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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oxford and Her Colleges, by Goldwin Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oxford and Her Colleges
+
+Author: Goldwin Smith
+
+Release Date: October 31, 2011 [EBook #37893]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: RADCLIFFE LIBRARY.]
+
+
+
+
+  OXFORD
+  AND HER COLLEGES
+
+  A View from the Radcliffe Library
+
+  BY
+  GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L.
+
+  AUTHOR OF "THE UNITED STATES: AN OUTLINE OF
+  POLITICAL HISTORY," ETC.
+
+  WITH ILLUSTRATIONS REPRODUCED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
+
+  New York
+  MACMILLAN AND CO.
+  AND LONDON
+  1895
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1893,
+  BY MACMILLAN AND CO.
+
+  Norwood Press:
+  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith.
+  Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The writer has seldom enjoyed himself more than in showing an American
+friend over Oxford. He has felt something of the same enjoyment in
+preparing, with the hope of interesting some American visitors, this
+outline of the history of the University and her Colleges. He would
+gladly believe that Oxford and Cambridge, having now, by emancipation
+and reform, been reunited to the nation, may also be reunited to the
+race; and that to them, not less than to the Universities of Germany,
+the eyes of Americans desirous of studying at a European as well as at
+an American University may henceforth be turned.
+
+It was once the writer's duty, in the service of a Royal Commission of
+Inquiry, to make himself well acquainted with the archives of the
+University and its Colleges. But he has also availed himself of a number
+of recent publications, such as the series of the Oxford Historical
+Society, the history of the University by Mr. Maxwell Lyte, and the
+volume on the Colleges of Oxford and their traditions, edited by Mr.
+Andrew Clark, as well as of the excellent little Guide published by
+Messrs. James Parker and Co.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES.
+
+
+To gain a view of Oxford from a central point, we mount to the top of
+the Radcliffe Library. We will hope that it is a fine summer day, that,
+as we come out upon the roof, the old city, with all its academical
+buildings lying among their gardens and groves, presents itself to view
+in its beauty, and that the sound of its bells, awakening the memories
+of the ages, is in the air. The city is seen lying on the spit of gravel
+between the Isis, as the Thames is here called, which is the scene of
+boat races, and the Cherwell, famed for water-lilies. It is doubtful
+whether the name means the ford of the oxen, or the ford of the river
+(_oxen_ being a corruption of _ousen_). Flat, sometimes flooded, is the
+site. To ancient founders of cities, a river for water carriage and rich
+meads for kine were prime attractions. But beyond the flat we look to a
+lovely country, rolling and sylvan, from many points of which, Wytham,
+Hinksey, Bagley, Headington, Elsfield, Stowe Wood, are charming views,
+nearer or more distant, of the city. Turner's view is taken from Bagley,
+but it is rather a Turner poem than a simple picture of Oxford.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is in Oxford much that is not as old as it looks. The buildings of
+the Bodleian Library, University College, Oriel, Exeter, and some
+others, mediæval or half mediæval in their style, are Stuart in date. In
+Oxford the Middle Ages lingered long. Yon cupola of Christ Church is the
+work of Wren, yon towers of All Souls' are the work of a still later
+hand. The Headington stone, quickly growing black and crumbling, gives
+the buildings a false hue of antiquity. An American visitor, misled by
+the blackness of University College, remarked to his host that the
+buildings must be immensely old. "No," replied his host, "their colour
+deceives you; their age is not more than two hundred years." It need
+not be said that Palladian edifices like Queen's, or the new buildings
+of Magdalen, are not the work of a Chaplain of Edward III., or a
+Chancellor of Henry VI. But of the University buildings, St. Mary's
+Church and the Divinity School, of the College buildings, the old
+quadrangles of Merton, New College, Magdalen, Brasenose, and detached
+pieces not a few are genuine Gothic of the Founders' age. Here are six
+centuries, if you choose to include the Norman castle, here are eight
+centuries, and, if you choose to include certain Saxon remnants in
+Christ Church Cathedral, here are ten centuries, chronicled in stone. Of
+the corporate lives of these Colleges, the threads have run unbroken
+through all the changes and revolutions, political, religious, and
+social, between the Barons' War and the present hour. The economist goes
+to their muniment rooms for the record of domestic management and
+expenditure during those ages. Till yesterday, the codes of statutes
+embodying their domestic law, though largely obsolete, remained
+unchanged. Nowhere else in England, at all events, unless it be at the
+sister University, can the eye and mind feed upon so much antiquity,
+certainly not upon so much antique beauty, as on the spot where we
+stand. That all does not belong to the same remote antiquity, adds to
+the interest and to the charm. This great home of learning, with its
+many architectures, has been handed from generation to generation, each
+generation making its own improvements, impressing its own tastes,
+embodying its own tendencies, down to the present hour. It is like a
+great family mansion, which owner after owner has enlarged or improved
+to meet his own needs or tastes, and which, thus chronicling successive
+phases of social and domestic life, is wanting in uniformity but not in
+living interest or beauty.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Oxford is a federation of Colleges. It had been strictly so for two
+centuries, and every student had been required to be a member of a
+College when, in 1856, non-collegiate students, of whom there are now a
+good many, were admitted. The University is the federal government. The
+Chancellor, its nominal head, is a non-resident grandee, usually a
+political leader whom the University delights to honour and whose
+protection it desires. Only on great state occasions does he appear in
+his gown richly embroidered with gold. The acting chief is the
+Vice-Chancellor, one of the heads of Colleges, who marches with the
+Bedel carrying the mace before him, and has been sometimes taken by
+strangers for the attendant of the Bedel. With him are the two Proctors,
+denoted by their velvet sleeves, named by the Colleges in turn, the
+guardians of University discipline. The University Legislature consists
+of three houses,--an elective Council, made up equally of heads of
+Colleges, professors, and Masters of Arts; the Congregation of
+residents, mostly teachers of the University or Colleges; and the
+Convocation, which consists of all Masters of Arts, resident or
+non-resident, if they are present to vote. Congregation numbers four
+hundred, Convocation nearly six thousand. Legislation is initiated by
+the Council, and has to make its way through Convocation and
+Congregation, with some chance of being wrecked between the academical
+Congregation, which is progressive, and the rural Convocation, which is
+conservative. The University regulates the general studies, holds all
+the examinations, except that at entrance, which is held by the
+Colleges, confers all the degrees and honours, and furnishes the police
+of the academical city. Its professors form the general and superior
+staff of teachers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Each College, at the same time, is a little polity in itself. It has its
+own governing body, consisting of a Head (President, Master, Principal,
+Provost, or Warden) and a body of Fellows. It holds its own estates;
+noble estates, some of them are. It has its private staff of teachers or
+tutors, usually taken from the Fellows, though the subjects of teaching
+are those recognised by the University examinations. The relation
+between the tutors teaching and that of the professor is rather
+unsettled and debatable, varying in some measure with the subjects,
+since physical science can be taught only in the professor's
+lecture-room, while classics and mathematics can be taught in the
+class-room of the tutor. Before 1856 the professorial system of teaching
+had long lain in abeyance, and the tutorial system had prevailed alone.
+Each College administers its domestic discipline. The University
+Proctor, if he chases a student to the College gates, must there halt
+and apply to the College for extradition. To the College the student
+immediately belongs; it is responsible for his character and habits. The
+personal relations between him and his tutor are, or ought to be, close.
+Oxford life hitherto has been a College life. To his College the Oxford
+man has mainly looked back. Here his early friendships have been formed.
+In these societies the ruling class of England, the lay professions and
+landed gentry mingling with the clergy, has been bred. It is to the
+College, generally, that benefactions and bequests are given; with the
+College that the rich and munificent _alumnus_ desires to unite his
+name; in the College Hall that he hopes his portrait will hang, to be
+seen with grateful eyes. The University, however, shares the attachment
+of the _alumnus_. Go to yonder river on an evening of the College boat
+races, or to yonder cricket ground when a College match is being played,
+and you will see the strength of College feeling. At a University race
+or match in London the Oxford or Cambridge sentiment appears. In an
+American University there is nothing like the College bond, unless it be
+that of the Secret, or, to speak more reasonably, the Greek Letter
+societies, which form inner social circles with a sentiment of their
+own.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The buildings of the University lie mainly in the centre of the city
+close around us. There is the Convocation House, the hall of the
+University Legislature, where, in times of collision between theological
+parties, or between the party of the ancient system of education and
+that of the modern system, lively debates have been heard. In it, also,
+are conferred the ordinary degrees. They are still conferred in the
+religious form of words, handed down from the Middle Ages, the candidate
+kneeling down before the Vice-Chancellor in the posture of mediæval
+homage. Oxford is the classic ground of old forms and ceremonies. Before
+each degree is conferred, the Proctors march up and down the House to
+give any objector to the degree--an unsatisfied creditor, for
+example--the opportunity of entering a _caveat_ by "plucking" the
+Proctor's sleeve. Adjoining the Convocation House is the Divinity
+School, the only building of the University, saving St. Mary's Church,
+which dates from the Middle Ages. A very beautiful relic of the Middle
+Ages it is when seen from the gardens of Exeter College. Here are held
+the examinations for degrees in theology, styled, in the Oxford of old,
+queen of the sciences, and long their tyrant. Here, again, is the
+Sheldonian Theatre, the gift of Archbishop Sheldon, a Primate of the
+Restoration period, and as readers of Pepys's "Diary" know, of
+Restoration character, but a patron of learning. University
+exercises used, during the Middle Ages, to be performed in St. Mary's
+Church. In those days the church was the public building for all
+purposes, that of a theatre among the rest. But the Anglican was more
+scrupulous in his use of the sacred edifice than the Roman Catholic. In
+the Sheldonian Theatre is held the annual commemoration of Founders and
+benefactors, the grand academical festival, at which the Doctorate
+appears in its pomp of scarlet, filing in to the sound of the organ, the
+prize poems and essays are read, and the honorary degrees are conferred
+in the presence of a gala crowd of visitors drawn by the summer beauty
+of Oxford and the pleasures that close the studious year. In former
+days the ceremony used to be enlivened and sometimes disgraced by the
+jests of the _terræ filius_, a licensed or tolerated buffoon whose
+personalities provoked the indignation of Evelyn, and in one case, at
+least, were visited with expulsion. It is now enlivened, and, as
+visitors think, sometimes disgraced, by the uproarious joking of the
+undergraduates' gallery. This modern license the authorities of the
+University are believed to have brought on themselves by encouraging
+political demonstrations. The Sheldonian Theatre is also the scene of
+grand receptions, and of the inauguration of the Chancellor. That
+flaunting portrait of George IV. in  his royal robes, by Lawrence,
+with the military portraits of the Emperor of Russia and the King of
+Prussia by which it is flanked and its gorgeousness is rebuked, mark the
+triumphs of the monarchs, whose cause had become that of European
+independence, over Napoleon. Perhaps the most singular ceremony
+witnessed by these walls was the inauguration of the Iron Duke as
+Chancellor of the University. This was the climax of Oxford devotion to
+the Tory party, and such was the gathering as to cause it to be said
+that if the roof of the Sheldonian Theatre had then fallen in, the party
+would have been extinguished. The Duke, as if to mark the incongruity,
+put on his academical cap with the wrong side in front, and in reading
+his Latin speech, lapsed into a thundering false quantity.
+
+[Illustration: DIVINITY SCHOOL, FROM EXETER GARDENS.]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF SHELDONIAN THEATRE.]
+
+The Clarendon was built with the proceeds of the history written by the
+Minister of the early Restoration, who was Chancellor of the University,
+and whose touching letter of farewell to her, on his fall and flight
+from England, may be seen in the Bodleian Library. There, also, are
+preserved documents which may help to explain his fall. They are the
+written dialogues which passed between him and his master at the board
+of the Privy Council, and they show that Clarendon, having been the
+political tutor of Charles the exile, too much bore himself as the
+political tutor of Charles the king. In the Clarendon are the University
+Council Chamber and the Registry. Once it was the University press, but
+the press has now a far larger mansion yonder to the north-west, whence,
+besides works of learning and science, go forth Bibles and prayer-books
+in all languages to all quarters of the globe. Legally, as a printer of
+Bibles the University has a privilege, but its real privilege is that
+which it secures for itself by the most scrupulous accuracy and by
+infinitesimal profits.
+
+[Illustration: THE BODLEIAN.]
+
+Close by is the University Library, the Bodleian, one of those great
+libraries of the world in which you can ring up at a few minutes' notice
+almost any author of any age or country. This Library is one of those
+entitled by law to a copy of every book printed in the United Kingdom,
+and it is bound to preserve all that it receives, a duty which might in
+the end burst any building, were it not that the paper of many modern
+books is happily perishable. A foundation was laid for a University
+Library in the days of Henry VI., by the good Duke Humphrey of
+Gloucester, who gave a collection of books. But in the rough times which
+followed, the Duke's donation perished, only two or three precious
+relics being saved from the wreck. Sir Thomas Bodley, a wealthy knight
+and diplomatist of the time of James I., it was who reared this pile,
+severely square and  bare, though a skilful variation of the string
+course in the different stories somewhat relieves its heaviness. In the
+antique reading-room, breathing study, and not overthronged with
+readers, the bookworm finds a paradise. Over the Library is the
+University Gallery, the visitor to which is entreated to avert his eyes
+from the fictitious portraits of founders of early Colleges, and to fix
+them, if he will, on the royal portraits which painfully attest the
+loyalty of the University, or, as a relief from these, on Guy Fawkes's
+lantern. Beneath the Library used to be the Schools or examination-rooms
+of the University, scenes of youthful hopes and fears; perhaps, as the
+aspirants to honours were a minority, of more fears than hopes; and at
+those doors formerly gathered the eager crowd of candidates and their
+friends to read the class lists which were posted there. But the
+examination system has outgrown its ancient tenement and migrated to
+yonder new-built pile in High Street, more fitted, perhaps, by its
+elaborate ornamentation for the gala and the dance, than for the torture
+of undergraduates. In the quadrangle of the Bodleian sits aloft, on the
+face of a tower displaying all the orders of classical architecture, the
+learned King and royal theologian. The Bible held in his hand is
+believed to have fallen down on the day that Mr. Gladstone lost his
+election as Member for the University of Oxford and set forth on a
+career of liberalism which has since led him to the disestablishment of
+the Church. We stand on the Radcliffe, formerly the medical and physical
+library, now a supplement and an additional reading-room of the
+Bodleian, the gift of Dr. Radcliffe, Court Physician and despot of the
+profession in the times of William and Anne, of whose rough sayings, and
+sayings more than rough, some are preserved in his "Life." He it was who
+told William III. that he would not have His Majesty's two legs for his
+three kingdoms, and who is said to have punished the giver of a
+niggardly fee by a prediction of death, which was fulfilled by the
+terrors of the patient. Close at hand is the Ashmolean, the old
+University Museum, now only a museum of antiquities, the most precious
+of which is King Alfred's gem. Museum and Medical Library have together
+migrated to the new edifice on the north side of the city.
+
+But of all the University buildings the most beautiful is St. Mary's
+Church, where the University sermons are preached, and from the pulpit
+of which, in the course of successive generations and successive
+controversies, a changeful and often heady current of theology has
+flowed. There preached Newman, Pusey, and Manning; there preached
+Hampden, Stanley, and the authors of "Essays and Reviews."
+
+[Illustration: THE HIGH STREET.
+
+  University College.
+  St. Mary's Church.
+  Queen's College.]
+
+Oxford and Cambridge were not at first Universities of Colleges. The
+Colleges were after-growths which for a time absorbed the University.
+The University of Oxford was born in the twelfth century, fully a
+century before the foundation of the first College. To recall the Oxford
+of the thirteenth century, one must bid vanish all the buildings which
+now meet our eyes, except yonder grim castle to the west of the city,
+and the stern tower of St. Michael's Church, at once the bell tower of
+the Church and a defence of the city gate facing the dangerous north.
+The man-at-arms from the castle, the warder from the gate, looks down
+upon a city of five or six thousand inhabitants, huddled for protection
+under the castle, and within those walls of which a fine remnant is seen
+bounding the domain of New College. In this city there is a concourse of
+students brought together to hear a body of teachers who have been led,
+we know not how, to open their mart of knowledge here. Printing not
+having been invented, and books being scarce, the fountain of knowledge
+is the lecture-room of the professor. It is the age of an intellectual
+revival so remarkable as to be called the Mediæval Renaissance. After
+the migrations and convulsions, by which the world was cast in a new
+mould, ensues a reign of comparative peace and settled government, under
+which the desire of knowledge has been reawakened. Universities have
+been coming out all over Europe like stars in the night; Paris, famous
+for theology and philosophy, perhaps being the brightest of the
+constellation, while Bologna was famed for law and Salerno for medicine.
+It was probably in the reign of Henry I. that the company of teachers
+settled at Oxford, and before the end of the thirteenth century students
+had collected to a number which fable exaggerates to thirty thousand,
+but which was really large enough to crowd the little city and even the
+bastions of its walls. A light had shone on youths who sat in the shadow
+of feudal servitude. There is no more romantic period in the history of
+human intellect than the thirteenth century.
+
+The teachers, after the fashion of that age, formed themselves into a
+guild, which guarded its monopoly. The undergraduate was the apprentice;
+the degree was a license to teach, and carried with it the duty of
+teaching, though in time it became a literary title, unconnected with
+teaching, and coveted for its own sake. The University obtained a
+charter, elected its Chancellor, formed its academical Legislature of
+graduates, obtained jurisdiction over its own members. In time it
+marshalled its teachers and students into regular Faculties of theology,
+law, and medicine, with arts, or general and liberal culture, if the
+name can be applied to anything so rudimentary as the literature and
+science of that day, forming the basis of all. At first the professors
+taught where they could; in the cloisters, perhaps, of St. Frydeswide's
+monastery, subsequently absorbed by Christ Church; in the porches of
+houses. A row of lecture-rooms, called the Schools, was afterwards
+provided in School Street, which ran north and south just under the
+Radcliffe. So little anchored was the University by buildings, that when
+maltreated at Oxford it was ready to pack up its literary wares and
+migrate to another city such as Northampton or Stamford. Many of the
+undergraduates at first were mere boys, to whom the University was a
+grammar school. For the real University students the dominant study was
+that of the School philosophy, logical and philosophical, with its
+strange metaphysical jargon; an immense attempt to extract knowledge
+from consciousness by syllogistic reasoning, instead of gathering it
+from observation, experience, and research, mocking by its barrenness of
+fruit the faith of the enthusiastic student, yet training the mind to
+preternatural acuteness, and perhaps forming a necessary stage in the
+mental education of the race. The great instrument of high education was
+disputation, often repeated, and conducted with the most elaborate forms
+in the tournaments of the Schools, which might beget readiness of wit
+and promptness of elocution, but could hardly beget habits of calm
+investigation or paramount love of truth. The great event in the
+academical life was Inception, when the student performed exercises
+which inaugurated his teachership; and this was commonly celebrated by a
+feast, the expenditure on which the University was called upon to
+restrain. Oxford produced some of the greatest schoolmen: Duns Scotus,
+the "subtle," who had written thirteen folio volumes of arid metaphysics
+before his early death; Bradwardine, the "profound," and Ockham, the
+"invincible and unmatched." The idol was Aristotle, viewed mainly as
+the metaphysician, and imperfectly understood through translations. To
+reconcile Aristotelian speculation with orthodox theology was a hard
+task, not always successfully performed. Theology was, of course, first
+in dignity of the Faculties, but the most lucrative was the civil and
+canon law practised in the ecclesiastical courts and, as Roman, misliked
+by the patriotic Parliament. Philosophy complained that it had to trudge
+afoot while the liegemen of Justinian rode high in the car of
+preferment. Of physical science the hour was not yet come, but before
+its hour came its wonderful and almost miraculous precursor, Roger
+Bacon, who anticipated the invention of gunpowder and the telescope,
+and whose fabled study stood over Folly Bridge, till, with Carfax's
+monument and Cranmer's prison, it was cleared away by an improving city
+corporation. Roger Bacon was, of course, taken for a dealer in black
+arts; an astrologer and an alchemist he was, and at the same time an
+illustrious example of the service indirectly rendered by astrology and
+alchemy in luring to an investigation of nature which led to real
+discoveries, just as Columbus, seeking a western passage to the golden
+cities of the East, discovered America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All the Universities belonged not to one nation but to Latin
+Christendom, the educated population of which circulated among them. At
+one time there was a migration to Oxford from the University of Paris,
+which had got into trouble with the government. Of all the Universities
+alike, ecclesiastical Latin was the language. The scholars all ranked
+with the clerical order, so that at Oxford, scholar and clerk, townsman
+and layman, were convertible terms. In those days all intellectual
+callings, and even the higher mechanical arts, were clerical. The
+student was exempted by his tonsure from lay jurisdiction. The Papacy
+anxiously claimed the Universities as parts of its realm, and only
+degrees granted by the Pope's authority were current throughout
+Christendom. When, with Edward III., came the long war between England
+and France, and when the confederation of Latin Christendom was
+beginning to break up, the English Universities grew more national.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Incorporated with the buildings of Worcester College are some curious
+little tenements once occupied by a colony from different Benedictine
+Monasteries. These, with the Church of St. Frydeswide, now Christ Church
+Cathedral, and the small remains of Osney Abbey, are about the only
+relics of monastic Oxford which survived the Reformation. But in the
+Middle Ages there were Houses for novices of the great Orders,
+Benedictines, Cistercians, Carmelites, Augustinians, and most notable
+and powerful of all, the two great mendicant Orders of Dominicans and
+Franciscans. The Mendicants, who came into the country angels of
+humility as well as of asceticism, begging their bread, and staining the
+ground with the blood from their shoeless feet, soon changed their
+character, and began in the interest of Holy Church to grasp power and
+amass wealth. The Franciscans especially, like the Jesuits of an after
+day, strove to master the centres of intellectual influence. They strove
+to put the laws of the University under their feet. Struggles between
+them and the seculars, with appeals to the Crown, were the consequence.
+Attraction of callow youth to an angelic life seems to have been
+characteristic of the Brethren of St. Francis, and it is conjectured
+that in this way Bacon became a monk. Faintly patronised by a liberal
+and lettered Pope, he was arraigned for necromancy by his Order, and
+ended his days in gloom, if not in a monastic prison. The Church of the
+Middle Ages with one hand helped to open the door of knowledge, with the
+other she sought to close it. At last she sought to close it with both
+hands, and in her cruel panic established the Inquisition.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Tory in its later days, the University was liberal in its prime. It took
+the part of the Barons and De Montfort against Henry III., and a corps
+of its students fought against the King under their own banner at
+Northampton. Instead of being the stronghold of reaction, it was the
+focus of active, even of turbulent aspiration, and the saying ran, that
+when there was fighting at Oxford there was war in England. Oxford's
+hero in the thirteenth century was its Chancellor, Grosseteste, the
+friend of De Montfort and the great reformer of his day, "of prelates
+the rebuker, of monks the corrector, of scholars the instructor, of the
+people the preacher, of the incontinent the chastiser, of writings the
+industrious investigator, of the Romans the hammer and contemner." If
+Grosseteste patronised the Friars, it was in their first estate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+At first the students lodged as "Chamberdekyns" with citizens, but that
+system proving dangerous to order, they were gathered into hostels, or,
+to use the more dignified name, Halls (_aulæ_) under a Principal, or
+Master of the University, who boarded and governed them. Of these Halls
+there were a great number, with their several names and signs. Till
+lately a few of them remained, though these had lost their original
+character, and become merely small Colleges, without any foundation
+except a Principal. The students in those days were mostly poor. Their
+indigence was almost taken for granted. Some of them begged; chests were
+provided by the charitable for loans to them. A poor student's life was
+hard; if he was earnest in study, heroic. He shared a room with three or
+four chums, he slept under a rug, his fare was coarse and scanty, his
+garment was the gown which has now become merely an academical symbol,
+and thankful he was to be provided with a new one. He had no fire in his
+room, no glass in his window. As his exercises in the University Schools
+began at five in the morning, it is not likely that he read much at
+night, otherwise he would have to read by the light of a feeble lamp
+flickering with the wind. His manuscript was painful to read. The city
+was filthy, the water polluted with sewage; pestilence often swept
+through the crowded hive.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mediæval students were a rough set; not less rough than enthusiastic;
+rougher than the students of the Quartier Latin or Heidelberg, their
+nearest counterparts in recent times. They wore arms, or kept them in
+their chambers, and they needed them not only in going to and from the
+University over roads beset with robbers, but in conflicts with the
+townspeople, with whom the University was at war. With the townspeople
+the students had desperate affrays, ancient precursors of the
+comparatively mild town and gown rows of this century. The defiant horns
+of the town were answered by the bells of the University. Arrows flew;
+blood was shed on both sides; Halls were stormed and defended; till
+Royalty from Abingdon or Woodstock interfered with its men-at-arms,
+seconded by the Bishop with bell, book, and candle. A Papal Legate, an
+Italian on whom national feeling looks with jealousy, comes to Oxford.
+Scholars crowd to see him. There is a quarrel between them and his
+train. His cook flings a cauldron of boiling broth over an Irish
+student. The scholars fly to arms. The Legate is ignominiously chased
+from Oxford. Excommunications, royal thunders, and penitential
+performances follow. Jews settle in Oxford, ply their trade among the
+scholars, and form a quarter with invidiously wealthy mansions. There is
+a royal edict, forbidding them to exact more than forty-three per cent
+interest from the student. Wealth makes them insolent; they assault a
+religious procession, and with them also the students have affrays.
+Provincial feeling is strong, for the students are divided into two
+nations, the Northern and the Southern, which are always wrangling, and
+sometimes fight pitched battles with bows and arrows. The two Proctors,
+now the heads of University police, were appointed as tribunes of the
+two nations to settle elections and other matters between them without
+battle. Amusements as well as everything else were rude. Football and
+other rough games were played at Beaumont, a piece of ground to the
+north of the city; but there was nothing like that cricket field in the
+parks, nor like the sensation now created by the appearance of a
+renowned cricketer in his paddings before an admiring crowd, to display
+the fruit of his many years of assiduous practice in guarding his
+stumps. The Crown and local lords had to complain of a good deal of
+poaching in Bagley, Woodstock, Shotover, and Stowe Wood.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To this Oxford, with its crowd of youth thirsting for knowledge, its
+turbulence, its vice, its danger from monkish encroachment, came Walter
+de Merton, one of the same historic group as Grosseteste and
+Grosseteste's friend, Adam de Marisco, the man of the hour, with the
+right device  in his mind. Merton had been Chancellor of Henry III.
+amidst the political storms of the time, from which he would gladly turn
+aside to a work of peaceful improvement. It was thus that violence in
+those ages paid with its left hand a tribute to civilisation. Merton's
+foundation is the first College, though University and Balliol come
+before it in the Calendar in deference to the priority of the
+benefactions out of which those Colleges grew. Yonder noble chapel in
+the Decorated style, with its tower and the old quadrangle beneath it,
+called, nobody knows why, Mob Quad, are the cradle of College life.
+Merton's plan was an academical brotherhood, which combined monastic
+order, discipline, and piety with the pursuit of knowledge. No monk or
+friar was ever to be admitted to his House. The members of the House are
+called in his statutes by the common name of Scholars, that of Fellows
+(_Socii_), which afterwards prevailed here and in all the other
+Colleges, denoting their union as an academical household. They were to
+live like monks in common; they were to take their meals together in the
+Refectory, and to study together in the common library, which may still
+be seen, dark and austere, with the chain by which a precious volume was
+attached to the desk. They had not a common dormitory, but they must
+have slept two or three in a room. Probably they were confined to their
+quadrangle, except when they were attending the Schools of the
+University, or allowed to leave it only with a companion as a safeguard.
+They were to elect their own Warden, and fill up by election vacancies
+in their own number. The Warden whom they had elected, they were to
+obey. They were to watch over each other's lives, and hold annual
+scrutinies into conduct. The Archbishop of Canterbury was to visit the
+College and see that the rule was kept. But the rule was moral and
+academical, not cloistral or ascetic. The mediæval round of religious
+services was to be duly performed, and prayers were to be said for the
+Founder's soul. But the main object was not prayer, contemplation, or
+masses for souls; it was study. Monks were permanently devoted to their
+Order, shut up for life in their monastery, and secluded from the world.
+The Scholars of Merton were destined to serve the world, into which they
+were to go forth when they had completed the course of preparation in
+their College. They were destined to serve the world as their Founder
+had served it. In fact, we find Wardens and Fellows of Merton employed
+by the State and the Church in important missions. A Scholar of Merton,
+though he was to obey the College authorities, took no monastic vow of
+obedience. He took no monastic vow of poverty; on the contrary, it was
+anticipated that he would gain wealth, of which he was exhorted to
+bestow a portion on his College. He took no monastic vow of celibacy,
+though, as one of the clerical order, he would of course not be
+permitted to marry. He was clerical as all Scholars in those days were
+clerical, not in the modern and professional sense of the term. The
+allowances of the Fellow were only his Commons, or food, and his Livery,
+or raiment, and there were to be as many Fellows as the estate could
+provide with these. Instruction was received not in College, but in the
+Schools of the University, to which the Scholars of Merton, like the
+other Scholars, were to resort. A sort of grammar school, for boys of
+the Founder's kin, was attached to the College. But otherwise the work
+of the College was study, not tuition, nor did the statutes contemplate
+the admission of any members except those on the foundation.
+
+[Illustration: MERTON COLLEGE, FROM FIELDS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Merton's plan, meeting the need of the hour, found acceptance. His
+College became the pattern for others both at Oxford and Cambridge.
+University, Balliol, Exeter, Oriel, and Queen's were modelled after it,
+and monastic Orders seem to have taken the hint in founding Houses for
+their novices at Oxford. University College grew out of the benefaction
+of William of Durham, an ecclesiastic who had studied at Paris, and
+left the University a sum of money for the maintenance of students of
+divinity. The University lodged them in a Hall styled the Great Hall of
+the University, which is still the proper corporate name of the College.
