible that the kingdoms of this world belong not to the
+kingdom of our Lord but to the kingdom of Satan; and however unsavory
+the truth may be, it ought not to be disguised. Satan is the strong man,
+but the Mediator is the stronger, and he will bind him and spoil his
+goods. The Son of God was manifested that he might destroy the works of
+the devil. When he shall destroy the rage of the nations and the tumult
+of the people, then Satan's goods will be spoiled. When Satan is cast
+into the bottomless pit, tumult and war will retire with him back to
+hell; and instead of the blast of the trumpet and the groans of the
+dying will be heard the shouts of the saints and the songs of the
+redeemed. Then will be "heard as it were the voice of a great multitude,
+and as the voice of many waters, and as the voice of mighty thunderings,
+saying, Alleluia, for the Lord God Omnipotent reigneth."
+
+3. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, and the kingdoms of
+this world are under Satan's dominion, then we may infer the great
+impropriety of the subjects of the Mediator's kingdom using the weapons
+of this world and engaging in tumults, wars, and fightings. "Jesus
+answered, My kingdom is not of this world: if my kingdom were of this
+world, then would my servants fight, that I should not be delivered to
+the Jews." The Jews expected in their Messiah a temporal prince; but
+because his kingdom was not of this world they crucified the Lord of
+life and glory. Had he only appeared in the pomp of this world and in
+the splendor of a temporal conqueror to vanquish the Romans who were in
+possession of their earthly Canaan and oppressing their nation, they
+would immediately have rallied round his standard and followed him to
+earthly conquest and glory. He was apparently too inattentive to their
+rights and liberties (which the patriots of this world now emphatically
+call their dearest interests). They said, "If we let him alone, all men
+will believe on him; and the Romans shall take away both our place and
+our nation." It may be asked, Why were the Jews apprehensive, if all men
+should believe on him, the Romans would take away both their place and
+their nation? The answer does not appear difficult. They doubtless
+perceived that both his life and precepts directly opposed rendering
+vengeance to their enemies; and, on the contrary, demanded nothing less
+than love to their enemies, good for evil, and blessing for cursing.
+This they could not endure, as it directly opposed their carnal desires
+and filled them with malice against the Prince of Peace. They might,
+with much greater propriety than any nation under the gospel light, have
+said, "Shall we imbibe this pusillanimous spirit of doing good to those
+who oppress us and tamely bend our necks to the yoke of tyranny and
+suffer our dearest interests to be wrested from us without once making a
+struggle to defend them? Rather, let us arise and fight manfully, and
+defend our liberties or die gloriously in their vindication." We say
+they might, with much greater propriety, have made these declarations
+than any under the light of the gospel, because they considered
+themselves under the Mosaic dispensation which had fully tolerated them
+not only in defensive but offensive war. But when they perceived that
+the doctrines of the Mediator were calculated to disannul their
+dispensation and extinguish their carnal hopes (notwithstanding his
+credentials were divine), their malice was kindled against him, and
+their vengeance was not satiated until they wreaked their hands in the
+blood of the Son of God. And we may confidently expect that wherever the
+same Spirit of Christ lifts up a standard against the same carnal policy
+and temporal interest there will follow the same spirit of envy,
+persecution, and revenge which was manifested against the Lord of life
+and glory. If any man (no matter who) will live godly in Christ Jesus,
+he shall suffer persecution. The Spirit of Christ is the same now that
+it was then, and the world is the same, the carnal heart is the same,
+and the great adversary of souls is the same. Only let it be styled
+"patriotic" to persecute the followers of the Lamb of God, and we should
+soon see the heroes of this world drunk with the blood of the martyrs of
+Jesus; and probably many would be as conscientious as Paul was while
+breathing out threatenings and slaughter against the disciples of the
+meek and lowly Jesus. It is not impossible that when the witnesses[6]
+are slain, their crime may be a refusal to use carnal weapons in
+defense of their country.
+
+As it is a matter of great practical consequence to know whether the
+subjects of the Prince of Peace are authorized in any case under the
+gospel dispensation to use carnal weapons or not, we propose in this
+inference to be a little more particular. Although it is supposed that
+the Lord Jesus Christ acted in a threefold capacity,--as God, Man, and
+Mediator,--yet we have never heard it questioned by Christians that all
+his conduct as man was to remain a perfect example for his brethren, and
+all his precepts a perfect rule for their duty. As his kingdom was not
+of this world, he did not intermeddle with the governments of this
+world; he only submitted to all their laws which were not contrary to
+the laws of his heavenly Father. He was meek and lowly; so little did he
+possess of this world that he had not where to lay his head. He went
+about continually doing good. He was full of compassion even to his
+enemies. He wept over Jerusalem. He was finally "brought as a lamb to
+the slaughter, and as sheep before their shearers are dumb, so he opened
+not his mouth." When he was reviled he reviled not again, but committed
+himself to him who judges righteously. He prayed for his murderers and
+apologized for his persecutors, saying, "Father, forgive them, for they
+know not what they do." As the church under a former dispensation had
+divine authority for engaging in war, it is important to ascertain
+whether this authority was abrogated under the gospel dispensation or
+not.[7] That many things have been tolerated under one dispensation of
+the church and prohibited under another, most Christians allow. That the
+preceptive will of God is to be our only rule of duty, few Christians
+deny. The knowledge communicated to us of the preceptive will of God to
+his church, under the first dispensation, is very limited. We find,
+however, no authority for taking the life of man in any case, not even
+for murder; but, on the contrary, a sevenfold vengeance was pronounced
+upon him who should slay the murderer. Under the patriarchal
+dispensation he that shed man's blood by man was his blood to be shed.
+In this, defensive war was tolerated. Under the Mosaic dispensation, not
+only defensive but offensive war was tolerated, and not only _war_ was
+permitted, but _retaliation_, as, "an eye for an eye"; "a tooth for a
+tooth"; "life for life," etc.
+
+The question to be decided is whether these regulations are still in
+force, or whether they were disannulled by the gospel dispensation. The
+life and precepts of our Lord and his disciples while under the unerring
+guidance of his spirit must be our only authority in this inquiry. That
+many things were done away by the gospel dispensation, none will deny
+who believe the gospel. The ceremonial part, which was only a shadow of
+good things to come, vanished away when the substance appeared; and not
+only the ceremonial part was abolished, but many other practices.
+Polygamy was permitted under the law, but forbidden under the gospel.
+Divorce was allowed under the Mosaic but prohibited under the gospel
+dispensation, except in the case of adultery. Under the Mosaic
+dispensation the penalty for whoredom was stoning to death. This penalty
+was not enforced under the gospel dispensation, as may be seen in John
+viii. 11. That all kinds of war, revenge, and fighting were utterly
+prohibited under the gospel dispensation we think appears evident not
+only from the life of our glorious Mediator but from his express
+precepts. "Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of this world: if my
+kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight, that I should
+not be delivered to the Jews." No comment can add force to this passage,
+for it is apprehended that no language can be more explicit against
+defensive war.
+
+In Christ's Sermon on the Mount he quoted a passage from Exodus, "Ye
+have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a
+tooth: but I say unto you, That _ye resist not evil_: but whatsoever
+shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also." The
+force of this passage has generally been obviated by saying that we are
+not to take all the words of our Lord literally. Although this is
+admitted, yet we are absolutely bound to take the spirit of every word,
+if we can understand them, by comparing the Scriptures with the
+Scriptures. That the spirit of this passage is directly opposed to the
+one our Lord quoted from Exodus, we think cannot fairly be denied; and,
+of course, it disannulled it, for he who had power to make laws under
+one dispensation had power to abrogate them under another.
+
+The blessed Mediator did, in the most explicit manner, command his
+subjects to love their enemies and render good for evil. This command we
+are of opinion is totally incompatible with resisting them with carnal
+weapons. He says, "But I say unto you which hear, Love your enemies, do
+good to them which hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use
+you." Let us for one moment compare this precept with defensive war and
+see if it can consistently be put into practice. Suppose our country is
+invaded and a professed disciple of the Prince of Peace buckles on the
+harness and takes the field to repel by the point of the sword his
+enemy. He advances amidst the lamentations of the wounded and the
+shrieks of the dying to meet his foe in arms. He sees his wrath kindled
+and his spear uplifted, and in this trying moment he hears his Lord say,
+"Love your enemy and render to him good for evil"; and his kindness to
+him is like Joab's to Amasa; he thrusts him through the heart and
+hurries him to the awful tribunal of his Judge, probably unprepared.
+Dear brethren, be not deceived; for God is not mocked. Who amongst our
+fellow-men would receive the thrust of a sword as an act of kindness?
+Only let conscience do its office, and there will be no difficulty in
+deciding whether defensive war is inconsistent with the gospel
+dispensation or not. Carnal and spiritual weapons will no more unite
+under the gospel dispensation than iron and miry clay.
+
+Our very salvation depends on being possessed of a spirit of forgiveness
+to enemies. "If ye forgive not men their trespasses, neither will your
+Father forgive your trespasses." If men invade our rights and trespass
+upon our privileges, is it forgiveness to repel them at the point of the
+bayonet? The honest Christian will find no difficulty in conscientiously
+deciding this question, notwithstanding he may be slow of heart in
+believing all that is written.
+
+All the conduct of our Lord had meaning to it, and much of it was with
+an express view to teach his disciples by way of example. A little
+before he was betrayed, he ordered his disciples to take swords. The
+object of this must have been either to use them for defense, or for
+some other purpose. The event proves that they were not taken for
+self-defense. The question then is, For what were they taken? The event
+appears fully to answer the question, viz.: To prohibit, by way of
+example, the use of them for self-defense in the most trying situation
+possible. If any situation would justify self-defense with carnal
+weapons, it must have been the situation in which our Lord and his
+disciples were placed at the time he was betrayed. They were in a public
+garden, and they were assaulted by a mob, contrary to the statutes of
+the Romans and the laws of the Jews; and the object was to take his
+life. This the disciples knew, and Peter judged it a proper time for
+defense, and drew his sword and smote a servant of the High Priest and
+cut off his ear. As our Lord's kingdom was not of this world, he would
+not suffer his subjects to use the weapons of this world in any
+situation. He therefore healed the wound they made and rebuked Peter for
+his mistaken zeal. "Then said Jesus unto him, Put up again thy sword
+into his place: for all they that take the sword shall perish with the
+sword. Thinkest thou that I cannot pray to my Father, and he would
+presently send me more than twelve legions of angels?" Here we see that
+our Lord not only forbade his disciples to use the sword in self-defense,
+but added a dreadful penalty to transgressors,--"all they that take the
+sword shall perish with the sword." The disciples did not then fully
+understand that his kingdom was not of this world. As soon as they were
+prohibited using the weapons of this world they all forsook him and
+fled.[8]
+
+The apostle James, in his epistle to the twelve tribes of Israel which
+were scattered abroad, asks them this question: "From whence come wars
+and fighting among you? come they not even of your lusts that war in
+your members? Ye lust, and have not: ye kill, and desire to have, and
+cannot obtain: ye fight and war, and yet ye have not." "Ye adulterers
+and adulteresses, know ye not that the friendship of the world is enmity
+with God? whosoever therefore will be a friend to the world is an enemy
+of God." From this we think it evidently appears that the warlike spirit
+of the world is directly opposed to God. The God of this world works
+effectually in the hearts of the children of disobedience and stirs up
+their lusts which war in their members and hurries them on to acts of
+cruelty, revenge, and fighting.
+
+This subject is of so much practical consequence that it requires a few
+observations in reply to some of the arguments of worldly and
+unenlightened Christians in favor of using carnal weapons. It is said
+that government is an ordinance of God which exists throughout his vast
+dominion. In heaven above there are angels and archangels; and upon
+earth there are magistrates and powers; and in hell there is the prince
+of devils. That God in his holy providence has so disposed of events
+that governments of some kind or other do exist in all parts of his
+dominion, none but skeptics will deny. But who would pretend that the
+governments in heaven and hell are not diametrically opposite? One is
+the spirit of peace and love, and the other, rebellion and war. Perhaps
+the manifestation of these different spirits here on earth may fairly be
+the dividing line amongst its inhabitants, and show to which kingdom
+they belong. They say all powers are ordained of God. Thus far they are
+correct, but it is apprehended that they do not make a proper
+distinction between the ordination of God and his preceptive will for
+man. So far as the former agrees with the latter, it is a rule of duty
+and cannot be any further. One is the rule of God's own procedure (if
+the expression is proper), and the other the rule of action for his
+creatures; but the counsel of God and his laws for man are often
+diametrically opposite. It is not improbable that this is part of the
+mystery of God which will, by and by, be finished.
+
+The Lord Jesus Christ was delivered by the determinate counsel and
+foreknowledge of God; and yet, by wicked hands, he was crucified and
+slain. Here, as in the case of Pharaoh, and many other instances
+recorded, the divine counsel and the duty of man were directly opposite.
+To ascertain our duty we must look at the preceptive will of God and not
+to his eternal counsel. Although all powers are ordained of God, yet it
+must not be inferred that all the laws of the heathen or civilized world
+are to be a rule of duty for the Mediator's subjects, or that their
+spirit is agreeable to the spirit of the gospel dispensation. It is
+said, We are commanded to obey magistrates and every ordinance of man
+for the Lord's sake. All this is admitted. But these injunctions are
+either limited by other precepts or they are unlimited. If they are
+unlimited, then all who have died martyrs fell a sacrifice to
+superstition instead of duty. Notwithstanding these directions were
+intended as a rule for Christians in all ages, yet they were promulgated
+while the disciples were under idolatrous governments, and were never
+intended to encourage them to worship idols.
+
+These commands must, therefore, be limited. The question is, How are
+they limited? We apprehend, by the spirit and other precepts of the
+gospel. We have already shown, we trust, that these absolutely prohibit
+war in every form. If so, then none of these injunctions can counteract
+the position we are examining. They only enjoin strict obedience to all
+human laws under which we live that do not contradict the spirit or
+precepts of the gospel; when they do, they are not binding and must be
+resisted; not, however, with carnal but spiritual weapons; we must take
+joyfully the spoiling of our goods and count not our lives dear unto
+ourselves.
+
+It has been often said that he who refuses to comply with the commands
+of the magistrate resists the powers that be, and, according to the
+apostle's reasoning, resists the ordinance of God and will receive to
+himself damnation. And, further, as all powers are the ordinance of God
+they ought to be supported, and if they cannot without, they must be
+even at the point of, the sword. Here the subject of the Mediator must
+make a distinction between resisting the "powers that be" by force of
+arms and refusing to obey their unlawful commands. It is not supposed
+that in one case he would obey and that in the other he would disobey
+the commands of his Master. No martyr ever considered himself as
+violating this precept in refusing to sacrifice to an idol at the
+command of an earthly power; neither will any subject of the Mediator
+view himself as violating it by refusing to use carnal weapons while he
+believes that his Lord has utterly forbidden his using them. It is
+apprehended that if this proves anything upon the principles of war,
+that it will prove too much for its advocates. The command is to obey
+the powers that be and not the powers that ought to be. If it is taken
+in an unlimited sense, it must prohibit resisting even tyrannical
+powers, and would, of course, condemn every Christian who engaged in the
+American Revolution. To say that all power is in the hands of the
+people, and, of course, it is the people who are the powers that be, is
+thought to be but a quibble. We will suppose a very possible case,--that
+a foreign power completely overturns the government of the people and
+disannuls their laws and gives a new code; in that case, the command to
+obey the powers that be would not be annihilated. The precept originally
+was given while the disciples were in the midst of tyrannical
+governments. It is thought that it is so far from tolerating defensive
+war that it is opposed to it. The precepts of the gospel cannot be
+dependent upon the convulsions of the nations. If Christians are bound
+to aid with carnal weapons in suppressing a rebellion, then, if the
+opposing power gains the predominance, they must turn directly about and
+fight the very power they were before supporting. Such conduct would not
+become the citizens of Zion. If it is said the powers that be are
+Christian rulers, then we say, let them govern only by the laws of the
+Mediator's kingdom, and we will bow with reverence before them, and not
+teach for commandments the doctrines of men, as we cannot receive human
+laws for divine precepts.
+
+It is stated that our Lord paid tribute, and that we are commanded to
+pay tribute to whom tribute is due, and that tribute supports the
+governments of this world. This is granted; but the Mediator's subjects
+are required also to lead peaceable and quiet lives; this is more
+promoted by paying tribute than by the refusal. Our Lord directs Peter
+to pay the tribute lest they should give offense. But paying tribute for
+the sake of preserving peace is a very different thing from actually
+engaging in war.
+
+Whenever the Christian is called upon to pay money by way of taxes or
+tribute, he does not part with any spiritual treasure, but only earthly
+property, for which he has the example and precepts of the Lord. The
+currency of the world generally bears the ensign of the nation which
+made it. If it bears the image and superscription of Cæsar, then "render
+to Cæsar the things that are Cæsar's, and unto God the things which are
+God's." Christians, however, whose hearts are upon this idol, will
+sooner give up their lives than their God. "The love of money is the
+root of all evil." The real Christian's treasure is in heaven and beyond
+the reach of the powers of earth or hell. The things of this world are
+but privileges loaned him, to be resigned at the call of his Lord. Shall
+he then fear those who can only kill the body and afterwards have no
+more that they can do? Rather, let him fear him who has power to destroy
+both soul and body in hell forever. It is better for him to suffer wrong
+than to do wrong.
+
+The permission granted to the Jewish church to wage war has often been
+pleaded as authority for Christians. If this proves anything, it proves
+too much, for not only defensive but offensive war was permitted under
+the Mosaic dispensation. This the tyrants of the world have not
+generally contended was right since the gospel dispensation. We think,
+however, that we have fully shown that this was abrogated under the
+gospel dispensation, and that all kinds of war were prohibited; if so,
+it has no weight on the subject.[9]
+
+It has been said that Christians with a small exception have never
+questioned the propriety of defensive war. As it regards nominal
+Christians, this statement is perhaps correct, but as it respects the
+real disciples of the Mediator, it is to be questioned. We hear of no
+Christians in the first ages of the church engaged in carnal warfare
+until we hear of great corruptions in the church. Most Protestants have
+been of opinion that those precious disciples who inhabited the dark
+valleys of Piedmont during the great corruptions of the nominal church
+were the Redeemer's true subjects. These disciples, of whom the world
+was not worthy, utterly refused to engage even in defensive war,
+notwithstanding they were hunted down by their bloody persecutors.[10]
+
+It has been often said that the Reformers, who were good men, did not
+hesitate to engage in defensive war, and that the Reformation was
+finally supported by the sword. That the Reformers were generally pious
+men is readily admitted, and that the Reformation, under divine
+providence, was a glorious event to the church is also granted. But the
+history of the Reformers, when written by their friends, abundantly
+manifests that they were men, subject to like passions with other men,
+and that all the means they employed could not be justified, either by
+the spirit or the precepts of the gospel.
+
+Henry the Eighth was a vile man, but he was very active in protesting
+against the Pope because his holiness would not grant him a divorce. God
+makes the wrath of man praise him. It will not probably be a great
+length of time (in the opinion of the writer) before those churches
+which were defended with the sword will be destroyed by the sword.
+
+It has been further urged that not only the Reformers but most pious
+Protestants have prayed for the prosperity of the arms of their country,
+and many have actually fought in the field of battle. All this is
+likewise admitted. But many pious men have had a mistaken zeal. It is
+fully believed that Protestants, generally, have been in the habit of
+considering the Reformation so glorious an event that they have very
+little inquired whether the means by which it was finally defended were
+agreeable to the spirit of the gospel or not. They have been taught from
+their earliest years to consider that the weapons of warfare used by the
+Reformers were lawful, so that they have not hesitated to follow their
+example. That the example and prayers of pious people ought to have
+weight is readily granted, but to place a blind confidence in them, we
+apprehend, is criminal, for their example is to be imitated no further
+than it agrees with the spirit and precepts of the gospel. These must
+forever remain a perfect standard of duty; whereas the practice of real
+Christians, owing to their imperfect state, is constantly changing and
+often contradictory. During the American Revolution, doubtless, real
+Christians were praying and fighting for the success of the American
+arms, and real Christians in the British service were praying and
+fighting for the success of his Majesty's arms. The truth is, they ought
+not to pray for war in any shape, but to pray that wars may cease from
+under heaven, and that God's kingdom may come and his will be done on
+earth as it is done in heaven; and not only to pray, but endeavor to
+advance the kingdom of heaven and put a stop to wars and bloodshed. The
+opinions of pious people often vary with the increase of light which
+shines upon the church. One century ago most pious people believed in
+the propriety of the slave trade, but very few can now be found to
+advocate the abominable practice. The nature of the crime has not
+changed, nor the evidence against it, but the truth is, that the opinion
+of pious people has materially changed upon this subject. We ought
+always to remember that the example of pious people is to be of no
+weight any further than it agrees with the example of our Lord. It is
+always unsafe to be looking too much to the fallible example of those
+whom we have esteemed pious for a rule of duty, while we have the
+unerring word in our hands to light our way; when any one is depending
+upon the example of Christians not under the immediate influence of
+divine inspiration for evidence to support his hypothesis, it is strong
+presumptive evidence that he has not the word of God in his favor. By
+the word of God and by that _only_ ought every controversy to be tried.
+
+It is further urged that we are commanded to pray for kings and all in
+authority; it is true we must pray not only for kings but all men, even
+enemies. This, however, does by no means imply that we are commanded to
+pray for a blessing upon their unhallowed undertakings; but it only
+implies that we must pray that they may be translated out of nature's
+darkness into the light of the gospel, and from the power of Satan unto
+the living God.
+
+The great difficulty with the subjects of the Mediator ever has been,
+and still is, a want of faith in the promises of God. They are prone to
+be afraid of consequences. They look nearly as much at consequences as
+the children of Israel did while journeying from Egypt to Canaan. The
+truth is, they ought to have nothing to do with consequences, but only
+duties. "Thus saith the Lord," should be their warrant and only guide.
+If they implicitly follow the command, consequences are all safe in
+God's hand. Had Abraham looked only at consequences, it is not probable
+he would ever have been styled the Father of the Faithful. It is not
+uncommon for timid and worldly Christians to be alarmed at consequences
+and to argue in this manner: they say, "Shall we stand still and suffer
+an assassin to enter our houses and take our lives and property without
+ever attempting to resist him?" All this must go upon the supposition
+that he who has said he will never leave nor forsake his people, and is
+a very present help in every time of need, will take no care of them. No
+assassin could stand a moment before the prayer of faith which would
+enter the heavens and reach the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. If
+faithless Christians cannot be persuaded to look at the precepts and the
+promises, but only at consequences, they ought, at least, to examine
+them well. Suppose God, in his holy providence, should permit an
+assassin to take the life of one of his dear children; the consequence
+would be, he would immediately be translated to glory; and possibly the
+assassin might become a penitent; but should he take the life of the
+assassin in defending himself, the consequence then would be, he would
+hurry him into the abyss of the damned where his probation would be
+eternally ended. He who puts his trust in the Lord shall not fear what
+man can do to him; he will be like Mount Zion which cannot be moved.
+
+Remember, dear brethren, that the weapons of our warfare are not carnal
+but spiritual, and mighty through God. "Finally, my brethren, be strong
+in the Lord, and in the power of his might. Put on the whole armour of
+God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For we
+wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against
+powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against
+spiritual wickedness in high places. Wherefore take unto you the whole
+armour of God (here is the equipment of a soldier of Jesus Christ), that
+ye may be able to withstand in an evil day, and having done all, to
+stand. Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth, and
+having on the breastplate of righteousness; and your feet shod with the
+preparation of the gospel of peace; above all, taking the shield of
+faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the
+wicked. And take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit,
+which is the word of God: praying always with all prayer and
+supplication in the Spirit, and watching thereunto with all perseverance
+and supplication for all saints." And the very God of peace shall be
+with you, and he will shortly bruise Satan under your feet. For yet a
+little while and the Almighty angel will come down with a great chain in
+his hand; and he will lay hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is
+the devil and Satan, and will bind him a thousand years, and cast him
+into the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that
+he shall deceive the nations no more until the thousand years are
+fulfilled. Then wars will cease from under heaven and the implements of
+death will be converted into the harmless utensils of husbandry, and
+there will be nothing to hurt nor destroy in all God's holy mountain.
+The stone which was cut out of the mountain without hands will become a
+great mountain and fill the whole earth. Then will be heard "a loud
+voice saying in heaven, Now is come salvation, and strength, and the
+kingdom of God, and the power of his Christ: for the accuser of our
+brethren is cast down, which accused them before God day and night. And
+they overcame him by the blood of the Lamb, and by the word of their
+testimony; and they loved not their lives unto the death. Therefore
+rejoice, ye heavens, and ye that dwell in them."
+
+It is, however, very important, dear brethren, that we keep it
+constantly in mind that the nature and precepts of the gospel are the
+same now as they will be then, in that glorious reign of righteousness
+and peace, and that it is our duty constantly to be influenced by the
+same spirit now which will then be manifested by the followers of the
+Lamb. The little leaven is of the same nature with whole lump when it is
+leavened. Let us therefore gird up the loins of our mind and watch unto
+prayer.
+
+4. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, but spiritual,
+heavenly, and divine, and if the kingdoms of this world are under the
+dominion of Satan, and if the subjects of Christ's kingdom are not
+permitted to use carnal weapons, then we may infer who is the "great
+whore that sitteth upon many waters; with whom the kings of the earth
+have committed fornication, and the inhabitants of the earth have been
+made drunk with the wine of her fornication." A virgin or chaste woman
+is a familiar symbol in the Scriptures of the true church of God; and an
+unchaste woman is as familiar a symbol of an apostate or corrupt church.
+As a lewd woman calls herself by the name of her husband, notwithstanding
+she has constant intercourse with other men, so the corrupt church calls
+herself by the name of Christ, notwithstanding she has constant illicit
+intercourse with the kings of the earth.[11] To understand the true nature
+of spiritual whoredom will assist us in ascertaining the bounds of
+mystical Babylon.
+
+The children of Israel were separated from all the nations of the earth
+and set apart to be holy unto the Lord. As they were in covenant with
+the God of Israel, he addressed them in the endearing character of a
+husband. Whenever they made any covenant or formed a confederacy with
+the nations around them, or imitated their idolatrous abominations, they
+were charged with spiritual whoredom. The church, under the gospel
+dispensation, is redeemed from amongst men out of every nation, and
+sanctified and set apart to be a peculiar people to show forth the
+praises of God. It is styled the Bride, the Lamb's wife. Its members are
+not to be conformed to this world but to be transformed by the renewing
+of the Spirit. They do not belong to any earthly kingdom, for our Lord
+has said, "They are not of the world, even as I am not of the world";
+but they are citizens of the heavenly Zion and belong to the household
+of God; they are members of the same community, with the innumerable
+company of angels and the spirits of just men made perfect; and are to
+be governed by the very same spirit and temper which reigns amongst
+those blessed inhabitants above. God is an overflowing and unbounded
+ocean of blessedness and love; love is therefore the fulfilling of the
+law.
+
+Whenever the subjects of the Redeemer unite themselves to the kingdoms
+of this world, and engage in their political contentions and fightings,
+then it appears they commit spiritual whoredom, for they forsake the
+fountain of living waters and hew out to themselves cisterns,--broken
+cisterns, which can hold no water. When they thus mingle with the world
+and unite in its pursuits they may spiritually be styled adulterers.
+
+The apostle James, while reproving the twelve tribes, which were
+scattered abroad, for their wars and fightings and friendship to the
+world, styles them adulterers and adulteresses. In direct opposition to
+this representation, the first fruits of the church are styled virgins,
+as not being defiled with women. "These are they which were not defiled
+with women; for they are virgins. These are they which follow the Lamb
+whithersoever he goeth. These were redeemed from amongst men, being the
+firstfruits unto God and the Lamb. And in their mouth was found no
+guile: for they are without fault before the throne of God." As virgins
+are pure and undefiled, so were the disciples of Christ in the first age
+of the church when they had no impure intercourse with the kingdoms of
+this world and followed the Lamb in refusing to engage either in its
+profits, honors, or fightings. They are, therefore, called virgins,
+without fault, in opposition to those who mingle with the world, who are
+spiritually styled harlots.
+
+It evidently appears, if what has been said is true, that mystical
+Babylon, that mother of harlots and abominations of the earth, is just
+as extensive as the union of the church with the kingdoms of this world;
+and just in that proportion in which an individual Christian, or a
+single church, or a number of churches united in one body, engage in the
+honors, profits, and fightings of the kingdoms of this world, just in
+that proportion they may be said to be guilty of spiritual whoredom.
+
+The writer is well aware that this inference, however just, will be
+looked upon with contempt by worldly political Christians whose dearest
+interest is involved in the kingdoms of this world, and especially by
+those who are clothed in purple and scarlet and have a golden cup in
+their hands. He has no expectation of being candidly heard by such, but
+it is God's own dear children who have ignorantly mingled with the
+world, having been blinded by their education, from whom he expects a
+candid hearing. "If any man have ears to hear, let him hear."
+
+It is not common for a lewd woman openly to avow to the world her
+character; neither can it be expected that the mother of harlots will
+own her name. The writer is of opinion that very few have understood the
+full dimensions of this mystical city; she appears to him in her
+greatest extent to be bounded but little short of the whole visible
+church of God. She is styled "the _great City_, which spiritually is
+called Sodom and Egypt, where also our Lord was crucified." "And in her
+was found the blood of prophets and saints and of all that were slain
+upon the earth." But a dreadful judgment awaits her: "She shall utterly
+be burnt with fire: for strong is the Lord God who judges her." Being
+mingled with the nations and supported by their power, when they become
+like stubble before the devouring fire, she will be consumed with them.
+The whore is represented as riding upon a scarlet-colored beast, and
+upheld by him.[12]
+
+When he, with all his heads, are cast into the lake of fire, she will
+likewise be given to the burning flame. But before this great and
+dreadful day of the Lord shall come, which will burn as an oven, when
+the whore shall be consumed with the nations of the earth, God will call
+to his people to come out of her, saying unto them, "Come out of her, my
+people, that ye be not partakers of her sins, and that ye receive not of
+her plagues." As God's ancient people were carried captives into literal
+Babylon, so God's dear people will be found captives in mystical
+Babylon, until they hear the command of their Lord to come out of her
+that they be not partakers of her sins and that they receive not of her
+plagues. The captive daughters of Zion are very numerous. O that they
+may soon arise and shake themselves from the dust! "Shake thyself from
+the dust; arise, and sit down, O Jerusalem: loose thyself from the bands
+of thy neck, O captive daughter of Zion."
+
+5. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, and the kingdoms of
+this world are under the dominion of Satan, and if Christ's subjects
+cannot unite themselves to the kingdoms of this world, without
+committing spiritual whoredom, then we may infer the great impropriety
+of the subjects of the Mediator's kingdom becoming political Christians
+and enrolling themselves with the men of this world. They cannot serve
+two masters: for they will either hate the one, and love the other; or
+else they will hold to the one, and despise the other.
+
+How humiliating is it to see subjects of the King of Zion engaged in the
+drudgery of the prince of darkness, laboring and struggling to support
+his tottering throne! Satan's kingdom is divided against itself and
+must, therefore, come to an end. But how lamentable is it to see the
+sons of the living God, the subjects of the Prince of Peace, taking
+sides in the cause of the adversary of souls, and actually opposing and
+fighting each other under his banner! They do it ignorantly and will,
+therefore, obtain forgiveness, for they know not what manner of spirit
+they are of. They are commanded to have no fellowship with the
+unfruitful works of darkness, but rather reprove them.
+
+Before our Lord departed from this world to go to the Father, he gave
+laws to his subjects for their rule of life until his second coming. All
+these laws contemplated their residing as a holy nation in the midst of
+a wicked and benighted world, to reflect the rays of the Sun of
+righteousness on the thick darkness which covers the people. They were
+to be a city set upon a hill and a light to the world. The apostle
+exhorts them to "do all things without murmurings and disputings: that
+ye may be blameless and harmless, the sons of God, without rebuke, in
+the midst of a crooked and perverse nation, among whom ye shine as
+lights in the world." They must be a peculiar people to show forth the
+praises of God. How inconsistent is it, then, for the citizens of the
+heavenly Zion to be mingling with the politicians of this world and
+uniting in their processions, feasts, and cabals, when they ought rather
+to be praying for them, that the very sins they commit in these scenes
+may be forgiven them! Dear brethren, is it not high time to come out
+from the world and be separated? "Be ye not unequally yoked together
+with unbelievers: for what fellowship hath righteousness with
+unrighteousness? and what communion hath light with darkness? and what
+concord hath Christ with Belial?" "Wherefore come out from among them,
+and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing; and
+I will receive you, and will be a Father to you, and ye shall be my sons
+and daughters, saith the Lord Almighty."
+
+6. In view of what has been said, we finally infer that every interest
+which is not built upon the sure foundation stone which God has laid in
+Zion will be swept away when the storms of divine wrath shall beat upon
+our guilty world. "For, behold, the day cometh, that shall burn as an
+oven; and all the proud, yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be
+stubble: and the day that cometh shall burn them up, saith the Lord of
+hosts, that it shall leave them neither root nor branch." "For the day
+of the Lord of hosts shall be upon every one that is proud and lofty,
+and upon every one that is lifted up; and he shall be brought low." "The
+lofty looks of man shall be humbled, and the haughtiness of men shall be
+bowed down; and the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day." "The Lord
+at thy right hand shall strike through kings in the day of his wrath. He
+shall judge among the heathen, he shall fill the places with their dead
+bodies; he shall wound the head over many countries." "For, behold, the
+Lord will come with fire, and with his chariots like a whirlwind, to
+render his anger with fury, and his rebuke with flames of fire. For by
+fire and by his sword will the Lord plead with all flesh: and the slain
+of the Lord shall be many." "For the indignation of the Lord is upon all
+nations, and his fury upon all their armies: he hath utterly destroyed
+them, he hath delivered them to the slaughter. Their slain shall be cast
+out, and their stink shall come up out of their carcasses, and the
+mountains shall be melted with blood." "For this is the day of the Lord
+God of hosts, a day of vengeance, that he may avenge him of his
+adversaries: and the sword shall devour, and it shall be satiate and be
+made drunk with their blood." The nations must drink of the wine of the
+wrath of God, which shall be poured out without mixture, into the cup of
+his indignation; and they will be trodden in the great wine press of the
+wrath of God Almighty. And the great whore which has drunk the blood of
+the saints and the blood of the martyrs of Jesus will have blood to
+drink; for she is worthy.
+
+The sword of the Lord has two edges; it will cut off the offending limbs
+of the church and destroy her enemies. The fire of the Lord will purify
+his saints but utterly burn up the wicked. He "whose fan is in his hand
+will thoroughly purge his floor, and gather his wheat into the garner;
+but he will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire." Although the
+earth is thus to be desolated, and the nations destroyed, yet the saints
+of the Most High shall "possess the kingdom for ever and ever." "And the
+kingdom and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom under the whole
+heaven, shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most High,
+whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions shall serve
+and obey him."
+
+Dear brethren, these events are rapidly rolling in the fiery wheels down
+the descent of time; and although the nations must first drink the vials
+of divine wrath and the battle of God Almighty must first be fought, yet
+the time is at hand when we shall no more hear the sound of war, and of
+garments rolled in blood, for man will cease to be the enemy of man, and
+every one will sit quietly under his own vine and under his own fig
+tree; and there will be nothing to hurt or destroy in all God's holy
+mountain, and the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth as the
+waters cover the channels of the mighty deep.
+
+Dear brethren, is it not "high time to awake out of sleep: for now is
+our salvation nearer than when we believed. The night is far spent, the
+day is at hand: let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let
+us put on the armour of light." And let us pray with all prayer and
+supplication in the Spirit for all men, not only for ourselves, our
+families, and our friends, and the church of God, but for a dying world,
+that God would in infinite compassion cut short these days of dreadful
+calamity for his elect's sake; and in the midst of deserved wrath
+remember mercy.
+
+"He that hath ears to hear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the
+churches; To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life,
+which is in the midst of the paradise of God."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The earth, in symbolical language, is supposed by the writer to
+denote civilized nations, in distinction from uncivilized, which are
+symbolized by the agitated sea. Civilized nations will no longer cover
+the blood of the slain, under the specious idea of defending their
+rights and liberties.
+
+[5] If the kingdoms of this world do not belong to Satan, then it was no
+temptation to our Lord when he offered them to him. It is expressly said
+that he was "tempted of Satan."
+
+[6] The writer has for a length of time been of opinion that no event
+has ever yet happened to the church which answers to slaying the
+witnesses. It has been given as a reason by some that the witnesses have
+been slain, that so much light has been diffused since the art of
+printing was discovered, and since the Reformation, that no reason can
+ever again be found sufficiently plausible to satisfy the consciences of
+mankind in again taking the lives of their fellow-men in matters of
+conscience. If our country was invaded and a law should be passed that
+every man capable of bearing arms should equip himself for its defense,
+on penalty of being considered as an enemy and to be publicly executed
+accordingly in case of refusal for conscience' sake, there would not
+probably be wanting patriots sufficient to execute the laws; if they
+could not be found in our land of liberty, they might be found amongst
+the tyrants of the Old World.
+
+[7] If the permission given to the church under the Mosaic dispensation
+to engage in war has not been disannulled by the gospel dispensation
+(which is by no means granted), it is thought that it does not admit of
+the consequences which are generally drawn. The Israelites were God's
+covenant people and were utterly prohibited from making any covenant
+with the nations around them, or engaging with them in their wars. It
+must therefore be totally improper for God's covenant people now to
+unite with those who are strangers to the covenant of promise, and
+engage with them in their tumult and fightings. It is presumed that no
+one who has ever read our Constitution will pretend that the American
+nation has, in the Scriptural sense, made a covenant with God. If the
+analogy holds good in one point, it must in another; and in that case
+there is no alternative left for God's covenant people but either to
+withdraw from those who are not in covenant with God, or adopt a
+national religion which must be defended by the weapons of the nation.
+It is believed that those who will not admit that the permission granted
+to the Israelites to engage in war was abrogated by the gospel
+dispensation can never fully answer the arguments in favor of a national
+religion.
+
+[8] Four things are noticeable from this history. _First_, That the
+subjects of the Mediator's kingdom have no right to use carnal weapons
+for defense, in the most trying situation possible. _Secondly_, The
+promulgation of a decree of heaven; that all they (whether states,
+churches, or kingdoms) who take the sword shall perish with the sword.
+Every political or ecclesiastical body which is defended with the sword
+will by the sword be destroyed. In confirmation of this sentiment, we
+see while the great destroying powers were represented to St. John in
+the symbols of ferocious beasts, it was added, "If any man have an ear
+to hear, let him hear. He that leadeth into captivity shall go into
+captivity: he that killeth with the sword must be killed with the
+sword"; but in opposition to this it is said, "Here is the faith and the
+patience of the saints." We would inquire how the faith and the patience
+of the saints appear, if they, like the nations of the earth, lead into
+captivity and kill with the sword? _Thirdly_, The weapon which the
+subjects of the Redeemer are to use for defense is here brought into
+view, viz., Prayer. Nothing which appears prevented our Lord from using
+this weapon when he was betrayed, but the necessity of the Scriptures
+being fulfilled. Had he prayed to his Father, more than twelve legions
+of ministering spirits would have appeared swift as lightning to
+discharge his will. At the time he shall come in all the glory of his
+Father the holy angels will be with him. He will break through the
+heavens in flaming fire and descend with the shout of the Archangel and
+the trump of God, and cleave asunder the earth beneath; and send forth
+his angels who will awake the sleeping millions from their tombs and
+gather together his elect and take them up into the air to be ever with
+their Lord. _Fourthly_, We may expect that angels will be sent to
+deliver the saints in the times of trouble. Angels are ministering
+spirits and are sent forth to minister to those who shall be the heirs
+of salvation. What a consolation it is that the subjects of the Mediator
+can apply for help in times of trouble to him who has the hosts of
+heaven at his command; and who has said he will never leave nor forsake
+them! The angel of the Lord encampeth round about them who fear him, to
+deliver them out of all their trouble. If God be for them, who can be
+against them?
+
+[9] Although it is not expected that any intelligent and candid
+Christian will attempt to say that the arguments which have been
+advanced may fairly apply to offensive but not to defensive war, yet
+some weak and unenlightened Christians may make the assertion. In answer
+to such we would observe that this would be begging the question and
+taking for granted the very subject in dispute. We cannot be satisfied
+with anything short of a candid answer, drawn directly from the spirit
+and precepts of the gospel. When it is fairly proved that under the
+gospel dispensation our Lord did draw a clear line of distinction
+between offensive and defensive war, and that he intended all such
+precepts as have been adduced to apply to the former and not to the
+latter, then we will acknowledge the weight of the argument. Until this
+is done we shall not consider our arguments as answered.
+
+[10] The writer perceives that he has made too unlimited a statement
+respecting the disciples who inhabited the valleys of Piedmont.
+Historians have generally considered those who dissented from the church
+of Rome during the dark ages as possessing similar sentiments. It is
+true they did agree in renouncing the authority of the Pope, but in
+other things they did not all agree. Some courted the protection of
+earthly powers and united with them in defending their rights by the
+point of the sword, and were finally destroyed by the sword. Others,
+instead of defending themselves with carnal weapons, fled from the face
+of the serpent and were, under divine providence, the seed of the church
+in the wilderness. It is the latter class to which the writer would be
+understood as referring.
+
+[11] As the writer has been for some time studying the symbolical
+language of the Scriptures, and intends (if the Lord will, unless some
+person more able should attempt an explanation) to give his views to the
+public, he will not be so particular at present in explaining the symbol
+of the great whore which sitteth upon many waters, as he otherwise
+should. He early perceived that the heavens and the earth, with all
+their furniture, were used as an alphabet, in the language of things, to
+represent moral subjects. His object has been to learn the true meaning
+of each symbol by comparing Scripture with Scripture. No language can be
+read until the alphabet is first learned. Symbolical language does not,
+like other languages, change with time and place, but represents the
+same idea to all nations and at all times. He is of opinion that one
+symbol does not represent two events, unless it first have a reference
+to some less event which is typical of some more important event; in
+that case, all together may be figurative of some great ultimate end.
+Although one symbol is supposed never to represent two different things,
+yet two or more symbols generally represent one thing. He has found by
+tracing back a symbol to its first use, that its true meaning is
+generally manifest. Since examining the Scriptures with this view he has
+been irresistibly drawn into the conclusions now exhibited.
+
+[12] The writer is fully of opinion that a ferocious beast is never used
+as a symbol of a corrupt church, but of a tyrannical warlike power. He
+has been for some time of opinion that the second Apocalyptic beast is
+rising, and that he will possess all the power of the first beast before
+him, and that under him the false prophet will appear; and the witnesses
+will be slain; and upon his kingdom the six first vials of his divine
+wrath will be principally poured out; and the seventh will be poured
+upon Satan's kingdom universally, as he is the prince of the power of
+the air.
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Notes
+
+  The section in the table of contents entitled, "Because, instead of
+    preventing, it provokes insult and mischief," does not exactly match
+    the title of the corresponding section found within the text. This
+    has been retained.
+  Pg 116. The word 'Antipolemos' was changed to 'Antipolemus.'
+  Pg 120. The word 'righteousnesss' was changed to 'righteousness.'
+  Pg 142. A question mark was changed to a period in the following
+    sentence, "The question to be decided is whether these regulations
+    are still in force, or whether they were disannulled by the gospel
+    dispensation."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of War Inconsistent with the Religion of
+Jesus Christ, by David Low Dodge
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR INCONSISTENT ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35883-8.txt or 35883-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/8/8/35883/
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus
+Christ, by David Low Dodge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ
+
+Author: David Low Dodge
+
+Release Date: April 16, 2011 [EBook #35883]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR INCONSISTENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Rose Mawhorter and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 446px;">
+<img src="images/front.jpg" width="446" height="600" alt="David Low Dodge" /><br />
+<span class="caption">David Low Dodge</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="bbox" style="margin-top: 3em; width: 70%;">
+<h1>WAR INCONSISTENT<br />
+<span class="tiny">WITH THE</span><br />
+RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST</h1>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em; line-height: 200%;">BY<br />
+<span class="big">DAVID LOW DODGE</span></p>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 5em; line-height: 200%;"><span class="smcap">With an Introduction</span><br />
+BY<br />
+EDWIN D. MEAD</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 5em;">PUBLISHED FOR THE INTERNATIONAL UNION<br />
+GINN &amp; COMPANY, BOSTON<br />
+1905
+</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-top: 6em;">
+<span class="tiny"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1905, by</span></span><br />
+THE INTERNATIONAL UNION</p>
+<hr style="width: 4em; margin: -2em auto 0px;" />
+<p class="center" style="margin-bottom: 6em;"><span class="tiny">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</span><br />
+<br />
+55.8
+</p>
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table id="toc" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="right smcap">Page</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="smcap">Introduction</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="smcap">War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="level2 smcap">War is Inhuman:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">I.</td>
+<td>Because it hardens the heart and blunts the tender feelings of mankind</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">II.</td>
+<td>War is inhuman, as in its nature and tendency it abuses God&rsquo;s animal creation</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">III.</td>
+<td>War is inhuman, as it oppresses the poor</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">IV.</td>
+<td>War is inhuman, as it spreads terror and distress among mankind</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">V.</td>
+<td>War is inhuman, as it involves men in fatigue, famine, and all the pains of mutilated bodies</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VI.</td>
+<td>War is inhuman, as it destroys the youth and cuts off the hope of gray hairs</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VII.</td>
+<td>War is inhuman, as it multiplies widows and orphans, and clothes the land in mourning</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td colspan="3" class="level2 smcap">War is Unwise:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">I.</td>
+<td>Because, instead of preventing, it provokes insult and mischief</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">II.</td>
+<td>War is unwise, for instead of diminishing, it increases difficulties</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">III.</td>
+<td>War is unwise, because it destroys property</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">IV.</td>
+<td>War is unwise, as it is dangerous to the liberties of men</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">V.</td>
+<td>War is unwise, as it diminishes the happiness of mankind</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VI.</td>
+<td>War is unwise, as it does not mend, but injures, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> morals of society</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VII.</td>
+<td>War is unwise, as it is hazarding eternal things for only the chance of defending temporal things</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VIII.</td>
+<td>War is unwise, as it does not answer the professed end for which it is intended</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="level2 smcap">War is Criminal:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">I.</td>
+<td>Going to war is not keeping from the appearance of evil, but is running into temptation</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">II.</td>
+<td>War is criminal, as it naturally inflames the pride of man</td>
+
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">III.</td>
+<td>War necessarily infringes on the consciences of men, and therefore is criminal</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">IV.</td>
+<td>War is criminal, as it is opposed to patient suffering under unjust and cruel treatment</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">V.</td>
+<td>War is criminal, as it is not doing to others as we should wish them to do to us</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VI.</td>
+<td>War is inconsistent with mercy, and is therefore criminal</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VII.</td>
+<td>War is criminal, as the practice of it is inconsistent with forgiving trespasses as we wish to be forgiven by the final judge</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">VIII.</td>
+<td>Engaging in war is not manifesting love to enemies or returning good for evil</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="cellnumbers">IX.</td>
+<td>War is criminal, because it is actually rendering evil for evil</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">X.</td>
+<td>War is criminal, as it is actually doing evil that good may come; and this is the best apology that can be made for it</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="cellnumbers">XI.</td>
+
+<td>War is opposed to the example of the Son of God, and is therefore criminal</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="level2 smcap">Objections Answered</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="smcap">Hymn</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="smcap">The Mediator&rsquo;s Kingdom not of this World: but Spiritual</td>
+<td class="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>To David Low Dodge of New York belongs the high
+honor of having written the first pamphlets published in
+America directed expressly against the war system of
+nations, and of having founded the first peace society
+ever organized in America or in the world. His first
+pamphlet, <i>The Mediator&rsquo;s Kingdom not of this World</i>,
+was published in 1809. His second and more important
+pamphlet, <i>War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus
+Christ</i>, was prepared for the press in 1812. This was
+two years before the publication of Noah Worcester&rsquo;s
+<i>Solemn Review of the Custom of War</i>, which was issued
+in Boston on Christmas Day, 1814. Early in 1812 Mr.
+Dodge and his friends in New York deliberated on the
+expediency of forming a peace society; but on account of
+the excitement attending the war with Great Britain this
+was postponed until 1815. In August of that year the
+New York Peace Society, the first in the world, was organized,
+with Mr. Dodge as its president. This was four
+months before the organization of the Massachusetts
+Peace Society (December 26, 1815) under the leadership
+of Noah Worcester, and nearly a year before the
+English Peace Society, the first in Europe, was formed
+(June 14, 1816) in London.</p>
+
+<p>The preëminent historical interest attaching to Mr.
+Dodge&rsquo;s pioneering work in the peace cause in this country
+would alone justify and indeed seem to command<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+the republication of his pamphlets at this time, when
+the great ideas for which he so courageously and prophetically
+stood are at last winning the general recognition
+of humane and thoughtful men. But it is not
+merely historical interest which warrants a revival of
+attention to these almost forgotten papers. Their intrinsic
+power and worth are such as make their reading,
+especially that of the second essay, <i>War Inconsistent
+with the Religion of Jesus Christ</i>, which stands first
+in the present volume, edifying and inspiring to-day.
+Marked by few literary graces and cast in a theological
+mold which the critical thought of the present has in
+large measure outgrown, there is a force of thought, a
+moral earnestness, a persevering logic, a common sense,
+a hatred of inhumanity, a passion for justice, a penetration
+and a virtue in them, which commends them to the
+abiding and reverent regard of all who work for the
+peace and order of the world. Among such workers
+to-day are men of various political philosophies, and
+perhaps only a small minority are nonresistants of the
+extreme type of David L. Dodge; but to that minority,
+we cannot fail to remark, belongs the greatest and most
+influential of all the peace prophets of this time, Leo
+Tolstoi. None can read these old essays without being
+impressed by the fact that their arguments are essentially
+the same as those of the great Russian. There is
+little indeed of the Tolstoian thunder and lightning, the
+pathos, wrath, and rhetoric, the poetry and prophecy, in
+these old-fashioned pages; but the doctrine is the same
+as that of <i>Bethink Yourselves!</i> and <i>Patriotism versus
+Christianity</i>. In his central thought and purpose, in his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>
+religious trust and reliance upon the Christian principle,
+the New York merchant was a Tolstoi a hundred years
+before his time.</p>
+
+<p>David Low Dodge was born June 14, 1774, in that
+part of Pomfret, Connecticut, now called Brooklyn.
+This was the home of Israel Putnam; and David Dodge&rsquo;s
+father, a farmer and carpenter, was Putnam&rsquo;s neighbor
+and friend,&mdash;may well have been near him when in
+April, 1775, upon hearing of the battle of Lexington,
+he left his plow in the furrow and started to join the
+forces gathering at Cambridge. David Dodge&rsquo;s father,
+grandfather, and great-grandfather each bore the name
+of David Dodge. The great-grandfather was a Congregational
+minister, who was understood to have come
+from Wales,&mdash;a learned and wealthy man, who was for a
+while settled in the vicinity of Cape Ann in Massachusetts.
+The grandfather, who also received a liberal education,
+probably in England, came into the possession of
+his father&rsquo;s estate, for that day a large one, and we are
+not informed whether he followed any profession or regular
+business. He was a man fully six feet tall, of great
+muscular power, and a lover of good horses, on which
+he spent much time and money. He married Ann Low,
+from a wealthy Massachusetts family, and settled in
+Beverly, where their sons David and Samuel were born,
+and where the family fortunes became much embarrassed.
+About 1757 the family removed to Pomfret,
+Connecticut, and the boys, whose education at the hands
+of their mother had been but slight, were apprenticed,
+David to a carpenter and Samuel to a shoemaker. Their
+father, obtaining at this time a commission in the army<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span>
+invading Canada, met his death in a bateau which
+attempted to descend the falls of the Oswego and was
+dashed to pieces on the rocks with the loss of every
+soul on board.</p>
+
+<p>David Low Dodge&rsquo;s mother, when a girl, was Mary
+Stuart, and when she married his father, in 1768, was a
+widow bearing the name of Earl. The young husband
+hired a small farm, the wife by her industry and economy
+had furniture sufficient to begin housekeeping, and
+the little home was founded in which David Low Dodge&rsquo;s
+only sister Mary was born in 1770. Three years later
+the father hired a more expensive place in the same
+town, where the boy was born in 1774. &ldquo;During that
+year,&rdquo; he writes in his autobiography, &ldquo;my father became
+serious, and commenced family prayer. He was educated
+in the old semi-Arminian views of his mother and the
+halfway covenant. My mother was a rigid Calvinist of
+the Whitefield school. Neither of them ever made a
+public profession of religion, but they were careful to
+observe external ordinances, catechize their children, and
+give religious instruction. They were honest, industrious,
+temperate, kind-hearted people, universally respected
+and esteemed by all who were acquainted with them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such was the atmosphere in which the boy grew up.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span>
+&ldquo;The American Revolution at this period was convulsing
+the whole country, drafting and enlisting soldiers. Wagons
+were needed for the army, and by the advice of the
+Putnams, the old general and his son Israel, who was
+about two years younger than my father, he was induced
+to engage in the manufacture of continental wagons. He
+hired a convenient place for carpenters and blacksmiths,
+took several journeymen into the family, and embarked
+all his earnings in the business.&rdquo; The boy&rsquo;s half-brothers,
+William and Jesse Earl, entered the army at the tender
+ages of fourteen and sixteen, endured battles, sickness,
+and every privation, and both died towards the close of
+the war, the event almost wrecking the nervous system
+of the mother, a woman of acute sensibility. Thus early
+were the horrors of war brought personally home to the
+boy. He remembered hearing the distant cannonading
+when New London was burned by the British, and the
+exclamation of the man beside him, &ldquo;Blood is flowing
+to-day.&rdquo; &ldquo;News came the next morning that the forts
+were stormed, the garrisons put to the sword, New London
+burnt, and the British were marching upon Norwich,
+and would proceed up into the country. My mother
+wrung her hands, and asked my father if we had not
+better pack up some things to secrete them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The boy&rsquo;s education was slight and fragmentary.
+The summer he was six years old he attended the
+school of a venerable Irish maiden lady about sixty years
+of age, learning Watts&rsquo; <i>Divine Songs</i>, texts of Scripture,
+and the <i>Shorter Catechism</i>. From the age of seven to
+fourteen&mdash;the family now living on a farm in the neighboring
+town of Hampton&mdash;he attended the district
+school for two terms each winter, having no access to
+any other books than the primer, spelling book, arithmetic,
+and Bible.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span> &ldquo;I used often, when not at work in
+the shop evenings, to retire to the old kitchen fireplace,
+put my lamp into the oven, and, sitting with my back
+against it, take my arithmetic, slate, and pencil, and try
+to cipher a little. I often think how I should have been
+delighted to have had one fifth part of the advantages
+enjoyed by most of my descendants.&rdquo; Confined to the
+house for seven weeks a little later as the result of
+accidents, he turned hungrily to such books as he could
+secure&mdash;Dilworth&rsquo;s <i>Arithmetic</i>, Webster&rsquo;s <i>Abridged
+Grammar</i>, and Salmon&rsquo;s <i>Universal English Geography</i>.
+&ldquo;This opened a new and astonishing field to me for
+contemplation. I now obtained the first glimpse of the
+boundaries of land and water, of the lofty mountains,
+and of the mighty rivers which had cut their channels
+through the earth. I read and surveyed the maps and
+meditated upon them until I began to lecture to my
+young companions, and was considered quite learned in
+geography. Having an object in view, I began to thirst
+for knowledge, and succeeded in borrowing in succession
+<i>The Travels of Cyrus</i>, <i>Xerxes&rsquo; Expedition into Greece</i>,
+<i>The History of Alexander the Great</i>, and <i>Hannibal&rsquo;s
+Invasion of Rome</i>.&rdquo; He proposed and brought about the
+formation of a society of young men in the town, for the
+improvement of minds and manners. There were fourteen
+young men, with an equal number of young women
+presently added, each furnishing a useful book as the
+beginning of a library. &ldquo;We obtained some of the
+British classics, such as the <i>Spectator</i>, <i>Guardian</i>, etc.,
+with a few histories; the subjects formed a foundation
+for conversation when we met together.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Now the young man&rsquo;s ambition turned from farming
+to school-teaching. He began with district schools,
+becoming a successful teacher from the start, prosecuting
+his own studies assiduously in every leisure hour,
+fired with a desire to improve the schools, which were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>
+everywhere as wretched as can well be imagined. For
+some months in 1795 he left teaching to join other young
+men in building a bridge at Tiverton, Rhode Island. Then
+he attended the academy at North Canterbury, Connecticut,
+under the charge of the eminent teacher, John Adams.
+&ldquo;This was the only opportunity I ever enjoyed of attending
+a good school, and this was abridged to fulfill my engagement
+to teach the town school in Mansfield.&rdquo; In 1796
+he opened a private school in Norwich, adding the next
+year a morning school for young ladies and an evening
+school for apprentices and clerks, all of which flourished.
+During this time he was profoundly interested in religious
+matters, attending many revivals and becoming
+more and more concerned with moral and social problems.
+Now, too, he married, his wife being a daughter of
+Aaron Cleveland of Norwich, a strong character, afterwards
+a clergyman, &ldquo;whose name you will find enrolled
+among the poets of Connecticut,&rdquo; and who as early as
+1775 published a poem on slavery, which, condemning
+slavery as wholly antichristian, attracted a good deal of
+notice. He was the first man in Connecticut to arraign
+slavery publicly. Elected to the General Assembly from
+Norwich on that issue, he introduced a bill in behalf of
+emancipation.</p>
+
+<p>With health somewhat impaired and with family
+cares increasing, David Dodge now turned from teaching
+to trade. First it was as a clerk in Norwich, then
+as a partner in a general store, then as head of various
+dry goods establishments in Hartford and other Connecticut
+towns, always and everywhere successful. In
+1805 Messrs. S. and H. Higginson of Boston, cousins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>
+of his wife, a firm of high standing and large capital,
+made him a proposition to enter into a copartnership
+with a view to establishing an extensive importing and
+jobbing store in the city of New York; and he accepted
+the proposition, going to New York the next year to
+take charge of the concern in that city. He took a store
+in Pearl Street, and the year afterwards the family took
+possession of the house connected with the store, still
+reserving the house in Hartford as a retreat in case of
+yellow fever in New York. From this time until his
+death, April 23, 1852, New York was, with occasional
+interruptions, his home and the center of his varied
+and ever enlarging activities. Just before the outbreak
+of the war with England his partners became bankrupt
+through losses in extensive shipping of American produce
+to Europe. &ldquo;Bonaparte sprung his trap upon more than
+a million dollars of their property.&rdquo; Mr. Dodge now
+established cotton factories in Connecticut, and later commenced
+anew the dry goods business in New York, his
+home for years alternating between New York and the
+Norwich neighborhood; and for the nine years following
+1835 he occupied a large farm in Plainfield, New Jersey.</p>
+
+<p>Active as was his business life, and faithful his devotion
+to his large business affairs,&mdash;and he came to rank
+with the most prominent mercantile men of his day,&mdash;his
+mind was always intent upon social and religious
+subjects. &ldquo;During the years of 1808 to 1811 our business
+became extensive and demanded much thought and
+attention; yet I think my affections were on the subject
+of religion.&rdquo; Revivals of religion, the interests of his
+church in Norwich or New York, the improvement of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span>
+the lives of his factory operatives, the organization in
+New York of the Christian Friendly Society for the
+Promotion of Morals and Religion,&mdash;such were the
+objects which commanded him. Throughout his long
+residence in New York he was a prominent worker in
+the Presbyterian church, for many years an elder in the
+church. He took a leading part in organizing the New
+York Bible Society and the New York Tract Society,
+was much engaged in the early missionary movements
+in New York, and in promoting the education of young
+men for the ministry. He was a lover of knowledge, a
+great reader, and one who thought and wrote as he read.
+Deeply interested in history, ancient and modern, his
+chief interest was in theological discussion. He was
+familiar with the chief theological controversies of the
+day, and upon many of them committed his views to
+writing. His knowledge of the Bible was remarkable;
+he read it through critically in course forty-two times.
+He held firmly the Calvinistic system of doctrine, and
+he addressed to his children a series of letters, characterized
+by great ability and logical force, in defense of the
+faith, and constituting together a compendious system
+of theology.</p>
+
+<p>Several of these letters are included in the memorial
+volume published for the family in 1854 under the
+editorial supervision of Rev. Matson M. Smith. This
+volume contains, besides the two essays on war here
+reprinted, and various verses and letters, the interesting
+autobiography which he prepared, at the request of his
+children, a few years before his death, and a supplementary
+biographical sketch by his pastor, Rev. Asa D.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span>
+Smith. In the mass of manuscripts which he left behind
+was an essay upon &ldquo;The Relation of the Church to the
+World,&rdquo; and one upon &ldquo;Retributive Judgment and Capital
+Punishment,&rdquo;&mdash;to which he was sharply opposed. He
+was opposed indeed to so much in human governments
+as now constituted,&mdash;&ldquo;whose ultimate reliance,&rdquo; he said,
+&ldquo;is the sword,&rdquo; and whose laws he felt to be so often
+contrary to the laws of Christ to which he gave his sole
+allegiance,&mdash;that he would neither vote nor hold office.
+Strict and inflexible as he was in his views of political
+and religious duty, he was one of the most genial and
+delightful of men, a Christian in whom there was no
+guile, fond of the young, affectionate, courteous, &ldquo;given
+to hospitality,&rdquo; &ldquo;careful habitually to make even the conventionalities
+of life a fitting accompaniment and expression
+of the inward principle of kindness.&rdquo; A face as
+strong as it is gentle, and as gentle as it is strong, is
+that which looks at us in the beautiful portrait preserved
+in the family treasures, and a copy of which forms the
+frontispiece of the present volume.</p>
+
+<p>The character and influence of the family which he
+founded in New York, during the three generations
+which have followed, constitute an impressive witness to
+David Dodge&rsquo;s force and worth, his religious consecration,
+and high public spirit. At the junction of Broadway
+and Sixth Avenue stands the statue of his son,
+William Earl Dodge, whose life of almost fourscore years
+ended in 1883. For long years the head of the great
+house of Phelps, Dodge &amp; Co., the manager of immense
+railway, lumber, and mining interests, the president of
+the New York Chamber of Commerce, a representative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span>
+of New York in Congress, a leader in large work for
+temperance, for the freedmen, for the Indians, for theological
+education, for a score of high patriotic and philanthropic
+interests, New York had in his time no more
+representative, more useful, or more honored citizen.
+And what is said of him may be said in almost the same
+words of William Earl Dodge, his son, who died but
+yesterday, and who combined broad business and philanthropic
+activities in the same strong and influential way
+as his father and grandfather before him. President of
+many religious and benevolent associations, he was pre-eminently
+a patriot and an international man. The logic
+of his life and of his heritage placed him naturally at
+the head of the National Arbitration Committee, which
+was appointed at the great conference on international
+arbitration held at Washington in the spring of 1896, following
+the anxiety attendant upon President Cleveland&rsquo;s
+Venezuelan message,&mdash;a committee which, under his
+chairmanship, and since his death that of Hon. John
+W. Foster, has during the decade rendered such great
+service to the peace and arbitration cause in this country.
+It is to be noted also that the names of his son and
+daughter, Cleveland H. Dodge and Grace H. Dodge,
+names so conspicuously associated to-day with charitable,
+religious, and educational efforts in New York,
+are associated, too, like his with the commanding cause
+of the world&rsquo;s peace and better organization; both names
+stand upon the American Committee of the Thirteenth
+International Peace Congress, which met in Boston in
+1904. Thus have the generations which have followed
+him well learned and strongly emphasized the lesson<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a></span>
+taught by David Dodge almost a century ago, that war
+is &ldquo;inhuman, unwise, and criminal,&rdquo; and &ldquo;inconsistent
+with the religion of Jesus Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1805 that a startling personal experience
+prompted the train of thought which soon and forever
+made David L. Dodge the advocate of the thorough-going
+peace principles with which his name is chiefly
+identified, and led him to condemn all violence, even in
+self-defense, in dealings between men, as between nations.
+Accustomed to carry pistols when traveling with large
+sums of money, he was almost led to shoot his landlord
+in a tavern at Providence, Rhode Island, who by some
+blunder had come into his room at night and suddenly
+waked him. The thought of what his situation and
+feelings would have been had he taken the man&rsquo;s life
+shocked him into most searching thinking. For two or
+three years his mind dwelt on the question. He turned
+to the teaching and example of Christ, and became persuaded
+that these were inconsistent with violence and
+the carrying of deadly weapons, and with war. The common
+churchman sanctioned such things, but not the
+early Christians; and he found strong words condemning
+war in Luther and Erasmus, the Moravians and
+Quakers. Discussing the matter with many pious and
+Christian men, he found them generally avoiding the
+gospel standard. He was shocked by the &ldquo;general want
+of faith in the promises&rdquo;; but he himself laid aside at
+once his pistols and the fear of robbers. He became
+absolutely convinced that fighting and warfare were
+&ldquo;unlawful for the followers of Christ&rdquo;; and from now on
+he began to bear public testimony against the war spirit.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Early in the spring of 1809 he published his essay,
+<i>The Mediator&rsquo;s Kingdom not of this World</i>, which
+attracted so much attention that in two weeks nearly
+a thousand copies were sold. Three literary men joined
+in preparing a spirited and sarcastic criticism of it; and
+he immediately published a rejoinder. <i>The Mediator&rsquo;s
+Kingdom</i> was republished in Philadelphia and in Providence,
+and Mr. Dodge writes truly: &ldquo;These publications
+gave the first impulse in America, if we except the
+uniform influence of the Friends, to inquiry into the lawfulness
+of war by Christians. Some who were favorable
+to the doctrines of peace judged that, with a bold hand,
+I had carried the subject too far; and doubtless, as it
+was new and had not been much discussed, I wrote too
+unguardedly, not sufficiently defining my terms. The
+Rev. Dr. Noah Worcester was one who so judged, and
+a few years after he published his very spirited and
+able essay, <i>The Solemn Review of War</i>.&rdquo; This famous
+essay of Worcester&rsquo;s represents the platform of the great
+body of American peace workers for a century, the position
+of men like Channing and Ladd and Jay and
+Sumner; but to a nonresistant and opponent even of
+self-defense, like David Dodge, these seemed the exponents
+of a halfway covenant.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Dodge entered into private correspondence on the
+lawfulness of war with Rev. Lyman Beecher, Rev. Aaron
+Cleveland, his father-in-law, Rev. John B. Romeyn,
+and Rev. Walter King. He preserved among his manuscripts
+letters of twenty-five pages from Dr. Romeyn and
+Mr. Cleveland, and copies of his reply to Dr. Romeyn
+(one hundred and thirty-two pages) and to Dr. Beecher<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span>
+(forty-four pages). Important letters from Dr. Beecher
+and Governor Jay he had lost. All these took the position
+of Dr. Worcester, sanctioning strictly defensive war
+in extreme cases,&mdash;all except Mr. Cleveland, who finally
+came into complete accord with Mr. Dodge, and published
+two able sermons on &ldquo;The Life of Man Inviolable
+by the Laws of Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Early in 1812 the friends of peace whom Mr. Dodge
+had gathered about him in New York conferred upon
+the forming of a peace society, &ldquo;wholly confined to
+decided evangelical Christians, with a view to diffusing
+peace principles in the churches, avoiding all party
+questions.&rdquo; There being at this juncture, however,
+intense political feeling over the threatened war with
+Great Britain, they feared their motives would be misapprehended,
+and decided for the moment simply to act
+individually in diffusing information. Mr. Dodge was
+appointed to prepare an essay on the subject of war,
+stating and answering objections; and, removing at this
+time to Norwich, he there, in a period of great business
+perplexity, completed his remarkable paper on &ldquo;War
+Inconsistent with the Christian Religion,&rdquo; which was
+published in the very midst of the war with England.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his return to New York, the friends of peace
+there had two or three meetings relative to the organization
+of a society; and in August, 1815, they formed the
+New York Peace Society, of between thirty and forty
+members, their strict articles of association condemning
+all war, offensive and defensive, as wholly opposed to the
+example and spirit and precepts of Christ. The peace
+societies formed immediately afterwards in Massachusetts,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span>
+Ohio, Rhode Island, and London were organized, according
+to Mr. Dodge, without any knowledge of each other,
+the movements being the simultaneous separate results
+of a common impulse. Of the New York society Mr.
+Dodge was unanimously elected president. Monthly
+meetings were arranged, and at the first of these Mr.
+Dodge read an address upon &ldquo;The Kingdom of Peace
+under the Benign Reign of Messiah,&rdquo; of which a thousand
+copies were at once printed and circulated. Within
+two years the society had increased to sixty members,
+men active not only against war&mdash;which the society
+regarded as &ldquo;the greatest temporal evil, as almost every
+immorality is generated in its prosecution, and poverty,
+distress, famine, and pestilence follow in its train&rdquo;&mdash;but
+in all the benevolent enterprises of that day. &ldquo;Several
+respectable clergymen united with the society,&mdash;Rev.