+In after days, this Hall, having grown into a College, wished to slip
+its neck out of the visitorial yoke of the University, and on the
+strength of its being the oldest foundation at Oxford, claimed as
+founder Alfred, to whom the foundation of the University was ascribed by
+fable, asserting that as a royal foundation it was under the visitorship
+of the Crown. Courts of law recognised the claim; a Hanoverian court of
+law probably recognised it with pleasure, as transferring power from a
+Tory University to the King; and thus was consecrated a fiction in
+palliation of which it can only be said, that the earliest of our
+literary houses may not improperly be dedicated to the restorer of
+English learning. Oriel was founded by a court Almoner, Adam de Brome,
+who displayed his courtliness by allowing his Scholars to speak French
+as well as Latin. Queen's was founded by a court Chaplain, Robert
+Egglesfield, and dedicated to the honour of his royal mistress, Queen
+Philippa. It was for a Provost and twelve Fellows who were to represent
+the number of Christ and his disciples, to sit at a table as Egglesfield
+had seen in a picture the Thirteen sitting at the Last Supper, though
+in crimson robes. Egglesfield's building has been swept away to make
+room for the Palladian palace on its site. But his name is kept in mind
+by the quaint custom of giving, on his day, a needle (_aiguille_) to
+each member of the foundation, with the injunction, Take that and be
+thrifty. Yonder stone _eagles_ too on the building recall it. Exeter
+College was the work of a political Bishop who met his death in a London
+insurrection.
+
+As the fashion of founding Colleges grew, that of founding Monasteries
+decreased, and the more as the mediæval faith declined, and the great
+change drew near. That change was heralded by the appearance of
+Wycliffe, a genuine off-spring of the University, for while he was the
+great religious reformer, he was also the great scholastic philosopher
+of his day. To what College or Hall his name and fame belong is a moot
+point among antiquaries. We would fain imagine him in his meditations
+pacing the old Mob Quadrangle of Merton. His teaching took strong and
+long hold of the University. His reforming company of "poor priests"
+drew with it the spiritual aspiration and energy of Oxford youth. But if
+his movement has left any traces in the shape of foundations, it is in
+the shape of foundations produced by the reaction against it, and
+destined for its overthrow.
+
+[Illustration: NEW COLLEGE, CLOISTERS AND TOWER.]
+
+[Illustration: NEW COLLEGE CHAPEL.]
+
+Yonder rises the bell tower of New College over a famous group of
+buildings, with ample quadrangle, rich religious chapel, a noble Hall
+and range of tranquil cloisters, defaced only by the addition of a
+modern upper story to the quadrangle and Vandalic adaptation of the
+upper windows to modern convenience. This pile was the work of William
+of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, a typical character of the Middle
+Ages, prelate, statesman, and court architect in one, who negotiated the
+peace of Bretigny and built Windsor Castle. The eye of the great
+architect as well as of the pious Founder must have ranged with delight
+over his fair creation. It is likely that New College, as a foundation
+highly religious in its character, was intended to counteract Wycliffism
+as well as to replenish the clergy which had been decimated by the Black
+Death. Wykeham was a reformer in his way, and one of the party headed by
+the Black Prince which strove to correct the abuses of the court in the
+dark decline of Edward III. But he was a conservative, religious after
+the orthodox fashion, and devoted to the worship of the Virgin, to whom
+his College was dedicated, after whom it was named, and whose image
+surmounts its gate. The College of St. Mary of Winton his foundation was
+entitled. In its day it might well be called New College. New it was in
+its scale, having seventy Fellows and Scholars besides ten Chaplains,
+three Clerks, and sixteen Choristers for the services of the Chapel,
+which is still famous for its choir. New it was in the extent and
+magnificence of its buildings. New it was in the provision made for
+solemn services in its Chapel, for religious processions round its
+cloisters, for the daily orisons of all its members. New it was in the
+state assigned to its Warden, who was not to be like the Warden of
+Merton, only the first among his humble peers, living with them at the
+common board, but to resemble more a great Abbot with a separate
+establishment of his own, keeping a sumptuous hospitality and drawn by
+six horses when he went abroad. New it was in having undergraduates as
+well as graduates on the foundation, and providing for the training of
+the youth during the whole interval between school and the highest
+University degree. Even further back than the time of admittance to the
+University, stretched the care of the reformer of education. The most
+important novelty of all, perhaps, in his creation, was the connection
+between his College and the school which he founded at Winchester, his
+cathedral city, to feed his College with a constant supply of model
+Scholars. This was the first of those great Public Schools which have
+largely moulded the character of the ruling class  in England. The
+example was followed by Henry VI. in connecting King's College,
+Cambridge, with Eton, and would have been followed by Wolsey had he
+carried out his design of connecting Cardinal College with his school at
+Ipswich. From the admission of an undergraduate element into the College
+it naturally followed that there should be instruction of the juniors by
+the seniors, and superintendence of study within the College walls. This
+was yet another novelty, and Wykeham seems to have had an additional
+motive for adopting it in the low condition of the University Schools,
+from the exercises of which attention had perhaps been diverted by the
+religious movement. In the careful provision for the study of
+Grammatica, that is, the elements of Latin, we perhaps see a gleam of
+the Renaissance, as the style of the buildings belonging to the last
+order of mediæval architecture indicates that the Middle Age was
+hastening to its close. But it was one of Wykeham's objects to
+strengthen the orthodox priesthood in a time of revolutionary peril. Ten
+of his Fellows were assigned to the study of civil, ten to that of
+canon, law. Two were permitted to study medicine. All the rest were to
+be theologians. The Founder was false to his own generous design in
+giving a paramount and perpetual preference in the election of Fellows
+to his own kin, who, being numerous, became at length a fearful incubus
+on his institution. It is not likely that his own idea of kinship was
+unlimited, or extended beyond the tenth degree. All the Fellows and
+Scholars were to be poor and indigent. This was in unison with the
+mediæval spirit of alms-giving as well as with the mediæval theory of
+poverty as a state spiritually superior, held, though not embodied, by
+wealthy prelates. Study, not teaching, it is always to be remembered,
+was the principal duty of those who were to eat the Founder's bread.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: MAGDALEN COLLEGE, FROM STREET.]
+
+The Statutes of New College are elaborate, and were largely copied by
+other founders. They present to us a half-monastic life, with the
+general hue of asceticism which pervades everything mediæval. Here, as
+in the case of Merton, there are no vows, but there is strict
+discipline, with frugal fare. The Commons, or allowances for food, are
+not to exceed twelve pence per week, except in the times of dearth. Once
+a year there is an allowance of cloth for a gown. There is a chest for
+loans to the very needy, but there is no stipend. The Warden rules with
+abbatial power, though in greater matters he requires the consent of the
+Fellows, and is himself under the censorship of the Visitor, the Bishop
+of Winchester, who, however, rarely interposed. Every year he goes on
+"progress" to view the College estates, there being in those days no
+agents, and is received by tenants with homage and rural hospitality.
+The Fellows and Scholars are lodged three or four in a room, the seniors
+as monitors to the juniors. Each Scholar undergoes two years of
+probation. As in a baronial hall the nobles, so in the College Hall the
+seniors, occupy the dais, or high table, while the juniors sit at tables
+arranged down the Hall. In the dining-hall the Fellows and Scholars sit
+in silence, and listen to the reading of the Bible. In speaking they
+must use no tongue but the Latin. There is to be no lingering in the
+Hall after dinner, except when in winter a fire is lighted on some
+church festival. Then it is permitted to remain awhile and rehearse
+poems, or talk about the chronicles of the kingdom, the wonders of the
+world, and other things befitting clerical discourse. This seems to be
+the principal concession made to the youthful love of amusement. As a
+rule, it appears that the students were confined to the College and its
+cloisters when they were not attending the Schools of the University.
+They are forbidden to keep hounds or hawks, as well as to throw stones
+or indulge in any rough or noisy sports. The injunctions against
+spilling wine and slops in the upper rooms, or beer on the floor of the
+Hall, to the annoyance of those who lodged beneath, betoken a rough
+style of living and rude manners. The admission of strangers is
+jealously restricted, and on no account must a woman enter the College,
+except a laundress, who must be of safe age. There were daily prayers
+for the Founder's soul, daily masses, and fifty times each day every
+member of the College was to repeat the salutation to the Virgin. The
+Founder's obit was to be celebrated with special pomp. Self-love in a
+mediæval ascetic was not annihilated by humility, though it took a
+religious form. Thrice every year are held scrutinies into life and
+conduct, at which the hateful practice of secret denunciation is
+admitted, and the accused is forbidden to call for the name of his
+accuser. Every cloistered society, whether monastic or academic, is
+pretty sure to seethe with cabals, suspicions, and slanders. Leave of
+absence from the College was by statute very sparingly allowed, and
+seldom could the young Scholar pay what, in the days before the letter
+post, must have been angel's visits to the old people on the paternal
+homestead. The ecclesiastical and ascetic system of the Middle Ages had
+little regard for domestic affection. It treated the boy as entirely a
+child of the Church. In times of pestilence, then common, the inmates of
+the Colleges usually went to some farm or grange belonging to the
+College in the neighbourhood of Oxford, and those were probably pleasant
+days for the younger members. Oaths of fearful length and stringency
+were taken to the observation of the statutes. They proved sad traps for
+conscience when the statutes had become obsolete, a contingency of which
+the Founders, ignorant of progress and evolution, never dreamed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the interval between the foundation of New College and the
+revolution, religious and intellectual, which we call the Reformation,
+were founded Lincoln, All Souls', Magdalen, and Brasenose. Lincoln, All
+Souls', and Brasenose lie immediately round us, close to what was the
+centre of academical life. Magdalen we recognise in the distance by the
+most beautiful of towers. Lincoln was theological, and was peculiar in
+being connected with two of the Churches of Oxford, which its members
+served, and the tithes and oblations of which formed its endowment. Its
+Founder, Fleming, Bishop of Lincoln, had as a graduate resident at
+Oxford been noted for sympathy with the Wycliffites. But when he became
+Bishop of Lincoln, the fact dawned upon him that the Scriptures too
+freely interpreted were dangerous. He went over to the Reaction, burned
+Wycliffe's body, and determined to found a little college of true
+students in theology, who would "defend the mysteries of the sacred page
+against those ignorant laics who profaned with swinish snouts its most
+holy pearls." His successor, Bishop Rotherham, being of the same mind,
+carried forward the work, and gave the College statutes enjoining the
+expulsion of any Fellow convicted of favouring in public or in private
+heretical tenets, and in particular the tenets of "that heretical sect
+lately sprung up which assails the sacraments, diverse orders and
+dignities, and properties of the Church." Rotherham had evidently a keen
+and just sense of the fact, that with the talismanic sacraments of the
+Church were bound up its dignity and wealth. The two orthodox prelates
+would have stood aghast if they could have foreseen that their little
+College of true theologians would one day number among its Fellows John
+Wesley, and that Methodism would be cradled within its walls. They would
+not less have stood aghast if they could have foreseen that such a chief
+of Liberals as Mark Pattison, would one day be its Rector. The history
+of these foundations is full of lessons for benefactors who fancy that
+they can impress their will upon posterity.
+
+All Souls' was designed by its Founder, Archbishop Chicheley, _ad
+orandum_ as well as _ad studendum_; it was to serve the purpose of a
+chantry not less than of a College. The sculptured group of souls over
+the gateway in High Street denotes that the Warden and Fellows were to
+pray for the souls of all Christian people. But particularly were they
+to pray for the souls of "the illustrious Prince Henry, late King of
+England, of Thomas, Duke of Clarence, and of all the Dukes, Earls,
+Barons, Knights, Esquires, and others who fell in the war for the Crown
+of France." Of that unhappy war Chicheley had been the adviser; and
+seeing the wreck which his folly, or, if the suspicion immortalised by
+Shakespeare is true, his selfish policy, as the head of a bloated
+Establishment threatened with depletion, had wrought, he may well have
+felt the sting of conscience in his old age. The figures in the new
+reredos of the Chapel tell the story of the foundation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: ST. JOHN'S PULPIT.
+
+Magdalen College, First Quadrangle.]
+
+Magdalen was the work of Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor
+of Henry VI., another statesman-prelate who turned from the political
+storm to found a house of learning. Of all the houses of learning in
+England, perhaps of any country, that which Waynflete founded is the
+loveliest, as he will say who stands in its cloistered and ivy-mantled
+quadrangle, either beneath the light of the summer's sun or that of the
+winter's moon. Some American architect, captivated by the graces of
+Magdalen, has reproduced them in his plan for a new University
+in California. Those courts, when newly built, were darkened by the
+presence of Richard III. Waynflete came to Oxford to receive the king;
+and this homage, paid by a saintly man, seems to show that in those
+fierce times of dynastic change, Richard, before the murder of his
+nephews, was not regarded as a criminal usurper, perhaps not as a
+usurper at all. The tyrant was intellectual. In him, as still more
+notably in Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, nicknamed for his cruelty the
+Butcher, but literary and a benefactor to the University, was something
+like an English counterpart of the mixture in the Italian Renaissance of
+culture with licentiousness and crime. But as he sat beside Waynflete
+in the Hall wooing popularity by apparent attention to the exercises,
+Richard's thoughts probably were far away. A red rose among the
+architectural ornaments is found to have been afterwards painted white.
+It changed, no doubt, with fortune, when she left the red for the white
+rose. A new relation between College and University is inaugurated by
+the institution at Magdalen of three Readers to lecture to the
+University at large.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The old quadrangle of Brasenose remains much as it was left by its
+co-founders, a munificent Bishop and a pious Knight. It is of no special
+historic interest, and its importance belongs to later times. It
+absorbed several Halls, the sign of one of which was probably the brazen
+nose which now adorns its gate, and so far it marks an epoch.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The quiet and sombre old quadrangle of Corpus Christi lies yonder, by
+the side of Merton, much as its Founder left it. Now we have come to the
+real dawn of the English Renaissance, a gray dawn which never became a
+very bright day; for in England, as in Germany and other Teutonic
+countries, reawakened and emancipated intellect turned to the pursuit of
+truth rather than of beauty, and the great movement was less a birth of
+literature and of art than of reformation in religion. This is the age
+of Grocyn, the teacher of Greek; of Linacre, the English Hippocrates; of
+Colet, the regenerator of education; of Sir Thomas More, who carried
+culture to the Chancellorship of the realm, and whose "Utopia" proclaims
+the growth of fresh aspirations and the opening of a new era in one way,
+as Rabelais did in another. Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, uncle of Henry
+VI., had perhaps opened the epoch at Oxford by his princely gift of
+books, in which the Renaissance literature was strongly represented, and
+which was the germ of the University Library. Soon Erasmus will visit
+Oxford and chant in elegant Latin the praises of the classical and
+cultured circle which he finds there. Now rages the war between the
+humanists of the new classical learning, called the Greeks, and its
+opponents, the Trojans, who desired to walk in the ancient paths, and
+who, though bigoted and grotesque, were, after all, not far wrong in
+identifying heresy with Greek, since the study of the New Testament in
+the original was subversive of the mediæval faith. Again, as in the
+cases of Merton, Wykeham, and Waynflete, a statesman-prelate turns in
+old age from the distractions of State to found a house of learning.
+Foxe, Bishop of Winchester, was the chief counsellor and diplomatist of
+Henry VII., in whose service he had no doubt passed anxious hours and
+trodden dark paths. It may have been partly for the good of his soul
+that he proposed to found a house in Oxford for the reception of young
+monks from St. Swithin's Priory in Winchester while studying in Oxford.
+He was diverted from that design, and persuaded to found a College
+instead, by his friend Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter, who is represented
+as saying, "What, my Lord, shall we build houses and provide livelihoods
+for a company of bussing monks whose end and fall we ourselves may live
+to see? No, no. It is more meet, a great deal, that we should have care
+to provide for the increase of learning and for such as by their
+learning shall do good in the Church and Commonwealth." Supposing the
+prognostication embodied in these words genuine, they show that to an
+enlightened Bishop the dissolution of the Monasteries seemed inevitable.
+The statutes of Foxe's College are written in a style which affects the
+highest classical elegance. They elaborate throughout the metaphor of a
+bee-hive with its industrious insects and its store of intellectual
+honey. They embody the hopes of the Renaissance and depict a College of
+the Humanities. There is to be a Reader in Greek, and for the subjects
+of his lectures a long list of great Greek authors is assigned. There is
+to be a Reader of Latin, for whose lectures a similar list of Latin
+authors is given, and who is to keep "barbarism," that mortal sin in
+the eyes of a devotee of the Renaissance, out of the hive. Theology is
+not forgotten. The Founder pays a due, possibly somewhat conventional,
+tribute to its surpassing importance. Of this, also, there is a
+Professor, but its guides in interpreting Scripture are not to be the
+mediæval textbooks, such as Aquinas and the Master of the Sentences, but
+the Greek and Latin Fathers, including the daring Origen and Augustine
+the favourite of Luther. The Readers are to lecture not to the College
+only, but to the University at large, a new provision, connecting the
+College with the University, which hardly took effect till very recent
+times. One of the first Readers was the learned Spaniard, Juan Luis
+Vives, whose appointment bespoke the cosmopolitan character of the
+humanist republic of letters. The statutes were signed by the Founder
+with a trembling hand eight months before his death, so that only in
+imagination did he see his literary bees at work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Yonder to the south is Tom Tower, where hangs the great bell, which,
+"swinging slow with sullen roar," was heard by Milton at Forest Hill. It
+was tolled a hundred and one times for the hundred and one students of
+Wolsey's House. The Tower, or Cupola, was the work, not of Wolsey but
+of Wren. Around the great quadrangle over which it rises are seen the
+lines for cloisters which were never built. The balustrade on the top of
+the quadrangle is an alien work of modern times. The Church of St.
+Frydeswide's Monastery does duty as the College Chapel, in place of the
+grand Chapel in the perpendicular style, which, had the Founder's plan
+taken effect, would have stood there. Moreover, that which should have
+been wholly a College is made to serve and to expend a part of its power
+as the Chapter of the Diocese of Oxford, lending its Chapel as the
+Cathedral, a niggardly arrangement which has been productive of strained
+relations between occupants of the See and Heads of the College. Ample
+and noble are the courts of Wolsey. Worthy of his magnificence is the
+great Hall, the finest room, barring Westminster Hall, in England, and
+filled with those portraits of _Alumni_, which, notwithstanding the
+frequency of pudding sleeves, form the fairest tapestry with which hall
+was ever hung. But it all falls short of Wolsey's conception. Had
+Wolsey's conception been fulfilled, Ipswich would have been a nursery of
+scholars for Cardinal College, as Winchester was for New College, and
+Eton for King's College, Cambridge. The Cardinal was an English Leo X.
+in morals, tastes, perhaps in beliefs; a true Prince, not of the Church
+but of the Renaissance. For him, perhaps, as for Foxe, it was a
+refreshment to turn from public life, full, as it must have been, of
+care and peril for the Vizier of a headstrong and capricious despot, to
+the calm happiness of seeing his great College rise, and gathering into
+it the foremost of teachers and the flower of students. But in the midst
+of his enterprise the sky of the Renaissance became overcast with
+clouds, and the storm of religious revolution, which had long been
+gathering, broke. Forewarnings of the storm Wolsey had received, for he
+had found that in opening his gates to the highest intellectual activity
+he had opened them to free inquiry and to heterodoxy. Himself, too, had
+set the example of suppressing monasteries, though he did this not for
+mere rapine or to gorge his parasites, but to turn useless and abused
+endowments to a noble use. Wolsey all but drew his foundation down with
+him in his fall. The tyrant and his minions were builders of nothing but
+ruin. Christ Church, as at last it was called, was threatened with
+confiscation and destruction, but was finally spared in its incomplete
+condition, appropriated by Henry as his own foundation, and dedicated to
+the honour of the king, whose portrait, in its usual attitude of
+obtrusive self-conceit, occupies in the Hall the central place, where
+the portrait of the Cardinal should be. The Cardinal's hat, on the
+outer wall of the house, is left to speak of the true Founder. That the
+College was to be called after its Founder's name, not, like the
+Colleges of Wykeham and Waynflete, after the name of a Saint, seems a
+symptom of the pride which went before Wolsey's fall.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Now come upon the hapless University forty years of religious
+revolution, the monuments of which are traces of destruction and records
+of proscription. All the monastic houses and houses for monastic novices
+were forfeited to the Crown, and their buildings were left desolate,
+though, from the ruins of some of them, new Colleges were afterwards to
+rise. Libraries which would now be priceless, were sacked and destroyed
+because the illumination on the manuscripts was Popish. It was the least
+to be deplored of all the havoc, that the torn leaves of the arid tomes
+of Duns Scotus were seen flying about the quadrangle of New College,
+while a sporting gentleman of the neighbourhood was picking them up to
+be used in driving the deer. There is a comic monument of the religious
+revolution in the coffer shrine at Christ Church, in which the dust of
+Catherine, wife of the Protestant Doctor, Peter Martyr, is mingled with
+that of the Catholic Saint, Frydeswide. Catholicism, in its hour of
+triumph under Mary, had dug up the corpse of the heretic's concubine and
+buried it under a dung-hill. Protestantism, once more victorious,
+rescued the remains, and guarded against a repetition of the outrage, in
+case fortune should again change, by mingling them with those of the
+Catholic Saint. A more tragic memorial of the conflict is yonder
+recumbent cross in Broad Street, close to the spot, then a portion of
+the town ditch, where Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley died. Bocardo, the
+prison over the neighbouring gate of the city, from the window of which
+Cranmer, then confined there, witnessed the burning of Latimer and
+Ridley, was pulled down at the beginning of this century. The Divinity
+School, Christ Church Cathedral, and St. Mary's Church witnessed
+different scenes of the drama. St. Mary's witnessed that last scene, in
+which Cranmer filled his enemies with fury and confusion by suddenly
+recanting his recantation, and declaring that the hand which had signed
+it should burn first. College archives record the expulsion,
+readmission, and re-expulsion of Heads and Fellows, as victory inclined
+to the Protestant or Catholic side. So perished the English Renaissance.
+For the cultivation of the humanities there could be no room in a centre
+of religious strife.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Fatal bequests of the religious war were the religious tests. Leicester,
+as Chancellor, introduced subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles to
+keep out Romanists; King James, that to the three articles of the
+Thirty-sixth Canon to keep out Puritans. These tests, involving scores
+of controverted propositions in theology, were imposed on the
+consciences of mere boys. The Universities were thus taken from the
+nation and given to the State Church, which, in the course of time, as
+dissent from its doctrines gained ground, came to be far from identical
+with the nation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE--GARDEN FRONT.]
+
+In the first lull, however, new Colleges arose, partly out of the ruins
+of the monastic houses of the past. Trinity College, of which the quiet
+old quadrangle is curiously mated with a fantastic Chapel of much later
+date, was founded out of the ruin of Durham College, a Benedictine
+House. Its Founder, Sir Thomas Pope, was one of that group of highly
+educated lay statesmen, eminent both in the councils of kings and among
+the patrons of learning, which succeeded the great Prelates of the
+Middle Ages. He was a Catholic, as his statutes show; but a liberal
+Catholic, not unfriendly to light, though little knowing perhaps whither
+it would lead him. Among his friends was Sir Nicholas Bacon, who
+bequeathed to him the splendid whistle, then used to call servants,
+which is seen round his neck in his portrait. Another of his friends was
+Pole, who showed his intellectual liberality by recommending him to
+enjoin in his statutes the study of Greek. St. John's College, again,
+rose out of the wreck of a Bernardine House. The Founder was not a
+statesman or a prelate, but a great citizen, Sir Thomas White, sometime
+Lord Mayor of London, who had amassed wealth in trade, and made a noble
+use of it. White also was of the olden faith. That the storm was not
+over when his College was founded is tragically shown by the fate of
+Campion, who, when White was laid in the College Chapel, preached the
+funeral sermon, and afterwards becoming  a Jesuit and an emissary of
+his Order, was brought to the rack and to the scaffold. There was also a
+great secession of Fellows when the final rupture took place between
+Rome and Elizabeth. In the group of cultivated Knights and statesmen,
+who patronised learning and education, may be placed Sir William Petre,
+the second Founder of Exeter College, whose monument is its old
+quadrangle, and Sir Thomas Bodley, whose monument is the Bodleian
+Library. If Petre and Bodley were Protestants, while Pope and White were
+Catholics, the difference was rather political than religious. In
+religion the public men changed with the national government, little
+sharing the passions of either theological party.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Jesus, whose old quadrangle, chapel, and hall belong to early Stuart
+times, was the first distinctly Protestant College. This its name, in
+contrast with Colleges named after Saints, denotes. The second
+Protestant College was Wadham, the buildings of which stand in their
+pristine beauty, vying with Magdalen, perhaps even excelling it in the
+special air of a house of learning, and proving that to be interesting
+and impressive it is not necessary to be mediæval. At the same time
+Wadham shows how long the spirit of the Middle Ages clung to Oxford; for
+the style of the Chapel is anterior by a century and a half to the date.
+Here we have a conscious desire, on the part of the architect, to
+recall the past. The Founder, Sir Nicholas Wadham, was a wealthy Western
+land-owner. We may dismiss the tradition that his first design was to
+found a College of Roman Catholic priests in Italy, and his second to
+found a Protestant College at Oxford, as at most significant of the
+prolonged wavering of the religious balance in the minds of a number of
+the wealthier class. The statutes were, in the main, like those of the
+mediæval Colleges, saving in making the Fellowship terminable after
+about twenty-two years, thus more clearly designating the College as a
+school for active life. The prohibition of marriage was retained, not as
+an ascetic ordinance, but as a concomitant of the College system. In
+the mediæval Colleges it was not necessary to extend the prohibition to
+the Heads, who, being priests, were bound to celibacy by the regulations
+of their Order; but marriage being now permitted to the clergy
+generally, the prohibition was in the statutes of Wadham expressly
+extended, in the interest of the College system, to the Head. Hence it
+is an aspersion on the reputation of Dame Dorothy Wadham, who, after her
+husband's death, carried out his design, and whose effigy kneels
+opposite that of her loving lord in the old quadrangle, to say that she
+was in love with the first Warden, and because he would not marry her,
+forbade him by statute to marry any other woman.
+
+[Illustration: WADHAM COLLEGE--GARDEN FRONT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These foundations, followed by that of Pembroke and the building of the
+South quadrangle of Merton, of the South quadrangle of Lincoln, of the
+West front of St. John's, of the quadrangle and hall of Exeter, of part
+of the quadrangle of Oriel, of the West quadrangle of University
+College, as well as of the Bodleian Library, the Schools' quadrangle,
+the Convocation House, and of the gateway of the Botanic Garden, prove
+that, though the old University system, with its scholastic exercises,
+had become hollow, there was life in Oxford, and the interest of patrons
+of learning was attracted to it during the period between the
+Reformation and the Rebellion. It was also felt to be a centre of power.
+Elizabeth twice visited it, once in the heyday of her youthful glory,
+and again in her haggard decline. On the first occasion she exerted with
+effect those arts of popularity which were the best part of her
+statesmanship. On both occasions she was received with ecstatic flattery
+and entertained with academical exercises at tedious length, and plays,
+to our taste not less tedious, performed in College Halls. Her successor
+could not fail to exhibit himself in a seat of learning, where he felt
+supreme, and, to do him justice, was not unqualified, to shine. To his
+benignity the University owes the questionable privilege of sending two
+members to the House of Commons, whereby it became entangled in
+political as well as in theological frays.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Great changes, however, had by this time passed or were passing over the
+University. As in former days the Halls had absorbed the Chamberdekyns,
+so the Colleges had now almost absorbed the Halls. They did this, not by
+any aggression, but by the natural advantages of wealth, their riches
+always increasing with the value of land, and by their reputation. Most
+of them, in addition to the members on the foundation, took students as
+boarders, and they got the best and wealthiest. Universities, losing
+their pristine character as marts of available knowledge, and becoming
+places of general education, ceased, by a process equally natural, to be
+the heritage of the poor and became the resort of the rich. The mediæval
+statutes of the Colleges still limited the foundations to the poor, but
+even these in time, by cunning interpretation, were largely evaded.
+Already in the later Middle Ages Oxford had received, and, it seems, too
+complacently received, young scions of the aristocracy and gentry, the
+precursors of the noblemen and the silk-gowned gentleman-commoners of a
+later day. The Black Prince had been for a short time at Queen's
+College. In the reign of Henry VI., George Neville, the brother of the
+King-maker, had celebrated the taking of his degree, a process which was
+probably made easy to him, with banquets which lasted through two days
+on a prodigious scale. At the same time and for the same causes the
+system of College instruction grew in importance and gradually ousted
+the lectures of University Professors. Fellows of Colleges were not
+unwilling to add to their Commons and Livery the Tutor's stipend. Thus
+the importance of the College waxed while that of the University waned,
+and the College Statutes became more and more collectively the law of
+the University. These Statutes were mediæval and obsolete, but they
+were unalterable, the Heads and Fellows being sworn to their observance,
+and there being no power of amendment, since the Visitor could only
+interpret and enforce. Thus the mediæval type of life and study was
+stereotyped and progress was barred. The Fellowships having been
+originally not teacherships or prizes, but aids to poor students, the
+Founders deemed themselves at liberty in regulating the elections to
+give free play to their local and family partialities, and the
+consequence was a mass of preferences to favoured counties or to kin.
+With all these limitations, the teaching body of the University was now
+practically saddled. Even the restrictions to particular schools--as to
+Winchester in the case of New College, to Westminster, which had been
+substituted for Wolsey's Ipswich, in the case of Christ Church, and to
+Merchant Tailors' School in the case of St. John's--were noxious, though
+in a less degree, albeit their bad influence might be redeemed by some
+pleasant associations. Worst of all, however, in their effect were the
+restrictions to the clerical Order. This meant little in the Middle
+Ages, when all intellectual callings were clerical, when at Oxford
+gownsman and clerk, townsman and laic, were convertible terms. Wykeham,
+Foxe, and Wolsey themselves were thorough laymen in their pursuits and
+character, though they had received the tonsure, were qualified, if
+they pleased, to celebrate mass, and derived their incomes from
+bishoprics and abbeys. But the Reformation drew a sharp line between the
+clerical and the other professions. The clergyman was henceforth a
+pastor. The resident body of graduates and the teaching staff of Oxford
+belonging almost exclusively to the clerical profession, the studies and
+interests of that profession now reigned alone. Whatever life remained
+to the University was chiefly absorbed in theological study and
+controversy. This was the more deplorable as theology, in the mediæval
+sense, was a science almost as extinct as astrology or alchemy. Oxford
+was turned into the cock-pit of theological party. At the same time she
+was bound hand and foot to a political faction, because her clergymen
+belonged to the Episcopal and State Church, the patrons and upholders of
+which, from political motives, were the Kings and the Cavaliers, or, as
+they were afterwards called, the Tories. Cambridge suffered like Oxford,
+though with some abatement, because there, owing to the vicinity of a
+great Puritan district, high Anglicanism did not prevail, and, for
+reasons difficult to define, the clergy altogether were less clerical.
+Newton was near forfeiting his Fellowship and the means of prosecuting
+his speculations because he was not in Holy Orders. Luckily, a Lay
+Fellowship fell just in time. Let Founders, and all who have a passion
+for regulating the lives of other people, for propagating their wills
+beyond the reach of their foresight, and for grasping posterity, as it
+were, with a dead hand, take warning by a disastrous example.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As the Colleges became the University, their Heads became the governors
+of the University. They formed a Board called the Hebdomadal Council,
+which initiated all legislation, while the executive was the
+Vice-Chancellorship, which, though legally elective, was appropriated by
+the Heads, and passed down their list in order. With a single exception,
+the Headships were all clerical, and they were almost always filled by
+men of temperament, to say the least, eminently conservative. Thus
+academical liberty and progress slept.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: ST. MARY'S CHURCH.]
+
+On the eve of another great storm we have a pleasant glimpse of Oxford
+life and study in Clarendon's picture of Falkland's circle, at Great
+Tew, within ten miles of Oxford, whither, he says, "most polite and
+accurate men of that University resorted, dwelling there as in a College
+situated in a purer air, so that his was a University bound in a less
+volume, whither his intellectual friends came not so much for repose as
+study, and to examine and refine those grosser propositions which
+laziness and consent made current in conversation." This indicates that,
+while study was going on, liberal inquiry was also on foot. But clouds
+again gathered, the storm again came, and once more from the
+ecclesiastical quarter. The triumph of the Reformation, the accession of
+a Protestant Queen, and the Chancellorship of Leicester, who, for
+politic purposes, played the Puritan, had been attended by a general
+expulsion or secession of the Romanising party, which left the
+University for a time in the hands of the Calvinists and Low Churchmen.
+Hooker, the real father of Anglicanism, had, for a time, studied Church
+antiquity in the quiet quadrangle of Corpus, but he had come into
+collision with Puritanism, and had, for a time, been driven away by it.
+Perhaps its prevalence may have ultimately inclined him to exchange the
+University for a far less congenial sphere. The clergy, however, of an
+Episcopal Church, and one which laid claim to Apostolical succession,
+was sure in time to come round to High Church doctrine. To High Church
+doctrine the clergy of Oxford did come round under the leadership of
+Laud, University Preacher, Proctor, President of St. John's College, and
+afterwards Chancellor of the University. Of Laud there are several
+memorials at Oxford. One is the inner quadrangle of St. John's College,
+ornamented in the style of Inigo Jones, where the Archbishop and
+Chancellor, in the noontide of his career, received with ecstasies of
+delight, ecclesiastical, academical, and political, his doomed king and
+master with the fatal woman at Charles's side. Another is a fine
+collection of oriental books added to the Bodleian Library. A third and
+more important is the new code of statutes framed for the reformation of
+the University by its all-powerful Chancellor. A fourth is the statue of
+the Virgin and Child over the porch of St. Mary's Church, which, as
+proof of a Romanising tendency, formed one of the charges against the
+Archbishop, though it was really put up by his Chaplain. The fifth is
+the headless corpse which lies buried in the Chapel of St. John's
+College, whither pious hands conveyed it after the Restoration. Laud was
+a true friend of the University and of learned men, in whom, as in
+Hales, he respected the right of inquiry, and to whom he was willing to
+allow a freedom of opinion which he would not allow to the common herd.
+He was not so much a bigot as a martinet. It was by playing the martinet
+in ecclesiastical affairs that he was brought into mortal collision with
+the nation. In the code of statutes which by his characteristic use of
+autocratic power he imposed on Oxford the martinet is betrayed; so is
+the belief in the efficacy of regulation. We see the man who wrecked a
+kingdom for the sake of his forms. Nor had Laud the force to deliver
+University education from the shackles of the Middle Ages and the
+scholastic system. But the code is dictated by a genuine spirit of
+reform, and might have worked improvement had it been sustained by a
+motive power.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The period of the Civil War is a gap in academical history. Its
+monuments are only traces of destruction, such as the defacement of
+Papistical images and window paintings by the Puritan soldiery, and the
+sad absence of the old College plate, of which two thousand five hundred
+ounces went to the Royal mint in New Inn Hall, only a few most sacred
+pieces, such as the Founder's drinking-horn at Queen's, and the covered
+cup, reputed that of the Founder, at Corpus, being left to console us
+for the irreparable loss. Exeter College alone seems to have shown
+compunction; perhaps there had remained in her something of the free
+spirit for which in the days of Wycliffe she had been noted. Art and
+taste may mourn, but the University, as a centre of Episcopalianism, had
+little cause to complain; for the war was justly called the Bishops'
+war, and by the Episcopal Church and the Queen, between them, Charles
+was brought to the block. Oxford was bound by her ecclesiasticism to
+the Royal cause, and she had the ill luck to be highly available as a
+place of arms from her position between the two rivers, while she formed
+an advanced post to the Western country in which the strength of the
+King's cause lay. During those years the University was in buff and
+bandolier, on the drill ground instead of in the Schools, while the
+Colleges were filled with the exiled Court and its ghost of a
+Parliament. Traces of works connecting the two rivers were not long ago
+to be seen, and tradition points to the angle in the old city wall under
+Merton College as the spot where Windebank, a Royalist officer, was shot
+for surrendering his post. There was a reign of garrison manners as
+well as of garrison duties, and to the few who still cared for the
+objects of the University, even if they were Royalists, the surrender of
+the city to the Parliament may well have been a relief.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Then came Parliamentary visitation and the purge, with the inevitable
+violence and inhumanity. Heads and Fellows, who refused submission to
+the new order of things, were turned out. Mrs. Fell, the wife of the
+Dean of Christ Church, deposed for Royalism, refused to quit the
+Deanery, and at last had to be carried out of the quadrangle, venting
+her wrath in strong language as she went, by a squad of Parliamentary
+musketeers. But the Puritans put in good men: such as Owen, who was
+made Dean of Christ Church; Conant, who was made Rector of Exeter;
+Wilkins, who was made Warden of Wadham; and Seth Ward, the
+mathematician, who was made President of Trinity College. Owen and
+Conant appear to have been model Heads. The number of students
+increased. Evelyn, the Anglican and Royalist, visiting Oxford, seems to
+find the academical exercises, and the state of the University
+generally, satisfactory to his mind. He liked even the sermon, barring
+some Presbyterian animosities. Nor did he find much change in College
+Chapels. New College was "in its ancient garb, notwithstanding the
+scrupulosity of the times." The Chapel of Magdalen College, likewise,
+was "in pontifical order," and the organ remained undemolished. The
+Protectorate was tolerant as far as the age allowed. Evelyn was
+cordially received by the Puritan authorities and hospitably
+entertained. Puritanism does not seem to have been so very grim,
+whatever the satirist in "The Spectator" may say. Tavern-haunting and
+swearing were suppressed. So were May-poles and some innocent
+amusements. But instrumental music was much cultivated, as we learn from
+the Royalist and High Church antiquary Anthony Wood, from whom, also, we
+gather that dress, though less donnish, was not more austere. Cromwell,
+having saved the Universities from fanatics who would have laid low all
+institutions of worldly learning, made himself Chancellor of Oxford, and
+sought to draw thence, as well as from Cambridge, promising youths for
+the service of the State. Even Clarendon admits that the Restoration
+found the University "abounding in excellent learning," notwithstanding
+"the wild and barbarous depopulation" which it had undergone; a
+miraculous result, which he ascribes, under God's blessing, to "the
+goodness and richness of the soil, which could not be made barren by all
+the stupidity and negligence, but choked the weeds, and would not suffer
+the poisonous seeds, which were sown with industry enough, to spring
+up." Puritanism might be narrow and bibliolatrous, but it was not
+obscurantist nor the enemy of science. We see this in Puritan Oxford as
+well as in Puritan Harvard and Yale. In Puritan Oxford the scientific
+circle which afterwards gave birth to the Royal Society was formed. Its
+chief was Warden Wilkins, and it included Boyle, Wallis, Seth Ward, and
+Wren. It met either in Wilkins's rooms at Wadham, or in those of Boyle.
+Evelyn, visiting Wilkins, is ravished with the scientific inventions and
+experiments which he sees. On the stones of Oxford, Puritanism has left
+no trace; there was hardly any building during those years. There were
+benefactions not a few, among which was the gift of Selden's Library.
+
+Upon the Restoration followed a Royalist proscription, more cruel, and
+certainly more lawless, than that of the Puritans had been. All the good
+Heads of the Commonwealth era were ejected, and the Colleges received
+back a crowd of Royalists, who, during their exclusion, had probably
+been estranged from academical pursuits. Anthony Wood himself is an
+unwilling witness to the fact that the change was much for the worse.
+"Some Cavaliers that were restored," he says, "were good scholars, but
+the majority were dunces." "Before the War," he says in another place,
+"we had scholars who made a thorough search in scholastic and polemical
+divinity, in humane learning and natural philosophy, but now scholars
+study these things not more than what is just necessary to carry them
+through the exercises of their respective Colleges and the University.
+Their aim is not to live as students ought to do, temperate, abstemious,
+and plain in their apparel, but to live like gentry, to keep dogs and
+horses, to turn their studies into places to keep bottles, to swagger in
+gay apparel and long periwigs." Into the Rectorship of Exeter, in place
+of the excellent Conant, was put Joseph Maynard, of whom Wood says,
+"Exeter College is now much debauched by a drunken Governor; whereas,
+before, in Doctor Conant's time, it was accounted a civil house, it is
+now rude and uncivil. The Rector is good-natured, generous, and a good
+scholar, but he has forgot the way of College life, and the decorum of a
+scholar. He is much given to bibbing, and when there is a music meeting
+in one of the Fellow's chambers, he will sit there, smoke, and drink
+till he is drunk, and has to be led to his lodgings by the junior
+Fellows." This is not the only evidence of the fact that drinking,
+idling, and tavern-haunting were in the ascendant. Study as well as
+morality, having been the badge of the Puritan, was out of fashion.
+Wilkins's scientific circle took its departure from Oxford to London,
+there to become the germ of the Royal Society. The hope was gone at
+Oxford of a race of "young men provided against the next age, whose
+minds, receiving the first impressions of sober and generous knowledge,
+should be invincibly armed against all the encroachments of enthusiasm."
+The presence of the merry monarch, with his concubines, at Oxford, when
+his Parliament met there, was not likely to improve morals. Oxford sank
+into an organ of the High Church and Tory party, and debased herself by
+servile manifestos in favour of government by prerogative.
+Non-conformists were excluded by the religious tests, the operation of
+which was more stringent than ever since the passing of the Act of
+Uniformity. The love of liberty and truth embodied in Locke was expelled
+from Christ Church; not, however, by the act of the College or of the
+University, but by Royal warrant, though Fell, Dean of Christ Church,
+bowed slavishly to the tyrant's pleasure; so that Christ Church may look
+with little shame on the portrait of the philosopher, which now hangs
+triumphant in her Hall. The Cavaliers did not much, even in the way of
+building. The Sheldonian Theatre was given them by the Archbishop, to
+whom subscriptions had been promised, but did not come in, so that he
+had to bear the whole expense himself. He was so deeply disgusted that
+he refused ever to look upon the building.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Over the gateway of University College stands the statue of James II.
+That it should have been left there is a proof both of the ingrained
+Toryism of old Oxford, and of the mildness of the Revolution of 1688.
+Obadiah Walker, the Master of the Colleges, was one of the political
+converts to Roman Catholicism, and it was in ridicule of him that "Old
+Obadiah, Ave Maria," was sung by the Oxford populace. A set of rooms in
+the same quadrangle bears the trace of its conversion into a Roman
+Catholic Chapel for the king. It faces the rooms of Shelley. Reference
+was made the other day, in an ecclesiastical lawsuit, to the singular
+practice which prevails in this College, of filing out into the
+ante-chapel after the sacrament to consume the remains of the bread and
+wine, instead of consuming them at the altar or communion table. This
+probably is a trace of the Protestant reaction which followed the
+transitory reign of Roman Catholicism under Obadiah Walker. All are
+familiar with the Magdalen College case, and with the train of events by
+which the most devoutly royalist of Universities was brought, by its
+connection with the Anglican Church and in defence of the Church's
+possessions, into collision with the Crown, and arrayed for the moment
+on the side of constitutional liberty. After the Revolution the recoil
+quickly followed. Oxford became the stronghold of Jacobitism, the scene
+of treasonable talk over the wine in the Common Room, of riotous
+demonstrations by pot-valiant undergraduates in the streets, of Jacobite
+orations at academical festivals, amid frantic cheers of the assembled
+University, of futile plotting and puerile conspiracies which never put
+a man in the field. "The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse." But the
+troop of horse was not called upon to act. There was a small Hanoverian
+and constitutional party, and now and then it scored a point against its
+adversaries, who dared not avow their disloyalty to the reigning
+dynasty. A Jacobite Proctor, having intruded into a convivial meeting of
+Whigs, they tendered him the health of King George, which, for fear of
+the treason law, he was fain to drink upon his knees.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: STAIRCASE, CHRIST CHURCH.]
+
+In the early part of the eighteenth century there was some intellectual
+life in Christ Church, to which Westminster still sent up good scholars,
+and which was the resort of the nobility, in whom youthful ambition and
+desire for improvement might be stirred by the influences of political
+homes, and the prospects of a public life. Dean Aldrich was a scholar
+and a virtuoso. The spire of All Saints' Church  is a soaring
+monument of his taste, if not of his genius, for architecture. In the
+controversy with Bentley about the Epistles of Phalaris, Christ Church,
+though she was hopelessly in the wrong, showed that she had some
+learning and some interest in classical studies. Otherwise the
+eighteenth century is a blank, or worse than a blank, in the history of
+the University. The very portraits on the College walls disclose the
+void of any but ecclesiastical eminence. That tendency to torpor, which,
+as Adam Smith and Turgot have maintained, is inherent in the system of
+endowments, fell upon Oxford in full measure. The Colleges had now, by
+the increase in value of their estates, become rich, some of them very
+rich. The estates of Magdalen, Gibbon tells us, were thought to be worth
+thirty thousand pounds a year, equivalent to double that sum now.
+Instead of being confined to their original Commons and Livery, the
+Heads and Fellows, as administrators of the estate, were now dividing
+among themselves annually large rentals, though they failed to increase
+in equal proportion the stipends of the Scholars and others who had no
+share in the administration. The statutes of mediæval Founders had
+become utterly obsolete, and were disregarded, notwithstanding the oath
+taken to observe them, or observed only so far as they guarded the
+interest of sinecurists against the public. Nor were any other duties
+assumed. A few of the Fellows in each College added to their income by
+holding the tutorships, the functions of which they usually performed in
+the most slovenly way, each Tutor professing to teach all subjects,
+while most of them knew none. In the Common Room, with which each of the
+Colleges now provided itself, the Fellows spent lives of Trulliberian
+luxury, drinking, smoking, playing at bowls, and, as Gibbon said, by
+their deep but dull potations excusing the brisk intemperance of youth.
+Even the obligation to residence was relaxed, and at last practically
+annulled, so that a great part of the Fellowships became sinecure
+stipends held by men unconnected with the University. About the only
+restriction which remained was that on marriage. Out of this the Heads
+had managed to slip their necks, and from the time of Elizabeth
+downwards there had been married Heads, to the great scandal of Anthony
+Wood and other academical precisians, to whom, in truth, one lady, at
+least, the wife of Warden Clayton of Merton, seems to have afforded some
+grounds for criticism by her usurpations. But in the case of the
+Fellows, the statute, being not constructive, but express, could not be
+evaded except by stealth, and by an application of the aphorism then
+current, that he might hold anything who would hold his tongue. The
+effect of this, celibacy being no longer the rule, was to make all the
+Fellows look forward to the benefices, of a number of which each College
+was the patron, and upon which they could marry. Thus devotion to a life
+of study or education in College, had a Fellow been inclined to it, was
+impossible, under the ordinary conditions of modern life. Idleness,
+intemperance, and riot were rife among the students, as we learn from
+the novels and memoirs of the day. Especially were they the rule among
+the noblemen and gentlemen-commoners, who were privileged by their birth
+and wealth, and to whom by the servility of the Dons every license was
+allowed. Some Colleges took only gentlemen-commoners, who paid high
+fees and did what they pleased. All Souls' took no students at all, and
+became a mere club which, by a strange perversion of a clause in their
+statutes, was limited to men of high family. The University as a
+teaching and examining body had fallen into a dead swoon. Few of the
+Professors even went through the form of lecturing, and the statutory
+obligation of attendance was wholly disregarded by the students. The
+form of mediæval disputations was kept up by the farcical repetition of
+strings of senseless syllogisms, which were handed down from generation
+to generation of students. The very nomenclature of the system had
+become unmeaning. Candidates for the theological degree paced the
+Divinity School for an hour, nominally challenging opponents to
+disputation, but the door was locked by the Bedel, that no opponent
+might appear. Examinations were held, but the candidates, by feeing the
+University officer, were allowed to choose their own examiners, and they
+treated the examiner after the ordeal. The two questions, "What is the
+meaning of Golgotha?" and "Who founded University College?" comprised
+the examination upon which Lord Eldon took his degree. A little of that
+elegant scholarship, with the power of writing Latin verses, of which
+Addison was the cynosure, was the most of which Oxford could boast.
+Even this there could hardly have been had not the learned languages
+happened to have formed an official part of the equipment of the
+clerical profession. Of science, or the mental habit which science
+forms, there was none. Such opportunities for study, such libraries,
+such groves, a livelihood so free from care could scarcely fail, now and
+then, to give birth to a learned man, an Addison, a Lowth, a Thomas
+Warton, an Elmsley, a Martin Routh.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Universities being the regular finishing schools of the gentry and
+the professions, men who had passed through them became eminent in after
+life, but they owed little or nothing to the University. Only in this
+way can Oxford lay claim to the eminence of Bishop Butler, Jeremy
+Bentham, or Adam Smith, while Gibbon is her reproach. The figures of
+Lord Eldon and Lord Stowell, whose ponderous twin statues sit side by
+side in the Library of University College, were more academical,
+especially that of Lord Stowell, who was Tutor of his College, and held
+a lectureship of Ancient History. Here and there a Tutor of the better
+stamp, no doubt, would try to do his duty by his pupils. A rather
+pathetic interest attaches to Richard Newton, who tried to turn Hart
+Hall into a real place of education, and had some distinguished pupils,
+among them Charles Fox. But the little lamp which he had kindled went
+out in the uncongenial air. On the site, thanks to the munificence of
+Mr. Baring, now stands Hertford College. Johnson's residence at Pembroke
+College was short, and his narrative shows that it was unprofitable,
+though his High Church principles afterwards made him a loyal son and
+eulogist of the University. One good effect the interdiction of marriage
+had. It kept up a sort of brotherhood, and saved corporate munificence
+from extinction by the private interest of fathers of families. As the
+College revenues increased, building went on, though after the false
+classical fashion of the times and mostly for the purpose of College
+luxury. Now rose the new quadrangle of Queen's, totally supplanting the
+mediæval College, and the new buildings at Magdalen and Corpus. A plan
+is extant, horrible to relate, for the total demolition of the old
+quadrangle of Magdalen, and its replacement by a modern palace of
+idleness in the Italian style. To this century belong Peckwater and
+Canterbury quadrangles, also in the classical style, the first redeemed
+by the Library which fills one side of the square, and which has a heavy
+architectural grandeur as well as a noble purpose. To the eighteenth
+century we also mainly owe the College gardens and walks as we see them;
+and the gardens of St. John's, New College, Wadham, Worcester, and
+Exeter, with the lime walk at Trinity and the Broadwalk--now unhappily
+but a wreck--at Christ Church, may plead to a student's heart for some
+mitigation of the sentence on the race of clerical idlers and
+wine-bibbers, who, for a century, made the University a place, not of
+education and learning, but of dull sybaritism, and a source, not of
+light, but of darkness, to the nation. It is sad to think how different
+the history of England might have been had Oxford and Cambridge done
+their duty, like Harvard and Yale, during the last century.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: CHRIST CHURCH--FRONT.]
+
+At the end of the last or beginning of the present century came the
+revival. At  the end of the last century Christ Church had some
+brilliant classical scholars among her students, though the great scene
+of their eminence was not the study but the senate. The portraits of
+Wellesley and Canning hang in her Hall. In the early part of the present
+century the general spirit of reform and progress, which had been
+repressed during the struggle with revolutionary France, began to move
+again over the face of the torpid waters. Eveleigh, Provost of Oriel,
+led the way. At his College and at Balliol the elections to Fellowships
+were free from local or genealogical restrictions. They were now opened
+to merit, and those two Colleges, though not among the first in wealth
+or magnificence, attained a start in the race of regeneration which
+Balliol, being very fortunate in its Heads, has since in a remarkable
+manner maintained. The examination system of Laud had lacked a motive
+power, and had depended, like his policy, on his fiat instead of vital
+force. There was no sufficient inducement for the examiner to be strict
+or for the candidate to excel. The motive power was now supplied by a
+list of honours in classics and mathematics, and among the earliest
+winners in the first class in both schools was Robert Peel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Scarcely, however, had the University begun to awake to a new life, when
+it was swept by another ecclesiastical storm, the consequence of its
+unhappy identification with clericism and the State Church. The liberal
+movement which commenced after the fall of Napoleon and carried the
+Reform Bill, threatened to extend to the religious field, and to
+withdraw the support of the State from the Anglican Church. This led the
+clergy to look out for another basis, which they found in the
+reassertion of High Church and sacerdotal doctrines, such as apostolical
+succession, eucharistical real presence, and baptismal regeneration.
+Presently the movement assumed the form of a revival of the Church of
+the Middle Ages, such as High Church imagination pictured it, and
+ultimately of secession to Rome. Oxford, with her mediæval buildings,
+her High Church tradition, her half-monastic Colleges, and her body of
+unmarried clergy, became the centre of the movement. The Romanising
+tendencies of Tractarianism, as from the "Tracts for the Times" it was
+called, visible from the first, though disclaimed by the leaders,
+aroused a fierce Protestant reaction, which encountered Tractarianism
+both in the press and in the councils of the University. The Armageddon
+of the ecclesiastical war was the day on which, in a gathering of
+religious partisans from all sections of the country which the
+Convocation House would not hold, so that it was necessary to adjourn
+to the Sheldonian Theatre, Ward, the most daring of the Tractarian
+writers, after a scene of very violent excitement, was deprived of his
+degree. This was the beginning of the end. Newman, the real leader of
+the movement, though Pusey, from his academical rank, was the official
+leader, soon recognised the place to which his principles belonged, and
+was on his knees before a Roman Catholic priest, supplicating for
+admission to the Church of Rome. A ritualistic element remained, and now
+reigns, in the Church of England; but the party which Newman left,
+bereft of Newman, broke up, and its relics were cast like drift-wood on
+every theological or philosophical shore. Newman's poetic version of
+mediæval religion, together with the spiritual graces of his style and
+his personal influence, had for a time filled the imaginations and
+carried away the hearts of youth, while the seniors were absorbed in the
+theological controversy, renounced lay studies, and disdained
+educational duty except as it might afford opportunities of winning
+youthful souls to the Neo-Catholic faith. Academical duty would have
+been utterly lost in theological controversy, had it not been for the
+Class List, which bound the most intellectual undergraduates to lay
+studies by their ambition, and kept on foot a staff of private teachers,
+"coaches," as they were called, to prepare men for the examinations,
+who did the duty which the ecclesiastical Fellows of the University
+disdained. The Oxford movement has left a monument of itself in the
+College founded in memory of Keble, the gentle and saintly author of
+"The Christian Year." It has left an ampler monument in the revival of
+mediæval architecture at Oxford, and the style of new buildings which
+everywhere meet the eye. The work of the Oxford Architectural Society,
+which had its birth in the Neo-Catholic movement, may prove more durable
+than that movement itself. Of the excess to which the architectural
+revival was carried, the new Library at University College, more like a
+mediæval Chapel than a Library, is a specimen. It was proposed to give
+Neo-Catholicism yet another monument by erecting close to the spot where
+Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley died for truth, the statue of Cardinal
+Newman, the object of whose pursuit through life had been, not truth,
+but an ecclesiastical ideal. Of the reaction against the Tractarian
+movement the monument is the memorial to the Protestant martyrs Cranmer,
+Latimer, and Ridley, the subscription for which commenced among the
+Protestants who had come up to vote for the condemnation of Ward, and
+which Tractarians scornfully compared to the heap of stones raised over
+the body of Achan.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: GATE TOWER AND CLOISTERS, MAGDALEN.]
+
+Here ended the reign of ecclesiasticism, of the Middle Ages, and of
+religious exclusion. The collision into which Romanising Oxford had been
+brought with the Protestantism of the British nation, probably helped to
+bring on the revolution which followed, and which restored the
+University to learning, science, and the nation. The really academical
+element in the University invoked the aid of the national government and
+Legislature. A Royal Commission of Inquiry into the state of the
+University and its Colleges was appointed, and though some Colleges
+closed their muniment rooms, and inquiry was obstructed, enough was
+revealed in the Report amply to justify legislative reform and
+emancipation. An act of Parliament was passed which set free the
+University and Colleges alike from their mediæval statutes, restored the
+University Professoriate, opened the Fellowships to merit, and relaxed
+the religious tests. The curriculum, the examination system, and the
+honour list were liberalised, and once more, as in early times, all the
+great departments of knowledge were recognised and domiciled in the
+University. Science, long an exile, was welcomed back to her home at the
+moment when a great extension of her empire was at hand. Strictly
+professional studies, such as practical law and medicine, could not be
+recalled from their professional seats. Elections to Fellowships by
+merit replaced election by local or school preferences, by kinship, or
+by the still more objectionable influences which at one time had been
+not unfelt. Colleges which had declined the duty of education, which had
+been dedicated to sinecurism and indolence, and whose quadrangles had
+stood empty, were filled with students, and once more presented a
+spectacle which would have gladdened the heart of the Founder. A
+Commission, acting on a still more recent Act of Parliament, has carried
+the adaptation of Oxford to the modern requirements of science and
+learning further than the old Commission, which acted in the penumbra of
+mediæval and ecclesiastical tradition, dared. The intellectual Oxford
+of the present day is almost a fresh creation. Its spirit is new; it is
+liberal, free, and progressive. It is rather too revolutionary, grave
+seniors say, so far as the younger men are concerned. This is probably
+only the first forward bound of recovered freedom, which will be
+succeeded in time by the sober pace of learning and scientific
+investigation. Again, as in the thirteenth century, the day of
+Grosseteste and Simon de Montfort, Oxford is a centre of progress,
+instead of being, as under the later Stuarts, the stronghold of
+reaction. Of the College revival, the monuments are all around in the
+new buildings, for which increasing  numbers have called, and which
+revived energy has supplied. Christ Church, New College, Magdalen,
+Merton, Balliol, Trinity, University have all enlarged their courts, and
+in almost every College new life has been shown by improvement or
+restoration. Of the reign of mediævalism the only trace is the
+prevalence in the new buildings of the mediæval style, which
+architectural harmony seemed to require, though the new buildings of
+Christ Church and Trinity are proofs of a happy emancipation from
+architectural tradition. The University revival has its monument in the
+new examination Schools in High Street, where the student can no longer
+get his degree by giving the meaning of Golgotha and the name of the
+Founder of University College. There are those who, like Mark Pattison,
+look on it with an evil eye, regarding the examination system as a
+noxious excrescence and as fatal to spontaneous study and research;
+though they would hardly contend that spontaneous study and research
+flourished much at Oxford before the revival of examinations, or deny
+that since the revival Oxford has produced the fruits of study and
+research, at least to a fair extent. The restoration of science is
+proclaimed by the new Museum yonder; a strange structure, it must be
+owned, which symbolises, by the unfitness of its style for its purpose,
+at once the unscientific character of the Middle Ages, and the
+lingering attachment of Oxford to the mediæval type. Of the abolition of
+the religious tests, and the restoration of the University to the
+nation, a monument is Mansfield College for Congregationalists, a vision
+of which would have thrown an orthodox and Tory Head of a College into
+convulsions half a century ago. Even here the mediæval style of
+architecture keeps its hold, though the places of Catholic Saints are
+taken by the statues of Wycliffe, Luther, John Knox, Whitefield, and
+Wesley. By the side of Mansfield College rises also Manchester College
+for Independents, in the same architectural style. Neither of them,
+however, is in the Oxford sense a College; both are places of
+theological instruction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the North of the city, where fifty years ago stretched green fields,
+is now seen a suburb of villas, all of them bespeaking comfort and
+elegance, few of them overweening wealth. These are largely the
+monuments of another great change, the removal of the rule of celibacy
+from the Fellowships, and the introduction of a large body of married
+teachers devoted to their profession, as well as of the revival of the
+Professorships, which were always tenable by married men. Fifty years
+ago the wives of Heads of Houses, who generally married late in life if
+they married at all, constituted, with one or two officers of the
+University, the whole female society of Oxford. The change was
+inevitable, if education was to be made a profession, instead of being,
+as it had been in the hands of celibate Fellows of Colleges, merely the
+transitory occupation of a man whose final destination was the parish.
+Those who remember the old Common Room life, which is now departing,
+cannot help looking back with a wistful eye to its bachelor ease, its
+pleasant companionship, its interesting talk and free interchange of
+thought, its potations neither "deep" nor "dull." Nor were its symposia
+without important fruits when such men as Newman and Ward, on one side,
+encountered such men as Whately, Arnold, and Tait, on the other side, in
+Common Room talk over great questions of the day. But the life became
+dreary when a man had passed forty, and it is well exchanged for the
+community that fills those villas, and which, with its culture, its
+moderate and tolerably equal incomes, permitting hospitality but
+forbidding luxury, and its unity of interests with its diversity of
+acquirements and accomplishments, seems to present the ideal conditions
+of a pleasant social life. The only question is, how the College system
+will be maintained when the Fellows are no longer resident within the
+walls of the College to temper and control the younger members, for a
+barrack of undergraduates is not a good thing. The personal bond and
+intercourse between Tutor and pupil under the College system was
+valuable as well as pleasant; it cannot be resigned without regret. But
+its loss will be compensated by far superior teaching. Half a century
+ago conservatism strove to turn the railway away from Oxford. But the
+railway came, and it brings, on summer Sundays, to the city of study and
+thought not a few leaders of the active world. Oxford is now, indeed,
+rather too attractive; her academical society is in danger of being
+swamped by the influx of non-academical residents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: THE RIVER--BOATS RACING.]