+Drs. E. D. Griffin and M. L. Parvine, Rev. E. W. Baldwin
+(to whose pen we were much indebted), Rev. Samuel
+Whelpley, and his son, Rev. Melancthon Whelpley, Rev.
+H. G. Ufford, and Rev. S. H. Cox. Dr. Cox, however,
+afterwards entertained different views on the subject.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The New York Peace Society had friendly correspondence
+with all the other peace societies, and for several
+years took two hundred copies of Dr. Worcester&rsquo;s
+<i>Friend of Peace</i>. This seems finally to have contributed
+to divide the society, some relinquishing the nonresistant
+views of Mr. Dodge and adopting Worcester&rsquo;s
+less extreme position. But our brave Tolstoian was a
+&ldquo;thorough,&rdquo; and never wavered. &ldquo;If it was morally
+wrong for individuals to quarrel and fight, instead of
+returning good for evil,&rdquo;&mdash;these are his last words on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span>
+the subject in his autobiography,&mdash;&ldquo;it was much more
+criminal for communities and nations to return evil for
+evil, and not strive to overcome evil with good. In fact,
+the great barrier to our progress was the example of our
+fathers in the American Revolution. That they were
+generally true patriots, in the political sense of the term,
+and many hopefully pious, I would not call in question,
+while I consider them as ill directed by education as
+St. Paul was when on his way to Damascus.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The New York Peace Society maintained its existence
+and work for many years. In 1828 it united with other
+societies in the creation of the American Peace Society,
+which was organized in New York on May 8 of that year
+on the initiative of William Ladd. After this the New
+York society seems to have done little separate work,
+and finally its independent existence ceased. Mr. Dodge
+assisted in the organization of the new national society,
+and presided at its first annual meeting, May 13, 1829.
+He was chosen a member of its board of directors, and
+later became a life director, maintaining his connection
+with the society until his death in 1852, faithful to
+the end to the radical views by which he had become so
+powerfully possessed almost half a century before.</p>
+
+<p>For two generations New York has been without a
+local peace society. The services of eminent individual
+citizens of the city and state of New York for the peace
+cause during that period, however, have been signal.
+Judge William Jay of New York was for a decade president
+of the American Peace Society,&mdash;the important
+decade covering the great peace congresses in Europe at
+the middle of the last century; and it was his proposal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span>
+that an arbitration clause should be attached to all
+future commercial treaties which furnished the basis for
+the most constructive debates of the first congress, that
+at London in 1843. The three really important members
+of the American delegation at The Hague Conference
+were citizens of New York,&mdash;Andrew D. White,
+Seth Low, and Frederick W. Holls. A remarkable plan
+adopted by the New York State Bar Association suggested
+important features of The Hague Court as finally
+constituted. It is a citizen of New York, Andrew
+Carnegie, who has given $1,500,000 for a worthy building
+for the court at The Hague,&mdash;a temple of peace.
+Mr. Carnegie, whose influence in behalf of international
+fraternity is perhaps second to that of no other to-day,
+has also given $5,000,000 to establish a pension fund
+for &ldquo;heroes of peace,&rdquo; whose heroism, too long comparatively
+neglected, he rightly sees to be not less than
+the heroism of the soldier. The most important series of
+arbitration conferences in recent times have been those
+at Lake Mohonk, in the state of New York, arranged
+by Albert K. Smiley,&mdash;conferences of growing size
+and importance, commanding world-wide attention, and
+performing for this country almost the same service
+performed for France and England by their national
+peace congresses. Finally, it must not be forgotten that
+Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States,
+through whose initiative the second Hague Conference
+will presently meet, is also a citizen of New York.</p>
+
+<p>At this very time a promising movement is gaining
+head to organize once more in David Dodge&rsquo;s city a New
+York Peace Society. At one of the recent Mohonk<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span>
+conferences a large committee of New York men, under
+the chairmanship of Mr. Warner Van Norden, was
+formed for conference with this end in view. Upon the
+American committee of the International Peace Congress
+which met in Boston in 1904 were no less than sixteen
+residents of the city of New York,&mdash;Andrew Carnegie,
+Hon. Oscar S. Straus, Hon. George F. Seward, Walter
+S. Logan, Felix Adler, William D. Howells, Mrs. Charles
+Russell Lowell, Mrs. Anna Garlin Spencer, Miss Grace
+H. Dodge, Rev. Josiah Strong, Rev. Charles E. Jefferson,
+Cleveland H. Dodge, George Foster Peabody, Professor
+John B. Clark, Leander T. Chamberlain, and J. G.
+Phelps Stokes. In the week following the Boston congress
+a series of great peace meetings was held in New
+York, at the Cooper Union and elsewhere, arranged by
+members of this committee; and out of all this a new
+impulse has come to plans for local organization in New
+York. As one result a strong society was formed by the
+Germans of the city, and a large Women&rsquo;s Peace Circle
+has since been organized and begun important educational
+work. The larger New York Peace Society is
+now certainly a thing of the near future. To the men
+and women who will constitute that society, the noble
+body of those now working in their various ways in the
+great city for the cause of peace, is dedicated especially
+this republication of the old essays of David Dodge, the
+founder of the first peace society in the world, who by
+his pioneering and prophetic service gave to New York
+a place so significant in the history of what is to-day
+the world&rsquo;s most commanding cause.</p>
+
+<table style="width: 90%;" border="0" summary="close of introduction">
+<tr><td style="text-align: left;"><span class="smcap">September, 1905</span></td><td style="text-align: right;">EDWIN D. MEAD</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<h2>WAR INCONSISTENT WITH THE
+RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST</h2>
+
+<p>Humanity, wisdom, and goodness at once combine
+all that can be great and lovely in man. Inhumanity,
+folly, and wickedness reverse the picture, and at once
+represent all that can be odious and hateful. The
+former is the spirit of Heaven, and the latter the offspring
+of hell. The spirit of the gospel not only
+breathes &ldquo;glory to God in the highest, but on earth
+peace, and good will to men.&rdquo; The wisdom from
+above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, easy to be
+entreated; but the wisdom from beneath is earthly,
+sensual, and devilish.</p>
+
+<p>It is exceedingly strange that any one under the light
+of the gospel, professing to be guided by its blessed
+precepts, with the Bible in his hand, while the whole
+creation around him is so often groaning under the
+weight and terrors of war, should have doubts whether
+any kind of wars under the gospel dispensation, except
+spiritual warfare, can be the dictate of any kind of wisdom
+except that from beneath; and much more so, to
+believe that they are the fruit of the Divine Spirit,
+which is love, joy, and peace.</p>
+
+<p>An inspired apostle has informed us from whence
+come wars and fightings. They come from the lusts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span>
+of men that war in their members. Ever since the fall,
+mankind have had naturally within them a spirit of pride,
+avarice, and revenge. The gospel is directly opposed
+to this spirit. It teaches humility, it inculcates love,
+it breathes pity and forgiveness even to enemies, and
+forbids rendering evil for evil to any man.</p>
+
+<p>Believing as I do, after much reflection and, as I
+trust, prayerful investigation of the subject, that all
+kinds of carnal warfare are unlawful upon gospel principles,
+I shall now endeavor to prove that WAR is
+<span class="smcap">INHUMAN</span>, <span class="smcap">UNWISE</span>, and <span class="smcap">CRIMINAL</span>, and then make some
+general remarks, and state and answer several objections.
+In attempting to do this I shall not always confine
+myself strictly to this order of the subject, but
+shall occasionally make such remarks as may occur,
+directly or indirectly, to show that the whole genius of
+war is contrary to the spirit and precepts of the gospel.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3>WAR IS INHUMAN</h3>
+
+<h4>I. BECAUSE IT HARDENS THE HEART AND BLUNTS
+THE TENDER FEELINGS OF MANKIND</h4>
+
+<p>That it is the duty of mankind to be tender-hearted,
+feeling for the distress of others, and to do all in their
+power to prevent and alleviate their misery, is evident
+not only from the example of the Son of God but the
+precepts of the gospel.</p>
+
+<p>When the Saviour of sinners visited this dark and
+cruel world he became a man of sorrow and was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+acquainted with grief, so that he was touched with the
+feeling of our infirmities. He went about continually
+healing the sick, opening the eyes of the blind, unstopping
+the ears of the deaf, raising the dead, as well as
+preaching the gospel of peace to the poor. He visited
+the houses of affliction and poured the balm of consolation
+into the wounded heart. He mourned with those
+who mourned, and wept with those that wept. Love
+to God and man flowed from his soul pure as the river
+of life, refreshing the thirsty desert around him. He
+was not only affectionate to his friends but kind to his
+enemies. He returned love for their hatred, and blessing
+for their cursing. When he was surrounded by all
+the powers of darkness and resigned himself into the
+hands of sinners to expiate their guilt, and they smote
+him on the cheek and plucked off the hair, he &ldquo;was
+dumb and opened not his mouth.&rdquo; While suffering all
+the contempt and torture which men and devils could
+invent, instead of returning evil for evil he prayed for
+his murderers and apologized for his persecutors, saying,
+&ldquo;Father, forgive them, for they know not what
+they do.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The apostle exhorts Christians, saying, &ldquo;Be ye kind
+and tender-hearted, forgiving one another, even as God
+for Christ&rsquo;s sake hath forgiven you.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Authority in abundance might be quoted to show
+that the spirit of the gospel absolutely requires the
+exercise of love, pity, and forgiveness, even to enemies.</p>
+
+<p>But who will undertake to prove that soldiers are
+usually kind and tender-hearted, and that their employment
+has a natural tendency to promote active<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+benevolence, while it requires all their study of mind
+and strength of body to injure their enemies to the
+greatest extent?</p>
+
+<p>Though we often hear of the generosity and attention
+of soldiers to prisoners, and notwithstanding I am
+willing to allow that feelings of humanity are not altogether
+obliterated from every soldier, yet much of this
+apparent kindness may flow from a desire of better
+treatment themselves should circumstances be reversed,
+or from a hope of the applause of mankind. My object,
+however, is not to prove that all soldiers are destitute
+of humanity, but that their occupation has a natural
+tendency and actually does weaken their kind and
+tender feelings, and harden their hearts.</p>
+
+<p>Is it not a fact that those who are engaged in the
+spirit of war, either in the council or in the field, are
+not usually so meek, lowly, kind, and tender-hearted as
+other men? Does the soldier usually become kind and
+tender-hearted while trained to the art of killing his
+fellow-man, or more so when engaged in the heat of
+the battle, stepping forward over the wounded and
+hearing the groans of the expiring? Does he actually
+put on bowels of tenderness, mercy, and forgiveness,
+while he bathes his sword in the blood of his brother?
+Do these scenes generally change the lion into the
+lamb? On the contrary, do not the history of ages and
+the voice of millions bear testimony that the whole trade
+of war has a natural tendency to blunt the tender edge
+of mercy and chill all the sympathizing feelings of the
+human heart? Who that is a parent, having an uncommonly
+hard-hearted and unfeeling son, would send him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+into the camp to subdue his inhumanity and to stamp
+upon him kind and tender feelings? If war has not a
+natural tendency to harden the heart, permit me to
+inquire why mankind do not usually feel as much at the
+distress occasioned by war as by other calamities?</p>
+
+<p>It would be truly astonishing, were it not so common,
+to see with what composure the generality of mankind
+hear the account of barbarous and destructive battles.
+They may have some little excitement when they hear of
+savages&mdash;whose religion teaches them revenge&mdash;using
+the tomahawk and scalping knife; but when thousands
+are torn to pieces with shot and shells and butchered
+with polished steels, then it becomes a very polite and
+civil business, and those who perish are contemplated
+as only reclining on a bed of honor. If an individual
+in common life breaks a bone or fractures a limb, all
+around him not only sympathize but are ready to aid in
+alleviating his distress; but when thousands are slain
+and ten thousand wounded in the field of battle, the
+shock is but trifling, and the feelings are soon lost in
+admiring the gallantry of this hero and the prowess of
+that veteran. And why all this sensibility at the pains
+of an individual, and all this indifference at the sufferings
+of thousands, if war has not a natural tendency to
+harden the heart and destroy the tender feelings of
+mankind?</p>
+
+<p>It is a fact, however, so notorious that the spirit and
+practice of war do actually harden the heart and chill
+the kind and tender feelings of mankind, that I think
+few will be found to deny it, and none who have ever
+known or felt the spirit of Christ.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The spirit of war must be very unlike the spirit of
+the gospel, for the gospel enforces no duty the practice
+of which has a natural tendency to harden men&rsquo;s hearts,
+but in proportion as they are influenced by its spirit
+and actuated by its principles they will be humane;
+therefore, if war hardens men&rsquo;s hearts it is not a
+Christian duty, and of course it cannot be right for
+Christians to engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IN ITS NATURE AND
+TENDENCY IT ABUSES GOD&rsquo;S ANIMAL CREATION</h4>
+
+<p>When God at first created man, he gave him authority
+over the beasts of the field, the fowls of the air, and
+the fishes of the deep. After he had swept away the
+old ungodly world of mankind for their violence with
+all the animal creation, except those in the ark, he was
+pleased to renew to Noah the same privilege of being
+lord over the animal world.</p>
+
+<p>It may not perhaps be improper here to digress a
+little and remark that this appears to have been the
+original bounds of man&rsquo;s authority,&mdash;that of having
+dominion only over the animal world and not over his
+fellow-man. It appears that God reserved to himself
+the government of man, whom he originally created in
+his own image; from which it may be inferred that
+man has no lawful authority for governing his fellow-man
+except as the special executor of divine command,
+and that no government can be morally right except
+that which acknowledges and looks up to God as the
+supreme head and governor.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But to return: although the animal world is put
+under the dominion of man for his use, yet he has no
+authority to exercise cruelty towards it. &ldquo;For the
+merciful man regardeth the life of his beast.&rdquo; God is
+very merciful to his creatures; he not only hears the
+young ravens when they cry but he opens his hand
+and supplies the wants of the cattle upon a thousand
+hills.</p>
+
+<p>Though God has decorated the earth with beauty
+and richly clothed it with food for man and beast, yet
+where an all-devouring army passes, notwithstanding
+the earth before them is like the garden of Eden, it
+is behind them a desolate wilderness; the lowing ox
+and bleating sheep may cry for food, but, alas! the
+destroyer hath destroyed it.</p>
+
+<p>The noble horse, which God has made for the use
+and pleasure of man, shares largely in this desolating
+evil. He is often taken, without his customary food,
+to run with an express, until, exhausted by fatigue, he
+falls lifeless beneath his rider. Multitudes of them are
+chained to the harness with scanty food, and goaded
+forward to drag the baggage of an army and the thundering
+engines of death, until their strength has failed,
+their breath exhausted, and the kindness they then
+receive is the lash of the whip or the point of a spear.
+In such scenes the comfort of beasts is not thought of,
+except by a selfish owner who fears the loss of his
+property.</p>
+
+<p>But all this is trifling compared with what these
+noble animals, who tamely bow to the yoke of man,
+suffer in the charge of the battle; the horse rushes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+into the combat not knowing that torture and death
+are before him. His sides are often perforated with
+the spur of his rider, notwithstanding he exerts all his
+strength to rush into the heat of the battle, while the
+strokes of the sabers and the wounds of the bullets
+lacerate his body, and instead of having God&rsquo;s pure air
+to breathe to alleviate his pains, he can only snuff up
+the dust of his feet and the sulphurous smoke of the
+cannon, emblem of the infernal abode. Thus he has
+no ease for his pains unless God commissions the
+bayonet or the bullet to take away his life.</p>
+
+<p>But if such is the cruelty to beasts in prosecuting
+war, what is the cruelty to man, born for immortality?</p>
+
+<p>No wonder that those who feel so little for their
+fellow-men should feel less for beasts.</p>
+
+<p>If war is an inhuman and cruel employment, it must
+be wrong for Christians to engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>III. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT OPPRESSES
+THE POOR</h4>
+
+<p>To oppress the poor is everywhere in the Scriptures
+considered as a great sin: &ldquo;For the oppression of the
+poor, for the sighing of the needy, now will I arise,
+saith the Lord&rdquo;; &ldquo;Whoso stoppeth his ears at the
+cry of the poor, he also shall cry himself and not be
+heard&rdquo;; &ldquo;What mean ye that ye beat my people to
+pieces, and grind the faces of the poor? saith the Lord
+God of hosts.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The threatenings against those who oppress the poor,
+and the blessings pronounced upon those who plead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+their cause, are very numerous in the Scriptures. The
+threatenings are so tremendous and awful that all men
+ought to consider well before they are active in any
+step which has a natural tendency to oppress the poor
+and needy.</p>
+
+<p>That war actually does oppress the poor may be
+heard from ten thousand wretched tongues who have
+felt its woe. Very few, comparatively, who are instigators
+of war actually take the field of battle, and are
+seldom seen in the front of the fire. It is usually those
+who are rioting on the labors of the poor that fan up
+the flame of war. The great mass of soldiers are generally
+from the poor of a country. They must gird on
+the harness and for a few cents per day endure all the
+hardships of a camp and be led forward like sheep to
+the slaughter. Though multitudes are fascinated to
+enlist by the intoxicating cup, the glitter of arms, the
+vainglory of heroes, and the empty sound of patriotism,
+yet many more are called away contrary to their wishes
+by the iron hand of despotic laws. Perhaps a parent
+is enrolled whose daily labor was hardly sufficient to
+supply a scanty pittance for a numerous offspring, who
+are in his absence crying for bread. And why all this
+sorrow in this poor and needy family? Because the
+husband and father is gone, and probably gone forever,
+most likely to gratify the wishes of some ambitious men
+who care as little as they think of his anxious family.
+Perhaps an only son is taken from old, decrepit parents,
+the only earthly prop of their declining years; and with
+cold poverty and sorrow their gray hairs are brought
+down to the dust.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>War cannot be prosecuted without enormous expenses.
+The money that has been expended the last
+twenty years in war would doubtless have been sufficient
+not only to have rendered every poor person on earth
+comfortable&mdash;so far as money could do it&mdash;during
+the same period, but, if the residue had been applied
+to cultivate the earth, it would have literally turned
+the desert into a fruitful field. Only the interest of the
+money that has been expended in a few years by the
+European nations in prosecuting war would have been
+sufficient, under proper direction, to educate every poor
+child on earth in the common rudiments of learning,
+and to support missionaries in abundance to convey
+the gospel of peace to every creature. What a noble
+employment if those nations had exerted their powers
+for these objects as much as they have for injuring
+each other! And what a difference would have appeared
+in the world! Blessings would have fallen on
+millions ready to perish, instead of desolation, terror,
+and death.</p>
+
+<p>The vast expenses of war must be met by corresponding
+taxes, whether by duties on merchandise or
+direct taxes on real estate; yet they fall most heavily
+on the poor. Whatever duty the merchant pays to the
+customhouse, he adds the amount to the price of his
+goods, so that the consumer actually pays the tax. If
+a tax is levied on real estate, the product of that estate
+is raised to meet it, and whoever consumes the product
+pays the tax. In times of war the prices of the necessaries
+of life are generally very much increased, but the
+prices of the labor of the poor do not usually rise in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+the same proportion, therefore it falls very heavily on
+them. When the honest laborers are suddenly called
+from the plow to take the sword and leave the tilling
+of the ground, either its seed is but sparingly sown or
+its fruit but partially gathered, scarcity ensues, high
+prices are the consequence, and the difficulty greatly
+increased for the poor to obtain the necessaries of life,
+especially if they were dependent on the product of a
+scanty farm which they are now deprived of cultivating.
+Many a poor widow, who has been able in times
+of peace to support her fatherless children, has been
+obliged in times of war in a great measure to depend
+on the cold hand of charity to supply their wants.</p>
+
+<p>The calamities of war necessarily fall more on the
+poor than on the rich, because the poor of a country are
+generally a large majority of its inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>These are some of the evils of war at a distance, but
+when it comes to their doors, if they are favored personally
+to escape the ferocity of the soldiers, they fly
+from their habitations, leaving their little all to the fire
+and pillage, glad to escape with their lives, though destitute
+and dependent; and when they cast round their
+eyes for relief, they only meet a fellow-sufferer, who can
+sympathize with them but not supply their wants. Thus
+does war not only oppress the poor but adds multitudes
+to their number who before were comfortable.</p>
+
+<p>If war actually does oppress the poor, then we may
+infer that in its nature and tendency it is very unlike
+the genius of the gospel, and not right for Christians
+to engage in it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>IV. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT SPREADS TERROR
+AND DISTRESS AMONG MANKIND</h4>
+
+<p>In the benign reign of Messiah the earth will be
+filled with the abundance of peace; there will be nothing
+to hurt or destroy; every one will sit quietly under his
+own vine and fig tree, having nothing to molest or
+make him afraid. But in times of war, mankind are
+usually full of anxiety, their hearts failing them for
+fear, looking for those things which are coming upon
+our wicked world.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most delightful scenes on earth is a happy
+family where all the members dwell together in love,
+being influenced by the blessed precepts of the gospel
+of peace. But how soon does the sound of war disturb
+and distress the happy circle! If it is only the distant
+thunder of the cannon that salutes the ear, the mother
+starts from her repose, and all the children gather round
+her with looks full of anxiety to know the cause. Few
+women can so command their feelings as to hide the
+cause; and let it be said to the honor of the female sex
+that they have generally tender feelings, which cannot
+easily be disguised at the distress of their fellow-beings.
+Perhaps a mother&rsquo;s heart is now wrung with anguish
+in the prospect that either the partner of her life or the
+sons of her care and sorrow, or both, are about to be
+called into the bloody field of battle. Perhaps the decrepit
+parent views his darling son leaving his peaceful
+abode to enter the ensanguined field, never more to
+return. How soon are these joyful little circles turned
+into mourning and sorrow!<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Who can describe the distress of a happy village
+suddenly encompassed by two contending armies&mdash;perhaps
+so early and suddenly that its inhabitants are
+aroused from their peaceful slumbers by the confused
+noise of the warriors more ferocious than the beasts
+that prowl in the forest? Were it not for the tumult of
+the battle, shrieks of distress from innocent women
+and children might be heard from almost every abode.
+Children run to the arms of their distracted mothers,
+who are as unable to find a refuge for themselves as
+for their offspring. If they fly to the streets they are
+in the midst of death: hundreds of cannon are vomiting
+destruction in every quarter; the hoofs of horses
+trampling down everything in their way; bullets, stones,
+bricks, and splinters flying in every direction; houses
+pierced with cannon shot and shells which carry desolation
+in their course; without, multitudes of men
+rushing with deadly weapons upon each other with all
+the rage of tigers, plunging each other into eternity,
+until the streets are literally drenched with the blood
+of men. To increase the distress, the village is taken
+and retaken several times at the point of the bayonet.
+If the inhabitants fly to their cellars to escape the fury
+of the storm, their buildings may soon be wrapt in
+flames over their heads.</p>
+
+<p>And for what, it may be asked, is all this inhuman
+sacrifice made? Probably to gain the empty bubble
+called honor,&mdash;a standard of right and wrong without
+form or dimensions. Let no one say that the writer&rsquo;s
+imagination is heated while it is not in the power of
+his feeble pen to half describe the horror and distress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+of the scenes which are by no means uncommon in a
+state of war.</p>
+
+<p>If such are some of the effects of war, then it must
+be a very inhuman employment, and wrong for Christians
+to engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>V. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT INVOLVES MEN IN
+FATIGUE, FAMINE, AND ALL THE PAINS OF
+MUTILATED BODIES</h4>
+
+<p>To describe the fatigues and hardships of a soldier&rsquo;s
+life would require the experience of a soldier, so that
+only some of their common sufferings can be touched
+upon by a person who is a stranger to the miseries of
+a camp.</p>
+
+<p>A great majority of those who enter the ranks of an
+army are persons unaccustomed to great privations and
+severe fatigues; hence the great proportion of mortality
+among fresh recruits. Their habits and strength are
+unable to endure the hard fare, rapid and constant
+marches generally imposed upon them in active service.</p>
+
+<p>The young soldier commonly exchanges a wholesome
+table, a comfortable dwelling, an easy bed, for bad food,
+the field for his house, the cold earth for his bed, and
+the heavens over him for his covering. He must stand
+at his post day and night, summer and winter; face the
+scorching sun, the chilling tempest, and be exposed to
+all the storms of the season, without any comfortable
+repose; perhaps during most of the time with a scanty
+allowance of the coarsest food, and often destitute of
+any, except the miserable supply he may have chance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+to plunder,&mdash;not enough to satisfy but only to keep
+alive the craving demands of nature; often compelled
+to march and countermarch several days and nights in
+succession, without a moment to prepare his provisions
+to nourish him and glad to get a little raw to sustain
+his life. Frequently this hardship is endured in the
+cold and inclement season, while his tattered clothing is
+only the remains of his summer dress. Barefooted and
+half naked, fatigued and chilled, he becomes a prey to
+disease, and is often left to perish without a human
+being to administer to him the least comfort. If he is
+carried to a hospital, he is there surrounded by the pestilential
+breath of hundreds of his poor fellow-sufferers,
+where the best comforts that can be afforded are but
+scanty and dismal.</p>
+
+<p>But all this is comparatively trifling to the sufferings
+of the wounded on the field of battle. There thousands
+of mangled bodies lie on the cold ground hours, and
+sometimes days, without a friendly hand to bind up a
+wound; not a voice is heard except the dying groans of
+their fellow-sufferers around them. No one can describe
+the horrors of the scene: here lies one with a fractured
+skull, there another with a severed limb, and a third
+with a lacerated body; some fainting with the loss of
+blood, others distracted, and others again crying for help.</p>
+
+<p>If such are some of the faint outlines of the fatigues
+and sufferings of soldiers, then their occupation must be
+an inhuman employment, for they are instrumental in
+bringing the same calamities on others which they suffer
+themselves; and of course it is unfriendly to the spirit
+of the gospel, and wrong for Christians to engage in it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>VI. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT DESTROYS THE
+YOUTH AND CUTS OFF THE HOPE OF GRAY
+HAIRS</h4>
+
+<p>Mankind are speedily hastening into eternity, and it
+might be supposed sufficiently fast without the aid of
+all the ingenuity and strength of man to hurry them
+forward; yet it is a melancholy truth that a great proportion
+of the wealth, talents, and labors of men are
+actually employed in inventing and using means for the
+premature destruction of their fellow-beings.</p>
+
+<p>One generation passes away, and another follows in
+quick succession. The young are always the stay and
+hope of the aged; parents labor and toil for their children
+to supply their wants and to educate them to be
+happy, respectable, and useful, and then depend upon
+them to be their stay and comfort in their declining
+years. Alas, how many expectations of fond parents
+are blasted! Their sons are taken away from them
+and hurried into the field of slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>In times of war the youth&mdash;the flower, strength, and
+beauty of the country&mdash;are called from their sober, honest,
+and useful employments, to the field of battle; and
+if they do not lose their lives or limbs, they generally
+lose their habits of morality and industry. Alas! few
+ever return again to the bosom of their friends. Though
+from their mistaken and fascinating views of a soldier&rsquo;s
+life and honor they may be delighted in enlisting, and
+merry in their departure from their peaceful homes, yet
+their joy is soon turned into pain and sorrow. Unthinking
+youth, like the horse, rushes thoughtlessly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+into the battle. Repentance is then too late; to shrink
+back is death, and to go forward is only a faint hope of
+life. Here on the dreadful field are thousands and hundreds
+of thousands driven together to slaughter each
+other by a few ambitious men, perhaps none of whom
+are present. A large proportion are probably the youth
+of their country, the delight and comfort of their
+parents. All these opposing numbers are most likely
+persons who never knew or heard of each other, having
+no personal ill-will, most of whom would in any other
+circumstances not only not injure each other but be
+ready to aid in any kind office; yet by the act of war
+they are ranged against each other in all the hellish
+rage of revenge and slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>No pen, much less that of the writer&rsquo;s, can describe
+the inhumanity and horrors of a battle. All is confusion
+and dismay, dust and smoke arising, horses running,
+trumpets blasting, cannon roaring, bullets whistling,
+and the shrieks of the wounded and dying vibrating
+from every quarter. Column after column of men charge
+upon each other in furious onset, with the awful crash
+of bayonets and sabers, with eyes flashing and visages
+frightfully distorted with rage, rushing upon each other
+with the violence of brutish monsters; and when these
+are literally cut to pieces others march in quick succession,
+only to share the same cruel and bloody tragedy.
+Hundreds are parrying the blows; hundreds more are
+thrusting their bayonets into the bowels of their fellow-mortals,
+and many, while extricating them, have their
+own heads cleft asunder by swords and sabers; and all
+are hurried together before the tribunal of their Judge,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+with hearts full of rage and hands dyed in the blood of
+their brethren.</p>
+
+<p>O horrid and debasing scene! my heart melts at the
+contemplation, and I forbear to dwell upon the inhuman
+employment.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VII. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT MULTIPLIES WIDOWS
+AND ORPHANS, AND CLOTHES THE
+LAND IN MOURNING</h4>
+
+<p>The widow and fatherless are special objects of
+divine compassion, and Christianity binds men under
+the strongest obligation to be kind and merciful towards
+them, as their situation is peculiarly tender and afflicting.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A father of the fatherless, and a judge of the
+widow, is God in his holy habitation.&rdquo; &ldquo;Pure religion
+and undefiled before God and the Father is this, to
+visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>To be active in any measure which has a natural
+tendency to wantonly multiply widows and orphans in
+a land is the height of inhumanity as well as daring
+impiety.</p>
+
+<p>I will venture to say that no one circumstance in our
+world has so greatly multiplied widows and fatherless
+children as that of war. What has humanity ever gained
+by war to counterbalance simply the afflictions of the
+widow and fatherless? I verily believe nothing comparatively.
+I am well aware that a very popular plea
+for war is to defend, as it is styled, &ldquo;our firesides, our
+wives and children&rdquo;; but this generally is only a
+specious address to the feelings, to rouse up a martial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+spirit which makes thousands of women and children
+wretched where one is made happy. I am sensible that
+those will sneer at my opinion who regard more the
+honor that comes from men than they do the consolation
+of the widow and the fatherless.</p>
+
+<p>In times of war thousands of virtuous women are
+deprived of their husbands and ten thousands of helpless
+children of their fathers. The little tender children
+may now gather round their disconsolate mothers,
+anxiously inquiring about their fathers, remembering
+their kind visages, recollecting how they used fondly to
+dandle them on their knees and affectionately instruct
+them; but now they are torn from their embraces by
+the cruelty of war, and they have no fathers left them
+but their Father in heaven.</p>
+
+<p>It is probably no exaggeration to suppose that in
+Europe there are now two hundred thousand widows
+and a million fatherless children occasioned by war.
+What a mass of affliction! humanity bleeds at the
+thought! These children must now roam about without
+a father to provide for, protect, or instruct them.
+They now become an easy prey to all kinds of vice;
+many probably will be trained up for ignominious death,
+and most of them fit only for a soldier&rsquo;s life, to slaughter
+and to be slaughtered, unless some humane hand kindly
+takes them under its protection.</p>
+
+<p>And here I cannot help admiring the spirit of Christianity.
+It is owing to the blessed spirit and temper of
+the gospel of peace that many of the evils of war are
+so much ameliorated at the present day as well as the
+inhuman slavery of men.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The numerous asylums that now exist for the relief
+of the needy, the widow, and the fatherless are some of
+the precious fruits of Christianity; and if this spirit
+were universal the bow would soon be broken to pieces,
+the spear cut asunder, and the chariots of war burnt with
+fire, and wars would cease to the ends of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>And is it not the duty of all who name the name
+of Christ to do all in their power to counteract this
+destroying evil?</p>
+
+<p>War not only multiplies widows and orphans but
+clothes the land in mourning. In times of war multitudes
+of people are clothed with ensigns of mourning.
+Here are gray-headed parents shrouded in blackness,
+weeping for the loss of darling sons; there are widows
+covered with veils mourning the loss of husbands, and
+refusing to be comforted; children crying because their
+fathers are no more. Cities and villages are covered
+in darkness and desolation; weeping and mourning
+arise from almost every abode.</p>
+
+<p>And it may be asked, What inhuman hand is the
+cause of all this sorrow? Perhaps some rash man, in
+the impetuosity of his spirit, has taken some unjust,
+high ground, and is too proud to retrace a step, and had
+rather see millions wretched than to nobly confess that
+he had been in the wrong.</p>
+
+<p>Surely Christians cannot be active in such measures
+without incurring the displeasure of God, who styles
+himself the father of the fatherless and the judge and
+avenger of the widow.</p>
+
+<p>Thus I have shown that war is inhuman and therefore
+wholly inconsistent with Christianity, by proving that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+it tends to destroy humane dispositions; that it hardens
+the hearts and blunts the tender feelings of men; that
+it involves the abuse of God&rsquo;s animal creation; that it
+oppresses the poor; that it spreads terror and distress
+among mankind; that it subjects soldiers to cruel privations
+and sufferings; that it destroys the youth and cuts
+off the hope of the aged; and that it multiplies widows
+and orphans and occasions mourning and sorrow.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that war is inhuman is indeed one of those
+obvious truths which it is difficult to render more plain
+by argument; those who know in what war consists
+cannot help knowing that it is inhuman.</p>
+
+<p>What Mr. Windham said with reference to the inhumanity
+of slavery may be said of the inhumanity
+of war. In one of his speeches in the House of Commons
+against the slave trade he stated his difficulty in
+arguing against such a trade to be of that kind which is
+felt in arguing in favor of a self-evident proposition.
+&ldquo;If it were denied that two and two made four, it would
+not be a very easy task,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;to find arguments
+to support the affirmative side of the question. Precisely
+similar was his embarrassment in having to prove
+that the slave trade was unjust and inhuman.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Whoever admits that the slave trade is inhuman must
+admit that war is inhuman in a greater variety of ways
+and on a much larger scale.</p>
+
+<p>The inhumanity of the slave trade was the great and,
+finally, triumphant argument by which it was proved to
+be inconsistent with Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>The advocates of slavery, like the advocates of war,
+resorted to the Old Testament for support; but it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+appeared that slavery, as it appears that war, was permitted
+and approved of for reasons and on principles
+peculiar to the ancient economy. This is apparent as
+well from the difference between the general design of
+the old and new dispensations as from the whole genius
+and spirit of the gospel. Hence those who opposed the
+slave trade argued from the general nature and spirit of
+Christianity as the strongest ground which could be
+taken. If slavery was inconsistent with this, it ought
+not to be tolerated; but slavery is inhuman and is therefore
+inconsistent with Christianity. Exactly the same
+is true of war, nor can anything short of an express
+revelation from God, commanding war or slavery, render
+either of them justifiable.</p>
+
+<p>It deserves to be distinctly considered that the gospel
+contains little or nothing directly by way of precept
+against slavery; but slavery is inconsistent with its
+general requirements and inculcations and is therefore
+wrong. But war, besides being inconsistent with the
+genius and spirit of the gospel, is prohibited by those
+precepts which forbid retaliation and revenge and those
+which require forgiveness and good will.</p>
+
+<p>It is plain, then, that he who does not advocate and
+defend the slave trade, to be consistent, must grant
+that war is incompatible with Christianity, and that it
+is a violation of the gospel to countenance it.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>WAR IS UNWISE</h3>
+
+
+<p>That the principles and practice of war are unwise
+I argue:</p>
+
+
+<h4>I. BECAUSE, INSTEAD OF PREVENTING, THEY
+PROVOKE INSULT AND MISCHIEF</h4>
+
+<p>The maxim, that in order to preserve peace, mankind
+must be prepared for war, has become so common,
+and sanctioned by such high authority, that few
+question its wisdom or policy; but if stripped of its
+specious garb, it may appear to proceed not from that
+wisdom which came down from above, which is &ldquo;first
+pure, then peaceable, gentle, easy to be entreated, full
+of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and without
+hypocrisy&rdquo;; and if it is not the wisdom from
+above, then it must be the wisdom from beneath.</p>
+
+<p>Are not pride, avarice, and revenge the seeds of all
+kinds of carnal warfare? From these grow all the
+quarreling among children, the discord among families,
+the bickerings, law suits, and broils among neighbors,
+the boxing among bullies, the dueling among modern
+gentlemen, and wars among nations. They all originate
+from one and the same spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Now, is the mild, meek, and peaceable man, unarmed,
+more liable to inspire jealousy in others that
+he is about to insult and abuse them than the high-toned
+duelist who constantly carries with him deathly
+weapons? Does he, in fact, so often get into difficulty,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>quarreling and fighting? The respectable
+Society of Friends stands a living monument to answer
+the question.</p>
+
+<p>On the principles of self-defense, as they are styled,
+if one man suspects an injury from another, unless he
+is naturally a more powerful man, he must take a cane,
+as the principles of self-defense require a superior power
+in your own hand, either by art or muscular strength.
+When the other learns the suspicions and sees the preparation,
+he in his turn must take a bludgeon to preserve
+the balance of power and proclaim a threatening to awe
+his antagonist, who must now take a sword and return
+a threatening in order to maintain his dignity; for it
+will not do for men of honor to retract, however much
+they may be in the wrong. The other, again, must take
+a deathly weapon for his defense, and nothing is now
+wanting but an unhappy meeting to set each other&rsquo;s
+blood a flowing.</p>
+
+<p>Much in the same way do nations often get into
+desperate warfare. One nation is busily increasing its
+military strength on the plausible maxim of preserving
+peace and maintaining its rights. Another nation views
+the preparations with a jealous eye, and also goes to
+work on the same principle to make formidable preparations.
+All the nations around take the alarm, and on the
+same principle begin active preparations, all vying with
+each other to become the most formidable. If one sends
+an ambassador to inquire the cause of the great preparations,
+the answer always is, let the motive be what
+it may, <i>For their own defense</i>. Then the other makes
+new exertions and begins to fortify towns on the confines
+of his neighbor, who must not only do the same but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+march a large army for the defense of his frontier; and
+the other must do likewise. By this time, if no old quarrel
+remained unsettled, perhaps one charges the other
+with encroachment on territory; the other denies the
+charge, and contends sharply for his pretended rights.
+Ministers may be interchanged, and while negotiations
+are pending a high tone must be taken by both parties,
+for this is an essential principle in the doctrine of self-defense;
+the contrary would betray weakness and fear.
+Newspapers must be ushered forth with flaming pieces
+to rouse, as it is called, the spirit of the countries, so
+as to impress upon the populace the idea that the approaching
+war is just and necessary, for all wars must
+be just and necessary on both sides. In the meantime
+envoys extraordinary may be sent to other powers by
+each party to enlist their aid,&mdash;most of whom are
+already prepared for war,&mdash;and each one selects his side
+according to his interests and feelings. At length the
+<i>ultimatum</i> is given and refused, and the dreadful conflict
+commences. Few wars, however, begin in this slow
+and progressive mode; a trifling aggression is sufficient
+to blow up the flame with nations already prepared.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, we see, nations resemble bulldogs who happen
+to meet. They will first raise their hairs, show their
+teeth, then growl, and then seize upon each other with
+all their strength and fury; and bulldogs have something
+of the same kind of honor, for they scorn to
+retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Hence we see that the acknowledged principles of
+defensive war are the vital springs of most of the wars
+that agitate and desolate our world. The pretended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+distinction between offensive and defensive war is but
+a name. All parties engaged in war proclaim to the
+world that they only are fighting in defense of their
+rights, and that their enemies are the aggressors; while
+it may be impossible for man to decide which are most
+in the wrong.</p>
+
+<p>The popular maxim of being prepared for war in order
+to be at peace may be seen to be erroneous in fact, for
+the history of nations abundantly shows that few nations
+ever made great preparations for war and remained long
+in peace. When nations prepare for war they actually
+go to war, and tell the world that their preparations
+were not a mere show.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we may see that the principles and preparations
+of war actually engender war instead of promoting peace;
+and of course they are unwise, and, if unwise, then it
+is folly for Christians to engage in them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II. WAR IS UNWISE, FOR INSTEAD OF DIMINISHING,
+IT INCREASES DIFFICULTIES</h4>
+
+<p>As the principles and preparations of war have a
+natural tendency to generate war and are actually the
+cause of a great proportion of the wars which do exist,
+so actual hostilities have a natural tendency to increase
+difficulties and to spread abroad the destroying evil.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost impossible for any two nations to be long
+engaged in war without interfering with the rights and
+privileges of other nations, which generally awakes their
+jealousy and resentment, so that most of the surrounding
+nations are drawn into the destructive vortex, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+is the more easily done, as war inflames the martial spirit
+in other nations not engaged, and rouses up the desperate
+passions of men. Besides, the belligerent nations are
+not content with suffering themselves, but use every
+art and persuasion to get the neighboring nations to
+join them; and they are generally too successful, for it
+seldom happens that two nations engage in war for a
+length of time and conclude a peace before they have
+involved other nations in their difficulties and distresses,
+and often a great proportion of the world is in arms.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the nations who first engage in the contest
+always widen the breach between themselves by war.</p>
+
+<p>It is much easier settling difficulties between individuals
+or nations before actual hostilities commence than
+afterwards. Mankind are not apt to be any more mild
+and accommodating in a state of actual warfare. Besides,
+new difficulties constantly arise. The passions become
+inflamed, and charges are often made of violating the
+established laws of civilized warfare, which laws, however,
+are generally bounded only by the strength of
+power. If one party makes an incursion into the other&rsquo;s
+territory and storms a fortified place and burns the
+town, the other party must then make a desperate effort
+to retaliate the same kind of destruction, to a double
+degree, on the towns of their enemy. Retaliation, or
+&ldquo;rendering evil for evil,&rdquo; is not only allowed by Mahometans
+and pagans, but is an open and avowed principle
+in the doctrine of self-defense among professed Christian
+nations; not only is it sanctioned by the laity, but
+too often by the priests who minister in the name of
+Jesus Christ.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Both of the contending parties generally seize on each
+other&rsquo;s possessions wherever they can get hold of them,
+whether on the seas or on the land. The barbarous
+spoliations on each other stir up the passions of the
+great mass of their inhabitants, until they esteem it a
+virtue to view each other as natural and perpetual
+enemies, and then their rulers can prosecute the war
+with what they call vigor.</p>
+
+<p>Can the wound now be so easily healed as it could
+have been before it became thus lacerated and inflamed?
+Facts speak to the contrary, and nations seldom attempt
+negotiations for peace under such circumstances. They
+generally prosecute the war with all their power until
+one party or the other is overcome, or until both have exhausted
+their strength, and then they may mutually agree
+to a temporary peace to gain a little respite, when perhaps
+the original matter of dispute has become comparatively
+so trifling that it is almost left out of the account.</p>
+
+<p>With a small spirit of forbearance and accommodation
+how easily might the difficulties have been settled
+before such an immense loss of blood and treasure!</p>
+
+<p>If war does actually increase, instead of diminishing,
+difficulties, then it must be very unwise to engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>III. WAR IS UNWISE, BECAUSE IT DESTROYS
+PROPERTY</h4>
+
+<p>Property is what a great proportion of mankind are
+struggling to obtain, and many at the hazard of their
+lives. Though in some instances they may misuse it,
+yet it is the gift of God, and when made subservient to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+more important things, it may be a blessing to individuals
+and communities. It has in it, therefore, a
+real value, and ought not to be wantonly destroyed
+while it may be used as an instrument for benefiting
+mankind.</p>
+
+<p>It is a notorious fact that war does make a great
+destruction of property. Thousands of individuals on
+sea and on land lose their all, for the acquisition of
+which they may have spent the prime of their lives.
+Ships on the high seas are taken, often burnt or
+scuttled, and valuable cargoes sent to the bottom of the
+deep, some possibly laden with the necessaries of life
+and bound to ports where the innocent inhabitants
+were in a state of famine. Whole countries are laid
+waste by only the passing of an immense army: houses
+are defaced, furniture broken to pieces, the stores of
+families eaten up, cornfields trodden down, fences torn
+away and used for fuel, and everything swept in its
+train as with the besom of destruction more terrible to
+the inhabitants than the storms of heaven when sent
+in judgment. Beautiful towns are often literally torn
+to pieces with shot and shells. Venerable cities, the
+labor and pride of ages, are buried in ashes amid devouring
+flames, while in melancholy grandeur the fire and
+smoke rise to heaven and seem to cry for vengeance
+on the destroyers.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding an avaricious individual or nation
+may occasionally in war acquire by plunder from their
+brethren a little wealth, yet they usually lose on the
+whole more than they gain. On the general scale the
+loss is incalculable. It is not my object to examine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+the subject in relation to any particular nation or
+war, but upon the general scale in application to all
+warlike nations and all wars under the light of the
+gospel.</p>
+
+<p>If war does destroy property, reduce individuals to
+beggary, and impoverish nations, then it is unwise to
+engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IV. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT IS DANGEROUS TO
+THE LIBERTIES OF MEN</h4>
+
+<p>Liberty is the gift of God, and ought to be dear to
+every man; not, however, that licentious liberty which
+is not in subordination to his commands. Men are not
+independent of God. He is their creator, preserver, and
+benefactor. In his hand their breath is, and he has a
+right to do what he will with his own; and the Judge
+of all the earth will do right. As man is not the
+creator and proprietor of man, he has no right to
+infringe on his liberty or life without his express divine
+command; and then he acts only as the executor of God.
+Man, therefore, bears a very different relation to God
+from what he does to his fellow-man.</p>
+
+<p>The whole system of war is tyrannical and subversive
+of the fundamental principles of liberty. It often brings
+the great mass of community under the severe bondage
+of military despotism, so that their lives and fortunes
+are at the sport of a tyrant. Where martial law is proclaimed,
+liberty is cast down, and despotism raises her
+horrid ensign in its place and fills the dungeons and
+scaffolds with her victims.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Soldiers in actual service are reduced to the most
+abject slavery, not able to command their time for a
+moment, and are constantly driven about like beasts
+by petty tyrants. In them is exhibited the ridiculous
+absurdity of men rushing into bondage and destruction
+to preserve or acquire their liberty and save their lives.</p>
+
+<p>When the inhabitants of a country are cruelly
+oppressed by a despotic government, and they rise in
+mass to throw off the yoke, they are as often as otherwise
+crushed beneath the weight of the power under
+which they groaned, and then their sufferings are
+greatly increased; and if they gain their object after
+a long and sanguinary struggle, they actually suffer
+more on the whole than they would have suffered had
+they remained in peace. It is generally the providence
+of God, too, to make a people who have thrown off the
+yoke of their oppressor smart more severely under the
+government of their own choice than they did under
+the government which they destroyed. This fact ought
+well to be considered by every one of a revolutionary
+spirit.</p>
+
+<p>War actually generates a spirit of anarchy and rebellion
+which is destructive to liberty. When the inhabitants
+of a country are engaged in the peaceable employments
+of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce,
+anarchy and rebellion seldom happen. When these useful
+employments flourish, abundance flows in on every
+side, gentleness and humanity cast a smile over the
+land, and pleasure beams in almost every countenance.
+To turn the attention of a nation from these honest
+employments to <i>that of war</i> is an evil of unspeakable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+magnitude. The great object in times of war is to
+rouse up what is styled the spirit of the country,&mdash;which,
+in fact, is nothing but inflaming the most destructive
+passions against its own peace and safety.
+If you infuse into a nation the spirit of war for the
+sake of fighting a foreign enemy, you do that which is
+often most dangerous to its own liberties; for if you
+make peace with the common enemy, you do not
+destroy the spirit of war among your own inhabitants;
+pride, discontent, and revenge will generally agitate the
+whole body, so that anarchy and confusion will fill the
+land, and nothing but a despotic power can restrain it;
+and often absolute despotism is too feeble to withstand
+it, and the only remedy is again to seek a common
+enemy. Nations have sometimes waged war against
+other nations because there was such a spirit of war
+among their own inhabitants that they could not be
+restrained from fighting, and if they had not a common
+foe they would fight one another. So when a nation
+once unsheathes the sword, it cannot easily return the
+sword again to the scabbard, but must keep it crimsoned
+with the blood of man until &ldquo;they who take the sword
+shall perish with the sword,&rdquo; agreeably to the denunciation
+of Heaven.</p>
+
+<p>To inflame a mild republic with the <i>spirit of war</i> is
+putting all its liberties to the utmost hazard, and is an
+evil that few appear to understand or appreciate. No
+person can calculate the greatness of the evil to transform
+the citizens of a peaceful, industrious republic
+into a band of furious soldiers; and yet the unhappy
+policy of nations is to cultivate a martial spirit that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+they may appear grand, powerful, and terrific, when in
+fact they are kindling flames that will eventually burn
+them up root and branch.</p>
+
+<p>In confirmation of what has been said, if we examine
+the history of nations we shall find that they have generally
+lost their liberties in consequence of the spirit
+and practice of war. Thus have republics who have
+boasted of their freedom lost their liberty one after
+another, and that this has resulted from the very
+nature of war and its inseparable evils is evident from
+the fact that so violent and deadly is this current of
+ruin, republics have generally sunk down to the lowest
+abyss of tyranny and despotism, or have been annihilated
+and their inhabitants scattered to the four winds
+of heaven. Indeed, what nation that has become extinct
+did not first lose its liberty by war, and then hasten to
+its end under the dominion of those passions which war
+inflames?</p>
+
+<p>Do nations ever enjoy so much liberty as when
+most free from the spirit of war? Are their liberties
+ever so little endangered as when this spirit is allayed
+and all its foreign excitements removed? Do not nations
+that have partially lost their civil liberties gradually
+regain them in proportion as they continue long without
+war? Is it not a common sentiment that the liberties
+of a people are in danger when war engrosses their
+attention? On the whole, is it not undeniable that
+peace is favorable to liberty, and that war is its enemy
+and its ruin? If so, what can be more unwise, what
+more opposite to every dictate of sound wisdom and
+policy, than the spirit and practice of war?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>V. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DIMINISHES THE
+HAPPINESS OF MANKIND</h4>
+
+<p>Happiness is the professed object which most men
+are striving to obtain. Alas! few, comparatively, seek
+it where it is alone to be found. But that happiness
+which flows from the benevolent spirit of the gospel is
+to be prized far above rubies; it is a treasure infinitely
+surpassing anything that can be found merely in riches,
+honors, and pleasures.</p>
+
+<p>But war always diminishes the aggregate of happiness
+in the world. When nations wage war upon each
+other, all classes of their inhabitants are more or less
+oppressed. They are subjected to various privations;
+prosperity declines; external sources of happiness are
+mostly dried up; anxiety for friends, loss of relations,
+loss of property, the fear of pillage, severe services,
+great privations, and the dread of conquest keep them
+constantly distressed. They are like the troubled sea
+that cannot rest, whose waters cast up mire and dirt.</p>
+
+<p>Those actually engaged in war generally suffer privations
+and hardships of the severest kind. Even the sage
+counselors who declare wars are often in so great anxiety
+and pain as to the result of their enterprises as to be
+unable quietly to refresh themselves with food or sleep.</p>
+
+<p>All the rejoicings occasioned by military success are
+fully counterbalanced by the pain and mortification of
+the vanquished; and, in short, all the interest and
+happiness resulting from war to individuals and nations
+are dearly bought, and are at the expense of other
+individuals and nations.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is because war has no tendency to increase, but
+does in fact greatly diminish, happiness that it is so
+universally regarded and lamented as the greatest evil
+that visits our world. Hence fasting has generally been
+practiced by warlike Christian nations to deplore the
+calamity, to humble themselves before God, and to
+supplicate his mercy in turning away the judgment.</p>
+
+<p>Though fasting and deep humility before God is
+highly suitable for sinners, with a hearty turning away
+from their sins and humble supplication for God&rsquo;s mercy
+through the mediation of Christ, yet those fasts of
+nations who have voluntarily engaged in war and are
+determined to prosecute it until their lusts and passions
+are gratified do not appear to be such fasts as God
+requires.</p>
+
+<p>Does it not appear absurd for nations voluntarily to
+engage in war, and then to proclaim a fast to humble
+themselves before God for its evils, while they have no
+desire to turn away from them, but, on the contrary,
+make it an express object to seek the divine aid in
+assisting them successfully to perpetuate it?</p>
+
+<p>We often see contending nations, all of whom cannot
+be right, on any principle, proclaiming fasts, and chanting
+forth their solemn <i>Te Deums</i> as each may occasionally
+be victorious. Though such clashing hymns cannot
+mingle in the golden censer, yet few Christians seem to
+question the propriety of quarreling and fighting nations
+each in their turn supplicating aid in their unhallowed
+undertakings and returning thanks in case of success.
+Doubtless many would consider it as solemn mockery
+to see two duelists before their meeting supplicating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+God&rsquo;s blessing and protection in the hour of conflict,
+and then to see the victor returning thanks for his
+success in shedding the blood of his brother; and yet,
+when nations carry on the business by wholesale (if I
+may be allowed the expression) it is considered a very
+pious employment. The Lord has said, &ldquo;And when
+ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine eyes from
+you: yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear;
+your hands are full of blood.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Penitent Christians may weep and mourn with propriety
+for their own sins and the sins of the nations,
+with a hearty desire not only to forsake their own iniquities,
+but that the nations may be brought to confess
+and forsake their sins and turn from them to the living
+God. It is true that war is a judgment in God&rsquo;s providence.
+It is also a sin of the highest magnitude and
+ought to be repented of. It is a crime so provoking to
+Heaven that other calamities generally attend it. The
+famine, fire, and pestilence often attend its horrors and
+spread distress through a land. War with its attending
+evils unquestionably diminishes the aggregate of happiness
+in the world, and is therefore unwise.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VI. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DOES NOT MEND,
+BUT INJURES, THE MORALS OF SOCIETY</h4>
+
+<p>The strength, defense, and glory of a country consists
+primarily in the good moral character of its inhabitants.
+The virtuous and the good are the salt that
+preserve it from ruin. Says the Rev. Dr. Miller in his
+sermon on the death of Dr. Rogers (pages 366 and 388<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+of the Memoirs), &ldquo;It is manifest from the whole tenor
+of his word that God is slow to inflict heavy judgments
+upon a nation in which many of his people dwell; that
+he often spares it, spreads over it the protection of his
+providence, and finally delivers it for their sake; and, of
+course, that the presence of his beloved children, speaking
+after the manner of men, is a better defense than
+chariots and horsemen, a better defense than all the
+plans of <i>mere</i> politicians, than all the skill, courage, and
+activity of <i>mere</i> warriors.&rdquo; Again, &ldquo;I have no doubt
+that it is as great and precious a truth at this day as
+it ever was, that a praying people are, under God, the
+greatest security of a nation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When the inhabitants of a country become generally
+profane and dissolute in their manners, slaves to
+dissipation and vice, it is usually God&rsquo;s providence soon
+to visit them in his wrath and let loose the instruments
+of his destroying vengeance; how important, therefore,
+in a temporal point of view, is the preservation of good
+morals to a nation. But no event has so powerful a
+tendency to destroy the morals of a people as that of
+actual war. It draws the attention of the inhabitants
+from useful employments; it generates curiosity, dissipation,
+and idleness, and awakes all the furious passions
+of men.</p>
+
+<p>War occasions a great profanation of the Sabbath.
+Under God&rsquo;s providence the Sabbath has always been
+a great barrier against vice, and the observance of it
+is indispensable to good morals.</p>
+
+<p>In time of war the Sabbath among soldiers is often
+a day of parade. In the streets of the best-regulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+cities may be seen soldiers marching, flags flying, drums
+and fifes playing, and a rabble of children following in
+the train. Now all this is not only calculated to dissipate
+all reverential respect for the solemnities of the
+day among the soldiers, but is calculated to destroy the
+respect and observance of the day with which the children
+and youth have been inspired. Add to this, flags
+are suspended from the windows of taverns and grogshops
+to entice in the youth by the intoxicating cup.
+In the camp the Sabbath is almost forgotten and rendered
+a common day. Armies from professing Christian
+nations as often begin offensive operations on the
+Sabbath as on any other day; and professing Christians
+not only tolerate all this but approve of it as a work
+of necessity and mercy.</p>
+
+<p>War occasions dishonesty. In countries where armies
+are raised by voluntary enlistment all kinds of deception
+and art are practiced by recruiting officers, and
+connived at by their governments, to induce the heedless
+youth to enlist. The honor and glory of the employment
+is held up to view in false colors; the importance
+of their bounty and wages are magnified; the lightness
+of the duty and opportunities for amusements and
+recreation are held out; and probably one half have
+the assurances of being noncommissioned officers, with
+a flattering prospect of a speedy advancement; and
+prospects of plunder are also held out to their cupidity.
+These deceptive motives are daily urged under the stimulating
+power of ardent spirits and the fascinating charms
+of martial music and military finery. Many a young man
+who has entered the rendezvous from curiosity or for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+the sake of a dram, without the least idea of joining the
+army, has been entrapped into intoxication, and his
+hand then grasped the pen to seal his fate.</p>
+
+<p>Recruits after joining the army find from experience
+that most of the allurements held out to them to enlist
+were but a deception, and from lust and want they often
+become petty thieves and plunderers to repay them for
+their great privations, fatigues, and sufferings.</p>
+
+<p>War occasions drunkenness,&mdash;one of the greatest
+evils and most destructive to morality, as a multitude
+of other vices necessarily follow in its train. Many a
+young man has entered the military ranks <i>temperate</i>, and
+has returned from them a <i>sot</i>. All the enticements of
+liquor are exhibited in the most inviting forms to youth
+in the streets by the recruiting officer, to tempt them
+to enlist; and while those who have enrolled themselves
+remain at the rendezvous, they are probably
+every day intoxicated with the inebriating poison, soul
+and body, and soon the habit becomes confirmed. While
+in actual service their fatigues are so great that they
+greedily lay hold on the destroying liquor wherever they
+can find it to exhilarate their languid frames, even if
+they had not before acquired an insatiable thirst; and
+soon this detestable evil will become so enchanting that
+they will not only barter away their wages for it but
+their necessary clothing. If they survive the campaign
+and return to their homes, they are often the visitors
+of grogshops and taverns, and by their marvelous
+stories attract the populace around them, who must
+join them in circulating the cup; and thus they spread
+this destroying evil all around.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>War occasions profaneness. Profaneness is an abomination
+in the sight of God: &ldquo;For the Lord will not hold
+him guiltless who taketh his name in vain.&rdquo; Profaneness
+draws down the judgments of heaven, &ldquo;for because
+of swearing the land mourneth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>That soldiers are generally considered more profane
+than other men is evident, because it has become a
+proverb that &ldquo;such a person is as profane as a soldier,
+or a man-of-war&rsquo;s man.&rdquo; Young men who have been
+taught to revere the name of the God of their fathers
+may shudder at the awful profanations that fill their
+ears when they first enter an army; but if destitute of
+grace in the heart, the sound will soon cease to offend,
+and they will eagerly inhale the blasphemous breath
+and become champions in impiety. For want of habit
+they may not swear with so easy a grace as the older
+soldiers; they will for that reason make great exertions
+and invent new oaths, which will stimulate their
+fellows again to exceed in daring impiety. Seldom
+does a soldier return from the camp without the foul
+mouth of profanity. Astonishing to think that those
+who are most exposed to death should be most daring
+in wickedness!</p>
+
+<p>War occasions gambling. A great proportion of the
+amusements of the camp are petty plays at chance, and
+the stake usually a drink of grog. The play is fascinating.
+Multitudes of soldiers become established gamblers
+to the extent of their ability, and often, if they
+return to society, spread the evil among their neighbors.</p>
+
+<p>War begets a spirit of quarreling, boxing, and dueling;
+and no wonder that it should, for the whole business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+of war is nothing else but quarreling and fighting.
+The soldier&rsquo;s ambition is to be a bully, a hero, and to
+be careless of his own life and the lives of others. He
+is therefore impatient in contradiction, receives an
+insult where none was intended, and is ready to redress
+the supposed injury with the valor of his own arms;
+for it will not do for soldiers to shrink from the contest
+and be cowards.</p>
+
+<p>War destroys the habits of industry and produces
+idleness. Industry is necessary to good morals as well as
+to the wealth and happiness of a country, and every wise
+government will take all laudable means to encourage
+it; but a large proportion of common soldiers who may
+return from the armies have lost the relish and habits
+of manual labor and are often found loitering about in
+public places, and if they engage in any kinds of labor,
+it is with a heavy hand and generally to little purpose.
+They therefore make bad husbands, unhappy neighbors,
+and are worse than a dead weight in society.
+Their children are badly educated and provided for, and
+trained up to demoralizing habits, which are handed
+down from generation to generation.</p>
+
+<p>These immoralities, and many more that might be
+named, are not confined to soldiers in time of war, but
+they are diffused more or less through the whole mass
+of community; and war produces a general corruption
+in a nation, and is therefore unwise, even in a temporal
+point of view. But when we consider the natural effects
+of these immoralities on the souls of men, all temporal
+advantages are in comparison annihilated. In this
+school of vice millions are ripening for eternal woe.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+The destroying influence will spread and diffuse itself
+through the whole mass of society unless the spirit of
+the Lord lifts up a standard against it.</p>
+
+<p>The state of morals, so much depressed by the American
+Revolution, was only raised by the blessed effusions
+of God&rsquo;s holy spirit.</p>
+
+<p>If war does actually demoralize a people, then no
+wise person can consistently engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VII. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT IS HAZARDING ETERNAL
+THINGS FOR ONLY THE CHANCE OF
+DEFENDING TEMPORAL THINGS</h4>
+
+<p>Says our blessed Saviour: &ldquo;For what is a man profited,
+if he should gain the whole world, and lose his
+own soul?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The loss of a soul infinitely exceeds all finite calculations.
+It is not only deprived forever and ever of all
+good but is plunged into misery inexpressible and
+everlasting. All temporal things dwindle to nothing
+when placed in comparison with eternal realities. The
+rights, liberties, and wealth of nations are of little value
+compared with one immortal soul. But astonishing to
+think that millions and millions have been put at everlasting
+hazard only for the chance of defending temporal
+things!</p>
+
+<p>The habits and manners of a soldier&rsquo;s life are calculated,
+as we have already seen, to demoralize them, to
+obliterate all early serious impressions, to introduce and
+confirm them in the most daring wickedness and fit
+them for everlasting destruction. And notwithstanding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+God may have occasionally, to display his sovereign
+power, snatched some soldiers from the ranks of rebellion
+and made them the heirs of his grace, yet no sober
+Christian will say that the army is a likely place to
+promote their salvation; but, on the contrary, must
+acknowledge that it is a dangerous place for the souls
+of men. It may be assumed as an undeniable fact that
+the great mass of soldiers are notoriously depraved and
+wicked. With but few exceptions their impiety grows
+more daring the longer they practice war; and when it
+is considered that thousands and thousands of such are
+hurried by war prematurely into eternity, with all their
+sins unpardoned, what an amazing sacrifice appears
+only for some supposed temporal good. But when it is
+remembered that this infinite sacrifice is made merely
+for the chance of obtaining some temporal advantage,
+the folly of war appears in more glaring colors, as the
+battle is not always to the strong. Those who are contending
+for their rights, and are least in the wrong, are
+about as often unsuccessful as otherwise, and then they
+very much increase their evils in a temporal point of
+view. A wise man would not engage in a lawsuit to
+recover a cent, admitting that it was his just due, if the
+trial put to the hazard his whole estate. But this bears
+no comparison with <i>one soul</i> in competition with all
+temporal things; and yet men, professing to be <i>wise</i>,
+not only put one soul at hazard but millions, not for
+the <i>chance</i> of defending all temporal good, but often for
+a mere bubble, the hollow sound of honor; and many
+of those who are watching for souls, and must give an
+account, instead of sounding the alarm, approve of it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>All who engage in war, either in the field or otherwise,
+practically regard <i>time</i> more than eternity, and <i>temporal</i>
+more than <i>eternal</i> things.</p>
+
+<p>If souls are of more value than temporal things, and
+eternity of more consequence than time, it must be
+<i>unwise</i> to engage in a war and put souls to immediate
+hazard of everlasting ruin, and totally wrong for
+Christians to engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VIII. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DOES NOT ANSWER
+THE PROFESSED END FOR WHICH IT IS
+INTENDED</h4>
+
+<p>The professed object of war generally is to preserve
+liberty and produce a lasting peace; but war never did
+and never will preserve liberty and produce a lasting
+peace, for it is a divine decree that all nations who take
+the sword shall perish with the sword. War is no more
+adapted to preserve liberty and produce a lasting peace
+than midnight darkness is to produce noonday light.</p>
+
+<p>The principles of war and the principles of the gospel
+are as unlike as heaven and hell. The principles of war
+are terror and force, but the principles of the gospel
+are mildness and persuasion. Overcome a man by the
+former and you subdue only his natural power, but not
+his spirit; overcome a man by the latter, and you conquer
+his spirit and render his natural power harmless.
+Evil can never be subdued by evil. It is returning
+good for evil that overcomes evil effectually. It is,
+therefore, alone the spirit of the gospel that can preserve
+liberty and produce a lasting peace. Wars can<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+never cease until the principles and spirit of war are
+abolished.</p>
+
+<p>Mankind have been making the experiment with war
+for ages to secure liberty and a lasting peace; or, rather,
+they have ostensibly held out these objects as a cover
+to their lusts and passions. And what has been the
+result? Generally the loss of liberty, the overturning
+of empires, the destruction of human happiness, and
+the drenching of the earth with the blood of man.</p>
+
+<p>In most other pursuits mankind generally gain wisdom
+by experience; but the experiment of war has not
+been undertaken to acquire wisdom. It has, in fact,
+been undertaken and perpetuated for ages to gratify
+the corrupt desires of men. The worst of men have
+delighted in the honors of military fame and it is what
+they have a strong propensity for; and how can a
+Christian take pleasure in that employment which is
+the highest ambition of ungodly men? The things that
+are highly esteemed among men are an abomination in
+the sight of God. Is it not, therefore, important that
+every one naming the name of Christ should bear open
+testimony against the spirit and practice of war and
+exhibit the spirit and temper of the gospel before the
+world that lieth in wickedness, and let their lights
+shine before men?</p>
+
+<p>But what can the men of the world think of such
+Christians as are daily praying that wars may cease to
+the ends of the earth, while they have done nothing
+and are doing nothing to counteract its destructive tendency?
+Alas! too many are doing much by their lives
+and conversation to support its spirit and principles.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+Can unbelievers rationally suppose such prayers to
+be sincere? Will they not rather conclude that they
+are perfect mockery? What would be thought of a
+man daily praying that the means used for his sick
+child might be blessed for his recovery, when he was
+constantly administering to him known poison? With
+the same propriety do those Christians pray that war
+may come to a final end, while they are supporting its
+vital principles.</p>
+
+<p>It is contrary to fact that war is calculated to preserve
+liberty and secure a lasting peace; for it has done
+little else but destroy liberty and peace and make the
+earth groan under the weight of its terror and distress.</p>
+
+<p>It is contrary to the word of God that war is calculated
+to promote peace on earth and good will toward
+men. The law that is to produce this happy effect will
+not be emitted from the council of war or the smoke
+of a camp; but the law shall go forth out of Zion, and
+the Lord shall rebuke the strong nations and they shall
+beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into
+pruning hooks; then nations shall no more lift up
+sword against nation, neither shall they learn the art
+of war any more; then shall the earth be filled with
+the abundance of peace and there shall be nothing to
+hurt or destroy. It is reserved alone for the triumph
+of the gospel to produce peace on earth and good will
+to men.</p>
+
+<p>If war does actually provoke insult and mischief; if
+it increases difficulties, destroys property and liberty;
+if it diminishes happiness, injures the morals of society,
+hazards eternal for only the chance of defending<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+temporal things, and, finally, does not answer the end
+for which it was intended, then it must be <i>very unwise</i>
+to engage in it, and it must be wrong for Christians to
+do anything to promote it, and right to do all in their
+power to prevent it.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3>WAR IS CRIMINAL</h3>
+
+
+<p>I am now to show that war, when judged of on the
+principles of the gospel, is highly criminal.</p>
+
+
+<h4>I. GOING TO WAR IS NOT KEEPING FROM THE
+APPEARANCE OF EVIL, BUT IS RUNNING
+INTO TEMPTATION</h4>
+
+<p>... I would have it understood that I consider
+every act of mankind which is palpably contrary to the
+spirit and precepts of the gospel <i>criminal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is an express precept of the gospel to abstain from all
+appearance of evil. &ldquo;Watch and pray that ye enter not
+into temptation&rdquo; is also an express command of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>A person desiring not only to abstain from evil, but
+from the very appearance of it, will suffer wrong rather
+than hazard that conduct which may involve doing
+wrong. He will be so guarded that if he errs at all he
+will be likely to give up his right when he might retain
+it without injuring others.</p>
+
+<p>No person, it is believed, will attempt to maintain
+that there is no appearance of evil in carnal warfare, or
+that it is not a scene of great temptation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>One great object of the gospel is to produce good
+morals, to subdue the irascible passions of men and
+bring them into sweet subjection to the gospel of
+peace.</p>
+
+<p>But war cannot be prosecuted without rousing the
+corrupt passions of mankind. In fact, it is altogether
+the effect of lust and passion. In times of war almost
+every measure is taken for the express purpose of
+inflaming the passions of men, because they are the
+vital springs of war, and it would not exist without
+them. Those who are engaged in war, both in the
+council and in the field, have a feverish passion, which
+varies as circumstances may happen to change. Those
+who are actually engaged in the heat of battle are
+usually intoxicated with rage. Should this be denied
+by any one, I would appeal to the general approbation
+bestowed on the artist who displays most skill in painting
+scenes of this kind. He who can represent the
+muscular powers most strongly exerted, the passions
+most inflamed, and the visage most distorted with
+rage, will gain the highest applause. The truth of
+the assertion is, therefore, generally admitted. Some
+men, perhaps, may be so much under the influence of
+pride as to have the appearance of stoical indifference
+when their antagonists are at some distance, but
+let them meet sword in hand and the scene is at once
+changed.</p>
+
+<p>The temptations for those who constitute, or those
+who encourage and support, armies to commit or to
+connive at immorality are too various and too multiplied
+to be distinctly mentioned.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Who can deny that war is altogether a business of
+strife? But, says an inspired apostle, &ldquo;where envying
+and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Now, if war is a scene of confusion and strife and
+every evil work, it is impossible for any one to engage
+in it and avoid the appearance of evil or be out of the
+way of temptation; those who are armed with deathly
+weapons and thirsting for the blood of their fellow-mortals
+surely cannot be said to exhibit no appearance
+of evil. But if engaging in wars is putting on the
+appearance of evil and running into temptation, then it
+is highly criminal to engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT NATURALLY INFLAMES
+THE PRIDE OF MAN</h4>
+
+<p>One of the abominable things which proceed out of
+the corrupt heart of man, as represented by our Saviour,
+is pride. &ldquo;God resisteth the proud, but giveth grace
+to the humble.&rdquo; &ldquo;The Lord hates a proud look.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Every one that is proud in heart is an abomination to
+the Lord.&rdquo; That pride is criminal and that humility is
+commendable will doubtless be admitted by all who
+believe the Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>Pride, however, is one of the chief sources of war.