+
+The buildings stand, to mark by their varying architecture the
+succession of the changeful centuries through which the University has
+passed. In the Libraries are the monuments of the successive generations
+of learning. But the tide of youthful life that from age to age has
+flowed through college, quadrangle, hall, and chamber, through
+University examination-rooms and Convocation Houses, has left no
+memorials of itself except the entries in the University and College
+books; dates of matriculation, which tell of the bashful boy standing
+before the august Vice-Chancellor at entrance; dates of degrees, which
+tell of the youth putting forth, from his last haven of tutelage, on
+the waves of the wide world. Hither they thronged, century after
+century, in the costume and with the equipments of their times, from
+mediæval abbey, grange, and hall, from Tudor manor-house and homestead,
+from mansion, rectory, and commercial city of a later day, bearing with
+them the hopes and affections of numberless homes. Year after year they
+departed, lingering for a moment at the gate to say farewell to College
+friends, the bond with whom they vowed to preserve, but whom they were
+never to see again, then stepped forth into the chances and perils of
+life, while the shadow on the College dial moved on its unceasing round.
+If they had only left their names in the rooms which they had occupied,
+there would be more of history than we have in those dry entries in the
+books. But, at all events, let not fancy frame a history of student life
+at Oxford out of "Verdant Green." There are realities corresponding to
+"Verdant Green," and the moral is, that many youths come to the
+University who had better stay away, since none get any good and few
+fail to get some harm, saving those who have an aptitude for study. But
+the dissipation, the noisy suppers, the tandem-driving, the fox-hunting,
+the running away from Proctors, or, what is almost as bad, the childish
+devotion to games and sports as if they were the end of existence,
+though they are too common a part of  undergraduate life in the
+University of the rich, are far from being the whole of it. Less than
+ever are they the whole of it since University reform and a more liberal
+curriculum have increased, as certainly they have, industry and
+frugality at the same time. Of the two or three thousand lamps which
+to-night will gleam from those windows, few will light the supper-table
+or the gambling-table; most will light the book. Youthful effort,
+ambition, aspiration, hope, College character and friendship have no
+artist to paint them,--at least as yet they have had none. But whatever
+of poetry belongs to them is present in full measure here.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Addison, Joseph, 136.
+
+  Aldrich, Henry, 128.
+
+  Alfred (King), 24, 51.
+
+  All Souls' College, 67 _et sq._
+
+  Amusements, mediæval, 43.
+
+  Antiquity, apparent, of the buildings, 3.
+
+  Architectural revival at Oxford, 147, 148.
+
+  Aristotle, 31.
+
+  Ashmolean Museum, 24.
+
+  Augustinians, 35.
+
+  _Aulæ_, 39.
+
+
+  Bacon, Roger, 32, 33, 37.
+
+  Bacon, Sir Nicholas, 91.
+
+  Balliol College, 50;
+    intellectual revival in, 141.
+
+  Baring, T. C., 138.
+
+  Benedictines, 35.
+
+  Bentham, Jeremy, 137.
+
+  Bentley, Richard, 129.
+
+  Black Prince, the, 100.
+
+  Bocardo, 88.
+
+  Bodleian Library, 19, 20, 21, 97.
+
+  Bodley, Sir Thomas, 20, 93.
+
+  Bologna, University of, 29.
+
+  Botanic Garden, 97.
+
+  Boyle, Charles, 119.
+
+  Bradwardine, Thomas, 31.
+
+  Brasenose College, 67 _et sq._, 74, 75.
+
+  Broadwalk, the, 140.
+
+  Brome, Adam de, 52.
+
+  Buildings, dates of, 3 _et sq._
+
+  Butler, Bishop, 137.
+
+
+  Cardinal College, 83.
+
+  Carmellites, 35.
+
+  Celibacy enjoined on Heads of Colleges, 96;
+    effects of its withdrawal, 132, 133.
+
+  Chamberdekyns, 39, 99.
+
+  Charles I. at Oxford, 113, 114.
+
+  Charles II. at Oxford, 123.
+
+  Chicheley, Archbishop, 70, 71.
+
+  Christ Church Cathedral, 35.
+
+  Christ Church College, 80 _et sq._;
+    intellectual revival in, 128, 129, 140, 141.
+
+  Cistercians, 35.
+
+  Civil War, Oxford in the time of the, 112 _et sq._
+
+  Clarendon, Earl of, 18, 107.
+
+  Clarendon Building, 18, 19.
+
+  Clarendon Press, 19.
+
+  Class Lists, 142.
+
+  Clayton, Thos., wife of, 132.
+
+  Clerical profession, dominance of, 104.
+
+  Colet, John, 76.
+
+  College life, 9 _et sq._
+
+  Colleges, administration and government of, 9 _et sq._;
+    growing importance of, 99 _et sq._;
+    the present intellectual revival in the, 152 _et sq._
+
+  Commemoration, 15.
+
+  Common Room life, 157.
+
+  Commons, 49.
+
+  Commonwealth, Oxford in the time of the, 114 _et sq._
+
+  Conant, John, 116.
+
+  Congregation, 8.
+
+  Convocation, 8.
+
+  Convocation House, 13, 14, 97.
+
+  Corpus Christi College, 75.
+
+  Cranmer, Archbishop, 88, 89.
+
+  Cromwell, Oliver, Chancellor of Oxford, 118.
+
+
+  Degrees, manner of conferring, 13.
+
+  Disputation, stress laid upon, 30.
+
+  Divinity School, 14.
+
+  Dominicans, 36.
+
+  Duns Scotus, 31.
+
+  Durham College, 91.
+
+
+  Egglesfield, Robert, 52.
+
+  Eldon, Lord, 135, 137.
+
+  Elizabeth (Queen), 98.
+
+  Elmsley, Peter, 136.
+
+  Erasmus, D., 76.
+
+  "Essays and Reviews," authors of, 24.
+
+  Eton, 59.
+
+  Eveleigh, John, 141.
+
+  Evelyn, John, 116, 119.
+
+  Examinations, 21, 22.
+
+  Examination system, the, 153, 154.
+
+  Examination-rooms. _See_ Schools.
+
+  Exeter College, 50, 53 _et sq._
+
+
+  Faculties, 28.
+
+  Falkland, Viscount, 107.
+
+  Fawkes's (Guy) lantern, 21.
+
+  Fell, John, 124.
+
+  Fellows, 46.
+
+  Fellowships, 102.
+
+  Fleming, Bishop, 68.
+
+  Founders, portraits of, 21.
+
+  Foxe, Bishop, 77.
+
+  Franciscans, 36.
+
+  Frydeswide, St., 87.
+
+
+  Gibbon, Edward, 137.
+
+  Gladstone, W. E., 22.
+
+  Graduation. _See_ Degrees.
+
+  Great Hall of the University, the, 51.
+
+  Great Tew, 107.
+
+  Grocyn, William, 76.
+
+  Grosseteste, Robert, 38, 44.
+
+
+  Halls, 39, 98, 99.
+
+  Hart Hall, 137.
+
+  Hebdomadal Council, 106.
+
+  Hertford College, 138.
+
+  High Church Traditions at Oxford, 144 _et sq._
+
+  Hooker, Richard, 108.
+
+  Houses, monastic, 50.
+
+  Humanists, the, 77.
+
+  Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, 20, 76.
+
+
+  Inception, 31.
+
+
+  Jacobitism at Oxford, 127, 128.
+
+  James I., 22, 98.
+
+  James II., statue of, 125.
+
+  Jesus College, 94.
+
+  Jews at Oxford in the Middle Ages, 42.
+
+  Johnson, Samuel, at Oxford, 138.
+
+
+  Keble, John, 147.
+
+  Keble College, 147.
+
+
+  Laud, Archbishop, 109 _et sq._
+
+  Leicester, Earl of, 108.
+
+  Lime Walk at Trinity College, the, 140.
+
+  Linacre, Thomas, 76.
+
+  Lincoln College, 67 _et sq._
+
+  Livery, 49.
+
+  Locke, John, 124.
+
+  Lowth, Robert, 136.
+
+
+  Magdalen College, 67 _et sq._, 72 _et sq._, 130.
+
+  Magdalen College Case, 126.
+
+  Manchester College, 155.
+
+  Manning, H. E., 24.
+
+  Mansfield College, 155.
+
+  Marisco, Adam de, 44.
+
+  Martyr, Catherine, 87.
+
+  Maynard, Joseph, 121.
+
+  Mendicant Orders, 36.
+
+  Merton, Walter de, 44, 45.
+
+  Merton College, 45 _et sq._
+
+  Mob Quad, 45.
+
+  Monastic Orders, 35.
+
+  Monastic Oxford, 35.
+
+  Monasteries, 35, 37, 50, 53.
+
+  Montfort, Simon de, 37, 38.
+
+  More, Sir Thomas, 76.
+
+  Museum, the Ashmolean. _See_ Ashmolean.
+
+  Museum, the University, 153, 154.
+
+
+  Neo-Catholicism. _See_ Tractarianism.
+
+  Neville, George, 101.
+
+  Newman, J. H., 14, 24, 145, 148.
+
+  New College, 55 _et sq._
+
+  Newton, Isaac, 105.
+
+  Newton, Richard, 137.
+
+  Non-conformists excluded, 123.
+
+
+  Ockham, 31.
+
+  Oldham, Hugh, 78.
+
+  Oriel College, 50, 52.
+
+  Osney Abbey, 35.
+
+  Owen, John, 116.
+
+  Oxford (the name), derivation of, 2.
+
+  Oxford Architectural Society, 147.
+
+  Oxford (the city), situation of, 1;
+    environs of, 1, 2;
+    of the 13th century, 27 _et sq._
+
+  Oxford (the University),
+    administration and government of, 7 _et sq._, 106 _et sq._;
+    origin and growth of, 25 _et sq._;
+    political proclivities of, 28, 37, 105;
+    in the 18th century, 130 _et sq._;
+    in the 19th century, 140 _et sq._;
+    intellectual revival of, in the present day, 152.
+
+  Oxford Movement, the. _See_ Tractarianism.
+
+  Oxford University Commissions (1850 and 1876), 149, 151.
+
+
+  Papacy, the, and the Universities, 34, 37.
+
+  Paris, University of, 27, 34.
+
+  Pattison, Mark, 70.
+
+  Pembroke College, 97.
+
+  Peel, Robert, 142.
+
+  Petre, Sir William, 93.
+
+  Philippa, Queen, 52.
+
+  Philosophy, Scholastic, early addiction to, 30.
+
+  Pope, Cardinal, 92.
+
+  Pope, Sir Thomas, 91.
+
+  Portraits of Founders, 21.
+
+  Press, the University (_see also_ Clarendon Press), 19.
+
+  Proctors, 10, 13, 14.
+
+  Professors, 10.
+
+  Protectorate, the. _See_ Commonwealth.
+
+  Puritanism and Oxford, 115 _et sq._
+
+  Pusey, E. B., 24, 145.
+
+
+  Queen's College, 50, 52.
+
+
+  Radcliffe, Dr. John, 23.
+
+  Radcliffe Library, 23.
+
+  Reformation, influence of, on Oxford, 108, 110.
+
+  Religious tests, 90.
+
+  Renaissance, the Mediæval, 23.
+
+  Restoration, the, and Oxford, 120 _et sq._
+
+  Revolution, the (1688), and Oxford, 125, 127.
+
+  Richard III. at Oxford, 73, 74.
+
+  Rotheram, Bishop, 69.
+
+  Routh, Martin, 136.
+
+  Royal Commissions. _See_ Oxford University Commissions.
+
+  Royal Society, The, 119 _et sq._
+
+
+  St. Frydeswide's Church, 35.
+
+  St. John's College, 92.
+
+  St. Mary of Winton, College of, 56.
+
+  St. Mary's Church, 15, 24.
+
+  St. Michael's Church, 25.
+
+  Salerno, University of, 27.
+
+  Scholars, 46 _et sq._
+
+  Schools, the, 21.
+
+  Schools, the new examination, 153.
+
+  Sermons, University, 24.
+
+  Sheldon, Archbishop, 14.
+
+  Sheldonian Theatre, 14, 15, 124, 125.
+
+  Smith, Adam, 137.
+
+  _Socii_, 46.
+
+  Sports, 162.
+
+  Statutes, fettering influence of, 101, 102;
+    disregarded, 130.
+
+  Stowell, Lord, 137.
+
+  Student life, mediæval, 39 _et sq._, 63 _et sq._
+
+  Students, mediæval, 39, 41 _et sq._;
+    their affrays with the townspeople, 41, 42;
+    their amusements, 43.
+
+  Suburbs of Oxford, 156 _et sq._
+
+
+  Teachers, the first, at Oxford, 28.
+
+  Tests. _See_ Religious tests.
+
+  Theology, 32.
+
+  Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, 73.
+
+  Tom Tower, 81.
+
+  Tractarianism, 145 _et sq._
+
+  Trinity College, 91.
+
+  "Trojans, The," 77.
+
+  Turner's picture of Oxford, 2.
+
+  Tutors, 9.
+
+
+  Undergraduate life, modern, 162, 163.
+
+  Universities, rise of, in Europe, 27.
+
+  University College, 51.
+
+  University Gallery, 21.
+
+
+  "Verdant Green," 162.
+
+  Vice-Chancellorship, the, 106.
+
+  Vives, Juan Luis, 81.
+
+
+  Wadham, Dorothy, 96.
+
+  Wadham, Sir Nicholas, 95.
+
+  Wadham College, 94.
+
+  Walker, Obadiah, 126.
+
+  Ward, Seth, 116.
+
+  Ward, W. G., 145.
+
+  Warton, Thomas, 136.
+
+  Waynflete, Bishop, 72, 73.
+
+  Wellington, Duke of, his inauguration as Chancellor, 17.
+
+  Wesley, John, 70.
+
+  White, Sir Thomas, 92, 93.
+
+  Wilkins, John, 116, 119, 122.
+
+  William of Durham, 50.
+
+  William of Wykeham, 55 _et sq._
+
+  Winchester School, 58.
+
+  Windebank, Thos., 114.
+
+  Wolsey, Cardinal, 59, 81, 82 _et sq._
+
+  Wood, Anthony (_quoted_), 120, 121.
+
+  Worcester College, 35.
+
+  Wren, Christopher, 3, 82.
+
+  Wycliffe, John, 54.
+
+  Wykeham. _See_ William of Wykeham.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Oxford and Her Colleges, by Goldwin Smith
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Oxford and Her Colleges, by Goldwin Smith.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oxford and Her Colleges, by Goldwin Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oxford and Her Colleges
+
+Author: Goldwin Smith
+
+Release Date: October 31, 2011 [EBook #37893]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 20%;">
+<img src="images/dec-002.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 764px;">
+<img src="images/illus-004.jpg" width="764" height="1024" alt="RADCLIFFE LIBRARY." title="" />
+<span class="caption">RADCLIFFE LIBRARY.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>OXFORD</h1>
+<h2>AND HER COLLEGES</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>A View from the Radcliffe Library</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>BY</h5>
+<h2>GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L.</h2>
+
+<h5>AUTHOR OF "THE UNITED STATES: AN OUTLINE OF<br />
+POLITICAL HISTORY," ETC.</h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS REPRODUCED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>New York<br />
+MACMILLAN AND CO.<br />
+<small>AND LONDON</small>
+1895</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1893,<br />
+By MACMILLAN AND CO.</span></h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">Norwood Press:<br />
+J. S. Cushing &amp; Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith.<br />
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The writer has seldom enjoyed himself
+more than in showing an American
+friend over Oxford. He has felt something
+of the same enjoyment in preparing,
+with the hope of interesting some
+American visitors, this outline of the history
+of the University and her Colleges.
+He would gladly believe that Oxford and
+Cambridge, having now, by emancipation
+and reform, been reunited to the nation,
+may also be reunited to the race; and
+that to them, not less than to the Universities
+of Germany, the eyes of Ameri<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>cans
+desirous of studying at a European
+as well as at an American University may
+henceforth be turned.</p>
+
+<p>It was once the writer's duty, in the
+service of a Royal Commission of Inquiry,
+to make himself well acquainted with the
+archives of the University and its Colleges.
+But he has also availed himself
+of a number of recent publications, such
+as the series of the Oxford Historical
+Society, the history of the University by
+Mr. Maxwell Lyte, and the volume on
+the Colleges of Oxford and their traditions,
+edited by Mr. Andrew Clark, as
+well as of the excellent little Guide published
+by Messrs. James Parker and Co.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;">
+<img src="images/dec-009.jpg" width="100%" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 80px;">
+<img src="images/dropcap-009.png" width="80" height="80" alt="T" title="T" />
+</div>
+<p class="negin">o gain a view of Oxford from a
+central point, we mount to the top
+of the Radcliffe Library. We
+will hope that it is a fine summer day,
+that, as we come out upon the roof, the
+old city, with all its academical buildings
+lying among their gardens and
+groves, presents itself to view in its
+beauty, and that the sound of its bells,
+awakening the memories of the ages, is in
+the air. The city is seen lying on the
+spit of gravel between the Isis, as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+Thames is here called, which is the scene
+of boat races, and the Cherwell, famed for
+water-lilies. It is doubtful whether the
+name means the ford of the oxen, or the
+ford of the river (<i>oxen</i> being a corruption
+of <i>ousen</i>). Flat, sometimes flooded, is the
+site. To ancient founders of cities, a river
+for water carriage and rich meads for kine
+were prime attractions. But beyond the
+flat we look to a lovely country, rolling
+and sylvan, from many points of which,
+Wytham, Hinksey, Bagley, Headington,
+Elsfield, Stowe Wood, are charming views,
+nearer or more distant, of the city. Turner's
+view is taken from Bagley, but it is
+rather a Turner poem than a simple picture
+of Oxford.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There is in Oxford much that is not
+as old as it looks. The buildings of
+the Bodleian Library, University College,
+Oriel, Exeter, and some others, medi&aelig;val
+or half medi&aelig;val in their style, are Stuart
+in date. In Oxford the Middle Ages
+lingered long. Yon cupola of Christ
+Church is the work of Wren, yon towers
+of All Souls' are the work of a still later
+hand. The Headington stone, quickly
+growing black and crumbling, gives the
+buildings a false hue of antiquity. An
+American visitor, misled by the blackness
+of University College, remarked to his
+host that the buildings must be immensely
+old. "No," replied his host,
+"their colour deceives you; their age is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+not more than two hundred years." It
+need not be said that Palladian edifices
+like Queen's, or the new buildings of
+Magdalen, are not the work of a Chaplain
+of Edward III., or a Chancellor of Henry
+VI. But of the University buildings, St.
+Mary's Church and the Divinity School,
+of the College buildings, the old quadrangles
+of Merton, New College, Magdalen,
+Brasenose, and detached pieces not
+a few are genuine Gothic of the Founders'
+age. Here are six centuries, if you choose
+to include the Norman castle, here are
+eight centuries, and, if you choose to include
+certain Saxon remnants in Christ
+Church Cathedral, here are ten centuries,
+chronicled in stone. Of the corporate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+lives of these Colleges, the threads have
+run unbroken through all the changes and
+revolutions, political, religious, and social,
+between the Barons' War and the present
+hour. The economist goes to their muniment
+rooms for the record of domestic
+management and expenditure during those
+ages. Till yesterday, the codes of statutes
+embodying their domestic law, though
+largely obsolete, remained unchanged.
+Nowhere else in England, at all events,
+unless it be at the sister University, can
+the eye and mind feed upon so much
+antiquity, certainly not upon so much
+antique beauty, as on the spot where we
+stand. That all does not belong to the
+same remote antiquity, adds to the inter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>est
+and to the charm. This great home
+of learning, with its many architectures,
+has been handed from generation to generation,
+each generation making its own
+improvements, impressing its own tastes,
+embodying its own tendencies, down to
+the present hour. It is like a great family
+mansion, which owner after owner has
+enlarged or improved to meet his own
+needs or tastes, and which, thus chronicling
+successive phases of social and
+domestic life, is wanting in uniformity but
+not in living interest or beauty.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Oxford is a federation of Colleges. It
+had been strictly so for two centuries,
+and every student had been required to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+be a member of a College when, in 1856,
+non-collegiate students, of whom there
+are now a good many, were admitted.
+The University is the federal government.
+The Chancellor, its nominal head, is a
+non-resident grandee, usually a political
+leader whom the University delights to
+honour and whose protection it desires.
+Only on great state occasions does he
+appear in his gown richly embroidered
+with gold. The acting chief is the Vice-Chancellor,
+one of the heads of Colleges,
+who marches with the Bedel carrying the
+mace before him, and has been sometimes
+taken by strangers for the attendant of
+the Bedel. With him are the two Proctors,
+denoted by their velvet sleeves, named<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+by the Colleges in turn, the guardians
+of University discipline. The University
+Legislature consists of three houses,&mdash;an
+elective Council, made up equally of
+heads of Colleges, professors, and Masters
+of Arts; the Congregation of residents,
+mostly teachers of the University or Colleges;
+and the Convocation, which consists
+of all Masters of Arts, resident or
+non-resident, if they are present to vote.
+Congregation numbers four hundred, Convocation
+nearly six thousand. Legislation
+is initiated by the Council, and has to
+make its way through Convocation and
+Congregation, with some chance of being
+wrecked between the academical Congregation,
+which is progressive, and the rural<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+Convocation, which is conservative. The
+University regulates the general studies,
+holds all the examinations, except that at
+entrance, which is held by the Colleges,
+confers all the degrees and honours, and
+furnishes the police of the academical city.
+Its professors form the general and superior
+staff of teachers.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Each College, at the same time, is a
+little polity in itself. It has its own
+governing body, consisting of a Head
+(President, Master, Principal, Provost, or
+Warden) and a body of Fellows. It holds
+its own estates; noble estates, some of
+them are. It has its private staff of
+teachers or tutors, usually taken from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+Fellows, though the subjects of teaching
+are those recognised by the University
+examinations. The relation between the
+tutors teaching and that of the professor
+is rather unsettled and debatable, varying
+in some measure with the subjects, since
+physical science can be taught only in
+the professor's lecture-room, while classics
+and mathematics can be taught in the
+class-room of the tutor. Before 1856 the
+professorial system of teaching had long
+lain in abeyance, and the tutorial system
+had prevailed alone. Each College administers
+its domestic discipline. The
+University Proctor, if he chases a student
+to the College gates, must there halt and
+apply to the College for extradition. To<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+the College the student immediately belongs;
+it is responsible for his character
+and habits. The personal relations between
+him and his tutor are, or ought to
+be, close. Oxford life hitherto has been
+a College life. To his College the Oxford
+man has mainly looked back. Here his
+early friendships have been formed. In
+these societies the ruling class of England,
+the lay professions and landed gentry
+mingling with the clergy, has been bred.
+It is to the College, generally, that benefactions
+and bequests are given; with the
+College that the rich and munificent
+<i>alumnus</i> desires to unite his name; in
+the College Hall that he hopes his portrait
+will hang, to be seen with grateful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+eyes. The University, however, shares
+the attachment of the <i>alumnus</i>. Go to
+yonder river on an evening of the College
+boat races, or to yonder cricket ground
+when a College match is being played,
+and you will see the strength of College
+feeling. At a University race or match
+in London the Oxford or Cambridge sentiment
+appears. In an American University
+there is nothing like the College
+bond, unless it be that of the Secret, or,
+to speak more reasonably, the Greek Letter
+societies, which form inner social circles
+with a sentiment of their own.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 983px;">
+<img src="images/illus-024.jpg" width="983" height="768" alt="DIVINITY SCHOOL, FROM EXETER GARDENS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">DIVINITY SCHOOL, FROM EXETER GARDENS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The buildings of the University lie
+mainly in the centre of the city close<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+around us. There is the Convocation
+House, the hall of the University Legislature,
+where, in times of collision between
+theological parties, or between the party
+of the ancient system of education and
+that of the modern system, lively debates
+have been heard. In it, also, are conferred
+the ordinary degrees. They are
+still conferred in the religious form of
+words, handed down from the Middle
+Ages, the candidate kneeling down before
+the Vice-Chancellor in the posture of
+medi&aelig;val homage. Oxford is the classic
+ground of old forms and ceremonies.
+Before each degree is conferred, the Proctors
+march up and down the House to
+give any objector to the degree&mdash;an un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>satisfied
+creditor, for example&mdash;the opportunity
+of entering a <i>caveat</i> by "plucking"
+the Proctor's sleeve. Adjoining the Convocation
+House is the Divinity School,
+the only building of the University, saving
+St. Mary's Church, which dates from
+the Middle Ages. A very beautiful relic
+of the Middle Ages it is when seen from
+the gardens of Exeter College. Here are
+held the examinations for degrees in theology,
+styled, in the Oxford of old, queen
+of the sciences, and long their tyrant.
+Here, again, is the Sheldonian Theatre,
+the gift of Archbishop Sheldon, a Primate
+of the Restoration period, and as readers
+of Pepys's "Diary" know, of Restoration
+character, but a patron of learning. University
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+exercises used, during the Middle
+Ages, to be performed in St. Mary's
+Church. In those days the church was
+the public building for all purposes, that
+of a theatre among the rest. But the
+Anglican was more scrupulous in his use
+of the sacred edifice than the Roman
+Catholic. In the Sheldonian Theatre is
+held the annual commemoration of Founders
+and benefactors, the grand academical
+festival, at which the Doctorate appears
+in its pomp of scarlet, filing in to the
+sound of the organ, the prize poems and
+essays are read, and the honorary degrees
+are conferred in the presence of a gala
+crowd of visitors drawn by the summer
+beauty of Oxford and the pleasures that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+close the studious year. In former days
+the ceremony used to be enlivened and
+sometimes disgraced by the jests of the
+<i>terr&aelig; filius</i>, a licensed or tolerated buffoon
+whose personalities provoked the indignation
+of Evelyn, and in one case, at least,
+were visited with expulsion. It is now
+enlivened, and, as visitors think, sometimes
+disgraced, by the uproarious joking
+of the undergraduates' gallery. This
+modern license the authorities of the
+University are believed to have brought
+on themselves by encouraging political
+demonstrations. The Sheldonian Theatre
+is also the scene of grand receptions,
+and of the inauguration of the Chancellor.
+That flaunting portrait of George IV. in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+his royal robes, by Lawrence, with the military
+portraits of the Emperor of Russia
+and the King of Prussia by which it is
+flanked and its gorgeousness is rebuked,
+mark the triumphs of the monarchs, whose
+cause had become that of European independence,
+over Napoleon. Perhaps the
+most singular ceremony witnessed by
+these walls was the inauguration of the
+Iron Duke as Chancellor of the University.
+This was the climax of Oxford
+devotion to the Tory party, and such was
+the gathering as to cause it to be said that
+if the roof of the Sheldonian Theatre had
+then fallen in, the party would have been
+extinguished. The Duke, as if to mark
+the incongruity, put on his academical cap<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+with the wrong side in front, and in reading
+his Latin speech, lapsed into a thundering
+false quantity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 943px;">
+<img src="images/illus-028.jpg" width="943" height="768" alt="INTERIOR OF SHELDONIAN THEATRE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">INTERIOR OF SHELDONIAN THEATRE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Clarendon was built with the proceeds
+of the history written by the Minister
+of the early Restoration, who was
+Chancellor of the University, and whose
+touching letter of farewell to her, on his
+fall and flight from England, may be seen
+in the Bodleian Library. There, also,
+are preserved documents which may help
+to explain his fall. They are the written
+dialogues which passed between him and
+his master at the board of the Privy
+Council, and they show that Clarendon,
+having been the political tutor of Charles
+the exile, too much bore himself as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+political tutor of Charles the king. In
+the Clarendon are the University Council
+Chamber and the Registry. Once it was
+the University press, but the press has
+now a far larger mansion yonder to the
+north-west, whence, besides works of learning
+and science, go forth Bibles and prayer-books
+in all languages to all quarters of
+the globe. Legally, as a printer of Bibles
+the University has a privilege, but its real
+privilege is that which it secures for itself
+by the most scrupulous accuracy and by
+infinitesimal profits.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 956px;">
+<img src="images/illus-034.jpg" width="956" height="768" alt="THE BODLEIAN." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE BODLEIAN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Close by is the University Library, the
+Bodleian, one of those great libraries of
+the world in which you can ring up at a
+few minutes' notice almost any author of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+any age or country. This Library is one
+of those entitled by law to a copy of every
+book printed in the United Kingdom, and
+it is bound to preserve all that it receives,
+a duty which might in the end burst any
+building, were it not that the paper of
+many modern books is happily perishable.
+A foundation was laid for a University
+Library in the days of Henry VI., by the
+good Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, who
+gave a collection of books. But in the
+rough times which followed, the Duke's
+donation perished, only two or three precious
+relics being saved from the wreck.
+Sir Thomas Bodley, a wealthy knight and
+diplomatist of the time of James I., it was
+who reared this pile, severely square and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+bare, though a skilful variation of the
+string course in the different stories somewhat
+relieves its heaviness. In the antique
+reading-room, breathing study, and
+not overthronged with readers, the bookworm
+finds a paradise. Over the Library
+is the University Gallery, the visitor to
+which is entreated to avert his eyes from
+the fictitious portraits of founders of early
+Colleges, and to fix them, if he will, on the
+royal portraits which painfully attest the
+loyalty of the University, or, as a relief
+from these, on Guy Fawkes's lantern.
+Beneath the Library used to be the
+Schools or examination-rooms of the University,
+scenes of youthful hopes and fears;
+perhaps, as the aspirants to honours were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+a minority, of more fears than hopes; and
+at those doors formerly gathered the eager
+crowd of candidates and their friends to
+read the class lists which were posted
+there. But the examination system has
+outgrown its ancient tenement and migrated
+to yonder new-built pile in High
+Street, more fitted, perhaps, by its elaborate
+ornamentation for the gala and the
+dance, than for the torture of undergraduates.
+In the quadrangle of the Bodleian
+sits aloft, on the face of a tower displaying
+all the orders of classical architecture, the
+learned King and royal theologian. The
+Bible held in his hand is believed to
+have fallen down on the day that Mr.
+Gladstone lost his election as Member<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+for the University of Oxford and set
+forth on a career of liberalism which has
+since led him to the disestablishment
+of the Church. We stand on the Radcliffe,
+formerly the medical and physical
+library, now a supplement and an additional
+reading-room of the Bodleian, the
+gift of Dr. Radcliffe, Court Physician and
+despot of the profession in the times of
+William and Anne, of whose rough sayings,
+and sayings more than rough, some
+are preserved in his "Life." He it was
+who told William III. that he would not
+have His Majesty's two legs for his three
+kingdoms, and who is said to have punished
+the giver of a niggardly fee by a
+prediction of death, which was fulfilled by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+the terrors of the patient. Close at hand
+is the Ashmolean, the old University
+Museum, now only a museum of antiquities,
+the most precious of which is King
+Alfred's gem. Museum and Medical Library
+have together migrated to the new
+edifice on the north side of the city.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 977px;">
+<img src="images/illus-040.jpg" width="977" height="768" alt="THE HIGH STREET." title="" />
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="4" summary="" width="900px">
+<tr><td align='left'>University College.</td><td align='center'>St. Mary's Church.</td><td align='right'>Queen's College.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<span class="caption">THE HIGH STREET.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>But of all the University buildings the
+most beautiful is St. Mary's Church, where
+the University sermons are preached, and
+from the pulpit of which, in the course of
+successive generations and successive controversies,
+a changeful and often heady
+current of theology has flowed. There
+preached Newman, Pusey, and Manning;
+there preached Hampden, Stanley, and
+the authors of "Essays and Reviews."</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+<p>Oxford and Cambridge were not at
+first Universities of Colleges. The Colleges
+were after-growths which for a time
+absorbed the University. The University
+of Oxford was born in the twelfth century,
+fully a century before the foundation of
+the first College. To recall the Oxford
+of the thirteenth century, one must bid
+vanish all the buildings which now meet
+our eyes, except yonder grim castle to
+the west of the city, and the stern tower
+of St. Michael's Church, at once the bell
+tower of the Church and a defence of
+the city gate facing the dangerous north.
+The man-at-arms from the castle, the warder
+from the gate, looks down upon a
+city of five or six thousand inhabitants,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+huddled for protection under the castle,
+and within those walls of which a fine
+remnant is seen bounding the domain of
+New College. In this city there is a
+concourse of students brought together
+to hear a body of teachers who have been
+led, we know not how, to open their mart
+of knowledge here. Printing not having
+been invented, and books being scarce,
+the fountain of knowledge is the lecture-room
+of the professor. It is the age of
+an intellectual revival so remarkable as
+to be called the Medi&aelig;val Renaissance.
+After the migrations and convulsions, by
+which the world was cast in a new mould,
+ensues a reign of comparative peace and
+settled government, under which the de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>sire
+of knowledge has been reawakened.
+Universities have been coming out all
+over Europe like stars in the night; Paris,
+famous for theology and philosophy, perhaps
+being the brightest of the constellation,
+while Bologna was famed for law
+and Salerno for medicine. It was probably
+in the reign of Henry I. that the
+company of teachers settled at Oxford,
+and before the end of the thirteenth century
+students had collected to a number
+which fable exaggerates to thirty thousand,
+but which was really large enough to
+crowd the little city and even the bastions
+of its walls. A light had shone on youths
+who sat in the shadow of feudal servitude.
+There is no more romantic period in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+history of human intellect than the thirteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The teachers, after the fashion of that
+age, formed themselves into a guild, which
+guarded its monopoly. The undergraduate
+was the apprentice; the degree was
+a license to teach, and carried with it
+the duty of teaching, though in time it
+became a literary title, unconnected with
+teaching, and coveted for its own sake.
+The University obtained a charter, elected
+its Chancellor, formed its academical Legislature
+of graduates, obtained jurisdiction
+over its own members. In time it marshalled
+its teachers and students into
+regular Faculties of theology, law, and
+medicine, with arts, or general and liberal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+culture, if the name can be applied to
+anything so rudimentary as the literature
+and science of that day, forming the basis
+of all. At first the professors taught
+where they could; in the cloisters, perhaps,
+of St. Frydeswide's monastery, subsequently
+absorbed by Christ Church; in
+the porches of houses. A row of lecture-rooms,
+called the Schools, was afterwards
+provided in School Street, which ran north
+and south just under the Radcliffe. So
+little anchored was the University by
+buildings, that when maltreated at Oxford
+it was ready to pack up its literary wares
+and migrate to another city such as
+Northampton or Stamford. Many of the
+undergraduates at first were mere boys,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+to whom the University was a grammar
+school. For the real University students
+the dominant study was that of the School
+philosophy, logical and philosophical, with
+its strange metaphysical jargon; an immense
+attempt to extract knowledge from
+consciousness by syllogistic reasoning, instead
+of gathering it from observation,
+experience, and research, mocking by its
+barrenness of fruit the faith of the enthusiastic
+student, yet training the mind to
+preternatural acuteness, and perhaps forming
+a necessary stage in the mental education
+of the race. The great instrument
+of high education was disputation, often
+repeated, and conducted with the most
+elaborate forms in the tournaments of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+Schools, which might beget readiness of
+wit and promptness of elocution, but could
+hardly beget habits of calm investigation
+or paramount love of truth. The great
+event in the academical life was Inception,
+when the student performed exercises
+which inaugurated his teachership; and
+this was commonly celebrated by a feast,
+the expenditure on which the University
+was called upon to restrain. Oxford produced
+some of the greatest schoolmen:
+Duns Scotus, the "subtle," who had
+written thirteen folio volumes of arid
+metaphysics before his early death; Bradwardine,
+the "profound," and Ockham,
+the "invincible and unmatched." The
+idol was Aristotle, viewed mainly as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+metaphysician, and imperfectly understood
+through translations. To reconcile Aristotelian
+speculation with orthodox theology
+was a hard task, not always successfully
+performed. Theology was, of course, first
+in dignity of the Faculties, but the most
+lucrative was the civil and canon law
+practised in the ecclesiastical courts and,
+as Roman, misliked by the patriotic Parliament.
+Philosophy complained that it
+had to trudge afoot while the liegemen
+of Justinian rode high in the car of preferment.
+Of physical science the hour
+was not yet come, but before its hour
+came its wonderful and almost miraculous
+precursor, Roger Bacon, who anticipated
+the invention of gunpowder and the tele<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>scope,
+and whose fabled study stood over
+Folly Bridge, till, with Carfax's monument
+and Cranmer's prison, it was cleared away
+by an improving city corporation. Roger
+Bacon was, of course, taken for a dealer in
+black arts; an astrologer and an alchemist
+he was, and at the same time an illustrious
+example of the service indirectly rendered
+by astrology and alchemy in luring to an
+investigation of nature which led to real
+discoveries, just as Columbus, seeking a
+western passage to the golden cities of the
+East, discovered America.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>All the Universities belonged not to one
+nation but to Latin Christendom, the educated
+population of which circulated among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+them. At one time there was a migration
+to Oxford from the University of Paris,
+which had got into trouble with the government.
+Of all the Universities alike, ecclesiastical
+Latin was the language. The
+scholars all ranked with the clerical order,
+so that at Oxford, scholar and clerk, townsman
+and layman, were convertible terms.
+In those days all intellectual callings, and
+even the higher mechanical arts, were
+clerical. The student was exempted by
+his tonsure from lay jurisdiction. The Papacy
+anxiously claimed the Universities
+as parts of its realm, and only degrees
+granted by the Pope's authority were current
+throughout Christendom. When,
+with Edward III., came the long war<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+between England and France, and when
+the confederation of Latin Christendom
+was beginning to break up, the English
+Universities grew more national.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Incorporated with the buildings of Worcester
+College are some curious little tenements
+once occupied by a colony from
+different Benedictine Monasteries. These,
+with the Church of St. Frydeswide, now
+Christ Church Cathedral, and the small
+remains of Osney Abbey, are about the
+only relics of monastic Oxford which survived
+the Reformation. But in the Middle
+Ages there were Houses for novices of the
+great Orders, Benedictines, Cistercians,
+Carmelites, Augustinians, and most notable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+and powerful of all, the two great mendicant
+Orders of Dominicans and Franciscans.
+The Mendicants, who came into
+the country angels of humility as well as
+of asceticism, begging their bread, and
+staining the ground with the blood from
+their shoeless feet, soon changed their
+character, and began in the interest of
+Holy Church to grasp power and amass
+wealth. The Franciscans especially, like
+the Jesuits of an after day, strove to master
+the centres of intellectual influence. They
+strove to put the laws of the University
+under their feet. Struggles between them
+and the seculars, with appeals to the Crown,
+were the consequence. Attraction of callow
+youth to an angelic life seems to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+been characteristic of the Brethren of St.
+Francis, and it is conjectured that in this
+way Bacon became a monk. Faintly patronised
+by a liberal and lettered Pope, he
+was arraigned for necromancy by his Order,
+and ended his days in gloom, if not in a
+monastic prison. The Church of the
+Middle Ages with one hand helped to
+open the door of knowledge, with the other
+she sought to close it. At last she sought
+to close it with both hands, and in her
+cruel panic established the Inquisition.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Tory in its later days, the University
+was liberal in its prime. It took the part
+of the Barons and De Montfort against
+Henry III., and a corps of its students<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+fought against the King under their own
+banner at Northampton. Instead of being
+the stronghold of reaction, it was the focus
+of active, even of turbulent aspiration, and
+the saying ran, that when there was fighting
+at Oxford there was war in England.
+Oxford's hero in the thirteenth century
+was its Chancellor, Grosseteste, the friend
+of De Montfort and the great reformer of
+his day, "of prelates the rebuker, of monks
+the corrector, of scholars the instructor,
+of the people the preacher, of the incontinent
+the chastiser, of writings the industrious
+investigator, of the Romans the
+hammer and contemner." If Grosseteste
+patronised the Friars, it was in their
+first estate.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>At first the students lodged as "Chamberdekyns"
+with citizens, but that system
+proving dangerous to order, they were
+gathered into hostels, or, to use the more
+dignified name, Halls (<i>aul&aelig;</i>) under a Principal,
+or Master of the University, who
+boarded and governed them. Of these
+Halls there were a great number, with
+their several names and signs. Till lately
+a few of them remained, though these had
+lost their original character, and become
+merely small Colleges, without any foundation
+except a Principal. The students
+in those days were mostly poor. Their
+indigence was almost taken for granted.
+Some of them begged; chests were provided
+by the charitable for loans to them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+A poor student's life was hard; if he was
+earnest in study, heroic. He shared a
+room with three or four chums, he slept
+under a rug, his fare was coarse and
+scanty, his garment was the gown which
+has now become merely an academical
+symbol, and thankful he was to be provided
+with a new one. He had no fire in
+his room, no glass in his window. As his
+exercises in the University Schools began
+at five in the morning, it is not likely that
+he read much at night, otherwise he would
+have to read by the light of a feeble lamp
+flickering with the wind. His manuscript
+was painful to read. The city was filthy,
+the water polluted with sewage; pestilence
+often swept through the crowded
+hive.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Medi&aelig;val students were a rough set;
+not less rough than enthusiastic; rougher
+than the students of the Quartier Latin or
+Heidelberg, their nearest counterparts in
+recent times. They wore arms, or kept
+them in their chambers, and they needed
+them not only in going to and from the
+University over roads beset with robbers,
+but in conflicts with the townspeople, with
+whom the University was at war. With
+the townspeople the students had desperate
+affrays, ancient precursors of the comparatively
+mild town and gown rows of this
+century. The defiant horns of the town
+were answered by the bells of the University.
+Arrows flew; blood was shed on
+both sides; Halls were stormed and de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>fended;
+till Royalty from Abingdon or
+Woodstock interfered with its men-at-arms,
+seconded by the Bishop with bell, book,
+and candle. A Papal Legate, an Italian
+on whom national feeling looks with jealousy,
+comes to Oxford. Scholars crowd to
+see him. There is a quarrel between them
+and his train. His cook flings a cauldron
+of boiling broth over an Irish student. The
+scholars fly to arms. The Legate is ignominiously
+chased from Oxford. Excommunications,
+royal thunders, and penitential
+performances follow. Jews settle in Oxford,
+ply their trade among the scholars, and
+form a quarter with invidiously wealthy
+mansions. There is a royal edict, forbidding
+them to exact more than forty-three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+per cent interest from the student. Wealth
+makes them insolent; they assault a religious
+procession, and with them also the
+students have affrays. Provincial feeling
+is strong, for the students are divided into
+two nations, the Northern and the Southern,
+which are always wrangling, and sometimes
+fight pitched battles with bows and
+arrows. The two Proctors, now the heads
+of University police, were appointed as
+tribunes of the two nations to settle elections
+and other matters between them
+without battle. Amusements as well as
+everything else were rude. Football and
+other rough games were played at Beaumont,
+a piece of ground to the north of
+the city; but there was nothing like that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+cricket field in the parks, nor like the sensation
+now created by the appearance of a
+renowned cricketer in his paddings before
+an admiring crowd, to display the fruit of
+his many years of assiduous practice in
+guarding his stumps. The Crown and
+local lords had to complain of a good deal
+of poaching in Bagley, Woodstock, Shotover,
+and Stowe Wood.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>To this Oxford, with its crowd of youth
+thirsting for knowledge, its turbulence, its
+vice, its danger from monkish encroachment,
+came Walter de Merton, one of the
+same historic group as Grosseteste and
+Grosseteste's friend, Adam de Marisco,
+the man of the hour, with the right device
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+in his mind. Merton had been Chancellor
+of Henry III. amidst the political storms
+of the time, from which he would gladly
+turn aside to a work of peaceful improvement.
+It was thus that violence in those
+ages paid with its left hand a tribute to
+civilisation. Merton's foundation is the
+first College, though University and Balliol
+come before it in the Calendar in
+deference to the priority of the benefactions
+out of which those Colleges grew.
+Yonder noble chapel in the Decorated
+style, with its tower and the old quadrangle
+beneath it, called, nobody knows
+why, Mob Quad, are the cradle of College
+life. Merton's plan was an academical
+brotherhood, which combined monastic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+order, discipline, and piety with the pursuit
+of knowledge. No monk or friar was
+ever to be admitted to his House. The
+members of the House are called in his
+statutes by the common name of Scholars,
+that of Fellows (<i>Socii</i>), which afterwards
+prevailed here and in all the other Colleges,
+denoting their union as an academical
+household. They were to live
+like monks in common; they were to take
+their meals together in the Refectory, and
+to study together in the common library,
+which may still be seen, dark and austere,
+with the chain by which a precious volume
+was attached to the desk. They had not
+a common dormitory, but they must have
+slept two or three in a room. Probably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+they were confined to their quadrangle,
+except when they were attending the
+Schools of the University, or allowed to
+leave it only with a companion as a safeguard.
+They were to elect their own
+Warden, and fill up by election vacancies
+in their own number. The Warden
+whom they had elected, they were to
+obey. They were to watch over each
+other's lives, and hold annual scrutinies
+into conduct. The Archbishop of Canterbury
+was to visit the College and see
+that the rule was kept. But the rule was
+moral and academical, not cloistral or
+ascetic. The medi&aelig;val round of religious
+services was to be duly performed, and
+prayers were to be said for the Founder's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+soul. But the main object was not prayer,
+contemplation, or masses for souls; it was
+study. Monks were permanently devoted
+to their Order, shut up for life in their
+monastery, and secluded from the world.
+The Scholars of Merton were destined to
+serve the world, into which they were to
+go forth when they had completed the
+course of preparation in their College.
+They were destined to serve the world
+as their Founder had served it. In fact,
+we find Wardens and Fellows of Merton
+employed by the State and the Church in
+important missions. A Scholar of Merton,
+though he was to obey the College
+authorities, took no monastic vow of obedience.
+He took no monastic vow of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+poverty; on the contrary, it was anticipated
+that he would gain wealth, of which
+he was exhorted to bestow a portion on
+his College. He took no monastic vow
+of celibacy, though, as one of the clerical
+order, he would of course not be permitted
+to marry. He was clerical as all Scholars
+in those days were clerical, not in the
+modern and professional sense of the term.
+The allowances of the Fellow were only
+his Commons, or food, and his Livery, or
+raiment, and there were to be as many
+Fellows as the estate could provide with
+these. Instruction was received not in
+College, but in the Schools of the University,
+to which the Scholars of Merton, like
+the other Scholars, were to resort. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+sort of grammar school, for boys of the
+Founder's kin, was attached to the College.
+But otherwise the work of the College
+was study, not tuition, nor did the
+statutes contemplate the admission of any
+members except those on the foundation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 987px;">
+<img src="images/illus-062.jpg" width="987" height="768" alt="MERTON COLLEGE, FROM FIELDS." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MERTON COLLEGE, FROM FIELDS.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Merton's plan, meeting the need of
+the hour, found acceptance. His College
+became the pattern for others both at
+Oxford and Cambridge. University, Balliol,
+Exeter, Oriel, and Queen's were modelled
+after it, and monastic Orders seem
+to have taken the hint in founding Houses
+for their novices at Oxford. University
+College grew out of the benefaction of
+William of Durham, an ecclesiastic who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+had studied at Paris, and left the University
+a sum of money for the maintenance
+of students of divinity. The University
+lodged them in a Hall styled the Great
+Hall of the University, which is still the
+proper corporate name of the College.
+In after days, this Hall, having grown
+into a College, wished to slip its neck out
+of the visitorial yoke of the University,
+and on the strength of its being the oldest
+foundation at Oxford, claimed as founder
+Alfred, to whom the foundation of the
+University was ascribed by fable, asserting
+that as a royal foundation it was under
+the visitorship of the Crown. Courts of
+law recognised the claim; a Hanoverian
+court of law probably recognised it with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+pleasure, as transferring power from a
+Tory University to the King; and thus
+was consecrated a fiction in palliation of
+which it can only be said, that the earliest
+of our literary houses may not improperly
+be dedicated to the restorer of English
+learning. Oriel was founded by a court
+Almoner, Adam de Brome, who displayed
+his courtliness by allowing his Scholars to
+speak French as well as Latin. Queen's
+was founded by a court Chaplain, Robert
+Egglesfield, and dedicated to the honour
+of his royal mistress, Queen Philippa.
+It was for a Provost and twelve Fellows
+who were to represent the number of
+Christ and his disciples, to sit at a table
+as Egglesfield had seen in a picture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+the Thirteen sitting at the Last Supper,
+though in crimson robes. Egglesfield's
+building has been swept away to make
+room for the Palladian palace on its site.
+But his name is kept in mind by the
+quaint custom of giving, on his day, a
+needle (<i>aiguille</i>) to each member of the
+foundation, with the injunction, Take that
+and be thrifty. Yonder stone <i>eagles</i> too
+on the building recall it. Exeter College
+was the work of a political Bishop who
+met his death in a London insurrection.</p>
+
+<p>As the fashion of founding Colleges
+grew, that of founding Monasteries decreased,
+and the more as the medi&aelig;val
+faith declined, and the great change drew
+near. That change was heralded by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+appearance of Wycliffe, a genuine off-spring
+of the University, for while he was
+the great religious reformer, he was also
+the great scholastic philosopher of his
+day. To what College or Hall his name
+and fame belong is a moot point among
+antiquaries. We would fain imagine him
+in his meditations pacing the old Mob
+Quadrangle of Merton. His teaching
+took strong and long hold of the University.
+His reforming company of "poor
+priests" drew with it the spiritual aspiration
+and energy of Oxford youth. But if
+his movement has left any traces in the
+shape of foundations, it is in the shape
+of foundations produced by the reaction
+against it, and destined for its overthrow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/illus-074.jpg" width="768" height="983" alt="NEW COLLEGE, CLOISTERS AND TOWER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEW COLLEGE, CLOISTERS AND TOWER.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+<p>Yonder rises the bell tower of New
+College over a famous group of buildings,
+with ample quadrangle, rich religious
+chapel, a noble Hall and range of tranquil
+cloisters, defaced only by the addition of
+a modern upper story to the quadrangle
+and Vandalic adaptation of the upper
+windows to modern convenience. This
+pile was the work of William of Wykeham,
+Bishop of Winchester, a typical
+character of the Middle Ages, prelate,
+statesman, and court architect in one,
+who negotiated the peace of Bretigny and
+built Windsor Castle. The eye of the
+great architect as well as of the pious
+Founder must have ranged with delight
+over his fair creation. It is likely that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+New College, as a foundation highly religious
+in its character, was intended to
+counteract Wycliffism as well as to replenish
+the clergy which had been decimated
+by the Black Death. Wykeham was a
+reformer in his way, and one of the party
+headed by the Black Prince which strove
+to correct the abuses of the court in the
+dark decline of Edward III. But he was
+a conservative, religious after the orthodox
+fashion, and devoted to the worship
+of the Virgin, to whom his College was
+dedicated, after whom it was named, and
+whose image surmounts its gate. The
+College of St. Mary of Winton his foundation
+was entitled. In its day it might
+well be called New College. New it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+was in its scale, having seventy Fellows
+and Scholars besides ten Chaplains, three
+Clerks, and sixteen Choristers for the services
+of the Chapel, which is still famous
+for its choir. New it was in the extent
+and magnificence of its buildings. New
+it was in the provision made for solemn
+services in its Chapel, for religious processions
+round its cloisters, for the daily
+orisons of all its members. New it was
+in the state assigned to its Warden, who
+was not to be like the Warden of Merton,
+only the first among his humble peers,
+living with them at the common board,
+but to resemble more a great Abbot with
+a separate establishment of his own, keeping
+a sumptuous hospitality and drawn by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+six horses when he went abroad. New it
+was in having undergraduates as well as
+graduates on the foundation, and providing
+for the training of the youth during
+the whole interval between school and the
+highest University degree. Even further
+back than the time of admittance to
+the University, stretched the care of the
+reformer of education. The most important
+novelty of all, perhaps, in his creation,
+was the connection between his College
+and the school which he founded at Winchester,
+his cathedral city, to feed his
+College with a constant supply of model
+Scholars. This was the first of those
+great Public Schools which have largely
+moulded the character of the ruling class
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+in England. The example was followed
+by Henry VI. in connecting King's College,
+Cambridge, with Eton, and would
+have been followed by Wolsey had he
+carried out his design of connecting Cardinal
+College with his school at Ipswich.
+From the admission of an undergraduate
+element into the College it naturally followed
+that there should be instruction
+of the juniors by the seniors, and superintendence
+of study within the College
+walls. This was yet another novelty, and
+Wykeham seems to have had an additional
+motive for adopting it in the low
+condition of the University Schools, from
+the exercises of which attention had perhaps
+been diverted by the religious move<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>ment.
+In the careful provision for the
+study of Grammatica, that is, the elements
+of Latin, we perhaps see a gleam of the
+Renaissance, as the style of the buildings
+belonging to the last order of medi&aelig;val
+architecture indicates that the Middle Age
+was hastening to its close. But it was one
+of Wykeham's objects to strengthen the
+orthodox priesthood in a time of revolutionary
+peril. Ten of his Fellows were
+assigned to the study of civil, ten to that
+of canon, law. Two were permitted to
+study medicine. All the rest were to be
+theologians. The Founder was false to
+his own generous design in giving a paramount
+and perpetual preference in the
+election of Fellows to his own kin, who,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+being numerous, became at length a fearful
+incubus on his institution. It is not
+likely that his own idea of kinship was
+unlimited, or extended beyond the tenth
+degree. All the Fellows and Scholars
+were to be poor and indigent. This was
+in unison with the medi&aelig;val spirit of alms-giving
+as well as with the medi&aelig;val theory
+of poverty as a state spiritually superior,
+held, though not embodied, by wealthy
+prelates. Study, not teaching, it is always
+to be remembered, was the principal duty
+of those who were to eat the Founder's
+bread.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/illus-080.jpg" width="768" height="954" alt="NEW COLLEGE CHAPEL." title="" />
+<span class="caption">NEW COLLEGE CHAPEL.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The Statutes of New College are elaborate,
+and were largely copied by other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+founders. They present to us a half-monastic
+life, with the general hue of
+asceticism which pervades everything medi&aelig;val.
+Here, as in the case of Merton,
+there are no vows, but there is strict discipline,
+with frugal fare. The Commons,
+or allowances for food, are not to exceed
+twelve pence per week, except in the times
+of dearth. Once a year there is an allowance
+of cloth for a gown. There is a chest
+for loans to the very needy, but there is no
+stipend. The Warden rules with abbatial
+power, though in greater matters he requires
+the consent of the Fellows, and is
+himself under the censorship of the Visitor,
+the Bishop of Winchester, who, however,
+rarely interposed. Every year he goes on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+"progress" to view the College estates,
+there being in those days no agents, and
+is received by tenants with homage and
+rural hospitality. The Fellows and Scholars
+are lodged three or four in a room, the
+seniors as monitors to the juniors. Each
+Scholar undergoes two years of probation.
+As in a baronial hall the nobles, so in the
+College Hall the seniors, occupy the dais,
+or high table, while the juniors sit at
+tables arranged down the Hall. In the
+dining-hall the Fellows and Scholars sit
+in silence, and listen to the reading of the
+Bible. In speaking they must use no
+tongue but the Latin. There is to be no
+lingering in the Hall after dinner, except
+when in winter a fire is lighted on some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+church festival. Then it is permitted to
+remain awhile and rehearse poems, or talk
+about the chronicles of the kingdom, the
+wonders of the world, and other things befitting
+clerical discourse. This seems to
+be the principal concession made to the
+youthful love of amusement. As a rule,
+it appears that the students were confined
+to the College and its cloisters when they
+were not attending the Schools of the
+University. They are forbidden to keep
+hounds or hawks, as well as to throw stones
+or indulge in any rough or noisy sports.
+The injunctions against spilling wine and
+slops in the upper rooms, or beer on the
+floor of the Hall, to the annoyance of those
+who lodged beneath, betoken a rough style<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+of living and rude manners. The admission
+of strangers is jealously restricted, and
+on no account must a woman enter the
+College, except a laundress, who must be
+of safe age. There were daily prayers for
+the Founder's soul, daily masses, and fifty
+times each day every member of the College
+was to repeat the salutation to the Virgin.
+The Founder's obit was to be celebrated
+with special pomp. Self-love in a medi&aelig;val
+ascetic was not annihilated by
+humility, though it took a religious form.
+Thrice every year are held scrutinies into
+life and conduct, at which the hateful
+practice of secret denunciation is admitted,
+and the accused is forbidden to call for the
+name of his accuser. Every cloistered soci<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>ety,
+whether monastic or academic, is pretty
+sure to seethe with cabals, suspicions, and
+slanders. Leave of absence from the College
+was by statute very sparingly allowed,
+and seldom could the young Scholar pay
+what, in the days before the letter post,
+must have been angel's visits to the old
+people on the paternal homestead. The
+ecclesiastical and ascetic system of the
+Middle Ages had little regard for domestic
+affection. It treated the boy as entirely a
+child of the Church. In times of pestilence,
+then common, the inmates of the
+Colleges usually went to some farm or
+grange belonging to the College in the
+neighbourhood of Oxford, and those were
+probably pleasant days for the younger
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+members. Oaths of fearful length and
+stringency were taken to the observation
+of the statutes. They proved sad traps for
+conscience when the statutes had become
+obsolete, a contingency of which the Founders,
+ignorant of progress and evolution,
+never dreamed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 978px;">
+<img src="images/illus-090.jpg" width="978" height="768" alt="MAGDALEN COLLEGE, FROM STREET." title="" />
+<span class="caption">MAGDALEN COLLEGE, FROM STREET.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In the interval between the foundation
+of New College and the revolution, religious
+and intellectual, which we call the
+Reformation, were founded Lincoln, All
+Souls', Magdalen, and Brasenose. Lincoln,
+All Souls', and Brasenose lie immediately
+round us, close to what was the
+centre of academical life. Magdalen we
+recognise in the distance by the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+beautiful of towers. Lincoln was theological,
+and was peculiar in being connected
+with two of the Churches of
+Oxford, which its members served, and
+the tithes and oblations of which formed
+its endowment. Its Founder, Fleming,
+Bishop of Lincoln, had as a graduate
+resident at Oxford been noted for sympathy
+with the Wycliffites. But when
+he became Bishop of Lincoln, the fact
+dawned upon him that the Scriptures
+too freely interpreted were dangerous.
+He went over to the Reaction, burned
+Wycliffe's body, and determined to found
+a little college of true students in theology,
+who would "defend the mysteries
+of the sacred page against those igno<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>rant
+laics who profaned with swinish
+snouts its most holy pearls." His successor,
+Bishop Rotherham, being of the
+same mind, carried forward the work,
+and gave the College statutes enjoining
+the expulsion of any Fellow convicted of
+favouring in public or in private heretical
+tenets, and in particular the tenets
+of "that heretical sect lately sprung up
+which assails the sacraments, diverse
+orders and dignities, and properties of
+the Church." Rotherham had evidently
+a keen and just sense of the fact, that
+with the talismanic sacraments of the
+Church were bound up its dignity and
+wealth. The two orthodox prelates would
+have stood aghast if they could have fore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>seen
+that their little College of true theologians
+would one day number among its
+Fellows John Wesley, and that Methodism
+would be cradled within its walls.
+They would not less have stood aghast
+if they could have foreseen that such a
+chief of Liberals as Mark Pattison, would
+one day be its Rector. The history of
+these foundations is full of lessons for
+benefactors who fancy that they can impress
+their will upon posterity.</p>
+
+<p>All Souls' was designed by its Founder,
+Archbishop Chicheley, <i>ad orandum</i> as
+well as <i>ad studendum</i>; it was to serve
+the purpose of a chantry not less than
+of a College. The sculptured group of
+souls over the gateway in High Street<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+denotes that the Warden and Fellows
+were to pray for the souls of all Christian
+people. But particularly were they
+to pray for the souls of "the illustrious
+Prince Henry, late King of England, of
+Thomas, Duke of Clarence, and of all
+the Dukes, Earls, Barons, Knights, Esquires,
+and others who fell in the war
+for the Crown of France." Of that
+unhappy war Chicheley had been the
+adviser; and seeing the wreck which his
+folly, or, if the suspicion immortalised
+by Shakespeare is true, his selfish policy,
+as the head of a bloated Establishment
+threatened with depletion, had wrought,
+he may well have felt the sting of conscience
+in his old age. The figures in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+the new reredos of the Chapel tell the
+story of the foundation.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Magdalen was the work of Waynflete,
+Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of
+Henry VI., another statesman-prelate who
+turned from the political storm to found
+a house of learning. Of all the houses
+of learning in England, perhaps of any
+country, that which Waynflete founded is
+the loveliest, as he will say who stands
+in its cloistered and ivy-mantled quadrangle,
+either beneath the light of the
+summer's sun or that of the winter's
+moon. Some American architect, captivated
+by the graces of Magdalen, has
+reproduced them in his plan for a new University
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+in California. Those courts,
+when newly built, were darkened by
+the presence of Richard III. Waynflete
+came to Oxford to receive the king; and
+this homage, paid by a saintly man, seems
+to show that in those fierce times of dynastic
+change, Richard, before the murder of
+his nephews, was not regarded as a criminal
+usurper, perhaps not as a usurper at
+all. The tyrant was intellectual. In him,
+as still more notably in Tiptoft, Earl of
+Worcester, nicknamed for his cruelty the
+Butcher, but literary and a benefactor to
+the University, was something like an
+English counterpart of the mixture in
+the Italian Renaissance of culture with
+licentiousness and crime. But as he sat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+beside Waynflete in the Hall wooing popularity
+by apparent attention to the exercises,
+Richard's thoughts probably were
+far away. A red rose among the architectural
+ornaments is found to have been
+afterwards painted white. It changed, no
+doubt, with fortune, when she left the red
+for the white rose. A new relation between
+College and University is inaugurated
+by the institution at Magdalen of
+three Readers to lecture to the University
+at large.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 993px;">
+<img src="images/illus-098.jpg" width="993" height="768" alt="ST. JOHN'S PULPIT." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ST. JOHN'S PULPIT.</span>
+<p class="center">Magdalen College, First Quadrangle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The old quadrangle of Brasenose remains
+much as it was left by its co-founders,
+a munificent Bishop and a
+pious Knight. It is of no special his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>toric
+interest, and its importance belongs
+to later times. It absorbed several Halls,
+the sign of one of which was probably
+the brazen nose which now adorns its
+gate, and so far it marks an epoch.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The quiet and sombre old quadrangle
+of Corpus Christi lies yonder, by the side
+of Merton, much as its Founder left it.