+It is pride that makes men glory in their strength and
+prowess; it is pride that hinders them from confessing
+their faults and repairing the injury done to others.</p>
+
+<p>Although pride is commonly condemned in the
+abstract, yet it is generally commended in soldiers and
+fanned by every species of art and adulation, not only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+by men of the world but too often by those who bear
+the Christian name. And why is it necessary to inflame
+the pride of soldiers? Because it is well understood
+that soldiers without pride are not fit for their business.</p>
+
+<p>If war is a Christian duty, why should not the example
+and precepts of Christ, instead of the example of
+the heroes of this world, be exhibited to those who
+fight to stimulate them? Is not Christ as worthy of
+imitation as the Cæsars and Alexanders of this world?
+He was a triumphant conqueror; he vanquished death
+and hell, and purchased eternal redemption for his
+people; but he conquered by resignation and triumphed
+by his death. Here is an example worthy of the highest
+emulation. And why not animate soldiers by it? Only
+because it would unnerve their arms for war and render
+them harmless to their foes.</p>
+
+<p>It is so common to compliment the pride of soldiers
+that, instead of considering it that abominable thing
+which the Lord hates, they consider it a virtue. We
+frequently hear &ldquo;gentlemen of the sword,&rdquo; as they are
+styled, in reply to the flattery bestowed upon them,
+frankly declare that it is their highest ambition to obtain
+the praise of their fellow-citizens; and, of course, they
+confess that they are seeking the praise of men more
+than the praise of God. These gentlemen, however,
+are far less criminal than those who lavish flattery on
+them; for doubtless most of them are sincere and think
+themselves in the way of their duty, while their profession
+often leads them, necessarily, from the means
+of knowing correctly what is duty. While professing
+Christians have been taught from their cradles that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+profession of arms is not merely an allowable but a
+noble employment, it is easy for them to slide into the
+current and go with the multitude to celebrate victories
+and to eulogize heroes, without once reflecting whether
+they are imitating their Lord and Master. But is it not
+time for Christians to examine and ascertain if war is
+tolerated in the gospel of peace before they join in festivities
+to celebrate its bloody feats? How would a pagan
+be astonished if he had been taught the meek, lowly,
+and forgiving spirit and principles of the gospel, without
+knowing the practice of Christians, to see a host of men,
+professing to be influenced by these blessed principles,
+marshaled in all the pomp of military parade, threatening
+destruction to their fellow-mortals! Would he not conclude
+that either he or they had mistaken the genius of
+the gospel, or that they believed it to be but a fable?</p>
+
+<p>It is a notorious fact, which requires no confirmation,
+that military men, decorated with finery and clad in the
+glitter of arms, instead of being meek and lowly in their
+temper and deportment, are generally flushed with pride
+and haughtiness; and, indeed, what purpose do their
+decorations and pageantry answer but that of swelling
+their vanity? Their employment is not soft and delicate.
+Other men who follow rough employments wear rough
+clothing; but the soldier&rsquo;s occupation is not less rough
+than the butcher&rsquo;s, though, in the world&rsquo;s opinion, it is
+more honorable to kill men than to kill cattle.</p>
+
+<p>But if war has a natural tendency to inflame, and does
+inflame and increase the pride of men, it is criminal;
+it does that which the Lord hates, and it must be highly
+criminal to engage in it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>III. WAR NECESSARILY INFRINGES ON THE CONSCIENCES
+OF MEN, AND THEREFORE IS
+CRIMINAL</h4>
+
+<p>Liberty of conscience is a sacred right delegated to
+man by his Creator, who has given no authority to man
+to infringe in the least on the conscience of his fellow-man.
+Though a man, by following the dictates of his
+conscience, may be injured by men, yet they have no
+authority to deprive him of the rights of conscience.
+To control the conscience is alone the prerogative of
+God. That man has no right to violate the conscience
+of his fellow-man is a truth which few, under the light
+of the gospel, since the days of ignorance and superstition,
+have ventured to call in question.</p>
+
+<p>But military governments, from their very nature,
+necessarily infringe on the consciences of men. Though
+the word of God requires implicit obedience to rulers
+in all things not contrary to the Scriptures, it utterly
+forbids compliance with such commands as are inconsistent
+with the gospel. We must obey God rather than
+man, and fear God as well as honor the king. But governments,
+whether monarchial or republican, make laws
+as they please, and compel obedience at the point of
+the sword. They declare wars, and call upon all their
+subjects to support them.</p>
+
+<p>Offensive war, by all professing Christians, is considered
+a violation of the laws of Heaven; but offensive
+war is openly prosecuted by professing Christians
+under the specious name of self-defense. France invaded
+Spain, Germany, and Russia; England invaded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+Holland and Denmark; and the United States invaded
+Canada, under the pretense of defensive war. The fact
+is, however, that no man can, on gospel principles, draw
+a line of distinction between offensive and defensive
+war so as to make the former a crime and the latter
+a duty, simply because the gospel has made no such
+distinction. But while many Christians profess to
+make the distinction, and to consider offensive war
+criminal, they ought to have the liberty to judge, when
+war is waged, whether it is offensive or defensive,
+and to give or withhold their aid accordingly; otherwise
+they are not permitted the free exercise of their
+consciences.</p>
+
+<p>But suppose this principle adopted by governments.
+Could they prosecute war while they left every individual
+in the free exercise of his conscience to judge
+whether such war was offensive or defensive and to
+regulate his conduct accordingly? Would it be possible
+for governments to carry on war if they depended for
+support on the uncertain opinion of every individual?
+No; such a procedure would extinguish the vital strength
+of war and lay the sword in the dust. The fact is well
+known, and monarchs declare war and force their subjects
+to support it. The majority in republican governments
+declare war and demand and enforce obedience
+from the minority.</p>
+
+<p>Though the constitutions of governments may, in
+the most solemn manner, guarantee to citizens the free
+exercise of their consciences, yet governments find it
+necessary practically to make an exception in relation
+to war, and a man may plead conscientious motives in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+vain to free himself from contributing to the support
+of war.</p>
+
+<p>I think it proper here to notice what has appeared
+to me a gross absurdity among some Christians in this
+land. They have openly declared that in their opinion
+the late war was offensive; that it was contrary to the
+laws of God, and that they were opposed to it; but
+though they wished not to support it because it was
+criminal, yet they said, if they were called on in a constitutional
+way, they would support it. Thus did they
+publicly declare that they would, under certain circumstances,
+obey man rather than God.</p>
+
+<p>But soldiers actually resign up their consciences
+to their commanders, without reserving any right to
+obey only in such cases as they may judge not contrary
+to the laws of God. Were they at liberty to judge
+whether commands were morally right or not, before
+they yielded obedience, it would be totally impracticable
+for nations to prosecute war. Ask a general if his soldiers
+have the privilege of determining whether his
+commands are right or not, and he will tell you it is
+their duty only to obey.</p>
+
+<p>Suppose that a general and his army are shut up in
+a city in their own country, and that provisions are
+failing; that an army is advancing for their relief, but
+cannot reach the place until all means of sustenance
+will be consumed; that the inhabitants cannot be let
+out without admitting the besiegers; and that in this
+extremity, to preserve his army for the defense of his
+country, the commander orders his men to slay the
+inhabitants, doing this evil that good may come. But<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+some conscientious soldiers refuse to obey a command
+to put the innocent to the sword for any supposed
+good. What must be the consequence? Their lives
+must answer for their disobedience. Nor is this contrary
+to the usages of war. And Christians satisfy
+their consciences upon the false principle that soldiers
+are not accountable for their conduct, be it ever so
+criminal, if they obey their commanders; all the blame
+must fall on the officers, which involves the absurdity
+of obeying man rather than God. Thus soldiers must
+be metamorphosed into something besides moral and
+accountable beings in order to prosecute war; and, in
+fact, they are treated generally not as moral agents
+but as a sort of machinery to execute the worst of
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The only plausible method of which I can conceive
+to avoid the above consequences requires that soldiers
+should not practically resign their consciences, but, when
+commands which are morally wrong are given, that they
+should refuse obedience and die as martyrs. But to
+enter an army with such views would be to belie the
+very oath of obedience which they take. Besides, who
+could execute the martyrs and be innocent? In this
+way all might become martyrs, and the army be
+annihilated.</p>
+
+<p>But if war does not admit the free exercise of
+conscience on Christian principles, then it is criminal
+for Christians to become soldiers, and the principles
+of war must be inconsistent with the principles of
+Christianity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>IV. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS OPPOSED TO
+PATIENT SUFFERING UNDER UNJUST AND
+CRUEL TREATMENT</h4>
+
+<p>That patient suffering under unjust and cruel treatment
+from mankind is everywhere in the gospel held
+up to view as the highest Christian virtue probably few
+professing Christians will deny.</p>
+
+<p>But notwithstanding this truth is generally admitted,
+there is very commonly introduced a carnal, sophistical
+mode of reasoning to limit, or explain away, this
+precious doctrine, which is peculiar to the gospel and
+which distinguishes it from all other kinds of morality
+and religion on earth. It has relation, it is said, only
+to matters of religion and religious persecution,&mdash;as if
+the gospel required mankind actually to regard a little
+wealth and a few temporal things more than all religious
+privileges and life itself; for, by this human maxim,
+men may fight to defend the former, but not the latter.
+And this maxim is built on the supposition that Christians
+are not bound strictly by gospel precepts in relation
+to temporal things, but only in relation to spiritual
+things. Hence it is said that the martyrs conducted
+nobly in refusing to fight for the privilege of worshiping
+the true God, but if Christians now refuse to fight
+to defend their money and their political freedom they
+act in a dastardly manner and violate the first principles
+of nature. Thus are temporal regarded more than
+spiritual and everlasting things.</p>
+
+<p>The precepts of the gospel, however, unequivocally
+forbid returning evil for evil, and enjoin patient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+sufferings under injurious and cruel treatment. A few
+instances shall be quoted: &ldquo;Now we exhort you, brethren,
+warn them that are unruly, comfort the feeble-minded,
+support the weak, be patient towards all men.
+See that none render evil for evil to any man; but ever
+follow that which is good, both among yourselves, and
+unto all men.&rdquo; &ldquo;If, when ye do well, and suffer for it,
+ye take it patiently, this is acceptable with God.&rdquo; The
+apostle James, in his solemn denunciation against oppressors,
+says, &ldquo;Ye have condemned and killed the just,
+and he doth not resist you&rdquo;; he then immediately
+exhorts the Christians, saying, &ldquo;Be patient therefore,
+brethren, unto the coming of the Lord.&rdquo; &ldquo;Finally, be
+ye all of one mind, having compassion one for another,
+love as brethren, be pitiful, be courteous, not rendering
+evil for evil, railing for railing; but contrariwise
+blessings, knowing that ye are thereunto called, that ye
+should inherit a blessing.&rdquo; &ldquo;For the eyes of the Lord
+are over the righteous, and his ears are open to their
+prayers; but the face of the Lord is against them that
+do evil. And who is he that will harm you, if ye be
+followers of that which is good?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>A patient, forbearing, suffering disposition is peculiar
+to the lamblike temper of the gospel, and is wholly
+opposed to the bold, contending, daring spirit of
+the world which leads mankind into quarreling and
+fighting.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally admitted, I believe, that it is the duty
+of Christians patiently to suffer the loss of all temporal
+things, and even life itself, rather than willfully violate
+any of God&rsquo;s commands. If, then, it is the duty of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>
+Christian patiently to suffer death rather than bear
+false witness against his neighbor, be he friend or foe,
+is it not equally his duty patiently to suffer death rather
+than kill his neighbor, whether friend or foe? Not
+merely taking away the life of our neighbor is forbidden,
+but every exercise of heart and hand which may have a
+natural tendency to injure him. But which is the greatest
+evil,&mdash;telling a lie, or killing a man? By human
+maxims you may do the latter to save your life, but not
+the former; though the former might injure no one
+but yourself, while the latter, besides injuring yourself,
+might send your neighbor to eternal destruction.</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of martyrdom is the true spirit of Christianity.
+Christ himself meekly and submissively died
+by the hands of his enemies, and instead of resistance,
+even by words, he prayed, &ldquo;Father, forgive them, for
+they know not what they do.&rdquo; Stephen, when expiring
+under a shower of stones from his infuriate murderers,
+prayed, &ldquo;Lord, lay not this sin to their charge.&rdquo; St.
+Paul testified that he was not only ready to be bound but
+to die for the Lord Jesus. The early martyrs resigned
+up their lives with patient submission as witnesses for
+Jesus,&mdash;and this at a time, when, Sir Henry Moncrief
+Wellwood in his Sermons, page 335, says, &ldquo;Tertullian
+has told us that Christians were sufficiently numerous
+to have defended themselves against the persecutions
+excited against them by the heathen, if their religion
+had permitted them to have recourse to the sword.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The spirit of martyrdom is the crowning test of
+Christianity. The martyr takes joyfully the spoiling
+of his goods, and counts not his life dear to himself.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But how opposite is the spirit of war to the spirit of
+martyrdom! The former is bold and vindictive, ready to
+defend property and honor at the hazard of life, ready
+to shed the blood of an enemy. The latter is meek and
+submissive, ready to resign property and life rather
+than injure even an enemy. Surely patient submission
+under cruel and unjust treatment is not only the highest
+Christian virtue but the most extreme contrast to
+the spirit of war.</p>
+
+<p>Now if it is a duty required by the gospel not to
+return evil for evil, but to overcome evil with good;
+to suffer injustice and to receive injury with a mild,
+patient, and forgiving disposition,&mdash;not only in words
+but in actions,&mdash;then all kinds of carnal contention
+and warfare are criminal and totally repugnant to
+the gospel, whether engaged in by individuals or by
+communities.</p>
+
+<p>Can it be right for Christians to attempt to defend
+with hostile weapons the things which they profess but
+little to regard? They profess to have their treasure
+not in this world but in heaven above, which is beyond
+the reach of earthly invaders, so that it is not in the
+power of earth or hell to take away their dearest
+interests. There may be a propriety in the men
+of the world exclaiming that their dearest rights are
+invaded when their property and political interests
+are infringed upon; but it is a shame for Christians
+to make this exclamation, while they profess to
+believe that their dearest interest is in the hand of
+Omnipotence, and that the Lord God of hosts is
+their defense.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Whoever, without divine command, dares to lift his
+hand with a deathly weapon against the life of his fellow-man
+for any supposed injury denies the Christian
+character in the very act, and relies on his own arm
+instead of relying on God for defense.</p>
+
+
+<h4>V. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS NOT DOING TO
+OTHERS AS WE SHOULD WISH THEM TO DO
+TO US</h4>
+
+<p>Says our blessed Saviour, &ldquo;All things whatsoever
+ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to
+them; for this is the law and the prophets.&rdquo; Now if
+we wish men to be kind and forbearing to us, we must
+be kind and forbearing to them; if we wish them to
+return love for hatred and good for evil, then we must
+return love for hatred and good for evil; if we wish not
+to be injured by men, then we must not injure them;
+if we wish not to be killed, then we must not kill.</p>
+
+<p>But what is the practical language of war? Does the
+man who is fighting his fellow-man and exerting all his
+strength to overcome him really wish to be overcome
+himself and to be treated as he is striving to treat his
+enemy? Can it be believed that England, in the late
+war, wished France to do to her what she endeavored
+to do to France; or that the latter really desired in
+return what she endeavored to inflict on England? If
+not, both violated this express precept of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>None can say, consistently with the principles of the
+gospel, that they wish to be killed by their enemies;
+therefore none can, consistently with those principles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+kill their enemies. But professing Christians do kill
+their enemies, and, notwithstanding all they may say
+to the contrary, their actions speak louder than their
+words. It is folly for a man to say he does not wish
+to do a thing while he is voluntarily exerting all his
+powers to accomplish it.</p>
+
+<p>But if the act of war does violate this express precept
+of Christ, then it must be exceedingly criminal to
+engage in it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VI. WAR IS INCONSISTENT WITH MERCY, AND IS
+THEREFORE CRIMINAL</h4>
+
+<p>Mercy is the grand characteristic of the gospel, and
+the practice of mercy is the indispensable duty of man.
+&ldquo;Be ye merciful, as your Father also is merciful&rdquo;; &ldquo;For
+he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good,
+and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;For he shall have judgment without mercy, that hath
+showed no mercy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mercy is that disposition which inclines us to relieve
+distress, to forgive injuries, and to promote the best
+good of those who are ill deserving. Mercy in us
+towards our enemies implies seeking and pursuing their
+best good for time and eternity. It is sinful to exercise
+any affection towards enemies short of that benevolence
+or mercy which involves the advancement of their best
+good, and Christians may not suspend this disposition,
+or do evil that any supposed good may come; for no law
+can be of higher authority than the express precept of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+Christ which requires this disposition towards enemies,
+and of course no other consideration can be paramount
+to this, for nations are as much bound as individuals.</p>
+
+<p>It is surely too grossly absurd for any to pretend
+that destroying the property and lives of enemies is
+treating them mercifully, or pursuing their best good
+for time and eternity. Nor can any so impose upon
+their imaginations as to think that injuring mankind
+is treating them with benevolence or mercy.</p>
+
+<p>But the direct object of war is injury to enemies;
+and the conduct of soldiers generally speaks a language
+not easily to be misunderstood. Though soldiers are
+not always as bad as they might be, their tender mercies
+are often but cruelty. When they storm a fortified
+place and do not put all the captives to the sword, they
+are complimented for exercising mercy, merely because
+they were not so cruel as they might have been. But
+shall a highway robber be called an honest man because
+he takes but half the money of him whom he robs? Is it
+an act of mercy, when a man encroaches on your property,
+to take away his life? Do nations exercise mercy
+towards each other when they enter into bloody wars
+in consequence of a dispute which shall govern a small
+portion of territory? or does a nation show mercy to
+another that has actually invaded its rights by falling
+upon the aggressor and doing all the injury in its
+power? This surely is not forgiving injuries. And
+when two contending armies come in contact and rush
+on each other with all the frightful engines of death
+and cut each other to pieces they do not appear to me
+as merciful, kind, and tender-hearted, forgiving one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+another in love, even as God for Christ&rsquo;s sake forgives
+his children. Yet this is the rule by which they should
+act and by which they will at last be judged.</p>
+
+<p>But the whole system of war is opposed to mercy, and
+is therefore altogether unlike the spirit of the gospel,
+and must be criminal.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VII. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS THE PRACTICE OF IT IS
+INCONSISTENT WITH FORGIVING TRESPASSES
+AS WE WISH TO BE FORGIVEN BY THE FINAL
+JUDGE</h4>
+
+<p>Our Saviour says: &ldquo;If ye forgive men their trespasses,
+your heavenly Father will also forgive you; but if ye
+forgive not men their trespasses, neither will your heavenly
+Father forgive your trespasses&rdquo;; &ldquo;Forgive, and ye
+shall be forgiven.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Here it is evident that the everlasting salvation of
+men depends on their exercising forgiveness towards
+their enemies; for if they forgive not, they will not be
+forgiven of God, and with what measure they mete to
+others, it will be measured to them again.</p>
+
+<p>To forgive is to pass by an offense, treating the
+offender not according to his desert, but as though he
+had done nothing amiss.</p>
+
+<p>But do the principles of war lead individuals or nations
+to pass by offenses and to treat offenders as if
+they were innocent? Do they not, on the contrary,
+require justice and exact the very last mite? Has it
+the aspect of forgiveness for us, when an enemy trespasses
+on our rights, to arm with weapons of slaughter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+and meet him on the field of battle? Who, while piercing
+the heart of his enemy with a sword, can consistently
+utter this prayer: &ldquo;Father, forgive my trespasses,
+as I have forgiven the trespasses of this my enemy&rdquo;?
+But this, in reference to this subject, is the only prayer
+the gospel warrants him to make. And professing
+Christian nations, while at war and bathing their swords
+in each other&rsquo;s blood to redress mutual trespasses, are
+daily in their public litanies offering this prayer; but
+is it not obvious that either their prayers are perfect
+mockery, or they desire not to be forgiven but to be
+punished to the extent of their deserts?</p>
+
+<p>If individuals or nations desire that God would forgive
+their trespasses, then they must not only pray for
+it, but actually exercise forgiveness towards those who
+trespass against them; and then they may beat their
+useless swords into plowshares and their spears into
+pruning hooks and learn war no more.</p>
+
+<p>But it must be very criminal to engage in war, or to
+tolerate it in any way, if it is inconsistent with the forgiveness
+of injuries as we hope to be forgiven, and in
+this respect violates the precepts of the gospel.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VIII. ENGAGING IN WAR IS NOT MANIFESTING
+LOVE TO ENEMIES OR RETURNING GOOD
+FOR EVIL</h4>
+
+<p>Returning good for evil and manifesting benevolence
+to enemies is, perhaps, the most elevated and noble part
+of Christian practice,&mdash;the inculcation of which in the
+gospel exalts Christianity far above any other form of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+religion and proves it to be not only divine but efficacious
+to subdue the turbulent and corrupt passions of
+men; and for these reasons this part of duty ought to
+be zealously advocated and diligently performed by every
+one who bears the Christian name.</p>
+
+<p>The ablest writers who have defended the divine
+origin of the Scriptures against infidels have urged this
+topic as constituting conclusive evidence in their favor;
+and unbelievers, instead of attempting to meet the argument
+fairly, have urged the inconsistency of Christians
+in acting contrary to so conspicuous a rule of duty; and
+such is and ever has been the most powerful weapon
+that infidels can wield against Christianity. But it is
+the will of God that by welldoing we should put to
+silence the ignorance of foolish men. Let Christians
+act in strict conformity to this part of Christian practice,
+and they will wrest from the infidel&rsquo;s hand his
+strongest weapon.</p>
+
+<p>That exercising benevolence towards enemies and
+returning good for evil is inculcated as one of the most
+important doctrines of the gospel is evident as well
+from the whole tenor of the New Testament as from
+the express commands of the Son of God: &ldquo;I say unto
+you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do
+good to them that hate you, and pray for them that
+despitefully use you and persecute you, that ye may be
+the children of your Father in heaven&rdquo;;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> &ldquo;If thine
+enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink;
+for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his
+head&rdquo;; &ldquo;Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil
+with good.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Such are some of the divine precepts on this subject.
+So different, however, are the laws of war among Christian
+nations, that rendering comfort or relief to enemies
+is considered high treason, and they punish with death
+the performance of the very duty which God commands
+as a condition of eternal life!</p>
+
+<p>The common sense of every man revolts from the
+idea that resisting an enemy by war is returning good
+for evil. Who would receive the thrust of a sword as
+an act of kindness? Was it ever considered that killing
+a man was doing good to him? Has not death always
+been considered the greatest evil which could be returned
+for capital crimes? But the principles of war
+not only allow enemies to return evil for evil by killing
+one another, but secure the highest praise to him who
+kills the most. It is often said of those who distinguish
+themselves in butchering their fellow-men, that &ldquo;they
+cover themselves with glory!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Nations, when they go to war, do not so much as
+pretend to be actuated by love to their enemies; they do
+not hesitate to declare in the face of Heaven that their
+object is to <i>avenge</i> their wrongs. But, says an inspired
+apostle, &ldquo;Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but
+give place unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is
+mine; I will repay, saith the Lord.&rdquo; Retributive judgment,
+the execution of strict justice, or vengeance, God
+declares often, belongs to him. He has reserved it in
+his own hand as his sovereign prerogative.</p>
+
+<p>It is not very surprising that savage pagans should
+glory in revenge, but that those should do so who have
+the Bible in their hands, and profess to take it as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+rule of their faith and practice, is truly astonishing.
+Still more astonishing is it that some ministers of the
+gospel not only connive at but approve of the spirit
+and practice of revenge by war.</p>
+
+<p>But though the whole tenor of the gospel absolutely
+enjoins returning good for evil and blessing for cursing;
+yet the open and avowed principles of war are to return
+evil for evil, violence for violence.</p>
+
+<p>Now if the principles of war are so directly opposed
+to the principles of the gospel, if the practice of war is
+so perfectly contrary to Christian practice, then it must
+be very criminal for Christians not to bear open testimony
+against war, and much more criminal to do
+anything to promote it.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IX. WAR IS CRIMINAL, BECAUSE IT IS ACTUALLY
+RENDERING EVIL FOR EVIL</h4>
+
+<p>It is a fact which can neither be disguised nor controverted
+that the whole trade of war is returning evil
+for evil. This is a fundamental principle in the system
+of self-defense. Therefore every exertion in the power
+of contending nations is made to inflict mutual injury,
+not merely upon persons in public employment and upon
+public property, but indiscriminately upon all persons
+and property. Hence it is an established rule of what is
+styled &ldquo;civilized warfare&rdquo; that if one party takes a person
+suspected of being a spy, they put him to death; which
+act is retaliated by the other the first opportunity. If
+one party storms a fortified place and puts the garrison
+or the inhabitants to the sword, the other, in their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+defense, must retaliate the same thing, and, if possible,
+to a greater degree. If one side executes a number of
+captives for some alleged extraordinary act, the other,
+on the principles of self-defense, may execute double
+the number; the first may then, on the same principles,
+double this number; and so they may proceed to return
+evil for evil, till one or the other yields.</p>
+
+<p>The principles of self-defense require not merely an
+eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth, but for one eye
+two eyes, for one tooth two teeth. They require the
+retaliation of an injury to a double degree,&mdash;otherwise,
+there would be no balance in favor of the defensive
+side; but as both parties must always be on the defense,
+both must, of course, retaliate to a double degree.
+Thus war is aggravated and inflamed, and its criminality
+raised to the highest pitch.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of retaliation is not only openly avowed
+and practiced by professing Christian nations, but is
+sometimes defended before national councils by professing
+Christians of high standing in churches. &ldquo;O! tell
+it not in Gath! publish it not in the streets of Askelon!
+lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>That the retaliation of injury, of whatever kind it
+may be and to whomsoever it may be offered, is most
+absolutely and unequivocally forbidden by the whole
+spirit of the gospel dispensation, as well as by its positive
+precepts, surely can never be fairly controverted.</p>
+
+<p>Says the great Author and finisher of our faith,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> &ldquo;Ye
+have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye,
+and a tooth for a tooth: but I say unto you that ye
+resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on the
+right cheek, turn to him the other also.&rdquo; Whether the
+literal import of these words be contended for or not,
+they cannot fairly be construed as teaching anything
+short of a positive and unconditional prohibition of the
+retaliation of injury. Had our Lord added to these
+words the maxim of the world, &ldquo;If any man assaults
+you with deathly weapons, you may repel him with
+deathly weapons,&rdquo; it would have directly contradicted
+the spirit of this command and made his sayings like
+a house divided against itself.</p>
+
+<p>The apostles largely insist upon this doctrine of their
+divine Master, thus: &ldquo;Recompense to no man evil for
+evil&rdquo;; &ldquo;Be ye all of one mind, not rendering evil for
+evil, or railing for railing&rdquo;; &ldquo;See that none render evil
+for evil to any man.&rdquo; These comprehensive passages
+make no conditions or limitations, and are, therefore,
+applicable to all men and binding upon all in all situations
+and circumstances under the light of the gospel;
+but had they added, &ldquo;If any man injures you, you may
+return him an injury and repel violence with violence,&rdquo;
+it would have been most palpably absurd, and the precepts
+of the gospel would have been truly what infidels
+have asserted they are,&mdash;a series of gross contradictions.</p>
+
+<p>But I repeat that the open and avowed principles of
+war, even among Christian nations, are those of returning
+evil for evil. Surely, nations neither aim nor pretend
+to aim at the best good of their enemies; but, on
+the contrary, their real and professed object in the
+sight of God and man is to do them, while at war, all
+the injury in their power. What means that language
+which conveys instructions to those who command<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+ships of war, to <i>sink</i>, <i>burn</i>, and <i>destroy</i>, if it does not
+mean evil to enemies? Why do nations encourage the
+cupidity of men by licensing and letting loose swarms
+of picaroons on their enemies, if it is not to inflict evil
+on them? But all this is sanctioned under the notion
+of self-defense, and, as though it were a light thing for
+men thus publicly to trample on the laws of the gospel,
+they lift up their daring hands to heaven and supplicate
+God&rsquo;s help to assist them in violating his own commands!
+No apology can be made for such proceedings
+until it is shown that war is not returning evil for evil.</p>
+
+<p>But what is it to return evil for evil?</p>
+
+<p>When one man is injured by another and returns
+injury, he returns evil for evil and violates those precepts
+of the gospel which have been quoted. When one
+association of men is injured by another association
+and the injured returns an injury, evil is returned for
+evil and those precepts are violated. When one nation
+infringes on the rights of another and they in return
+infringe on the aggressor&rsquo;s rights, they return evil for
+evil and violate those precepts. When one nation
+declares war against another and is repelled by war,
+evil is returned for evil and those precepts are violated.
+But these things are constantly practiced, without
+a blush or a question as to their propriety; and
+God is supplicated to aid in the business.</p>
+
+<p>To what a state has sin reduced our world? Is not
+the church covered with darkness and the people with
+gross darkness? A man may now engage in war with
+his fellow-man and openly return evil for evil, and still
+remain in respectable standing in most of the churches,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+being at the same time highly applauded and caressed
+by the world lying in wickedness!</p>
+
+<p>But if we are here to be directed and at last to be
+judged by the gospel, no man can return evil for evil,
+in war or otherwise, without aggravated guilt.</p>
+
+
+<h4>X. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS ACTUALLY DOING
+EVIL THAT GOOD MAY COME; AND THIS
+IS THE BEST APOLOGY THAT CAN BE MADE
+FOR IT</h4>
+
+<p>That it is an evil to spread distress, desolation, and
+misery through a land and to stain it with the blood
+of men probably none will deny. War, with its attending
+horrors, is considered by all, even those who advocate
+and prosecute it, to be the greatest evil that ever
+befalls this wicked, bleeding, suffering world.</p>
+
+<p>Though men go to war primarily to gratify their corrupt
+passions,&mdash;for they can never propose the attainment
+of any good by war which shall be commensurate
+with the natural and moral evils that will be occasioned
+by the acquisition,&mdash;yet the prospect of attaining some
+supposed good must be held out as a lure to the multitude
+and a means of self-justification.</p>
+
+<p>Usually the object of war is pompously represented
+to be to preserve liberty, to produce honorable and
+lasting peace, and promote the happiness of mankind;
+to accomplish which, liberty, property, and honor&mdash;that
+honor which comes from men&mdash;must be defended, though
+war is the very thing that generally destroys liberty,
+property, and happiness, and prevents lasting peace.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+Such is the good proposed to be attained by the certain
+and overwhelming evil of war.</p>
+
+<p>But no maxim is more corrupt, more false in its nature,
+or more ruinous in its results than that which tolerates
+doing evil that good may come. Nor can any defend
+this maxim without taking the part of infidels and atheists,
+to whom it appropriately belongs, and with whose
+principles and practice alone it is consistent.</p>
+
+<p>The apostle Paul reprobates this maxim in the
+severest terms, and he considered it the greatest scandal
+of Christian character to be accused of approving it:
+&ldquo;As we be slanderously reported,&rdquo; says he, &ldquo;and as
+some affirm that we say, Let us do evil that good may
+come; whose damnation is just.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Now if war is in fact an evil, and it is prosecuted
+with a view to attain some good, then going to war is
+doing evil that good may come. It is therefore doing
+that which scandalizes Christian character; that which
+is wholly irreconcilable with the principles of the gospel,
+and which it is highly criminal for any man or
+nation to do.</p>
+
+
+<h4>XI. WAR IS OPPOSED TO THE EXAMPLE OF THE
+SON OF GOD, AND IS THEREFORE CRIMINAL</h4>
+
+<p>The example of the Son of God is the only perfect
+model of moral excellence, and his moral conduct, so
+far as he acted as man, remains a perfect example for
+Christians.</p>
+
+<p>But did he appear in this world as a great military
+character, wearing a sword of steel, clothed with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+military finery, and surrounded by glittering soldiers,
+marching in the pomp and parade of a warrior? No; he
+was the meek and lowly Jesus, despised and rejected of
+men. He was King of kings and Lord of lords, but his
+kingdom was not of this world. Had his kingdom been
+of this world, then would he have appeared as an earthly
+conqueror, and his servants would have been warriors.</p>
+
+<p>Though a prince, he was the Prince of Peace. At
+his advent the angels sang, &ldquo;Glory to God in the highest,
+on earth peace, good will to men.&rdquo; &ldquo;He came not
+to destroy men&rsquo;s lives, but to save them.&rdquo; He was the
+Lamb of God, meek and lowly. He followed peace with
+all men; he returned good for evil and blessing for
+cursing, and &ldquo;when he was reviled he reviled not again.&rdquo;
+Finally, he was &ldquo;brought as a lamb to the slaughter,
+and as a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he opened
+not his mouth.&rdquo; That he did this as a necessary part
+of his mediatorial work need not be denied; but that
+he intended it also as an example to his followers is
+fully confirmed by an inspired apostle, who says, &ldquo;If,
+when ye do well, and suffer for it, ye take it patiently,
+this is acceptable with God. For hereunto were ye
+called: because Christ also suffered for us, leaving us
+an example, that ye should follow his steps: who did
+no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth: who,
+when he was reviled, reviled not again; when he suffered,
+threatened not; but committed himself to him
+who judgeth righteously.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Christ taught his disciples the doctrines of peace,
+and commanded them to take up the cross and follow
+him; to live in peace and to follow peace with all men.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+His last gift to them was peace. He said to them, when
+about to send them into the world, &ldquo;Behold I send you
+forth as lambs among wolves&rdquo;; thus teaching them
+what treatment they might expect and what character
+they must maintain among wicked men. The nature
+of lambs and wolves is too well known for any one to mistake
+this figurative representation. Wolves are fierce,
+bloody, and ravenous beasts; but lambs are mild, inoffensive,
+and unresisting, having no means of relief
+but by flight. Now if a host of professing Christian
+warriors, marshaled under the ensign of a preying eagle
+or a prowling lion, clothed in all the splendor of deathly
+armor, and rushing forward to destroy their fellow-creatures,
+are in figurative language but <i>lambs</i>, I confess I
+am at a loss where to look for the <i>wolves</i>! Do these
+warlike Christians appear mild as lambs and harmless
+as doves, kind and tender-hearted, doing good to all,
+to friends and foes, as they have opportunity? Can
+fighting be living peaceably with all men? Is it returning
+good for evil, and overcoming evil with good? If
+not, it is not imitating the example of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>If Christians were like Christ, their warfare would
+not be carnal, but spiritual, corresponding with the
+armor which he has provided. They would conquer by
+faith and overcome by the blood of the Lamb, not
+counting their lives dear to themselves.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, if to engage in war is not avoiding the
+appearance of evil, but is running into temptation; if
+it inflates the pride of men; if it infringes on the rights
+of conscience; if it is not forgiving trespasses as we
+wish to be forgiven; if it is not patient suffering under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+unjust and cruel treatment; if it is not doing to others
+as we would have them do to us; if it is not manifesting
+love to enemies and returning good for evil; if it
+is rendering evil for evil; if it is doing evil that good
+may come; and if it is inconsistent with the example
+of Christ, then it is altogether contrary to the spirit
+and precepts of the gospel and is highly criminal. Then
+Christians cannot engage in war or approve of it without
+incurring the displeasure of Heaven.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>In view of the subject, if what has been said is in
+substance correct, and of this I desire the reader conscientiously
+to judge, then the criminality of war and
+its inconsistency with the gospel are undeniable.</p>
+
+<p>It is admitted by all that war cannot exist without
+criminality somewhere, and generally where quarreling
+and strife are, there is blame on both sides. And
+how it is that many Christians who manifest a laudable
+zeal to expose and counteract vice and wickedness in
+various other forms are silent on the subject of war,
+silent as to those parts or practices of war which are
+manifestly and undisputably criminal, is to me mysterious.
+There has been a noble and persevering opposition
+against the inhuman and cruel practice of the slave
+trade; and by the blessing of God the efforts against
+it have been successful, probably, for the time, beyond
+the most sanguine expectations. When the lawfulness
+of this practice was first called in question, it was violently
+defended as well by professing Christians as by
+others. Comparatively few Christians fifty years ago
+doubted the propriety of buying and holding slaves;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+but now a man advocating the slave trade could hardly
+hold in this vicinity a charitable standing in any of the
+churches. But whence has arisen so great a revolution
+in the minds of the mass of professing Christians on
+this subject? It has happened not because the spirit
+or precepts of the gospel have changed, but because
+they are better understood.</p>
+
+<p>Christians who have been early educated to believe
+that a doctrine is correct, and who cherish a respect for
+the instructions of their parents and teachers, seldom
+inquire for themselves, after arriving at years of maturity,
+unless something special calls up their attention;
+and then they are too apt to defend the doctrine they
+have imbibed before they examine it, and to exert themselves
+only to find evidence in its favor. Thus error is
+perpetuated from generation to generation until God,
+in his providence, raises up some to bear open testimony
+against it; and as it becomes a subject of controversy,
+one after another gains light, and truth is at
+length disclosed and established. Hence it is the solemn
+duty of every one, however feeble his powers, to bear
+open testimony against whatever error prevails, for God
+is able from small means to produce great effects.</p>
+
+<p>There is at present in many of our churches a noble
+standard lifted up against the abominable sin of intemperance,
+the greatest evil, perhaps, war excepted, in
+the land, and this destructive vice has already received
+a check from which it will never recover unless Christians
+relax their exertions. But if war is a greater evil
+than drunkenness, how can Christians remain silent
+respecting it and be innocent?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Public teachers consider it to be their duty boldly
+and openly to oppose vice. From the press and from
+the pulpit they denounce theft, profaneness, Sabbath
+breaking, and intemperance; but war is a greater evil
+than all these, for these and many other evils follow in
+its train.</p>
+
+<p>Most Christians believe that in the millennial day
+all weapons of war will be converted into harmless
+utensils of use, that wars will cease to the ends of the
+earth, and that the benign spirit of peace will cover the
+earth as the waters do the seas. But there will be then
+no new gospel, no new doctrines of peace; the same
+blessed gospel which we enjoy will produce &ldquo;peace on
+earth and good will to men.&rdquo; And is it not the duty of
+every Christian now to exhibit the same spirit and
+temper which will be then manifested? If so, let every
+one &ldquo;follow the things that make for peace,&rdquo; and the
+God of peace shall bless him.</p>
+
+
+<h3>OBJECTIONS ANSWERED</h3>
+
+<p>As was proposed, a number of objections to the
+general sentiments that have been advocated shall be
+stated and answered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection first.</i> Shall we stand still and suffer an
+assassin to enter our houses without resistance and
+let him murder ourselves and families?</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> I begin with this because it is generally the
+first objection that is made to the doctrine of peace
+by all persons, high and low, learned and unlearned;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+notwithstanding it is an objection derived from a fear
+of consequences and not from a conviction of duty, and
+might with the same propriety have been made to the
+martyrs who, for conscience&rsquo; sake, refused to repel their
+murderers with carnal weapons, as to Christians who,
+for conscience&rsquo; sake, refuse at this day to resist evil.
+No Christian will pretend that defense with carnal
+weapons is not criminal, if the gospel really forbids it,
+let the consequences of nonresistance be what they
+may. For the requisitions of the gospel are the rule
+of duty. But I presume the objection above stated
+arises altogether from an apprehension of consequences
+rather than from regard to duty.</p>
+
+<p>Every candid person must admit that this objection
+is of no force, until the question whether the gospel
+does or does not prohibit resistance with deathly
+weapons is first settled. It might, therefore, justly be
+dismissed without further remark; but as mankind are
+often more influenced by supposed consequences than
+by considerations of duty, and as the objection is very
+popular, it may deserve a more particular reply.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, I would observe that the supposition
+of the objector relates to a very extreme case, a
+case which has very rarely, if ever, occurred to Christians
+holding to nonresistance with deathly weapons,
+and it bears little or no resemblance to the general
+principles or practices of war which are openly advocated
+and promoted by professing Christians. Should
+an event like that supposed in the objection take place,
+it would be a moment of surprise and agitation in
+which few could act collectedly from principle. What<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+was done would probably be done in perturbation of
+mind. But war between nations is a business of calculation
+and debate, affording so much time for reflection
+that men need not act from sudden and violent impulse,
+but may act from fixed principle. In this respect, therefore,
+war is a very different thing from what is involved
+in the objection which does not in the least affect the
+principles or practice of systematic warfare. It is not
+uncommon to hear persons who are hopefully pious,
+when pressed by the example and the precepts of
+Christ against war, acknowledge that most of the wars
+which have existed since the gospel dispensation cannot
+be justified on Christian principles; yet these very
+persons are never heard to disapprove of the common
+principles of war, or to counteract them by their lives
+and conversation before a wicked world; but, on the
+contrary, they will often eulogize heroes, join in the
+celebration of victories, and take as deep an interest in
+the result of battles as the warriors of this world; and
+if their conduct is called in question, they will attempt
+to justify it by pleading the necessity of self-defense,
+and immediately introduce the above objection which
+is by no means parallel with the general principles and
+practices of all wars.</p>
+
+<p>The truth is, war is a very popular thing among mankind,
+because it is so congenial to their natural dispositions;
+and, however gravely some men may, at times,
+profess to deplore its calamity and wickedness, it is too
+evident that they take a secret pleasure in the approbation
+of the multitude and in the fascinating glory of
+arms; and we have reason to believe that this objection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+is often made merely to ward off the arrows of conviction
+which would otherwise pierce their consciences.</p>
+
+<p>The objection, however, wholly overlooks the providence
+and promise of God. Assassins do not stroll out
+of the circle of God&rsquo;s providence. Not only is their
+breath in his hand, but the weapons they hold are under
+his control. Besides, God&rsquo;s children are dear to him,
+and he shields them by his protecting care, not suffering
+any event to befall them except such as shall be for
+his glory and their good. Whoever touches them
+touches the apple of his eye. He has promised to be a
+very present help to them in every time of need, and to
+deliver them that trust in him out of all their trouble.
+He will make even their enemies to be at peace with
+them. For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous
+and his ears are open to their prayers, but the face of
+the Lord is against them that do evil; and who is he
+that will harm you if ye be followers of that which is
+good? But if ye suffer for righteousness&rsquo; sake, happy
+are ye, and be not afraid of their terror, neither be
+troubled. If God be thus for his children, who can be
+against them? Is not the arm of the Lord powerful
+to save, and a better defense to all who trust in him
+than swords and guns? Whoever found him unfaithful
+to his promises or feeble to save? Are not the hosts
+of heaven at his command? Are not his angels swift
+to do his will? &ldquo;Are they not all ministering spirits
+sent forth to minister for them who shall be heirs of
+salvation?&rdquo; &ldquo;The angel of the Lord encampeth round
+about them that fear him, and delivereth them.&rdquo; If
+the Lord is on their side, Christians have no cause to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+fear what man can do unto them. Says the blessed
+Saviour, &ldquo;Whosoever will save his life shall lose it,
+and whosoever shall lose his life for my sake shall
+find it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>If consequences are rightly examined, they may
+prove to be of more importance than at first supposed.
+If the gospel does forbid resistance with deathly
+weapons, then he who saves his temporal life by killing
+his enemy may lose his eternal life; while he who loses
+his life for Christ&rsquo;s sake is sure of everlasting life.
+Thus the Christian, if he is killed, goes to heaven; but
+the assassin, if he is killed, goes to hell, and the soul of
+the slayer is in danger of following. Whoever kills
+another to prevent being killed himself, does it on presumption;
+for, whatever may be the appearances, God
+only can know whether one man will assassinate another,
+before the event has taken place. Men, however, seem to
+think little of killing or being killed by fighting, whether
+in single combat or on the field of general battle, though
+they shudder at the idea of being put to death by an
+assassin, unless they can inflict or attempt to inflict on
+him the same evil.</p>
+
+<p>But the objection is usually made on the supposition
+that the doctrine in question requires Christians to
+stand still and rather court the dagger than otherwise.
+This is an unfair statement, for it would be presumption
+to stand still when there was a chance of escape.
+Besides, the Christian must act on the defensive, not
+with carnal, but with spiritual weapons, which are
+more powerful when exercised in faith than swords
+or spears.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Probably no instance can be found of robbers murdering
+such as conscientiously held to nonresistance.
+It is resistance that provokes violence; forbearance
+and good will repress it. But if instances of this kind
+may be found, it is no evidence against the doctrine in
+question any more than against the principles of the
+Martyrs. God may, for wise reasons, call away some
+of his children by the hands of murderers; if so,
+instead of losing, they save their lives.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection second.</i> Self-defense, and, if necessary, with
+deathly weapons, is the first law of nature. All the
+animal creation are armed with means of defense, and
+the principles of the gospel are not contrary to the
+principles of nature; therefore self-defense is not
+inconsistent with Christianity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> It is admitted that the laws of the gospel
+are not contrary to the primitive laws of nature; but
+it is by no means granted that they are consistent with
+the laws of corrupt nature. In consequence of the revolt
+of man the earth was cursed for his sake. It appears
+probable that before the fall of man animals were harmless
+and docile; and it is not improbable that when the
+curse shall be removed, when the earth shall be filled
+with righteousness and peace, the lion and the lamb may
+literally lie down together. At present, indeed, the
+dove, the lamb, and some other animals have no means
+of defense, unless flight be considered such. And while
+warriors are figuratively represented by ferocious beasts,
+real Christians are represented by lambs and doves. So
+far as nature is made to speak fairly on the subject, it
+speaks in favor of the doctrine which has been advocated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But corrupt nature strongly dictates many things
+quite contrary to the precepts of the gospel; and no
+doctrine will be given up more reluctantly by corrupt
+nature than that of the lawfulness of war, because no
+doctrine is more congenial with the depraved feelings
+and propensities of unsanctified men, for their &ldquo;feet
+are swift to shed blood; destruction and misery are in
+their ways, and the way of peace have they not known;
+there is no fear of God before their eyes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection third.</i> The precepts of the gospel are consistent
+with the moral law, or the eternal nature of
+things, which is forever the standard of right and wrong
+to all moral beings in the universe; and war has been
+prosecuted consistently with this rule of right and
+wrong; therefore war cannot be contrary to the precepts
+of the gospel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> This is an objection founded on an undefinable
+something aside from divine precept; yet as
+some terms in it have been much used in polemic
+divinity by men of eminent talents and piety, whose
+praise is in the churches, I think it neither proper nor
+modest to dissent from so high authority without offering
+some reasons. I shall, therefore, make a few general
+observations on what is called the moral law, the eternal
+rule of right and wrong, or the nature of things; all
+of which phrases, I believe, have been occasionally used
+by eminent writers as conveying the same ideas.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot agree with such as suppose that a moral
+law or nature of things exists independently of the will
+of God and is the common law of God and man. It
+appears to me as inconsistent to suppose a law to exist<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+without a lawgiver as to suppose a world to exist without
+a creator. If God is the only eternal and independent
+Being in the universe, and if all things are the
+work of his power and goodness, then the supposition
+that an eternal law exists independently of him appears
+to me to be absurd, as on this supposition there exists
+a law without a lawgiver and an effect without a cause.
+If God is not the author of all things, then there must
+be more than one eternal cause of things.</p>
+
+<p>To suppose that the reason and fitness of things
+independently of the will of God, either in his works,
+his providence, or word, can be a rule of man&rsquo;s duty
+appears to me as inconsistent as to suppose that men
+might institute divine worship from such fitness of
+things independently of the existence of God; for the
+will of God to man seems as necessary to lay a foundation
+of moral obligation and to direct man&rsquo;s obedience
+as the existence of God is necessary to lay a foundation
+of religious worship. Should it be asked whether the
+laws of God are not founded on the eternal nature and
+fitness of things, I would answer that such a supposition
+appears to me no more reasonable than to suppose
+that his power is founded on the eternal capacity of
+things; for the capacity of things has just as much
+reality and eternity in it to found the omnipotence of
+God upon, as the reason and nature of things have to
+found his infinite wisdom or justice upon.</p>
+
+<p>I therefore dissent from all standard of moral obligation
+which are supposed to exist aside from, and independently
+of, the divine will; and fully agree with
+the Assembly&rsquo;s Shorter Catechism, in the answer to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+this question: &ldquo;What is the duty which God requires
+of man? Answer: The duty which God requires of
+man is obedience to his revealed will.&rdquo; Should it, however,
+be said that things do exist aside from the divine
+will, that it does not depend on the divine will, but on
+the nature of things, that two and two make four, or
+that a thing cannot be in motion and at rest at the
+same time, it is by no means admitted that this order
+or constitution of things exists independently of God;
+but it is believed to be as much the effect of his power
+and goodness as anything else. And if God is not the
+author of all the laws both in the natural and moral
+world, it may reasonably be inquired, who is?</p>
+
+<p>If God is the moral governor of the world, then all
+his laws over men, as moral beings, must be moral laws;
+and to make a distinction between the laws designed
+to regulate the moral conduct of men, and to call some
+of them moral and others by different names, seems to
+me not necessary, while I find no such distinction in
+the Scriptures. Because some of God&rsquo;s laws were
+intended to be temporary, under certain circumstances,
+they were no less of a moral nature on that account;
+neither was it any less criminal to violate them.</p>
+
+<p>As created things are in some respects constantly
+changing, and as the relations of things are often varied,
+so a law may be relatively right at one time and relatively
+wrong at another. But as man is frail and short-sighted,
+and is incapable of seeing the end from the
+beginning, he is totally unable of himself to judge what
+is and what is not right, all things considered; hence the
+necessity of a revelation from God to direct his steps.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That there is a fitness of things and a standard of
+moral right and wrong cannot be denied; but, instead
+of being founded in a supposed nature of things independent
+of God, it originates in the very nature and perfections
+of God himself, and can never be known by
+man any farther than the nature and perfections of
+God are known. A standard of right and wrong independent
+of God, whether by the name of moral law or
+nature of things, is what never has been and never can
+be intelligibly defined. It is like a form without dimensions,
+like a foundation resting on nothing. It is, therefore,
+in my opinion, as extravagant to talk of an eternal
+nature of things, without reference to the laws of God,
+as it would be to talk of an eternal wisdom or an eternal
+omnipotence, independent of the existence of God.</p>
+
+<p>But if the statement of the objector is meant only to
+imply a rule of right and wrong emanating from the
+nature and perfections of God, and coincident with his
+laws, then, admitting the propriety of the terms moral
+law, nature of things, etc., the objection, if it proves
+anything, may prove quite too much for its advocates;
+for under certain circumstances it has been consistent
+with this rule of moral right and wrong utterly to exterminate
+nations, to destroy men, women, and children,
+and show them no mercy.</p>
+
+<p>Besides, the whole force of the objection rests on the
+supposition that no laws which have existed, and which
+were not contrary to the moral law, can be abrogated
+under the Christian dispensation or be inconsistent
+with the precepts of the gospel. It hence follows that
+whatever has been morally right and lawful for men to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+do must forever remain right and lawful to be done.
+This is a necessary result from the premises; but no
+Christian can consistently subscribe to this. The premises
+must, therefore, be unsound and the objection of
+no force.</p>
+
+<p>If literal sacrifices, slavery, and many other practices
+which are totally abolished under the Christian dispensation
+were not contrary to the moral law under the
+Old Testament economy, why may not the same be
+true of war? Why may not the gospel forbid war as
+consistently as it can forbid slavery?</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection fourth.</i> The nature of religion and morality
+under the ancient dispensation was the same as under
+the new. Love to God and man was the substance of
+the law and the prophets; and though truth under the
+former was inculcated more by types and ceremonies,
+yet the essence of religion was the same under that as
+under the present dispensation; and as war was not
+inconsistent with the nature and precepts of religion
+then, it cannot be inconsistent with the nature and precepts
+of religion now, under like circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> It is readily admitted that the essence of
+religion is the same under the present as under the
+former dispensation, both requiring at all times and in
+all actions holy exercises of heart in cordial obedience
+to divine command; yet the laws for external conduct
+under the two dispensations differ widely, and the practice
+of war involves much of the external conduct of
+men. It was never right for men to indulge unholy
+feelings in the act of war, but the external act was
+required as a means of executing the divine vengeance;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+the gospel does not command, but seems plainly to
+forbid, the external act of war.</p>
+
+<p>But to suppose that saints under the gospel can ever
+be placed in circumstances like those of the ancient
+church is to suppose that they may be put under the
+same typical economy which has vanished away, given
+place to the substance, and ceased to be binding even
+on the natural Israelites. To be in like circumstances
+they must also be made the executors of God&rsquo;s wrath,
+to inflict vengeance, by his particular command, on
+idolatrous and rebellious nations. The Israelites had
+the same high authority to exterminate the Canaanites
+and subdue the idolatrous nations about Palestine that
+the holy angels had to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah.</p>
+
+<p>It is perfectly plain that if God should positively
+command Christians to take the weapons of war and
+not only repel invasion but actually exterminate nations,
+it would be their duty to obey, and a refusal would be
+open rebellion against God. The Old Testament saints
+received such commands, but Christians have no such
+authority, which makes a material difference in circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Some general observations relative to the different
+dispensations of the church of God may illustrate this
+topic more fully.</p>
+
+<p>The Old Testament economy has sometimes, perhaps
+without reason, been divided into the Adamic,
+Patriarchal, and Mosaic dispensations of the church; but
+as the latter was more full and complete, and as the
+distinction between the Mosaic and Christian dispensations
+is common, I shall confine my remarks chiefly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+to that distinction, though I consider the great distinction
+to be between the Old and New Testament
+economies.</p>
+
+<p>The Old Testament economy, in general, was typical
+of the New. Under the former dispensation literal and
+temporal things typified spiritual and everlasting things
+under the latter. The nation of Israel, chosen and
+separated from all other nations, typified the true Israel
+of God, who are chosen out of every nation and sanctified
+and set apart as a holy nation and peculiar people,
+to offer up spiritual sacrifices to God. The land of
+Canaan was a type of the heavenly Canaan. Jerusalem
+was a type of the New Jerusalem from above. Mount
+Zion and the royal throne of Israel, which were in
+Jerusalem, typified the heavenly Zion and the throne
+of the true David who now reigns in glory. The sacrifices
+were types of spiritual offerings. The Israelites
+had enemies within and foes without, literal weapons
+of war and literal warfare, typical of spiritual foes,
+spiritual armor, and spiritual warfare.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Their kings were
+seated on the throne of the Lord (see 1 Chron. xxix.
+23). At the command of God they judged and made
+war and conquered their enemies and thus typified the
+Son of God who is now on the throne of his Father<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+David, and who in righteousness judges and makes war
+and rides forth conquering and to conquer. The ancient
+promises and threatenings were mostly temporal, but
+typical of spiritual and everlasting promises and threatenings.
+Doubtless the gospel was preached by types
+and figures under the Old Testament economy, and the
+saints of old looked upon those temporal things merely
+as shadows representing a more enduring substance.
+When they looked upon Canaan, the land of promise,
+they viewed it as a type of the heavenly Canaan, and
+confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims on
+earth seeking a better country. When they looked
+on the bleeding lamb they beheld, by the eye of
+faith, the Lamb of God who taketh away the sins of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we may see that almost the whole of the Old
+Testament economy was typical and temporary, and
+not intended to be perfect and everlasting. But under
+the gospel dispensation we have a new covenant and
+better promises which are intended to be perfect and
+everlasting. It is therefore more proper for those
+who live under this new and perfect dispensation to
+look at the substance than at the shadow for a rule of
+duty. Errors are often and easily propagated by reasoning
+from analogy and introducing it as proof of sentiments
+instead of illustration. This is frequently done
+in relation to the Old Testament economy and common
+political government. It is not uncommon to hear ministers,
+in their political sermons, reason and infer just
+as if there were a perfect parallel between the Jewish
+theocracy and political governments, when at the head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+of one was the Lord of hosts and at the head of the
+others are but men; when one was the church of the
+living God, and the others are but human institutions.
+They not unfrequently speak of God&rsquo;s driving out the
+heathen before his American Israel and planting them
+in a goodly land, as though there were a perfect parallel
+between the Americans driving the Indians from their
+native soil and taking possession of it themselves, without
+divine commission, and the Israelites going at the
+express command of God and taking possession of
+Canaan. Thus they endeavor to keep up a parallel
+between God&rsquo;s ancient church and civil governments.
+The economy of God&rsquo;s ancient covenant people was by
+no means a political institution in the popular sense,
+but it was a dispensation of the church of God, and in
+its rites, ceremonies, and government was typical of
+the kingdom of Messiah under his mediatorial reign,
+and differed widely in its nature, origin, and design from
+mere political governments; therefore all reasoning
+drawn from a supposed analogy between them is specious
+and false. The Israelites had no authority to
+enact laws or to alter God&rsquo;s laws one iota; their duty
+was implicitly to obey them.</p>
+
+<p>But if Christians take their authority for going to
+war from the practice of the Old Testament saints,
+their example will prove too much; it will not only allow
+war, but <i>offensive war</i> in its most dreadful forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection fifth.</i> Abraham went to war, not like the
+Israelites at the command of God, yet he met with the
+divine approbation when he returned from the slaughter
+of the kings; he, therefore, must have acted on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+universal law still in force; and as Christians are called
+the children of Abraham they ought, of course, to imitate
+his example in such things as God approved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> Abraham, like the Israelites, was under a
+typical dispensation and practiced rites and ceremonies
+which were a shadow of good things to come. That he
+acted without divine command, in the war referred to, is
+more than we are warranted to say. He was a prophet
+and the friend of God and probably was acquainted with
+the divine will on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>Christians are not called the children of Abraham
+because they imitate his example in war, but because
+they exercise like precious faith with him. If Christians
+are warranted to imitate the example of Abraham
+in all things which were tolerated by God, then they
+may sacrifice cattle, practice polygamy, and buy and
+hold slaves. But if they object to his example as a rule
+of duty in these instances, why not object to his example
+as a rule of duty in the case of war?</p>
+
+<p>But to say that he acted from some universal law
+still in force is taking for granted the question in dispute,
+and cannot be admitted without evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The war waged by Abraham against the kings was,
+I apprehend, offensive rather than defensive; for Lot,
+his brother&rsquo;s son, whom he rescued, did not then belong
+to his family or kingdom, but was separated from him
+and was also a patriarch, a father of nations, and a
+prince or head over his own house or kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>It appears very evident that offensive as well as
+defensive war was tolerated under the patriarchal economy,
+as may be seen from the words of the inspired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+Jacob when blessing his sons (Gen. xlviii. 22). That,
+as well as the Mosaic dispensation, was typical, and
+doubtless war was allowed under both for the same
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p>But there can be no doubt that whoever attempts to
+justify war by the example of Abraham may equally
+justify the slavery of our fellow-men; and whoever
+depends on his example for authority for engaging in
+war, to be consistent, must advocate and defend the
+doctrine of slavery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection sixth.</i> It appears to be a universal law of
+God that &ldquo;whoso sheddeth man&rsquo;s blood, by man shall
+his blood be shed.&rdquo; If one man, or one nation, attacks
+another and sheds his blood, his own must be shed in
+return. Hence this precept not only authorizes taking
+away the life of a murderer, but authorizes nations to
+repel by war nations that wage war against them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> Whether this was a precept given to man
+as a rule of duty or not is very questionable, though it
+has generally been so construed, at least since the
+dark ages of the church; and it is still more questionable
+whether it is a universal and perpetual law.</p>
+
+<p>If we attend to the phraseology of this decree of
+God, we shall find it to be very different from that of
+the precepts, generally, delivered to Moses. God did
+not say to Noah, as he often did to Moses, thou shalt
+do this, or that, but he said, &ldquo;<i>I will require the life of
+man</i>,&rdquo; etc. If God had designed to delegate executive
+authority to Noah and his descendants to execute retributive
+judgment on the manslayer, the connection of
+the whole language must have been altered, for God<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+declared what he would do himself. It appears, therefore,
+to have been God&rsquo;s <i>decree</i>, and the promulgation
+of <i>his</i> law by which he would inflict righteous judgment
+on the guilty; the penalty was intended as a
+warning to deter mankind from violence, the sin for
+which the old world was swept away. And I see no
+reason why this threatening should not be considered
+parallel with the decrees of Christ,&mdash;that &ldquo;all they
+that take the sword shall perish with the sword; he
+that leadeth into captivity shall go into captivity;
+he that killeth with the sword must be killed with the
+sword; here is the faith and the patience of the saints.&rdquo;
+Why the former should be considered as a rule of
+obedience for man, and these latter passages not so, I
+am unable to say. &ldquo;He that killeth with the sword must
+be killed with the sword&rdquo; is as positive as &ldquo;whoso
+sheddeth man&rsquo;s blood, by man shall his blood be shed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It may be observed that the faith and patience of the
+saints is here spoken of in such a way as to imply that
+they exercised and manifested their faith and patience
+when they were put to death by violence or carried into
+captivity. And, indeed, how could their faith and
+patience appear if they, like the wicked world, returned
+evil for evil, carried into captivity, and killed with the
+sword?</p>
+
+<p>The original threatening has been fulfilled by the
+providence, and sometimes by the express command, of
+God. As Noah was the head of the new world and
+the father of nations, it seems to have had reference to
+nations rather than to individuals; and all nations that
+have shed blood in war must, in their turn, have their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+own blood shed; so that all they that take the sword
+may perish with the sword agreeably to the threatening
+made known to Noah, and to those announced by Christ.</p>
+
+<p>But, admitting that the law quoted in the objection
+was intended as a rule of duty for man, it does not
+appear that it was designed to be universal and perpetual.
+Before the flood no authority appears in any
+sense to have been delegated to man to shed the blood
+of man. So far from executing the penalty of death or
+causing it to be executed upon Cain, who was of the
+wicked one and slew his brother, notwithstanding his
+guilty forebodings, God threatened a sevenfold vengeance
+on him who should presume to do it.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Mosaic dispensation many crimes were
+punishable with death according to positive precept; but
+God, for wise reasons, did not always have the penalty
+executed. David was guilty of murder and adultery,
+both capital crimes; yet he was permitted to live.</p>
+
+<p>All kinds of vindictive punishment under the Christian
+dispensation appear to be absolutely forbidden.
+By vindictive I mean that which is intended to vindicate
+the law, as executing strict justice, and prevent
+offenses only, as taking away life, but which is not
+designed to promote the individual good of the person
+punished. That punishment which is designed and
+which has a tendency to promote the good of the punished,
+as well as to deter offenders, I consider to be
+strictly disciplinary or corrective, and consistent with
+the spirit and precepts of the gospel. Says an apostle,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+&ldquo;Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but give place
+unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will
+repay, saith the Lord.&rdquo; &ldquo;For the wrath of man worketh
+not the righteousness of God.&rdquo; It has been said that
+this only forbids a revengeful temper, but this evasion
+will not do; for Christians are here forbidden to do the
+very thing which God declares he will do himself, and
+he does nothing but what is holy.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Render to no man evil for evil,&rdquo; is a positive precept
+without any limitation, and which admits of no
+evasion; and it must plainly rescind the law of shedding
+man&rsquo;s blood because he had shed the blood of man.</p>
+
+<p>But the exclamation is often made, What, not punish
+a murderer with death! Little do those who make
+this exclamation think that they themselves also are
+sinners and that every sin deserves not only temporal
+death but God&rsquo;s wrath and curse forever, and that they
+are in like condemnation unless redeemed by the blood
+of the Lamb. For such, it might be well to inquire if
+they know &ldquo;what manner of spirit they are of.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The most prominent characteristic of Messiah&rsquo;s reign
+over men in this world is mercy, since he has secured
+the rights and honor of the divine government by the
+sacrifice of himself so that the guilty may live. He has
+given his life as a ransom and taken the world into his
+hands as the ruler, judge, and rewarder, and offers the
+chief of sinners mercy; and the merits of his blood are
+sufficient to cleanse from all sin as well against man as
+against God. And who can help being astonished at
+the amazing difference between his laws and his dealings
+with men, and those sanguinary laws of men
+according to which under the light of the gospel they
+punish with death.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The professed principle and design of these laws is
+strict justice; but were men dealt with according to
+strict justice by him who rules above, who would be
+able to stand? These laws of men accept no atonement
+for capital offenses; no mercy is offered, for none
+is provided for those who incur their penalty; but the
+gospel offers mercy to the chief of sinners while it
+condemns those who reject the offers. Capital offenders
+will never be condemned by civil governments for
+the rejection of offered mercy, for no mercy is provided
+for them. How unlike the divine government!
+But Christians are commanded to be merciful, as their
+Father in heaven is merciful, who showers down blessings
+on the evil and unthankful. Our Master has told
+us that with what judgment we judge we shall be judged;
+and with what measure we mete it shall be measured to
+us again; that if we forgive we shall be forgiven; and if
+we forgive not we shall not be forgiven; and that if we
+show no mercy we shall have judgment without mercy.</p>
+
+<p>Christians ought to ponder the subject well before
+they advocate the consistency and safety of dispensing
+justice without mercy. Let them learn what that
+meaneth, &ldquo;I will have mercy and not sacrifice.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection seventh.</i> &ldquo;Every purpose is established by
+counsel, and with good advice make war&rdquo;; &ldquo;For by
+wise counsel thou shalt make war,&rdquo; etc. Here war is
+recognized as a duty under certain circumstances, and
+the manner in which it is to be undertaken is pointed
+out, viz., by wise counsel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> The inspired Proverbs are maxims of wisdom
+illustrated, for the most part, by some familiar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+subject that existed at the time they were delivered. The
+object here is not to inculcate the lawfulness of war but
+the necessity of sound wisdom in relation to the actions
+of men; and the subject of war appears to be introduced
+merely to illustrate this idea. The counsel and
+wisdom of men in relation to their temporal and worldly
+concerns are often worthy of imitation in reference to
+spiritual things; for the children of this world are, in
+some sense, wiser in their generation than the children
+of light, and the conduct of worldly men is often very
+appropriately introduced to illustrate Christian duty.
+Our Lord says, &ldquo;What king, going to war with another
+king, sitteth not down first, and consulteth whether he
+be able with ten thousand to meet him that cometh
+against him with twenty thousand?&rdquo; Doubtless our
+Lord&rsquo;s design was to warn people to count the cost
+before they professed to be followers of him, that they
+might not be deceived and discouraged, and that they
+might act from principle and not from hypocrisy. But
+he inculcated these things by referring to the example
+of kings in their consultations about war. And it is
+believed that the passages before cited are of similar
+import. These references to war, being introduced
+merely for the illustration of other subjects, will no
+more prove the lawfulness of war than the reference
+of the apostle to the Olympic games, for illustration,
+will prove the lawfulness of those heathen feats. But
+if this explanation should not be satisfactory, it may be
+observed that the Proverbs were written under the Old
+Testament economy which tolerated offensive as well as
+defensive war; whence it does not appear that any war<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+can be undertaken under the present dispensation, &ldquo;by
+wise counsel,&rdquo; except that which is spiritual; so that if
+the ancient was typical of the new dispensation, then the
+passages quoted will now apply only to spiritual warfare.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection eighth.</i> When the soldiers demanded of
+John the Baptist what they should do, one of the directions
+which he gave them was to be content with their
+wages. If their occupation had been unlawful, then he
+would not have directed them to be contented with
+the wages of wickedness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> John the Baptist was under the Mosaic
+economy, the new dispensation not having commenced.
+He was but the forerunner of the Lord, a herald to sound
+his approach. But he gave the soldiers another direction,
+viz., to &ldquo;do violence to no man,&rdquo; obedience to
+which is totally incompatible with war, as that is nothing
+else but violence. Only hinder soldiers from doing
+violence to any man and you stop at once the whole
+progress of war; therefore, if the directions of John
+are insisted on as gospel authority, they will prove,
+probably, much more against the lawfulness of war
+than in favor of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection ninth.</i> The Centurion and Cornelius were
+Christians and soldiers and highly approved of God for
+their faith and piety; nor were they directed by Christ
+or his apostles to renounce their profession; therefore
+the profession of arms is not inconsistent with Christian
+duty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> They were first soldiers and then Christians;
+and we have no evidence that they continued in the
+profession of arms; nor are we warranted to say that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+they were not directed to renounce that profession, as
+the Scriptures are silent on the subject. Peter, it
+appears, tarried a number of days with Cornelius, and
+he doubtless explained to him the spirit and precepts
+of the gospel; and it is very probable that neither
+Cornelius nor the Centurion continued soldiers in any
+other sense than they were soldiers of Christ, as the
+idolatrous rites enjoined on the Roman soldiers were
+totally inconsistent with the Christian character, aside
+from the unlawfulness of war itself. Besides, the Roman
+soldiers were as often engaged in offensive as in defensive
+war; therefore, if the argument has any force on
+the question, it will tolerate not only defensive but
+offensive war, and also the idolatrous rites of the
+Roman armies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection tenth.</i> Our Lord paid tribute money, which
+went to support military power, but he would not contribute
+to the support of a wicked thing, therefore war
+is not inconsistent with Christianity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> A distinguished trait of the Christian religion
+is peace. The command is, &ldquo;Follow peace with
+all men.&rdquo; &ldquo;Blessed are the peacemakers: for they shall
+be called the children of God.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Our Lord set the example of giving no just cause of
+offense to any. Tribute was demanded of him unjustly
+according to the existing laws, but lest fault should be
+found, he wrought a miracle and paid it. Money is a
+temporal thing, and belongs to the governments of this
+world, as the various coins bear the ensign of the nation
+by whom they were made; but the Christian&rsquo;s treasure
+is not in this world, and when the rulers of this world<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+call for that which bears their own image and superscription,
+Christians have no right to withhold from
+them their dues, for they must &ldquo;render to Cæsar the
+things that are Cæsar&rsquo;s.&rdquo; For this cause they ought to
+pay tribute and resign up temporal things without a
+murmur to temporal governments, and leave it with
+Cæsar to manage the things of Cæsar. Thus far are
+Christians warranted to act, from the example of Christ
+and the precepts of the gospel; but how does the lawfulness
+of war follow from Christians rendering to
+Cæsar his due? Is it because some of the money goes
+to support war? Probably, of the money which our
+Lord paid as much went to the support of idolatry and
+the games of the day as to the support of war. Now
+if the argument is sound, we may not only prove by it
+the lawfulness of war but the lawfulness of idolatry
+and many other abominable things practiced by the
+heathen governments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection eleventh.</i> Our Lord, just before his crucifixion,
+commanded his disciples to take swords, and, if
+any were destitute, to sell their garments and procure
+them, as they would no longer have his personal presence
+to protect them; and as they were to encounter
+great trials and difficulties, they must, besides relying
+on providence, take all prudent means for their defense
+and preservation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> That our Lord did not direct them to take
+swords for self-defense is evident because he told them
+that two were enough, and because the disciples never
+made any use of them after their Master directed Peter
+to put up his and pronounced a penalty on all who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+should have recourse to swords afterwards. But the
+design seems to have been to show by example in the
+most trying situation where self-defense was justifiable,
+if in any case, that the use of the sword was utterly
+prohibited under the gospel economy, and to show the
+criminality and danger of ever using deathly weapons
+against mankind afterwards. If Christ&rsquo;s kingdom had
+been of this world, then, he tells us, his servants would
+have fought; but his kingdom being not of this world,
+the weapons of their warfare were not carnal but
+spiritual. He therefore rebuked them for their mistaken
+zeal, healed the wound they made, and forbade
+the use of the sword.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection twelfth.</i> Christians are commanded to be
+in subjection to civil rulers who are God&rsquo;s ministers to
+execute wrath on the wicked and are ministers of good
+to the church; therefore Christians are bound to take
+the sword at their command; for civil government is
+ordained of God and civil rulers are not to bear the
+sword in vain, and Christians may lawfully do what God
+ordains to be done.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> That civil government, so called in distinction
+from religious government, is ordained by God is
+fully admitted, and also that God ordains whatsoever
+comes to pass. But there is a great difference between
+his decretive and his preceptive will. The former is
+not a rule of duty for man without the latter; the latter
+is always a rule of duty. This fact might be proved by
+a multitude of instances from Scripture. Persons therefore
+may be very wicked in doing what God ordains to
+be done, if they act without his command.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>That civil governments and civil rulers exist only by
+God&rsquo;s decretive will, which is fulfilled by his providence
+and not by his preceptive will, is evident because God
+has never authorized the appointment of them or given
+any precepts or any commands as a code of laws to any
+denomination or class of people as such, distinct from
+his own covenant people or church; and this fact I beg
+leave to submit as a conclusive evidence that civil governments
+and civil rulers exist only by God&rsquo;s decretive
+will and not by his preceptive will. Under the ancient
+dispensation no laws or directions were given to any
+class of men, as such, other than God&rsquo;s own covenant
+people or church, unless some special commands on
+singular occasions, or the general command to repent
+and turn to God, be excepted.</p>
+
+<p>The king on the throne of Israel was as truly an
+officer in the church of God as the high priest who
+entered into the holy of holies. Both were set apart
+and anointed with the holy oil, at the command of God,
+and both were types of the Son of God. The king as
+much typified his kingly office as the priest did his
+priestly office. Both were necessary parts of that complete
+shadow of good things then to come.</p>
+
+<p>Under the gospel dispensation no authority from
+God is to be found for appointing and setting apart
+civil rulers, nor are there any directions given to civil
+rulers, <i>as such</i>, how to conduct in their office, unless
+those who rule in the church are called civil rulers.
+All the precepts and directions in the gospel, excepting
+such as were special (as those which related only to the
+apostles) or such as are universal (relating alike to all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+men), are given to the disciples as members of Christ&rsquo;s
+kingdom, who are not of this world, even as he was not
+of this world.</p>
+
+<p>The Son of God came into the world to set up the
+kingdom of heaven, which is a perfect and everlasting
+kingdom and distinct from all other kingdoms which
+are to be destroyed to give place to his divine and
+heavenly reign. He came in the likeness of men, sin
+excepted, and laid down his life a ransom for the
+world, and then rose a triumphant conqueror, and in the
+complex character of God and man, as Mediator, he
+took the universe, his purchased possession, into his
+hands as a lawgiver, judge, and rewarder. He took the
+scepter when it departed from Judah, and is exalted far
+above all principality and power and might and dominion,
+and has a name above every name, all executive power
+in heaven and earth being given to him as Mediator.
+Thus, as Mediator, the kingdom of heaven is his kingdom.
+He reigns not only as King of kings and Lord of
+lords but seated on the throne of his father David, he is
+forever King in Zion and is head over all things to his
+church. His kingdom is not of this world, neither are
+his subjects of this world, though some of them are in it.</p>
+
+<p>He sent out his disciples to appear in a distinct character
+from the world and to be a light to it by imitating
+his example and by exhibiting his spirit and temper.
+They ought not to say, as the Jews did, that they have
+no king but Cæsar, for they have an everlasting King
+and kingdom and laws perfect and eternal. They should,
+therefore, set their affections on things above and not
+on things beneath.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>While the kingdoms of this world exist, Christians
+must remain in captivity to them and must obey all their
+laws which are not contrary to the laws of the gospel;
+otherwise they cannot remain peaceful, harmless, and
+blameless in the midst of a wicked world before whom
+they must shine as lights.</p>
+
+<p>Though the church is now in captivity, yet her redemption
+draweth nigh, for God will soon &ldquo;overthrow the
+throne of kingdoms,&rdquo; and the thrones will be cast down
+and the princes of this world will come to naught. The
+stone which was cut out of the mountain without hands
+will dash them to pieces, as the potter&rsquo;s vessel is shivered,
+and will become a great mountain and fill the whole
+earth; then the kingdom and the dominion and the
+greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven shall
+be given to the people of the saints of the most high
+God whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom and of
+whose dominion there shall be no end.</p>
+
+<p>Though God, by his decree, has ordained civil governments
+and established kingdoms, and will by his
+providence make them subservient to the good of his
+church and people, and notwithstanding it is the duty
+of Christians to be in subjection to them and pay tribute,
+yet it does not follow that their genius and laws may
+not often be contrary to the genius and laws of the
+gospel, and when they are so Christians must not obey
+them nor count their lives dear to themselves. It
+should be distinctly remembered that when Christians
+were exhorted and commanded to be obedient to civil
+rulers, they were under heathen, idolatrous, civil governments,
+and those civil governments were by no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+means congenial with the spirit and precepts of the
+gospel; still Christians were commanded to be in subjection
+to them; not, however, without limitation, for
+they utterly refused obedience in many instances and
+nobly suffered or died as martyrs.</p>
+
+<p>Thus civil government may be an ordinance of God,
+may be subservient to the good of the church, may be
+an instrument in God&rsquo;s hands of executing his wrath,
+and Christians may be bound to obey magistrates in all
+things not contrary to the gospel; and yet it will not
+follow that Christians may consistently with the gospel
+take up the sword or do anything to countenance war.</p>
+
+<p>If it be the duty of Christians to take the sword and
+enter the field of battle at the command of their civil
+rulers, then there could be no impropriety in having
+armies wholly made up of real Christians, especially
+since it is the duty of every man to become a Christian;
+and as professing Christian nations are almost constantly
+fighting each other, it would be perfectly proper
+for hosts of pious saints to be daily engaged in shedding
+each other&rsquo;s blood. But how would it appear, how
+does it appear, for those who have drunk into the same
+peaceful and heavenly spirit, who are united together
+by the tender ties of the Redeemer&rsquo;s blood, who are all
+members of the same family, and who hope through
+divine grace to dwell together in everlasting love and
+blessedness, to be fighting one another here with
+relentless fury?</p>
+
+<p>Let us contemplate the subject, in this point of view,
+a little further. Suppose an English and an American
+frigate in the time of war, both manned entirely with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+real Christians, should meet in a neutral port. Ought
+they not then to conduct towards each other as brethren
+of one common Lord? As they are all members of the
+same family and have all been redeemed by the same
+blood, and sanctified by the same divine spirit, they
+surely must have the most tender affection for each
+other, and it would be highly proper for them to meet
+together for Christian fellowship, worship, and communion.
+Suppose, then, that they occasionally go on
+board each other&rsquo;s ships for religious worship; that
+their chaplains lead in their devotions, using such petitions
+as these&mdash;praying that they may be all of one
+heart and one mind in the knowledge of Christ, knit
+together in the bonds of Christian love; that they may
+have much of the wisdom from above which is first
+pure, then peaceable, gentle, easy to be entreated; that
+they may do good to all as they have opportunity, especially
+to the household of faith; that they may be meek
+and gentle as lambs and harmless as doves; that they
+may be kind and forgiving and that, like their Divine
+Master, they may return good for evil and have their
+affections on things above and not on things beneath;
+after which they unitedly partake of the symbols of
+Christ&rsquo;s broken body and shed blood, and then part
+with the tenderest tokens of Christian fellowship and
+love. They leave the port and meet again at sea. It
+now becomes their duty, on the principles of war, instead
+of meeting as Christian brethren, to meet as raging
+tigers and discharge the flaming engines of death on
+each other; and in order to perform &ldquo;their duty to
+their God and country,&rdquo; they must exert all their power<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+and skill to destroy one another. The dreadful struggle
+and carnage must be continued by both parties as long
+as both can fight. When half of their crews are wallowing
+in their blood and expiring in agonies, a violent
+effort must be made by one or both to board the other
+and end the contest sword in hand. Those hands which
+recently saluted each other with Christian love now
+plunge the envenomed steel into their brethren&rsquo;s bosoms.
+At length one is vanquished and yields to the other.
+Those who remain alive after the conflict again unite
+in prayer and give thanks to God that he has given
+them courage and strength to fight so nobly, and that
+he has shielded their lives in the hour of battle. Thus
+they again resume their Christian fellowship and communion.
+This mutual fellowship, communion, and love
+are perfectly consistent with Christian character and
+are required by it. The conduct which has been supposed
+as enemies when fighting is also entirely consistent
+with the principles of war and with the character
+of warriors, and is such as would be highly applauded
+and admired by the world. But is it not obviously and
+perfectly absurd and perfectly incompatible with the
+principles of the gospel for Christians to act in this
+twofold character? If, however, it is the duty of Christians
+to obey the command of their rulers and engage
+in war, then it would be perfectly proper for what has
+been supposed to take place. Christians may one day
+surround the table of the Lord together, and the next
+kill and destroy each other.</p>
+
+<p>The god of this world, not being yet chained down
+to hell, deceives the nations and gathers them together<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+to battle; but the children of peace, the citizens of Zion,
+ought not to mingle with them or listen to the deceiver.
+They should take to themselves not carnal weapons but
+the whole armor of God, that they may be able to stand
+in an evil day and to quench all the fiery darts of Satan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection thirteenth.</i> To deny the right of the magistrate
+to call on his subjects to take the sword is to deny
+that he is an avenger to execute wrath, though the
+gospel expressly declares that he is.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> This conclusion does not follow unless it is
+a fact that God cannot and does not actually make him
+the instrument of doing it, by his providence, without
+his command; for, as we have already observed, men
+may fulfill the decrees of God under his providence,
+without his command, and be very criminal in the deed.
+God raised up the king of Assyria and made him the
+rod of his anger, to chastise his people and to execute
+wrath upon the ungodly nations around. &ldquo;Howbeit he
+meant not so, but it was in his heart to <i>cut off</i> nations
+not a few.&rdquo; And God declared, with reference to him,
+&ldquo;that when he had performed his whole work he would
+punish the fruit of his stout heart and the glory of his
+high looks.&rdquo; It will not be contended that warlike
+nations are commanded by God to destroy and trample
+down the nations of the earth as the dust of their feet;
+yet, when they do so, they doubtless fulfill his high
+decree and are avengers to execute his wrath on a
+wicked world.</p>
+
+<p>The beast represented in the Revelation with seven
+heads and ten horns has generally been considered as
+an emblem of nations. These ten horns, or powers, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+to hate the great harlot of Babylon; to eat her flesh
+and burn her with fire; and though they destroy the
+greatest enemy of the church, and in this way are ministers
+of good to her, yet they receive their power and
+their seat and their authority from the old serpent, the
+dragon. And a magistrate or king may be a minister
+of good to the church and an avenger to execute wrath,
+and still be very wicked in the deed and use very
+unlawful means to accomplish the end. While he fulfills
+the decree of Heaven, he acts not in obedience to
+the command of God, but to the dictates of his own
+lusts and passions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection fourteenth.</i> The passages of Scripture which
+have been quoted against retaliation and which inculcate
+love to enemies and the returning of good for evil
+have reference to individuals in their conduct towards
+each other, but have no relation to civil government and
+are not intended as a rule of duty for one nation towards
+another; they therefore have no bearing on the subject
+of war.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> Those precepts of the gospel appear to be
+binding universally without any limitation, and men
+have no right to limit that which God has not limited.
+If the commands of the gospel are binding upon every
+one in his individual capacity, then they must be binding
+upon every one in any collective body, so that
+whatever is morally wrong for every individual must
+be equally wrong for a collective body; and a nation is
+only a large number of individuals united so as to act
+collectively as one person. Therefore, if it is criminal
+for an individual to lie, steal, quarrel, and fight, it is also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+criminal for nations to lie, steal, quarrel, and fight. If
+it is the duty of an individual to be kind and tender-hearted
+and to have a forgiving and merciful disposition,
+it is likewise the duty of nations to be kind, forgiving,
+and merciful. If it is the duty of an individual to return
+good for evil, then it is the duty of nations to return
+good for evil.</p>
+
+<p>It is self-evident that individuals cannot delegate
+power to communities which they do not possess themselves.
+Therefore, if every individual is bound to obey
+the precepts of the gospel and cannot as an individual
+be released from the obligation, then individuals have
+no power to release any collective body from that obligation.
+To say that God has given to nations a right to
+return evil for evil is begging the question, for it does
+not appear and cannot be shown that God has restricted
+the precepts of the gospel to individuals, or that he has
+given any precepts to nations as such, or to any other
+community than his own covenant people or church. This
+objection makes government an abstraction according
+with the common saying, &ldquo;Government is without a soul.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>No practice has a more corrupt tendency than that
+of attempting to limit the Scriptures so as to make
+them trim with the corrupt practices of mankind. Whoever,
+for the sake of supporting war, attempts to limit
+these precepts of the gospel to individuals and denies
+that they are binding upon nations destroys one of the
+main pillars by which the lawfulness of war is upheld.
+The right of nations to defend themselves with the
+sword is argued on the supposed right of individual
+self-preservation; as it is said to be right for individuals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+to defend themselves with deathly weapons, so it is lawful
+for nations to have recourse to the sword for defense
+of their rights. But if these passages are applicable to
+individuals and prohibit them from acts of retaliation,
+and if the rights of nations are founded on the rights
+of individuals, then nations have no right to retaliate
+injury.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection fifteenth.</i> Christians, with comparatively
+few exceptions, have not doubted the lawfulness of
+war, and many have actually fought and bled on the
+field of battle and considered themselves in the way
+of their duty. And shall all our pious forefathers be
+condemned for engaging in war?</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> It is admitted that many pious people have
+engaged in war, but they might have been in an error
+on this subject as well as on many other subjects.
+Many of our pious forefathers engaged in the slavery
+of their fellow-men, and thought themselves in the way
+of their duty; but does it follow that they were not in
+an error? The circumstance that multitudes defend a
+sentiment is no certain evidence of its truth. Some of
+the reformers were objected to because the multitude
+were against them. Popularity, however, ever has
+influenced and ever will influence mankind more than
+plain gospel duty, until the earth shall be filled with
+the abundance of peace. But notwithstanding this, it
+is not right to follow the multitude to do evil. All
+ought to remember that they have no right to follow the
+example of any one any further than that example coincides
+with the example of Christ or the precepts of the
+gospel; all other standards are fallible and dangerous.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If real Christians have, from mistaken zeal, prayed
+against each other and fought each other and shed each
+other&rsquo;s blood, this does not justify war.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection sixteenth.</i> If Christians generally should
+adopt these sentiments, it would be impossible for them
+to subsist in this world in its present state, and if they
+did continue it must be in abject slavery. They would
+become hewers of wood and drawers of water to the
+tyrannical and oppressive, and would only encourage
+them in their deeds of wickedness. The injustice of
+men must be restrained or the earth will again be filled
+with violence. The necessity of the case is such that
+mankind would be warranted to take up arms to maintain
+their rights and repel oppressors, if the Scriptures
+were silent on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> We have the history of the heathen world
+to teach us what mankind are without the light of revelation.
+They are full of all unrighteousness, covetousness,
+maliciousness; full of enmity, murder, debate,
+deceit, malignity; they are proud, boasters, without
+natural affection, implacable, unmerciful. Now the very
+design of the gospel is to subdue and overcome these
+abominable passions and dispositions; not however by
+returning violence for violence but by producing virtues
+directly contrary. The great duty of Christians is
+to be a light to this wicked world by exhibiting in their
+conduct and conversation the spirit and temper of the
+gospel. If such were the practice of Christians, we have
+reason to believe that wicked men would be overawed and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+deterred from their violence in a great measure. Besides,
+if all real Christians should utterly refuse to bear arms
+for the destruction of their fellow-men, it would greatly
+diminish the strength and boldness of warlike nations,
+so that it would be impracticable for them to prosecute
+war with the vigor and fury that they now do.</p>
+
+<p>But if the gospel prohibits war, then to urge the necessity
+of the case against the commands of God is
+open rebellion against his government as well as total
+distrust of his word and providence.</p>
+
+<p>If Christians live in habitual obedience to God&rsquo;s commands,
+they have the promise that all things shall work
+together for their good, and they have no reason to fear
+them that kill the body and after that &ldquo;have no more
+that they can do.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is strange that Christians should have so great a
+reluctance to suffer inconvenience in worldly things for
+the sake of the gospel. The scoffs and persecutions of
+the world and the fear of the loss of worldly things are
+powerful barriers against <i>Christian</i> warfare. The gospel
+teaches us that all who live godly in Christ Jesus
+shall suffer persecution, and that through much tribulation
+the saints must enter into the kingdom of heaven;
+and is it not plainly owing wholly to their conformity
+to the world that they now suffer so little persecution
+and practice so little self-denial? If there is reserved
+for them an eternal weight of glory, what if they, like
+their Divine Master, should not have where to lay their
+heads? If they are to inherit a crown of immortal
+glory, what if they are called to suffer the loss of
+earthly things? If they are hereafter to reign as kings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+and priests unto God, what if they are not ranked among
+the great and honorable of the earth? If they suffer
+with Christ, then will they also reign with him; but if
+they deny him, he also will deny them; and if they are
+ashamed of him, he will also be ashamed of them before
+his Father and the holy angels. Let Christians then
+obey his commands and trust to his protection while
+they resolutely abstain from the wicked practices of
+the world.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection seventeenth.</i> It is the duty of mankind to
+use means for the preservation of life and liberty; they
+must till the ground, if they expect a crop. It would be
+presumptuous for them to pray for and to expect their
+daily bread without using such means as God has put
+in their power to obtain it; and it would be equally
+presumptuous to expect the preservation of their lives
+and liberties without using such means to preserve and
+defend them as God has put into their hand; they
+must act as well as pray.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> That using means is the duty of Christians,
+there can be no doubt; but they must be such as God
+has appointed, and not such as human wisdom may
+dictate. There is no dispute as to the propriety of
+using means, but only as to the kind of means which
+Christians ought to use. The weapons of their warfare
+are not carnal, but spiritual, and they are mighty
+through God to the pulling down the strongholds of
+sin and Satan. It is often said, If you wish to put a
+stop to war, spread the gospel through the world. We
+would inquire, If the gospel tolerates war, how will its
+universal diffusion put a stop to war?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As has already been observed, it would be open rebellion
+to do what God has forbidden, and high-handed
+presumption to ask his aid in the things which he has
+prohibited.</p>
+
+<p><i>Objection eighteenth.</i> Some ecclesiastical historians
+inform us that Christians in the early ages of the church,
+though they contended so firmly for the faith as to
+suffer martyrdom rather than submit to idolatry, yet
+did not refuse to bear arms in defense of their country,
+even when called upon by heathen magistrates, and
+their example ought to have weight with us.</p>
+
+<p><i>Answer.</i> The testimony of the early Fathers is entitled
+to regard, but must not be considered as infallible
+authority, for they were men of like passions with others
+and cannot be followed safely any farther than they
+followed Christ. But the weight of their testimony on
+the subject, I apprehend, will be found to stand directly
+against the lawfulness of war on Christian principles.</p>
+
+<p>Erasmus, who was an eminent scholar, and who was
+probably as well acquainted with the sentiments of the
+primitive Fathers as any modern writer, in his <i>Antipolemus,
+or Plea against War</i>, replies to the advocates
+of war as follows:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> &ldquo;They further object those opinions
+or decrees of the Fathers in which war seems to be
+approved. Of this sort there are some, but they are
+only late writers, who appeared when the true spirit of
+Christianity began to languish, and they are very few;
+while, on the other hand, there are innumerable ones
+among the writers of acknowledged sanctity which
+absolutely forbid war; and why should the few rather
+than the many intrude themselves into our mind?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Barclay, who examined the writings of the Fathers
+on this subject, says, &ldquo;It is as easy to obscure the sun
+at midday as to deny that the primitive Christians
+renounced all revenge and war.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Clarkson, who also examined the Fathers, declares
+that &ldquo;every Christian writer of the second century who
+notices the subject makes it unlawful for Christians to
+bear arms.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Clarkson has made copious extracts from the writings
+of the Fathers against war, a few of which, as quoted
+by him and others, shall be inserted here.</p>
+
+<p>Justin Martyr and Tatian both considered the devil
+the author of war.</p>
+
+<p>Justin Martyr, while speaking of the prophecies relating
+to the days of peace, says, &ldquo;That this prophecy is
+fulfilled you have good reason to believe, for we who in
+times past killed one another do not now fight with our
+enemies.&rdquo; Clarkson adds, &ldquo;It is observable that the
+word &lsquo;fight&rsquo; does not mean to strike, beat, or give a
+blow, but to fight in war; and the word &lsquo;enemy&rsquo; does
+not mean a common adversary who has injured us, but
+an enemy of state.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Irenæus says that Christians in his day &ldquo;had changed
+their swords and their lances into instruments of peace,
+and that they knew not how to fight.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Maximilian and a number of others in the second
+century actually suffered martyrdom for refusing, on
+gospel principles, to bear arms.</p>
+
+<p>Celsus made it one of his charges against the Christians
+that they refused to bear arms for the Emperor.
+Origen, in the following century, admitted the fact and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+justified the Christians on the ground of the unlawfulness
+of war itself.</p>
+
+<p>Tertullian, in his discourse to Scapula, tells us &ldquo;that
+no Christians were to be found in the Roman armies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In his declaration on the worship of idols he says,
+&ldquo;Though the soldiers came to John and received a
+certain form to be observed, and though the Centurion
+believed, yet Jesus Christ, by disarming Peter disarmed
+every soldier afterwards; for custom can never sanction
+an illicit act.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Again, in his <i>Soldier&rsquo;s Garland</i>, he says: &ldquo;Can a
+soldier&rsquo;s life be lawful, when Christ has pronounced
+that he who lives by the sword shall perish by the
+sword? Can one who professes the peaceable doctrine
+of the gospel be a soldier when it is his duty not so
+much as to go to law? And shall he who is not to
+avenge his own wrongs be instrumental in bringing
+others into chains, imprisonment, torment, and
+death?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He tells us, also, that the Christians in his day were
+sufficiently numerous to have defended themselves if
+their religion had permitted them to have recourse to
+the sword.</p>
+
+<p>There are some marvelous accounts of Christian soldiers
+related by Eusebius; but Valesius, in his annotations
+on these accounts, has abundantly proved them
+to be fabulous, though he was not opposed to war and
+could have had no other object but to support the
+truth. Eusebius, in his orations on Constantine, uses
+such extravagant adulation, which falls but little short
+of idolatry, that his account of Christian warriors ought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+to be received with great caution, especially when we
+recollect that church and state were, in his day, united.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, it is very evident that the early Christians
+did refuse to bear arms, and although one of their
+objections was the idolatrous rites connected with military
+service, yet they did object on account of the
+unlawfulness of war itself.</p>
+
+<p>We have no good evidence of Christians being found
+in the armies until we have evidence of great corruption
+in the church. But admitting that we had good evidence
+that there were professing Christians in the army at an
+early period of the church, I apprehend it would be of
+little importance, for the idolatrous rites and ceremonies
+of the heathen armies were of such a nature as to be
+totally inconsistent with Christian character, and the
+example of idolatrous Christians surely ought to have
+no weight.</p>
+
+<p>Some objections of less importance might be stated
+which have from time to time been made against the
+sentiments here advocated; but to state and reply to
+everything that might be said is not necessary. Specious
+objections have been and still are made to almost
+every doctrine of Christianity. Mankind can generally
+find some plausible arguments to support whatever they
+wish to believe. The pleas in favor of war are very congenial
+with the natural feelings of the human heart, and
+unless men will examine with a serious, candid, and prayerful
+disposition to ascertain the truth as it is in Jesus,
+they will be very likely to imbibe and defend error.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+<p>The writer, though far from supposing that everything
+he has said on a subject that has been so little
+discussed is free from error, is conscious of having
+endeavored to examine it with seriousness and candor,
+and feels satisfied that the general sentiments he has
+advanced are according to godliness. He sincerely
+hopes that every one who may peruse these pages will
+do it in the meek and unbiased spirit of the gospel,
+and then judge whether war can be reconciled with the
+lamblike example of Christ; whether it is really forgiving
+the trespasses of enemies, loving and doing them
+good, and returning good for evil; for if it is not, it
+is unquestionably inconsistent with the spirit and the
+precepts of Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>All who earnestly desire and look for the millennial
+glory of the church should consider that it can never
+arrive until the spirit and practice of war are abolished.
+All who love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity cannot
+but ardently desire that wars may cease to the ends of
+the earth and that mankind should embrace each other
+as brethren. If so, is it not their duty to do all in their
+power to promote so benevolent an object? Ought not
+every individual Christian to conduct in such a manner
+that if every other person imitated his example it would
+be best for the whole? If so, would they not immediately
+renounce everything that leads to wars and fightings
+and embrace everything which would promote that
+glorious reign of righteousness and peace for which
+they earnestly hope, long, and pray? &ldquo;The work of
+righteousness shall be peace, and the effect of righteousness,
+quietness and assurance forever.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3 style="text-indent: 0px;">FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Says the Rev. Dr. Scott, in his Essay, p. 422: &ldquo;We ought not
+therefore to fear our enemies because he will be with us, and if God
+be for us, who can be against us? Or who can doubt but he that is in
+us is greater than he that is in the world? This was typically intimated
+in the promises made to Israel respecting their wars with the Canaanites
+and other nations, which were shadows and figures of the good
+fight of faith.&rdquo; Bishop Horne, in his preface to the Psalms, views the
+subject in the same light.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> All these objections introduced are carefully selected from some of
+the ablest advocates for the lawfulness of war.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The last point American Christians will give up is the justification
+of their fathers in the War of the Revolution.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+<h2>HYMN</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center; font-size: 90%; font-weight: bold; width: 80%; margin: 0 auto;">SUGGESTED BY THE PRECEDING TRAIN OF THOUGHT, AND APPENDED
+TO THE ORIGINAL EDITION OF THE ESSAY ON WAR</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Great Sun of glory, rise and shine,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Dispel the gloom of night;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Let the foul spirits stretch their wings,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And fly before thy light.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Rebuke the nations, stop their rage,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Destroy the warrior&rsquo;s skill,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Hush all the tumults of the earth;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">O speak! say, &ldquo;Peace, be still.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Break, break the cruel warrior&rsquo;s sword,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Asunder cut his bow,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Command him by thy sovereign word<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To let the captives go.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">No more let heroes&rsquo; glory sound,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">No more their triumphs tell,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Bring all the pride of nations down&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Let war return to hell.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Then let thy blessed kingdom come,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">With all its heavenly train,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And pour thy peaceful spirit down,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Like gentle showers of rain.<br /></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Then shall the prowling beasts of prey,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Like lambs be meek and mild;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Vipers and asps shall harmless twine<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Around the weaned child.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The happy sons of Zion sit<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Secure beneath their vines;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or, shadowed by their fig-tree&rsquo;s tops,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Shall drink their cheering wines.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The nations to thy scepter bow,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And own &ldquo;thy gentle sway&rdquo;;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then all the wandering tribes of men<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To thee their tribute pay.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Angelic hosts shall view the scene,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Delighted, spread their wings;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Down to the earth again they fly,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And strike their lofty strings.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The listening nations catch the sound,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And join the heavenly choir,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To swell aloud the song of praise,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And vie with sacred fire.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Glory to God on high!&rdquo; they sound,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">In strains of angels&rsquo; mirth;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Good will and peace&rdquo; to men, they sing,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Since heaven is brought to earth.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></p>
+<h2 style="margin-top: 3em;">THE MEDIATOR&rsquo;S KINGDOM NOT OF
+THIS WORLD: BUT SPIRITUAL</h2>
+
+<p style="text-align: center"><span class="smcap">By an Inquirer</span></p>
+
+<p class="blockquot">The writer of the following pages has, for a considerable time,
+doubted the propriety of some of the common practices of Christians.
+To satisfy himself he has, if he is not deceived, candidly
+and diligently examined the Scriptures with a view to ascertain
+and practice the truth. After considerable inquiry his doubts
+increased. He then applied to some highly respectable and pious
+friends, who frankly acknowledged that they had never fully examined
+the subject, as they had never had any doubt concerning it.
+They judged the matter weighty and advised him to arrange his
+thoughts and commit them to paper. This he has endeavored to
+do as well as a very infirm state of body and a press of commercial
+business would admit. After submitting what he had written to
+some of his friends, they unanimously advised him to lay it before
+the public, hoping that it might have a tendency to call the subject
+into notice and lead to a more complete and full examination.
+With this view he has ventured to commit the following sheets to
+the press. He has only to beg that the Christian who may take
+the trouble to read them will not be so solicitous to reply to the
+arguments as to examine and illustrate the truth.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of our glorious Mediator is but little
+noticed in the world, yet it is precious in the eyes of
+the Lord. The Lord hath chosen Zion. She is the
+redeemed of the Lord. He hath said, he who touches
+her touches the apple of his eye. She is purchased by
+the blood of the Lamb, sanctified by the Spirit of grace,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+and defended by the arm of Omnipotence. Notwithstanding
+she may still be covered with sackcloth, the
+days of her mourning have an end. The Lord will raise
+her from the dust and make her an eternal excellency
+and the joy of many generations. The mystical body
+of Christ is composed of that innumerable company
+which no man can number,&mdash;out of every nation and
+kindred and people and tongue,&mdash;which will finally stand
+before the throne of God and the Lamb, clothed with
+white robes and palms in their hands. It is but one
+body, although composed of many members. The
+temple, which was a symbol of the church, was composed
+of many stones, although but one building. The
+spiritual temple is built of lively stones upon the foundation
+of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself
+being the chief corner stone. This spiritual temple
+will continue to rise under different dispensations until
+the elect are gathered together from the four winds of
+heaven and the top stone is carried up with shouts of
+Grace, Grace, unto it!</p>
+
+<p>The Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is not of this world. &ldquo;Jesus
+answered, My kingdom is not of this world: if my
+kingdom were of this world, then would my servants
+fight, that I should not be delivered to the Jews&rdquo;
+(John xviii. 36). In remarking upon these words we are
+naturally led to consider,</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">I. What the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">II. Its nature.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">III. Its laws.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>From which we propose to make several inferences and
+illustrations for improvement.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Agreeably to the arrangement of our subject, we
+shall first endeavor to ascertain what the kingdom of
+the Mediator is; or that kingdom which he so emphatically
+calls &ldquo;My Kingdom,&rdquo; in distinction from all other
+kingdoms. &ldquo;Jesus answered, My kingdom&mdash;&mdash;&rdquo; Our
+glorious Mediator takes to himself the majesty of a
+sovereign and claims a kingdom. In his mediatorial
+character he possesses, in an extensive sense, universal
+empire. He is exalted far above all principality and
+power and might and dominion, and has a name which
+is above every name. He is King of kings and Lord of
+lords. He is not only king on his holy hill of Zion but
+rules amongst the nations. He is, however, in an appropriate
+sense, king of saints under the gospel dispensation,
+as he governs the worlds with a view to his own
+glory and their exaltation.</p>
+
+<p>That the church, under the gospel dispensation, is in
+a special manner the kingdom of heaven or the kingdom
+which Christ so often called his kingdom appears
+evident (it is thought) from many passages of Scripture.
+The prophet Daniel, while interpreting the symbols of
+the four great empires which were to arise in the earth,
+adds that &ldquo;in the days of these kings shall the God of
+heaven set up a kingdom which shall never be destroyed.&rdquo;
+This kingdom could not be the Church Universal, for
+that was established in the family of Adam and had continued
+without being broken in a line of holy men down
+to the prophet&rsquo;s day. It must therefore have a special
+reference to something future. When John the Baptist
+came preaching, he said, &ldquo;Repent ye, for the kingdom
+of heaven is at hand,&rdquo; fully implying that it had not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+then commenced. He preached repentance preparatory
+to ushering in that kingdom which the God of heaven
+was about to set up. In the days of the fourth great
+kingdom mentioned in the prophecy of Daniel the
+Lord Jesus Christ came into our world to establish his
+kingdom. As he entered upon his ministry he declared
+that the time was fulfilled and that the kingdom of God
+was at hand. When he first commissioned his disciples
+and sent them forth to preach, he directed them to say
+to their hearers, &ldquo;The kingdom of God is come nigh
+unto you.&rdquo; In speaking of John the Baptist, he says,
+He was the greatest of prophets; but adds, &ldquo;He that
+is least in the kingdom of God is greater than he&rdquo;;
+which must be conclusive evidence that John the Baptist
+was not in the kingdom of God. At the Last Supper,
+after our Lord had blessed and partaken of the
+bread, he said to his disciples, &ldquo;I will not any more
+eat thereof until it be fulfilled in the kingdom of God.&rdquo;
+In like manner, after taking the cup, he said, &ldquo;I will
+not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of
+God shall come.&rdquo; All of which seems fully to imply
+that the kingdom which the God of heaven was about
+to set up did not commence before the gospel dispensation.
+Christ came under the Mosaic dispensation,
+that is, under the law, to redeem those who were under
+the law, by the sacrifice of himself; &ldquo;and being found in
+the fashion of a man, he humbled himself, and became
+obedient unto death, even the death of the cross.
+Wherefore God hath highly exalted him, and hath given
+him a name which is above every name.&rdquo; After he
+arose from the dead he appeared to his disciples<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> &ldquo;by
+many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days,
+and speaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom
+of God.&rdquo; &ldquo;And Jesus came and spake unto them, saying,
+All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth.
+Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in
+the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
+Ghost: teaching them to observe all things whatsoever
+I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you always,
+even unto the end of the world. Amen.&rdquo; Here we see
+the Mediator possessing a kingdom and giving laws to
+his subjects and commanding obedience. Although his
+kingdom was then small, like a little leaven, yet it had
+the power to leaven the whole lump. The stone which
+was cut out of the mountain without hands will become
+a great mountain and fill the whole earth. Every knee
+must finally bow to his scepter and every tongue confess
+that he is Lord to the glory of God the Father.</p>
+
+<p>From this concise view of the subject we conclude
+that the kingdom of God, or Christ&rsquo;s kingdom, is in a
+special manner the gospel dispensation which was not
+completely established until after the resurrection of
+our Lord.</p>
+
+<p>II. The next point of inquiry is its nature. &ldquo;Jesus
+answered, My kingdom is not of this world.&rdquo; By this
+we understand the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom, not being of
+this world, supposes that its nature, its laws, and its
+government are all distinct from the nature, laws, and
+governments of this world. That the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom
+is not of this world, but spiritual, heavenly, and
+divine, will fully appear, it is apprehended, from the
+following reasons.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1st. From the character of the King. He was not
+born like the kings of the earth. He was the Son of
+the living God and Heir of all things. He was conceived
+by the power of the Holy Ghost and born of a
+virgin. His birth was not celebrated with the earthly
+pomp of princes, but by a few humble shepherds and a
+choir of angels. His palace was a stable and his cradle
+a manger. When a child he was not amused with toys,
+but was about his Father&rsquo;s business. When he was dedicated
+to his ministry, it was not by the appointment of
+kings, or the consecration of bishops, but by the baptism
+of his humble forerunner, and the descent of the
+Holy Ghost in a bodily shape like a dove, and a voice
+from the excellent glory, saying, &ldquo;This is my beloved
+Son, in whom I am well pleased.&rdquo; His companions
+were the despised fishermen of Galilee and the angels
+of heaven. He was &ldquo;a man of sorrow and acquainted
+with grief&rdquo;; yet he was the eternal Son of the eternal
+Father. Nature owned his voice and devils trembled
+at his power; but he was despised and rejected of men.
+When he fed the hungry multitude, they were gratified
+with the loaves and fishes and sought to make him a
+king; but he departed out of the place; for his kingdom
+was not of this world. When Satan, the god of this
+world, offered him all the kingdoms of this world and
+the glory of them if he would only fall down and worship
+him, he rebuked him with holy contempt and said,
+Get thee hence, Satan; for his kingdom was not of
+this world. The Mediator did not intermeddle with
+the affairs of the governments of this world; for his
+kingdom was not of this world. When he was solicited<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>
+to command a brother to divide his earthly substance,
+instead of complying with the request he only gave a
+pointed admonition and said, &ldquo;Man, who made me a
+judge, or a divider, over you?&rdquo; When his enemies
+endeavored to catch him in his words by extorting from
+him something unfavorable to the laws of Cæsar, Jesus
+answered them and said, &ldquo;Render to Cæsar the things
+which are Cæsar&rsquo;s, and to God the things which are
+God&rsquo;s.&rdquo; When they demanded of him tribute, and that
+unjustly, according to their own laws, he paid it without
+a murmur, to set an example of peace and quietness
+for his disciples. In all things he avoided interfering
+or meddling with the governments of this world.</p>
+
+<p>2dly. From the representations of the Bible, &ldquo;The
+kingdom of God is righteousness, peace, and joy in
+the Holy Ghost.&rdquo; The Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is founded
+in right. His scepter is a right scepter. He rules in
+righteousness. &ldquo;The unrighteous shall not inherit the
+kingdom of God.&rdquo; Righteousness is opposed to all
+injustice, oppression, and cruelty; it regards the rights
+of God and man; it requires love to the Lord our God
+with all our heart, with all our mind, and with all our
+strength, and to our neighbors as ourselves. His kingdom
+is a kingdom of peace; he is the Prince of Peace.
+At his birth the angels sang, &ldquo;Peace on earth, and good
+will to men.&rdquo; Peace is opposed directly to all contention,
+war, and tumult, whether it regards individuals,
+societies, or nations. It forbids all wrath, clamor, and
+evil speaking. It forbids the resistance of evil or retaliation,
+and requires good for evil, blessing for cursing,
+and prayer for persecution. Our glorious Mediator not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+only exhibited a pattern of peace in his life but preached
+peace in the great congregation. His last and richest
+legacy to his disciples was the gift of peace: &ldquo;My
+peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you: not
+as the world giveth, give I unto you.&rdquo; Christ came in
+the power of the Spirit, and was full of the Holy Ghost.
+It is the communion of the Holy Ghost which fills the
+kingdom of heaven with that joy which is unspeakable
+and full of glory. &ldquo;Except a man be born of the Spirit,
+he cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven.&rdquo; Finally,
+we have his own express declaration, &ldquo;My kingdom is
+not of this world.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From what has been said it may be concluded that
+the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is, in a special sense, the gospel
+dispensation, or the kingdom of heaven, and that it
+is not of this world, but spiritual, heavenly, and divine.
+And this brings us to notice,</p>
+
+<p>III. The laws by which it is governed. It is governed
+by the same laws which regulate the heavenly
+hosts. &ldquo;Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father
+in heaven is perfect,&rdquo; is the command of our Divine
+Master. It is the kingdom of heaven. &ldquo;Jesus said,
+My kingdom is not of this world: if my kingdom were
+of this world, then would my servants fight, that I should
+not be delivered to the Jews.&rdquo; The laws of the Mediator&rsquo;s
+kingdom require supreme love to God. Jesus said,
+&ldquo;Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart,
+and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind; this is the
+first and great commandment.&rdquo; This implies right apprehension
+of his being and perfections, and supreme
+love to his word and delight in his law, such as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+sweet singer of Israel expressed: O how I love thy law!
+it is my meditation day and night. It implies unlimited
+confidence in God and unshaken belief in the testimony
+he has given of his Son and a spirit of filial obedience
+to all his precepts.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom require love to
+man: &ldquo;Thou shall love thy neighbour as thyself.&rdquo;
+This prohibits rendering to any man evil for evil; but,
+contrariwise, it demands blessing. It utterly forbids
+wrath, hatred, malice, envy, pride, revenge, and fighting;
+but requires, on the contrary, meekness, forgiveness,
+long-suffering, tenderness, compassion, and mercy.
+The subjects of the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom are commanded
+to do good to all as they have opportunity; but especially
+to those of the household of faith. This command
+extends not only to the gentle and kind but to
+the disobedient and froward; to friends and to enemies.
+&ldquo;If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give
+him drink,&rdquo; is the command of our Lord. This injunction,
+it is apprehended, is directly opposed to resisting
+the oppression of enemies by force. Jesus said, &ldquo;If
+my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants
+fight&rdquo;; but, instead of avenging wrongs, the
+explicit direction is &ldquo;to overcome evil with good.&rdquo;
+The Mediator is the only avenger of the wrongs done
+to his subjects: &ldquo;For it is written, Vengeance is mine,
+and I will repay, saith the Lord.&rdquo; In a special manner
+the subjects of the Mediator must love the brethren.
+They must visit the widow, the fatherless, and the
+afflicted, and live unspotted from the world. The Lord
+accepts every act of kindness done to the brethren as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+done to himself, and regards every act of injustice,
+cruelty, and revenge towards them as expressed towards
+himself. He considers them his own property, the purchase
+of his blood. He will, therefore, not only be their
+portion but their defense; a wall of fire round about
+them and a glory in the midst. The Mediator sits as
+King upon his holy hill of Zion, and is swaying his
+scepter in righteousness throughout his vast dominions.</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>Having very briefly considered what the Mediator&rsquo;s
+kingdom in a special manner is, its nature and its laws,
+we now pass, as was proposed, to make several inferences
+and illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>1st. If the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is in a special manner
+the gospel dispensation, and its nature and laws are
+not of this world, but spiritual, heavenly, and divine,
+then we may infer that the kingdoms of this world are
+not united to the kingdom of our Lord, but are opposed
+to it. If they are not for him, they are against him;
+and if they gather not with him, they scatter abroad.
+They must, therefore, be at war with the Lamb; but
+the Lamb shall overcome them, for he hath on his vesture
+and on his thigh a name written, King of kings
+and Lord of lords. The great conflict in our world is
+between the kingdom of the Mediator and the kingdom
+of Satan; but the victory is not uncertain. Although
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> &ldquo;heathen rage, and the people imagine a vain thing,
+the kings of the earth set themselves, and the rulers
+take counsel together, against the Lord, and against his
+Anointed, saying, Let us break their bands asunder, and
+cast away their cords from us. He that sitteth in the
+heavens shall laugh: the Lord shall have them in derision.
+Then shall he speak to them in his wrath, and
+vex them in his sore displeasure.&rdquo; &ldquo;Out of his mouth
+goeth a sharp sword, that with it he should smite the
+nations; and he shall rule them with a rod of iron: and
+he treadeth the winepress of the fierceness and wrath
+of Almighty God.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Psalmist, by the Holy Ghost, says of Christ,
+&ldquo;Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron; thou shalt
+dash them to pieces like a potter&rsquo;s vessel.&rdquo; Again,
+&ldquo;He shall cut off the spirit of princes; he is terrible to
+the kings of the earth.&rdquo; Isaiah, by the revealing spirit,
+had the scenes of futurity opened to his view. He saw
+the glorious Redeemer marching through the earth in
+the greatness of his power; for he saw, by prophetic
+vision, the great day of his wrath appear, and none but
+his redeemed were able to stand. In view of the dreadful
+scene his soul was filled with astonishment, and he
+exclaims:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> &ldquo;Who is this that cometh from Edom, with
+dyed garments from Bozrah? this that is glorious in
+his apparel, travelling in the greatness of his strength?
+I that speak in righteousness, mighty to save. Wherefore
+art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments
+like him that treadeth in the winefat? I have trodden
+the winepress alone; and of the people there was none
+with me: for I will tread them in my anger, and trample
+them in my fury; and their blood shall be sprinkled
+upon my garments. For the day of vengeance is in my
+heart, and the year of my redeemed is come. I looked,
+and there was none to help; and I wondered there was
+none to uphold: therefore mine arm brought salvation
+unto me; and my fury, it upheld me. And I will tread
+down the people in my anger, and make them drunk in
+my fury, and I will bring down their strength to the
+earth.&rdquo; From this it appears that the nations of the
+earth will be gathered like the grapes of a vineyard,
+and cast into the great wine press of the wrath of God
+Almighty; and the great Redeemer will thresh them
+in his anger and trample them in his fury. Their
+destruction must be inevitable if their laws and governments
+are directly opposed to the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom.
+When he shall come out of his place to shake
+terribly the nations of the earth, then the <i>earth</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> will
+no longer cover the blood of the slain; for he will make
+inquisition for blood, and write up the nations. Then
+he will stain the pride of all glory and bring into contempt
+all the honorable of the earth. The nations will
+be like stubble before the devouring fire, and will be
+chased away like chaff before the whirlwind, and no
+place will be found for them.</p>
+
+<p>The interpretation of the symbols of the four great
+empires by the prophet Daniel fully confirms this idea.
+In first describing the vision to Nebuchadnezzar he
+says:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> &ldquo;Thou sawest till that a stone was cut out without
+hands, which smote the image upon his feet that
+were of iron and clay, and brake them to pieces. Then
+was the iron, the clay, the brass, the silver, and the
+gold, broken to pieces together, and became like the chaff
+of the summer threshingfloors; and the wind carried
+them away, that no place was found for them: and the
+stone that smote the image became a great mountain,
+and filled the whole earth.&rdquo; The prophet thus interprets
+the vision: &ldquo;And in the days of these kings shall the
+God of heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be
+destroyed: and the kingdom shall not be left to other
+people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these
+kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever. Forasmuch as thou
+sawest that the stone was cut out of the mountain without
+hands, and that it brake in pieces the iron, the brass,
+the clay, the silver, and the gold; the great God hath made
+known to the king what shall come to pass hereafter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Thus we see that the kingdoms of the world by not
+submitting to the kingdom of our Lord, but by making
+war with the Lamb, are devoted to awful destruction,
+for the Lamb will overcome them. His kingdom will
+stand, for it is an everlasting kingdom; and of his
+dominion there shall be no end. The gospel dispensation
+(or the kingdom of heaven) must remain forever,
+as it is governed by the same spirit which prevails in
+the eternal fountain of blessedness himself. It is therefore
+emphatically called the kingdom of God not only
+in distinction from the kingdoms of this world but in
+distinction from all the other dispensations of the
+church. It is not of this world; it is the kingdom of
+heaven,&mdash;the reign of righteousness, peace, and joy in
+the Holy Ghost.</p>
+
+<p>2. If the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is not of this world,
+but spiritual, heavenly, and divine, and the kingdoms of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+this world are opposed to it, then we may infer that the
+kingdoms of this world must belong to the kingdom of
+Satan. There are but two kingdoms in our world. At
+the head of one is the Mediator, and at the head of the
+other is Satan. Satan is the god of this world and
+reigns without a rival in the hearts of the children of
+disobedience. He is the prince of the power of the air.
+All the kingdoms of this world and the glory of them
+are given to him<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> until the time that God shall write
+up the nations and make inquisition for blood. Then
+the great battle of God Almighty will be fought, and
+the beast and the false prophet will be cast into a lake
+of fire; and Satan will be bound a thousand years; and
+the saints will take the kingdom and possess it; and
+wars shall cease from under heaven. After the thousand
+years Satan will again be let loose, &ldquo;and shall
+go out to deceive the nations which are in the four
+quarters of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them
+together to battle: the number of whom is as the sand
+of the sea.&rdquo; &ldquo;And the devil who deceived them was
+cast into the lake of fire and brimstone, where the
+beast and the false prophet are, and shall be tormented
+day and night for ever and ever.&rdquo; Thus it appears that
+Satan is the mainspring of all warlike powers, and
+when he is bound wars will cease; but as soon as he is
+again let loose they will rage. The writer is sensible
+that this will be a very unpopular doctrine with the
+men of this world, and with those worldly Christians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+who are struggling and teasing and panting for the
+profits and the honors of this world. If it is a fact that
+the nature and laws of the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom are
+diametrically opposite to the kingdoms of this world,
+then the inference is irresistible that the kingdoms of
+this world belong not to the kingdom of our Lord but
+to the kingdom of Satan; and however unsavory the
+truth may be, it ought not to be disguised. Satan is
+the strong man, but the Mediator is the stronger, and
+he will bind him and spoil his goods. The Son of God
+was manifested that he might destroy the works of the
+devil. When he shall destroy the rage of the nations
+and the tumult of the people, then Satan&rsquo;s goods will
+be spoiled. When Satan is cast into the bottomless
+pit, tumult and war will retire with him back to hell;
+and instead of the blast of the trumpet and the groans
+of the dying will be heard the shouts of the saints and
+the songs of the redeemed. Then will be &ldquo;heard as it
+were the voice of a great multitude, and as the voice of
+many waters, and as the voice of mighty thunderings,
+saying, Alleluia, for the Lord God Omnipotent
+reigneth.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>3. If the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is not of this world,
+and the kingdoms of this world are under Satan&rsquo;s
+dominion, then we may infer the great impropriety of
+the subjects of the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom using the
+weapons of this world and engaging in tumults, wars,
+and fightings. &ldquo;Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of
+this world: if my kingdom were of this world, then
+would my servants fight, that I should not be delivered
+to the Jews.&rdquo; The Jews expected in their Messiah a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+temporal prince; but because his kingdom was not of
+this world they crucified the Lord of life and glory.
+Had he only appeared in the pomp of this world and in
+the splendor of a temporal conqueror to vanquish the
+Romans who were in possession of their earthly Canaan
+and oppressing their nation, they would immediately
+have rallied round his standard and followed him to
+earthly conquest and glory. He was apparently too
+inattentive to their rights and liberties (which the
+patriots of this world now emphatically call their dearest
+interests). They said, &ldquo;If we let him alone, all
+men will believe on him; and the Romans shall take
+away both our place and our nation.&rdquo; It may be asked,
+Why were the Jews apprehensive, if all men should
+believe on him, the Romans would take away both their
+place and their nation? The answer does not appear
+difficult. They doubtless perceived that both his life
+and precepts directly opposed rendering vengeance to
+their enemies; and, on the contrary, demanded nothing
+less than love to their enemies, good for evil, and
+blessing for cursing. This they could not endure, as it
+directly opposed their carnal desires and filled them
+with malice against the Prince of Peace. They might,
+with much greater propriety than any nation under the
+gospel light, have said, &ldquo;Shall we imbibe this pusillanimous
+spirit of doing good to those who oppress us and
+tamely bend our necks to the yoke of tyranny and
+suffer our dearest interests to be wrested from us without
+once making a struggle to defend them? Rather,
+let us arise and fight manfully, and defend our liberties
+or die gloriously in their vindication.&rdquo; We say they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+might, with much greater propriety, have made these
+declarations than any under the light of the gospel,
+because they considered themselves under the Mosaic
+dispensation which had fully tolerated them not only
+in defensive but offensive war. But when they perceived
+that the doctrines of the Mediator were calculated
+to disannul their dispensation and extinguish their
+carnal hopes (notwithstanding his credentials were
+divine), their malice was kindled against him, and their
+vengeance was not satiated until they wreaked their
+hands in the blood of the Son of God. And we may
+confidently expect that wherever the same Spirit of
+Christ lifts up a standard against the same carnal policy
+and temporal interest there will follow the same spirit
+of envy, persecution, and revenge which was manifested
+against the Lord of life and glory. If any man (no
+matter who) will live godly in Christ Jesus, he shall
+suffer persecution. The Spirit of Christ is the same
+now that it was then, and the world is the same, the
+carnal heart is the same, and the great adversary of
+souls is the same. Only let it be styled &ldquo;patriotic&rdquo; to
+persecute the followers of the Lamb of God, and we
+should soon see the heroes of this world drunk with the
+blood of the martyrs of Jesus; and probably many
+would be as conscientious as Paul was while breathing
+out threatenings and slaughter against the disciples of
+the meek and lowly Jesus. It is not impossible that
+when the witnesses<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> are slain, their crime may be a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+refusal to use carnal weapons in defense of their
+country.</p>
+
+<p>As it is a matter of great practical consequence to
+know whether the subjects of the Prince of Peace are
+authorized in any case under the gospel dispensation to
+use carnal weapons or not, we propose in this inference
+to be a little more particular. Although it is supposed
+that the Lord Jesus Christ acted in a threefold capacity,&mdash;as
+God, Man, and Mediator,&mdash;yet we have never
+heard it questioned by Christians that all his conduct as
+man was to remain a perfect example for his brethren,
+and all his precepts a perfect rule for their duty. As
+his kingdom was not of this world, he did not intermeddle
+with the governments of this world; he only
+submitted to all their laws which were not contrary to
+the laws of his heavenly Father. He was meek and
+lowly; so little did he possess of this world that he had
+not where to lay his head. He went about continually
+doing good. He was full of compassion even to his
+enemies. He wept over Jerusalem. He was finally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+&ldquo;brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as sheep before
+their shearers are dumb, so he opened not his mouth.&rdquo;
+When he was reviled he reviled not again, but committed
+himself to him who judges righteously. He
+prayed for his murderers and apologized for his persecutors,
+saying, &ldquo;Father, forgive them, for they know
+not what they do.&rdquo; As the church under a former dispensation
+had divine authority for engaging in war,
+it is important to ascertain whether this authority
+was abrogated under the gospel dispensation or not.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+That many things have been tolerated under one dispensation
+of the church and prohibited under another,
+most Christians allow. That the preceptive will of God
+is to be our only rule of duty, few Christians deny.
+The knowledge communicated to us of the preceptive
+will of God to his church, under the first dispensation,
+is very limited. We find, however, no authority
+for taking the life of man in any case, not even for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+murder; but, on the contrary, a sevenfold vengeance was
+pronounced upon him who should slay the murderer.
+Under the patriarchal dispensation he that shed man&rsquo;s
+blood by man was his blood to be shed. In this, defensive
+war was tolerated. Under the Mosaic dispensation,
+not only defensive but offensive war was tolerated, and
+not only <i>war</i> was permitted, but <i>retaliation</i>, as, &ldquo;an
+eye for an eye&rdquo;; &ldquo;a tooth for a tooth&rdquo;; &ldquo;life for
+life,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+
+<p>The question to be decided is whether these regulations
+are still in force, or whether they were disannulled
+by the gospel dispensation. The life and precepts
+of our Lord and his disciples while under the unerring
+guidance of his spirit must be our only authority
+in this inquiry. That many things were done away
+by the gospel dispensation, none will deny who believe
+the gospel. The ceremonial part, which was only a
+shadow of good things to come, vanished away when
+the substance appeared; and not only the ceremonial
+part was abolished, but many other practices. Polygamy
+was permitted under the law, but forbidden under the
+gospel. Divorce was allowed under the Mosaic but
+prohibited under the gospel dispensation, except in the
+case of adultery. Under the Mosaic dispensation the
+penalty for whoredom was stoning to death. This penalty
+was not enforced under the gospel dispensation, as
+may be seen in John viii. 11. That all kinds of war,
+revenge, and fighting were utterly prohibited under the
+gospel dispensation we think appears evident not only
+from the life of our glorious Mediator but from his
+express precepts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> &ldquo;Jesus answered, My kingdom is
+not of this world: if my kingdom were of this world,
+then would my servants fight, that I should not be
+delivered to the Jews.&rdquo; No comment can add force to
+this passage, for it is apprehended that no language
+can be more explicit against defensive war.</p>
+
+<p>In Christ&rsquo;s Sermon on the Mount he quoted a passage
+from Exodus, &ldquo;Ye have heard that it hath been
+said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: but I
+say unto you, That <i>ye resist not evil</i>: but whatsoever
+shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the
+other also.&rdquo; The force of this passage has generally
+been obviated by saying that we are not to take all the
+words of our Lord literally. Although this is admitted,
+yet we are absolutely bound to take the spirit of every
+word, if we can understand them, by comparing the
+Scriptures with the Scriptures. That the spirit of this
+passage is directly opposed to the one our Lord quoted
+from Exodus, we think cannot fairly be denied; and, of
+course, it disannulled it, for he who had power to make
+laws under one dispensation had power to abrogate
+them under another.</p>
+
+<p>The blessed Mediator did, in the most explicit manner,
+command his subjects to love their enemies and
+render good for evil. This command we are of opinion
+is totally incompatible with resisting them with carnal
+weapons. He says, &ldquo;But I say unto you which hear,
+Love your enemies, do good to them which hate
+you, and pray for them which despitefully use you.&rdquo;
+Let us for one moment compare this precept with
+defensive war and see if it can consistently be put
+into practice. Suppose our country is invaded and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+professed disciple of the Prince of Peace buckles on the
+harness and takes the field to repel by the point of the
+sword his enemy. He advances amidst the lamentations
+of the wounded and the shrieks of the dying to
+meet his foe in arms. He sees his wrath kindled and
+his spear uplifted, and in this trying moment he hears
+his Lord say, &ldquo;Love your enemy and render to him
+good for evil&rdquo;; and his kindness to him is like Joab&rsquo;s
+to Amasa; he thrusts him through the heart and hurries
+him to the awful tribunal of his Judge, probably
+unprepared. Dear brethren, be not deceived; for God
+is not mocked. Who amongst our fellow-men would
+receive the thrust of a sword as an act of kindness?
+Only let conscience do its office, and there will be no
+difficulty in deciding whether defensive war is inconsistent
+with the gospel dispensation or not. Carnal and
+spiritual weapons will no more unite under the gospel
+dispensation than iron and miry clay.</p>
+
+<p>Our very salvation depends on being possessed of a
+spirit of forgiveness to enemies. &ldquo;If ye forgive not
+men their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive
+your trespasses.&rdquo; If men invade our rights and trespass
+upon our privileges, is it forgiveness to repel them
+at the point of the bayonet? The honest Christian will
+find no difficulty in conscientiously deciding this question,
+notwithstanding he may be slow of heart in
+believing all that is written.</p>
+
+<p>All the conduct of our Lord had meaning to it, and
+much of it was with an express view to teach his disciples
+by way of example. A little before he was betrayed, he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+ordered his disciples to take swords. The object of
+this must have been either to use them for defense, or
+for some other purpose. The event proves that they
+were not taken for self-defense. The question then is,
+For what were they taken? The event appears fully
+to answer the question, viz.: To prohibit, by way of
+example, the use of them for self-defense in the most
+trying situation possible. If any situation would justify
+self-defense with carnal weapons, it must have been the
+situation in which our Lord and his disciples were placed
+at the time he was betrayed. They were in a public
+garden, and they were assaulted by a mob, contrary to
+the statutes of the Romans and the laws of the Jews;
+and the object was to take his life. This the disciples
+knew, and Peter judged it a proper time for defense,
+and drew his sword and smote a servant of the High
+Priest and cut off his ear. As our Lord&rsquo;s kingdom was
+not of this world, he would not suffer his subjects to
+use the weapons of this world in any situation. He
+therefore healed the wound they made and rebuked
+Peter for his mistaken zeal. &ldquo;Then said Jesus unto him,
+Put up again thy sword into his place: for all they that
+take the sword shall perish with the sword. Thinkest
+thou that I cannot pray to my Father, and he would
+presently send me more than twelve legions of angels?&rdquo;
+Here we see that our Lord not only forbade his disciples
+to use the sword in self-defense, but added a dreadful
+penalty to transgressors,&mdash;&ldquo;all they that take the sword
+shall perish with the sword.&rdquo; The disciples did not then
+fully understand that his kingdom was not of this world.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+As soon as they were prohibited using the weapons of
+this world they all forsook him and fled.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The apostle James, in his epistle to the twelve tribes
+of Israel which were scattered abroad, asks them this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+question: &ldquo;From whence come wars and fighting among
+you? come they not even of your lusts that war in
+your members? Ye lust, and have not: ye kill, and
+desire to have, and cannot obtain: ye fight and war, and
+yet ye have not.&rdquo; &ldquo;Ye adulterers and adulteresses,
+know ye not that the friendship of the world is enmity
+with God? whosoever therefore will be a friend to the
+world is an enemy of God.&rdquo; From this we think it
+evidently appears that the warlike spirit of the world is
+directly opposed to God. The God of this world works
+effectually in the hearts of the children of disobedience
+and stirs up their lusts which war in their members
+and hurries them on to acts of cruelty, revenge, and
+fighting.</p>
+
+<p>This subject is of so much practical consequence that
+it requires a few observations in reply to some of the
+arguments of worldly and unenlightened Christians in
+favor of using carnal weapons. It is said that government
+is an ordinance of God which exists throughout
+his vast dominion. In heaven above there are angels
+and archangels; and upon earth there are magistrates
+and powers; and in hell there is the prince of devils.
+That God in his holy providence has so disposed of
+events that governments of some kind or other do exist
+in all parts of his dominion, none but skeptics will deny.
+But who would pretend that the governments in heaven
+and hell are not diametrically opposite? One is the
+spirit of peace and love, and the other, rebellion and
+war. Perhaps the manifestation of these different spirits
+here on earth may fairly be the dividing line amongst
+its inhabitants, and show to which kingdom they belong.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+They say all powers are ordained of God. Thus far
+they are correct, but it is apprehended that they do not
+make a proper distinction between the ordination of
+God and his preceptive will for man. So far as the
+former agrees with the latter, it is a rule of duty and
+cannot be any further. One is the rule of God&rsquo;s own
+procedure (if the expression is proper), and the other
+the rule of action for his creatures; but the counsel of
+God and his laws for man are often diametrically opposite.
+It is not improbable that this is part of the mystery
+of God which will, by and by, be finished.</p>
+
+<p>The Lord Jesus Christ was delivered by the determinate
+counsel and foreknowledge of God; and yet, by
+wicked hands, he was crucified and slain. Here, as in
+the case of Pharaoh, and many other instances recorded,
+the divine counsel and the duty of man were directly
+opposite. To ascertain our duty we must look at the
+preceptive will of God and not to his eternal counsel.
+Although all powers are ordained of God, yet it must
+not be inferred that all the laws of the heathen or
+civilized world are to be a rule of duty for the Mediator&rsquo;s
+subjects, or that their spirit is agreeable to the spirit
+of the gospel dispensation. It is said, We are commanded
+to obey magistrates and every ordinance of
+man for the Lord&rsquo;s sake. All this is admitted. But
+these injunctions are either limited by other precepts
+or they are unlimited. If they are unlimited, then all
+who have died martyrs fell a sacrifice to superstition
+instead of duty. Notwithstanding these directions
+were intended as a rule for Christians in all ages, yet
+they were promulgated while the disciples were under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+idolatrous governments, and were never intended to
+encourage them to worship idols.</p>
+
+<p>These commands must, therefore, be limited. The
+question is, How are they limited? We apprehend, by
+the spirit and other precepts of the gospel. We have
+already shown, we trust, that these absolutely prohibit
+war in every form. If so, then none of these injunctions
+can counteract the position we are examining. They
+only enjoin strict obedience to all human laws under
+which we live that do not contradict the spirit or precepts
+of the gospel; when they do, they are not binding
+and must be resisted; not, however, with carnal but
+spiritual weapons; we must take joyfully the spoiling
+of our goods and count not our lives dear unto ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>It has been often said that he who refuses to comply
+with the commands of the magistrate resists the powers
+that be, and, according to the apostle&rsquo;s reasoning, resists
+the ordinance of God and will receive to himself damnation.
+And, further, as all powers are the ordinance
+of God they ought to be supported, and if they cannot
+without, they must be even at the point of, the sword.
+Here the subject of the Mediator must make a distinction
+between resisting the &ldquo;powers that be&rdquo; by force
+of arms and refusing to obey their unlawful commands.
+It is not supposed that in one case he would obey and
+that in the other he would disobey the commands of his
+Master. No martyr ever considered himself as violating
+this precept in refusing to sacrifice to an idol at the
+command of an earthly power; neither will any subject
+of the Mediator view himself as violating it by refusing
+to use carnal weapons while he believes that his Lord<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+has utterly forbidden his using them. It is apprehended
+that if this proves anything upon the principles
+of war, that it will prove too much for its advocates.
+The command is to obey the powers that be and not
+the powers that ought to be. If it is taken in an unlimited
+sense, it must prohibit resisting even tyrannical
+powers, and would, of course, condemn every Christian
+who engaged in the American Revolution. To say that
+all power is in the hands of the people, and, of course,
+it is the people who are the powers that be, is thought
+to be but a quibble. We will suppose a very possible
+case,&mdash;that a foreign power completely overturns the
+government of the people and disannuls their laws and
+gives a new code; in that case, the command to obey
+the powers that be would not be annihilated. The precept
+originally was given while the disciples were in
+the midst of tyrannical governments. It is thought
+that it is so far from tolerating defensive war that it is
+opposed to it. The precepts of the gospel cannot be
+dependent upon the convulsions of the nations. If
+Christians are bound to aid with carnal weapons in
+suppressing a rebellion, then, if the opposing power
+gains the predominance, they must turn directly about
+and fight the very power they were before supporting.