+Now we have come to the real dawn of
+the English Renaissance, a gray dawn
+which never became a very bright day;
+for in England, as in Germany and other
+Teutonic countries, reawakened and emancipated
+intellect turned to the pursuit of
+truth rather than of beauty, and the great
+movement was less a birth of literature<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+and of art than of reformation in religion.
+This is the age of Grocyn, the teacher
+of Greek; of Linacre, the English Hippocrates;
+of Colet, the regenerator of education;
+of Sir Thomas More, who carried
+culture to the Chancellorship of the realm,
+and whose "Utopia" proclaims the growth
+of fresh aspirations and the opening of a
+new era in one way, as Rabelais did in
+another. Duke Humphrey of Gloucester,
+uncle of Henry VI., had perhaps opened
+the epoch at Oxford by his princely gift
+of books, in which the Renaissance literature
+was strongly represented, and which
+was the germ of the University Library.
+Soon Erasmus will visit Oxford and chant
+in elegant Latin the praises of the classi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>cal
+and cultured circle which he finds
+there. Now rages the war between the
+humanists of the new classical learning,
+called the Greeks, and its opponents,
+the Trojans, who desired to walk in the
+ancient paths, and who, though bigoted
+and grotesque, were, after all, not far
+wrong in identifying heresy with Greek,
+since the study of the New Testament in
+the original was subversive of the medi&aelig;val
+faith. Again, as in the cases of
+Merton, Wykeham, and Waynflete, a
+statesman-prelate turns in old age from the
+distractions of State to found a house of
+learning. Foxe, Bishop of Winchester,
+was the chief counsellor and diplomatist of
+Henry VII., in whose service he had no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+doubt passed anxious hours and trodden
+dark paths. It may have been partly for
+the good of his soul that he proposed to
+found a house in Oxford for the reception
+of young monks from St. Swithin's Priory
+in Winchester while studying in Oxford.
+He was diverted from that design, and
+persuaded to found a College instead, by
+his friend Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter,
+who is represented as saying, "What,
+my Lord, shall we build houses and provide
+livelihoods for a company of bussing
+monks whose end and fall we ourselves
+may live to see? No, no. It is more
+meet, a great deal, that we should have
+care to provide for the increase of learning
+and for such as by their learning shall do<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+good in the Church and Commonwealth."
+Supposing the prognostication embodied
+in these words genuine, they show that to
+an enlightened Bishop the dissolution of
+the Monasteries seemed inevitable. The
+statutes of Foxe's College are written in a
+style which affects the highest classical
+elegance. They elaborate throughout the
+metaphor of a bee-hive with its industrious
+insects and its store of intellectual honey.
+They embody the hopes of the Renaissance
+and depict a College of the Humanities.
+There is to be a Reader in Greek,
+and for the subjects of his lectures a long
+list of great Greek authors is assigned.
+There is to be a Reader of Latin, for
+whose lectures a similar list of Latin au<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>thors
+is given, and who is to keep "barbarism,"
+that mortal sin in the eyes of a
+devotee of the Renaissance, out of the
+hive. Theology is not forgotten. The
+Founder pays a due, possibly somewhat
+conventional, tribute to its surpassing
+importance. Of this, also, there is a
+Professor, but its guides in interpreting
+Scripture are not to be the medi&aelig;val textbooks,
+such as Aquinas and the Master of
+the Sentences, but the Greek and Latin
+Fathers, including the daring Origen and
+Augustine the favourite of Luther. The
+Readers are to lecture not to the College
+only, but to the University at large, a new
+provision, connecting the College with the
+University, which hardly took effect till<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+very recent times. One of the first Readers
+was the learned Spaniard, Juan Luis
+Vives, whose appointment bespoke the
+cosmopolitan character of the humanist
+republic of letters. The statutes were
+signed by the Founder with a trembling
+hand eight months before his death, so
+that only in imagination did he see his
+literary bees at work.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Yonder to the south is Tom Tower,
+where hangs the great bell, which, "swinging
+slow with sullen roar," was heard by
+Milton at Forest Hill. It was tolled a
+hundred and one times for the hundred
+and one students of Wolsey's House.
+The Tower, or Cupola, was the work, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+of Wolsey but of Wren. Around the
+great quadrangle over which it rises are
+seen the lines for cloisters which were
+never built. The balustrade on the top
+of the quadrangle is an alien work of
+modern times. The Church of St. Frydeswide's
+Monastery does duty as the
+College Chapel, in place of the grand
+Chapel in the perpendicular style, which,
+had the Founder's plan taken effect, would
+have stood there. Moreover, that which
+should have been wholly a College is
+made to serve and to expend a part of
+its power as the Chapter of the Diocese
+of Oxford, lending its Chapel as the
+Cathedral, a niggardly arrangement which
+has been productive of strained relations<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+between occupants of the See and Heads
+of the College. Ample and noble are the
+courts of Wolsey. Worthy of his magnificence
+is the great Hall, the finest
+room, barring Westminster Hall, in England,
+and filled with those portraits of
+<i>Alumni</i>, which, notwithstanding the frequency
+of pudding sleeves, form the fairest
+tapestry with which hall was ever hung.
+But it all falls short of Wolsey's conception.
+Had Wolsey's conception been fulfilled,
+Ipswich would have been a nursery
+of scholars for Cardinal College, as Winchester
+was for New College, and Eton
+for King's College, Cambridge. The Cardinal
+was an English Leo X. in morals,
+tastes, perhaps in beliefs; a true Prince,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+not of the Church but of the Renaissance.
+For him, perhaps, as for Foxe, it was a
+refreshment to turn from public life, full,
+as it must have been, of care and peril for
+the Vizier of a headstrong and capricious
+despot, to the calm happiness of seeing
+his great College rise, and gathering into
+it the foremost of teachers and the flower
+of students. But in the midst of his
+enterprise the sky of the Renaissance
+became overcast with clouds, and the
+storm of religious revolution, which had
+long been gathering, broke. Forewarnings
+of the storm Wolsey had received, for
+he had found that in opening his gates
+to the highest intellectual activity he had
+opened them to free inquiry and to hetero<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>doxy.
+Himself, too, had set the example
+of suppressing monasteries, though he did
+this not for mere rapine or to gorge his
+parasites, but to turn useless and abused
+endowments to a noble use. Wolsey all
+but drew his foundation down with him
+in his fall. The tyrant and his minions
+were builders of nothing but ruin. Christ
+Church, as at last it was called, was threatened
+with confiscation and destruction,
+but was finally spared in its incomplete
+condition, appropriated by Henry as his
+own foundation, and dedicated to the
+honour of the king, whose portrait, in
+its usual attitude of obtrusive self-conceit,
+occupies in the Hall the central place,
+where the portrait of the Cardinal should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+be. The Cardinal's hat, on the outer wall
+of the house, is left to speak of the true
+Founder. That the College was to be
+called after its Founder's name, not, like
+the Colleges of Wykeham and Waynflete,
+after the name of a Saint, seems a symptom
+of the pride which went before
+Wolsey's fall.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Now come upon the hapless University
+forty years of religious revolution, the
+monuments of which are traces of destruction
+and records of proscription. All
+the monastic houses and houses for monastic
+novices were forfeited to the Crown,
+and their buildings were left desolate,
+though, from the ruins of some of them,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+new Colleges were afterwards to rise.
+Libraries which would now be priceless,
+were sacked and destroyed because the
+illumination on the manuscripts was Popish.
+It was the least to be deplored of
+all the havoc, that the torn leaves of the
+arid tomes of Duns Scotus were seen
+flying about the quadrangle of New College,
+while a sporting gentleman of the
+neighbourhood was picking them up to
+be used in driving the deer. There is a
+comic monument of the religious revolution
+in the coffer shrine at Christ Church,
+in which the dust of Catherine, wife of
+the Protestant Doctor, Peter Martyr, is
+mingled with that of the Catholic Saint,
+Frydeswide. Catholicism, in its hour of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+triumph under Mary, had dug up the
+corpse of the heretic's concubine and
+buried it under a dung-hill. Protestantism,
+once more victorious, rescued the
+remains, and guarded against a repetition
+of the outrage, in case fortune should
+again change, by mingling them with
+those of the Catholic Saint. A more
+tragic memorial of the conflict is yonder
+recumbent cross in Broad Street, close
+to the spot, then a portion of the town
+ditch, where Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley
+died. Bocardo, the prison over the
+neighbouring gate of the city, from the
+window of which Cranmer, then confined
+there, witnessed the burning of Latimer
+and Ridley, was pulled down at the begin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>ning
+of this century. The Divinity
+School, Christ Church Cathedral, and
+St. Mary's Church witnessed different
+scenes of the drama. St. Mary's witnessed
+that last scene, in which Cranmer
+filled his enemies with fury and confusion
+by suddenly recanting his recantation,
+and declaring that the hand which had
+signed it should burn first. College archives
+record the expulsion, readmission,
+and re-expulsion of Heads and Fellows,
+as victory inclined to the Protestant or
+Catholic side. So perished the English
+Renaissance. For the cultivation of the
+humanities there could be no room in a
+centre of religious strife.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Fatal bequests of the religious war were
+the religious tests. Leicester, as Chancellor,
+introduced subscription to the Thirty-nine
+Articles to keep out Romanists;
+King James, that to the three articles of
+the Thirty-sixth Canon to keep out Puritans.
+These tests, involving scores of
+controverted propositions in theology,
+were imposed on the consciences of mere
+boys. The Universities were thus taken
+from the nation and given to the State
+Church, which, in the course of time, as dissent
+from its doctrines gained ground, came
+to be far from identical with the nation.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In the first lull, however, new Colleges
+arose, partly out of the ruins of the monas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>tic
+houses of the past. Trinity College,
+of which the quiet old quadrangle is curiously
+mated with a fantastic Chapel of
+much later date, was founded out of the
+ruin of Durham College, a Benedictine
+House. Its Founder, Sir Thomas Pope,
+was one of that group of highly educated
+lay statesmen, eminent both in the councils
+of kings and among the patrons of
+learning, which succeeded the great Prelates
+of the Middle Ages. He was a
+Catholic, as his statutes show; but a liberal
+Catholic, not unfriendly to light,
+though little knowing perhaps whither it
+would lead him. Among his friends was
+Sir Nicholas Bacon, who bequeathed to
+him the splendid whistle, then used to call<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+servants, which is seen round his neck in
+his portrait. Another of his friends was
+Pole, who showed his intellectual liberality
+by recommending him to enjoin in his
+statutes the study of Greek. St. John's
+College, again, rose out of the wreck of
+a Bernardine House. The Founder was
+not a statesman or a prelate, but a great
+citizen, Sir Thomas White, sometime
+Lord Mayor of London, who had amassed
+wealth in trade, and made a noble use of
+it. White also was of the olden faith.
+That the storm was not over when his
+College was founded is tragically shown
+by the fate of Campion, who, when White
+was laid in the College Chapel, preached
+the funeral sermon, and afterwards becoming
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+a Jesuit and an emissary of his Order,
+was brought to the rack and to the scaffold.
+There was also a great secession of
+Fellows when the final rupture took place
+between Rome and Elizabeth. In the
+group of cultivated Knights and statesmen,
+who patronised learning and education,
+may be placed Sir William Petre, the
+second Founder of Exeter College, whose
+monument is its old quadrangle, and Sir
+Thomas Bodley, whose monument is the
+Bodleian Library. If Petre and Bodley
+were Protestants, while Pope and White
+were Catholics, the difference was rather
+political than religious. In religion the
+public men changed with the national
+government, little sharing the passions of
+either theological party.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 1013px;">
+<img src="images/illus-120.jpg" width="1013" height="768" alt="ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE&mdash;GARDEN FRONT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<p>Jesus, whose old quadrangle, chapel,
+and hall belong to early Stuart times, was
+the first distinctly Protestant College.
+This its name, in contrast with Colleges
+named after Saints, denotes. The second
+Protestant College was Wadham, the
+buildings of which stand in their pristine
+beauty, vying with Magdalen, perhaps
+even excelling it in the special air of a
+house of learning, and proving that to
+be interesting and impressive it is not
+necessary to be medi&aelig;val. At the same
+time Wadham shows how long the spirit
+of the Middle Ages clung to Oxford;
+for the style of the Chapel is anterior
+by a century and a half to the date.
+Here we have a conscious desire, on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+part of the architect, to recall the past.
+The Founder, Sir Nicholas Wadham, was
+a wealthy Western land-owner. We may
+dismiss the tradition that his first design
+was to found a College of Roman Catholic
+priests in Italy, and his second to
+found a Protestant College at Oxford, as
+at most significant of the prolonged wavering
+of the religious balance in the minds
+of a number of the wealthier class. The
+statutes were, in the main, like those of
+the medi&aelig;val Colleges, saving in making
+the Fellowship terminable after about
+twenty-two years, thus more clearly designating
+the College as a school for active
+life. The prohibition of marriage was
+retained, not as an ascetic ordinance, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+as a concomitant of the College system.
+In the medi&aelig;val Colleges it was not
+necessary to extend the prohibition to the
+Heads, who, being priests, were bound
+to celibacy by the regulations of their
+Order; but marriage being now permitted
+to the clergy generally, the prohibition
+was in the statutes of Wadham
+expressly extended, in the interest of the
+College system, to the Head. Hence it
+is an aspersion on the reputation of
+Dame Dorothy Wadham, who, after her
+husband's death, carried out his design,
+and whose effigy kneels opposite that of
+her loving lord in the old quadrangle, to
+say that she was in love with the first
+Warden, and because he would not marry
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+her, forbade him by statute to marry any
+other woman.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 973px;">
+<img src="images/illus-126.jpg" width="973" height="768" alt="WADHAM COLLEGE&mdash;GARDEN FRONT." title="" />
+<span class="caption">WADHAM COLLEGE&mdash;GARDEN FRONT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>These foundations, followed by that of
+Pembroke and the building of the South
+quadrangle of Merton, of the South quadrangle
+of Lincoln, of the West front of St.
+John's, of the quadrangle and hall of Exeter,
+of part of the quadrangle of Oriel, of
+the West quadrangle of University College,
+as well as of the Bodleian Library,
+the Schools' quadrangle, the Convocation
+House, and of the gateway of the Botanic
+Garden, prove that, though the old University
+system, with its scholastic exercises,
+had become hollow, there was life in Oxford,
+and the interest of patrons of learn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>ing
+was attracted to it during the period
+between the Reformation and the Rebellion.
+It was also felt to be a centre of
+power. Elizabeth twice visited it, once
+in the heyday of her youthful glory, and
+again in her haggard decline. On the
+first occasion she exerted with effect those
+arts of popularity which were the best part
+of her statesmanship. On both occasions
+she was received with ecstatic flattery and
+entertained with academical exercises at
+tedious length, and plays, to our taste not
+less tedious, performed in College Halls.
+Her successor could not fail to exhibit
+himself in a seat of learning, where he
+felt supreme, and, to do him justice, was
+not unqualified, to shine. To his benig<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>nity
+the University owes the questionable
+privilege of sending two members to the
+House of Commons, whereby it became
+entangled in political as well as in theological
+frays.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Great changes, however, had by this
+time passed or were passing over the University.
+As in former days the Halls had
+absorbed the Chamberdekyns, so the Colleges
+had now almost absorbed the Halls.
+They did this, not by any aggression, but
+by the natural advantages of wealth, their
+riches always increasing with the value of
+land, and by their reputation. Most of
+them, in addition to the members on the
+foundation, took students as boarders, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+they got the best and wealthiest. Universities,
+losing their pristine character as
+marts of available knowledge, and becoming
+places of general education, ceased, by
+a process equally natural, to be the heritage
+of the poor and became the resort of
+the rich. The medi&aelig;val statutes of the
+Colleges still limited the foundations to
+the poor, but even these in time, by cunning
+interpretation, were largely evaded.
+Already in the later Middle Ages Oxford
+had received, and, it seems, too complacently
+received, young scions of the aristocracy
+and gentry, the precursors of the
+noblemen and the silk-gowned gentleman-commoners
+of a later day. The Black
+Prince had been for a short time at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+Queen's College. In the reign of Henry
+VI., George Neville, the brother of the
+King-maker, had celebrated the taking of
+his degree, a process which was probably
+made easy to him, with banquets which
+lasted through two days on a prodigious
+scale. At the same time and for the same
+causes the system of College instruction
+grew in importance and gradually ousted
+the lectures of University Professors.
+Fellows of Colleges were not unwilling
+to add to their Commons and Livery the
+Tutor's stipend. Thus the importance of
+the College waxed while that of the University
+waned, and the College Statutes
+became more and more collectively the
+law of the University. These Statutes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+were medi&aelig;val and obsolete, but they were
+unalterable, the Heads and Fellows being
+sworn to their observance, and there being
+no power of amendment, since the Visitor
+could only interpret and enforce. Thus
+the medi&aelig;val type of life and study was
+stereotyped and progress was barred. The
+Fellowships having been originally not
+teacherships or prizes, but aids to poor
+students, the Founders deemed themselves
+at liberty in regulating the elections to
+give free play to their local and family
+partialities, and the consequence was a
+mass of preferences to favoured counties
+or to kin. With all these limitations, the
+teaching body of the University was now
+practically saddled. Even the restrictions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+to particular schools&mdash;as to Winchester
+in the case of New College, to Westminster,
+which had been substituted for
+Wolsey's Ipswich, in the case of Christ
+Church, and to Merchant Tailors' School
+in the case of St. John's&mdash;were noxious,
+though in a less degree, albeit their bad
+influence might be redeemed by some
+pleasant associations. Worst of all, however,
+in their effect were the restrictions
+to the clerical Order. This meant little
+in the Middle Ages, when all intellectual
+callings were clerical, when at Oxford
+gownsman and clerk, townsman and laic,
+were convertible terms. Wykeham, Foxe,
+and Wolsey themselves were thorough
+laymen in their pursuits and character,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+though they had received the tonsure,
+were qualified, if they pleased, to celebrate
+mass, and derived their incomes from bishoprics
+and abbeys. But the Reformation
+drew a sharp line between the clerical and
+the other professions. The clergyman was
+henceforth a pastor. The resident body
+of graduates and the teaching staff of Oxford
+belonging almost exclusively to the
+clerical profession, the studies and interests
+of that profession now reigned alone.
+Whatever life remained to the University
+was chiefly absorbed in theological study
+and controversy. This was the more deplorable
+as theology, in the medi&aelig;val
+sense, was a science almost as extinct as
+astrology or alchemy. Oxford was turned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+into the cock-pit of theological party. At
+the same time she was bound hand and
+foot to a political faction, because her
+clergymen belonged to the Episcopal and
+State Church, the patrons and upholders
+of which, from political motives, were the
+Kings and the Cavaliers, or, as they were
+afterwards called, the Tories. Cambridge
+suffered like Oxford, though with some
+abatement, because there, owing to the
+vicinity of a great Puritan district, high
+Anglicanism did not prevail, and, for
+reasons difficult to define, the clergy altogether
+were less clerical. Newton was
+near forfeiting his Fellowship and the
+means of prosecuting his speculations because
+he was not in Holy Orders. Luck<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>ily,
+a Lay Fellowship fell just in time.
+Let Founders, and all who have a passion
+for regulating the lives of other people,
+for propagating their wills beyond the
+reach of their foresight, and for grasping
+posterity, as it were, with a dead hand,
+take warning by a disastrous example.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>As the Colleges became the University,
+their Heads became the governors of the
+University. They formed a Board called
+the Hebdomadal Council, which initiated
+all legislation, while the executive was the
+Vice-Chancellorship, which, though legally
+elective, was appropriated by the Heads,
+and passed down their list in order.
+With a single exception, the Headships<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+were all clerical, and they were almost
+always filled by men of temperament,
+to say the least, eminently conservative.
+Thus academical liberty and progress
+slept.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>On the eve of another great storm we
+have a pleasant glimpse of Oxford life and
+study in Clarendon's picture of Falkland's
+circle, at Great Tew, within ten
+miles of Oxford, whither, he says, "most
+polite and accurate men of that University
+resorted, dwelling there as in a College
+situated in a purer air, so that his was
+a University bound in a less volume,
+whither his intellectual friends came not
+so much for repose as study, and to exam<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>ine
+and refine those grosser propositions
+which laziness and consent made current
+in conversation." This indicates that,
+while study was going on, liberal inquiry
+was also on foot. But clouds again gathered,
+the storm again came, and once more
+from the ecclesiastical quarter. The triumph
+of the Reformation, the accession
+of a Protestant Queen, and the Chancellorship
+of Leicester, who, for politic
+purposes, played the Puritan, had been
+attended by a general expulsion or secession
+of the Romanising party, which left
+the University for a time in the hands
+of the Calvinists and Low Churchmen.
+Hooker, the real father of Anglicanism,
+had, for a time, studied Church antiquity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+in the quiet quadrangle of Corpus, but he
+had come into collision with Puritanism,
+and had, for a time, been driven away by
+it. Perhaps its prevalence may have ultimately
+inclined him to exchange the University
+for a far less congenial sphere.
+The clergy, however, of an Episcopal
+Church, and one which laid claim to
+Apostolical succession, was sure in time
+to come round to High Church doctrine.
+To High Church doctrine the clergy of
+Oxford did come round under the leadership
+of Laud, University Preacher, Proctor,
+President of St. John's College, and
+afterwards Chancellor of the University.
+Of Laud there are several memorials at
+Oxford. One is the inner quadrangle of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+St. John's College, ornamented in the style
+of Inigo Jones, where the Archbishop and
+Chancellor, in the noontide of his career,
+received with ecstasies of delight, ecclesiastical,
+academical, and political, his
+doomed king and master with the fatal
+woman at Charles's side. Another is a
+fine collection of oriental books added
+to the Bodleian Library. A third and
+more important is the new code of statutes
+framed for the reformation of the
+University by its all-powerful Chancellor.
+A fourth is the statue of the Virgin and
+Child over the porch of St. Mary's Church,
+which, as proof of a Romanising tendency,
+formed one of the charges against the
+Archbishop, though it was really put up
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+by his Chaplain. The fifth is the headless
+corpse which lies buried in the Chapel
+of St. John's College, whither pious hands
+conveyed it after the Restoration. Laud
+was a true friend of the University and
+of learned men, in whom, as in Hales,
+he respected the right of inquiry, and to
+whom he was willing to allow a freedom
+of opinion which he would not allow to
+the common herd. He was not so much
+a bigot as a martinet. It was by playing
+the martinet in ecclesiastical affairs that
+he was brought into mortal collision with
+the nation. In the code of statutes which
+by his characteristic use of autocratic
+power he imposed on Oxford the martinet
+is betrayed; so is the belief in the effi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>cacy
+of regulation. We see the man who
+wrecked a kingdom for the sake of his
+forms. Nor had Laud the force to deliver
+University education from the shackles
+of the Middle Ages and the scholastic
+system. But the code is dictated by a
+genuine spirit of reform, and might have
+worked improvement had it been sustained
+by a motive power.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/illus-141.jpg" width="768" height="962" alt="ST. MARY'S CHURCH." title="" />
+<span class="caption">ST. MARY'S CHURCH.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The period of the Civil War is a gap in
+academical history. Its monuments are
+only traces of destruction, such as the defacement
+of Papistical images and window
+paintings by the Puritan soldiery, and the
+sad absence of the old College plate, of
+which two thousand five hundred ounces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+went to the Royal mint in New Inn Hall,
+only a few most sacred pieces, such as the
+Founder's drinking-horn at Queen's, and
+the covered cup, reputed that of the
+Founder, at Corpus, being left to console
+us for the irreparable loss. Exeter College
+alone seems to have shown compunction;
+perhaps there had remained in
+her something of the free spirit for which
+in the days of Wycliffe she had been
+noted. Art and taste may mourn, but the
+University, as a centre of Episcopalianism,
+had little cause to complain; for the
+war was justly called the Bishops' war,
+and by the Episcopal Church and the
+Queen, between them, Charles was brought
+to the block. Oxford was bound by her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+ecclesiasticism to the Royal cause, and she
+had the ill luck to be highly available as a
+place of arms from her position between
+the two rivers, while she formed an advanced
+post to the Western country in
+which the strength of the King's cause lay.
+During those years the University was in
+buff and bandolier, on the drill ground
+instead of in the Schools, while the Colleges
+were filled with the exiled Court and
+its ghost of a Parliament. Traces of works
+connecting the two rivers were not long
+ago to be seen, and tradition points to
+the angle in the old city wall under Merton
+College as the spot where Windebank,
+a Royalist officer, was shot for surrendering
+his post. There was a reign of garri<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>son
+manners as well as of garrison duties,
+and to the few who still cared for the objects
+of the University, even if they were
+Royalists, the surrender of the city to the
+Parliament may well have been a relief.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Then came Parliamentary visitation
+and the purge, with the inevitable violence
+and inhumanity. Heads and Fellows,
+who refused submission to the new
+order of things, were turned out. Mrs.
+Fell, the wife of the Dean of Christ
+Church, deposed for Royalism, refused
+to quit the Deanery, and at last had to
+be carried out of the quadrangle, venting
+her wrath in strong language as she
+went, by a squad of Parliamentary mus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>keteers.
+But the Puritans put in good
+men: such as Owen, who was made
+Dean of Christ Church; Conant, who was
+made Rector of Exeter; Wilkins, who
+was made Warden of Wadham; and Seth
+Ward, the mathematician, who was made
+President of Trinity College. Owen and
+Conant appear to have been model Heads.
+The number of students increased. Evelyn,
+the Anglican and Royalist, visiting
+Oxford, seems to find the academical
+exercises, and the state of the University
+generally, satisfactory to his mind. He
+liked even the sermon, barring some
+Presbyterian animosities. Nor did he
+find much change in College Chapels.
+New College was "in its ancient garb,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+notwithstanding the scrupulosity of the
+times." The Chapel of Magdalen College,
+likewise, was "in pontifical order,"
+and the organ remained undemolished.
+The Protectorate was tolerant as far as
+the age allowed. Evelyn was cordially
+received by the Puritan authorities and
+hospitably entertained. Puritanism does
+not seem to have been so very grim, whatever
+the satirist in "The Spectator" may
+say. Tavern-haunting and swearing were
+suppressed. So were May-poles and some
+innocent amusements. But instrumental
+music was much cultivated, as we learn
+from the Royalist and High Church antiquary
+Anthony Wood, from whom, also,
+we gather that dress, though less donnish,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+was not more austere. Cromwell, having
+saved the Universities from fanatics who
+would have laid low all institutions of
+worldly learning, made himself Chancellor
+of Oxford, and sought to draw thence, as
+well as from Cambridge, promising youths
+for the service of the State. Even Clarendon
+admits that the Restoration found
+the University "abounding in excellent
+learning," notwithstanding "the wild and
+barbarous depopulation" which it had
+undergone; a miraculous result, which he
+ascribes, under God's blessing, to "the
+goodness and richness of the soil, which
+could not be made barren by all the
+stupidity and negligence, but choked the
+weeds, and would not suffer the poison<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>ous
+seeds, which were sown with industry
+enough, to spring up." Puritanism might
+be narrow and bibliolatrous, but it was
+not obscurantist nor the enemy of science.
+We see this in Puritan Oxford as well as
+in Puritan Harvard and Yale. In Puritan
+Oxford the scientific circle which afterwards
+gave birth to the Royal Society
+was formed. Its chief was Warden Wilkins,
+and it included Boyle, Wallis, Seth
+Ward, and Wren. It met either in Wilkins's
+rooms at Wadham, or in those of
+Boyle. Evelyn, visiting Wilkins, is ravished
+with the scientific inventions and
+experiments which he sees. On the stones
+of Oxford, Puritanism has left no trace;
+there was hardly any building during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+those years. There were benefactions not
+a few, among which was the gift of Selden's
+Library.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the Restoration followed a Royalist
+proscription, more cruel, and certainly
+more lawless, than that of the Puritans
+had been. All the good Heads of the
+Commonwealth era were ejected, and the
+Colleges received back a crowd of Royalists,
+who, during their exclusion, had probably
+been estranged from academical
+pursuits. Anthony Wood himself is an
+unwilling witness to the fact that the
+change was much for the worse. "Some
+Cavaliers that were restored," he says,
+"were good scholars, but the majority
+were dunces." "Before the War," he says<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+in another place, "we had scholars who
+made a thorough search in scholastic and
+polemical divinity, in humane learning and
+natural philosophy, but now scholars study
+these things not more than what is just
+necessary to carry them through the exercises
+of their respective Colleges and the
+University. Their aim is not to live as
+students ought to do, temperate, abstemious,
+and plain in their apparel, but to live
+like gentry, to keep dogs and horses, to
+turn their studies into places to keep bottles,
+to swagger in gay apparel and long
+periwigs." Into the Rectorship of Exeter,
+in place of the excellent Conant, was put
+Joseph Maynard, of whom Wood says,
+"Exeter College is now much debauched<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+by a drunken Governor; whereas, before,
+in Doctor Conant's time, it was accounted
+a civil house, it is now rude and uncivil.
+The Rector is good-natured, generous,
+and a good scholar, but he has forgot the
+way of College life, and the decorum of a
+scholar. He is much given to bibbing,
+and when there is a music meeting in one
+of the Fellow's chambers, he will sit there,
+smoke, and drink till he is drunk, and has
+to be led to his lodgings by the junior
+Fellows." This is not the only evidence
+of the fact that drinking, idling, and
+tavern-haunting were in the ascendant.
+Study as well as morality, having been the
+badge of the Puritan, was out of fashion.
+Wilkins's scientific circle took its depart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>ure
+from Oxford to London, there to
+become the germ of the Royal Society.
+The hope was gone at Oxford of a race of
+"young men provided against the next
+age, whose minds, receiving the first impressions
+of sober and generous knowledge,
+should be invincibly armed against
+all the encroachments of enthusiasm."
+The presence of the merry monarch, with
+his concubines, at Oxford, when his Parliament
+met there, was not likely to improve
+morals. Oxford sank into an organ of
+the High Church and Tory party, and
+debased herself by servile manifestos in
+favour of government by prerogative.
+Non-conformists were excluded by the
+religious tests, the operation of which was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+more stringent than ever since the passing
+of the Act of Uniformity. The love
+of liberty and truth embodied in Locke
+was expelled from Christ Church; not,
+however, by the act of the College or of
+the University, but by Royal warrant,
+though Fell, Dean of Christ Church,
+bowed slavishly to the tyrant's pleasure;
+so that Christ Church may look with little
+shame on the portrait of the philosopher,
+which now hangs triumphant in her Hall.
+The Cavaliers did not much, even in the
+way of building. The Sheldonian Theatre
+was given them by the Archbishop, to
+whom subscriptions had been promised,
+but did not come in, so that he had to
+bear the whole expense himself. He was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+so deeply disgusted that he refused ever to
+look upon the building.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Over the gateway of University College
+stands the statue of James II. That it
+should have been left there is a proof both
+of the ingrained Toryism of old Oxford,
+and of the mildness of the Revolution of
+1688. Obadiah Walker, the Master of the
+Colleges, was one of the political converts
+to Roman Catholicism, and it was in ridicule
+of him that "Old Obadiah, Ave
+Maria," was sung by the Oxford populace.
+A set of rooms in the same quadrangle
+bears the trace of its conversion into a
+Roman Catholic Chapel for the king. It
+faces the rooms of Shelley. Reference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+was made the other day, in an ecclesiastical
+lawsuit, to the singular practice which
+prevails in this College, of filing out into
+the ante-chapel after the sacrament to consume
+the remains of the bread and wine,
+instead of consuming them at the altar
+or communion table. This probably is
+a trace of the Protestant reaction which
+followed the transitory reign of Roman
+Catholicism under Obadiah Walker. All
+are familiar with the Magdalen College
+case, and with the train of events by
+which the most devoutly royalist of Universities
+was brought, by its connection
+with the Anglican Church and in defence
+of the Church's possessions, into collision
+with the Crown, and arrayed for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+moment on the side of constitutional liberty.
+After the Revolution the recoil
+quickly followed. Oxford became the
+stronghold of Jacobitism, the scene of
+treasonable talk over the wine in the
+Common Room, of riotous demonstrations
+by pot-valiant undergraduates in the
+streets, of Jacobite orations at academical
+festivals, amid frantic cheers of the assembled
+University, of futile plotting and
+puerile conspiracies which never put a
+man in the field. "The king to Oxford
+sent a troop of horse." But the troop of
+horse was not called upon to act. There
+was a small Hanoverian and constitutional
+party, and now and then it scored
+a point against its adversaries, who dared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+not avow their disloyalty to the reigning
+dynasty. A Jacobite Proctor, having
+intruded into a convivial meeting of
+Whigs, they tendered him the health of
+King George, which, for fear of the treason
+law, he was fain to drink upon his knees.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the eighteenth century
+there was some intellectual life in
+Christ Church, to which Westminster
+still sent up good scholars, and which was
+the resort of the nobility, in whom youthful
+ambition and desire for improvement
+might be stirred by the influences of political
+homes, and the prospects of a public
+life. Dean Aldrich was a scholar and
+a virtuoso. The spire of All Saints' Church
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+is a soaring monument of his
+taste, if not of his genius, for architecture.
+In the controversy with Bentley about
+the Epistles of Phalaris, Christ Church,
+though she was hopelessly in the wrong,
+showed that she had some learning and
+some interest in classical studies. Otherwise
+the eighteenth century is a blank, or
+worse than a blank, in the history of the
+University. The very portraits on the
+College walls disclose the void of any but
+ecclesiastical eminence. That tendency to
+torpor, which, as Adam Smith and Turgot
+have maintained, is inherent in the system
+of endowments, fell upon Oxford in full
+measure. The Colleges had now, by the
+increase in value of their estates, become<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+rich, some of them very rich. The estates
+of Magdalen, Gibbon tells us, were
+thought to be worth thirty thousand
+pounds a year, equivalent to double that
+sum now. Instead of being confined to
+their original Commons and Livery, the
+Heads and Fellows, as administrators of
+the estate, were now dividing among
+themselves annually large rentals, though
+they failed to increase in equal proportion
+the stipends of the Scholars and others
+who had no share in the administration.
+The statutes of medi&aelig;val Founders had
+become utterly obsolete, and were disregarded,
+notwithstanding the oath taken
+to observe them, or observed only so far
+as they guarded the interest of sine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>curists
+against the public. Nor were any
+other duties assumed. A few of the Fellows
+in each College added to their income
+by holding the tutorships, the functions of
+which they usually performed in the most
+slovenly way, each Tutor professing to
+teach all subjects, while most of them
+knew none. In the Common Room, with
+which each of the Colleges now provided
+itself, the Fellows spent lives of Trulliberian
+luxury, drinking, smoking, playing at
+bowls, and, as Gibbon said, by their deep
+but dull potations excusing the brisk intemperance
+of youth. Even the obligation
+to residence was relaxed, and at last
+practically annulled, so that a great part
+of the Fellowships became sinecure sti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>pends
+held by men unconnected with the
+University. About the only restriction
+which remained was that on marriage.
+Out of this the Heads had managed to slip
+their necks, and from the time of Elizabeth
+downwards there had been married
+Heads, to the great scandal of Anthony
+Wood and other academical precisians, to
+whom, in truth, one lady, at least, the wife
+of Warden Clayton of Merton, seems to
+have afforded some grounds for criticism
+by her usurpations. But in the case of
+the Fellows, the statute, being not constructive,
+but express, could not be evaded
+except by stealth, and by an application of
+the aphorism then current, that he might
+hold anything who would hold his tongue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+The effect of this, celibacy being no
+longer the rule, was to make all the Fellows
+look forward to the benefices, of a
+number of which each College was the
+patron, and upon which they could marry.
+Thus devotion to a life of study or education
+in College, had a Fellow been inclined
+to it, was impossible, under the ordinary
+conditions of modern life. Idleness, intemperance,
+and riot were rife among the
+students, as we learn from the novels and
+memoirs of the day. Especially were
+they the rule among the noblemen and
+gentlemen-commoners, who were privileged
+by their birth and wealth, and to
+whom by the servility of the Dons every
+license was allowed. Some Colleges took<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+only gentlemen-commoners, who paid
+high fees and did what they pleased. All
+Souls' took no students at all, and became
+a mere club which, by a strange perversion
+of a clause in their statutes, was limited
+to men of high family. The University
+as a teaching and examining body
+had fallen into a dead swoon. Few of the
+Professors even went through the form of
+lecturing, and the statutory obligation of
+attendance was wholly disregarded by the
+students. The form of medi&aelig;val disputations
+was kept up by the farcical repetition
+of strings of senseless syllogisms,
+which were handed down from generation
+to generation of students. The very nomenclature
+of the system had become un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>meaning.
+Candidates for the theological
+degree paced the Divinity School for an
+hour, nominally challenging opponents to
+disputation, but the door was locked by
+the Bedel, that no opponent might appear.
+Examinations were held, but the
+candidates, by feeing the University officer,
+were allowed to choose their own
+examiners, and they treated the examiner
+after the ordeal. The two questions,
+"What is the meaning of Golgotha?" and
+"Who founded University College?" comprised
+the examination upon which Lord
+Eldon took his degree. A little of that
+elegant scholarship, with the power of writing
+Latin verses, of which Addison was
+the cynosure, was the most of which Ox<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>ford
+could boast. Even this there could
+hardly have been had not the learned
+languages happened to have formed an
+official part of the equipment of the clerical
+profession. Of science, or the mental
+habit which science forms, there was none.
+Such opportunities for study, such libraries,
+such groves, a livelihood so free from
+care could scarcely fail, now and then, to
+give birth to a learned man, an Addison, a
+Lowth, a Thomas Warton, an Elmsley, a
+Martin Routh.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 768px;">
+<img src="images/illus-162.jpg" width="768" height="957" alt="STAIRCASE, CHRIST CHURCH." title="" />
+<span class="caption">STAIRCASE, CHRIST CHURCH.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The Universities being the regular finishing
+schools of the gentry and the professions,
+men who had passed through
+them became eminent in after life, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+they owed little or nothing to the University.
+Only in this way can Oxford lay
+claim to the eminence of Bishop Butler,
+Jeremy Bentham, or Adam Smith, while
+Gibbon is her reproach. The figures of
+Lord Eldon and Lord Stowell, whose ponderous
+twin statues sit side by side in the
+Library of University College, were more
+academical, especially that of Lord Stowell,
+who was Tutor of his College, and held
+a lectureship of Ancient History. Here
+and there a Tutor of the better stamp, no
+doubt, would try to do his duty by his
+pupils. A rather pathetic interest attaches
+to Richard Newton, who tried to turn
+Hart Hall into a real place of education,
+and had some distinguished pupils, among<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+them Charles Fox. But the little lamp
+which he had kindled went out in the
+uncongenial air. On the site, thanks to
+the munificence of Mr. Baring, now stands
+Hertford College. Johnson's residence at
+Pembroke College was short, and his narrative
+shows that it was unprofitable, though
+his High Church principles afterwards
+made him a loyal son and eulogist of the
+University. One good effect the interdiction
+of marriage had. It kept up a sort of
+brotherhood, and saved corporate munificence
+from extinction by the private interest
+of fathers of families. As the College
+revenues increased, building went on,
+though after the false classical fashion of
+the times and mostly for the purpose of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+College luxury. Now rose the new quadrangle
+of Queen's, totally supplanting the
+medi&aelig;val College, and the new buildings
+at Magdalen and Corpus. A plan is extant,
+horrible to relate, for the total demolition
+of the old quadrangle of Magdalen,
+and its replacement by a modern palace
+of idleness in the Italian style. To this
+century belong Peckwater and Canterbury
+quadrangles, also in the classical style, the
+first redeemed by the Library which fills
+one side of the square, and which has a
+heavy architectural grandeur as well as
+a noble purpose. To the eighteenth century
+we also mainly owe the College gardens
+and walks as we see them; and the
+gardens of St. John's, New College, Wad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>ham,
+Worcester, and Exeter, with the lime
+walk at Trinity and the Broadwalk&mdash;now
+unhappily but a wreck&mdash;at Christ Church,
+may plead to a student's heart for some
+mitigation of the sentence on the race of
+clerical idlers and wine-bibbers, who, for
+a century, made the University a place,
+not of education and learning, but of dull
+sybaritism, and a source, not of light, but
+of darkness, to the nation. It is sad to
+think how different the history of England
+might have been had Oxford and Cambridge
+done their duty, like Harvard and
+Yale, during the last century.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p>At the end of the last or beginning of
+the present century came the revival. At<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+the end of the last century Christ Church
+had some brilliant classical scholars among
+her students, though the great scene of
+their eminence was not the study but the
+senate. The portraits of Wellesley and
+Canning hang in her Hall. In the early
+part of the present century the general
+spirit of reform and progress, which had
+been repressed during the struggle with
+revolutionary France, began to move again
+over the face of the torpid waters. Eveleigh,
+Provost of Oriel, led the way. At
+his College and at Balliol the elections
+to Fellowships were free from local or
+genealogical restrictions. They were now
+opened to merit, and those two Colleges,
+though not among the first in wealth or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+magnificence, attained a start in the race
+of regeneration which Balliol, being very
+fortunate in its Heads, has since in a
+remarkable manner maintained. The examination
+system of Laud had lacked a
+motive power, and had depended, like his
+policy, on his fiat instead of vital force.
+There was no sufficient inducement for
+the examiner to be strict or for the candidate
+to excel. The motive power was now
+supplied by a list of honours in classics
+and mathematics, and among the earliest
+winners in the first class in both schools
+was Robert Peel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 964px;">
+<img src="images/illus-176.jpg" width="964" height="768" alt="CHRIST CHURCH." title="" />
+<span class="caption">CHRIST CHURCH&mdash;FRONT.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely, however, had the University
+begun to awake to a new life, when it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+was swept by another ecclesiastical storm,
+the consequence of its unhappy identification
+with clericism and the State Church.
+The liberal movement which commenced
+after the fall of Napoleon and carried the
+Reform Bill, threatened to extend to the
+religious field, and to withdraw the support
+of the State from the Anglican
+Church. This led the clergy to look out
+for another basis, which they found in the
+reassertion of High Church and sacerdotal
+doctrines, such as apostolical succession,
+eucharistical real presence, and baptismal
+regeneration. Presently the movement assumed
+the form of a revival of the Church
+of the Middle Ages, such as High Church
+imagination pictured it, and ultimately of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+secession to Rome. Oxford, with her medi&aelig;val
+buildings, her High Church tradition,
+her half-monastic Colleges, and her
+body of unmarried clergy, became the
+centre of the movement. The Romanising
+tendencies of Tractarianism, as from
+the "Tracts for the Times" it was called,
+visible from the first, though disclaimed
+by the leaders, aroused a fierce Protestant
+reaction, which encountered Tractarianism
+both in the press and in the councils
+of the University. The Armageddon of
+the ecclesiastical war was the day on
+which, in a gathering of religious partisans
+from all sections of the country
+which the Convocation House would not
+hold, so that it was necessary to adjourn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+to the Sheldonian Theatre, Ward, the
+most daring of the Tractarian writers,
+after a scene of very violent excitement,
+was deprived of his degree. This was the
+beginning of the end. Newman, the real
+leader of the movement, though Pusey,
+from his academical rank, was the official
+leader, soon recognised the place to which
+his principles belonged, and was on his
+knees before a Roman Catholic priest,
+supplicating for admission to the Church
+of Rome. A ritualistic element remained,
+and now reigns, in the Church of England;
+but the party which Newman left,
+bereft of Newman, broke up, and its relics
+were cast like drift-wood on every theological
+or philosophical shore. Newman's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+poetic version of medi&aelig;val religion, together
+with the spiritual graces of his
+style and his personal influence, had for
+a time filled the imaginations and carried
+away the hearts of youth, while the
+seniors were absorbed in the theological
+controversy, renounced lay studies, and
+disdained educational duty except as it
+might afford opportunities of winning
+youthful souls to the Neo-Catholic faith.
+Academical duty would have been utterly
+lost in theological controversy, had it not
+been for the Class List, which bound the
+most intellectual undergraduates to lay
+studies by their ambition, and kept on
+foot a staff of private teachers, "coaches,"
+as they were called, to prepare men for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+the examinations, who did the duty which
+the ecclesiastical Fellows of the University
+disdained. The Oxford movement
+has left a monument of itself in the College
+founded in memory of Keble, the
+gentle and saintly author of "The Christian
+Year." It has left an ampler monument
+in the revival of medi&aelig;val architecture
+at Oxford, and the style of new
+buildings which everywhere meet the eye.
+The work of the Oxford Architectural
+Society, which had its birth in the Neo-Catholic
+movement, may prove more durable
+than that movement itself. Of the
+excess to which the architectural revival
+was carried, the new Library at University
+College, more like a medi&aelig;val Chapel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+than a Library, is a specimen. It was
+proposed to give Neo-Catholicism yet
+another monument by erecting close to
+the spot where Cranmer, Latimer, and
+Ridley died for truth, the statue of Cardinal
+Newman, the object of whose pursuit
+through life had been, not truth, but
+an ecclesiastical ideal. Of the reaction
+against the Tractarian movement the
+monument is the memorial to the Protestant
+martyrs Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley,
+the subscription for which commenced
+among the Protestants who had come up
+to vote for the condemnation of Ward, and
+which Tractarians scornfully compared to
+the heap of stones raised over the body of
+Achan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Here ended the reign of ecclesiasticism,
+of the Middle Ages, and of religious exclusion.
+The collision into which Romanising
+Oxford had been brought with the
+Protestantism of the British nation, probably
+helped to bring on the revolution
+which followed, and which restored the
+University to learning, science, and the
+nation. The really academical element in
+the University invoked the aid of the
+national government and Legislature. A
+Royal Commission of Inquiry into the
+state of the University and its Colleges
+was appointed, and though some Colleges
+closed their muniment rooms, and inquiry
+was obstructed, enough was revealed in
+the Report amply to justify legislative<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+reform and emancipation. An act of
+Parliament was passed which set free the
+University and Colleges alike from their
+medi&aelig;val statutes, restored the University
+Professoriate, opened the Fellowships to
+merit, and relaxed the religious tests.
+The curriculum, the examination system,
+and the honour list were liberalised, and
+once more, as in early times, all the great
+departments of knowledge were recognised
+and domiciled in the University.
+Science, long an exile, was welcomed
+back to her home at the moment when
+a great extension of her empire was at
+hand. Strictly professional studies, such
+as practical law and medicine, could not
+be recalled from their professional seats.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+Elections to Fellowships by merit replaced
+election by local or school preferences,
+by kinship, or by the still more
+objectionable influences which at one time
+had been not unfelt. Colleges which had
+declined the duty of education, which had
+been dedicated to sinecurism and indolence,
+and whose quadrangles had stood
+empty, were filled with students, and once
+more presented a spectacle which would
+have gladdened the heart of the Founder.
+A Commission, acting on a still more
+recent Act of Parliament, has carried the
+adaptation of Oxford to the modern requirements
+of science and learning further
+than the old Commission, which acted in
+the penumbra of medi&aelig;val and ecclesiasti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>cal
+tradition, dared. The intellectual Oxford
+of the present day is almost a fresh
+creation. Its spirit is new; it is liberal,
+free, and progressive. It is rather too
+revolutionary, grave seniors say, so far as
+the younger men are concerned. This is
+probably only the first forward bound of
+recovered freedom, which will be succeeded
+in time by the sober pace of learning
+and scientific investigation. Again,
+as in the thirteenth century, the day of
+Grosseteste and Simon de Montfort, Oxford
+is a centre of progress, instead of
+being, as under the later Stuarts, the
+stronghold of reaction. Of the College
+revival, the monuments are all around in
+the new buildings, for which increasing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+numbers have called, and which revived
+energy has supplied. Christ Church, New
+College, Magdalen, Merton, Balliol, Trinity,
+University have all enlarged their
+courts, and in almost every College new
+life has been shown by improvement or
+restoration. Of the reign of medi&aelig;valism
+the only trace is the prevalence in the new
+buildings of the medi&aelig;val style, which
+architectural harmony seemed to require,
+though the new buildings of Christ
+Church and Trinity are proofs of a happy
+emancipation from architectural tradition.
+The University revival has its monument
+in the new examination Schools in High
+Street, where the student can no longer
+get his degree by giving the meaning of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+Golgotha and the name of the Founder
+of University College. There are those
+who, like Mark Pattison, look on it with
+an evil eye, regarding the examination
+system as a noxious excrescence and as
+fatal to spontaneous study and research;
+though they would hardly contend that
+spontaneous study and research flourished
+much at Oxford before the revival of examinations,
+or deny that since the revival
+Oxford has produced the fruits of study
+and research, at least to a fair extent.
+The restoration of science is proclaimed
+by the new Museum yonder; a strange
+structure, it must be owned, which symbolises,
+by the unfitness of its style for its
+purpose, at once the unscientific character<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+of the Middle Ages, and the lingering
+attachment of Oxford to the medi&aelig;val
+type. Of the abolition of the religious
+tests, and the restoration of the University
+to the nation, a monument is Mansfield
+College for Congregationalists, a
+vision of which would have thrown an
+orthodox and Tory Head of a College
+into convulsions half a century ago.
+Even here the medi&aelig;val style of architecture
+keeps its hold, though the places
+of Catholic Saints are taken by the statues
+of Wycliffe, Luther, John Knox, Whitefield,
+and Wesley. By the side of Mansfield
+College rises also Manchester College
+for Independents, in the same architectural
+style. Neither of them, however, is in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+the Oxford sense a College; both are
+places of theological instruction.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 970px;">
+<img src="images/illus-190.jpg" width="970" height="768" alt="GATE TOWER AND CLOISTERS, MAGDALEN." title="" />
+<span class="caption">GATE TOWER AND CLOISTERS, MAGDALEN.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>On the North of the city, where fifty
+years ago stretched green fields, is now
+seen a suburb of villas, all of them bespeaking
+comfort and elegance, few of
+them overweening wealth. These are
+largely the monuments of another great
+change, the removal of the rule of celibacy
+from the Fellowships, and the introduction
+of a large body of married
+teachers devoted to their profession, as
+well as of the revival of the Professorships,
+which were always tenable by married men.
+Fifty years ago the wives of Heads of
+Houses, who generally married late in life<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+if they married at all, constituted, with
+one or two officers of the University, the
+whole female society of Oxford. The
+change was inevitable, if education was to
+be made a profession, instead of being, as
+it had been in the hands of celibate Fellows
+of Colleges, merely the transitory
+occupation of a man whose final destination
+was the parish. Those who remember
+the old Common Room life, which is
+now departing, cannot help looking back
+with a wistful eye to its bachelor ease,
+its pleasant companionship, its interesting
+talk and free interchange of thought, its
+potations neither "deep" nor "dull." Nor
+were its symposia without important fruits
+when such men as Newman and Ward,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+on one side, encountered such men as
+Whately, Arnold, and Tait, on the other
+side, in Common Room talk over great
+questions of the day. But the life became
+dreary when a man had passed forty, and
+it is well exchanged for the community
+that fills those villas, and which, with its
+culture, its moderate and tolerably equal
+incomes, permitting hospitality but forbidding
+luxury, and its unity of interests with
+its diversity of acquirements and accomplishments,
+seems to present the ideal conditions
+of a pleasant social life. The only
+question is, how the College system will be
+maintained when the Fellows are no longer
+resident within the walls of the College to
+temper and control the younger members,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+for a barrack of undergraduates is not a
+good thing. The personal bond and intercourse
+between Tutor and pupil under
+the College system was valuable as well as
+pleasant; it cannot be resigned without
+regret. But its loss will be compensated
+by far superior teaching. Half a century
+ago conservatism strove to turn the railway
+away from Oxford. But the railway
+came, and it brings, on summer Sundays,
+to the city of study and thought not a few
+leaders of the active world. Oxford is
+now, indeed, rather too attractive; her
+academical society is in danger of being
+swamped by the influx of non-academical
+residents.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The buildings stand, to mark by their
+varying architecture the succession of the
+changeful centuries through which the
+University has passed. In the Libraries
+are the monuments of the successive generations
+of learning. But the tide of
+youthful life that from age to age has
+flowed through college, quadrangle, hall,
+and chamber, through University examination-rooms
+and Convocation Houses,
+has left no memorials of itself except the entries
+in the University and College books;
+dates of matriculation, which tell of the
+bashful boy standing before the august
+Vice-Chancellor at entrance; dates of degrees,
+which tell of the youth putting
+forth, from his last haven of tutelage, on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+the waves of the wide world. Hither they
+thronged, century after century, in the
+costume and with the equipments of their
+times, from medi&aelig;val abbey, grange, and
+hall, from Tudor manor-house and homestead,
+from mansion, rectory, and commercial
+city of a later day, bearing with them
+the hopes and affections of numberless
+homes. Year after year they departed,
+lingering for a moment at the gate to say
+farewell to College friends, the bond with
+whom they vowed to preserve, but whom
+they were never to see again, then stepped
+forth into the chances and perils of life,
+while the shadow on the College dial
+moved on its unceasing round. If they
+had only left their names in the rooms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+which they had occupied, there would be
+more of history than we have in those dry
+entries in the books. But, at all events,
+let not fancy frame a history of student
+life at Oxford out of "Verdant Green."
+There are realities corresponding to "Verdant
+Green," and the moral is, that many
+youths come to the University who had
+better stay away, since none get any good
+and few fail to get some harm, saving those
+who have an aptitude for study. But the
+dissipation, the noisy suppers, the tandem-driving,
+the fox-hunting, the running away
+from Proctors, or, what is almost as bad,
+the childish devotion to games and sports
+as if they were the end of existence,
+though they are too common a part of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+undergraduate life in the University of the
+rich, are far from being the whole of it.
+Less than ever are they the whole of it
+since University reform and a more liberal
+curriculum have increased, as certainly
+they have, industry and frugality at
+the same time. Of the two or three thousand
+lamps which to-night will gleam from
+those windows, few will light the supper-table
+or the gambling-table; most will
+light the book. Youthful effort, ambition,
+aspiration, hope, College character and
+friendship have no artist to paint them,&mdash;at
+least as yet they have had none. But
+whatever of poetry belongs to them is
+present in full measure here.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 964px;">
+<img src="images/illus-202.jpg" width="964" height="768" alt="BOATS RACING." title="" />
+<span class="caption">THE RIVER&mdash;BOATS RACING.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="blockquot">
+Addison, Joseph, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aldrich, Henry, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Alfred (King), <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+All Souls' College, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Amusements, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Antiquity, apparent, of the buildings, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Architectural revival at Oxford, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aristotle, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ashmolean Museum, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Augustinians, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Aul&aelig;</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Roger, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bacon, Sir Nicholas, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Balliol College, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intellectual revival in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Baring, T. C., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Benedictines, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bentham, Jeremy, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bentley, Richard, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Black Prince, the, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bocardo, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bodleian Library, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bodley, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bologna, University of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Botanic Garden, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Boyle, Charles, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bradwardine, Thomas, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brasenose College, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Broadwalk, the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brome, Adam de, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Buildings, dates of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Butler, Bishop, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Cardinal College, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Carmellites, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Celibacy enjoined on Heads of Colleges, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effects of its withdrawal, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Chamberdekyns, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span><br />
+Charles I. at Oxford, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Charles II. at Oxford, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chicheley, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Christ Church Cathedral, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Christ Church College, <a href="#Page_80">80</a> <i>et sq.</i>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intellectual revival in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cistercians, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Civil War, Oxford in the time of the, <a href="#Page_112">112</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Clarendon, Earl of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clarendon Building, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clarendon Press, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Class Lists, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clayton, Thos., wife of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Clerical profession, dominance of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Colet, John, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+College life, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Colleges, administration and government of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a> <i>et sq.</i>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growing importance of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a> <i>et sq.</i>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the present intellectual revival in the, <a href="#Page_152">152</a> <i>et sq.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Commemoration, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Common Room life, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commons, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Commonwealth, Oxford in the time of the, <a href="#Page_114">114</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Conant, John, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Congregation, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Convocation, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Convocation House, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Corpus Christi College, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cranmer, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Cromwell, Oliver, Chancellor of Oxford, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Degrees, manner of conferring, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Disputation, stress laid upon, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Divinity School, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dominicans, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Duns Scotus, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Durham College, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Egglesfield, Robert, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eldon, Lord, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elizabeth (Queen), <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elmsley, Peter, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Erasmus, D., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Essays and Reviews," authors of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eton, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eveleigh, John, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Evelyn, John, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Examinations, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Examination system, the, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span><br />
+Examination-rooms. <i>See</i> Schools.<br />
+<br />
+Exeter College, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Faculties, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Falkland, Viscount, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fawkes's (Guy) lantern, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fell, John, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fellows, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fellowships, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fleming, Bishop, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Founders, portraits of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Foxe, Bishop, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Franciscans, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Frydeswide, St., <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Gibbon, Edward, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Gladstone, W. E., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Graduation. <i>See</i> Degrees.<br />
+<br />
+Great Hall of the University, the, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Great Tew, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grocyn, William, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Grosseteste, Robert, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Halls, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hart Hall, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hebdomadal Council, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hertford College, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+High Church Traditions at Oxford, <a href="#Page_144">144</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Hooker, Richard, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Houses, monastic, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Humanists, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Inception, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jacobitism at Oxford, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br />
+<br />
+James I., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br />
+<br />
+James II., statue of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jesus College, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jews at Oxford in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Johnson, Samuel, at Oxford, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Keble, John, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Keble College, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Laud, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_109">109</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Leicester, Earl of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lime Walk at Trinity College, the, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Linacre, Thomas, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lincoln College, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Livery, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Locke, John, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Lowth, Robert, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Magdalen College, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> <i>et sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a> <i>et sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Magdalen College Case, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Manchester College, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Manning, H. E., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mansfield College, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marisco, Adam de, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Martyr, Catherine, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Maynard, Joseph, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mendicant Orders, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Merton, Walter de, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Merton College, <a href="#Page_45">45</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Mob Quad, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Monastic Orders, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Monastic Oxford, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Monasteries, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Montfort, Simon de, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br />
+<br />
+More, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Museum, the Ashmolean. <i>See</i> Ashmolean.<br />
+<br />
+Museum, the University, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Neo-Catholicism. <i>See</i> Tractarianism.<br />
+<br />
+Neville, George, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Newman, J. H., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br />
+<br />
+New College, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Newton, Isaac, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Newton, Richard, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Non-conformists excluded, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ockham, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oldham, Hugh, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oriel College, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Osney Abbey, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Owen, John, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oxford (the name), derivation of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oxford Architectural Society, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oxford (the city), situation of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">environs of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the 13th century, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>et sq.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Oxford (the University), administration and government of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a> <i>et sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a> <i>et sq.</i>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">origin and growth of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a> <i>et sq.</i>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political proclivities of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the 18th century, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> <i>et sq.</i>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in the 19th century, <a href="#Page_140">140</a> <i>et sq.</i>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intellectual revival of, in the present day, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Oxford Movement, the. <i>See</i> Tractarianism.<br />
+<br />
+Oxford University Commissions (1850 and 1876), <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Papacy, the, and the Universities, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Paris, University of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pattison, Mark, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pembroke College, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Peel, Robert, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Petre, Sir William, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Philippa, Queen, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Philosophy, Scholastic, early addiction to, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pope, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pope, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Portraits of Founders, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Press, the University (<i>see also</i> Clarendon Press), <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Proctors, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Professors, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Protectorate, the. <i>See</i> Commonwealth.<br />
+<br />
+Puritanism and Oxford, <a href="#Page_115">115</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Pusey, E. B., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Queen's College, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Radcliffe, Dr. John, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Radcliffe Library, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Reformation, influence of, on Oxford, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Religious tests, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Renaissance, the Medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Restoration, the, and Oxford, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Revolution, the (1688), and Oxford, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Richard III. at Oxford, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rotheram, Bishop, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Routh, Martin, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Royal Commissions. <i>See</i> Oxford University Commissions.<br />
+<br />
+Royal Society, The, <a href="#Page_119">119</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+St. Frydeswide's Church, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. John's College, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Mary of Winton, College of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Mary's Church, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+St. Michael's Church, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Salerno, University of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Scholars, <a href="#Page_46">46</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Schools, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Schools, the new examination, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sermons, University, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sheldon, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sheldonian Theatre, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Smith, Adam, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Socii</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sports, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span><br />
+Statutes, fettering influence of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">disregarded, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Stowell, Lord, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Student life, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_39">39</a> <i>et sq.</i>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Students, medi&aelig;val, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a> <i>et sq.</i>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their affrays with the townspeople, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their amusements, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Suburbs of Oxford, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Teachers, the first, at Oxford, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tests. <i>See</i> Religious tests.<br />
+<br />
+Theology, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tom Tower, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tractarianism, <a href="#Page_145">145</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Trinity College, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Trojans, The," <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Turner's picture of Oxford, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tutors, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Undergraduate life, modern, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Universities, rise of, in Europe, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+<br />
+University College, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+University Gallery, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+"Verdant Green," <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vice-Chancellorship, the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Vives, Juan Luis, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Wadham, Dorothy, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wadham, Sir Nicholas, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wadham College, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Walker, Obadiah, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ward, Seth, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ward, W. G., <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Warton, Thomas, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Waynflete, Bishop, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wellington, Duke of, his inauguration as Chancellor, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wesley, John, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+White, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wilkins, John, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<br />
+William of Durham, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+William of Wykeham, <a href="#Page_55">55</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Winchester School, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Windebank, Thos., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wolsey, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a> <i>et sq.</i><br />
+<br />
+Wood, Anthony (<i>quoted</i>), <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Worcester College, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wren, Christopher, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wycliffe, John, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wykeham. <i>See</i> William of Wykeham.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Oxford and Her Colleges, by Goldwin Smith
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+</pre>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oxford and Her Colleges, by Goldwin Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oxford and Her Colleges
+
+Author: Goldwin Smith
+
+Release Date: October 31, 2011 [EBook #37893]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: RADCLIFFE LIBRARY.]