+Such conduct would not become the citizens of Zion.
+If it is said the powers that be are Christian rulers,
+then we say, let them govern only by the laws of the
+Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom, and we will bow with reverence
+before them, and not teach for commandments the
+doctrines of men, as we cannot receive human laws
+for divine precepts.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is stated that our Lord paid tribute, and that we
+are commanded to pay tribute to whom tribute is due,
+and that tribute supports the governments of this
+world. This is granted; but the Mediator&rsquo;s subjects
+are required also to lead peaceable and quiet lives; this
+is more promoted by paying tribute than by the refusal.
+Our Lord directs Peter to pay the tribute lest they
+should give offense. But paying tribute for the sake
+of preserving peace is a very different thing from
+actually engaging in war.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever the Christian is called upon to pay money
+by way of taxes or tribute, he does not part with any
+spiritual treasure, but only earthly property, for which
+he has the example and precepts of the Lord. The
+currency of the world generally bears the ensign of the
+nation which made it. If it bears the image and superscription
+of Cæsar, then &ldquo;render to Cæsar the things
+that are Cæsar&rsquo;s, and unto God the things which are
+God&rsquo;s.&rdquo; Christians, however, whose hearts are upon this
+idol, will sooner give up their lives than their God.
+&ldquo;The love of money is the root of all evil.&rdquo; The real
+Christian&rsquo;s treasure is in heaven and beyond the reach
+of the powers of earth or hell. The things of this
+world are but privileges loaned him, to be resigned
+at the call of his Lord. Shall he then fear those who
+can only kill the body and afterwards have no more
+that they can do? Rather, let him fear him who has
+power to destroy both soul and body in hell forever.
+It is better for him to suffer wrong than to do wrong.</p>
+
+<p>The permission granted to the Jewish church to
+wage war has often been pleaded as authority for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+Christians. If this proves anything, it proves too
+much, for not only defensive but offensive war was
+permitted under the Mosaic dispensation. This the
+tyrants of the world have not generally contended was
+right since the gospel dispensation. We think, however,
+that we have fully shown that this was abrogated
+under the gospel dispensation, and that all kinds of war
+were prohibited; if so, it has no weight on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>It has been said that Christians with a small exception
+have never questioned the propriety of defensive
+war. As it regards nominal Christians, this statement
+is perhaps correct, but as it respects the real disciples
+of the Mediator, it is to be questioned. We hear of no
+Christians in the first ages of the church engaged in
+carnal warfare until we hear of great corruptions in the
+church. Most Protestants have been of opinion that
+those precious disciples who inhabited the dark valleys
+of Piedmont during the great corruptions of the nominal
+church were the Redeemer&rsquo;s true subjects. These
+disciples, of whom the world was not worthy, utterly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+refused to engage even in defensive war, notwithstanding
+they were hunted down by their bloody persecutors.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>It has been often said that the Reformers, who were
+good men, did not hesitate to engage in defensive war,
+and that the Reformation was finally supported by the
+sword. That the Reformers were generally pious men
+is readily admitted, and that the Reformation, under
+divine providence, was a glorious event to the church is
+also granted. But the history of the Reformers, when
+written by their friends, abundantly manifests that they
+were men, subject to like passions with other men, and
+that all the means they employed could not be justified,
+either by the spirit or the precepts of the gospel.</p>
+
+<p>Henry the Eighth was a vile man, but he was very
+active in protesting against the Pope because his holiness
+would not grant him a divorce. God makes the
+wrath of man praise him. It will not probably be a
+great length of time (in the opinion of the writer) before
+those churches which were defended with the sword
+will be destroyed by the sword.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+<p>It has been further urged that not only the Reformers
+but most pious Protestants have prayed for the prosperity
+of the arms of their country, and many have actually
+fought in the field of battle. All this is likewise
+admitted. But many pious men have had a mistaken
+zeal. It is fully believed that Protestants, generally,
+have been in the habit of considering the Reformation
+so glorious an event that they have very little inquired
+whether the means by which it was finally defended
+were agreeable to the spirit of the gospel or not. They
+have been taught from their earliest years to consider
+that the weapons of warfare used by the Reformers
+were lawful, so that they have not hesitated to follow
+their example. That the example and prayers of pious
+people ought to have weight is readily granted, but to
+place a blind confidence in them, we apprehend, is
+criminal, for their example is to be imitated no further
+than it agrees with the spirit and precepts of the gospel.
+These must forever remain a perfect standard of
+duty; whereas the practice of real Christians, owing to
+their imperfect state, is constantly changing and often
+contradictory. During the American Revolution, doubtless,
+real Christians were praying and fighting for the
+success of the American arms, and real Christians in
+the British service were praying and fighting for the
+success of his Majesty&rsquo;s arms. The truth is, they ought
+not to pray for war in any shape, but to pray that wars
+may cease from under heaven, and that God&rsquo;s kingdom
+may come and his will be done on earth as it is done in
+heaven; and not only to pray, but endeavor to advance
+the kingdom of heaven and put a stop to wars and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+bloodshed. The opinions of pious people often vary
+with the increase of light which shines upon the church.
+One century ago most pious people believed in the propriety
+of the slave trade, but very few can now be found
+to advocate the abominable practice. The nature of the
+crime has not changed, nor the evidence against it, but
+the truth is, that the opinion of pious people has materially
+changed upon this subject. We ought always to
+remember that the example of pious people is to be of
+no weight any further than it agrees with the example
+of our Lord. It is always unsafe to be looking too much
+to the fallible example of those whom we have esteemed
+pious for a rule of duty, while we have the unerring
+word in our hands to light our way; when any one is
+depending upon the example of Christians not under
+the immediate influence of divine inspiration for evidence
+to support his hypothesis, it is strong presumptive
+evidence that he has not the word of God in his
+favor. By the word of God and by that <i>only</i> ought every
+controversy to be tried.</p>
+
+<p>It is further urged that we are commanded to pray
+for kings and all in authority; it is true we must pray
+not only for kings but all men, even enemies. This,
+however, does by no means imply that we are commanded
+to pray for a blessing upon their unhallowed
+undertakings; but it only implies that we must pray
+that they may be translated out of nature&rsquo;s darkness
+into the light of the gospel, and from the power of Satan
+unto the living God.</p>
+
+<p>The great difficulty with the subjects of the Mediator
+ever has been, and still is, a want of faith in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+promises of God. They are prone to be afraid of consequences.
+They look nearly as much at consequences
+as the children of Israel did while journeying from
+Egypt to Canaan. The truth is, they ought to have
+nothing to do with consequences, but only duties.
+&ldquo;Thus saith the Lord,&rdquo; should be their warrant and
+only guide. If they implicitly follow the command, consequences
+are all safe in God&rsquo;s hand. Had Abraham
+looked only at consequences, it is not probable he would
+ever have been styled the Father of the Faithful. It is
+not uncommon for timid and worldly Christians to be
+alarmed at consequences and to argue in this manner:
+they say, &ldquo;Shall we stand still and suffer an assassin
+to enter our houses and take our lives and property
+without ever attempting to resist him?&rdquo; All this must
+go upon the supposition that he who has said he will
+never leave nor forsake his people, and is a very present
+help in every time of need, will take no care of them.
+No assassin could stand a moment before the prayer of
+faith which would enter the heavens and reach the ears
+of the Lord of Sabaoth. If faithless Christians cannot
+be persuaded to look at the precepts and the promises,
+but only at consequences, they ought, at least, to examine
+them well. Suppose God, in his holy providence,
+should permit an assassin to take the life of one of his
+dear children; the consequence would be, he would
+immediately be translated to glory; and possibly the
+assassin might become a penitent; but should he take
+the life of the assassin in defending himself, the consequence
+then would be, he would hurry him into the
+abyss of the damned where his probation would be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+eternally ended. He who puts his trust in the Lord
+shall not fear what man can do to him; he will be like
+Mount Zion which cannot be moved.</p>
+
+<p>Remember, dear brethren, that the weapons of our
+warfare are not carnal but spiritual, and mighty through
+God. &ldquo;Finally, my brethren, be strong in the Lord,
+and in the power of his might. Put on the whole armour
+of God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles
+of the devil. For we wrestle not against flesh and
+blood, but against principalities, against powers, against
+the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual
+wickedness in high places. Wherefore take unto you
+the whole armour of God (here is the equipment of a
+soldier of Jesus Christ), that ye may be able to withstand
+in an evil day, and having done all, to stand.
+Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth,
+and having on the breastplate of righteousness; and
+your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of
+peace; above all, taking the shield of faith, wherewith
+ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the
+wicked. And take the helmet of salvation, and the
+sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God: praying
+always with all prayer and supplication in the Spirit,
+and watching thereunto with all perseverance and supplication
+for all saints.&rdquo; And the very God of peace
+shall be with you, and he will shortly bruise Satan under
+your feet. For yet a little while and the Almighty angel
+will come down with a great chain in his hand; and he
+will lay hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is
+the devil and Satan, and will bind him a thousand
+years, and cast him into the bottomless pit, and shut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+him up, and set a seal upon him, that he shall deceive
+the nations no more until the thousand years are fulfilled.
+Then wars will cease from under heaven and
+the implements of death will be converted into the
+harmless utensils of husbandry, and there will be nothing
+to hurt nor destroy in all God&rsquo;s holy mountain. The
+stone which was cut out of the mountain without hands
+will become a great mountain and fill the whole earth.
+Then will be heard &ldquo;a loud voice saying in heaven,
+Now is come salvation, and strength, and the kingdom
+of God, and the power of his Christ: for the accuser of
+our brethren is cast down, which accused them before
+God day and night. And they overcame him by the
+blood of the Lamb, and by the word of their testimony;
+and they loved not their lives unto the death.
+Therefore rejoice, ye heavens, and ye that dwell in
+them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, very important, dear brethren, that
+we keep it constantly in mind that the nature and precepts
+of the gospel are the same now as they will be
+then, in that glorious reign of righteousness and peace,
+and that it is our duty constantly to be influenced by
+the same spirit now which will then be manifested by
+the followers of the Lamb. The little leaven is of the
+same nature with whole lump when it is leavened. Let
+us therefore gird up the loins of our mind and watch
+unto prayer.</p>
+
+<p>4. If the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is not of this world,
+but spiritual, heavenly, and divine, and if the kingdoms
+of this world are under the dominion of Satan, and if
+the subjects of Christ&rsquo;s kingdom are not permitted to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+use carnal weapons, then we may infer who is the &ldquo;great
+whore that sitteth upon many waters; with whom the
+kings of the earth have committed fornication, and the
+inhabitants of the earth have been made drunk with
+the wine of her fornication.&rdquo; A virgin or chaste woman
+is a familiar symbol in the Scriptures of the true church
+of God; and an unchaste woman is as familiar a symbol
+of an apostate or corrupt church. As a lewd woman
+calls herself by the name of her husband, notwithstanding
+she has constant intercourse with other men, so the
+corrupt church calls herself by the name of Christ, notwithstanding
+she has constant illicit intercourse with
+the kings of the earth.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> To understand the true nature
+of spiritual whoredom will assist us in ascertaining the
+bounds of mystical Babylon.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p>
+<p>The children of Israel were separated from all the
+nations of the earth and set apart to be holy unto the
+Lord. As they were in covenant with the God of Israel,
+he addressed them in the endearing character of a husband.
+Whenever they made any covenant or formed a
+confederacy with the nations around them, or imitated
+their idolatrous abominations, they were charged with
+spiritual whoredom. The church, under the gospel dispensation,
+is redeemed from amongst men out of every
+nation, and sanctified and set apart to be a peculiar
+people to show forth the praises of God. It is styled
+the Bride, the Lamb&rsquo;s wife. Its members are not to
+be conformed to this world but to be transformed by
+the renewing of the Spirit. They do not belong to any
+earthly kingdom, for our Lord has said, &ldquo;They are not
+of the world, even as I am not of the world&rdquo;; but they
+are citizens of the heavenly Zion and belong to the
+household of God; they are members of the same
+community, with the innumerable company of angels
+and the spirits of just men made perfect; and are
+to be governed by the very same spirit and temper
+which reigns amongst those blessed inhabitants above.
+God is an overflowing and unbounded ocean of blessedness
+and love; love is therefore the fulfilling of
+the law.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever the subjects of the Redeemer unite themselves
+to the kingdoms of this world, and engage in
+their political contentions and fightings, then it appears
+they commit spiritual whoredom, for they forsake the
+fountain of living waters and hew out to themselves
+cisterns,&mdash;broken cisterns, which can hold no water.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+When they thus mingle with the world and unite in its
+pursuits they may spiritually be styled adulterers.</p>
+
+<p>The apostle James, while reproving the twelve
+tribes, which were scattered abroad, for their wars and
+fightings and friendship to the world, styles them
+adulterers and adulteresses. In direct opposition to
+this representation, the first fruits of the church are
+styled virgins, as not being defiled with women. &ldquo;These
+are they which were not defiled with women; for they
+are virgins. These are they which follow the Lamb
+whithersoever he goeth. These were redeemed from
+amongst men, being the firstfruits unto God and the
+Lamb. And in their mouth was found no guile: for they
+are without fault before the throne of God.&rdquo; As virgins
+are pure and undefiled, so were the disciples of
+Christ in the first age of the church when they had no
+impure intercourse with the kingdoms of this world and
+followed the Lamb in refusing to engage either in its
+profits, honors, or fightings. They are, therefore, called
+virgins, without fault, in opposition to those who mingle
+with the world, who are spiritually styled harlots.</p>
+
+<p>It evidently appears, if what has been said is true,
+that mystical Babylon, that mother of harlots and
+abominations of the earth, is just as extensive as the
+union of the church with the kingdoms of this world;
+and just in that proportion in which an individual
+Christian, or a single church, or a number of churches
+united in one body, engage in the honors, profits, and
+fightings of the kingdoms of this world, just in that
+proportion they may be said to be guilty of spiritual
+whoredom.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The writer is well aware that this inference, however
+just, will be looked upon with contempt by worldly
+political Christians whose dearest interest is involved
+in the kingdoms of this world, and especially by those
+who are clothed in purple and scarlet and have a
+golden cup in their hands. He has no expectation of
+being candidly heard by such, but it is God&rsquo;s own dear
+children who have ignorantly mingled with the world,
+having been blinded by their education, from whom he
+expects a candid hearing. &ldquo;If any man have ears to
+hear, let him hear.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is not common for a lewd woman openly to avow
+to the world her character; neither can it be expected
+that the mother of harlots will own her name. The
+writer is of opinion that very few have understood the
+full dimensions of this mystical city; she appears to
+him in her greatest extent to be bounded but little
+short of the whole visible church of God. She is
+styled &ldquo;the <i>great City</i>, which spiritually is called Sodom
+and Egypt, where also our Lord was crucified.&rdquo; &ldquo;And
+in her was found the blood of prophets and saints and
+of all that were slain upon the earth.&rdquo; But a dreadful
+judgment awaits her: &ldquo;She shall utterly be burnt with
+fire: for strong is the Lord God who judges her.&rdquo;
+Being mingled with the nations and supported by their
+power, when they become like stubble before the
+devouring fire, she will be consumed with them. The
+whore is represented as riding upon a scarlet-colored
+beast, and upheld by him.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span></p>
+<p>When he, with all his heads, are cast into the lake of
+fire, she will likewise be given to the burning flame.
+But before this great and dreadful day of the Lord
+shall come, which will burn as an oven, when the
+whore shall be consumed with the nations of the earth,
+God will call to his people to come out of her, saying
+unto them, &ldquo;Come out of her, my people, that ye be
+not partakers of her sins, and that ye receive not of her
+plagues.&rdquo; As God&rsquo;s ancient people were carried captives
+into literal Babylon, so God&rsquo;s dear people will be
+found captives in mystical Babylon, until they hear the
+command of their Lord to come out of her that they
+be not partakers of her sins and that they receive not
+of her plagues. The captive daughters of Zion are very
+numerous. O that they may soon arise and shake
+themselves from the dust! &ldquo;Shake thyself from the
+dust; arise, and sit down, O Jerusalem: loose thyself
+from the bands of thy neck, O captive daughter of
+Zion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>5. If the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom is not of this world,
+and the kingdoms of this world are under the dominion
+of Satan, and if Christ&rsquo;s subjects cannot unite themselves
+to the kingdoms of this world, without committing
+spiritual whoredom, then we may infer the great
+impropriety of the subjects of the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+becoming political Christians and enrolling themselves
+with the men of this world. They cannot serve two
+masters: for they will either hate the one, and love the
+other; or else they will hold to the one, and despise the
+other.</p>
+
+<p>How humiliating is it to see subjects of the King
+of Zion engaged in the drudgery of the prince of
+darkness, laboring and struggling to support his
+tottering throne! Satan&rsquo;s kingdom is divided against
+itself and must, therefore, come to an end. But how
+lamentable is it to see the sons of the living God,
+the subjects of the Prince of Peace, taking sides in the
+cause of the adversary of souls, and actually opposing
+and fighting each other under his banner! They
+do it ignorantly and will, therefore, obtain forgiveness,
+for they know not what manner of spirit they
+are of. They are commanded to have no fellowship
+with the unfruitful works of darkness, but rather
+reprove them.</p>
+
+<p>Before our Lord departed from this world to go to
+the Father, he gave laws to his subjects for their rule
+of life until his second coming. All these laws contemplated
+their residing as a holy nation in the midst
+of a wicked and benighted world, to reflect the rays of
+the Sun of righteousness on the thick darkness which
+covers the people. They were to be a city set upon a
+hill and a light to the world. The apostle exhorts them
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> &ldquo;do all things without murmurings and disputings:
+that ye may be blameless and harmless, the sons of
+God, without rebuke, in the midst of a crooked and
+perverse nation, among whom ye shine as lights in the
+world.&rdquo; They must be a peculiar people to show forth
+the praises of God. How inconsistent is it, then,
+for the citizens of the heavenly Zion to be mingling
+with the politicians of this world and uniting in their
+processions, feasts, and cabals, when they ought rather
+to be praying for them, that the very sins they commit
+in these scenes may be forgiven them! Dear brethren,
+is it not high time to come out from the world and be
+separated? &ldquo;Be ye not unequally yoked together with
+unbelievers: for what fellowship hath righteousness
+with unrighteousness? and what communion hath light
+with darkness? and what concord hath Christ with
+Belial?&rdquo; &ldquo;Wherefore come out from among them,
+and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and touch not the
+unclean thing; and I will receive you, and will be a
+Father to you, and ye shall be my sons and daughters,
+saith the Lord Almighty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>6. In view of what has been said, we finally infer
+that every interest which is not built upon the sure
+foundation stone which God has laid in Zion will be
+swept away when the storms of divine wrath shall beat
+upon our guilty world. &ldquo;For, behold, the day cometh,
+that shall burn as an oven; and all the proud, yea, and
+all that do wickedly, shall be stubble: and the day that
+cometh shall burn them up, saith the Lord of hosts, that
+it shall leave them neither root nor branch.&rdquo;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> &ldquo;For the
+day of the Lord of hosts shall be upon every one that
+is proud and lofty, and upon every one that is lifted up;
+and he shall be brought low.&rdquo; &ldquo;The lofty looks of man
+shall be humbled, and the haughtiness of men shall be
+bowed down; and the Lord alone shall be exalted in
+that day.&rdquo; &ldquo;The Lord at thy right hand shall strike
+through kings in the day of his wrath. He shall judge
+among the heathen, he shall fill the places with their
+dead bodies; he shall wound the head over many countries.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;For, behold, the Lord will come with fire, and
+with his chariots like a whirlwind, to render his anger
+with fury, and his rebuke with flames of fire. For by
+fire and by his sword will the Lord plead with all flesh:
+and the slain of the Lord shall be many.&rdquo; &ldquo;For
+the indignation of the Lord is upon all nations, and
+his fury upon all their armies: he hath utterly destroyed
+them, he hath delivered them to the slaughter.
+Their slain shall be cast out, and their stink shall
+come up out of their carcasses, and the mountains
+shall be melted with blood.&rdquo; &ldquo;For this is the day of
+the Lord God of hosts, a day of vengeance, that he
+may avenge him of his adversaries: and the sword
+shall devour, and it shall be satiate and be made drunk
+with their blood.&rdquo; The nations must drink of the
+wine of the wrath of God, which shall be poured out
+without mixture, into the cup of his indignation; and
+they will be trodden in the great wine press of the
+wrath of God Almighty. And the great whore which
+has drunk the blood of the saints and the blood of
+the martyrs of Jesus will have blood to drink; for
+she is worthy.</p>
+
+<p>The sword of the Lord has two edges; it will cut
+off the offending limbs of the church and destroy
+her enemies. The fire of the Lord will purify his
+saints but utterly burn up the wicked. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> &ldquo;whose
+fan is in his hand will thoroughly purge his floor, and
+gather his wheat into the garner; but he will burn
+up the chaff with unquenchable fire.&rdquo; Although the
+earth is thus to be desolated, and the nations destroyed,
+yet the saints of the Most High shall &ldquo;possess
+the kingdom for ever and ever.&rdquo; &ldquo;And the kingdom
+and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom under
+the whole heaven, shall be given to the people of the
+saints of the Most High, whose kingdom is an everlasting
+kingdom, and all dominions shall serve and
+obey him.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Dear brethren, these events are rapidly rolling in the
+fiery wheels down the descent of time; and although
+the nations must first drink the vials of divine wrath
+and the battle of God Almighty must first be fought,
+yet the time is at hand when we shall no more hear the
+sound of war, and of garments rolled in blood, for man
+will cease to be the enemy of man, and every one will
+sit quietly under his own vine and under his own fig
+tree; and there will be nothing to hurt or destroy in
+all God&rsquo;s holy mountain, and the knowledge of the
+Lord shall cover the earth as the waters cover the
+channels of the mighty deep.</p>
+
+<p>Dear brethren, is it not &ldquo;high time to awake out of
+sleep: for now is our salvation nearer than when we
+believed. The night is far spent, the day is at hand:
+let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let
+us put on the armour of light.&rdquo; And let us pray with
+all prayer and supplication in the Spirit for all men, not
+only for ourselves, our families, and our friends, and
+the church of God, but for a dying world, that God
+would in infinite compassion cut short these days of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+dreadful calamity for his elect&rsquo;s sake; and in the midst
+of deserved wrath remember mercy.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;He that hath ears to hear, let him hear what the
+Spirit saith unto the churches; To him that overcometh
+will I give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the
+midst of the paradise of God.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3 style="text-indent: 0px;">FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The earth, in symbolical language, is supposed by the writer to
+denote civilized nations, in distinction from uncivilized, which are symbolized
+by the agitated sea. Civilized nations will no longer cover the
+blood of the slain, under the specious idea of defending their rights and
+liberties.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> If the kingdoms of this world do not belong to Satan, then it was
+no temptation to our Lord when he offered them to him. It is expressly
+said that he was &ldquo;tempted of Satan.&rdquo;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The writer has for a length of time been of opinion that no event
+has ever yet happened to the church which answers to slaying the
+witnesses. It has been given as a reason by some that the witnesses have been slain, that so much light has been diffused since the art of
+printing was discovered, and since the Reformation, that no reason can
+ever again be found sufficiently plausible to satisfy the consciences of
+mankind in again taking the lives of their fellow-men in matters of conscience.
+If our country was invaded and a law should be passed that
+every man capable of bearing arms should equip himself for its defense,
+on penalty of being considered as an enemy and to be publicly executed
+accordingly in case of refusal for conscience&rsquo; sake, there would not probably
+be wanting patriots sufficient to execute the laws; if they could
+not be found in our land of liberty, they might be found amongst the
+tyrants of the Old World.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> If the permission given to the church under the Mosaic dispensation
+to engage in war has not been disannulled by the gospel dispensation
+(which is by no means granted), it is thought that it does not
+admit of the consequences which are generally drawn. The Israelites
+were God&rsquo;s covenant people and were utterly prohibited from making
+any covenant with the nations around them, or engaging with them in
+their wars. It must therefore be totally improper for God&rsquo;s covenant
+people now to unite with those who are strangers to the covenant of
+promise, and engage with them in their tumult and fightings. It is presumed
+that no one who has ever read our Constitution will pretend that
+the American nation has, in the Scriptural sense, made a covenant with
+God. If the analogy holds good in one point, it must in another; and
+in that case there is no alternative left for God&rsquo;s covenant people but
+either to withdraw from those who are not in covenant with God, or
+adopt a national religion which must be defended by the weapons of
+the nation. It is believed that those who will not admit that the permission
+granted to the Israelites to engage in war was abrogated by the
+gospel dispensation can never fully answer the arguments in favor of a
+national religion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Four things are noticeable from this history. <i>First</i>, That the subjects
+of the Mediator&rsquo;s kingdom have no right to use carnal weapons
+for defense, in the most trying situation possible. <i>Secondly</i>, The promulgation
+of a decree of heaven; that all they (whether states, churches,
+or kingdoms) who take the sword shall perish with the sword. Every
+political or ecclesiastical body which is defended with the sword will by
+the sword be destroyed. In confirmation of this sentiment, we see while
+the great destroying powers were represented to St. John in the symbols
+of ferocious beasts, it was added, &ldquo;If any man have an ear to hear, let
+him hear. He that leadeth into captivity shall go into captivity: he that
+killeth with the sword must be killed with the sword&rdquo;; but in opposition
+to this it is said, &ldquo;Here is the faith and the patience of the saints.&rdquo; We
+would inquire how the faith and the patience of the saints appear, if
+they, like the nations of the earth, lead into captivity and kill with the
+sword? <i>Thirdly</i>, The weapon which the subjects of the Redeemer are
+to use for defense is here brought into view, viz., Prayer. Nothing which
+appears prevented our Lord from using this weapon when he was
+betrayed, but the necessity of the Scriptures being fulfilled. Had he
+prayed to his Father, more than twelve legions of ministering spirits
+would have appeared swift as lightning to discharge his will. At the
+time he shall come in all the glory of his Father the holy angels will
+be with him. He will break through the heavens in flaming fire and
+descend with the shout of the Archangel and the trump of God, and
+cleave asunder the earth beneath; and send forth his angels who will
+awake the sleeping millions from their tombs and gather together his
+elect and take them up into the air to be ever with their Lord. <i>Fourthly</i>,
+We may expect that angels will be sent to deliver the saints in the times
+of trouble. Angels are ministering spirits and are sent forth to minister
+to those who shall be the heirs of salvation. What a consolation it is
+that the subjects of the Mediator can apply for help in times of trouble
+to him who has the hosts of heaven at his command; and who has
+said he will never leave nor forsake them! The angel of the Lord
+encampeth round about them who fear him, to deliver them out of all
+their trouble. If God be for them, who can be against them?</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Although it is not expected that any intelligent and candid Christian
+will attempt to say that the arguments which have been advanced
+may fairly apply to offensive but not to defensive war, yet some weak
+and unenlightened Christians may make the assertion. In answer to
+such we would observe that this would be begging the question and
+taking for granted the very subject in dispute. We cannot be satisfied
+with anything short of a candid answer, drawn directly from the spirit
+and precepts of the gospel. When it is fairly proved that under the
+gospel dispensation our Lord did draw a clear line of distinction
+between offensive and defensive war, and that he intended all such precepts
+as have been adduced to apply to the former and not to the latter,
+then we will acknowledge the weight of the argument. Until this is
+done we shall not consider our arguments as answered.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> The writer perceives that he has made too unlimited a statement
+respecting the disciples who inhabited the valleys of Piedmont. Historians
+have generally considered those who dissented from the church
+of Rome during the dark ages as possessing similar sentiments. It is
+true they did agree in renouncing the authority of the Pope, but in
+other things they did not all agree. Some courted the protection of
+earthly powers and united with them in defending their rights by the
+point of the sword, and were finally destroyed by the sword. Others,
+instead of defending themselves with carnal weapons, fled from the face
+of the serpent and were, under divine providence, the seed of the
+church in the wilderness. It is the latter class to which the writer would
+be understood as referring.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> As the writer has been for some time studying the symbolical language
+of the Scriptures, and intends (if the Lord will, unless some person
+more able should attempt an explanation) to give his views to the
+public, he will not be so particular at present in explaining the symbol of
+the great whore which sitteth upon many waters, as he otherwise should.
+He early perceived that the heavens and the earth, with all their furniture,
+were used as an alphabet, in the language of things, to represent
+moral subjects. His object has been to learn the true meaning of each
+symbol by comparing Scripture with Scripture. No language can be
+read until the alphabet is first learned. Symbolical language does not,
+like other languages, change with time and place, but represents the
+same idea to all nations and at all times. He is of opinion that one
+symbol does not represent two events, unless it first have a reference
+to some less event which is typical of some more important event; in
+that case, all together may be figurative of some great ultimate end.
+Although one symbol is supposed never to represent two different things,
+yet two or more symbols generally represent one thing. He has found
+by tracing back a symbol to its first use, that its true meaning is generally
+manifest. Since examining the Scriptures with this view he has
+been irresistibly drawn into the conclusions now exhibited.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The writer is fully of opinion that a ferocious beast is never used
+as a symbol of a corrupt church, but of a tyrannical warlike power. He has been for some time of opinion that the second Apocalyptic beast
+is rising, and that he will possess all the power of the first beast before
+him, and that under him the false prophet will appear; and the witnesses
+will be slain; and upon his kingdom the six first vials of his
+divine wrath will be principally poured out; and the seventh will be
+poured upon Satan&rsquo;s kingdom universally, as he is the prince of the
+power of the air.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<ul style="font-size: 85%;"><li style="font-size: 1.75em; text-align: center; margin-bottom: .8em;">Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</li>
+<li>The section in the table of contents entitled, &ldquo;Because, instead of preventing, it provokes insult and mischief,&rdquo; does not exactly match the title of the corresponding section found within the text. This has been retained.</li>
+<li>Pg <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. The word &lsquo;Antipolemos&rsquo; was changed to &lsquo;Antipolemus.&rsquo;</li>
+<li>Pg <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. The word &lsquo;righteousnesss&rsquo; was changed to &lsquo;righteousness.&rsquo;</li>
+<li>Pg <a href="#Page_142">142</a>. A question mark was changed to a period in the following sentence, &ldquo;The question to be decided is whether these regulations are still in force, or whether they were disannulled by the gospel dispensation.&rdquo;</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of War Inconsistent with the Religion of
+Jesus Christ, by David Low Dodge
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR INCONSISTENT ***
+
+***** This file should be named 35883-h.htm or 35883-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/8/8/35883/
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+Produced by Rose Mawhorter and the Online Distributed
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus
+Christ, by David Low Dodge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ
+
+Author: David Low Dodge
+
+Release Date: April 16, 2011 [EBook #35883]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WAR INCONSISTENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Rose Mawhorter and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: DAVID LOW DODGE]
+
+
+
+
+  WAR INCONSISTENT
+  WITH THE
+  RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST
+
+  BY
+  DAVID LOW DODGE
+
+  WITH AN INTRODUCTION
+  BY
+  EDWIN D. MEAD
+
+  PUBLISHED FOR THE INTERNATIONAL UNION
+  GINN & COMPANY, BOSTON
+  1905
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY
+  THE INTERNATIONAL UNION
+
+  ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+  55.8
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+INTRODUCTION                                                       vii
+
+WAR INCONSISTENT WITH THE RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST                   1
+
+  WAR IS INHUMAN:
+
+     I. Because it hardens the heart and blunts the tender
+          feelings of mankind                                        2
+
+    II. War is inhuman, as in its nature and tendency it
+          abuses God's animal creation                               6
+
+   III. War is inhuman, as it oppresses the poor                     8
+
+    IV. War is inhuman, as it spreads terror and distress
+          among mankind                                             12
+
+     V. War is inhuman, as it involves men in fatigue, famine,
+          and all the pains of mutilated bodies                     14
+
+    VI. War is inhuman, as it destroys the youth and cuts
+          off the hope of gray hairs                                16
+
+   VII. War is inhuman, as it multiplies widows and orphans,
+          and clothes the land in mourning                          18
+
+  WAR IS UNWISE:
+
+      I. Because, instead of preventing, it provokes insult
+           and mischief                                             23
+
+     II. War is unwise, for instead of diminishing, it increases
+           difficulties                                             26
+
+    III. War is unwise, because it destroys property                28
+
+     IV. War is unwise, as it is dangerous to the liberties of
+           men                                                      30
+
+      V. War is unwise, as it diminishes the happiness of
+           mankind                                                  34
+
+     VI. War is unwise, as it does not mend, but injures, the
+           morals of society                                        36
+
+    VII. War is unwise, as it is hazarding eternal things for
+           only the chance of defending temporal things             42
+
+   VIII. War is unwise, as it does not answer the professed
+           end for which it is intended                             44
+
+  WAR IS CRIMINAL:
+
+      I. Going to war is not keeping from the appearance
+           of evil, but is running into temptation                  47
+
+     II. War is criminal, as it naturally inflames the pride
+           of man                                                   49
+
+    III. War necessarily infringes on the consciences of
+           men, and therefore is criminal                           52
+
+     IV. War is criminal, as it is opposed to patient suffering
+           under unjust and cruel treatment                         56
+
+      V. War is criminal, as it is not doing to others as we
+           should wish them to do to us                             60
+
+     VI. War is inconsistent with mercy, and is therefore
+           criminal 61
+
+    VII. War is criminal, as the practice of it is inconsistent
+           with forgiving trespasses as we wish to be forgiven
+           by the final judge                                       63
+
+   VIII. Engaging in war is not manifesting love to enemies
+           or returning good for evil                               64
+
+     IX. War is criminal, because it is actually rendering
+           evil for evil                                            67
+
+      X. War is criminal, as it is actually doing evil that good
+           may come; and this is the best apology that can
+           be made for it                                           71
+
+     XI. War is opposed to the example of the Son of God,
+           and is therefore criminal                                72
+
+  OBJECTIONS ANSWERED                                               77
+
+HYMN                                                               121
+
+THE MEDIATOR'S KINGDOM NOT OF THIS WORLD: BUT SPIRITUAL            123
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+To David Low Dodge of New York belongs the high honor of having written
+the first pamphlets published in America directed expressly against the
+war system of nations, and of having founded the first peace society
+ever organized in America or in the world. His first pamphlet, _The
+Mediator's Kingdom not of this World_, was published in 1809. His second
+and more important pamphlet, _War Inconsistent with the Religion of
+Jesus Christ_, was prepared for the press in 1812. This was two years
+before the publication of Noah Worcester's _Solemn Review of the Custom
+of War_, which was issued in Boston on Christmas Day, 1814. Early in
+1812 Mr. Dodge and his friends in New York deliberated on the expediency
+of forming a peace society; but on account of the excitement attending
+the war with Great Britain this was postponed until 1815. In August of
+that year the New York Peace Society, the first in the world, was
+organized, with Mr. Dodge as its president. This was four months before
+the organization of the Massachusetts Peace Society (December 26, 1815)
+under the leadership of Noah Worcester, and nearly a year before the
+English Peace Society, the first in Europe, was formed (June 14, 1816)
+in London.
+
+The preeminent historical interest attaching to Mr. Dodge's pioneering
+work in the peace cause in this country would alone justify and indeed
+seem to command the republication of his pamphlets at this time, when
+the great ideas for which he so courageously and prophetically stood are
+at last winning the general recognition of humane and thoughtful men.
+But it is not merely historical interest which warrants a revival of
+attention to these almost forgotten papers. Their intrinsic power and
+worth are such as make their reading, especially that of the second
+essay, _War Inconsistent with the Religion of Jesus Christ_, which
+stands first in the present volume, edifying and inspiring to-day.
+Marked by few literary graces and cast in a theological mold which the
+critical thought of the present has in large measure outgrown, there is
+a force of thought, a moral earnestness, a persevering logic, a common
+sense, a hatred of inhumanity, a passion for justice, a penetration and
+a virtue in them, which commends them to the abiding and reverent regard
+of all who work for the peace and order of the world. Among such workers
+to-day are men of various political philosophies, and perhaps only a
+small minority are nonresistants of the extreme type of David L. Dodge;
+but to that minority, we cannot fail to remark, belongs the greatest and
+most influential of all the peace prophets of this time, Leo Tolstoi.
+None can read these old essays without being impressed by the fact that
+their arguments are essentially the same as those of the great Russian.
+There is little indeed of the Tolstoian thunder and lightning, the
+pathos, wrath, and rhetoric, the poetry and prophecy, in these
+old-fashioned pages; but the doctrine is the same as that of _Bethink
+Yourselves!_ and _Patriotism versus Christianity_. In his central
+thought and purpose, in his religious trust and reliance upon the
+Christian principle, the New York merchant was a Tolstoi a hundred years
+before his time.
+
+David Low Dodge was born June 14, 1774, in that part of Pomfret,
+Connecticut, now called Brooklyn. This was the home of Israel Putnam;
+and David Dodge's father, a farmer and carpenter, was Putnam's neighbor
+and friend,--may well have been near him when in April, 1775, upon
+hearing of the battle of Lexington, he left his plow in the furrow and
+started to join the forces gathering at Cambridge. David Dodge's father,
+grandfather, and great-grandfather each bore the name of David Dodge.
+The great-grandfather was a Congregational minister, who was understood
+to have come from Wales,--a learned and wealthy man, who was for a while
+settled in the vicinity of Cape Ann in Massachusetts. The grandfather,
+who also received a liberal education, probably in England, came into
+the possession of his father's estate, for that day a large one, and we
+are not informed whether he followed any profession or regular business.
+He was a man fully six feet tall, of great muscular power, and a lover
+of good horses, on which he spent much time and money. He married Ann
+Low, from a wealthy Massachusetts family, and settled in Beverly, where
+their sons David and Samuel were born, and where the family fortunes
+became much embarrassed. About 1757 the family removed to Pomfret,
+Connecticut, and the boys, whose education at the hands of their mother
+had been but slight, were apprenticed, David to a carpenter and Samuel
+to a shoemaker. Their father, obtaining at this time a commission in the
+army invading Canada, met his death in a bateau which attempted to
+descend the falls of the Oswego and was dashed to pieces on the rocks
+with the loss of every soul on board.
+
+David Low Dodge's mother, when a girl, was Mary Stuart, and when she
+married his father, in 1768, was a widow bearing the name of Earl. The
+young husband hired a small farm, the wife by her industry and economy
+had furniture sufficient to begin housekeeping, and the little home was
+founded in which David Low Dodge's only sister Mary was born in 1770.
+Three years later the father hired a more expensive place in the same
+town, where the boy was born in 1774. "During that year," he writes in
+his autobiography, "my father became serious, and commenced family
+prayer. He was educated in the old semi-Arminian views of his mother and
+the halfway covenant. My mother was a rigid Calvinist of the Whitefield
+school. Neither of them ever made a public profession of religion, but
+they were careful to observe external ordinances, catechize their
+children, and give religious instruction. They were honest, industrious,
+temperate, kind-hearted people, universally respected and esteemed by
+all who were acquainted with them."
+
+Such was the atmosphere in which the boy grew up. "The American
+Revolution at this period was convulsing the whole country, drafting and
+enlisting soldiers. Wagons were needed for the army, and by the advice
+of the Putnams, the old general and his son Israel, who was about two
+years younger than my father, he was induced to engage in the
+manufacture of continental wagons. He hired a convenient place for
+carpenters and blacksmiths, took several journeymen into the family,
+and embarked all his earnings in the business." The boy's half-brothers,
+William and Jesse Earl, entered the army at the tender ages of fourteen
+and sixteen, endured battles, sickness, and every privation, and both
+died towards the close of the war, the event almost wrecking the nervous
+system of the mother, a woman of acute sensibility. Thus early were the
+horrors of war brought personally home to the boy. He remembered hearing
+the distant cannonading when New London was burned by the British, and
+the exclamation of the man beside him, "Blood is flowing to-day." "News
+came the next morning that the forts were stormed, the garrisons put to
+the sword, New London burnt, and the British were marching upon Norwich,
+and would proceed up into the country. My mother wrung her hands, and
+asked my father if we had not better pack up some things to secrete
+them."
+
+The boy's education was slight and fragmentary. The summer he was six
+years old he attended the school of a venerable Irish maiden lady about
+sixty years of age, learning Watts' _Divine Songs_, texts of Scripture,
+and the _Shorter Catechism_. From the age of seven to fourteen--the
+family now living on a farm in the neighboring town of Hampton--he
+attended the district school for two terms each winter, having no access
+to any other books than the primer, spelling book, arithmetic, and
+Bible. "I used often, when not at work in the shop evenings, to retire
+to the old kitchen fireplace, put my lamp into the oven, and, sitting
+with my back against it, take my arithmetic, slate, and pencil, and try
+to cipher a little. I often think how I should have been delighted to
+have had one fifth part of the advantages enjoyed by most of my
+descendants." Confined to the house for seven weeks a little later as
+the result of accidents, he turned hungrily to such books as he could
+secure--Dilworth's _Arithmetic_, Webster's _Abridged Grammar_, and
+Salmon's _Universal English Geography_. "This opened a new and
+astonishing field to me for contemplation. I now obtained the first
+glimpse of the boundaries of land and water, of the lofty mountains, and
+of the mighty rivers which had cut their channels through the earth. I
+read and surveyed the maps and meditated upon them until I began to
+lecture to my young companions, and was considered quite learned in
+geography. Having an object in view, I began to thirst for knowledge,
+and succeeded in borrowing in succession _The Travels of Cyrus_,
+_Xerxes' Expedition into Greece_, _The History of Alexander the Great_,
+and _Hannibal's Invasion of Rome_." He proposed and brought about the
+formation of a society of young men in the town, for the improvement of
+minds and manners. There were fourteen young men, with an equal number
+of young women presently added, each furnishing a useful book as the
+beginning of a library. "We obtained some of the British classics, such
+as the _Spectator_, _Guardian_, etc., with a few histories; the subjects
+formed a foundation for conversation when we met together."
+
+Now the young man's ambition turned from farming to school-teaching. He
+began with district schools, becoming a successful teacher from the
+start, prosecuting his own studies assiduously in every leisure hour,
+fired with a desire to improve the schools, which were everywhere as
+wretched as can well be imagined. For some months in 1795 he left
+teaching to join other young men in building a bridge at Tiverton, Rhode
+Island. Then he attended the academy at North Canterbury, Connecticut,
+under the charge of the eminent teacher, John Adams. "This was the only
+opportunity I ever enjoyed of attending a good school, and this was
+abridged to fulfill my engagement to teach the town school in
+Mansfield." In 1796 he opened a private school in Norwich, adding the
+next year a morning school for young ladies and an evening school for
+apprentices and clerks, all of which flourished. During this time he was
+profoundly interested in religious matters, attending many revivals and
+becoming more and more concerned with moral and social problems. Now,
+too, he married, his wife being a daughter of Aaron Cleveland of
+Norwich, a strong character, afterwards a clergyman, "whose name you
+will find enrolled among the poets of Connecticut," and who as early as
+1775 published a poem on slavery, which, condemning slavery as wholly
+antichristian, attracted a good deal of notice. He was the first man in
+Connecticut to arraign slavery publicly. Elected to the General Assembly
+from Norwich on that issue, he introduced a bill in behalf of
+emancipation.
+
+With health somewhat impaired and with family cares increasing, David
+Dodge now turned from teaching to trade. First it was as a clerk in
+Norwich, then as a partner in a general store, then as head of various
+dry goods establishments in Hartford and other Connecticut towns, always
+and everywhere successful. In 1805 Messrs. S. and H. Higginson of
+Boston, cousins of his wife, a firm of high standing and large capital,
+made him a proposition to enter into a copartnership with a view to
+establishing an extensive importing and jobbing store in the city of New
+York; and he accepted the proposition, going to New York the next year
+to take charge of the concern in that city. He took a store in Pearl
+Street, and the year afterwards the family took possession of the house
+connected with the store, still reserving the house in Hartford as a
+retreat in case of yellow fever in New York. From this time until his
+death, April 23, 1852, New York was, with occasional interruptions, his
+home and the center of his varied and ever enlarging activities. Just
+before the outbreak of the war with England his partners became bankrupt
+through losses in extensive shipping of American produce to Europe.
+"Bonaparte sprung his trap upon more than a million dollars of their
+property." Mr. Dodge now established cotton factories in Connecticut,
+and later commenced anew the dry goods business in New York, his home
+for years alternating between New York and the Norwich neighborhood; and
+for the nine years following 1835 he occupied a large farm in
+Plainfield, New Jersey.
+
+Active as was his business life, and faithful his devotion to his large
+business affairs,--and he came to rank with the most prominent mercantile
+men of his day,--his mind was always intent upon social and religious
+subjects. "During the years of 1808 to 1811 our business became extensive
+and demanded much thought and attention; yet I think my affections were on
+the subject of religion." Revivals of religion, the interests of his
+church in Norwich or New York, the improvement of the lives of his
+factory operatives, the organization in New York of the Christian Friendly
+Society for the Promotion of Morals and Religion,--such were the objects
+which commanded him. Throughout his long residence in New York he was a
+prominent worker in the Presbyterian church, for many years an elder in
+the church. He took a leading part in organizing the New York Bible
+Society and the New York Tract Society, was much engaged in the early
+missionary movements in New York, and in promoting the education of young
+men for the ministry. He was a lover of knowledge, a great reader, and one
+who thought and wrote as he read. Deeply interested in history, ancient
+and modern, his chief interest was in theological discussion. He was
+familiar with the chief theological controversies of the day, and upon
+many of them committed his views to writing. His knowledge of the Bible
+was remarkable; he read it through critically in course forty-two times.
+He held firmly the Calvinistic system of doctrine, and he addressed to his
+children a series of letters, characterized by great ability and logical
+force, in defense of the faith, and constituting together a compendious
+system of theology.
+
+Several of these letters are included in the memorial volume published
+for the family in 1854 under the editorial supervision of Rev. Matson M.
+Smith. This volume contains, besides the two essays on war here
+reprinted, and various verses and letters, the interesting autobiography
+which he prepared, at the request of his children, a few years before
+his death, and a supplementary biographical sketch by his pastor, Rev.
+Asa D. Smith. In the mass of manuscripts which he left behind was an
+essay upon "The Relation of the Church to the World," and one upon
+"Retributive Judgment and Capital Punishment,"--to which he was sharply
+opposed. He was opposed indeed to so much in human governments as now
+constituted,--"whose ultimate reliance," he said, "is the sword," and
+whose laws he felt to be so often contrary to the laws of Christ to
+which he gave his sole allegiance,--that he would neither vote nor hold
+office. Strict and inflexible as he was in his views of political and
+religious duty, he was one of the most genial and delightful of men, a
+Christian in whom there was no guile, fond of the young, affectionate,
+courteous, "given to hospitality," "careful habitually to make even the
+conventionalities of life a fitting accompaniment and expression of the
+inward principle of kindness." A face as strong as it is gentle, and as
+gentle as it is strong, is that which looks at us in the beautiful
+portrait preserved in the family treasures, and a copy of which forms
+the frontispiece of the present volume.
+
+The character and influence of the family which he founded in New York,
+during the three generations which have followed, constitute an
+impressive witness to David Dodge's force and worth, his religious
+consecration, and high public spirit. At the junction of Broadway and
+Sixth Avenue stands the statue of his son, William Earl Dodge, whose
+life of almost fourscore years ended in 1883. For long years the head of
+the great house of Phelps, Dodge & Co., the manager of immense railway,
+lumber, and mining interests, the president of the New York Chamber of
+Commerce, a representative of New York in Congress, a leader in large
+work for temperance, for the freedmen, for the Indians, for theological
+education, for a score of high patriotic and philanthropic interests,
+New York had in his time no more representative, more useful, or more
+honored citizen. And what is said of him may be said in almost the same
+words of William Earl Dodge, his son, who died but yesterday, and who
+combined broad business and philanthropic activities in the same strong
+and influential way as his father and grandfather before him. President
+of many religious and benevolent associations, he was pre-eminently a
+patriot and an international man. The logic of his life and of his
+heritage placed him naturally at the head of the National Arbitration
+Committee, which was appointed at the great conference on international
+arbitration held at Washington in the spring of 1896, following the
+anxiety attendant upon President Cleveland's Venezuelan message,--a
+committee which, under his chairmanship, and since his death that of
+Hon. John W. Foster, has during the decade rendered such great service
+to the peace and arbitration cause in this country. It is to be noted
+also that the names of his son and daughter, Cleveland H. Dodge and
+Grace H. Dodge, names so conspicuously associated to-day with
+charitable, religious, and educational efforts in New York, are
+associated, too, like his with the commanding cause of the world's peace
+and better organization; both names stand upon the American Committee of
+the Thirteenth International Peace Congress, which met in Boston in
+1904. Thus have the generations which have followed him well learned and
+strongly emphasized the lesson taught by David Dodge almost a century
+ago, that war is "inhuman, unwise, and criminal," and "inconsistent with
+the religion of Jesus Christ."
+
+It was in 1805 that a startling personal experience prompted the train
+of thought which soon and forever made David L. Dodge the advocate of
+the thorough-going peace principles with which his name is chiefly
+identified, and led him to condemn all violence, even in self-defense,
+in dealings between men, as between nations. Accustomed to carry pistols
+when traveling with large sums of money, he was almost led to shoot his
+landlord in a tavern at Providence, Rhode Island, who by some blunder
+had come into his room at night and suddenly waked him. The thought of
+what his situation and feelings would have been had he taken the man's
+life shocked him into most searching thinking. For two or three years
+his mind dwelt on the question. He turned to the teaching and example of
+Christ, and became persuaded that these were inconsistent with violence
+and the carrying of deadly weapons, and with war. The common churchman
+sanctioned such things, but not the early Christians; and he found
+strong words condemning war in Luther and Erasmus, the Moravians and
+Quakers. Discussing the matter with many pious and Christian men, he
+found them generally avoiding the gospel standard. He was shocked by the
+"general want of faith in the promises"; but he himself laid aside at
+once his pistols and the fear of robbers. He became absolutely convinced
+that fighting and warfare were "unlawful for the followers of Christ";
+and from now on he began to bear public testimony against the war
+spirit.
+
+Early in the spring of 1809 he published his essay, _The Mediator's
+Kingdom not of this World_, which attracted so much attention that in
+two weeks nearly a thousand copies were sold. Three literary men joined
+in preparing a spirited and sarcastic criticism of it; and he
+immediately published a rejoinder. _The Mediator's Kingdom_ was
+republished in Philadelphia and in Providence, and Mr. Dodge writes
+truly: "These publications gave the first impulse in America, if we
+except the uniform influence of the Friends, to inquiry into the
+lawfulness of war by Christians. Some who were favorable to the
+doctrines of peace judged that, with a bold hand, I had carried the
+subject too far; and doubtless, as it was new and had not been much
+discussed, I wrote too unguardedly, not sufficiently defining my terms.
+The Rev. Dr. Noah Worcester was one who so judged, and a few years after
+he published his very spirited and able essay, _The Solemn Review of
+War_." This famous essay of Worcester's represents the platform of the
+great body of American peace workers for a century, the position of men
+like Channing and Ladd and Jay and Sumner; but to a nonresistant and
+opponent even of self-defense, like David Dodge, these seemed the
+exponents of a halfway covenant.
+
+Mr. Dodge entered into private correspondence on the lawfulness of war
+with Rev. Lyman Beecher, Rev. Aaron Cleveland, his father-in-law, Rev.
+John B. Romeyn, and Rev. Walter King. He preserved among his manuscripts
+letters of twenty-five pages from Dr. Romeyn and Mr. Cleveland, and
+copies of his reply to Dr. Romeyn (one hundred and thirty-two pages) and
+to Dr. Beecher (forty-four pages). Important letters from Dr. Beecher
+and Governor Jay he had lost. All these took the position of Dr.
+Worcester, sanctioning strictly defensive war in extreme cases,--all
+except Mr. Cleveland, who finally came into complete accord with Mr.
+Dodge, and published two able sermons on "The Life of Man Inviolable by
+the Laws of Christ."
+
+Early in 1812 the friends of peace whom Mr. Dodge had gathered about him
+in New York conferred upon the forming of a peace society, "wholly
+confined to decided evangelical Christians, with a view to diffusing
+peace principles in the churches, avoiding all party questions." There
+being at this juncture, however, intense political feeling over the
+threatened war with Great Britain, they feared their motives would be
+misapprehended, and decided for the moment simply to act individually in
+diffusing information. Mr. Dodge was appointed to prepare an essay on
+the subject of war, stating and answering objections; and, removing at
+this time to Norwich, he there, in a period of great business
+perplexity, completed his remarkable paper on "War Inconsistent with the
+Christian Religion," which was published in the very midst of the war
+with England.
+
+Upon his return to New York, the friends of peace there had two or three
+meetings relative to the organization of a society; and in August, 1815,
+they formed the New York Peace Society, of between thirty and forty
+members, their strict articles of association condemning all war,
+offensive and defensive, as wholly opposed to the example and spirit and
+precepts of Christ. The peace societies formed immediately afterwards in
+Massachusetts, Ohio, Rhode Island, and London were organized, according
+to Mr. Dodge, without any knowledge of each other, the movements being
+the simultaneous separate results of a common impulse. Of the New York
+society Mr. Dodge was unanimously elected president. Monthly meetings
+were arranged, and at the first of these Mr. Dodge read an address upon
+"The Kingdom of Peace under the Benign Reign of Messiah," of which a
+thousand copies were at once printed and circulated. Within two years
+the society had increased to sixty members, men active not only against
+war--which the society regarded as "the greatest temporal evil, as
+almost every immorality is generated in its prosecution, and poverty,
+distress, famine, and pestilence follow in its train"--but in all the
+benevolent enterprises of that day. "Several respectable clergymen
+united with the society,--Rev. Drs. E. D. Griffin and M. L. Parvine,
+Rev. E. W. Baldwin (to whose pen we were much indebted), Rev. Samuel
+Whelpley, and his son, Rev. Melancthon Whelpley, Rev. H. G. Ufford, and
+Rev. S. H. Cox. Dr. Cox, however, afterwards entertained different views
+on the subject."
+
+The New York Peace Society had friendly correspondence with all the
+other peace societies, and for several years took two hundred copies of
+Dr. Worcester's _Friend of Peace_. This seems finally to have
+contributed to divide the society, some relinquishing the nonresistant
+views of Mr. Dodge and adopting Worcester's less extreme position. But
+our brave Tolstoian was a "thorough," and never wavered. "If it was
+morally wrong for individuals to quarrel and fight, instead of returning
+good for evil,"--these are his last words on the subject in his
+autobiography,--"it was much more criminal for communities and nations
+to return evil for evil, and not strive to overcome evil with good. In
+fact, the great barrier to our progress was the example of our fathers
+in the American Revolution. That they were generally true patriots, in
+the political sense of the term, and many hopefully pious, I would not
+call in question, while I consider them as ill directed by education as
+St. Paul was when on his way to Damascus."
+
+The New York Peace Society maintained its existence and work for many
+years. In 1828 it united with other societies in the creation of the
+American Peace Society, which was organized in New York on May 8 of that
+year on the initiative of William Ladd. After this the New York society
+seems to have done little separate work, and finally its independent
+existence ceased. Mr. Dodge assisted in the organization of the new
+national society, and presided at its first annual meeting, May 13,
+1829. He was chosen a member of its board of directors, and later became
+a life director, maintaining his connection with the society until his
+death in 1852, faithful to the end to the radical views by which he had
+become so powerfully possessed almost half a century before.
+
+For two generations New York has been without a local peace society. The
+services of eminent individual citizens of the city and state of New
+York for the peace cause during that period, however, have been signal.
+Judge William Jay of New York was for a decade president of the American
+Peace Society,--the important decade covering the great peace congresses
+in Europe at the middle of the last century; and it was his proposal
+that an arbitration clause should be attached to all future commercial
+treaties which furnished the basis for the most constructive debates of
+the first congress, that at London in 1843. The three really important
+members of the American delegation at The Hague Conference were citizens
+of New York,--Andrew D. White, Seth Low, and Frederick W. Holls. A
+remarkable plan adopted by the New York State Bar Association suggested
+important features of The Hague Court as finally constituted. It is a
+citizen of New York, Andrew Carnegie, who has given $1,500,000 for a
+worthy building for the court at The Hague,--a temple of peace. Mr.
+Carnegie, whose influence in behalf of international fraternity is
+perhaps second to that of no other to-day, has also given $5,000,000 to
+establish a pension fund for "heroes of peace," whose heroism, too long
+comparatively neglected, he rightly sees to be not less than the heroism
+of the soldier. The most important series of arbitration conferences in
+recent times have been those at Lake Mohonk, in the state of New York,
+arranged by Albert K. Smiley,--conferences of growing size and
+importance, commanding world-wide attention, and performing for this
+country almost the same service performed for France and England by
+their national peace congresses. Finally, it must not be forgotten that
+Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States, through whose
+initiative the second Hague Conference will presently meet, is also a
+citizen of New York.
+
+At this very time a promising movement is gaining head to organize once
+more in David Dodge's city a New York Peace Society. At one of the
+recent Mohonk conferences a large committee of New York men, under the
+chairmanship of Mr. Warner Van Norden, was formed for conference with
+this end in view. Upon the American committee of the International Peace
+Congress which met in Boston in 1904 were no less than sixteen residents
+of the city of New York,--Andrew Carnegie, Hon. Oscar S. Straus, Hon.
+George F. Seward, Walter S. Logan, Felix Adler, William D. Howells, Mrs.
+Charles Russell Lowell, Mrs. Anna Garlin Spencer, Miss Grace H. Dodge,
+Rev. Josiah Strong, Rev. Charles E. Jefferson, Cleveland H. Dodge,
+George Foster Peabody, Professor John B. Clark, Leander T. Chamberlain,
+and J. G. Phelps Stokes. In the week following the Boston congress a
+series of great peace meetings was held in New York, at the Cooper Union
+and elsewhere, arranged by members of this committee; and out of all
+this a new impulse has come to plans for local organization in New York.
+As one result a strong society was formed by the Germans of the city,
+and a large Women's Peace Circle has since been organized and begun
+important educational work. The larger New York Peace Society is now
+certainly a thing of the near future. To the men and women who will
+constitute that society, the noble body of those now working in their
+various ways in the great city for the cause of peace, is dedicated
+especially this republication of the old essays of David Dodge, the
+founder of the first peace society in the world, who by his pioneering
+and prophetic service gave to New York a place so significant in the
+history of what is to-day the world's most commanding cause.
+
+  SEPTEMBER, 1905                                   EDWIN D. MEAD
+
+
+
+
+WAR INCONSISTENT WITH THE RELIGION OF JESUS CHRIST
+
+Humanity, wisdom, and goodness at once combine all that can be great and
+lovely in man. Inhumanity, folly, and wickedness reverse the picture,
+and at once represent all that can be odious and hateful. The former is
+the spirit of Heaven, and the latter the offspring of hell. The spirit
+of the gospel not only breathes "glory to God in the highest, but on
+earth peace, and good will to men." The wisdom from above is first pure,
+then peaceable, gentle, easy to be entreated; but the wisdom from
+beneath is earthly, sensual, and devilish.
+
+It is exceedingly strange that any one under the light of the gospel,
+professing to be guided by its blessed precepts, with the Bible in his
+hand, while the whole creation around him is so often groaning under the
+weight and terrors of war, should have doubts whether any kind of wars
+under the gospel dispensation, except spiritual warfare, can be the
+dictate of any kind of wisdom except that from beneath; and much more
+so, to believe that they are the fruit of the Divine Spirit, which is
+love, joy, and peace.
+
+An inspired apostle has informed us from whence come wars and fightings.
+They come from the lusts of men that war in their members. Ever since
+the fall, mankind have had naturally within them a spirit of pride,
+avarice, and revenge. The gospel is directly opposed to this spirit. It
+teaches humility, it inculcates love, it breathes pity and forgiveness
+even to enemies, and forbids rendering evil for evil to any man.
+
+Believing as I do, after much reflection and, as I trust, prayerful
+investigation of the subject, that all kinds of carnal warfare are
+unlawful upon gospel principles, I shall now endeavor to prove that WAR
+is INHUMAN, UNWISE, and CRIMINAL, and then make some general remarks,
+and state and answer several objections. In attempting to do this I
+shall not always confine myself strictly to this order of the subject,
+but shall occasionally make such remarks as may occur, directly or
+indirectly, to show that the whole genius of war is contrary to the
+spirit and precepts of the gospel.
+
+
+
+
+WAR IS INHUMAN
+
+
+I. BECAUSE IT HARDENS THE HEART AND BLUNTS THE TENDER FEELINGS OF
+MANKIND
+
+That it is the duty of mankind to be tender-hearted, feeling for the
+distress of others, and to do all in their power to prevent and
+alleviate their misery, is evident not only from the example of the Son
+of God but the precepts of the gospel.
+
+When the Saviour of sinners visited this dark and cruel world he became
+a man of sorrow and was acquainted with grief, so that he was touched
+with the feeling of our infirmities. He went about continually healing
+the sick, opening the eyes of the blind, unstopping the ears of the
+deaf, raising the dead, as well as preaching the gospel of peace to the
+poor. He visited the houses of affliction and poured the balm of
+consolation into the wounded heart. He mourned with those who mourned,
+and wept with those that wept. Love to God and man flowed from his soul
+pure as the river of life, refreshing the thirsty desert around him. He
+was not only affectionate to his friends but kind to his enemies. He
+returned love for their hatred, and blessing for their cursing. When he
+was surrounded by all the powers of darkness and resigned himself into
+the hands of sinners to expiate their guilt, and they smote him on the
+cheek and plucked off the hair, he "was dumb and opened not his mouth."
+While suffering all the contempt and torture which men and devils could
+invent, instead of returning evil for evil he prayed for his murderers
+and apologized for his persecutors, saying, "Father, forgive them, for
+they know not what they do."
+
+The apostle exhorts Christians, saying, "Be ye kind and tender-hearted,
+forgiving one another, even as God for Christ's sake hath forgiven you."
+
+Authority in abundance might be quoted to show that the spirit of the
+gospel absolutely requires the exercise of love, pity, and forgiveness,
+even to enemies.
+
+But who will undertake to prove that soldiers are usually kind and
+tender-hearted, and that their employment has a natural tendency to
+promote active benevolence, while it requires all their study of mind
+and strength of body to injure their enemies to the greatest extent?
+
+Though we often hear of the generosity and attention of soldiers to
+prisoners, and notwithstanding I am willing to allow that feelings of
+humanity are not altogether obliterated from every soldier, yet much of
+this apparent kindness may flow from a desire of better treatment
+themselves should circumstances be reversed, or from a hope of the
+applause of mankind. My object, however, is not to prove that all
+soldiers are destitute of humanity, but that their occupation has a
+natural tendency and actually does weaken their kind and tender
+feelings, and harden their hearts.
+
+Is it not a fact that those who are engaged in the spirit of war, either
+in the council or in the field, are not usually so meek, lowly, kind,
+and tender-hearted as other men? Does the soldier usually become kind
+and tender-hearted while trained to the art of killing his fellow-man,
+or more so when engaged in the heat of the battle, stepping forward over
+the wounded and hearing the groans of the expiring? Does he actually put
+on bowels of tenderness, mercy, and forgiveness, while he bathes his
+sword in the blood of his brother? Do these scenes generally change the
+lion into the lamb? On the contrary, do not the history of ages and the
+voice of millions bear testimony that the whole trade of war has a
+natural tendency to blunt the tender edge of mercy and chill all the
+sympathizing feelings of the human heart? Who that is a parent, having
+an uncommonly hard-hearted and unfeeling son, would send him into the
+camp to subdue his inhumanity and to stamp upon him kind and tender
+feelings? If war has not a natural tendency to harden the heart, permit
+me to inquire why mankind do not usually feel as much at the distress
+occasioned by war as by other calamities?
+
+It would be truly astonishing, were it not so common, to see with what
+composure the generality of mankind hear the account of barbarous and
+destructive battles. They may have some little excitement when they hear
+of savages--whose religion teaches them revenge--using the tomahawk and
+scalping knife; but when thousands are torn to pieces with shot and
+shells and butchered with polished steels, then it becomes a very polite
+and civil business, and those who perish are contemplated as only
+reclining on a bed of honor. If an individual in common life breaks a
+bone or fractures a limb, all around him not only sympathize but are
+ready to aid in alleviating his distress; but when thousands are slain
+and ten thousand wounded in the field of battle, the shock is but
+trifling, and the feelings are soon lost in admiring the gallantry of
+this hero and the prowess of that veteran. And why all this sensibility
+at the pains of an individual, and all this indifference at the
+sufferings of thousands, if war has not a natural tendency to harden the
+heart and destroy the tender feelings of mankind?
+
+It is a fact, however, so notorious that the spirit and practice of war
+do actually harden the heart and chill the kind and tender feelings of
+mankind, that I think few will be found to deny it, and none who have
+ever known or felt the spirit of Christ.
+
+The spirit of war must be very unlike the spirit of the gospel, for the
+gospel enforces no duty the practice of which has a natural tendency to
+harden men's hearts, but in proportion as they are influenced by its
+spirit and actuated by its principles they will be humane; therefore, if
+war hardens men's hearts it is not a Christian duty, and of course it
+cannot be right for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+II. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IN ITS NATURE AND TENDENCY IT ABUSES GOD'S ANIMAL
+CREATION
+
+When God at first created man, he gave him authority over the beasts of
+the field, the fowls of the air, and the fishes of the deep. After he
+had swept away the old ungodly world of mankind for their violence with
+all the animal creation, except those in the ark, he was pleased to
+renew to Noah the same privilege of being lord over the animal world.
+
+It may not perhaps be improper here to digress a little and remark that
+this appears to have been the original bounds of man's authority,--that
+of having dominion only over the animal world and not over his
+fellow-man. It appears that God reserved to himself the government of
+man, whom he originally created in his own image; from which it may be
+inferred that man has no lawful authority for governing his fellow-man
+except as the special executor of divine command, and that no government
+can be morally right except that which acknowledges and looks up to God
+as the supreme head and governor.
+
+But to return: although the animal world is put under the dominion of
+man for his use, yet he has no authority to exercise cruelty towards it.
+"For the merciful man regardeth the life of his beast." God is very
+merciful to his creatures; he not only hears the young ravens when they
+cry but he opens his hand and supplies the wants of the cattle upon a
+thousand hills.
+
+Though God has decorated the earth with beauty and richly clothed it
+with food for man and beast, yet where an all-devouring army passes,
+notwithstanding the earth before them is like the garden of Eden, it is
+behind them a desolate wilderness; the lowing ox and bleating sheep may
+cry for food, but, alas! the destroyer hath destroyed it.
+
+The noble horse, which God has made for the use and pleasure of man,
+shares largely in this desolating evil. He is often taken, without his
+customary food, to run with an express, until, exhausted by fatigue, he
+falls lifeless beneath his rider. Multitudes of them are chained to the
+harness with scanty food, and goaded forward to drag the baggage of an
+army and the thundering engines of death, until their strength has
+failed, their breath exhausted, and the kindness they then receive is
+the lash of the whip or the point of a spear. In such scenes the comfort
+of beasts is not thought of, except by a selfish owner who fears the
+loss of his property.
+
+But all this is trifling compared with what these noble animals, who
+tamely bow to the yoke of man, suffer in the charge of the battle; the
+horse rushes into the combat not knowing that torture and death are
+before him. His sides are often perforated with the spur of his rider,
+notwithstanding he exerts all his strength to rush into the heat of the
+battle, while the strokes of the sabers and the wounds of the bullets
+lacerate his body, and instead of having God's pure air to breathe to
+alleviate his pains, he can only snuff up the dust of his feet and the
+sulphurous smoke of the cannon, emblem of the infernal abode. Thus he
+has no ease for his pains unless God commissions the bayonet or the
+bullet to take away his life.
+
+But if such is the cruelty to beasts in prosecuting war, what is the
+cruelty to man, born for immortality?
+
+No wonder that those who feel so little for their fellow-men should feel
+less for beasts.
+
+If war is an inhuman and cruel employment, it must be wrong for
+Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+III. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT OPPRESSES THE POOR
+
+To oppress the poor is everywhere in the Scriptures considered as a
+great sin: "For the oppression of the poor, for the sighing of the
+needy, now will I arise, saith the Lord"; "Whoso stoppeth his ears at
+the cry of the poor, he also shall cry himself and not be heard"; "What
+mean ye that ye beat my people to pieces, and grind the faces of the
+poor? saith the Lord God of hosts."
+
+The threatenings against those who oppress the poor, and the blessings
+pronounced upon those who plead their cause, are very numerous in the
+Scriptures. The threatenings are so tremendous and awful that all men
+ought to consider well before they are active in any step which has a
+natural tendency to oppress the poor and needy.
+
+That war actually does oppress the poor may be heard from ten thousand
+wretched tongues who have felt its woe. Very few, comparatively, who are
+instigators of war actually take the field of battle, and are seldom
+seen in the front of the fire. It is usually those who are rioting on
+the labors of the poor that fan up the flame of war. The great mass of
+soldiers are generally from the poor of a country. They must gird on the
+harness and for a few cents per day endure all the hardships of a camp
+and be led forward like sheep to the slaughter. Though multitudes are
+fascinated to enlist by the intoxicating cup, the glitter of arms, the
+vainglory of heroes, and the empty sound of patriotism, yet many more
+are called away contrary to their wishes by the iron hand of despotic
+laws. Perhaps a parent is enrolled whose daily labor was hardly
+sufficient to supply a scanty pittance for a numerous offspring, who are
+in his absence crying for bread. And why all this sorrow in this poor
+and needy family? Because the husband and father is gone, and probably
+gone forever, most likely to gratify the wishes of some ambitious men
+who care as little as they think of his anxious family. Perhaps an only
+son is taken from old, decrepit parents, the only earthly prop of their
+declining years; and with cold poverty and sorrow their gray hairs are
+brought down to the dust.
+
+War cannot be prosecuted without enormous expenses. The money that has
+been expended the last twenty years in war would doubtless have been
+sufficient not only to have rendered every poor person on earth
+comfortable--so far as money could do it--during the same period, but,
+if the residue had been applied to cultivate the earth, it would have
+literally turned the desert into a fruitful field. Only the interest of
+the money that has been expended in a few years by the European nations
+in prosecuting war would have been sufficient, under proper direction,
+to educate every poor child on earth in the common rudiments of
+learning, and to support missionaries in abundance to convey the gospel
+of peace to every creature. What a noble employment if those nations had
+exerted their powers for these objects as much as they have for injuring
+each other! And what a difference would have appeared in the world!
+Blessings would have fallen on millions ready to perish, instead of
+desolation, terror, and death.
+
+The vast expenses of war must be met by corresponding taxes, whether by
+duties on merchandise or direct taxes on real estate; yet they fall most
+heavily on the poor. Whatever duty the merchant pays to the customhouse,
+he adds the amount to the price of his goods, so that the consumer
+actually pays the tax. If a tax is levied on real estate, the product of
+that estate is raised to meet it, and whoever consumes the product pays
+the tax. In times of war the prices of the necessaries of life are
+generally very much increased, but the prices of the labor of the poor
+do not usually rise in the same proportion, therefore it falls very
+heavily on them. When the honest laborers are suddenly called from the
+plow to take the sword and leave the tilling of the ground, either its
+seed is but sparingly sown or its fruit but partially gathered, scarcity
+ensues, high prices are the consequence, and the difficulty greatly
+increased for the poor to obtain the necessaries of life, especially if
+they were dependent on the product of a scanty farm which they are now
+deprived of cultivating. Many a poor widow, who has been able in times
+of peace to support her fatherless children, has been obliged in times
+of war in a great measure to depend on the cold hand of charity to
+supply their wants.
+
+The calamities of war necessarily fall more on the poor than on the
+rich, because the poor of a country are generally a large majority of
+its inhabitants.
+
+These are some of the evils of war at a distance, but when it comes to
+their doors, if they are favored personally to escape the ferocity of
+the soldiers, they fly from their habitations, leaving their little all
+to the fire and pillage, glad to escape with their lives, though
+destitute and dependent; and when they cast round their eyes for relief,
+they only meet a fellow-sufferer, who can sympathize with them but not
+supply their wants. Thus does war not only oppress the poor but adds
+multitudes to their number who before were comfortable.
+
+If war actually does oppress the poor, then we may infer that in its
+nature and tendency it is very unlike the genius of the gospel, and not
+right for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+IV. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT SPREADS TERROR AND DISTRESS AMONG MANKIND
+
+In the benign reign of Messiah the earth will be filled with the
+abundance of peace; there will be nothing to hurt or destroy; every one
+will sit quietly under his own vine and fig tree, having nothing to
+molest or make him afraid. But in times of war, mankind are usually full
+of anxiety, their hearts failing them for fear, looking for those things
+which are coming upon our wicked world.
+
+One of the most delightful scenes on earth is a happy family where all
+the members dwell together in love, being influenced by the blessed
+precepts of the gospel of peace. But how soon does the sound of war
+disturb and distress the happy circle! If it is only the distant thunder
+of the cannon that salutes the ear, the mother starts from her repose,
+and all the children gather round her with looks full of anxiety to know
+the cause. Few women can so command their feelings as to hide the cause;
+and let it be said to the honor of the female sex that they have
+generally tender feelings, which cannot easily be disguised at the
+distress of their fellow-beings. Perhaps a mother's heart is now wrung
+with anguish in the prospect that either the partner of her life or the
+sons of her care and sorrow, or both, are about to be called into the
+bloody field of battle. Perhaps the decrepit parent views his darling
+son leaving his peaceful abode to enter the ensanguined field, never
+more to return. How soon are these joyful little circles turned into
+mourning and sorrow!
+
+Who can describe the distress of a happy village suddenly encompassed by
+two contending armies--perhaps so early and suddenly that its
+inhabitants are aroused from their peaceful slumbers by the confused
+noise of the warriors more ferocious than the beasts that prowl in the
+forest? Were it not for the tumult of the battle, shrieks of distress
+from innocent women and children might be heard from almost every abode.
+Children run to the arms of their distracted mothers, who are as unable
+to find a refuge for themselves as for their offspring. If they fly to
+the streets they are in the midst of death: hundreds of cannon are
+vomiting destruction in every quarter; the hoofs of horses trampling
+down everything in their way; bullets, stones, bricks, and splinters
+flying in every direction; houses pierced with cannon shot and shells
+which carry desolation in their course; without, multitudes of men
+rushing with deadly weapons upon each other with all the rage of tigers,
+plunging each other into eternity, until the streets are literally
+drenched with the blood of men. To increase the distress, the village is
+taken and retaken several times at the point of the bayonet. If the
+inhabitants fly to their cellars to escape the fury of the storm, their
+buildings may soon be wrapt in flames over their heads.
+
+And for what, it may be asked, is all this inhuman sacrifice made?
+Probably to gain the empty bubble called honor,--a standard of right and
+wrong without form or dimensions. Let no one say that the writer's
+imagination is heated while it is not in the power of his feeble pen to
+half describe the horror and distress of the scenes which are by no
+means uncommon in a state of war.
+
+If such are some of the effects of war, then it must be a very inhuman
+employment, and wrong for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+V. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT INVOLVES MEN IN FATIGUE, FAMINE, AND ALL THE
+PAINS OF MUTILATED BODIES
+
+To describe the fatigues and hardships of a soldier's life would require
+the experience of a soldier, so that only some of their common
+sufferings can be touched upon by a person who is a stranger to the
+miseries of a camp.
+
+A great majority of those who enter the ranks of an army are persons
+unaccustomed to great privations and severe fatigues; hence the great
+proportion of mortality among fresh recruits. Their habits and strength
+are unable to endure the hard fare, rapid and constant marches generally
+imposed upon them in active service.
+
+The young soldier commonly exchanges a wholesome table, a comfortable
+dwelling, an easy bed, for bad food, the field for his house, the cold
+earth for his bed, and the heavens over him for his covering. He must
+stand at his post day and night, summer and winter; face the scorching
+sun, the chilling tempest, and be exposed to all the storms of the
+season, without any comfortable repose; perhaps during most of the time
+with a scanty allowance of the coarsest food, and often destitute of
+any, except the miserable supply he may have chance to plunder,--not
+enough to satisfy but only to keep alive the craving demands of nature;
+often compelled to march and countermarch several days and nights in
+succession, without a moment to prepare his provisions to nourish him
+and glad to get a little raw to sustain his life. Frequently this
+hardship is endured in the cold and inclement season, while his tattered
+clothing is only the remains of his summer dress. Barefooted and half
+naked, fatigued and chilled, he becomes a prey to disease, and is often
+left to perish without a human being to administer to him the least
+comfort. If he is carried to a hospital, he is there surrounded by the
+pestilential breath of hundreds of his poor fellow-sufferers, where the
+best comforts that can be afforded are but scanty and dismal.
+
+But all this is comparatively trifling to the sufferings of the wounded
+on the field of battle. There thousands of mangled bodies lie on the
+cold ground hours, and sometimes days, without a friendly hand to bind
+up a wound; not a voice is heard except the dying groans of their
+fellow-sufferers around them. No one can describe the horrors of the
+scene: here lies one with a fractured skull, there another with a
+severed limb, and a third with a lacerated body; some fainting with the
+loss of blood, others distracted, and others again crying for help.
+
+If such are some of the faint outlines of the fatigues and sufferings of
+soldiers, then their occupation must be an inhuman employment, for they
+are instrumental in bringing the same calamities on others which they
+suffer themselves; and of course it is unfriendly to the spirit of the
+gospel, and wrong for Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+VI. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT DESTROYS THE YOUTH AND CUTS OFF THE HOPE OF
+GRAY HAIRS
+
+Mankind are speedily hastening into eternity, and it might be supposed
+sufficiently fast without the aid of all the ingenuity and strength of
+man to hurry them forward; yet it is a melancholy truth that a great
+proportion of the wealth, talents, and labors of men are actually
+employed in inventing and using means for the premature destruction of
+their fellow-beings.
+
+One generation passes away, and another follows in quick succession. The
+young are always the stay and hope of the aged; parents labor and toil
+for their children to supply their wants and to educate them to be
+happy, respectable, and useful, and then depend upon them to be their
+stay and comfort in their declining years. Alas, how many expectations
+of fond parents are blasted! Their sons are taken away from them and
+hurried into the field of slaughter.
+
+In times of war the youth--the flower, strength, and beauty of the
+country--are called from their sober, honest, and useful employments, to
+the field of battle; and if they do not lose their lives or limbs, they
+generally lose their habits of morality and industry. Alas! few ever
+return again to the bosom of their friends. Though from their mistaken
+and fascinating views of a soldier's life and honor they may be
+delighted in enlisting, and merry in their departure from their peaceful
+homes, yet their joy is soon turned into pain and sorrow. Unthinking
+youth, like the horse, rushes thoughtlessly into the battle. Repentance
+is then too late; to shrink back is death, and to go forward is only a
+faint hope of life. Here on the dreadful field are thousands and
+hundreds of thousands driven together to slaughter each other by a few
+ambitious men, perhaps none of whom are present. A large proportion are
+probably the youth of their country, the delight and comfort of their
+parents. All these opposing numbers are most likely persons who never
+knew or heard of each other, having no personal ill-will, most of whom
+would in any other circumstances not only not injure each other but be
+ready to aid in any kind office; yet by the act of war they are ranged
+against each other in all the hellish rage of revenge and slaughter.
+
+No pen, much less that of the writer's, can describe the inhumanity and
+horrors of a battle. All is confusion and dismay, dust and smoke
+arising, horses running, trumpets blasting, cannon roaring, bullets
+whistling, and the shrieks of the wounded and dying vibrating from every
+quarter. Column after column of men charge upon each other in furious
+onset, with the awful crash of bayonets and sabers, with eyes flashing
+and visages frightfully distorted with rage, rushing upon each other
+with the violence of brutish monsters; and when these are literally cut
+to pieces others march in quick succession, only to share the same cruel
+and bloody tragedy. Hundreds are parrying the blows; hundreds more are
+thrusting their bayonets into the bowels of their fellow-mortals, and
+many, while extricating them, have their own heads cleft asunder by
+swords and sabers; and all are hurried together before the tribunal of
+their Judge, with hearts full of rage and hands dyed in the blood of
+their brethren.
+
+O horrid and debasing scene! my heart melts at the contemplation, and I
+forbear to dwell upon the inhuman employment.
+
+
+VII. WAR IS INHUMAN, AS IT MULTIPLIES WIDOWS AND ORPHANS, AND CLOTHES
+THE LAND IN MOURNING
+
+The widow and fatherless are special objects of divine compassion, and
+Christianity binds men under the strongest obligation to be kind and
+merciful towards them, as their situation is peculiarly tender and
+afflicting.
+
+"A father of the fatherless, and a judge of the widow, is God in his
+holy habitation." "Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father
+is this, to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction."
+
+To be active in any measure which has a natural tendency to wantonly
+multiply widows and orphans in a land is the height of inhumanity as
+well as daring impiety.
+
+I will venture to say that no one circumstance in our world has so
+greatly multiplied widows and fatherless children as that of war. What
+has humanity ever gained by war to counterbalance simply the afflictions
+of the widow and fatherless? I verily believe nothing comparatively. I
+am well aware that a very popular plea for war is to defend, as it is
+styled, "our firesides, our wives and children"; but this generally is
+only a specious address to the feelings, to rouse up a martial spirit
+which makes thousands of women and children wretched where one is made
+happy. I am sensible that those will sneer at my opinion who regard more
+the honor that comes from men than they do the consolation of the widow
+and the fatherless.
+
+In times of war thousands of virtuous women are deprived of their
+husbands and ten thousands of helpless children of their fathers. The
+little tender children may now gather round their disconsolate mothers,
+anxiously inquiring about their fathers, remembering their kind visages,
+recollecting how they used fondly to dandle them on their knees and
+affectionately instruct them; but now they are torn from their embraces
+by the cruelty of war, and they have no fathers left them but their
+Father in heaven.
+
+It is probably no exaggeration to suppose that in Europe there are now
+two hundred thousand widows and a million fatherless children occasioned
+by war. What a mass of affliction! humanity bleeds at the thought! These
+children must now roam about without a father to provide for, protect,
+or instruct them. They now become an easy prey to all kinds of vice;
+many probably will be trained up for ignominious death, and most of them
+fit only for a soldier's life, to slaughter and to be slaughtered,
+unless some humane hand kindly takes them under its protection.
+
+And here I cannot help admiring the spirit of Christianity. It is owing
+to the blessed spirit and temper of the gospel of peace that many of the
+evils of war are so much ameliorated at the present day as well as the
+inhuman slavery of men.
+
+The numerous asylums that now exist for the relief of the needy, the
+widow, and the fatherless are some of the precious fruits of
+Christianity; and if this spirit were universal the bow would soon be
+broken to pieces, the spear cut asunder, and the chariots of war burnt
+with fire, and wars would cease to the ends of the earth.
+
+And is it not the duty of all who name the name of Christ to do all in
+their power to counteract this destroying evil?
+
+War not only multiplies widows and orphans but clothes the land in
+mourning. In times of war multitudes of people are clothed with ensigns
+of mourning. Here are gray-headed parents shrouded in blackness, weeping
+for the loss of darling sons; there are widows covered with veils
+mourning the loss of husbands, and refusing to be comforted; children
+crying because their fathers are no more. Cities and villages are
+covered in darkness and desolation; weeping and mourning arise from
+almost every abode.
+
+And it may be asked, What inhuman hand is the cause of all this sorrow?
+Perhaps some rash man, in the impetuosity of his spirit, has taken some
+unjust, high ground, and is too proud to retrace a step, and had rather
+see millions wretched than to nobly confess that he had been in the
+wrong.
+
+Surely Christians cannot be active in such measures without incurring
+the displeasure of God, who styles himself the father of the fatherless
+and the judge and avenger of the widow.
+
+Thus I have shown that war is inhuman and therefore wholly inconsistent
+with Christianity, by proving that it tends to destroy humane
+dispositions; that it hardens the hearts and blunts the tender feelings
+of men; that it involves the abuse of God's animal creation; that it
+oppresses the poor; that it spreads terror and distress among mankind;
+that it subjects soldiers to cruel privations and sufferings; that it
+destroys the youth and cuts off the hope of the aged; and that it
+multiplies widows and orphans and occasions mourning and sorrow.
+
+The fact that war is inhuman is indeed one of those obvious truths which
+it is difficult to render more plain by argument; those who know in what
+war consists cannot help knowing that it is inhuman.
+
+What Mr. Windham said with reference to the inhumanity of slavery may be
+said of the inhumanity of war. In one of his speeches in the House of
+Commons against the slave trade he stated his difficulty in arguing
+against such a trade to be of that kind which is felt in arguing in
+favor of a self-evident proposition. "If it were denied that two and two
+made four, it would not be a very easy task," he said, "to find
+arguments to support the affirmative side of the question. Precisely
+similar was his embarrassment in having to prove that the slave trade
+was unjust and inhuman."
+
+Whoever admits that the slave trade is inhuman must admit that war is
+inhuman in a greater variety of ways and on a much larger scale.
+
+The inhumanity of the slave trade was the great and, finally, triumphant
+argument by which it was proved to be inconsistent with Christianity.
+
+The advocates of slavery, like the advocates of war, resorted to the Old
+Testament for support; but it appeared that slavery, as it appears that
+war, was permitted and approved of for reasons and on principles
+peculiar to the ancient economy. This is apparent as well from the
+difference between the general design of the old and new dispensations
+as from the whole genius and spirit of the gospel. Hence those who
+opposed the slave trade argued from the general nature and spirit of
+Christianity as the strongest ground which could be taken. If slavery
+was inconsistent with this, it ought not to be tolerated; but slavery is
+inhuman and is therefore inconsistent with Christianity. Exactly the
+same is true of war, nor can anything short of an express revelation
+from God, commanding war or slavery, render either of them justifiable.
+
+It deserves to be distinctly considered that the gospel contains little
+or nothing directly by way of precept against slavery; but slavery is
+inconsistent with its general requirements and inculcations and is
+therefore wrong. But war, besides being inconsistent with the genius and
+spirit of the gospel, is prohibited by those precepts which forbid
+retaliation and revenge and those which require forgiveness and good
+will.
+
+It is plain, then, that he who does not advocate and defend the slave
+trade, to be consistent, must grant that war is incompatible with
+Christianity, and that it is a violation of the gospel to countenance
+it.
+
+
+
+
+WAR IS UNWISE
+
+
+That the principles and practice of war are unwise I argue:
+
+
+I. BECAUSE, INSTEAD OF PREVENTING, THEY PROVOKE INSULT AND MISCHIEF
+
+The maxim, that in order to preserve peace, mankind must be prepared for
+war, has become so common, and sanctioned by such high authority, that
+few question its wisdom or policy; but if stripped of its specious garb,
+it may appear to proceed not from that wisdom which came down from
+above, which is "first pure, then peaceable, gentle, easy to be
+entreated, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and
+without hypocrisy"; and if it is not the wisdom from above, then it must
+be the wisdom from beneath.
+
+Are not pride, avarice, and revenge the seeds of all kinds of carnal
+warfare? From these grow all the quarreling among children, the discord
+among families, the bickerings, law suits, and broils among neighbors,
+the boxing among bullies, the dueling among modern gentlemen, and wars
+among nations. They all originate from one and the same spirit.
+
+Now, is the mild, meek, and peaceable man, unarmed, more liable to
+inspire jealousy in others that he is about to insult and abuse them
+than the high-toned duelist who constantly carries with him deathly
+weapons? Does he, in fact, so often get into difficulty, quarreling and
+fighting? The respectable Society of Friends stands a living monument to
+answer the question.
+
+On the principles of self-defense, as they are styled, if one man
+suspects an injury from another, unless he is naturally a more powerful
+man, he must take a cane, as the principles of self-defense require a
+superior power in your own hand, either by art or muscular strength.
+When the other learns the suspicions and sees the preparation, he in his
+turn must take a bludgeon to preserve the balance of power and proclaim
+a threatening to awe his antagonist, who must now take a sword and
+return a threatening in order to maintain his dignity; for it will not
+do for men of honor to retract, however much they may be in the wrong.
+The other, again, must take a deathly weapon for his defense, and
+nothing is now wanting but an unhappy meeting to set each other's blood
+a flowing.
+
+Much in the same way do nations often get into desperate warfare. One
+nation is busily increasing its military strength on the plausible maxim
+of preserving peace and maintaining its rights. Another nation views the
+preparations with a jealous eye, and also goes to work on the same
+principle to make formidable preparations. All the nations around take
+the alarm, and on the same principle begin active preparations, all
+vying with each other to become the most formidable. If one sends an
+ambassador to inquire the cause of the great preparations, the answer
+always is, let the motive be what it may, _For their own defense_. Then
+the other makes new exertions and begins to fortify towns on the
+confines of his neighbor, who must not only do the same but march a
+large army for the defense of his frontier; and the other must do
+likewise. By this time, if no old quarrel remained unsettled, perhaps
+one charges the other with encroachment on territory; the other denies
+the charge, and contends sharply for his pretended rights. Ministers may
+be interchanged, and while negotiations are pending a high tone must be
+taken by both parties, for this is an essential principle in the
+doctrine of self-defense; the contrary would betray weakness and fear.
+Newspapers must be ushered forth with flaming pieces to rouse, as it is
+called, the spirit of the countries, so as to impress upon the populace
+the idea that the approaching war is just and necessary, for all wars
+must be just and necessary on both sides. In the meantime envoys
+extraordinary may be sent to other powers by each party to enlist their
+aid,--most of whom are already prepared for war,--and each one selects
+his side according to his interests and feelings. At length the
+_ultimatum_ is given and refused, and the dreadful conflict commences.
+Few wars, however, begin in this slow and progressive mode; a trifling
+aggression is sufficient to blow up the flame with nations already
+prepared.
+
+Thus, we see, nations resemble bulldogs who happen to meet. They will
+first raise their hairs, show their teeth, then growl, and then seize
+upon each other with all their strength and fury; and bulldogs have
+something of the same kind of honor, for they scorn to retreat.
+
+Hence we see that the acknowledged principles of defensive war are the
+vital springs of most of the wars that agitate and desolate our world.
+The pretended distinction between offensive and defensive war is but a
+name. All parties engaged in war proclaim to the world that they only
+are fighting in defense of their rights, and that their enemies are the
+aggressors; while it may be impossible for man to decide which are most
+in the wrong.
+
+The popular maxim of being prepared for war in order to be at peace may
+be seen to be erroneous in fact, for the history of nations abundantly
+shows that few nations ever made great preparations for war and remained
+long in peace. When nations prepare for war they actually go to war, and
+tell the world that their preparations were not a mere show.
+
+Thus we may see that the principles and preparations of war actually
+engender war instead of promoting peace; and of course they are unwise,
+and, if unwise, then it is folly for Christians to engage in them.
+
+
+II. WAR IS UNWISE, FOR INSTEAD OF DIMINISHING, IT INCREASES DIFFICULTIES
+
+As the principles and preparations of war have a natural tendency to
+generate war and are actually the cause of a great proportion of the
+wars which do exist, so actual hostilities have a natural tendency to
+increase difficulties and to spread abroad the destroying evil.
+
+It is almost impossible for any two nations to be long engaged in war
+without interfering with the rights and privileges of other nations,
+which generally awakes their jealousy and resentment, so that most of
+the surrounding nations are drawn into the destructive vortex, which is
+the more easily done, as war inflames the martial spirit in other
+nations not engaged, and rouses up the desperate passions of men.
+Besides, the belligerent nations are not content with suffering
+themselves, but use every art and persuasion to get the neighboring
+nations to join them; and they are generally too successful, for it
+seldom happens that two nations engage in war for a length of time and
+conclude a peace before they have involved other nations in their
+difficulties and distresses, and often a great proportion of the world
+is in arms.
+
+Moreover, the nations who first engage in the contest always widen the
+breach between themselves by war.
+
+It is much easier settling difficulties between individuals or nations
+before actual hostilities commence than afterwards. Mankind are not apt
+to be any more mild and accommodating in a state of actual warfare.
+Besides, new difficulties constantly arise. The passions become
+inflamed, and charges are often made of violating the established laws
+of civilized warfare, which laws, however, are generally bounded only by
+the strength of power. If one party makes an incursion into the other's
+territory and storms a fortified place and burns the town, the other
+party must then make a desperate effort to retaliate the same kind of
+destruction, to a double degree, on the towns of their enemy.
+Retaliation, or "rendering evil for evil," is not only allowed by
+Mahometans and pagans, but is an open and avowed principle in the
+doctrine of self-defense among professed Christian nations; not only is
+it sanctioned by the laity, but too often by the priests who minister in
+the name of Jesus Christ.
+
+Both of the contending parties generally seize on each other's
+possessions wherever they can get hold of them, whether on the seas or
+on the land. The barbarous spoliations on each other stir up the
+passions of the great mass of their inhabitants, until they esteem it a
+virtue to view each other as natural and perpetual enemies, and then
+their rulers can prosecute the war with what they call vigor.
+
+Can the wound now be so easily healed as it could have been before it
+became thus lacerated and inflamed? Facts speak to the contrary, and
+nations seldom attempt negotiations for peace under such circumstances.
+They generally prosecute the war with all their power until one party or
+the other is overcome, or until both have exhausted their strength, and
+then they may mutually agree to a temporary peace to gain a little
+respite, when perhaps the original matter of dispute has become
+comparatively so trifling that it is almost left out of the account.
+
+With a small spirit of forbearance and accommodation how easily might
+the difficulties have been settled before such an immense loss of blood
+and treasure!
+
+If war does actually increase, instead of diminishing, difficulties,
+then it must be very unwise to engage in it.
+
+
+III. WAR IS UNWISE, BECAUSE IT DESTROYS PROPERTY
+
+Property is what a great proportion of mankind are struggling to obtain,
+and many at the hazard of their lives. Though in some instances they may
+misuse it, yet it is the gift of God, and when made subservient to more
+important things, it may be a blessing to individuals and communities.
+It has in it, therefore, a real value, and ought not to be wantonly
+destroyed while it may be used as an instrument for benefiting mankind.
+
+It is a notorious fact that war does make a great destruction of
+property. Thousands of individuals on sea and on land lose their all,
+for the acquisition of which they may have spent the prime of their
+lives. Ships on the high seas are taken, often burnt or scuttled, and
+valuable cargoes sent to the bottom of the deep, some possibly laden
+with the necessaries of life and bound to ports where the innocent
+inhabitants were in a state of famine. Whole countries are laid waste by
+only the passing of an immense army: houses are defaced, furniture
+broken to pieces, the stores of families eaten up, cornfields trodden
+down, fences torn away and used for fuel, and everything swept in its
+train as with the besom of destruction more terrible to the inhabitants
+than the storms of heaven when sent in judgment. Beautiful towns are
+often literally torn to pieces with shot and shells. Venerable cities,
+the labor and pride of ages, are buried in ashes amid devouring flames,
+while in melancholy grandeur the fire and smoke rise to heaven and seem
+to cry for vengeance on the destroyers.
+
+Notwithstanding an avaricious individual or nation may occasionally in
+war acquire by plunder from their brethren a little wealth, yet they
+usually lose on the whole more than they gain. On the general scale the
+loss is incalculable. It is not my object to examine the subject in
+relation to any particular nation or war, but upon the general scale in
+application to all warlike nations and all wars under the light of the
+gospel.
+
+If war does destroy property, reduce individuals to beggary, and
+impoverish nations, then it is unwise to engage in it.
+
+
+IV. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT IS DANGEROUS TO THE LIBERTIES OF MEN
+
+Liberty is the gift of God, and ought to be dear to every man; not,
+however, that licentious liberty which is not in subordination to his
+commands. Men are not independent of God. He is their creator,
+preserver, and benefactor. In his hand their breath is, and he has a
+right to do what he will with his own; and the Judge of all the earth
+will do right. As man is not the creator and proprietor of man, he has
+no right to infringe on his liberty or life without his express divine
+command; and then he acts only as the executor of God. Man, therefore,
+bears a very different relation to God from what he does to his
+fellow-man.
+
+The whole system of war is tyrannical and subversive of the fundamental
+principles of liberty. It often brings the great mass of community under
+the severe bondage of military despotism, so that their lives and
+fortunes are at the sport of a tyrant. Where martial law is proclaimed,
+liberty is cast down, and despotism raises her horrid ensign in its
+place and fills the dungeons and scaffolds with her victims.
+
+Soldiers in actual service are reduced to the most abject slavery, not
+able to command their time for a moment, and are constantly driven about
+like beasts by petty tyrants. In them is exhibited the ridiculous
+absurdity of men rushing into bondage and destruction to preserve or
+acquire their liberty and save their lives.
+
+When the inhabitants of a country are cruelly oppressed by a despotic
+government, and they rise in mass to throw off the yoke, they are as
+often as otherwise crushed beneath the weight of the power under which
+they groaned, and then their sufferings are greatly increased; and if
+they gain their object after a long and sanguinary struggle, they
+actually suffer more on the whole than they would have suffered had they
+remained in peace. It is generally the providence of God, too, to make a
+people who have thrown off the yoke of their oppressor smart more
+severely under the government of their own choice than they did under
+the government which they destroyed. This fact ought well to be
+considered by every one of a revolutionary spirit.
+
+War actually generates a spirit of anarchy and rebellion which is
+destructive to liberty. When the inhabitants of a country are engaged in
+the peaceable employments of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce,
+anarchy and rebellion seldom happen. When these useful employments
+flourish, abundance flows in on every side, gentleness and humanity cast
+a smile over the land, and pleasure beams in almost every countenance.
+To turn the attention of a nation from these honest employments to _that
+of war_ is an evil of unspeakable magnitude. The great object in times
+of war is to rouse up what is styled the spirit of the country,--which,
+in fact, is nothing but inflaming the most destructive passions against
+its own peace and safety. If you infuse into a nation the spirit of war
+for the sake of fighting a foreign enemy, you do that which is often
+most dangerous to its own liberties; for if you make peace with the
+common enemy, you do not destroy the spirit of war among your own
+inhabitants; pride, discontent, and revenge will generally agitate the
+whole body, so that anarchy and confusion will fill the land, and
+nothing but a despotic power can restrain it; and often absolute
+despotism is too feeble to withstand it, and the only remedy is again to
+seek a common enemy. Nations have sometimes waged war against other
+nations because there was such a spirit of war among their own
+inhabitants that they could not be restrained from fighting, and if they
+had not a common foe they would fight one another. So when a nation once
+unsheathes the sword, it cannot easily return the sword again to the
+scabbard, but must keep it crimsoned with the blood of man until "they
+who take the sword shall perish with the sword," agreeably to the
+denunciation of Heaven.
+
+To inflame a mild republic with the _spirit of war_ is putting all its
+liberties to the utmost hazard, and is an evil that few appear to
+understand or appreciate. No person can calculate the greatness of the
+evil to transform the citizens of a peaceful, industrious republic into
+a band of furious soldiers; and yet the unhappy policy of nations is to
+cultivate a martial spirit that they may appear grand, powerful, and
+terrific, when in fact they are kindling flames that will eventually
+burn them up root and branch.
+
+In confirmation of what has been said, if we examine the history of
+nations we shall find that they have generally lost their liberties in
+consequence of the spirit and practice of war. Thus have republics who
+have boasted of their freedom lost their liberty one after another, and
+that this has resulted from the very nature of war and its inseparable
+evils is evident from the fact that so violent and deadly is this
+current of ruin, republics have generally sunk down to the lowest abyss
+of tyranny and despotism, or have been annihilated and their inhabitants
+scattered to the four winds of heaven. Indeed, what nation that has
+become extinct did not first lose its liberty by war, and then hasten to
+its end under the dominion of those passions which war inflames?
+
+Do nations ever enjoy so much liberty as when most free from the spirit
+of war? Are their liberties ever so little endangered as when this
+spirit is allayed and all its foreign excitements removed? Do not
+nations that have partially lost their civil liberties gradually regain
+them in proportion as they continue long without war? Is it not a common
+sentiment that the liberties of a people are in danger when war
+engrosses their attention? On the whole, is it not undeniable that peace
+is favorable to liberty, and that war is its enemy and its ruin? If so,
+what can be more unwise, what more opposite to every dictate of sound
+wisdom and policy, than the spirit and practice of war?
+
+
+V. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DIMINISHES THE HAPPINESS OF MANKIND
+
+Happiness is the professed object which most men are striving to obtain.
+Alas! few, comparatively, seek it where it is alone to be found. But
+that happiness which flows from the benevolent spirit of the gospel is
+to be prized far above rubies; it is a treasure infinitely surpassing
+anything that can be found merely in riches, honors, and pleasures.
+
+But war always diminishes the aggregate of happiness in the world. When
+nations wage war upon each other, all classes of their inhabitants are
+more or less oppressed. They are subjected to various privations;
+prosperity declines; external sources of happiness are mostly dried up;
+anxiety for friends, loss of relations, loss of property, the fear of
+pillage, severe services, great privations, and the dread of conquest
+keep them constantly distressed. They are like the troubled sea that
+cannot rest, whose waters cast up mire and dirt.
+
+Those actually engaged in war generally suffer privations and hardships
+of the severest kind. Even the sage counselors who declare wars are
+often in so great anxiety and pain as to the result of their enterprises
+as to be unable quietly to refresh themselves with food or sleep.
+
+All the rejoicings occasioned by military success are fully counterbalanced
+by the pain and mortification of the vanquished; and, in short, all the
+interest and happiness resulting from war to individuals and nations are
+dearly bought, and are at the expense of other individuals and nations.
+
+It is because war has no tendency to increase, but does in fact greatly
+diminish, happiness that it is so universally regarded and lamented as
+the greatest evil that visits our world. Hence fasting has generally
+been practiced by warlike Christian nations to deplore the calamity, to
+humble themselves before God, and to supplicate his mercy in turning
+away the judgment.
+
+Though fasting and deep humility before God is highly suitable for
+sinners, with a hearty turning away from their sins and humble
+supplication for God's mercy through the mediation of Christ, yet those
+fasts of nations who have voluntarily engaged in war and are determined
+to prosecute it until their lusts and passions are gratified do not
+appear to be such fasts as God requires.
+
+Does it not appear absurd for nations voluntarily to engage in war, and
+then to proclaim a fast to humble themselves before God for its evils,
+while they have no desire to turn away from them, but, on the contrary,
+make it an express object to seek the divine aid in assisting them
+successfully to perpetuate it?
+
+We often see contending nations, all of whom cannot be right, on any
+principle, proclaiming fasts, and chanting forth their solemn _Te Deums_
+as each may occasionally be victorious. Though such clashing hymns
+cannot mingle in the golden censer, yet few Christians seem to question
+the propriety of quarreling and fighting nations each in their turn
+supplicating aid in their unhallowed undertakings and returning thanks
+in case of success. Doubtless many would consider it as solemn mockery
+to see two duelists before their meeting supplicating God's blessing
+and protection in the hour of conflict, and then to see the victor
+returning thanks for his success in shedding the blood of his brother;
+and yet, when nations carry on the business by wholesale (if I may be
+allowed the expression) it is considered a very pious employment. The
+Lord has said, "And when ye spread forth your hands, I will hide mine
+eyes from you: yea, when ye make many prayers, I will not hear; your
+hands are full of blood."
+
+Penitent Christians may weep and mourn with propriety for their own sins
+and the sins of the nations, with a hearty desire not only to forsake
+their own iniquities, but that the nations may be brought to confess and
+forsake their sins and turn from them to the living God. It is true that
+war is a judgment in God's providence. It is also a sin of the highest
+magnitude and ought to be repented of. It is a crime so provoking to
+Heaven that other calamities generally attend it. The famine, fire, and
+pestilence often attend its horrors and spread distress through a land.
+War with its attending evils unquestionably diminishes the aggregate of
+happiness in the world, and is therefore unwise.
+
+
+VI. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DOES NOT MEND, BUT INJURES, THE MORALS OF
+SOCIETY
+
+The strength, defense, and glory of a country consists primarily in the
+good moral character of its inhabitants. The virtuous and the good are
+the salt that preserve it from ruin. Says the Rev. Dr. Miller in his
+sermon on the death of Dr. Rogers (pages 366 and 388 of the Memoirs),
+"It is manifest from the whole tenor of his word that God is slow to
+inflict heavy judgments upon a nation in which many of his people dwell;
+that he often spares it, spreads over it the protection of his
+providence, and finally delivers it for their sake; and, of course, that
+the presence of his beloved children, speaking after the manner of men,
+is a better defense than chariots and horsemen, a better defense than
+all the plans of _mere_ politicians, than all the skill, courage, and
+activity of _mere_ warriors." Again, "I have no doubt that it is as
+great and precious a truth at this day as it ever was, that a praying
+people are, under God, the greatest security of a nation."
+
+When the inhabitants of a country become generally profane and dissolute
+in their manners, slaves to dissipation and vice, it is usually God's
+providence soon to visit them in his wrath and let loose the instruments
+of his destroying vengeance; how important, therefore, in a temporal
+point of view, is the preservation of good morals to a nation. But no
+event has so powerful a tendency to destroy the morals of a people as
+that of actual war. It draws the attention of the inhabitants from
+useful employments; it generates curiosity, dissipation, and idleness,
+and awakes all the furious passions of men.
+
+War occasions a great profanation of the Sabbath. Under God's providence
+the Sabbath has always been a great barrier against vice, and the
+observance of it is indispensable to good morals.
+
+In time of war the Sabbath among soldiers is often a day of parade. In
+the streets of the best-regulated cities may be seen soldiers marching,
+flags flying, drums and fifes playing, and a rabble of children
+following in the train. Now all this is not only calculated to dissipate
+all reverential respect for the solemnities of the day among the
+soldiers, but is calculated to destroy the respect and observance of the
+day with which the children and youth have been inspired. Add to this,
+flags are suspended from the windows of taverns and grogshops to entice
+in the youth by the intoxicating cup. In the camp the Sabbath is almost
+forgotten and rendered a common day. Armies from professing Christian
+nations as often begin offensive operations on the Sabbath as on any
+other day; and professing Christians not only tolerate all this but
+approve of it as a work of necessity and mercy.
+
+War occasions dishonesty. In countries where armies are raised by
+voluntary enlistment all kinds of deception and art are practiced by
+recruiting officers, and connived at by their governments, to induce the
+heedless youth to enlist. The honor and glory of the employment is held
+up to view in false colors; the importance of their bounty and wages are
+magnified; the lightness of the duty and opportunities for amusements
+and recreation are held out; and probably one half have the assurances
+of being noncommissioned officers, with a flattering prospect of a
+speedy advancement; and prospects of plunder are also held out to their
+cupidity. These deceptive motives are daily urged under the stimulating
+power of ardent spirits and the fascinating charms of martial music and
+military finery. Many a young man who has entered the rendezvous from
+curiosity or for the sake of a dram, without the least idea of joining
+the army, has been entrapped into intoxication, and his hand then
+grasped the pen to seal his fate.
+
+Recruits after joining the army find from experience that most of the
+allurements held out to them to enlist were but a deception, and from
+lust and want they often become petty thieves and plunderers to repay
+them for their great privations, fatigues, and sufferings.
+
+War occasions drunkenness,--one of the greatest evils and most
+destructive to morality, as a multitude of other vices necessarily
+follow in its train. Many a young man has entered the military ranks
+_temperate_, and has returned from them a _sot_. All the enticements of
+liquor are exhibited in the most inviting forms to youth in the streets
+by the recruiting officer, to tempt them to enlist; and while those who
+have enrolled themselves remain at the rendezvous, they are probably
+every day intoxicated with the inebriating poison, soul and body, and
+soon the habit becomes confirmed. While in actual service their fatigues
+are so great that they greedily lay hold on the destroying liquor
+wherever they can find it to exhilarate their languid frames, even if
+they had not before acquired an insatiable thirst; and soon this
+detestable evil will become so enchanting that they will not only barter
+away their wages for it but their necessary clothing. If they survive
+the campaign and return to their homes, they are often the visitors of
+grogshops and taverns, and by their marvelous stories attract the
+populace around them, who must join them in circulating the cup; and
+thus they spread this destroying evil all around.
+
+War occasions profaneness. Profaneness is an abomination in the sight of
+God: "For the Lord will not hold him guiltless who taketh his name in
+vain." Profaneness draws down the judgments of heaven, "for because of
+swearing the land mourneth."
+
+That soldiers are generally considered more profane than other men is
+evident, because it has become a proverb that "such a person is as
+profane as a soldier, or a man-of-war's man." Young men who have been
+taught to revere the name of the God of their fathers may shudder at the
+awful profanations that fill their ears when they first enter an army;
+but if destitute of grace in the heart, the sound will soon cease to
+offend, and they will eagerly inhale the blasphemous breath and become
+champions in impiety. For want of habit they may not swear with so easy
+a grace as the older soldiers; they will for that reason make great
+exertions and invent new oaths, which will stimulate their fellows again
+to exceed in daring impiety. Seldom does a soldier return from the camp
+without the foul mouth of profanity. Astonishing to think that those who
+are most exposed to death should be most daring in wickedness!
+
+War occasions gambling. A great proportion of the amusements of the camp
+are petty plays at chance, and the stake usually a drink of grog. The
+play is fascinating. Multitudes of soldiers become established gamblers
+to the extent of their ability, and often, if they return to society,
+spread the evil among their neighbors.
+
+War begets a spirit of quarreling, boxing, and dueling; and no wonder
+that it should, for the whole business of war is nothing else but
+quarreling and fighting. The soldier's ambition is to be a bully, a
+hero, and to be careless of his own life and the lives of others. He is
+therefore impatient in contradiction, receives an insult where none was
+intended, and is ready to redress the supposed injury with the valor of
+his own arms; for it will not do for soldiers to shrink from the contest
+and be cowards.
+
+War destroys the habits of industry and produces idleness. Industry is
+necessary to good morals as well as to the wealth and happiness of a
+country, and every wise government will take all laudable means to
+encourage it; but a large proportion of common soldiers who may return
+from the armies have lost the relish and habits of manual labor and are
+often found loitering about in public places, and if they engage in any
+kinds of labor, it is with a heavy hand and generally to little purpose.
+They therefore make bad husbands, unhappy neighbors, and are worse than
+a dead weight in society. Their children are badly educated and provided
+for, and trained up to demoralizing habits, which are handed down from
+generation to generation.
+
+These immoralities, and many more that might be named, are not confined
+to soldiers in time of war, but they are diffused more or less through
+the whole mass of community; and war produces a general corruption in a
+nation, and is therefore unwise, even in a temporal point of view. But
+when we consider the natural effects of these immoralities on the souls
+of men, all temporal advantages are in comparison annihilated. In this
+school of vice millions are ripening for eternal woe. The destroying
+influence will spread and diffuse itself through the whole mass of
+society unless the spirit of the Lord lifts up a standard against it.
+
+The state of morals, so much depressed by the American Revolution, was
+only raised by the blessed effusions of God's holy spirit.
+
+If war does actually demoralize a people, then no wise person can
+consistently engage in it.
+
+
+VII. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT IS HAZARDING ETERNAL THINGS FOR ONLY THE
+CHANCE OF DEFENDING TEMPORAL THINGS
+
+Says our blessed Saviour: "For what is a man profited, if he should gain
+the whole world, and lose his own soul?"
+
+The loss of a soul infinitely exceeds all finite calculations. It is not
+only deprived forever and ever of all good but is plunged into misery
+inexpressible and everlasting. All temporal things dwindle to nothing
+when placed in comparison with eternal realities. The rights, liberties,
+and wealth of nations are of little value compared with one immortal
+soul. But astonishing to think that millions and millions have been put
+at everlasting hazard only for the chance of defending temporal things!
+
+The habits and manners of a soldier's life are calculated, as we have
+already seen, to demoralize them, to obliterate all early serious
+impressions, to introduce and confirm them in the most daring wickedness
+and fit them for everlasting destruction. And notwithstanding God may
+have occasionally, to display his sovereign power, snatched some
+soldiers from the ranks of rebellion and made them the heirs of his
+grace, yet no sober Christian will say that the army is a likely place
+to promote their salvation; but, on the contrary, must acknowledge that
+it is a dangerous place for the souls of men. It may be assumed as an
+undeniable fact that the great mass of soldiers are notoriously depraved
+and wicked. With but few exceptions their impiety grows more daring the
+longer they practice war; and when it is considered that thousands and
+thousands of such are hurried by war prematurely into eternity, with all
+their sins unpardoned, what an amazing sacrifice appears only for some
+supposed temporal good. But when it is remembered that this infinite
+sacrifice is made merely for the chance of obtaining some temporal
+advantage, the folly of war appears in more glaring colors, as the
+battle is not always to the strong. Those who are contending for their
+rights, and are least in the wrong, are about as often unsuccessful as
+otherwise, and then they very much increase their evils in a temporal
+point of view. A wise man would not engage in a lawsuit to recover a
+cent, admitting that it was his just due, if the trial put to the hazard
+his whole estate. But this bears no comparison with _one soul_ in
+competition with all temporal things; and yet men, professing to be
+_wise_, not only put one soul at hazard but millions, not for the
+_chance_ of defending all temporal good, but often for a mere bubble,
+the hollow sound of honor; and many of those who are watching for souls,
+and must give an account, instead of sounding the alarm, approve of it.
+
+All who engage in war, either in the field or otherwise, practically
+regard _time_ more than eternity, and _temporal_ more than _eternal_
+things.
+
+If souls are of more value than temporal things, and eternity of more
+consequence than time, it must be _unwise_ to engage in a war and put
+souls to immediate hazard of everlasting ruin, and totally wrong for
+Christians to engage in it.
+
+
+VIII. WAR IS UNWISE, AS IT DOES NOT ANSWER THE PROFESSED END FOR WHICH
+IT IS INTENDED
+
+The professed object of war generally is to preserve liberty and produce
+a lasting peace; but war never did and never will preserve liberty and
+produce a lasting peace, for it is a divine decree that all nations who
+take the sword shall perish with the sword. War is no more adapted to
+preserve liberty and produce a lasting peace than midnight darkness is
+to produce noonday light.
+
+The principles of war and the principles of the gospel are as unlike as
+heaven and hell. The principles of war are terror and force, but the
+principles of the gospel are mildness and persuasion. Overcome a man by
+the former and you subdue only his natural power, but not his spirit;
+overcome a man by the latter, and you conquer his spirit and render his
+natural power harmless. Evil can never be subdued by evil. It is
+returning good for evil that overcomes evil effectually. It is,
+therefore, alone the spirit of the gospel that can preserve liberty and
+produce a lasting peace. Wars can never cease until the principles and
+spirit of war are abolished.
+
+Mankind have been making the experiment with war for ages to secure
+liberty and a lasting peace; or, rather, they have ostensibly held out
+these objects as a cover to their lusts and passions. And what has been
+the result? Generally the loss of liberty, the overturning of empires,
+the destruction of human happiness, and the drenching of the earth with
+the blood of man.
+
+In most other pursuits mankind generally gain wisdom by experience; but
+the experiment of war has not been undertaken to acquire wisdom. It has,
+in fact, been undertaken and perpetuated for ages to gratify the corrupt
+desires of men. The worst of men have delighted in the honors of
+military fame and it is what they have a strong propensity for; and how
+can a Christian take pleasure in that employment which is the highest
+ambition of ungodly men? The things that are highly esteemed among men
+are an abomination in the sight of God. Is it not, therefore, important
+that every one naming the name of Christ should bear open testimony
+against the spirit and practice of war and exhibit the spirit and temper
+of the gospel before the world that lieth in wickedness, and let their
+lights shine before men?
+
+But what can the men of the world think of such Christians as are daily
+praying that wars may cease to the ends of the earth, while they have
+done nothing and are doing nothing to counteract its destructive
+tendency? Alas! too many are doing much by their lives and conversation
+to support its spirit and principles. Can unbelievers rationally
+suppose such prayers to be sincere? Will they not rather conclude that
+they are perfect mockery? What would be thought of a man daily praying
+that the means used for his sick child might be blessed for his
+recovery, when he was constantly administering to him known poison? With
+the same propriety do those Christians pray that war may come to a final
+end, while they are supporting its vital principles.
+
+It is contrary to fact that war is calculated to preserve liberty and
+secure a lasting peace; for it has done little else but destroy liberty
+and peace and make the earth groan under the weight of its terror and
+distress.
+
+It is contrary to the word of God that war is calculated to promote
+peace on earth and good will toward men. The law that is to produce this
+happy effect will not be emitted from the council of war or the smoke of
+a camp; but the law shall go forth out of Zion, and the Lord shall
+rebuke the strong nations and they shall beat their swords into
+plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks; then nations shall no
+more lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn the art of
+war any more; then shall the earth be filled with the abundance of peace
+and there shall be nothing to hurt or destroy. It is reserved alone for
+the triumph of the gospel to produce peace on earth and good will to
+men.
+
+If war does actually provoke insult and mischief; if it increases
+difficulties, destroys property and liberty; if it diminishes happiness,
+injures the morals of society, hazards eternal for only the chance of
+defending temporal things, and, finally, does not answer the end for
+which it was intended, then it must be _very unwise_ to engage in it,
+and it must be wrong for Christians to do anything to promote it, and
+right to do all in their power to prevent it.
+
+
+
+
+WAR IS CRIMINAL
+
+
+I am now to show that war, when judged of on the principles of the
+gospel, is highly criminal.
+
+
+I. GOING TO WAR IS NOT KEEPING FROM THE APPEARANCE OF EVIL, BUT IS
+RUNNING INTO TEMPTATION
+
+... I would have it understood that I consider every act of mankind
+which is palpably contrary to the spirit and precepts of the gospel
+_criminal_.
+
+It is an express precept of the gospel to abstain from all appearance of
+evil. "Watch and pray that ye enter not into temptation" is also an
+express command of Christ.
+
+A person desiring not only to abstain from evil, but from the very
+appearance of it, will suffer wrong rather than hazard that conduct
+which may involve doing wrong. He will be so guarded that if he errs at
+all he will be likely to give up his right when he might retain it
+without injuring others.
+
+No person, it is believed, will attempt to maintain that there is no
+appearance of evil in carnal warfare, or that it is not a scene of great
+temptation.
+
+One great object of the gospel is to produce good morals, to subdue the
+irascible passions of men and bring them into sweet subjection to the
+gospel of peace.
+
+But war cannot be prosecuted without rousing the corrupt passions of
+mankind. In fact, it is altogether the effect of lust and passion. In
+times of war almost every measure is taken for the express purpose of
+inflaming the passions of men, because they are the vital springs of
+war, and it would not exist without them. Those who are engaged in war,
+both in the council and in the field, have a feverish passion, which
+varies as circumstances may happen to change. Those who are actually
+engaged in the heat of battle are usually intoxicated with rage. Should
+this be denied by any one, I would appeal to the general approbation
+bestowed on the artist who displays most skill in painting scenes of
+this kind. He who can represent the muscular powers most strongly
+exerted, the passions most inflamed, and the visage most distorted with
+rage, will gain the highest applause. The truth of the assertion is,
+therefore, generally admitted. Some men, perhaps, may be so much under
+the influence of pride as to have the appearance of stoical indifference
+when their antagonists are at some distance, but let them meet sword in
+hand and the scene is at once changed.
+
+The temptations for those who constitute, or those who encourage and
+support, armies to commit or to connive at immorality are too various
+and too multiplied to be distinctly mentioned.
+
+Who can deny that war is altogether a business of strife? But, says an
+inspired apostle, "where envying and strife is, there is confusion and
+every evil work."
+
+Now, if war is a scene of confusion and strife and every evil work, it
+is impossible for any one to engage in it and avoid the appearance of
+evil or be out of the way of temptation; those who are armed with
+deathly weapons and thirsting for the blood of their fellow-mortals
+surely cannot be said to exhibit no appearance of evil. But if engaging
+in wars is putting on the appearance of evil and running into
+temptation, then it is highly criminal to engage in it.
+
+
+II. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT NATURALLY INFLAMES THE PRIDE OF MAN
+
+One of the abominable things which proceed out of the corrupt heart of
+man, as represented by our Saviour, is pride. "God resisteth the proud,
+but giveth grace to the humble." "The Lord hates a proud look." "Every
+one that is proud in heart is an abomination to the Lord." That pride is
+criminal and that humility is commendable will doubtless be admitted by
+all who believe the Scriptures.
+
+Pride, however, is one of the chief sources of war. It is pride that
+makes men glory in their strength and prowess; it is pride that hinders
+them from confessing their faults and repairing the injury done to
+others.
+
+Although pride is commonly condemned in the abstract, yet it is
+generally commended in soldiers and fanned by every species of art and
+adulation, not only by men of the world but too often by those who bear
+the Christian name. And why is it necessary to inflame the pride of
+soldiers? Because it is well understood that soldiers without pride are
+not fit for their business.
+
+If war is a Christian duty, why should not the example and precepts of
+Christ, instead of the example of the heroes of this world, be exhibited
+to those who fight to stimulate them? Is not Christ as worthy of
+imitation as the Caesars and Alexanders of this world? He was a
+triumphant conqueror; he vanquished death and hell, and purchased
+eternal redemption for his people; but he conquered by resignation and
+triumphed by his death. Here is an example worthy of the highest
+emulation. And why not animate soldiers by it? Only because it would
+unnerve their arms for war and render them harmless to their foes.
+
+It is so common to compliment the pride of soldiers that, instead of
+considering it that abominable thing which the Lord hates, they consider
+it a virtue. We frequently hear "gentlemen of the sword," as they are
+styled, in reply to the flattery bestowed upon them, frankly declare
+that it is their highest ambition to obtain the praise of their
+fellow-citizens; and, of course, they confess that they are seeking the
+praise of men more than the praise of God. These gentlemen, however, are
+far less criminal than those who lavish flattery on them; for doubtless
+most of them are sincere and think themselves in the way of their duty,
+while their profession often leads them, necessarily, from the means of
+knowing correctly what is duty. While professing Christians have been
+taught from their cradles that the profession of arms is not merely an
+allowable but a noble employment, it is easy for them to slide into the
+current and go with the multitude to celebrate victories and to eulogize
+heroes, without once reflecting whether they are imitating their Lord
+and Master. But is it not time for Christians to examine and ascertain
+if war is tolerated in the gospel of peace before they join in
+festivities to celebrate its bloody feats? How would a pagan be
+astonished if he had been taught the meek, lowly, and forgiving spirit
+and principles of the gospel, without knowing the practice of
+Christians, to see a host of men, professing to be influenced by these
+blessed principles, marshaled in all the pomp of military parade,
+threatening destruction to their fellow-mortals! Would he not conclude
+that either he or they had mistaken the genius of the gospel, or that
+they believed it to be but a fable?
+
+It is a notorious fact, which requires no confirmation, that military
+men, decorated with finery and clad in the glitter of arms, instead of
+being meek and lowly in their temper and deportment, are generally
+flushed with pride and haughtiness; and, indeed, what purpose do their
+decorations and pageantry answer but that of swelling their vanity?
+Their employment is not soft and delicate. Other men who follow rough
+employments wear rough clothing; but the soldier's occupation is not
+less rough than the butcher's, though, in the world's opinion, it is
+more honorable to kill men than to kill cattle.
+
+But if war has a natural tendency to inflame, and does inflame and
+increase the pride of men, it is criminal; it does that which the Lord
+hates, and it must be highly criminal to engage in it.
+
+
+III. WAR NECESSARILY INFRINGES ON THE CONSCIENCES OF MEN, AND THEREFORE
+IS CRIMINAL
+
+Liberty of conscience is a sacred right delegated to man by his Creator,
+who has given no authority to man to infringe in the least on the
+conscience of his fellow-man. Though a man, by following the dictates of
+his conscience, may be injured by men, yet they have no authority to
+deprive him of the rights of conscience. To control the conscience is
+alone the prerogative of God. That man has no right to violate the
+conscience of his fellow-man is a truth which few, under the light of
+the gospel, since the days of ignorance and superstition, have ventured
+to call in question.
+
+But military governments, from their very nature, necessarily infringe
+on the consciences of men. Though the word of God requires implicit
+obedience to rulers in all things not contrary to the Scriptures, it
+utterly forbids compliance with such commands as are inconsistent with
+the gospel. We must obey God rather than man, and fear God as well as
+honor the king. But governments, whether monarchial or republican, make
+laws as they please, and compel obedience at the point of the sword.
+They declare wars, and call upon all their subjects to support them.
+
+Offensive war, by all professing Christians, is considered a violation
+of the laws of Heaven; but offensive war is openly prosecuted by
+professing Christians under the specious name of self-defense. France
+invaded Spain, Germany, and Russia; England invaded Holland and
+Denmark; and the United States invaded Canada, under the pretense of
+defensive war. The fact is, however, that no man can, on gospel
+principles, draw a line of distinction between offensive and defensive
+war so as to make the former a crime and the latter a duty, simply
+because the gospel has made no such distinction. But while many
+Christians profess to make the distinction, and to consider offensive
+war criminal, they ought to have the liberty to judge, when war is
+waged, whether it is offensive or defensive, and to give or withhold
+their aid accordingly; otherwise they are not permitted the free
+exercise of their consciences.
+
+But suppose this principle adopted by governments. Could they prosecute
+war while they left every individual in the free exercise of his
+conscience to judge whether such war was offensive or defensive and to
+regulate his conduct accordingly? Would it be possible for governments
+to carry on war if they depended for support on the uncertain opinion of
+every individual? No; such a procedure would extinguish the vital
+strength of war and lay the sword in the dust. The fact is well known,
+and monarchs declare war and force their subjects to support it. The
+majority in republican governments declare war and demand and enforce
+obedience from the minority.
+
+Though the constitutions of governments may, in the most solemn manner,
+guarantee to citizens the free exercise of their consciences, yet
+governments find it necessary practically to make an exception in
+relation to war, and a man may plead conscientious motives in vain to
+free himself from contributing to the support of war.
+
+I think it proper here to notice what has appeared to me a gross
+absurdity among some Christians in this land. They have openly declared
+that in their opinion the late war was offensive; that it was contrary
+to the laws of God, and that they were opposed to it; but though they
+wished not to support it because it was criminal, yet they said, if they
+were called on in a constitutional way, they would support it. Thus did
+they publicly declare that they would, under certain circumstances, obey
+man rather than God.
+
+But soldiers actually resign up their consciences to their commanders,
+without reserving any right to obey only in such cases as they may judge
+not contrary to the laws of God. Were they at liberty to judge whether
+commands were morally right or not, before they yielded obedience, it
+would be totally impracticable for nations to prosecute war. Ask a
+general if his soldiers have the privilege of determining whether his
+commands are right or not, and he will tell you it is their duty only to
+obey.
+
+Suppose that a general and his army are shut up in a city in their own
+country, and that provisions are failing; that an army is advancing for
+their relief, but cannot reach the place until all means of sustenance
+will be consumed; that the inhabitants cannot be let out without
+admitting the besiegers; and that in this extremity, to preserve his
+army for the defense of his country, the commander orders his men to
+slay the inhabitants, doing this evil that good may come. But some
+conscientious soldiers refuse to obey a command to put the innocent to
+the sword for any supposed good. What must be the consequence? Their
+lives must answer for their disobedience. Nor is this contrary to the
+usages of war. And Christians satisfy their consciences upon the false
+principle that soldiers are not accountable for their conduct, be it
+ever so criminal, if they obey their commanders; all the blame must fall
+on the officers, which involves the absurdity of obeying man rather than
+God. Thus soldiers must be metamorphosed into something besides moral
+and accountable beings in order to prosecute war; and, in fact, they are
+treated generally not as moral agents but as a sort of machinery to
+execute the worst of purposes.
+
+The only plausible method of which I can conceive to avoid the above
+consequences requires that soldiers should not practically resign their
+consciences, but, when commands which are morally wrong are given, that
+they should refuse obedience and die as martyrs. But to enter an army
+with such views would be to belie the very oath of obedience which they
+take. Besides, who could execute the martyrs and be innocent? In this
+way all might become martyrs, and the army be annihilated.
+
+But if war does not admit the free exercise of conscience on Christian
+principles, then it is criminal for Christians to become soldiers, and
+the principles of war must be inconsistent with the principles of
+Christianity.
+
+
+IV. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS OPPOSED TO PATIENT SUFFERING UNDER UNJUST
+AND CRUEL TREATMENT
+
+That patient suffering under unjust and cruel treatment from mankind is
+everywhere in the gospel held up to view as the highest Christian virtue
+probably few professing Christians will deny.
+
+But notwithstanding this truth is generally admitted, there is very
+commonly introduced a carnal, sophistical mode of reasoning to limit, or
+explain away, this precious doctrine, which is peculiar to the gospel
+and which distinguishes it from all other kinds of morality and religion
+on earth. It has relation, it is said, only to matters of religion and
+religious persecution,--as if the gospel required mankind actually to
+regard a little wealth and a few temporal things more than all religious
+privileges and life itself; for, by this human maxim, men may fight to
+defend the former, but not the latter. And this maxim is built on the
+supposition that Christians are not bound strictly by gospel precepts in
+relation to temporal things, but only in relation to spiritual things.
+Hence it is said that the martyrs conducted nobly in refusing to fight
+for the privilege of worshiping the true God, but if Christians now
+refuse to fight to defend their money and their political freedom they
+act in a dastardly manner and violate the first principles of nature.
+Thus are temporal regarded more than spiritual and everlasting things.
+
+The precepts of the gospel, however, unequivocally forbid returning evil
+for evil, and enjoin patient sufferings under injurious and cruel
+treatment. A few instances shall be quoted: "Now we exhort you,
+brethren, warn them that are unruly, comfort the feeble-minded, support
+the weak, be patient towards all men. See that none render evil for evil
+to any man; but ever follow that which is good, both among yourselves,
+and unto all men." "If, when ye do well, and suffer for it, ye take it
+patiently, this is acceptable with God." The apostle James, in his
+solemn denunciation against oppressors, says, "Ye have condemned and
+killed the just, and he doth not resist you"; he then immediately
+exhorts the Christians, saying, "Be patient therefore, brethren, unto
+the coming of the Lord." "Finally, be ye all of one mind, having
+compassion one for another, love as brethren, be pitiful, be courteous,
+not rendering evil for evil, railing for railing; but contrariwise
+blessings, knowing that ye are thereunto called, that ye should inherit
+a blessing." "For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous, and his
+ears are open to their prayers; but the face of the Lord is against them
+that do evil. And who is he that will harm you, if ye be followers of
+that which is good?"
+
+A patient, forbearing, suffering disposition is peculiar to the lamblike
+temper of the gospel, and is wholly opposed to the bold, contending,
+daring spirit of the world which leads mankind into quarreling and
+fighting.
+
+It is generally admitted, I believe, that it is the duty of Christians
+patiently to suffer the loss of all temporal things, and even life
+itself, rather than willfully violate any of God's commands. If, then,
+it is the duty of a Christian patiently to suffer death rather than
+bear false witness against his neighbor, be he friend or foe, is it not
+equally his duty patiently to suffer death rather than kill his
+neighbor, whether friend or foe? Not merely taking away the life of our
+neighbor is forbidden, but every exercise of heart and hand which may
+have a natural tendency to injure him. But which is the greatest
+evil,--telling a lie, or killing a man? By human maxims you may do the
+latter to save your life, but not the former; though the former might
+injure no one but yourself, while the latter, besides injuring yourself,
+might send your neighbor to eternal destruction.
+
+The spirit of martyrdom is the true spirit of Christianity. Christ
+himself meekly and submissively died by the hands of his enemies, and
+instead of resistance, even by words, he prayed, "Father, forgive them,
+for they know not what they do." Stephen, when expiring under a shower
+of stones from his infuriate murderers, prayed, "Lord, lay not this sin
+to their charge." St. Paul testified that he was not only ready to be
+bound but to die for the Lord Jesus. The early martyrs resigned up their
+lives with patient submission as witnesses for Jesus,--and this at a
+time, when, Sir Henry Moncrief Wellwood in his Sermons, page 335, says,
+"Tertullian has told us that Christians were sufficiently numerous to
+have defended themselves against the persecutions excited against them
+by the heathen, if their religion had permitted them to have recourse to
+the sword."
+
+The spirit of martyrdom is the crowning test of Christianity. The martyr
+takes joyfully the spoiling of his goods, and counts not his life dear
+to himself.
+
+But how opposite is the spirit of war to the spirit of martyrdom! The
+former is bold and vindictive, ready to defend property and honor at the
+hazard of life, ready to shed the blood of an enemy. The latter is meek
+and submissive, ready to resign property and life rather than injure
+even an enemy. Surely patient submission under cruel and unjust
+treatment is not only the highest Christian virtue but the most extreme
+contrast to the spirit of war.
+
+Now if it is a duty required by the gospel not to return evil for evil,
+but to overcome evil with good; to suffer injustice and to receive
+injury with a mild, patient, and forgiving disposition,--not only in
+words but in actions,--then all kinds of carnal contention and warfare
+are criminal and totally repugnant to the gospel, whether engaged in by
+individuals or by communities.
+
+Can it be right for Christians to attempt to defend with hostile weapons
+the things which they profess but little to regard? They profess to have
+their treasure not in this world but in heaven above, which is beyond
+the reach of earthly invaders, so that it is not in the power of earth
+or hell to take away their dearest interests. There may be a propriety
+in the men of the world exclaiming that their dearest rights are invaded
+when their property and political interests are infringed upon; but it
+is a shame for Christians to make this exclamation, while they profess
+to believe that their dearest interest is in the hand of Omnipotence,
+and that the Lord God of hosts is their defense.
+
+Whoever, without divine command, dares to lift his hand with a deathly
+weapon against the life of his fellow-man for any supposed injury denies
+the Christian character in the very act, and relies on his own arm
+instead of relying on God for defense.
+
+
+V. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS NOT DOING TO OTHERS AS WE SHOULD WISH THEM
+TO DO TO US
+
+Says our blessed Saviour, "All things whatsoever ye would that men
+should do to you, do ye even so to them; for this is the law and the
+prophets." Now if we wish men to be kind and forbearing to us, we must
+be kind and forbearing to them; if we wish them to return love for
+hatred and good for evil, then we must return love for hatred and good
+for evil; if we wish not to be injured by men, then we must not injure
+them; if we wish not to be killed, then we must not kill.
+
+But what is the practical language of war? Does the man who is fighting
+his fellow-man and exerting all his strength to overcome him really wish
+to be overcome himself and to be treated as he is striving to treat his
+enemy? Can it be believed that England, in the late war, wished France
+to do to her what she endeavored to do to France; or that the latter
+really desired in return what she endeavored to inflict on England? If
+not, both violated this express precept of Christ.
+
+None can say, consistently with the principles of the gospel, that they
+wish to be killed by their enemies; therefore none can, consistently
+with those principles, kill their enemies. But professing Christians do
+kill their enemies, and, notwithstanding all they may say to the
+contrary, their actions speak louder than their words. It is folly for a
+man to say he does not wish to do a thing while he is voluntarily
+exerting all his powers to accomplish it.
+
+But if the act of war does violate this express precept of Christ, then
+it must be exceedingly criminal to engage in it.
+
+
+VI. WAR IS INCONSISTENT WITH MERCY, AND IS THEREFORE CRIMINAL
+
+Mercy is the grand characteristic of the gospel, and the practice of
+mercy is the indispensable duty of man. "Be ye merciful, as your Father
+also is merciful"; "For he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the
+good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust"; "Blessed are the
+merciful, for they shall obtain mercy"; "For he shall have judgment
+without mercy, that hath showed no mercy."
+
+Mercy is that disposition which inclines us to relieve distress, to
+forgive injuries, and to promote the best good of those who are ill
+deserving. Mercy in us towards our enemies implies seeking and pursuing
+their best good for time and eternity. It is sinful to exercise any
+affection towards enemies short of that benevolence or mercy which
+involves the advancement of their best good, and Christians may not
+suspend this disposition, or do evil that any supposed good may come;
+for no law can be of higher authority than the express precept of
+Christ which requires this disposition towards enemies, and of course no
+other consideration can be paramount to this, for nations are as much
+bound as individuals.
+
+It is surely too grossly absurd for any to pretend that destroying the
+property and lives of enemies is treating them mercifully, or pursuing
+their best good for time and eternity. Nor can any so impose upon their
+imaginations as to think that injuring mankind is treating them with
+benevolence or mercy.
+
+But the direct object of war is injury to enemies; and the conduct of
+soldiers generally speaks a language not easily to be misunderstood.
+Though soldiers are not always as bad as they might be, their tender
+mercies are often but cruelty. When they storm a fortified place and do
+not put all the captives to the sword, they are complimented for
+exercising mercy, merely because they were not so cruel as they might
+have been. But shall a highway robber be called an honest man because he
+takes but half the money of him whom he robs? Is it an act of mercy,
+when a man encroaches on your property, to take away his life? Do
+nations exercise mercy towards each other when they enter into bloody
+wars in consequence of a dispute which shall govern a small portion of
+territory? or does a nation show mercy to another that has actually
+invaded its rights by falling upon the aggressor and doing all the
+injury in its power? This surely is not forgiving injuries. And when two
+contending armies come in contact and rush on each other with all the
+frightful engines of death and cut each other to pieces they do not
+appear to me as merciful, kind, and tender-hearted, forgiving one
+another in love, even as God for Christ's sake forgives his children.
+Yet this is the rule by which they should act and by which they will at
+last be judged.
+
+But the whole system of war is opposed to mercy, and is therefore
+altogether unlike the spirit of the gospel, and must be criminal.
+
+
+VII. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS THE PRACTICE OF IT IS INCONSISTENT WITH
+FORGIVING TRESPASSES AS WE WISH TO BE FORGIVEN BY THE FINAL JUDGE
+
+Our Saviour says: "If ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly
+Father will also forgive you; but if ye forgive not men their
+trespasses, neither will your heavenly Father forgive your trespasses";
+"Forgive, and ye shall be forgiven."
+
+Here it is evident that the everlasting salvation of men depends on
+their exercising forgiveness towards their enemies; for if they forgive
+not, they will not be forgiven of God, and with what measure they mete
+to others, it will be measured to them again.
+
+To forgive is to pass by an offense, treating the offender not according
+to his desert, but as though he had done nothing amiss.
+
+But do the principles of war lead individuals or nations to pass by
+offenses and to treat offenders as if they were innocent? Do they not,
+on the contrary, require justice and exact the very last mite? Has it
+the aspect of forgiveness for us, when an enemy trespasses on our
+rights, to arm with weapons of slaughter and meet him on the field of
+battle? Who, while piercing the heart of his enemy with a sword, can
+consistently utter this prayer: "Father, forgive my trespasses, as I
+have forgiven the trespasses of this my enemy"? But this, in reference
+to this subject, is the only prayer the gospel warrants him to make. And
+professing Christian nations, while at war and bathing their swords in
+each other's blood to redress mutual trespasses, are daily in their
+public litanies offering this prayer; but is it not obvious that either
+their prayers are perfect mockery, or they desire not to be forgiven but
+to be punished to the extent of their deserts?
+
+If individuals or nations desire that God would forgive their
+trespasses, then they must not only pray for it, but actually exercise
+forgiveness towards those who trespass against them; and then they may
+beat their useless swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning
+hooks and learn war no more.
+
+But it must be very criminal to engage in war, or to tolerate it in any
+way, if it is inconsistent with the forgiveness of injuries as we hope
+to be forgiven, and in this respect violates the precepts of the gospel.
+
+
+VIII. ENGAGING IN WAR IS NOT MANIFESTING LOVE TO ENEMIES OR RETURNING
+GOOD FOR EVIL
+
+Returning good for evil and manifesting benevolence to enemies is,
+perhaps, the most elevated and noble part of Christian practice,--the
+inculcation of which in the gospel exalts Christianity far above any
+other form of religion and proves it to be not only divine but
+efficacious to subdue the turbulent and corrupt passions of men; and for
+these reasons this part of duty ought to be zealously advocated and
+diligently performed by every one who bears the Christian name.
+
+The ablest writers who have defended the divine origin of the Scriptures
+against infidels have urged this topic as constituting conclusive
+evidence in their favor; and unbelievers, instead of attempting to meet
+the argument fairly, have urged the inconsistency of Christians in
+acting contrary to so conspicuous a rule of duty; and such is and ever
+has been the most powerful weapon that infidels can wield against
+Christianity. But it is the will of God that by welldoing we should put
+to silence the ignorance of foolish men. Let Christians act in strict
+conformity to this part of Christian practice, and they will wrest from
+the infidel's hand his strongest weapon.
+
+That exercising benevolence towards enemies and returning good for evil
+is inculcated as one of the most important doctrines of the gospel is
+evident as well from the whole tenor of the New Testament as from the
+express commands of the Son of God: "I say unto you, Love your enemies,
+bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for
+them that despitefully use you and persecute you, that ye may be the
+children of your Father in heaven"; "If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if
+he thirst, give him drink; for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire
+on his head"; "Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good."
+
+Such are some of the divine precepts on this subject. So different,
+however, are the laws of war among Christian nations, that rendering
+comfort or relief to enemies is considered high treason, and they punish
+with death the performance of the very duty which God commands as a
+condition of eternal life!
+
+The common sense of every man revolts from the idea that resisting an
+enemy by war is returning good for evil. Who would receive the thrust of
+a sword as an act of kindness? Was it ever considered that killing a man
+was doing good to him? Has not death always been considered the greatest
+evil which could be returned for capital crimes? But the principles of
+war not only allow enemies to return evil for evil by killing one
+another, but secure the highest praise to him who kills the most. It is
+often said of those who distinguish themselves in butchering their
+fellow-men, that "they cover themselves with glory!"
+
+Nations, when they go to war, do not so much as pretend to be actuated
+by love to their enemies; they do not hesitate to declare in the face of
+Heaven that their object is to _avenge_ their wrongs. But, says an
+inspired apostle, "Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but give place
+unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith
+the Lord." Retributive judgment, the execution of strict justice, or
+vengeance, God declares often, belongs to him. He has reserved it in his
+own hand as his sovereign prerogative.
+
+It is not very surprising that savage pagans should glory in revenge,
+but that those should do so who have the Bible in their hands, and
+profess to take it as the rule of their faith and practice, is truly
+astonishing. Still more astonishing is it that some ministers of the
+gospel not only connive at but approve of the spirit and practice of
+revenge by war.
+
+But though the whole tenor of the gospel absolutely enjoins returning
+good for evil and blessing for cursing; yet the open and avowed
+principles of war are to return evil for evil, violence for violence.
+
+Now if the principles of war are so directly opposed to the principles
+of the gospel, if the practice of war is so perfectly contrary to
+Christian practice, then it must be very criminal for Christians not to
+bear open testimony against war, and much more criminal to do anything
+to promote it.
+
+
+IX. WAR IS CRIMINAL, BECAUSE IT IS ACTUALLY RENDERING EVIL FOR EVIL
+
+It is a fact which can neither be disguised nor controverted that the
+whole trade of war is returning evil for evil. This is a fundamental
+principle in the system of self-defense. Therefore every exertion in the
+power of contending nations is made to inflict mutual injury, not merely
+upon persons in public employment and upon public property, but
+indiscriminately upon all persons and property. Hence it is an
+established rule of what is styled "civilized warfare" that if one party
+takes a person suspected of being a spy, they put him to death; which
+act is retaliated by the other the first opportunity. If one party
+storms a fortified place and puts the garrison or the inhabitants to the
+sword, the other, in their defense, must retaliate the same thing, and,
+if possible, to a greater degree. If one side executes a number of
+captives for some alleged extraordinary act, the other, on the
+principles of self-defense, may execute double the number; the first may
+then, on the same principles, double this number; and so they may
+proceed to return evil for evil, till one or the other yields.
+
+The principles of self-defense require not merely an eye for an eye and a
+tooth for a tooth, but for one eye two eyes, for one tooth two teeth. They
+require the retaliation of an injury to a double degree,--otherwise, there
+would be no balance in favor of the defensive side; but as both parties
+must always be on the defense, both must, of course, retaliate to a double
+degree. Thus war is aggravated and inflamed, and its criminality raised to
+the highest pitch.
+
+The doctrine of retaliation is not only openly avowed and practiced by
+professing Christian nations, but is sometimes defended before national
+councils by professing Christians of high standing in churches. "O! tell
+it not in Gath! publish it not in the streets of Askelon! lest the
+daughters of the uncircumcised triumph!"
+
+That the retaliation of injury, of whatever kind it may be and to
+whomsoever it may be offered, is most absolutely and unequivocally
+forbidden by the whole spirit of the gospel dispensation, as well as by
+its positive precepts, surely can never be fairly controverted.
+
+Says the great Author and finisher of our faith, "Ye have heard that it
+hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: but I say
+unto you that ye resist not evil; but whosoever shall smite thee on the
+right cheek, turn to him the other also." Whether the literal import of
+these words be contended for or not, they cannot fairly be construed as
+teaching anything short of a positive and unconditional prohibition of
+the retaliation of injury. Had our Lord added to these words the maxim
+of the world, "If any man assaults you with deathly weapons, you may
+repel him with deathly weapons," it would have directly contradicted the
+spirit of this command and made his sayings like a house divided against
+itself.
+
+The apostles largely insist upon this doctrine of their divine Master,
+thus: "Recompense to no man evil for evil"; "Be ye all of one mind, not
+rendering evil for evil, or railing for railing"; "See that none render
+evil for evil to any man." These comprehensive passages make no
+conditions or limitations, and are, therefore, applicable to all men and
+binding upon all in all situations and circumstances under the light of
+the gospel; but had they added, "If any man injures you, you may return
+him an injury and repel violence with violence," it would have been most
+palpably absurd, and the precepts of the gospel would have been truly
+what infidels have asserted they are,--a series of gross contradictions.
+
+But I repeat that the open and avowed principles of war, even among
+Christian nations, are those of returning evil for evil. Surely, nations
+neither aim nor pretend to aim at the best good of their enemies; but,
+on the contrary, their real and professed object in the sight of God and
+man is to do them, while at war, all the injury in their power. What
+means that language which conveys instructions to those who command
+ships of war, to _sink_, _burn_, and _destroy_, if it does not mean evil
+to enemies? Why do nations encourage the cupidity of men by licensing
+and letting loose swarms of picaroons on their enemies, if it is not to
+inflict evil on them? But all this is sanctioned under the notion of
+self-defense, and, as though it were a light thing for men thus publicly
+to trample on the laws of the gospel, they lift up their daring hands to
+heaven and supplicate God's help to assist them in violating his own
+commands! No apology can be made for such proceedings until it is shown
+that war is not returning evil for evil.
+
+But what is it to return evil for evil?
+
+When one man is injured by another and returns injury, he returns evil
+for evil and violates those precepts of the gospel which have been
+quoted. When one association of men is injured by another association
+and the injured returns an injury, evil is returned for evil and those
+precepts are violated. When one nation infringes on the rights of
+another and they in return infringe on the aggressor's rights, they
+return evil for evil and violate those precepts. When one nation
+declares war against another and is repelled by war, evil is returned
+for evil and those precepts are violated. But these things are
+constantly practiced, without a blush or a question as to their
+propriety; and God is supplicated to aid in the business.
+
+To what a state has sin reduced our world? Is not the church covered
+with darkness and the people with gross darkness? A man may now engage
+in war with his fellow-man and openly return evil for evil, and still
+remain in respectable standing in most of the churches, being at the
+same time highly applauded and caressed by the world lying in
+wickedness!
+
+But if we are here to be directed and at last to be judged by the
+gospel, no man can return evil for evil, in war or otherwise, without
+aggravated guilt.
+
+
+X. WAR IS CRIMINAL, AS IT IS ACTUALLY DOING EVIL THAT GOOD MAY COME; AND
+THIS IS THE BEST APOLOGY THAT CAN BE MADE FOR IT
+
+That it is an evil to spread distress, desolation, and misery through a
+land and to stain it with the blood of men probably none will deny. War,
+with its attending horrors, is considered by all, even those who
+advocate and prosecute it, to be the greatest evil that ever befalls
+this wicked, bleeding, suffering world.
+
+Though men go to war primarily to gratify their corrupt passions,--for
+they can never propose the attainment of any good by war which shall be
+commensurate with the natural and moral evils that will be occasioned by
+the acquisition,--yet the prospect of attaining some supposed good must
+be held out as a lure to the multitude and a means of self-justification.
+
+Usually the object of war is pompously represented to be to preserve
+liberty, to produce honorable and lasting peace, and promote the
+happiness of mankind; to accomplish which, liberty, property, and
+honor--that honor which comes from men--must be defended, though war is
+the very thing that generally destroys liberty, property, and happiness,
+and prevents lasting peace. Such is the good proposed to be attained by
+the certain and overwhelming evil of war.
+
+But no maxim is more corrupt, more false in its nature, or more ruinous
+in its results than that which tolerates doing evil that good may come.
+Nor can any defend this maxim without taking the part of infidels and
+atheists, to whom it appropriately belongs, and with whose principles
+and practice alone it is consistent.
+
+The apostle Paul reprobates this maxim in the severest terms, and he
+considered it the greatest scandal of Christian character to be accused
+of approving it: "As we be slanderously reported," says he, "and as some
+affirm that we say, Let us do evil that good may come; whose damnation
+is just."
+
+Now if war is in fact an evil, and it is prosecuted with a view to
+attain some good, then going to war is doing evil that good may come. It
+is therefore doing that which scandalizes Christian character; that
+which is wholly irreconcilable with the principles of the gospel, and
+which it is highly criminal for any man or nation to do.
+
+
+XI. WAR IS OPPOSED TO THE EXAMPLE OF THE SON OF GOD, AND IS THEREFORE
+CRIMINAL
+
+The example of the Son of God is the only perfect model of moral
+excellence, and his moral conduct, so far as he acted as man, remains a
+perfect example for Christians.
+
+But did he appear in this world as a great military character, wearing a
+sword of steel, clothed with military finery, and surrounded by
+glittering soldiers, marching in the pomp and parade of a warrior? No;
+he was the meek and lowly Jesus, despised and rejected of men. He was
+King of kings and Lord of lords, but his kingdom was not of this world.
+Had his kingdom been of this world, then would he have appeared as an
+earthly conqueror, and his servants would have been warriors.
+
+Though a prince, he was the Prince of Peace. At his advent the angels
+sang, "Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace, good will to men."
+"He came not to destroy men's lives, but to save them." He was the Lamb
+of God, meek and lowly. He followed peace with all men; he returned good
+for evil and blessing for cursing, and "when he was reviled he reviled
+not again." Finally, he was "brought as a lamb to the slaughter, and as
+a sheep before her shearers is dumb, so he opened not his mouth." That
+he did this as a necessary part of his mediatorial work need not be
+denied; but that he intended it also as an example to his followers is
+fully confirmed by an inspired apostle, who says, "If, when ye do well,
+and suffer for it, ye take it patiently, this is acceptable with God.
+For hereunto were ye called: because Christ also suffered for us,
+leaving us an example, that ye should follow his steps: who did no sin,
+neither was guile found in his mouth: who, when he was reviled, reviled
+not again; when he suffered, threatened not; but committed himself to
+him who judgeth righteously."
+
+Christ taught his disciples the doctrines of peace, and commanded them
+to take up the cross and follow him; to live in peace and to follow
+peace with all men. His last gift to them was peace. He said to them,
+when about to send them into the world, "Behold I send you forth as
+lambs among wolves"; thus teaching them what treatment they might expect
+and what character they must maintain among wicked men. The nature of
+lambs and wolves is too well known for any one to mistake this
+figurative representation. Wolves are fierce, bloody, and ravenous
+beasts; but lambs are mild, inoffensive, and unresisting, having no
+means of relief but by flight. Now if a host of professing Christian
+warriors, marshaled under the ensign of a preying eagle or a prowling
+lion, clothed in all the splendor of deathly armor, and rushing forward
+to destroy their fellow-creatures, are in figurative language but
+_lambs_, I confess I am at a loss where to look for the _wolves_! Do
+these warlike Christians appear mild as lambs and harmless as doves,
+kind and tender-hearted, doing good to all, to friends and foes, as they
+have opportunity? Can fighting be living peaceably with all men? Is it
+returning good for evil, and overcoming evil with good? If not, it is
+not imitating the example of Christ.
+
+If Christians were like Christ, their warfare would not be carnal, but
+spiritual, corresponding with the armor which he has provided. They
+would conquer by faith and overcome by the blood of the Lamb, not
+counting their lives dear to themselves.
+
+On the whole, if to engage in war is not avoiding the appearance of
+evil, but is running into temptation; if it inflates the pride of men;
+if it infringes on the rights of conscience; if it is not forgiving
+trespasses as we wish to be forgiven; if it is not patient suffering
+under unjust and cruel treatment; if it is not doing to others as we
+would have them do to us; if it is not manifesting love to enemies and
+returning good for evil; if it is rendering evil for evil; if it is
+doing evil that good may come; and if it is inconsistent with the
+example of Christ, then it is altogether contrary to the spirit and
+precepts of the gospel and is highly criminal. Then Christians cannot
+engage in war or approve of it without incurring the displeasure of
+Heaven.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In view of the subject, if what has been said is in substance correct,
+and of this I desire the reader conscientiously to judge, then the
+criminality of war and its inconsistency with the gospel are undeniable.
+
+It is admitted by all that war cannot exist without criminality
+somewhere, and generally where quarreling and strife are, there is blame
+on both sides. And how it is that many Christians who manifest a
+laudable zeal to expose and counteract vice and wickedness in various
+other forms are silent on the subject of war, silent as to those parts
+or practices of war which are manifestly and undisputably criminal, is
+to me mysterious. There has been a noble and persevering opposition
+against the inhuman and cruel practice of the slave trade; and by the
+blessing of God the efforts against it have been successful, probably,
+for the time, beyond the most sanguine expectations. When the lawfulness
+of this practice was first called in question, it was violently defended
+as well by professing Christians as by others. Comparatively few
+Christians fifty years ago doubted the propriety of buying and holding
+slaves; but now a man advocating the slave trade could hardly hold in
+this vicinity a charitable standing in any of the churches. But whence
+has arisen so great a revolution in the minds of the mass of professing
+Christians on this subject? It has happened not because the spirit or
+precepts of the gospel have changed, but because they are better
+understood.
+
+Christians who have been early educated to believe that a doctrine is
+correct, and who cherish a respect for the instructions of their parents
+and teachers, seldom inquire for themselves, after arriving at years of
+maturity, unless something special calls up their attention; and then
+they are too apt to defend the doctrine they have imbibed before they
+examine it, and to exert themselves only to find evidence in its favor.
+Thus error is perpetuated from generation to generation until God, in
+his providence, raises up some to bear open testimony against it; and as
+it becomes a subject of controversy, one after another gains light, and
+truth is at length disclosed and established. Hence it is the solemn
+duty of every one, however feeble his powers, to bear open testimony
+against whatever error prevails, for God is able from small means to
+produce great effects.
+
+There is at present in many of our churches a noble standard lifted up
+against the abominable sin of intemperance, the greatest evil, perhaps,
+war excepted, in the land, and this destructive vice has already
+received a check from which it will never recover unless Christians
+relax their exertions. But if war is a greater evil than drunkenness,
+how can Christians remain silent respecting it and be innocent?
+
+Public teachers consider it to be their duty boldly and openly to oppose
+vice. From the press and from the pulpit they denounce theft,
+profaneness, Sabbath breaking, and intemperance; but war is a greater
+evil than all these, for these and many other evils follow in its train.
+
+Most Christians believe that in the millennial day all weapons of war
+will be converted into harmless utensils of use, that wars will cease to
+the ends of the earth, and that the benign spirit of peace will cover
+the earth as the waters do the seas. But there will be then no new
+gospel, no new doctrines of peace; the same blessed gospel which we
+enjoy will produce "peace on earth and good will to men." And is it not
+the duty of every Christian now to exhibit the same spirit and temper
+which will be then manifested? If so, let every one "follow the things
+that make for peace," and the God of peace shall bless him.
+
+
+OBJECTIONS ANSWERED
+
+As was proposed, a number of objections to the general sentiments that
+have been advocated shall be stated and answered.
+
+_Objection first._ Shall we stand still and suffer an assassin to enter
+our houses without resistance and let him murder ourselves and families?
+
+_Answer._ I begin with this because it is generally the first objection
+that is made to the doctrine of peace by all persons, high and low,
+learned and unlearned; notwithstanding it is an objection derived from
+a fear of consequences and not from a conviction of duty, and might with
+the same propriety have been made to the martyrs who, for conscience'
+sake, refused to repel their murderers with carnal weapons, as to
+Christians who, for conscience' sake, refuse at this day to resist evil.
+No Christian will pretend that defense with carnal weapons is not
+criminal, if the gospel really forbids it, let the consequences of
+nonresistance be what they may. For the requisitions of the gospel are
+the rule of duty. But I presume the objection above stated arises
+altogether from an apprehension of consequences rather than from regard
+to duty.
+
+Every candid person must admit that this objection is of no force, until
+the question whether the gospel does or does not prohibit resistance
+with deathly weapons is first settled. It might, therefore, justly be
+dismissed without further remark; but as mankind are often more
+influenced by supposed consequences than by considerations of duty, and
+as the objection is very popular, it may deserve a more particular
+reply.
+
+In the first place, I would observe that the supposition of the objector
+relates to a very extreme case, a case which has very rarely, if ever,
+occurred to Christians holding to nonresistance with deathly weapons,
+and it bears little or no resemblance to the general principles or
+practices of war which are openly advocated and promoted by professing
+Christians. Should an event like that supposed in the objection take
+place, it would be a moment of surprise and agitation in which few could
+act collectedly from principle. What was done would probably be done in
+perturbation of mind. But war between nations is a business of
+calculation and debate, affording so much time for reflection that men
+need not act from sudden and violent impulse, but may act from fixed
+principle. In this respect, therefore, war is a very different thing
+from what is involved in the objection which does not in the least
+affect the principles or practice of systematic warfare. It is not
+uncommon to hear persons who are hopefully pious, when pressed by the
+example and the precepts of Christ against war, acknowledge that most of
+the wars which have existed since the gospel dispensation cannot be
+justified on Christian principles; yet these very persons are never
+heard to disapprove of the common principles of war, or to counteract
+them by their lives and conversation before a wicked world; but, on the
+contrary, they will often eulogize heroes, join in the celebration of
+victories, and take as deep an interest in the result of battles as the
+warriors of this world; and if their conduct is called in question, they
+will attempt to justify it by pleading the necessity of self-defense,
+and immediately introduce the above objection which is by no means
+parallel with the general principles and practices of all wars.
+
+The truth is, war is a very popular thing among mankind, because it is
+so congenial to their natural dispositions; and, however gravely some
+men may, at times, profess to deplore its calamity and wickedness, it is
+too evident that they take a secret pleasure in the approbation of the
+multitude and in the fascinating glory of arms; and we have reason to
+believe that this objection is often made merely to ward off the arrows
+of conviction which would otherwise pierce their consciences.
+
+The objection, however, wholly overlooks the providence and promise of
+God. Assassins do not stroll out of the circle of God's providence. Not
+only is their breath in his hand, but the weapons they hold are under
+his control. Besides, God's children are dear to him, and he shields
+them by his protecting care, not suffering any event to befall them
+except such as shall be for his glory and their good. Whoever touches
+them touches the apple of his eye. He has promised to be a very present
+help to them in every time of need, and to deliver them that trust in
+him out of all their trouble. He will make even their enemies to be at
+peace with them. For the eyes of the Lord are over the righteous and his
+ears are open to their prayers, but the face of the Lord is against them
+that do evil; and who is he that will harm you if ye be followers of
+that which is good? But if ye suffer for righteousness' sake, happy are
+ye, and be not afraid of their terror, neither be troubled. If God be
+thus for his children, who can be against them? Is not the arm of the
+Lord powerful to save, and a better defense to all who trust in him than
+swords and guns? Whoever found him unfaithful to his promises or feeble
+to save? Are not the hosts of heaven at his command? Are not his angels
+swift to do his will? "Are they not all ministering spirits sent forth
+to minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation?" "The angel of the
+Lord encampeth round about them that fear him, and delivereth them." If
+the Lord is on their side, Christians have no cause to fear what man
+can do unto them. Says the blessed Saviour, "Whosoever will save his
+life shall lose it, and whosoever shall lose his life for my sake shall
+find it."
+
+If consequences are rightly examined, they may prove to be of more
+importance than at first supposed. If the gospel does forbid resistance
+with deathly weapons, then he who saves his temporal life by killing his
+enemy may lose his eternal life; while he who loses his life for
+Christ's sake is sure of everlasting life. Thus the Christian, if he is
+killed, goes to heaven; but the assassin, if he is killed, goes to hell,
+and the soul of the slayer is in danger of following. Whoever kills
+another to prevent being killed himself, does it on presumption; for,
+whatever may be the appearances, God only can know whether one man will
+assassinate another, before the event has taken place. Men, however,
+seem to think little of killing or being killed by fighting, whether in
+single combat or on the field of general battle, though they shudder at
+the idea of being put to death by an assassin, unless they can inflict
+or attempt to inflict on him the same evil.
+
+But the objection is usually made on the supposition that the doctrine
+in question requires Christians to stand still and rather court the
+dagger than otherwise. This is an unfair statement, for it would be
+presumption to stand still when there was a chance of escape. Besides,
+the Christian must act on the defensive, not with carnal, but with
+spiritual weapons, which are more powerful when exercised in faith than
+swords or spears.
+
+Probably no instance can be found of robbers murdering such as
+conscientiously held to nonresistance. It is resistance that provokes
+violence; forbearance and good will repress it. But if instances of this
+kind may be found, it is no evidence against the doctrine in question
+any more than against the principles of the Martyrs. God may, for wise
+reasons, call away some of his children by the hands of murderers; if
+so, instead of losing, they save their lives.
+
+_Objection second._ Self-defense, and, if necessary, with deathly
+weapons, is the first law of nature. All the animal creation are armed
+with means of defense, and the principles of the gospel are not contrary
+to the principles of nature; therefore self-defense is not inconsistent
+with Christianity.
+
+_Answer._ It is admitted that the laws of the gospel are not contrary to
+the primitive laws of nature; but it is by no means granted that they
+are consistent with the laws of corrupt nature. In consequence of the
+revolt of man the earth was cursed for his sake. It appears probable
+that before the fall of man animals were harmless and docile; and it is
+not improbable that when the curse shall be removed, when the earth
+shall be filled with righteousness and peace, the lion and the lamb may
+literally lie down together. At present, indeed, the dove, the lamb, and
+some other animals have no means of defense, unless flight be considered
+such. And while warriors are figuratively represented by ferocious
+beasts, real Christians are represented by lambs and doves. So far as
+nature is made to speak fairly on the subject, it speaks in favor of the
+doctrine which has been advocated.
+
+But corrupt nature strongly dictates many things quite contrary to the
+precepts of the gospel; and no doctrine will be given up more
+reluctantly by corrupt nature than that of the lawfulness of war,
+because no doctrine is more congenial with the depraved feelings and
+propensities of unsanctified men, for their "feet are swift to shed
+blood; destruction and misery are in their ways, and the way of peace
+have they not known; there is no fear of God before their eyes."
+
+_Objection third._ The precepts of the gospel are consistent with the
+moral law, or the eternal nature of things, which is forever the
+standard of right and wrong to all moral beings in the universe; and war
+has been prosecuted consistently with this rule of right and wrong;
+therefore war cannot be contrary to the precepts of the gospel.
+
+_Answer._ This is an objection founded on an undefinable something aside
+from divine precept; yet as some terms in it have been much used in
+polemic divinity by men of eminent talents and piety, whose praise is in
+the churches, I think it neither proper nor modest to dissent from so
+high authority without offering some reasons. I shall, therefore, make a
+few general observations on what is called the moral law, the eternal
+rule of right and wrong, or the nature of things; all of which phrases,
+I believe, have been occasionally used by eminent writers as conveying
+the same ideas.
+
+I cannot agree with such as suppose that a moral law or nature of things
+exists independently of the will of God and is the common law of God and
+man. It appears to me as inconsistent to suppose a law to exist without
+a lawgiver as to suppose a world to exist without a creator. If God is
+the only eternal and independent Being in the universe, and if all
+things are the work of his power and goodness, then the supposition that
+an eternal law exists independently of him appears to me to be absurd,
+as on this supposition there exists a law without a lawgiver and an
+effect without a cause. If God is not the author of all things, then
+there must be more than one eternal cause of things.
+
+To suppose that the reason and fitness of things independently of the
+will of God, either in his works, his providence, or word, can be a rule
+of man's duty appears to me as inconsistent as to suppose that men might
+institute divine worship from such fitness of things independently of
+the existence of God; for the will of God to man seems as necessary to
+lay a foundation of moral obligation and to direct man's obedience as
+the existence of God is necessary to lay a foundation of religious
+worship. Should it be asked whether the laws of God are not founded on
+the eternal nature and fitness of things, I would answer that such a
+supposition appears to me no more reasonable than to suppose that his
+power is founded on the eternal capacity of things; for the capacity of
+things has just as much reality and eternity in it to found the
+omnipotence of God upon, as the reason and nature of things have to
+found his infinite wisdom or justice upon.
+
+I therefore dissent from all standard of moral obligation which are
+supposed to exist aside from, and independently of, the divine will; and
+fully agree with the Assembly's Shorter Catechism, in the answer to
+this question: "What is the duty which God requires of man? Answer: The
+duty which God requires of man is obedience to his revealed will."
+Should it, however, be said that things do exist aside from the divine
+will, that it does not depend on the divine will, but on the nature of
+things, that two and two make four, or that a thing cannot be in motion
+and at rest at the same time, it is by no means admitted that this order
+or constitution of things exists independently of God; but it is
+believed to be as much the effect of his power and goodness as anything
+else. And if God is not the author of all the laws both in the natural
+and moral world, it may reasonably be inquired, who is?
+
+If God is the moral governor of the world, then all his laws over men,
+as moral beings, must be moral laws; and to make a distinction between
+the laws designed to regulate the moral conduct of men, and to call some
+of them moral and others by different names, seems to me not necessary,
+while I find no such distinction in the Scriptures. Because some of
+God's laws were intended to be temporary, under certain circumstances,
+they were no less of a moral nature on that account; neither was it any
+less criminal to violate them.
+
+As created things are in some respects constantly changing, and as the
+relations of things are often varied, so a law may be relatively right
+at one time and relatively wrong at another. But as man is frail and
+short-sighted, and is incapable of seeing the end from the beginning, he
+is totally unable of himself to judge what is and what is not right, all
+things considered; hence the necessity of a revelation from God to
+direct his steps.
+
+That there is a fitness of things and a standard of moral right and
+wrong cannot be denied; but, instead of being founded in a supposed
+nature of things independent of God, it originates in the very nature
+and perfections of God himself, and can never be known by man any
+farther than the nature and perfections of God are known. A standard of
+right and wrong independent of God, whether by the name of moral law or
+nature of things, is what never has been and never can be intelligibly
+defined. It is like a form without dimensions, like a foundation resting
+on nothing. It is, therefore, in my opinion, as extravagant to talk of
+an eternal nature of things, without reference to the laws of God, as it
+would be to talk of an eternal wisdom or an eternal omnipotence,
+independent of the existence of God.
+
+But if the statement of the objector is meant only to imply a rule of
+right and wrong emanating from the nature and perfections of God, and
+coincident with his laws, then, admitting the propriety of the terms
+moral law, nature of things, etc., the objection, if it proves anything,
+may prove quite too much for its advocates; for under certain
+circumstances it has been consistent with this rule of moral right and
+wrong utterly to exterminate nations, to destroy men, women, and
+children, and show them no mercy.
+
+Besides, the whole force of the objection rests on the supposition that
+no laws which have existed, and which were not contrary to the moral
+law, can be abrogated under the Christian dispensation or be
+inconsistent with the precepts of the gospel. It hence follows that
+whatever has been morally right and lawful for men to do must forever
+remain right and lawful to be done. This is a necessary result from the
+premises; but no Christian can consistently subscribe to this. The
+premises must, therefore, be unsound and the objection of no force.
+
+If literal sacrifices, slavery, and many other practices which are
+totally abolished under the Christian dispensation were not contrary to
+the moral law under the Old Testament economy, why may not the same be
+true of war? Why may not the gospel forbid war as consistently as it can
+forbid slavery?
+
+_Objection fourth._ The nature of religion and morality under the
+ancient dispensation was the same as under the new. Love to God and man
+was the substance of the law and the prophets; and though truth under
+the former was inculcated more by types and ceremonies, yet the essence
+of religion was the same under that as under the present dispensation;
+and as war was not inconsistent with the nature and precepts of religion
+then, it cannot be inconsistent with the nature and precepts of religion
+now, under like circumstances.
+
+_Answer._ It is readily admitted that the essence of religion is the
+same under the present as under the former dispensation, both requiring
+at all times and in all actions holy exercises of heart in cordial
+obedience to divine command; yet the laws for external conduct under the
+two dispensations differ widely, and the practice of war involves much
+of the external conduct of men. It was never right for men to indulge
+unholy feelings in the act of war, but the external act was required as
+a means of executing the divine vengeance; the gospel does not command,
+but seems plainly to forbid, the external act of war.
+
+But to suppose that saints under the gospel can ever be placed in
+circumstances like those of the ancient church is to suppose that they
+may be put under the same typical economy which has vanished away, given
+place to the substance, and ceased to be binding even on the natural
+Israelites. To be in like circumstances they must also be made the
+executors of God's wrath, to inflict vengeance, by his particular
+command, on idolatrous and rebellious nations. The Israelites had the
+same high authority to exterminate the Canaanites and subdue the
+idolatrous nations about Palestine that the holy angels had to destroy
+Sodom and Gomorrah.
+
+It is perfectly plain that if God should positively command Christians
+to take the weapons of war and not only repel invasion but actually
+exterminate nations, it would be their duty to obey, and a refusal would
+be open rebellion against God. The Old Testament saints received such
+commands, but Christians have no such authority, which makes a material
+difference in circumstances.
+
+Some general observations relative to the different dispensations of the
+church of God may illustrate this topic more fully.
+
+The Old Testament economy has sometimes, perhaps without reason, been
+divided into the Adamic, Patriarchal, and Mosaic dispensations of the
+church; but as the latter was more full and complete, and as the
+distinction between the Mosaic and Christian dispensations is common, I
+shall confine my remarks chiefly to that distinction, though I consider
+the great distinction to be between the Old and New Testament economies.
+
+The Old Testament economy, in general, was typical of the New. Under the
+former dispensation literal and temporal things typified spiritual and
+everlasting things under the latter. The nation of Israel, chosen and
+separated from all other nations, typified the true Israel of God, who
+are chosen out of every nation and sanctified and set apart as a holy
+nation and peculiar people, to offer up spiritual sacrifices to God. The
+land of Canaan was a type of the heavenly Canaan. Jerusalem was a type
+of the New Jerusalem from above. Mount Zion and the royal throne of
+Israel, which were in Jerusalem, typified the heavenly Zion and the
+throne of the true David who now reigns in glory. The sacrifices were
+types of spiritual offerings. The Israelites had enemies within and foes
+without, literal weapons of war and literal warfare, typical of
+spiritual foes, spiritual armor, and spiritual warfare.[1] Their kings
+were seated on the throne of the Lord (see 1 Chron. xxix. 23). At the
+command of God they judged and made war and conquered their enemies and
+thus typified the Son of God who is now on the throne of his Father
+David, and who in righteousness judges and makes war and rides forth
+conquering and to conquer. The ancient promises and threatenings were
+mostly temporal, but typical of spiritual and everlasting promises and
+threatenings. Doubtless the gospel was preached by types and figures
+under the Old Testament economy, and the saints of old looked upon those
+temporal things merely as shadows representing a more enduring
+substance. When they looked upon Canaan, the land of promise, they
+viewed it as a type of the heavenly Canaan, and confessed that they were
+strangers and pilgrims on earth seeking a better country. When they
+looked on the bleeding lamb they beheld, by the eye of faith, the Lamb
+of God who taketh away the sins of the world.
+
+Thus we may see that almost the whole of the Old Testament economy was
+typical and temporary, and not intended to be perfect and everlasting.
+But under the gospel dispensation we have a new covenant and better
+promises which are intended to be perfect and everlasting. It is
+therefore more proper for those who live under this new and perfect
+dispensation to look at the substance than at the shadow for a rule of
+duty. Errors are often and easily propagated by reasoning from analogy
+and introducing it as proof of sentiments instead of illustration. This
+is frequently done in relation to the Old Testament economy and common
+political government. It is not uncommon to hear ministers, in their
+political sermons, reason and infer just as if there were a perfect
+parallel between the Jewish theocracy and political governments, when at
+the head of one was the Lord of hosts and at the head of the others are
+but men; when one was the church of the living God, and the others are
+but human institutions. They not unfrequently speak of God's driving out
+the heathen before his American Israel and planting them in a goodly
+land, as though there were a perfect parallel between the Americans
+driving the Indians from their native soil and taking possession of it
+themselves, without divine commission, and the Israelites going at the
+express command of God and taking possession of Canaan. Thus they
+endeavor to keep up a parallel between God's ancient church and civil
+governments. The economy of God's ancient covenant people was by no
+means a political institution in the popular sense, but it was a
+dispensation of the church of God, and in its rites, ceremonies, and
+government was typical of the kingdom of Messiah under his mediatorial
+reign, and differed widely in its nature, origin, and design from mere
+political governments; therefore all reasoning drawn from a supposed
+analogy between them is specious and false. The Israelites had no
+authority to enact laws or to alter God's laws one iota; their duty was
+implicitly to obey them.
+
+But if Christians take their authority for going to war from the
+practice of the Old Testament saints, their example will prove too much;
+it will not only allow war, but _offensive war_ in its most dreadful
+forms.
+
+_Objection fifth._ Abraham went to war, not like the Israelites at the
+command of God, yet he met with the divine approbation when he returned
+from the slaughter of the kings; he, therefore, must have acted on a
+universal law still in force; and as Christians are called the children
+of Abraham they ought, of course, to imitate his example in such things
+as God approved.
+
+_Answer._ Abraham, like the Israelites, was under a typical dispensation
+and practiced rites and ceremonies which were a shadow of good things to
+come. That he acted without divine command, in the war referred to, is
+more than we are warranted to say. He was a prophet and the friend of
+God and probably was acquainted with the divine will on this subject.
+
+Christians are not called the children of Abraham because they imitate
+his example in war, but because they exercise like precious faith with
+him. If Christians are warranted to imitate the example of Abraham in
+all things which were tolerated by God, then they may sacrifice cattle,
+practice polygamy, and buy and hold slaves. But if they object to his
+example as a rule of duty in these instances, why not object to his
+example as a rule of duty in the case of war?
+
+But to say that he acted from some universal law still in force is
+taking for granted the question in dispute, and cannot be admitted
+without evidence.
+
+The war waged by Abraham against the kings was, I apprehend, offensive
+rather than defensive; for Lot, his brother's son, whom he rescued, did
+not then belong to his family or kingdom, but was separated from him and
+was also a patriarch, a father of nations, and a prince or head over his
+own house or kingdom.
+
+It appears very evident that offensive as well as defensive war was
+tolerated under the patriarchal economy, as may be seen from the words
+of the inspired Jacob when blessing his sons (Gen. xlviii. 22). That,
+as well as the Mosaic dispensation, was typical, and doubtless war was
+allowed under both for the same reasons.
+
+But there can be no doubt that whoever attempts to justify war by the
+example of Abraham may equally justify the slavery of our fellow-men;
+and whoever depends on his example for authority for engaging in war, to
+be consistent, must advocate and defend the doctrine of slavery.
+
+_Objection sixth._ It appears to be a universal law of God that "whoso
+sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed." If one man, or
+one nation, attacks another and sheds his blood, his own must be shed in
+return. Hence this precept not only authorizes taking away the life of a
+murderer, but authorizes nations to repel by war nations that wage war
+against them.
+
+_Answer._ Whether this was a precept given to man as a rule of duty or
+not is very questionable, though it has generally been so construed, at
+least since the dark ages of the church; and it is still more
+questionable whether it is a universal and perpetual law.
+
+If we attend to the phraseology of this decree of God, we shall find it
+to be very different from that of the precepts, generally, delivered to
+Moses. God did not say to Noah, as he often did to Moses, thou shalt do
+this, or that, but he said, "_I will require the life of man_," etc. If
+God had designed to delegate executive authority to Noah and his
+descendants to execute retributive judgment on the manslayer, the
+connection of the whole language must have been altered, for God
+declared what he would do himself. It appears, therefore, to have been
+God's _decree_, and the promulgation of _his_ law by which he would
+inflict righteous judgment on the guilty; the penalty was intended as a
+warning to deter mankind from violence, the sin for which the old world
+was swept away. And I see no reason why this threatening should not be
+considered parallel with the decrees of Christ,--that "all they that
+take the sword shall perish with the sword; he that leadeth into
+captivity shall go into captivity; he that killeth with the sword must
+be killed with the sword; here is the faith and the patience of the
+saints." Why the former should be considered as a rule of obedience for
+man, and these latter passages not so, I am unable to say. "He that
+killeth with the sword must be killed with the sword" is as positive as
+"whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed."
+
+It may be observed that the faith and patience of the saints is here
+spoken of in such a way as to imply that they exercised and manifested
+their faith and patience when they were put to death by violence or
+carried into captivity. And, indeed, how could their faith and patience
+appear if they, like the wicked world, returned evil for evil, carried
+into captivity, and killed with the sword?
+
+The original threatening has been fulfilled by the providence, and
+sometimes by the express command, of God. As Noah was the head of the
+new world and the father of nations, it seems to have had reference to
+nations rather than to individuals; and all nations that have shed blood
+in war must, in their turn, have their own blood shed; so that all they
+that take the sword may perish with the sword agreeably to the
+threatening made known to Noah, and to those announced by Christ.
+
+But, admitting that the law quoted in the objection was intended as a
+rule of duty for man, it does not appear that it was designed to be
+universal and perpetual. Before the flood no authority appears in any
+sense to have been delegated to man to shed the blood of man. So far
+from executing the penalty of death or causing it to be executed upon
+Cain, who was of the wicked one and slew his brother, notwithstanding
+his guilty forebodings, God threatened a sevenfold vengeance on him who
+should presume to do it.
+
+Under the Mosaic dispensation many crimes were punishable with death
+according to positive precept; but God, for wise reasons, did not always
+have the penalty executed. David was guilty of murder and adultery, both
+capital crimes; yet he was permitted to live.
+
+All kinds of vindictive punishment under the Christian dispensation
+appear to be absolutely forbidden. By vindictive I mean that which is
+intended to vindicate the law, as executing strict justice, and prevent
+offenses only, as taking away life, but which is not designed to promote
+the individual good of the person punished. That punishment which is
+designed and which has a tendency to promote the good of the punished,
+as well as to deter offenders, I consider to be strictly disciplinary or
+corrective, and consistent with the spirit and precepts of the gospel.
+Says an apostle, "Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but give place
+unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith
+the Lord." "For the wrath of man worketh not the righteousness of God."
+It has been said that this only forbids a revengeful temper, but this
+evasion will not do; for Christians are here forbidden to do the very
+thing which God declares he will do himself, and he does nothing but
+what is holy.
+
+"Render to no man evil for evil," is a positive precept without any
+limitation, and which admits of no evasion; and it must plainly rescind
+the law of shedding man's blood because he had shed the blood of man.
+
+But the exclamation is often made, What, not punish a murderer with
+death! Little do those who make this exclamation think that they
+themselves also are sinners and that every sin deserves not only
+temporal death but God's wrath and curse forever, and that they are in
+like condemnation unless redeemed by the blood of the Lamb. For such, it
+might be well to inquire if they know "what manner of spirit they are
+of."
+
+The most prominent characteristic of Messiah's reign over men in this
+world is mercy, since he has secured the rights and honor of the divine
+government by the sacrifice of himself so that the guilty may live. He
+has given his life as a ransom and taken the world into his hands as the
+ruler, judge, and rewarder, and offers the chief of sinners mercy; and
+the merits of his blood are sufficient to cleanse from all sin as well
+against man as against God. And who can help being astonished at the
+amazing difference between his laws and his dealings with men, and those
+sanguinary laws of men according to which under the light of the gospel
+they punish with death.
+
+The professed principle and design of these laws is strict justice; but
+were men dealt with according to strict justice by him who rules above,
+who would be able to stand? These laws of men accept no atonement for
+capital offenses; no mercy is offered, for none is provided for those
+who incur their penalty; but the gospel offers mercy to the chief of
+sinners while it condemns those who reject the offers. Capital offenders
+will never be condemned by civil governments for the rejection of
+offered mercy, for no mercy is provided for them. How unlike the divine
+government! But Christians are commanded to be merciful, as their Father
+in heaven is merciful, who showers down blessings on the evil and
+unthankful. Our Master has told us that with what judgment we judge we
+shall be judged; and with what measure we mete it shall be measured to
+us again; that if we forgive we shall be forgiven; and if we forgive not
+we shall not be forgiven; and that if we show no mercy we shall have
+judgment without mercy.
+
+Christians ought to ponder the subject well before they advocate the
+consistency and safety of dispensing justice without mercy. Let them
+learn what that meaneth, "I will have mercy and not sacrifice."
+
+_Objection seventh._ "Every purpose is established by counsel, and with
+good advice make war"; "For by wise counsel thou shalt make war," etc.
+Here war is recognized as a duty under certain circumstances, and the
+manner in which it is to be undertaken is pointed out, viz., by wise
+counsel.
+
+_Answer._ The inspired Proverbs are maxims of wisdom illustrated, for
+the most part, by some familiar subject that existed at the time they
+were delivered. The object here is not to inculcate the lawfulness of
+war but the necessity of sound wisdom in relation to the actions of men;
+and the subject of war appears to be introduced merely to illustrate
+this idea. The counsel and wisdom of men in relation to their temporal
+and worldly concerns are often worthy of imitation in reference to
+spiritual things; for the children of this world are, in some sense,
+wiser in their generation than the children of light, and the conduct of
+worldly men is often very appropriately introduced to illustrate
+Christian duty. Our Lord says, "What king, going to war with another
+king, sitteth not down first, and consulteth whether he be able with ten
+thousand to meet him that cometh against him with twenty thousand?"
+Doubtless our Lord's design was to warn people to count the cost before
+they professed to be followers of him, that they might not be deceived
+and discouraged, and that they might act from principle and not from
+hypocrisy. But he inculcated these things by referring to the example of
+kings in their consultations about war. And it is believed that the
+passages before cited are of similar import. These references to war,
+being introduced merely for the illustration of other subjects, will no
+more prove the lawfulness of war than the reference of the apostle to
+the Olympic games, for illustration, will prove the lawfulness of those
+heathen feats. But if this explanation should not be satisfactory, it
+may be observed that the Proverbs were written under the Old Testament
+economy which tolerated offensive as well as defensive war; whence it
+does not appear that any war can be undertaken under the present
+dispensation, "by wise counsel," except that which is spiritual; so that
+if the ancient was typical of the new dispensation, then the passages
+quoted will now apply only to spiritual warfare.
+
+_Objection eighth._ When the soldiers demanded of John the Baptist what
+they should do, one of the directions which he gave them was to be
+content with their wages. If their occupation had been unlawful, then he
+would not have directed them to be contented with the wages of
+wickedness.
+
+_Answer._ John the Baptist was under the Mosaic economy, the new
+dispensation not having commenced. He was but the forerunner of the
+Lord, a herald to sound his approach. But he gave the soldiers another
+direction, viz., to "do violence to no man," obedience to which is
+totally incompatible with war, as that is nothing else but violence.
+Only hinder soldiers from doing violence to any man and you stop at once
+the whole progress of war; therefore, if the directions of John are
+insisted on as gospel authority, they will prove, probably, much more
+against the lawfulness of war than in favor of it.
+
+_Objection ninth._ The Centurion and Cornelius were Christians and
+soldiers and highly approved of God for their faith and piety; nor were
+they directed by Christ or his apostles to renounce their profession;
+therefore the profession of arms is not inconsistent with Christian
+duty.
+
+_Answer._ They were first soldiers and then Christians; and we have no
+evidence that they continued in the profession of arms; nor are we
+warranted to say that they were not directed to renounce that
+profession, as the Scriptures are silent on the subject. Peter, it
+appears, tarried a number of days with Cornelius, and he doubtless
+explained to him the spirit and precepts of the gospel; and it is very
+probable that neither Cornelius nor the Centurion continued soldiers in
+any other sense than they were soldiers of Christ, as the idolatrous
+rites enjoined on the Roman soldiers were totally inconsistent with the
+Christian character, aside from the unlawfulness of war itself. Besides,
+the Roman soldiers were as often engaged in offensive as in defensive
+war; therefore, if the argument has any force on the question, it will
+tolerate not only defensive but offensive war, and also the idolatrous
+rites of the Roman armies.
+
+_Objection tenth._ Our Lord paid tribute money, which went to support
+military power, but he would not contribute to the support of a wicked
+thing, therefore war is not inconsistent with Christianity.
+
+_Answer._ A distinguished trait of the Christian religion is peace. The
+command is, "Follow peace with all men." "Blessed are the peacemakers:
+for they shall be called the children of God."
+
+Our Lord set the example of giving no just cause of offense to any.
+Tribute was demanded of him unjustly according to the existing laws, but
+lest fault should be found, he wrought a miracle and paid it. Money is a
+temporal thing, and belongs to the governments of this world, as the
+various coins bear the ensign of the nation by whom they were made; but
+the Christian's treasure is not in this world, and when the rulers of this
+world call for that which bears their own image and superscription,
+Christians have no right to withhold from them their dues, for they must
+"render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's." For this cause they ought
+to pay tribute and resign up temporal things without a murmur to temporal
+governments, and leave it with Caesar to manage the things of Caesar. Thus
+far are Christians warranted to act, from the example of Christ and the
+precepts of the gospel; but how does the lawfulness of war follow from
+Christians rendering to Caesar his due? Is it because some of the money
+goes to support war? Probably, of the money which our Lord paid as much
+went to the support of idolatry and the games of the day as to the support
+of war. Now if the argument is sound, we may not only prove by it the
+lawfulness of war but the lawfulness of idolatry and many other abominable
+things practiced by the heathen governments.
+
+_Objection eleventh._ Our Lord, just before his crucifixion, commanded
+his disciples to take swords, and, if any were destitute, to sell their
+garments and procure them, as they would no longer have his personal
+presence to protect them; and as they were to encounter great trials and
+difficulties, they must, besides relying on providence, take all prudent
+means for their defense and preservation.
+
+_Answer._ That our Lord did not direct them to take swords for
+self-defense is evident because he told them that two were enough, and
+because the disciples never made any use of them after their Master
+directed Peter to put up his and pronounced a penalty on all who should
+have recourse to swords afterwards. But the design seems to have been to
+show by example in the most trying situation where self-defense was
+justifiable, if in any case, that the use of the sword was utterly
+prohibited under the gospel economy, and to show the criminality and
+danger of ever using deathly weapons against mankind afterwards. If
+Christ's kingdom had been of this world, then, he tells us, his servants
+would have fought; but his kingdom being not of this world, the weapons
+of their warfare were not carnal but spiritual. He therefore rebuked
+them for their mistaken zeal, healed the wound they made, and forbade
+the use of the sword.
+
+_Objection twelfth._ Christians are commanded to be in subjection to
+civil rulers who are God's ministers to execute wrath on the wicked and
+are ministers of good to the church; therefore Christians are bound to
+take the sword at their command; for civil government is ordained of God
+and civil rulers are not to bear the sword in vain, and Christians may
+lawfully do what God ordains to be done.
+
+_Answer._ That civil government, so called in distinction from religious
+government, is ordained by God is fully admitted, and also that God
+ordains whatsoever comes to pass. But there is a great difference
+between his decretive and his preceptive will. The former is not a rule
+of duty for man without the latter; the latter is always a rule of duty.
+This fact might be proved by a multitude of instances from Scripture.
+Persons therefore may be very wicked in doing what God ordains to be
+done, if they act without his command.
+
+That civil governments and civil rulers exist only by God's decretive
+will, which is fulfilled by his providence and not by his preceptive
+will, is evident because God has never authorized the appointment of
+them or given any precepts or any commands as a code of laws to any
+denomination or class of people as such, distinct from his own covenant
+people or church; and this fact I beg leave to submit as a conclusive
+evidence that civil governments and civil rulers exist only by God's
+decretive will and not by his preceptive will. Under the ancient
+dispensation no laws or directions were given to any class of men, as
+such, other than God's own covenant people or church, unless some
+special commands on singular occasions, or the general command to repent
+and turn to God, be excepted.
+
+The king on the throne of Israel was as truly an officer in the church
+of God as the high priest who entered into the holy of holies. Both were
+set apart and anointed with the holy oil, at the command of God, and
+both were types of the Son of God. The king as much typified his kingly
+office as the priest did his priestly office. Both were necessary parts
+of that complete shadow of good things then to come.
+
+Under the gospel dispensation no authority from God is to be found for
+appointing and setting apart civil rulers, nor are there any directions
+given to civil rulers, _as such_, how to conduct in their office, unless
+those who rule in the church are called civil rulers. All the precepts
+and directions in the gospel, excepting such as were special (as those
+which related only to the apostles) or such as are universal (relating
+alike to all men), are given to the disciples as members of Christ's
+kingdom, who are not of this world, even as he was not of this world.
+
+The Son of God came into the world to set up the kingdom of heaven,
+which is a perfect and everlasting kingdom and distinct from all other
+kingdoms which are to be destroyed to give place to his divine and
+heavenly reign. He came in the likeness of men, sin excepted, and laid
+down his life a ransom for the world, and then rose a triumphant
+conqueror, and in the complex character of God and man, as Mediator, he
+took the universe, his purchased possession, into his hands as a
+lawgiver, judge, and rewarder. He took the scepter when it departed from
+Judah, and is exalted far above all principality and power and might and
+dominion, and has a name above every name, all executive power in heaven
+and earth being given to him as Mediator. Thus, as Mediator, the kingdom
+of heaven is his kingdom. He reigns not only as King of kings and Lord
+of lords but seated on the throne of his father David, he is forever
+King in Zion and is head over all things to his church. His kingdom is
+not of this world, neither are his subjects of this world, though some
+of them are in it.
+
+He sent out his disciples to appear in a distinct character from the
+world and to be a light to it by imitating his example and by exhibiting
+his spirit and temper. They ought not to say, as the Jews did, that they
+have no king but Caesar, for they have an everlasting King and kingdom
+and laws perfect and eternal. They should, therefore, set their
+affections on things above and not on things beneath.
+
+While the kingdoms of this world exist, Christians must remain in
+captivity to them and must obey all their laws which are not contrary to
+the laws of the gospel; otherwise they cannot remain peaceful, harmless,
+and blameless in the midst of a wicked world before whom they must shine
+as lights.
+
+Though the church is now in captivity, yet her redemption draweth nigh,
+for God will soon "overthrow the throne of kingdoms," and the thrones
+will be cast down and the princes of this world will come to naught. The
+stone which was cut out of the mountain without hands will dash them to
+pieces, as the potter's vessel is shivered, and will become a great
+mountain and fill the whole earth; then the kingdom and the dominion and
+the greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven shall be given to
+the people of the saints of the most high God whose kingdom is an
+everlasting kingdom and of whose dominion there shall be no end.
+
+Though God, by his decree, has ordained civil governments and
+established kingdoms, and will by his providence make them subservient
+to the good of his church and people, and notwithstanding it is the duty
+of Christians to be in subjection to them and pay tribute, yet it does
+not follow that their genius and laws may not often be contrary to the
+genius and laws of the gospel, and when they are so Christians must not
+obey them nor count their lives dear to themselves. It should be
+distinctly remembered that when Christians were exhorted and commanded
+to be obedient to civil rulers, they were under heathen, idolatrous,
+civil governments, and those civil governments were by no means
+congenial with the spirit and precepts of the gospel; still Christians
+were commanded to be in subjection to them; not, however, without
+limitation, for they utterly refused obedience in many instances and
+nobly suffered or died as martyrs.
+
+Thus civil government may be an ordinance of God, may be subservient to
+the good of the church, may be an instrument in God's hands of executing
+his wrath, and Christians may be bound to obey magistrates in all things
+not contrary to the gospel; and yet it will not follow that Christians
+may consistently with the gospel take up the sword or do anything to
+countenance war.
+
+If it be the duty of Christians to take the sword and enter the field of
+battle at the command of their civil rulers, then there could be no
+impropriety in having armies wholly made up of real Christians,
+especially since it is the duty of every man to become a Christian; and
+as professing Christian nations are almost constantly fighting each
+other, it would be perfectly proper for hosts of pious saints to be
+daily engaged in shedding each other's blood. But how would it appear,
+how does it appear, for those who have drunk into the same peaceful and
+heavenly spirit, who are united together by the tender ties of the
+Redeemer's blood, who are all members of the same family, and who hope
+through divine grace to dwell together in everlasting love and
+blessedness, to be fighting one another here with relentless fury?
+
+Let us contemplate the subject, in this point of view, a little further.
+Suppose an English and an American frigate in the time of war, both
+manned entirely with real Christians, should meet in a neutral port.
+Ought they not then to conduct towards each other as brethren of one
+common Lord? As they are all members of the same family and have all
+been redeemed by the same blood, and sanctified by the same divine
+spirit, they surely must have the most tender affection for each other,
+and it would be highly proper for them to meet together for Christian
+fellowship, worship, and communion. Suppose, then, that they
+occasionally go on board each other's ships for religious worship; that
+their chaplains lead in their devotions, using such petitions as
+these--praying that they may be all of one heart and one mind in the
+knowledge of Christ, knit together in the bonds of Christian love; that
+they may have much of the wisdom from above which is first pure, then
+peaceable, gentle, easy to be entreated; that they may do good to all as
+they have opportunity, especially to the household of faith; that they
+may be meek and gentle as lambs and harmless as doves; that they may be
+kind and forgiving and that, like their Divine Master, they may return
+good for evil and have their affections on things above and not on
+things beneath; after which they unitedly partake of the symbols of
+Christ's broken body and shed blood, and then part with the tenderest
+tokens of Christian fellowship and love. They leave the port and meet
+again at sea. It now becomes their duty, on the principles of war,
+instead of meeting as Christian brethren, to meet as raging tigers and
+discharge the flaming engines of death on each other; and in order to
+perform "their duty to their God and country," they must exert all their
+power and skill to destroy one another. The dreadful struggle and
+carnage must be continued by both parties as long as both can fight.
+When half of their crews are wallowing in their blood and expiring in
+agonies, a violent effort must be made by one or both to board the other
+and end the contest sword in hand. Those hands which recently saluted
+each other with Christian love now plunge the envenomed steel into their
+brethren's bosoms. At length one is vanquished and yields to the other.
+Those who remain alive after the conflict again unite in prayer and give
+thanks to God that he has given them courage and strength to fight so
+nobly, and that he has shielded their lives in the hour of battle. Thus
+they again resume their Christian fellowship and communion. This mutual
+fellowship, communion, and love are perfectly consistent with Christian
+character and are required by it. The conduct which has been supposed as
+enemies when fighting is also entirely consistent with the principles of
+war and with the character of warriors, and is such as would be highly
+applauded and admired by the world. But is it not obviously and
+perfectly absurd and perfectly incompatible with the principles of the
+gospel for Christians to act in this twofold character? If, however, it
+is the duty of Christians to obey the command of their rulers and engage
+in war, then it would be perfectly proper for what has been supposed to
+take place. Christians may one day surround the table of the Lord
+together, and the next kill and destroy each other.
+
+The god of this world, not being yet chained down to hell, deceives the
+nations and gathers them together to battle; but the children of peace,
+the citizens of Zion, ought not to mingle with them or listen to the
+deceiver. They should take to themselves not carnal weapons but the
+whole armor of God, that they may be able to stand in an evil day and to
+quench all the fiery darts of Satan.
+
+_Objection thirteenth._ To deny the right of the magistrate to call on
+his subjects to take the sword is to deny that he is an avenger to
+execute wrath, though the gospel expressly declares that he is.
+
+_Answer._ This conclusion does not follow unless it is a fact that God
+cannot and does not actually make him the instrument of doing it, by his
+providence, without his command; for, as we have already observed, men
+may fulfill the decrees of God under his providence, without his
+command, and be very criminal in the deed. God raised up the king of
+Assyria and made him the rod of his anger, to chastise his people and to
+execute wrath upon the ungodly nations around. "Howbeit he meant not so,
+but it was in his heart to _cut off_ nations not a few." And God
+declared, with reference to him, "that when he had performed his whole
+work he would punish the fruit of his stout heart and the glory of his
+high looks." It will not be contended that warlike nations are commanded
+by God to destroy and trample down the nations of the earth as the dust
+of their feet; yet, when they do so, they doubtless fulfill his high
+decree and are avengers to execute his wrath on a wicked world.
+
+The beast represented in the Revelation with seven heads and ten horns
+has generally been considered as an emblem of nations. These ten horns,
+or powers, are to hate the great harlot of Babylon; to eat her flesh
+and burn her with fire; and though they destroy the greatest enemy of
+the church, and in this way are ministers of good to her, yet they
+receive their power and their seat and their authority from the old
+serpent, the dragon. And a magistrate or king may be a minister of good
+to the church and an avenger to execute wrath, and still be very wicked
+in the deed and use very unlawful means to accomplish the end. While he
+fulfills the decree of Heaven, he acts not in obedience to the command
+of God, but to the dictates of his own lusts and passions.
+
+_Objection fourteenth._ The passages of Scripture which have been quoted
+against retaliation and which inculcate love to enemies and the
+returning of good for evil have reference to individuals in their
+conduct towards each other, but have no relation to civil government and
+are not intended as a rule of duty for one nation towards another; they
+therefore have no bearing on the subject of war.
+
+_Answer._ Those precepts of the gospel appear to be binding universally
+without any limitation, and men have no right to limit that which God
+has not limited. If the commands of the gospel are binding upon every
+one in his individual capacity, then they must be binding upon every one
+in any collective body, so that whatever is morally wrong for every
+individual must be equally wrong for a collective body; and a nation is
+only a large number of individuals united so as to act collectively as
+one person. Therefore, if it is criminal for an individual to lie,
+steal, quarrel, and fight, it is also criminal for nations to lie,
+steal, quarrel, and fight. If it is the duty of an individual to be kind
+and tender-hearted and to have a forgiving and merciful disposition, it
+is likewise the duty of nations to be kind, forgiving, and merciful. If
+it is the duty of an individual to return good for evil, then it is the
+duty of nations to return good for evil.
+
+It is self-evident that individuals cannot delegate power to communities
+which they do not possess themselves. Therefore, if every individual is
+bound to obey the precepts of the gospel and cannot as an individual be
+released from the obligation, then individuals have no power to release
+any collective body from that obligation. To say that God has given to
+nations a right to return evil for evil is begging the question, for it
+does not appear and cannot be shown that God has restricted the precepts
+of the gospel to individuals, or that he has given any precepts to
+nations as such, or to any other community than his own covenant people
+or church. This objection makes government an abstraction according with
+the common saying, "Government is without a soul."
+
+No practice has a more corrupt tendency than that of attempting to limit
+the Scriptures so as to make them trim with the corrupt practices of
+mankind. Whoever, for the sake of supporting war, attempts to limit
+these precepts of the gospel to individuals and denies that they are
+binding upon nations destroys one of the main pillars by which the
+lawfulness of war is upheld. The right of nations to defend themselves
+with the sword is argued on the supposed right of individual
+self-preservation; as it is said to be right for individuals to defend
+themselves with deathly weapons, so it is lawful for nations to have
+recourse to the sword for defense of their rights. But if these passages
+are applicable to individuals and prohibit them from acts of
+retaliation, and if the rights of nations are founded on the rights of
+individuals, then nations have no right to retaliate injury.
+
+_Objection fifteenth._ Christians, with comparatively few exceptions,
+have not doubted the lawfulness of war, and many have actually fought
+and bled on the field of battle and considered themselves in the way of
+their duty. And shall all our pious forefathers be condemned for
+engaging in war?
+
+_Answer._ It is admitted that many pious people have engaged in war, but
+they might have been in an error on this subject as well as on many
+other subjects. Many of our pious forefathers engaged in the slavery of
+their fellow-men, and thought themselves in the way of their duty; but
+does it follow that they were not in an error? The circumstance that
+multitudes defend a sentiment is no certain evidence of its truth. Some
+of the reformers were objected to because the multitude were against
+them. Popularity, however, ever has influenced and ever will influence
+mankind more than plain gospel duty, until the earth shall be filled
+with the abundance of peace. But notwithstanding this, it is not right
+to follow the multitude to do evil. All ought to remember that they have
+no right to follow the example of any one any further than that example
+coincides with the example of Christ or the precepts of the gospel; all
+other standards are fallible and dangerous.
+
+If real Christians have, from mistaken zeal, prayed against each other
+and fought each other and shed each other's blood, this does not justify
+war.
+
+_Objection sixteenth._ If Christians generally should adopt these
+sentiments, it would be impossible for them to subsist in this world in
+its present state, and if they did continue it must be in abject
+slavery. They would become hewers of wood and drawers of water to the
+tyrannical and oppressive, and would only encourage them in their deeds
+of wickedness. The injustice of men must be restrained or the earth will
+again be filled with violence. The necessity of the case is such that
+mankind would be warranted to take up arms to maintain their rights and
+repel oppressors, if the Scriptures were silent on the subject.[2]
+
+_Answer._ We have the history of the heathen world to teach us what
+mankind are without the light of revelation. They are full of all
+unrighteousness, covetousness, maliciousness; full of enmity, murder,
+debate, deceit, malignity; they are proud, boasters, without natural
+affection, implacable, unmerciful. Now the very design of the gospel is
+to subdue and overcome these abominable passions and dispositions; not
+however by returning violence for violence but by producing virtues
+directly contrary. The great duty of Christians is to be a light to this
+wicked world by exhibiting in their conduct and conversation the spirit
+and temper of the gospel. If such were the practice of Christians, we
+have reason to believe that wicked men would be overawed and deterred
+from their violence in a great measure. Besides, if all real Christians
+should utterly refuse to bear arms for the destruction of their
+fellow-men, it would greatly diminish the strength and boldness of
+warlike nations, so that it would be impracticable for them to prosecute
+war with the vigor and fury that they now do.
+
+But if the gospel prohibits war, then to urge the necessity of the case
+against the commands of God is open rebellion against his government as
+well as total distrust of his word and providence.
+
+If Christians live in habitual obedience to God's commands, they have
+the promise that all things shall work together for their good, and they
+have no reason to fear them that kill the body and after that "have no
+more that they can do."
+
+It is strange that Christians should have so great a reluctance to
+suffer inconvenience in worldly things for the sake of the gospel. The
+scoffs and persecutions of the world and the fear of the loss of worldly
+things are powerful barriers against _Christian_ warfare. The gospel
+teaches us that all who live godly in Christ Jesus shall suffer
+persecution, and that through much tribulation the saints must enter
+into the kingdom of heaven; and is it not plainly owing wholly to their
+conformity to the world that they now suffer so little persecution and
+practice so little self-denial? If there is reserved for them an eternal
+weight of glory, what if they, like their Divine Master, should not have
+where to lay their heads? If they are to inherit a crown of immortal
+glory, what if they are called to suffer the loss of earthly things? If
+they are hereafter to reign as kings and priests unto God, what if they
+are not ranked among the great and honorable of the earth? If they
+suffer with Christ, then will they also reign with him; but if they deny
+him, he also will deny them; and if they are ashamed of him, he will
+also be ashamed of them before his Father and the holy angels. Let
+Christians then obey his commands and trust to his protection while they
+resolutely abstain from the wicked practices of the world.
+
+_Objection seventeenth._ It is the duty of mankind to use means for the
+preservation of life and liberty; they must till the ground, if they
+expect a crop. It would be presumptuous for them to pray for and to
+expect their daily bread without using such means as God has put in
+their power to obtain it; and it would be equally presumptuous to expect
+the preservation of their lives and liberties without using such means
+to preserve and defend them as God has put into their hand; they must
+act as well as pray.
+
+_Answer._ That using means is the duty of Christians, there can be no
+doubt; but they must be such as God has appointed, and not such as human
+wisdom may dictate. There is no dispute as to the propriety of using
+means, but only as to the kind of means which Christians ought to use.
+The weapons of their warfare are not carnal, but spiritual, and they are
+mighty through God to the pulling down the strongholds of sin and Satan.
+It is often said, If you wish to put a stop to war, spread the gospel
+through the world. We would inquire, If the gospel tolerates war, how
+will its universal diffusion put a stop to war?
+
+As has already been observed, it would be open rebellion to do what God
+has forbidden, and high-handed presumption to ask his aid in the things
+which he has prohibited.
+
+_Objection eighteenth._ Some ecclesiastical historians inform us that
+Christians in the early ages of the church, though they contended so
+firmly for the faith as to suffer martyrdom rather than submit to
+idolatry, yet did not refuse to bear arms in defense of their country,
+even when called upon by heathen magistrates, and their example ought to
+have weight with us.
+
+_Answer._ The testimony of the early Fathers is entitled to regard, but
+must not be considered as infallible authority, for they were men of
+like passions with others and cannot be followed safely any farther than
+they followed Christ. But the weight of their testimony on the subject,
+I apprehend, will be found to stand directly against the lawfulness of
+war on Christian principles.
+
+Erasmus, who was an eminent scholar, and who was probably as well
+acquainted with the sentiments of the primitive Fathers as any modern
+writer, in his _Antipolemus, or Plea against War_, replies to the
+advocates of war as follows: "They further object those opinions or
+decrees of the Fathers in which war seems to be approved. Of this sort
+there are some, but they are only late writers, who appeared when the
+true spirit of Christianity began to languish, and they are very few;
+while, on the other hand, there are innumerable ones among the writers
+of acknowledged sanctity which absolutely forbid war; and why should the
+few rather than the many intrude themselves into our mind?"
+
+Barclay, who examined the writings of the Fathers on this subject, says,
+"It is as easy to obscure the sun at midday as to deny that the
+primitive Christians renounced all revenge and war."
+
+Clarkson, who also examined the Fathers, declares that "every Christian
+writer of the second century who notices the subject makes it unlawful
+for Christians to bear arms."
+
+Clarkson has made copious extracts from the writings of the Fathers
+against war, a few of which, as quoted by him and others, shall be
+inserted here.
+
+Justin Martyr and Tatian both considered the devil the author of war.
+
+Justin Martyr, while speaking of the prophecies relating to the days of
+peace, says, "That this prophecy is fulfilled you have good reason to
+believe, for we who in times past killed one another do not now fight
+with our enemies." Clarkson adds, "It is observable that the word
+'fight' does not mean to strike, beat, or give a blow, but to fight in
+war; and the word 'enemy' does not mean a common adversary who has
+injured us, but an enemy of state."
+
+Irenaeus says that Christians in his day "had changed their swords and
+their lances into instruments of peace, and that they knew not how to
+fight."
+
+Maximilian and a number of others in the second century actually
+suffered martyrdom for refusing, on gospel principles, to bear arms.
+
+Celsus made it one of his charges against the Christians that they
+refused to bear arms for the Emperor. Origen, in the following century,
+admitted the fact and justified the Christians on the ground of the
+unlawfulness of war itself.
+
+Tertullian, in his discourse to Scapula, tells us "that no Christians
+were to be found in the Roman armies."
+
+In his declaration on the worship of idols he says, "Though the soldiers
+came to John and received a certain form to be observed, and though the
+Centurion believed, yet Jesus Christ, by disarming Peter disarmed every
+soldier afterwards; for custom can never sanction an illicit act."
+
+Again, in his _Soldier's Garland_, he says: "Can a soldier's life be
+lawful, when Christ has pronounced that he who lives by the sword shall
+perish by the sword? Can one who professes the peaceable doctrine of the
+gospel be a soldier when it is his duty not so much as to go to law? And
+shall he who is not to avenge his own wrongs be instrumental in bringing
+others into chains, imprisonment, torment, and death?"
+
+He tells us, also, that the Christians in his day were sufficiently
+numerous to have defended themselves if their religion had permitted
+them to have recourse to the sword.
+
+There are some marvelous accounts of Christian soldiers related by
+Eusebius; but Valesius, in his annotations on these accounts, has
+abundantly proved them to be fabulous, though he was not opposed to war
+and could have had no other object but to support the truth. Eusebius,
+in his orations on Constantine, uses such extravagant adulation, which
+falls but little short of idolatry, that his account of Christian
+warriors ought to be received with great caution, especially when we
+recollect that church and state were, in his day, united.
+
+On the whole, it is very evident that the early Christians did refuse to
+bear arms, and although one of their objections was the idolatrous rites
+connected with military service, yet they did object on account of the
+unlawfulness of war itself.
+
+We have no good evidence of Christians being found in the armies until
+we have evidence of great corruption in the church. But admitting that
+we had good evidence that there were professing Christians in the army
+at an early period of the church, I apprehend it would be of little
+importance, for the idolatrous rites and ceremonies of the heathen
+armies were of such a nature as to be totally inconsistent with
+Christian character, and the example of idolatrous Christians surely
+ought to have no weight.
+
+Some objections of less importance might be stated which have from time
+to time been made against the sentiments here advocated; but to state
+and reply to everything that might be said is not necessary. Specious
+objections have been and still are made to almost every doctrine of
+Christianity. Mankind can generally find some plausible arguments to
+support whatever they wish to believe. The pleas in favor of war are
+very congenial with the natural feelings of the human heart, and unless
+men will examine with a serious, candid, and prayerful disposition to
+ascertain the truth as it is in Jesus, they will be very likely to
+imbibe and defend error.[3]
+
+The writer, though far from supposing that everything he has said on a
+subject that has been so little discussed is free from error, is
+conscious of having endeavored to examine it with seriousness and
+candor, and feels satisfied that the general sentiments he has advanced
+are according to godliness. He sincerely hopes that every one who may
+peruse these pages will do it in the meek and unbiased spirit of the
+gospel, and then judge whether war can be reconciled with the lamblike
+example of Christ; whether it is really forgiving the trespasses of
+enemies, loving and doing them good, and returning good for evil; for if
+it is not, it is unquestionably inconsistent with the spirit and the
+precepts of Christianity.
+
+All who earnestly desire and look for the millennial glory of the church
+should consider that it can never arrive until the spirit and practice
+of war are abolished. All who love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity
+cannot but ardently desire that wars may cease to the ends of the earth
+and that mankind should embrace each other as brethren. If so, is it not
+their duty to do all in their power to promote so benevolent an object?
+Ought not every individual Christian to conduct in such a manner that if
+every other person imitated his example it would be best for the whole?
+If so, would they not immediately renounce everything that leads to wars
+and fightings and embrace everything which would promote that glorious
+reign of righteousness and peace for which they earnestly hope, long,
+and pray? "The work of righteousness shall be peace, and the effect of
+righteousness, quietness and assurance forever."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Says the Rev. Dr. Scott, in his Essay, p. 422: "We ought not
+therefore to fear our enemies because he will be with us, and if God be
+for us, who can be against us? Or who can doubt but he that is in us is
+greater than he that is in the world? This was typically intimated in
+the promises made to Israel respecting their wars with the Canaanites
+and other nations, which were shadows and figures of the good fight of
+faith." Bishop Horne, in his preface to the Psalms, views the subject in
+the same light.
+
+[2] All these objections introduced are carefully selected from some of
+the ablest advocates for the lawfulness of war.
+
+[3] The last point American Christians will give up is the justification
+of their fathers in the War of the Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+HYMN
+
+SUGGESTED BY THE PRECEDING TRAIN OF THOUGHT, AND APPENDED TO THE
+ORIGINAL EDITION OF THE ESSAY ON WAR
+
+    Great Sun of glory, rise and shine,
+      Dispel the gloom of night;
+    Let the foul spirits stretch their wings,
+      And fly before thy light.
+
+    Rebuke the nations, stop their rage,
+      Destroy the warrior's skill,
+    Hush all the tumults of the earth;
+      O speak! say, "Peace, be still."
+
+    Break, break the cruel warrior's sword,
+      Asunder cut his bow,
+    Command him by thy sovereign word
+      To let the captives go.
+
+    No more let heroes' glory sound,
+      No more their triumphs tell,
+    Bring all the pride of nations down--
+      Let war return to hell.
+
+    Then let thy blessed kingdom come,
+      With all its heavenly train,
+    And pour thy peaceful spirit down,
+      Like gentle showers of rain.
+
+    Then shall the prowling beasts of prey,
+      Like lambs be meek and mild;
+    Vipers and asps shall harmless twine
+      Around the weaned child.
+
+    The happy sons of Zion sit
+      Secure beneath their vines;
+    Or, shadowed by their fig-tree's tops,
+      Shall drink their cheering wines.
+
+    The nations to thy scepter bow,
+      And own "thy gentle sway";
+    Then all the wandering tribes of men
+      To thee their tribute pay.
+
+    Angelic hosts shall view the scene,
+      Delighted, spread their wings;
+    Down to the earth again they fly,
+      And strike their lofty strings.
+
+    The listening nations catch the sound,
+      And join the heavenly choir,
+    To swell aloud the song of praise,
+      And vie with sacred fire.
+
+    "Glory to God on high!" they sound,
+      In strains of angels' mirth;
+    "Good will and peace" to men, they sing,
+      Since heaven is brought to earth.
+
+
+
+
+THE MEDIATOR'S KINGDOM NOT OF THIS WORLD: BUT SPIRITUAL
+
+BY AN INQUIRER
+
+    The writer of the following pages has, for a considerable time,
+    doubted the propriety of some of the common practices of
+    Christians. To satisfy himself he has, if he is not deceived,
+    candidly and diligently examined the Scriptures with a view to
+    ascertain and practice the truth. After considerable inquiry his
+    doubts increased. He then applied to some highly respectable and
+    pious friends, who frankly acknowledged that they had never
+    fully examined the subject, as they had never had any doubt
+    concerning it. They judged the matter weighty and advised him to
+    arrange his thoughts and commit them to paper. This he has
+    endeavored to do as well as a very infirm state of body and a
+    press of commercial business would admit. After submitting what
+    he had written to some of his friends, they unanimously advised
+    him to lay it before the public, hoping that it might have a
+    tendency to call the subject into notice and lead to a more
+    complete and full examination. With this view he has ventured to
+    commit the following sheets to the press. He has only to beg
+    that the Christian who may take the trouble to read them will
+    not be so solicitous to reply to the arguments as to examine and
+    illustrate the truth.
+
+The kingdom of our glorious Mediator is but little noticed in the world,
+yet it is precious in the eyes of the Lord. The Lord hath chosen Zion.
+She is the redeemed of the Lord. He hath said, he who touches her
+touches the apple of his eye. She is purchased by the blood of the Lamb,
+sanctified by the Spirit of grace, and defended by the arm of
+Omnipotence. Notwithstanding she may still be covered with sackcloth,
+the days of her mourning have an end. The Lord will raise her from the
+dust and make her an eternal excellency and the joy of many generations.
+The mystical body of Christ is composed of that innumerable company
+which no man can number,--out of every nation and kindred and people and
+tongue,--which will finally stand before the throne of God and the Lamb,
+clothed with white robes and palms in their hands. It is but one body,
+although composed of many members. The temple, which was a symbol of the
+church, was composed of many stones, although but one building. The
+spiritual temple is built of lively stones upon the foundation of the
+apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner
+stone. This spiritual temple will continue to rise under different
+dispensations until the elect are gathered together from the four winds
+of heaven and the top stone is carried up with shouts of Grace, Grace,
+unto it!
+
+The Mediator's kingdom is not of this world. "Jesus answered, My kingdom
+is not of this world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my
+servants fight, that I should not be delivered to the Jews" (John xviii.
+36). In remarking upon these words we are naturally led to consider,
+
+    I. What the Mediator's kingdom is.
+   II. Its nature.
+  III. Its laws.
+
+From which we propose to make several inferences and illustrations for
+improvement.
+
+Agreeably to the arrangement of our subject, we shall first endeavor to
+ascertain what the kingdom of the Mediator is; or that kingdom which he
+so emphatically calls "My Kingdom," in distinction from all other
+kingdoms. "Jesus answered, My kingdom----" Our glorious Mediator takes
+to himself the majesty of a sovereign and claims a kingdom. In his
+mediatorial character he possesses, in an extensive sense, universal
+empire. He is exalted far above all principality and power and might and
+dominion, and has a name which is above every name. He is King of kings
+and Lord of lords. He is not only king on his holy hill of Zion but
+rules amongst the nations. He is, however, in an appropriate sense, king
+of saints under the gospel dispensation, as he governs the worlds with a
+view to his own glory and their exaltation.
+
+That the church, under the gospel dispensation, is in a special manner
+the kingdom of heaven or the kingdom which Christ so often called his
+kingdom appears evident (it is thought) from many passages of Scripture.
+The prophet Daniel, while interpreting the symbols of the four great
+empires which were to arise in the earth, adds that "in the days of
+these kings shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom which shall never
+be destroyed." This kingdom could not be the Church Universal, for that
+was established in the family of Adam and had continued without being
+broken in a line of holy men down to the prophet's day. It must
+therefore have a special reference to something future. When John the
+Baptist came preaching, he said, "Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven
+is at hand," fully implying that it had not then commenced. He preached
+repentance preparatory to ushering in that kingdom which the God of
+heaven was about to set up. In the days of the fourth great kingdom
+mentioned in the prophecy of Daniel the Lord Jesus Christ came into our
+world to establish his kingdom. As he entered upon his ministry he
+declared that the time was fulfilled and that the kingdom of God was at
+hand. When he first commissioned his disciples and sent them forth to
+preach, he directed them to say to their hearers, "The kingdom of God is
+come nigh unto you." In speaking of John the Baptist, he says, He was
+the greatest of prophets; but adds, "He that is least in the kingdom of
+God is greater than he"; which must be conclusive evidence that John the
+Baptist was not in the kingdom of God. At the Last Supper, after our
+Lord had blessed and partaken of the bread, he said to his disciples, "I
+will not any more eat thereof until it be fulfilled in the kingdom of
+God." In like manner, after taking the cup, he said, "I will not drink
+of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God shall come." All of
+which seems fully to imply that the kingdom which the God of heaven was
+about to set up did not commence before the gospel dispensation. Christ
+came under the Mosaic dispensation, that is, under the law, to redeem
+those who were under the law, by the sacrifice of himself; "and being
+found in the fashion of a man, he humbled himself, and became obedient
+unto death, even the death of the cross. Wherefore God hath highly
+exalted him, and hath given him a name which is above every name." After
+he arose from the dead he appeared to his disciples "by many infallible
+proofs, being seen of them forty days, and speaking of the things
+pertaining to the kingdom of God." "And Jesus came and spake unto them,
+saying, All power is given unto me in heaven and in earth. Go ye
+therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the
+Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost: teaching them to observe
+all things whatsoever I have commanded you: and, lo, I am with you
+always, even unto the end of the world. Amen." Here we see the Mediator
+possessing a kingdom and giving laws to his subjects and commanding
+obedience. Although his kingdom was then small, like a little leaven,
+yet it had the power to leaven the whole lump. The stone which was cut
+out of the mountain without hands will become a great mountain and fill
+the whole earth. Every knee must finally bow to his scepter and every
+tongue confess that he is Lord to the glory of God the Father.
+
+From this concise view of the subject we conclude that the kingdom of
+God, or Christ's kingdom, is in a special manner the gospel dispensation
+which was not completely established until after the resurrection of our
+Lord.
+
+II. The next point of inquiry is its nature. "Jesus answered, My kingdom
+is not of this world." By this we understand the Mediator's kingdom, not
+being of this world, supposes that its nature, its laws, and its
+government are all distinct from the nature, laws, and governments of
+this world. That the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, but
+spiritual, heavenly, and divine, will fully appear, it is apprehended,
+from the following reasons.
+
+1st. From the character of the King. He was not born like the kings of
+the earth. He was the Son of the living God and Heir of all things. He
+was conceived by the power of the Holy Ghost and born of a virgin. His
+birth was not celebrated with the earthly pomp of princes, but by a few
+humble shepherds and a choir of angels. His palace was a stable and his
+cradle a manger. When a child he was not amused with toys, but was about
+his Father's business. When he was dedicated to his ministry, it was not
+by the appointment of kings, or the consecration of bishops, but by the
+baptism of his humble forerunner, and the descent of the Holy Ghost in a
+bodily shape like a dove, and a voice from the excellent glory, saying,
+"This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." His companions were
+the despised fishermen of Galilee and the angels of heaven. He was "a
+man of sorrow and acquainted with grief"; yet he was the eternal Son of
+the eternal Father. Nature owned his voice and devils trembled at his
+power; but he was despised and rejected of men. When he fed the hungry
+multitude, they were gratified with the loaves and fishes and sought to
+make him a king; but he departed out of the place; for his kingdom was
+not of this world. When Satan, the god of this world, offered him all
+the kingdoms of this world and the glory of them if he would only fall
+down and worship him, he rebuked him with holy contempt and said, Get
+thee hence, Satan; for his kingdom was not of this world. The Mediator
+did not intermeddle with the affairs of the governments of this world;
+for his kingdom was not of this world. When he was solicited to command
+a brother to divide his earthly substance, instead of complying with the
+request he only gave a pointed admonition and said, "Man, who made me a
+judge, or a divider, over you?" When his enemies endeavored to catch him
+in his words by extorting from him something unfavorable to the laws of
+Caesar, Jesus answered them and said, "Render to Caesar the things which
+are Caesar's, and to God the things which are God's." When they demanded
+of him tribute, and that unjustly, according to their own laws, he paid
+it without a murmur, to set an example of peace and quietness for his
+disciples. In all things he avoided interfering or meddling with the
+governments of this world.
+
+2dly. From the representations of the Bible, "The kingdom of God is
+righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost." The Mediator's kingdom
+is founded in right. His scepter is a right scepter. He rules in
+righteousness. "The unrighteous shall not inherit the kingdom of God."
+Righteousness is opposed to all injustice, oppression, and cruelty; it
+regards the rights of God and man; it requires love to the Lord our God
+with all our heart, with all our mind, and with all our strength, and to
+our neighbors as ourselves. His kingdom is a kingdom of peace; he is the
+Prince of Peace. At his birth the angels sang, "Peace on earth, and good
+will to men." Peace is opposed directly to all contention, war, and
+tumult, whether it regards individuals, societies, or nations. It
+forbids all wrath, clamor, and evil speaking. It forbids the resistance
+of evil or retaliation, and requires good for evil, blessing for
+cursing, and prayer for persecution. Our glorious Mediator not only
+exhibited a pattern of peace in his life but preached peace in the great
+congregation. His last and richest legacy to his disciples was the gift
+of peace: "My peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you: not as
+the world giveth, give I unto you." Christ came in the power of the
+Spirit, and was full of the Holy Ghost. It is the communion of the Holy
+Ghost which fills the kingdom of heaven with that joy which is
+unspeakable and full of glory. "Except a man be born of the Spirit, he
+cannot enter into the kingdom of heaven." Finally, we have his own
+express declaration, "My kingdom is not of this world."
+
+From what has been said it may be concluded that the Mediator's kingdom
+is, in a special sense, the gospel dispensation, or the kingdom of
+heaven, and that it is not of this world, but spiritual, heavenly, and
+divine. And this brings us to notice,
+
+III. The laws by which it is governed. It is governed by the same laws
+which regulate the heavenly hosts. "Be ye therefore perfect, even as
+your Father in heaven is perfect," is the command of our Divine Master.
+It is the kingdom of heaven. "Jesus said, My kingdom is not of this
+world: if my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight,
+that I should not be delivered to the Jews." The laws of the Mediator's
+kingdom require supreme love to God. Jesus said, "Thou shalt love the
+Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy
+mind; this is the first and great commandment." This implies right
+apprehension of his being and perfections, and supreme love to his word
+and delight in his law, such as the sweet singer of Israel expressed: O
+how I love thy law! it is my meditation day and night. It implies
+unlimited confidence in God and unshaken belief in the testimony he has
+given of his Son and a spirit of filial obedience to all his precepts.
+
+The laws of the Mediator's kingdom require love to man: "Thou shall love
+thy neighbour as thyself." This prohibits rendering to any man evil for
+evil; but, contrariwise, it demands blessing. It utterly forbids wrath,
+hatred, malice, envy, pride, revenge, and fighting; but requires, on the
+contrary, meekness, forgiveness, long-suffering, tenderness, compassion,
+and mercy. The subjects of the Mediator's kingdom are commanded to do
+good to all as they have opportunity; but especially to those of the
+household of faith. This command extends not only to the gentle and kind
+but to the disobedient and froward; to friends and to enemies. "If thine
+enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink," is the command of
+our Lord. This injunction, it is apprehended, is directly opposed to
+resisting the oppression of enemies by force. Jesus said, "If my kingdom
+were of this world, then would my servants fight"; but, instead of
+avenging wrongs, the explicit direction is "to overcome evil with good."
+The Mediator is the only avenger of the wrongs done to his subjects:
+"For it is written, Vengeance is mine, and I will repay, saith the
+Lord." In a special manner the subjects of the Mediator must love the
+brethren. They must visit the widow, the fatherless, and the afflicted,
+and live unspotted from the world. The Lord accepts every act of
+kindness done to the brethren as done to himself, and regards every act
+of injustice, cruelty, and revenge towards them as expressed towards
+himself. He considers them his own property, the purchase of his blood.
+He will, therefore, not only be their portion but their defense; a wall
+of fire round about them and a glory in the midst. The Mediator sits as
+King upon his holy hill of Zion, and is swaying his scepter in
+righteousness throughout his vast dominions.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Having very briefly considered what the Mediator's kingdom in a special
+manner is, its nature and its laws, we now pass, as was proposed, to
+make several inferences and illustrations.
+
+1st. If the Mediator's kingdom is in a special manner the gospel
+dispensation, and its nature and laws are not of this world, but
+spiritual, heavenly, and divine, then we may infer that the kingdoms of
+this world are not united to the kingdom of our Lord, but are opposed to
+it. If they are not for him, they are against him; and if they gather
+not with him, they scatter abroad. They must, therefore, be at war with
+the Lamb; but the Lamb shall overcome them, for he hath on his vesture
+and on his thigh a name written, King of kings and Lord of lords. The
+great conflict in our world is between the kingdom of the Mediator and
+the kingdom of Satan; but the victory is not uncertain. Although the
+"heathen rage, and the people imagine a vain thing, the kings of the
+earth set themselves, and the rulers take counsel together, against the
+Lord, and against his Anointed, saying, Let us break their bands
+asunder, and cast away their cords from us. He that sitteth in the
+heavens shall laugh: the Lord shall have them in derision. Then shall he
+speak to them in his wrath, and vex them in his sore displeasure." "Out
+of his mouth goeth a sharp sword, that with it he should smite the
+nations; and he shall rule them with a rod of iron: and he treadeth the
+winepress of the fierceness and wrath of Almighty God."
+
+The Psalmist, by the Holy Ghost, says of Christ, "Thou shalt break them
+with a rod of iron; thou shalt dash them to pieces like a potter's
+vessel." Again, "He shall cut off the spirit of princes; he is terrible
+to the kings of the earth." Isaiah, by the revealing spirit, had the
+scenes of futurity opened to his view. He saw the glorious Redeemer
+marching through the earth in the greatness of his power; for he saw, by
+prophetic vision, the great day of his wrath appear, and none but his
+redeemed were able to stand. In view of the dreadful scene his soul was
+filled with astonishment, and he exclaims: "Who is this that cometh from
+Edom, with dyed garments from Bozrah? this that is glorious in his
+apparel, travelling in the greatness of his strength? I that speak in
+righteousness, mighty to save. Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel,
+and thy garments like him that treadeth in the winefat? I have trodden
+the winepress alone; and of the people there was none with me: for I
+will tread them in my anger, and trample them in my fury; and their
+blood shall be sprinkled upon my garments. For the day of vengeance is
+in my heart, and the year of my redeemed is come. I looked, and there
+was none to help; and I wondered there was none to uphold: therefore
+mine arm brought salvation unto me; and my fury, it upheld me. And I
+will tread down the people in my anger, and make them drunk in my fury,
+and I will bring down their strength to the earth." From this it appears
+that the nations of the earth will be gathered like the grapes of a
+vineyard, and cast into the great wine press of the wrath of God
+Almighty; and the great Redeemer will thresh them in his anger and
+trample them in his fury. Their destruction must be inevitable if their
+laws and governments are directly opposed to the Mediator's kingdom.
+When he shall come out of his place to shake terribly the nations of the
+earth, then the _earth_[4] will no longer cover the blood of the slain;
+for he will make inquisition for blood, and write up the nations. Then
+he will stain the pride of all glory and bring into contempt all the
+honorable of the earth. The nations will be like stubble before the
+devouring fire, and will be chased away like chaff before the whirlwind,
+and no place will be found for them.
+
+The interpretation of the symbols of the four great empires by the
+prophet Daniel fully confirms this idea. In first describing the vision
+to Nebuchadnezzar he says: "Thou sawest till that a stone was cut out
+without hands, which smote the image upon his feet that were of iron and
+clay, and brake them to pieces. Then was the iron, the clay, the brass,
+the silver, and the gold, broken to pieces together, and became like
+the chaff of the summer threshingfloors; and the wind carried them away,
+that no place was found for them: and the stone that smote the image
+became a great mountain, and filled the whole earth." The prophet thus
+interprets the vision: "And in the days of these kings shall the God of
+heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed: and the kingdom
+shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and
+consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand for ever. Forasmuch as
+thou sawest that the stone was cut out of the mountain without hands,
+and that it brake in pieces the iron, the brass, the clay, the silver,
+and the gold; the great God hath made known to the king what shall come
+to pass hereafter."
+
+Thus we see that the kingdoms of the world by not submitting to the
+kingdom of our Lord, but by making war with the Lamb, are devoted to
+awful destruction, for the Lamb will overcome them. His kingdom will
+stand, for it is an everlasting kingdom; and of his dominion there shall
+be no end. The gospel dispensation (or the kingdom of heaven) must
+remain forever, as it is governed by the same spirit which prevails in
+the eternal fountain of blessedness himself. It is therefore
+emphatically called the kingdom of God not only in distinction from the
+kingdoms of this world but in distinction from all the other
+dispensations of the church. It is not of this world; it is the kingdom
+of heaven,--the reign of righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy
+Ghost.
+
+2. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, but spiritual,
+heavenly, and divine, and the kingdoms of this world are opposed to it,
+then we may infer that the kingdoms of this world must belong to the
+kingdom of Satan. There are but two kingdoms in our world. At the head
+of one is the Mediator, and at the head of the other is Satan. Satan is
+the god of this world and reigns without a rival in the hearts of the
+children of disobedience. He is the prince of the power of the air. All
+the kingdoms of this world and the glory of them are given to him[5]
+until the time that God shall write up the nations and make inquisition
+for blood. Then the great battle of God Almighty will be fought, and the
+beast and the false prophet will be cast into a lake of fire; and Satan
+will be bound a thousand years; and the saints will take the kingdom and
+possess it; and wars shall cease from under heaven. After the thousand
+years Satan will again be let loose, "and shall go out to deceive the
+nations which are in the four quarters of the earth, Gog and Magog, to
+gather them together to battle: the number of whom is as the sand of the
+sea." "And the devil who deceived them was cast into the lake of fire
+and brimstone, where the beast and the false prophet are, and shall be
+tormented day and night for ever and ever." Thus it appears that Satan
+is the mainspring of all warlike powers, and when he is bound wars will
+cease; but as soon as he is again let loose they will rage. The writer
+is sensible that this will be a very unpopular doctrine with the men of
+this world, and with those worldly Christians who are struggling and
+teasing and panting for the profits and the honors of this world. If it
+is a fact that the nature and laws of the Mediator's kingdom are
+diametrically opposite to the kingdoms of this world, then the inference
+is irresistible that the kingdoms of this world belong not to the
+kingdom of our Lord but to the kingdom of Satan; and however unsavory
+the truth may be, it ought not to be disguised. Satan is the strong man,
+but the Mediator is the stronger, and he will bind him and spoil his
+goods. The Son of God was manifested that he might destroy the works of
+the devil. When he shall destroy the rage of the nations and the tumult
+of the people, then Satan's goods will be spoiled. When Satan is cast
+into the bottomless pit, tumult and war will retire with him back to
+hell; and instead of the blast of the trumpet and the groans of the
+dying will be heard the shouts of the saints and the songs of the
+redeemed. Then will be "heard as it were the voice of a great multitude,
+and as the voice of many waters, and as the voice of mighty thunderings,
+saying, Alleluia, for the Lord God Omnipotent reigneth."
+
+3. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, and the kingdoms of
+this world are under Satan's dominion, then we may infer the great
+impropriety of the subjects of the Mediator's kingdom using the weapons
+of this world and engaging in tumults, wars, and fightings. "Jesus
+answered, My kingdom is not of this world: if my kingdom were of this
+world, then would my servants fight, that I should not be delivered to
+the Jews." The Jews expected in their Messiah a temporal prince; but
+because his kingdom was not of this world they crucified the Lord of
+life and glory. Had he only appeared in the pomp of this world and in
+the splendor of a temporal conqueror to vanquish the Romans who were in
+possession of their earthly Canaan and oppressing their nation, they
+would immediately have rallied round his standard and followed him to
+earthly conquest and glory. He was apparently too inattentive to their
+rights and liberties (which the patriots of this world now emphatically
+call their dearest interests). They said, "If we let him alone, all men
+will believe on him; and the Romans shall take away both our place and
+our nation." It may be asked, Why were the Jews apprehensive, if all men
+should believe on him, the Romans would take away both their place and
+their nation? The answer does not appear difficult. They doubtless
+perceived that both his life and precepts directly opposed rendering
+vengeance to their enemies; and, on the contrary, demanded nothing less
+than love to their enemies, good for evil, and blessing for cursing.
+This they could not endure, as it directly opposed their carnal desires
+and filled them with malice against the Prince of Peace. They might,
+with much greater propriety than any nation under the gospel light, have
+said, "Shall we imbibe this pusillanimous spirit of doing good to those
+who oppress us and tamely bend our necks to the yoke of tyranny and
+suffer our dearest interests to be wrested from us without once making a
+struggle to defend them? Rather, let us arise and fight manfully, and
+defend our liberties or die gloriously in their vindication." We say
+they might, with much greater propriety, have made these declarations
+than any under the light of the gospel, because they considered
+themselves under the Mosaic dispensation which had fully tolerated them
+not only in defensive but offensive war. But when they perceived that
+the doctrines of the Mediator were calculated to disannul their
+dispensation and extinguish their carnal hopes (notwithstanding his
+credentials were divine), their malice was kindled against him, and
+their vengeance was not satiated until they wreaked their hands in the
+blood of the Son of God. And we may confidently expect that wherever the
+same Spirit of Christ lifts up a standard against the same carnal policy
+and temporal interest there will follow the same spirit of envy,
+persecution, and revenge which was manifested against the Lord of life
+and glory. If any man (no matter who) will live godly in Christ Jesus,
+he shall suffer persecution. The Spirit of Christ is the same now that
+it was then, and the world is the same, the carnal heart is the same,
+and the great adversary of souls is the same. Only let it be styled
+"patriotic" to persecute the followers of the Lamb of God, and we should
+soon see the heroes of this world drunk with the blood of the martyrs of
+Jesus; and probably many would be as conscientious as Paul was while
+breathing out threatenings and slaughter against the disciples of the
+meek and lowly Jesus. It is not impossible that when the witnesses[6]
+are slain, their crime may be a refusal to use carnal weapons in
+defense of their country.
+
+As it is a matter of great practical consequence to know whether the
+subjects of the Prince of Peace are authorized in any case under the
+gospel dispensation to use carnal weapons or not, we propose in this
+inference to be a little more particular. Although it is supposed that
+the Lord Jesus Christ acted in a threefold capacity,--as God, Man, and
+Mediator,--yet we have never heard it questioned by Christians that all
+his conduct as man was to remain a perfect example for his brethren, and
+all his precepts a perfect rule for their duty. As his kingdom was not
+of this world, he did not intermeddle with the governments of this
+world; he only submitted to all their laws which were not contrary to
+the laws of his heavenly Father. He was meek and lowly; so little did he
+possess of this world that he had not where to lay his head. He went
+about continually doing good. He was full of compassion even to his
+enemies. He wept over Jerusalem. He was finally "brought as a lamb to
+the slaughter, and as sheep before their shearers are dumb, so he opened
+not his mouth." When he was reviled he reviled not again, but committed
+himself to him who judges righteously. He prayed for his murderers and
+apologized for his persecutors, saying, "Father, forgive them, for they
+know not what they do." As the church under a former dispensation had
+divine authority for engaging in war, it is important to ascertain
+whether this authority was abrogated under the gospel dispensation or
+not.[7] That many things have been tolerated under one dispensation of
+the church and prohibited under another, most Christians allow. That the
+preceptive will of God is to be our only rule of duty, few Christians
+deny. The knowledge communicated to us of the preceptive will of God to
+his church, under the first dispensation, is very limited. We find,
+however, no authority for taking the life of man in any case, not even
+for murder; but, on the contrary, a sevenfold vengeance was pronounced
+upon him who should slay the murderer. Under the patriarchal
+dispensation he that shed man's blood by man was his blood to be shed.
+In this, defensive war was tolerated. Under the Mosaic dispensation, not
+only defensive but offensive war was tolerated, and not only _war_ was
+permitted, but _retaliation_, as, "an eye for an eye"; "a tooth for a
+tooth"; "life for life," etc.
+
+The question to be decided is whether these regulations are still in
+force, or whether they were disannulled by the gospel dispensation. The
+life and precepts of our Lord and his disciples while under the unerring
+guidance of his spirit must be our only authority in this inquiry. That
+many things were done away by the gospel dispensation, none will deny
+who believe the gospel. The ceremonial part, which was only a shadow of
+good things to come, vanished away when the substance appeared; and not
+only the ceremonial part was abolished, but many other practices.
+Polygamy was permitted under the law, but forbidden under the gospel.
+Divorce was allowed under the Mosaic but prohibited under the gospel
+dispensation, except in the case of adultery. Under the Mosaic
+dispensation the penalty for whoredom was stoning to death. This penalty
+was not enforced under the gospel dispensation, as may be seen in John
+viii. 11. That all kinds of war, revenge, and fighting were utterly
+prohibited under the gospel dispensation we think appears evident not
+only from the life of our glorious Mediator but from his express
+precepts. "Jesus answered, My kingdom is not of this world: if my
+kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight, that I should
+not be delivered to the Jews." No comment can add force to this passage,
+for it is apprehended that no language can be more explicit against
+defensive war.
+
+In Christ's Sermon on the Mount he quoted a passage from Exodus, "Ye
+have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a
+tooth: but I say unto you, That _ye resist not evil_: but whatsoever
+shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also." The
+force of this passage has generally been obviated by saying that we are
+not to take all the words of our Lord literally. Although this is
+admitted, yet we are absolutely bound to take the spirit of every word,
+if we can understand them, by comparing the Scriptures with the
+Scriptures. That the spirit of this passage is directly opposed to the
+one our Lord quoted from Exodus, we think cannot fairly be denied; and,
+of course, it disannulled it, for he who had power to make laws under
+one dispensation had power to abrogate them under another.
+
+The blessed Mediator did, in the most explicit manner, command his
+subjects to love their enemies and render good for evil. This command we
+are of opinion is totally incompatible with resisting them with carnal
+weapons. He says, "But I say unto you which hear, Love your enemies, do
+good to them which hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use
+you." Let us for one moment compare this precept with defensive war and
+see if it can consistently be put into practice. Suppose our country is
+invaded and a professed disciple of the Prince of Peace buckles on the
+harness and takes the field to repel by the point of the sword his
+enemy. He advances amidst the lamentations of the wounded and the
+shrieks of the dying to meet his foe in arms. He sees his wrath kindled
+and his spear uplifted, and in this trying moment he hears his Lord say,
+"Love your enemy and render to him good for evil"; and his kindness to
+him is like Joab's to Amasa; he thrusts him through the heart and
+hurries him to the awful tribunal of his Judge, probably unprepared.
+Dear brethren, be not deceived; for God is not mocked. Who amongst our
+fellow-men would receive the thrust of a sword as an act of kindness?
+Only let conscience do its office, and there will be no difficulty in
+deciding whether defensive war is inconsistent with the gospel
+dispensation or not. Carnal and spiritual weapons will no more unite
+under the gospel dispensation than iron and miry clay.
+
+Our very salvation depends on being possessed of a spirit of forgiveness
+to enemies. "If ye forgive not men their trespasses, neither will your
+Father forgive your trespasses." If men invade our rights and trespass
+upon our privileges, is it forgiveness to repel them at the point of the
+bayonet? The honest Christian will find no difficulty in conscientiously
+deciding this question, notwithstanding he may be slow of heart in
+believing all that is written.
+
+All the conduct of our Lord had meaning to it, and much of it was with
+an express view to teach his disciples by way of example. A little
+before he was betrayed, he ordered his disciples to take swords. The
+object of this must have been either to use them for defense, or for
+some other purpose. The event proves that they were not taken for
+self-defense. The question then is, For what were they taken? The event
+appears fully to answer the question, viz.: To prohibit, by way of
+example, the use of them for self-defense in the most trying situation
+possible. If any situation would justify self-defense with carnal
+weapons, it must have been the situation in which our Lord and his
+disciples were placed at the time he was betrayed. They were in a public
+garden, and they were assaulted by a mob, contrary to the statutes of
+the Romans and the laws of the Jews; and the object was to take his
+life. This the disciples knew, and Peter judged it a proper time for
+defense, and drew his sword and smote a servant of the High Priest and
+cut off his ear. As our Lord's kingdom was not of this world, he would
+not suffer his subjects to use the weapons of this world in any
+situation. He therefore healed the wound they made and rebuked Peter for
+his mistaken zeal. "Then said Jesus unto him, Put up again thy sword
+into his place: for all they that take the sword shall perish with the
+sword. Thinkest thou that I cannot pray to my Father, and he would
+presently send me more than twelve legions of angels?" Here we see that
+our Lord not only forbade his disciples to use the sword in self-defense,
+but added a dreadful penalty to transgressors,--"all they that take the
+sword shall perish with the sword." The disciples did not then fully
+understand that his kingdom was not of this world. As soon as they were
+prohibited using the weapons of this world they all forsook him and
+fled.[8]
+
+The apostle James, in his epistle to the twelve tribes of Israel which
+were scattered abroad, asks them this question: "From whence come wars
+and fighting among you? come they not even of your lusts that war in
+your members? Ye lust, and have not: ye kill, and desire to have, and
+cannot obtain: ye fight and war, and yet ye have not." "Ye adulterers
+and adulteresses, know ye not that the friendship of the world is enmity
+with God? whosoever therefore will be a friend to the world is an enemy
+of God." From this we think it evidently appears that the warlike spirit
+of the world is directly opposed to God. The God of this world works
+effectually in the hearts of the children of disobedience and stirs up
+their lusts which war in their members and hurries them on to acts of
+cruelty, revenge, and fighting.
+
+This subject is of so much practical consequence that it requires a few
+observations in reply to some of the arguments of worldly and
+unenlightened Christians in favor of using carnal weapons. It is said
+that government is an ordinance of God which exists throughout his vast
+dominion. In heaven above there are angels and archangels; and upon
+earth there are magistrates and powers; and in hell there is the prince
+of devils. That God in his holy providence has so disposed of events
+that governments of some kind or other do exist in all parts of his
+dominion, none but skeptics will deny. But who would pretend that the
+governments in heaven and hell are not diametrically opposite? One is
+the spirit of peace and love, and the other, rebellion and war. Perhaps
+the manifestation of these different spirits here on earth may fairly be
+the dividing line amongst its inhabitants, and show to which kingdom
+they belong. They say all powers are ordained of God. Thus far they are
+correct, but it is apprehended that they do not make a proper
+distinction between the ordination of God and his preceptive will for
+man. So far as the former agrees with the latter, it is a rule of duty
+and cannot be any further. One is the rule of God's own procedure (if
+the expression is proper), and the other the rule of action for his
+creatures; but the counsel of God and his laws for man are often
+diametrically opposite. It is not improbable that this is part of the
+mystery of God which will, by and by, be finished.
+
+The Lord Jesus Christ was delivered by the determinate counsel and
+foreknowledge of God; and yet, by wicked hands, he was crucified and
+slain. Here, as in the case of Pharaoh, and many other instances
+recorded, the divine counsel and the duty of man were directly opposite.
+To ascertain our duty we must look at the preceptive will of God and not
+to his eternal counsel. Although all powers are ordained of God, yet it
+must not be inferred that all the laws of the heathen or civilized world
+are to be a rule of duty for the Mediator's subjects, or that their
+spirit is agreeable to the spirit of the gospel dispensation. It is
+said, We are commanded to obey magistrates and every ordinance of man
+for the Lord's sake. All this is admitted. But these injunctions are
+either limited by other precepts or they are unlimited. If they are
+unlimited, then all who have died martyrs fell a sacrifice to
+superstition instead of duty. Notwithstanding these directions were
+intended as a rule for Christians in all ages, yet they were promulgated
+while the disciples were under idolatrous governments, and were never
+intended to encourage them to worship idols.
+
+These commands must, therefore, be limited. The question is, How are
+they limited? We apprehend, by the spirit and other precepts of the
+gospel. We have already shown, we trust, that these absolutely prohibit
+war in every form. If so, then none of these injunctions can counteract
+the position we are examining. They only enjoin strict obedience to all
+human laws under which we live that do not contradict the spirit or
+precepts of the gospel; when they do, they are not binding and must be
+resisted; not, however, with carnal but spiritual weapons; we must take
+joyfully the spoiling of our goods and count not our lives dear unto
+ourselves.
+
+It has been often said that he who refuses to comply with the commands
+of the magistrate resists the powers that be, and, according to the
+apostle's reasoning, resists the ordinance of God and will receive to
+himself damnation. And, further, as all powers are the ordinance of God
+they ought to be supported, and if they cannot without, they must be
+even at the point of, the sword. Here the subject of the Mediator must
+make a distinction between resisting the "powers that be" by force of
+arms and refusing to obey their unlawful commands. It is not supposed
+that in one case he would obey and that in the other he would disobey
+the commands of his Master. No martyr ever considered himself as
+violating this precept in refusing to sacrifice to an idol at the
+command of an earthly power; neither will any subject of the Mediator
+view himself as violating it by refusing to use carnal weapons while he
+believes that his Lord has utterly forbidden his using them. It is
+apprehended that if this proves anything upon the principles of war,
+that it will prove too much for its advocates. The command is to obey
+the powers that be and not the powers that ought to be. If it is taken
+in an unlimited sense, it must prohibit resisting even tyrannical
+powers, and would, of course, condemn every Christian who engaged in the
+American Revolution. To say that all power is in the hands of the
+people, and, of course, it is the people who are the powers that be, is
+thought to be but a quibble. We will suppose a very possible case,--that
+a foreign power completely overturns the government of the people and
+disannuls their laws and gives a new code; in that case, the command to
+obey the powers that be would not be annihilated. The precept originally
+was given while the disciples were in the midst of tyrannical
+governments. It is thought that it is so far from tolerating defensive
+war that it is opposed to it. The precepts of the gospel cannot be
+dependent upon the convulsions of the nations. If Christians are bound
+to aid with carnal weapons in suppressing a rebellion, then, if the
+opposing power gains the predominance, they must turn directly about and
+fight the very power they were before supporting. Such conduct would not
+become the citizens of Zion. If it is said the powers that be are
+Christian rulers, then we say, let them govern only by the laws of the
+Mediator's kingdom, and we will bow with reverence before them, and not
+teach for commandments the doctrines of men, as we cannot receive human
+laws for divine precepts.
+
+It is stated that our Lord paid tribute, and that we are commanded to
+pay tribute to whom tribute is due, and that tribute supports the
+governments of this world. This is granted; but the Mediator's subjects
+are required also to lead peaceable and quiet lives; this is more
+promoted by paying tribute than by the refusal. Our Lord directs Peter
+to pay the tribute lest they should give offense. But paying tribute for
+the sake of preserving peace is a very different thing from actually
+engaging in war.
+
+Whenever the Christian is called upon to pay money by way of taxes or
+tribute, he does not part with any spiritual treasure, but only earthly
+property, for which he has the example and precepts of the Lord. The
+currency of the world generally bears the ensign of the nation which
+made it. If it bears the image and superscription of Caesar, then "render
+to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things which are
+God's." Christians, however, whose hearts are upon this idol, will
+sooner give up their lives than their God. "The love of money is the
+root of all evil." The real Christian's treasure is in heaven and beyond
+the reach of the powers of earth or hell. The things of this world are
+but privileges loaned him, to be resigned at the call of his Lord. Shall
+he then fear those who can only kill the body and afterwards have no
+more that they can do? Rather, let him fear him who has power to destroy
+both soul and body in hell forever. It is better for him to suffer wrong
+than to do wrong.
+
+The permission granted to the Jewish church to wage war has often been
+pleaded as authority for Christians. If this proves anything, it proves
+too much, for not only defensive but offensive war was permitted under
+the Mosaic dispensation. This the tyrants of the world have not
+generally contended was right since the gospel dispensation. We think,
+however, that we have fully shown that this was abrogated under the
+gospel dispensation, and that all kinds of war were prohibited; if so,
+it has no weight on the subject.[9]
+
+It has been said that Christians with a small exception have never
+questioned the propriety of defensive war. As it regards nominal
+Christians, this statement is perhaps correct, but as it respects the
+real disciples of the Mediator, it is to be questioned. We hear of no
+Christians in the first ages of the church engaged in carnal warfare
+until we hear of great corruptions in the church. Most Protestants have
+been of opinion that those precious disciples who inhabited the dark
+valleys of Piedmont during the great corruptions of the nominal church
+were the Redeemer's true subjects. These disciples, of whom the world
+was not worthy, utterly refused to engage even in defensive war,
+notwithstanding they were hunted down by their bloody persecutors.[10]
+
+It has been often said that the Reformers, who were good men, did not
+hesitate to engage in defensive war, and that the Reformation was
+finally supported by the sword. That the Reformers were generally pious
+men is readily admitted, and that the Reformation, under divine
+providence, was a glorious event to the church is also granted. But the
+history of the Reformers, when written by their friends, abundantly
+manifests that they were men, subject to like passions with other men,
+and that all the means they employed could not be justified, either by
+the spirit or the precepts of the gospel.
+
+Henry the Eighth was a vile man, but he was very active in protesting
+against the Pope because his holiness would not grant him a divorce. God
+makes the wrath of man praise him. It will not probably be a great
+length of time (in the opinion of the writer) before those churches
+which were defended with the sword will be destroyed by the sword.
+
+It has been further urged that not only the Reformers but most pious
+Protestants have prayed for the prosperity of the arms of their country,
+and many have actually fought in the field of battle. All this is
+likewise admitted. But many pious men have had a mistaken zeal. It is
+fully believed that Protestants, generally, have been in the habit of
+considering the Reformation so glorious an event that they have very
+little inquired whether the means by which it was finally defended were
+agreeable to the spirit of the gospel or not. They have been taught from
+their earliest years to consider that the weapons of warfare used by the
+Reformers were lawful, so that they have not hesitated to follow their
+example. That the example and prayers of pious people ought to have
+weight is readily granted, but to place a blind confidence in them, we
+apprehend, is criminal, for their example is to be imitated no further
+than it agrees with the spirit and precepts of the gospel. These must
+forever remain a perfect standard of duty; whereas the practice of real
+Christians, owing to their imperfect state, is constantly changing and
+often contradictory. During the American Revolution, doubtless, real
+Christians were praying and fighting for the success of the American
+arms, and real Christians in the British service were praying and
+fighting for the success of his Majesty's arms. The truth is, they ought
+not to pray for war in any shape, but to pray that wars may cease from
+under heaven, and that God's kingdom may come and his will be done on
+earth as it is done in heaven; and not only to pray, but endeavor to
+advance the kingdom of heaven and put a stop to wars and bloodshed. The
+opinions of pious people often vary with the increase of light which
+shines upon the church. One century ago most pious people believed in
+the propriety of the slave trade, but very few can now be found to
+advocate the abominable practice. The nature of the crime has not
+changed, nor the evidence against it, but the truth is, that the opinion
+of pious people has materially changed upon this subject. We ought
+always to remember that the example of pious people is to be of no
+weight any further than it agrees with the example of our Lord. It is
+always unsafe to be looking too much to the fallible example of those
+whom we have esteemed pious for a rule of duty, while we have the
+unerring word in our hands to light our way; when any one is depending
+upon the example of Christians not under the immediate influence of
+divine inspiration for evidence to support his hypothesis, it is strong
+presumptive evidence that he has not the word of God in his favor. By
+the word of God and by that _only_ ought every controversy to be tried.
+
+It is further urged that we are commanded to pray for kings and all in
+authority; it is true we must pray not only for kings but all men, even
+enemies. This, however, does by no means imply that we are commanded to
+pray for a blessing upon their unhallowed undertakings; but it only
+implies that we must pray that they may be translated out of nature's
+darkness into the light of the gospel, and from the power of Satan unto
+the living God.
+
+The great difficulty with the subjects of the Mediator ever has been,
+and still is, a want of faith in the promises of God. They are prone to
+be afraid of consequences. They look nearly as much at consequences as
+the children of Israel did while journeying from Egypt to Canaan. The
+truth is, they ought to have nothing to do with consequences, but only
+duties. "Thus saith the Lord," should be their warrant and only guide.
+If they implicitly follow the command, consequences are all safe in
+God's hand. Had Abraham looked only at consequences, it is not probable
+he would ever have been styled the Father of the Faithful. It is not
+uncommon for timid and worldly Christians to be alarmed at consequences
+and to argue in this manner: they say, "Shall we stand still and suffer
+an assassin to enter our houses and take our lives and property without
+ever attempting to resist him?" All this must go upon the supposition
+that he who has said he will never leave nor forsake his people, and is
+a very present help in every time of need, will take no care of them. No
+assassin could stand a moment before the prayer of faith which would
+enter the heavens and reach the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. If
+faithless Christians cannot be persuaded to look at the precepts and the
+promises, but only at consequences, they ought, at least, to examine
+them well. Suppose God, in his holy providence, should permit an
+assassin to take the life of one of his dear children; the consequence
+would be, he would immediately be translated to glory; and possibly the
+assassin might become a penitent; but should he take the life of the
+assassin in defending himself, the consequence then would be, he would
+hurry him into the abyss of the damned where his probation would be
+eternally ended. He who puts his trust in the Lord shall not fear what
+man can do to him; he will be like Mount Zion which cannot be moved.
+
+Remember, dear brethren, that the weapons of our warfare are not carnal
+but spiritual, and mighty through God. "Finally, my brethren, be strong
+in the Lord, and in the power of his might. Put on the whole armour of
+God, that ye may be able to stand against the wiles of the devil. For we
+wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against
+powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against
+spiritual wickedness in high places. Wherefore take unto you the whole
+armour of God (here is the equipment of a soldier of Jesus Christ), that
+ye may be able to withstand in an evil day, and having done all, to
+stand. Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth, and
+having on the breastplate of righteousness; and your feet shod with the
+preparation of the gospel of peace; above all, taking the shield of
+faith, wherewith ye shall be able to quench all the fiery darts of the
+wicked. And take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit,
+which is the word of God: praying always with all prayer and
+supplication in the Spirit, and watching thereunto with all perseverance
+and supplication for all saints." And the very God of peace shall be
+with you, and he will shortly bruise Satan under your feet. For yet a
+little while and the Almighty angel will come down with a great chain in
+his hand; and he will lay hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which is
+the devil and Satan, and will bind him a thousand years, and cast him
+into the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that
+he shall deceive the nations no more until the thousand years are
+fulfilled. Then wars will cease from under heaven and the implements of
+death will be converted into the harmless utensils of husbandry, and
+there will be nothing to hurt nor destroy in all God's holy mountain.
+The stone which was cut out of the mountain without hands will become a
+great mountain and fill the whole earth. Then will be heard "a loud
+voice saying in heaven, Now is come salvation, and strength, and the
+kingdom of God, and the power of his Christ: for the accuser of our
+brethren is cast down, which accused them before God day and night. And
+they overcame him by the blood of the Lamb, and by the word of their
+testimony; and they loved not their lives unto the death. Therefore
+rejoice, ye heavens, and ye that dwell in them."
+
+It is, however, very important, dear brethren, that we keep it
+constantly in mind that the nature and precepts of the gospel are the
+same now as they will be then, in that glorious reign of righteousness
+and peace, and that it is our duty constantly to be influenced by the
+same spirit now which will then be manifested by the followers of the
+Lamb. The little leaven is of the same nature with whole lump when it is
+leavened. Let us therefore gird up the loins of our mind and watch unto
+prayer.
+
+4. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, but spiritual,
+heavenly, and divine, and if the kingdoms of this world are under the
+dominion of Satan, and if the subjects of Christ's kingdom are not
+permitted to use carnal weapons, then we may infer who is the "great
+whore that sitteth upon many waters; with whom the kings of the earth
+have committed fornication, and the inhabitants of the earth have been
+made drunk with the wine of her fornication." A virgin or chaste woman
+is a familiar symbol in the Scriptures of the true church of God; and an
+unchaste woman is as familiar a symbol of an apostate or corrupt church.
+As a lewd woman calls herself by the name of her husband, notwithstanding
+she has constant intercourse with other men, so the corrupt church calls
+herself by the name of Christ, notwithstanding she has constant illicit
+intercourse with the kings of the earth.[11] To understand the true nature
+of spiritual whoredom will assist us in ascertaining the bounds of
+mystical Babylon.
+
+The children of Israel were separated from all the nations of the earth
+and set apart to be holy unto the Lord. As they were in covenant with
+the God of Israel, he addressed them in the endearing character of a
+husband. Whenever they made any covenant or formed a confederacy with
+the nations around them, or imitated their idolatrous abominations, they
+were charged with spiritual whoredom. The church, under the gospel
+dispensation, is redeemed from amongst men out of every nation, and
+sanctified and set apart to be a peculiar people to show forth the
+praises of God. It is styled the Bride, the Lamb's wife. Its members are
+not to be conformed to this world but to be transformed by the renewing
+of the Spirit. They do not belong to any earthly kingdom, for our Lord
+has said, "They are not of the world, even as I am not of the world";
+but they are citizens of the heavenly Zion and belong to the household
+of God; they are members of the same community, with the innumerable
+company of angels and the spirits of just men made perfect; and are to
+be governed by the very same spirit and temper which reigns amongst
+those blessed inhabitants above. God is an overflowing and unbounded
+ocean of blessedness and love; love is therefore the fulfilling of the
+law.
+
+Whenever the subjects of the Redeemer unite themselves to the kingdoms
+of this world, and engage in their political contentions and fightings,
+then it appears they commit spiritual whoredom, for they forsake the
+fountain of living waters and hew out to themselves cisterns,--broken
+cisterns, which can hold no water. When they thus mingle with the world
+and unite in its pursuits they may spiritually be styled adulterers.
+
+The apostle James, while reproving the twelve tribes, which were
+scattered abroad, for their wars and fightings and friendship to the
+world, styles them adulterers and adulteresses. In direct opposition to
+this representation, the first fruits of the church are styled virgins,
+as not being defiled with women. "These are they which were not defiled
+with women; for they are virgins. These are they which follow the Lamb
+whithersoever he goeth. These were redeemed from amongst men, being the
+firstfruits unto God and the Lamb. And in their mouth was found no
+guile: for they are without fault before the throne of God." As virgins
+are pure and undefiled, so were the disciples of Christ in the first age
+of the church when they had no impure intercourse with the kingdoms of
+this world and followed the Lamb in refusing to engage either in its
+profits, honors, or fightings. They are, therefore, called virgins,
+without fault, in opposition to those who mingle with the world, who are
+spiritually styled harlots.
+
+It evidently appears, if what has been said is true, that mystical
+Babylon, that mother of harlots and abominations of the earth, is just
+as extensive as the union of the church with the kingdoms of this world;
+and just in that proportion in which an individual Christian, or a
+single church, or a number of churches united in one body, engage in the
+honors, profits, and fightings of the kingdoms of this world, just in
+that proportion they may be said to be guilty of spiritual whoredom.
+
+The writer is well aware that this inference, however just, will be
+looked upon with contempt by worldly political Christians whose dearest
+interest is involved in the kingdoms of this world, and especially by
+those who are clothed in purple and scarlet and have a golden cup in
+their hands. He has no expectation of being candidly heard by such, but
+it is God's own dear children who have ignorantly mingled with the
+world, having been blinded by their education, from whom he expects a
+candid hearing. "If any man have ears to hear, let him hear."
+
+It is not common for a lewd woman openly to avow to the world her
+character; neither can it be expected that the mother of harlots will
+own her name. The writer is of opinion that very few have understood the
+full dimensions of this mystical city; she appears to him in her
+greatest extent to be bounded but little short of the whole visible
+church of God. She is styled "the _great City_, which spiritually is
+called Sodom and Egypt, where also our Lord was crucified." "And in her
+was found the blood of prophets and saints and of all that were slain
+upon the earth." But a dreadful judgment awaits her: "She shall utterly
+be burnt with fire: for strong is the Lord God who judges her." Being
+mingled with the nations and supported by their power, when they become
+like stubble before the devouring fire, she will be consumed with them.
+The whore is represented as riding upon a scarlet-colored beast, and
+upheld by him.[12]
+
+When he, with all his heads, are cast into the lake of fire, she will
+likewise be given to the burning flame. But before this great and
+dreadful day of the Lord shall come, which will burn as an oven, when
+the whore shall be consumed with the nations of the earth, God will call
+to his people to come out of her, saying unto them, "Come out of her, my
+people, that ye be not partakers of her sins, and that ye receive not of
+her plagues." As God's ancient people were carried captives into literal
+Babylon, so God's dear people will be found captives in mystical
+Babylon, until they hear the command of their Lord to come out of her
+that they be not partakers of her sins and that they receive not of her
+plagues. The captive daughters of Zion are very numerous. O that they
+may soon arise and shake themselves from the dust! "Shake thyself from
+the dust; arise, and sit down, O Jerusalem: loose thyself from the bands
+of thy neck, O captive daughter of Zion."
+
+5. If the Mediator's kingdom is not of this world, and the kingdoms of
+this world are under the dominion of Satan, and if Christ's subjects
+cannot unite themselves to the kingdoms of this world, without
+committing spiritual whoredom, then we may infer the great impropriety
+of the subjects of the Mediator's kingdom becoming political Christians
+and enrolling themselves with the men of this world. They cannot serve
+two masters: for they will either hate the one, and love the other; or
+else they will hold to the one, and despise the other.
+
+How humiliating is it to see subjects of the King of Zion engaged in the
+drudgery of the prince of darkness, laboring and struggling to support
+his tottering throne! Satan's kingdom is divided against itself and
+must, therefore, come to an end. But how lamentable is it to see the
+sons of the living God, the subjects of the Prince of Peace, taking
+sides in the cause of the adversary of souls, and actually opposing and
+fighting each other under his banner! They do it ignorantly and will,
+therefore, obtain forgiveness, for they know not what manner of spirit
+they are of. They are commanded to have no fellowship with the
+unfruitful works of darkness, but rather reprove them.
+
+Before our Lord departed from this world to go to the Father, he gave
+laws to his subjects for their rule of life until his second coming. All
+these laws contemplated their residing as a holy nation in the midst of
+a wicked and benighted world, to reflect the rays of the Sun of
+righteousness on the thick darkness which covers the people. They were
+to be a city set upon a hill and a light to the world. The apostle
+exhorts them to "do all things without murmurings and disputings: that
+ye may be blameless and harmless, the sons of God, without rebuke, in
+the midst of a crooked and perverse nation, among whom ye shine as
+lights in the world." They must be a peculiar people to show forth the
+praises of God. How inconsistent is it, then, for the citizens of the
+heavenly Zion to be mingling with the politicians of this world and
+uniting in their processions, feasts, and cabals, when they ought rather
+to be praying for them, that the very sins they commit in these scenes
+may be forgiven them! Dear brethren, is it not high time to come out
+from the world and be separated? "Be ye not unequally yoked together
+with unbelievers: for what fellowship hath righteousness with
+unrighteousness? and what communion hath light with darkness? and what
+concord hath Christ with Belial?" "Wherefore come out from among them,
+and be ye separate, saith the Lord, and touch not the unclean thing; and
+I will receive you, and will be a Father to you, and ye shall be my sons
+and daughters, saith the Lord Almighty."
+
+6. In view of what has been said, we finally infer that every interest
+which is not built upon the sure foundation stone which God has laid in
+Zion will be swept away when the storms of divine wrath shall beat upon
+our guilty world. "For, behold, the day cometh, that shall burn as an
+oven; and all the proud, yea, and all that do wickedly, shall be
+stubble: and the day that cometh shall burn them up, saith the Lord of
+hosts, that it shall leave them neither root nor branch." "For the day
+of the Lord of hosts shall be upon every one that is proud and lofty,
+and upon every one that is lifted up; and he shall be brought low." "The
+lofty looks of man shall be humbled, and the haughtiness of men shall be
+bowed down; and the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day." "The Lord
+at thy right hand shall strike through kings in the day of his wrath. He
+shall judge among the heathen, he shall fill the places with their dead
+bodies; he shall wound the head over many countries." "For, behold, the
+Lord will come with fire, and with his chariots like a whirlwind, to
+render his anger with fury, and his rebuke with flames of fire. For by
+fire and by his sword will the Lord plead with all flesh: and the slain
+of the Lord shall be many." "For the indignation of the Lord is upon all
+nations, and his fury upon all their armies: he hath utterly destroyed
+them, he hath delivered them to the slaughter. Their slain shall be cast
+out, and their stink shall come up out of their carcasses, and the
+mountains shall be melted with blood." "For this is the day of the Lord
+God of hosts, a day of vengeance, that he may avenge him of his
+adversaries: and the sword shall devour, and it shall be satiate and be
+made drunk with their blood." The nations must drink of the wine of the
+wrath of God, which shall be poured out without mixture, into the cup of
+his indignation; and they will be trodden in the great wine press of the
+wrath of God Almighty. And the great whore which has drunk the blood of
+the saints and the blood of the martyrs of Jesus will have blood to
+drink; for she is worthy.
+
+The sword of the Lord has two edges; it will cut off the offending limbs
+of the church and destroy her enemies. The fire of the Lord will purify
+his saints but utterly burn up the wicked. He "whose fan is in his hand
+will thoroughly purge his floor, and gather his wheat into the garner;
+but he will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire." Although the
+earth is thus to be desolated, and the nations destroyed, yet the saints
+of the Most High shall "possess the kingdom for ever and ever." "And the
+kingdom and dominion, and the greatness of the kingdom under the whole
+heaven, shall be given to the people of the saints of the Most High,
+whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions shall serve
+and obey him."
+
+Dear brethren, these events are rapidly rolling in the fiery wheels down
+the descent of time; and although the nations must first drink the vials
+of divine wrath and the battle of God Almighty must first be fought, yet
+the time is at hand when we shall no more hear the sound of war, and of
+garments rolled in blood, for man will cease to be the enemy of man, and
+every one will sit quietly under his own vine and under his own fig
+tree; and there will be nothing to hurt or destroy in all God's holy
+mountain, and the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth as the
+waters cover the channels of the mighty deep.
+
+Dear brethren, is it not "high time to awake out of sleep: for now is
+our salvation nearer than when we believed. The night is far spent, the
+day is at hand: let us therefore cast off the works of darkness, and let
+us put on the armour of light." And let us pray with all prayer and
+supplication in the Spirit for all men, not only for ourselves, our
+families, and our friends, and the church of God, but for a dying world,
+that God would in infinite compassion cut short these days of dreadful
+calamity for his elect's sake; and in the midst of deserved wrath
+remember mercy.
+
+"He that hath ears to hear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the
+churches; To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life,
+which is in the midst of the paradise of God."
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The earth, in symbolical language, is supposed by the writer to
+denote civilized nations, in distinction from uncivilized, which are
+symbolized by the agitated sea. Civilized nations will no longer cover
+the blood of the slain, under the specious idea of defending their
+rights and liberties.
+
+[5] If the kingdoms of this world do not belong to Satan, then it was no
+temptation to our Lord when he offered them to him. It is expressly said
+that he was "tempted of Satan."
+
+[6] The writer has for a length of time been of opinion that no event
+has ever yet happened to the church which answers to slaying the
+witnesses. It has been given as a reason by some that the witnesses have
+been slain, that so much light has been diffused since the art of
+printing was discovered, and since the Reformation, that no reason can
+ever again be found sufficiently plausible to satisfy the consciences of
+mankind in again taking the lives of their fellow-men in matters of
+conscience. If our country was invaded and a law should be passed that
+every man capable of bearing arms should equip himself for its defense,
+on penalty of being considered as an enemy and to be publicly executed
+accordingly in case of refusal for conscience' sake, there would not
+probably be wanting patriots sufficient to execute the laws; if they
+could not be found in our land of liberty, they might be found amongst
+the tyrants of the Old World.
+
+[7] If the permission given to the church under the Mosaic dispensation
+to engage in war has not been disannulled by the gospel dispensation
+(which is by no means granted), it is thought that it does not admit of
+the consequences which are generally drawn. The Israelites were God's
+covenant people and were utterly prohibited from making any covenant
+with the nations around them, or engaging with them in their wars. It
+must therefore be totally improper for God's covenant people now to
+unite with those who are strangers to the covenant of promise, and
+engage with them in their tumult and fightings. It is presumed that no
+one who has ever read our Constitution will pretend that the American
+nation has, in the Scriptural sense, made a covenant with God. If the
+analogy holds good in one point, it must in another; and in that case
+there is no alternative left for God's covenant people but either to
+withdraw from those who are not in covenant with God, or adopt a
+national religion which must be defended by the weapons of the nation.
+It is believed that those who will not admit that the permission granted
+to the Israelites to engage in war was abrogated by the gospel
+dispensation can never fully answer the arguments in favor of a national
+religion.
+
+[8] Four things are noticeable from this history. _First_, That the
+subjects of the Mediator's kingdom have no right to use carnal weapons
+for defense, in the most trying situation possible. _Secondly_, The
+promulgation of a decree of heaven; that all they (whether states,
+churches, or kingdoms) who take the sword shall perish with the sword.
+Every political or ecclesiastical body which is defended with the sword
+will by the sword be destroyed. In confirmation of this sentiment, we
+see while the great destroying powers were represented to St. John in
+the symbols of ferocious beasts, it was added, "If any man have an ear
+to hear, let him hear. He that leadeth into captivity shall go into
+captivity: he that killeth with the sword must be killed with the
+sword"; but in opposition to this it is said, "Here is the faith and the
+patience of the saints." We would inquire how the faith and the patience
+of the saints appear, if they, like the nations of the earth, lead into
+captivity and kill with the sword? _Thirdly_, The weapon which the
+subjects of the Redeemer are to use for defense is here brought into
+view, viz., Prayer. Nothing which appears prevented our Lord from using
+this weapon when he was betrayed, but the necessity of the Scriptures
+being fulfilled. Had he prayed to his Father, more than twelve legions
+of ministering spirits would have appeared swift as lightning to
+discharge his will. At the time he shall come in all the glory of his
+Father the holy angels will be with him. He will break through the
+heavens in flaming fire and descend with the shout of the Archangel and
+the trump of God, and cleave asunder the earth beneath; and send forth
+his angels who will awake the sleeping millions from their tombs and
+gather together his elect and take them up into the air to be ever with
+their Lord. _Fourthly_, We may expect that angels will be sent to
+deliver the saints in the times of trouble. Angels are ministering
+spirits and are sent forth to minister to those who shall be the heirs
+of salvation. What a consolation it is that the subjects of the Mediator
+can apply for help in times of trouble to him who has the hosts of
+heaven at his command; and who has said he will never leave nor forsake
+them! The angel of the Lord encampeth round about them who fear him, to
+deliver them out of all their trouble. If God be for them, who can be
+against them?
+
+[9] Although it is not expected that any intelligent and candid
+Christian will attempt to say that the arguments which have been
+advanced may fairly apply to offensive but not to defensive war, yet
+some weak and unenlightened Christians may make the assertion. In answer
+to such we would observe that this would be begging the question and
+taking for granted the very subject in dispute. We cannot be satisfied
+with anything short of a candid answer, drawn directly from the spirit
+and precepts of the gospel. When it is fairly proved that under the
+gospel dispensation our Lord did draw a clear line of distinction
+between offensive and defensive war, and that he intended all such
+precepts as have been adduced to apply to the former and not to the
+latter, then we will acknowledge the weight of the argument. Until this
+is done we shall not consider our arguments as answered.
+
+[10] The writer perceives that he has made too unlimited a statement
+respecting the disciples who inhabited the valleys of Piedmont.
+Historians have generally considered those who dissented from the church
+of Rome during the dark ages as possessing similar sentiments. It is
+true they did agree in renouncing the authority of the Pope, but in
+other things they did not all agree. Some courted the protection of
+earthly powers and united with them in defending their rights by the
+point of the sword, and were finally destroyed by the sword. Others,
+instead of defending themselves with carnal weapons, fled from the face
+of the serpent and were, under divine providence, the seed of the church
+in the wilderness. It is the latter class to which the writer would be
+understood as referring.
+
+[11] As the writer has been for some time studying the symbolical
+language of the Scriptures, and intends (if the Lord will, unless some
+person more able should attempt an explanation) to give his views to the
+public, he will not be so particular at present in explaining the symbol
+of the great whore which sitteth upon many waters, as he otherwise
+should. He early perceived that the heavens and the earth, with all
+their furniture, were used as an alphabet, in the language of things, to
+represent moral subjects. His object has been to learn the true meaning
+of each symbol by comparing Scripture with Scripture. No language can be
+read until the alphabet is first learned. Symbolical language does not,
+like other languages, change with time and place, but represents the
+same idea to all nations and at all times. He is of opinion that one
+symbol does not represent two events, unless it first have a reference
+to some less event which is typical of some more important event; in
+that case, all together may be figurative of some great ultimate end.
+Although one symbol is supposed never to represent two different things,
+yet two or more symbols generally represent one thing. He has found by
+tracing back a symbol to its first use, that its true meaning is
+generally manifest. Since examining the Scriptures with this view he has
+been irresistibly drawn into the conclusions now exhibited.
+
+[12] The writer is fully of opinion that a ferocious beast is never used
+as a symbol of a corrupt church, but of a tyrannical warlike power. He
+has been for some time of opinion that the second Apocalyptic beast is
+rising, and that he will possess all the power of the first beast before
+him, and that under him the false prophet will appear; and the witnesses
+will be slain; and upon his kingdom the six first vials of his divine
+wrath will be principally poured out; and the seventh will be poured
+upon Satan's kingdom universally, as he is the prince of the power of
+the air.
+
+
+
+
+  Transcriber's Notes
+
+  The section in the table of contents entitled, "Because, instead of
+    preventing, it provokes insult and mischief," does not exactly match
+    the title of the corresponding section found within the text. This
+    has been retained.
+  Pg 116. The word 'Antipolemos' was changed to 'Antipolemus.'
+  Pg 120. The word 'righteousnesss' was changed to 'righteousness.'
+  Pg 142. A question mark was changed to a period in the following
+    sentence, "The question to be decided is whether these regulations
+    are still in force, or whether they were disannulled by the gospel
+    dispensation."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of War Inconsistent with the Religion of
+Jesus Christ, by David Low Dodge
+
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