+
+
+
+
+  OXFORD
+  AND HER COLLEGES
+
+  A View from the Radcliffe Library
+
+  BY
+  GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L.
+
+  AUTHOR OF "THE UNITED STATES: AN OUTLINE OF
+  POLITICAL HISTORY," ETC.
+
+  WITH ILLUSTRATIONS REPRODUCED FROM PHOTOGRAPHS
+
+  New York
+  MACMILLAN AND CO.
+  AND LONDON
+  1895
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1893,
+  BY MACMILLAN AND CO.
+
+  Norwood Press:
+  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith.
+  Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The writer has seldom enjoyed himself more than in showing an American
+friend over Oxford. He has felt something of the same enjoyment in
+preparing, with the hope of interesting some American visitors, this
+outline of the history of the University and her Colleges. He would
+gladly believe that Oxford and Cambridge, having now, by emancipation
+and reform, been reunited to the nation, may also be reunited to the
+race; and that to them, not less than to the Universities of Germany,
+the eyes of Americans desirous of studying at a European as well as at
+an American University may henceforth be turned.
+
+It was once the writer's duty, in the service of a Royal Commission of
+Inquiry, to make himself well acquainted with the archives of the
+University and its Colleges. But he has also availed himself of a number
+of recent publications, such as the series of the Oxford Historical
+Society, the history of the University by Mr. Maxwell Lyte, and the
+volume on the Colleges of Oxford and their traditions, edited by Mr.
+Andrew Clark, as well as of the excellent little Guide published by
+Messrs. James Parker and Co.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+OXFORD AND HER COLLEGES.
+
+
+To gain a view of Oxford from a central point, we mount to the top of
+the Radcliffe Library. We will hope that it is a fine summer day, that,
+as we come out upon the roof, the old city, with all its academical
+buildings lying among their gardens and groves, presents itself to view
+in its beauty, and that the sound of its bells, awakening the memories
+of the ages, is in the air. The city is seen lying on the spit of gravel
+between the Isis, as the Thames is here called, which is the scene of
+boat races, and the Cherwell, famed for water-lilies. It is doubtful
+whether the name means the ford of the oxen, or the ford of the river
+(_oxen_ being a corruption of _ousen_). Flat, sometimes flooded, is the
+site. To ancient founders of cities, a river for water carriage and rich
+meads for kine were prime attractions. But beyond the flat we look to a
+lovely country, rolling and sylvan, from many points of which, Wytham,
+Hinksey, Bagley, Headington, Elsfield, Stowe Wood, are charming views,
+nearer or more distant, of the city. Turner's view is taken from Bagley,
+but it is rather a Turner poem than a simple picture of Oxford.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There is in Oxford much that is not as old as it looks. The buildings of
+the Bodleian Library, University College, Oriel, Exeter, and some
+others, mediaeval or half mediaeval in their style, are Stuart in date. In
+Oxford the Middle Ages lingered long. Yon cupola of Christ Church is the
+work of Wren, yon towers of All Souls' are the work of a still later
+hand. The Headington stone, quickly growing black and crumbling, gives
+the buildings a false hue of antiquity. An American visitor, misled by
+the blackness of University College, remarked to his host that the
+buildings must be immensely old. "No," replied his host, "their colour
+deceives you; their age is not more than two hundred years." It need
+not be said that Palladian edifices like Queen's, or the new buildings
+of Magdalen, are not the work of a Chaplain of Edward III., or a
+Chancellor of Henry VI. But of the University buildings, St. Mary's
+Church and the Divinity School, of the College buildings, the old
+quadrangles of Merton, New College, Magdalen, Brasenose, and detached
+pieces not a few are genuine Gothic of the Founders' age. Here are six
+centuries, if you choose to include the Norman castle, here are eight
+centuries, and, if you choose to include certain Saxon remnants in
+Christ Church Cathedral, here are ten centuries, chronicled in stone. Of
+the corporate lives of these Colleges, the threads have run unbroken
+through all the changes and revolutions, political, religious, and
+social, between the Barons' War and the present hour. The economist goes
+to their muniment rooms for the record of domestic management and
+expenditure during those ages. Till yesterday, the codes of statutes
+embodying their domestic law, though largely obsolete, remained
+unchanged. Nowhere else in England, at all events, unless it be at the
+sister University, can the eye and mind feed upon so much antiquity,
+certainly not upon so much antique beauty, as on the spot where we
+stand. That all does not belong to the same remote antiquity, adds to
+the interest and to the charm. This great home of learning, with its
+many architectures, has been handed from generation to generation, each
+generation making its own improvements, impressing its own tastes,
+embodying its own tendencies, down to the present hour. It is like a
+great family mansion, which owner after owner has enlarged or improved
+to meet his own needs or tastes, and which, thus chronicling successive
+phases of social and domestic life, is wanting in uniformity but not in
+living interest or beauty.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Oxford is a federation of Colleges. It had been strictly so for two
+centuries, and every student had been required to be a member of a
+College when, in 1856, non-collegiate students, of whom there are now a
+good many, were admitted. The University is the federal government. The
+Chancellor, its nominal head, is a non-resident grandee, usually a
+political leader whom the University delights to honour and whose
+protection it desires. Only on great state occasions does he appear in
+his gown richly embroidered with gold. The acting chief is the
+Vice-Chancellor, one of the heads of Colleges, who marches with the
+Bedel carrying the mace before him, and has been sometimes taken by
+strangers for the attendant of the Bedel. With him are the two Proctors,
+denoted by their velvet sleeves, named by the Colleges in turn, the
+guardians of University discipline. The University Legislature consists
+of three houses,--an elective Council, made up equally of heads of
+Colleges, professors, and Masters of Arts; the Congregation of
+residents, mostly teachers of the University or Colleges; and the
+Convocation, which consists of all Masters of Arts, resident or
+non-resident, if they are present to vote. Congregation numbers four
+hundred, Convocation nearly six thousand. Legislation is initiated by
+the Council, and has to make its way through Convocation and
+Congregation, with some chance of being wrecked between the academical
+Congregation, which is progressive, and the rural Convocation, which is
+conservative. The University regulates the general studies, holds all
+the examinations, except that at entrance, which is held by the
+Colleges, confers all the degrees and honours, and furnishes the police
+of the academical city. Its professors form the general and superior
+staff of teachers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Each College, at the same time, is a little polity in itself. It has its
+own governing body, consisting of a Head (President, Master, Principal,
+Provost, or Warden) and a body of Fellows. It holds its own estates;
+noble estates, some of them are. It has its private staff of teachers or
+tutors, usually taken from the Fellows, though the subjects of teaching
+are those recognised by the University examinations. The relation
+between the tutors teaching and that of the professor is rather
+unsettled and debatable, varying in some measure with the subjects,
+since physical science can be taught only in the professor's
+lecture-room, while classics and mathematics can be taught in the
+class-room of the tutor. Before 1856 the professorial system of teaching
+had long lain in abeyance, and the tutorial system had prevailed alone.
+Each College administers its domestic discipline. The University
+Proctor, if he chases a student to the College gates, must there halt
+and apply to the College for extradition. To the College the student
+immediately belongs; it is responsible for his character and habits. The
+personal relations between him and his tutor are, or ought to be, close.
+Oxford life hitherto has been a College life. To his College the Oxford
+man has mainly looked back. Here his early friendships have been formed.
+In these societies the ruling class of England, the lay professions and
+landed gentry mingling with the clergy, has been bred. It is to the
+College, generally, that benefactions and bequests are given; with the
+College that the rich and munificent _alumnus_ desires to unite his
+name; in the College Hall that he hopes his portrait will hang, to be
+seen with grateful eyes. The University, however, shares the attachment
+of the _alumnus_. Go to yonder river on an evening of the College boat
+races, or to yonder cricket ground when a College match is being played,
+and you will see the strength of College feeling. At a University race
+or match in London the Oxford or Cambridge sentiment appears. In an
+American University there is nothing like the College bond, unless it be
+that of the Secret, or, to speak more reasonably, the Greek Letter
+societies, which form inner social circles with a sentiment of their
+own.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The buildings of the University lie mainly in the centre of the city
+close around us. There is the Convocation House, the hall of the
+University Legislature, where, in times of collision between theological
+parties, or between the party of the ancient system of education and
+that of the modern system, lively debates have been heard. In it, also,
+are conferred the ordinary degrees. They are still conferred in the
+religious form of words, handed down from the Middle Ages, the candidate
+kneeling down before the Vice-Chancellor in the posture of mediaeval
+homage. Oxford is the classic ground of old forms and ceremonies. Before
+each degree is conferred, the Proctors march up and down the House to
+give any objector to the degree--an unsatisfied creditor, for
+example--the opportunity of entering a _caveat_ by "plucking" the
+Proctor's sleeve. Adjoining the Convocation House is the Divinity
+School, the only building of the University, saving St. Mary's Church,
+which dates from the Middle Ages. A very beautiful relic of the Middle
+Ages it is when seen from the gardens of Exeter College. Here are held
+the examinations for degrees in theology, styled, in the Oxford of old,
+queen of the sciences, and long their tyrant. Here, again, is the
+Sheldonian Theatre, the gift of Archbishop Sheldon, a Primate of the
+Restoration period, and as readers of Pepys's "Diary" know, of
+Restoration character, but a patron of learning. University
+exercises used, during the Middle Ages, to be performed in St. Mary's
+Church. In those days the church was the public building for all
+purposes, that of a theatre among the rest. But the Anglican was more
+scrupulous in his use of the sacred edifice than the Roman Catholic. In
+the Sheldonian Theatre is held the annual commemoration of Founders and
+benefactors, the grand academical festival, at which the Doctorate
+appears in its pomp of scarlet, filing in to the sound of the organ, the
+prize poems and essays are read, and the honorary degrees are conferred
+in the presence of a gala crowd of visitors drawn by the summer beauty
+of Oxford and the pleasures that close the studious year. In former
+days the ceremony used to be enlivened and sometimes disgraced by the
+jests of the _terrae filius_, a licensed or tolerated buffoon whose
+personalities provoked the indignation of Evelyn, and in one case, at
+least, were visited with expulsion. It is now enlivened, and, as
+visitors think, sometimes disgraced, by the uproarious joking of the
+undergraduates' gallery. This modern license the authorities of the
+University are believed to have brought on themselves by encouraging
+political demonstrations. The Sheldonian Theatre is also the scene of
+grand receptions, and of the inauguration of the Chancellor. That
+flaunting portrait of George IV. in  his royal robes, by Lawrence,
+with the military portraits of the Emperor of Russia and the King of
+Prussia by which it is flanked and its gorgeousness is rebuked, mark the
+triumphs of the monarchs, whose cause had become that of European
+independence, over Napoleon. Perhaps the most singular ceremony
+witnessed by these walls was the inauguration of the Iron Duke as
+Chancellor of the University. This was the climax of Oxford devotion to
+the Tory party, and such was the gathering as to cause it to be said
+that if the roof of the Sheldonian Theatre had then fallen in, the party
+would have been extinguished. The Duke, as if to mark the incongruity,
+put on his academical cap with the wrong side in front, and in reading
+his Latin speech, lapsed into a thundering false quantity.
+
+[Illustration: DIVINITY SCHOOL, FROM EXETER GARDENS.]
+
+[Illustration: INTERIOR OF SHELDONIAN THEATRE.]
+
+The Clarendon was built with the proceeds of the history written by the
+Minister of the early Restoration, who was Chancellor of the University,
+and whose touching letter of farewell to her, on his fall and flight
+from England, may be seen in the Bodleian Library. There, also, are
+preserved documents which may help to explain his fall. They are the
+written dialogues which passed between him and his master at the board
+of the Privy Council, and they show that Clarendon, having been the
+political tutor of Charles the exile, too much bore himself as the
+political tutor of Charles the king. In the Clarendon are the University
+Council Chamber and the Registry. Once it was the University press, but
+the press has now a far larger mansion yonder to the north-west, whence,
+besides works of learning and science, go forth Bibles and prayer-books
+in all languages to all quarters of the globe. Legally, as a printer of
+Bibles the University has a privilege, but its real privilege is that
+which it secures for itself by the most scrupulous accuracy and by
+infinitesimal profits.
+
+[Illustration: THE BODLEIAN.]
+
+Close by is the University Library, the Bodleian, one of those great
+libraries of the world in which you can ring up at a few minutes' notice
+almost any author of any age or country. This Library is one of those
+entitled by law to a copy of every book printed in the United Kingdom,
+and it is bound to preserve all that it receives, a duty which might in
+the end burst any building, were it not that the paper of many modern
+books is happily perishable. A foundation was laid for a University
+Library in the days of Henry VI., by the good Duke Humphrey of
+Gloucester, who gave a collection of books. But in the rough times which
+followed, the Duke's donation perished, only two or three precious
+relics being saved from the wreck. Sir Thomas Bodley, a wealthy knight
+and diplomatist of the time of James I., it was who reared this pile,
+severely square and  bare, though a skilful variation of the string
+course in the different stories somewhat relieves its heaviness. In the
+antique reading-room, breathing study, and not overthronged with
+readers, the bookworm finds a paradise. Over the Library is the
+University Gallery, the visitor to which is entreated to avert his eyes
+from the fictitious portraits of founders of early Colleges, and to fix
+them, if he will, on the royal portraits which painfully attest the
+loyalty of the University, or, as a relief from these, on Guy Fawkes's
+lantern. Beneath the Library used to be the Schools or examination-rooms
+of the University, scenes of youthful hopes and fears; perhaps, as the
+aspirants to honours were a minority, of more fears than hopes; and at
+those doors formerly gathered the eager crowd of candidates and their
+friends to read the class lists which were posted there. But the
+examination system has outgrown its ancient tenement and migrated to
+yonder new-built pile in High Street, more fitted, perhaps, by its
+elaborate ornamentation for the gala and the dance, than for the torture
+of undergraduates. In the quadrangle of the Bodleian sits aloft, on the
+face of a tower displaying all the orders of classical architecture, the
+learned King and royal theologian. The Bible held in his hand is
+believed to have fallen down on the day that Mr. Gladstone lost his
+election as Member for the University of Oxford and set forth on a
+career of liberalism which has since led him to the disestablishment of
+the Church. We stand on the Radcliffe, formerly the medical and physical
+library, now a supplement and an additional reading-room of the
+Bodleian, the gift of Dr. Radcliffe, Court Physician and despot of the
+profession in the times of William and Anne, of whose rough sayings, and
+sayings more than rough, some are preserved in his "Life." He it was who
+told William III. that he would not have His Majesty's two legs for his
+three kingdoms, and who is said to have punished the giver of a
+niggardly fee by a prediction of death, which was fulfilled by the
+terrors of the patient. Close at hand is the Ashmolean, the old
+University Museum, now only a museum of antiquities, the most precious
+of which is King Alfred's gem. Museum and Medical Library have together
+migrated to the new edifice on the north side of the city.
+
+But of all the University buildings the most beautiful is St. Mary's
+Church, where the University sermons are preached, and from the pulpit
+of which, in the course of successive generations and successive
+controversies, a changeful and often heady current of theology has
+flowed. There preached Newman, Pusey, and Manning; there preached
+Hampden, Stanley, and the authors of "Essays and Reviews."
+
+[Illustration: THE HIGH STREET.
+
+  University College.
+  St. Mary's Church.
+  Queen's College.]
+
+Oxford and Cambridge were not at first Universities of Colleges. The
+Colleges were after-growths which for a time absorbed the University.
+The University of Oxford was born in the twelfth century, fully a
+century before the foundation of the first College. To recall the Oxford
+of the thirteenth century, one must bid vanish all the buildings which
+now meet our eyes, except yonder grim castle to the west of the city,
+and the stern tower of St. Michael's Church, at once the bell tower of
+the Church and a defence of the city gate facing the dangerous north.
+The man-at-arms from the castle, the warder from the gate, looks down
+upon a city of five or six thousand inhabitants, huddled for protection
+under the castle, and within those walls of which a fine remnant is seen
+bounding the domain of New College. In this city there is a concourse of
+students brought together to hear a body of teachers who have been led,
+we know not how, to open their mart of knowledge here. Printing not
+having been invented, and books being scarce, the fountain of knowledge
+is the lecture-room of the professor. It is the age of an intellectual
+revival so remarkable as to be called the Mediaeval Renaissance. After
+the migrations and convulsions, by which the world was cast in a new
+mould, ensues a reign of comparative peace and settled government, under
+which the desire of knowledge has been reawakened. Universities have
+been coming out all over Europe like stars in the night; Paris, famous
+for theology and philosophy, perhaps being the brightest of the
+constellation, while Bologna was famed for law and Salerno for medicine.
+It was probably in the reign of Henry I. that the company of teachers
+settled at Oxford, and before the end of the thirteenth century students
+had collected to a number which fable exaggerates to thirty thousand,
+but which was really large enough to crowd the little city and even the
+bastions of its walls. A light had shone on youths who sat in the shadow
+of feudal servitude. There is no more romantic period in the history of
+human intellect than the thirteenth century.
+
+The teachers, after the fashion of that age, formed themselves into a
+guild, which guarded its monopoly. The undergraduate was the apprentice;
+the degree was a license to teach, and carried with it the duty of
+teaching, though in time it became a literary title, unconnected with
+teaching, and coveted for its own sake. The University obtained a
+charter, elected its Chancellor, formed its academical Legislature of
+graduates, obtained jurisdiction over its own members. In time it
+marshalled its teachers and students into regular Faculties of theology,
+law, and medicine, with arts, or general and liberal culture, if the
+name can be applied to anything so rudimentary as the literature and
+science of that day, forming the basis of all. At first the professors
+taught where they could; in the cloisters, perhaps, of St. Frydeswide's
+monastery, subsequently absorbed by Christ Church; in the porches of
+houses. A row of lecture-rooms, called the Schools, was afterwards
+provided in School Street, which ran north and south just under the
+Radcliffe. So little anchored was the University by buildings, that when
+maltreated at Oxford it was ready to pack up its literary wares and
+migrate to another city such as Northampton or Stamford. Many of the
+undergraduates at first were mere boys, to whom the University was a
+grammar school. For the real University students the dominant study was
+that of the School philosophy, logical and philosophical, with its
+strange metaphysical jargon; an immense attempt to extract knowledge
+from consciousness by syllogistic reasoning, instead of gathering it
+from observation, experience, and research, mocking by its barrenness of
+fruit the faith of the enthusiastic student, yet training the mind to
+preternatural acuteness, and perhaps forming a necessary stage in the
+mental education of the race. The great instrument of high education was
+disputation, often repeated, and conducted with the most elaborate forms
+in the tournaments of the Schools, which might beget readiness of wit
+and promptness of elocution, but could hardly beget habits of calm
+investigation or paramount love of truth. The great event in the
+academical life was Inception, when the student performed exercises
+which inaugurated his teachership; and this was commonly celebrated by a
+feast, the expenditure on which the University was called upon to
+restrain. Oxford produced some of the greatest schoolmen: Duns Scotus,
+the "subtle," who had written thirteen folio volumes of arid metaphysics
+before his early death; Bradwardine, the "profound," and Ockham, the
+"invincible and unmatched." The idol was Aristotle, viewed mainly as
+the metaphysician, and imperfectly understood through translations. To
+reconcile Aristotelian speculation with orthodox theology was a hard
+task, not always successfully performed. Theology was, of course, first
+in dignity of the Faculties, but the most lucrative was the civil and
+canon law practised in the ecclesiastical courts and, as Roman, misliked
+by the patriotic Parliament. Philosophy complained that it had to trudge
+afoot while the liegemen of Justinian rode high in the car of
+preferment. Of physical science the hour was not yet come, but before
+its hour came its wonderful and almost miraculous precursor, Roger
+Bacon, who anticipated the invention of gunpowder and the telescope,
+and whose fabled study stood over Folly Bridge, till, with Carfax's
+monument and Cranmer's prison, it was cleared away by an improving city
+corporation. Roger Bacon was, of course, taken for a dealer in black
+arts; an astrologer and an alchemist he was, and at the same time an
+illustrious example of the service indirectly rendered by astrology and
+alchemy in luring to an investigation of nature which led to real
+discoveries, just as Columbus, seeking a western passage to the golden
+cities of the East, discovered America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All the Universities belonged not to one nation but to Latin
+Christendom, the educated population of which circulated among them. At
+one time there was a migration to Oxford from the University of Paris,
+which had got into trouble with the government. Of all the Universities
+alike, ecclesiastical Latin was the language. The scholars all ranked
+with the clerical order, so that at Oxford, scholar and clerk, townsman
+and layman, were convertible terms. In those days all intellectual
+callings, and even the higher mechanical arts, were clerical. The
+student was exempted by his tonsure from lay jurisdiction. The Papacy
+anxiously claimed the Universities as parts of its realm, and only
+degrees granted by the Pope's authority were current throughout
+Christendom. When, with Edward III., came the long war between England
+and France, and when the confederation of Latin Christendom was
+beginning to break up, the English Universities grew more national.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Incorporated with the buildings of Worcester College are some curious
+little tenements once occupied by a colony from different Benedictine
+Monasteries. These, with the Church of St. Frydeswide, now Christ Church
+Cathedral, and the small remains of Osney Abbey, are about the only
+relics of monastic Oxford which survived the Reformation. But in the
+Middle Ages there were Houses for novices of the great Orders,
+Benedictines, Cistercians, Carmelites, Augustinians, and most notable
+and powerful of all, the two great mendicant Orders of Dominicans and
+Franciscans. The Mendicants, who came into the country angels of
+humility as well as of asceticism, begging their bread, and staining the
+ground with the blood from their shoeless feet, soon changed their
+character, and began in the interest of Holy Church to grasp power and
+amass wealth. The Franciscans especially, like the Jesuits of an after
+day, strove to master the centres of intellectual influence. They strove
+to put the laws of the University under their feet. Struggles between
+them and the seculars, with appeals to the Crown, were the consequence.
+Attraction of callow youth to an angelic life seems to have been
+characteristic of the Brethren of St. Francis, and it is conjectured
+that in this way Bacon became a monk. Faintly patronised by a liberal
+and lettered Pope, he was arraigned for necromancy by his Order, and
+ended his days in gloom, if not in a monastic prison. The Church of the
+Middle Ages with one hand helped to open the door of knowledge, with the
+other she sought to close it. At last she sought to close it with both
+hands, and in her cruel panic established the Inquisition.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Tory in its later days, the University was liberal in its prime. It took
+the part of the Barons and De Montfort against Henry III., and a corps
+of its students fought against the King under their own banner at
+Northampton. Instead of being the stronghold of reaction, it was the
+focus of active, even of turbulent aspiration, and the saying ran, that
+when there was fighting at Oxford there was war in England. Oxford's
+hero in the thirteenth century was its Chancellor, Grosseteste, the
+friend of De Montfort and the great reformer of his day, "of prelates
+the rebuker, of monks the corrector, of scholars the instructor, of the
+people the preacher, of the incontinent the chastiser, of writings the
+industrious investigator, of the Romans the hammer and contemner." If
+Grosseteste patronised the Friars, it was in their first estate.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+At first the students lodged as "Chamberdekyns" with citizens, but that
+system proving dangerous to order, they were gathered into hostels, or,
+to use the more dignified name, Halls (_aulae_) under a Principal, or
+Master of the University, who boarded and governed them. Of these Halls
+there were a great number, with their several names and signs. Till
+lately a few of them remained, though these had lost their original
+character, and become merely small Colleges, without any foundation
+except a Principal. The students in those days were mostly poor. Their
+indigence was almost taken for granted. Some of them begged; chests were
+provided by the charitable for loans to them. A poor student's life was
+hard; if he was earnest in study, heroic. He shared a room with three or
+four chums, he slept under a rug, his fare was coarse and scanty, his
+garment was the gown which has now become merely an academical symbol,
+and thankful he was to be provided with a new one. He had no fire in his
+room, no glass in his window. As his exercises in the University Schools
+began at five in the morning, it is not likely that he read much at
+night, otherwise he would have to read by the light of a feeble lamp
+flickering with the wind. His manuscript was painful to read. The city
+was filthy, the water polluted with sewage; pestilence often swept
+through the crowded hive.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Mediaeval students were a rough set; not less rough than enthusiastic;
+rougher than the students of the Quartier Latin or Heidelberg, their
+nearest counterparts in recent times. They wore arms, or kept them in
+their chambers, and they needed them not only in going to and from the
+University over roads beset with robbers, but in conflicts with the
+townspeople, with whom the University was at war. With the townspeople
+the students had desperate affrays, ancient precursors of the
+comparatively mild town and gown rows of this century. The defiant horns
+of the town were answered by the bells of the University. Arrows flew;
+blood was shed on both sides; Halls were stormed and defended; till
+Royalty from Abingdon or Woodstock interfered with its men-at-arms,
+seconded by the Bishop with bell, book, and candle. A Papal Legate, an
+Italian on whom national feeling looks with jealousy, comes to Oxford.
+Scholars crowd to see him. There is a quarrel between them and his
+train. His cook flings a cauldron of boiling broth over an Irish
+student. The scholars fly to arms. The Legate is ignominiously chased
+from Oxford. Excommunications, royal thunders, and penitential
+performances follow. Jews settle in Oxford, ply their trade among the
+scholars, and form a quarter with invidiously wealthy mansions. There is
+a royal edict, forbidding them to exact more than forty-three per cent
+interest from the student. Wealth makes them insolent; they assault a
+religious procession, and with them also the students have affrays.
+Provincial feeling is strong, for the students are divided into two
+nations, the Northern and the Southern, which are always wrangling, and
+sometimes fight pitched battles with bows and arrows. The two Proctors,
+now the heads of University police, were appointed as tribunes of the
+two nations to settle elections and other matters between them without
+battle. Amusements as well as everything else were rude. Football and
+other rough games were played at Beaumont, a piece of ground to the
+north of the city; but there was nothing like that cricket field in the
+parks, nor like the sensation now created by the appearance of a
+renowned cricketer in his paddings before an admiring crowd, to display
+the fruit of his many years of assiduous practice in guarding his
+stumps. The Crown and local lords had to complain of a good deal of
+poaching in Bagley, Woodstock, Shotover, and Stowe Wood.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To this Oxford, with its crowd of youth thirsting for knowledge, its
+turbulence, its vice, its danger from monkish encroachment, came Walter
+de Merton, one of the same historic group as Grosseteste and
+Grosseteste's friend, Adam de Marisco, the man of the hour, with the
+right device  in his mind. Merton had been Chancellor of Henry III.
+amidst the political storms of the time, from which he would gladly turn
+aside to a work of peaceful improvement. It was thus that violence in
+those ages paid with its left hand a tribute to civilisation. Merton's
+foundation is the first College, though University and Balliol come
+before it in the Calendar in deference to the priority of the
+benefactions out of which those Colleges grew. Yonder noble chapel in
+the Decorated style, with its tower and the old quadrangle beneath it,
+called, nobody knows why, Mob Quad, are the cradle of College life.
+Merton's plan was an academical brotherhood, which combined monastic
+order, discipline, and piety with the pursuit of knowledge. No monk or
+friar was ever to be admitted to his House. The members of the House are
+called in his statutes by the common name of Scholars, that of Fellows
+(_Socii_), which afterwards prevailed here and in all the other
+Colleges, denoting their union as an academical household. They were to
+live like monks in common; they were to take their meals together in the
+Refectory, and to study together in the common library, which may still
+be seen, dark and austere, with the chain by which a precious volume was
+attached to the desk. They had not a common dormitory, but they must
+have slept two or three in a room. Probably they were confined to their
+quadrangle, except when they were attending the Schools of the
+University, or allowed to leave it only with a companion as a safeguard.
+They were to elect their own Warden, and fill up by election vacancies
+in their own number. The Warden whom they had elected, they were to
+obey. They were to watch over each other's lives, and hold annual
+scrutinies into conduct. The Archbishop of Canterbury was to visit the
+College and see that the rule was kept. But the rule was moral and
+academical, not cloistral or ascetic. The mediaeval round of religious
+services was to be duly performed, and prayers were to be said for the
+Founder's soul. But the main object was not prayer, contemplation, or
+masses for souls; it was study. Monks were permanently devoted to their
+Order, shut up for life in their monastery, and secluded from the world.
+The Scholars of Merton were destined to serve the world, into which they
+were to go forth when they had completed the course of preparation in
+their College. They were destined to serve the world as their Founder
+had served it. In fact, we find Wardens and Fellows of Merton employed
+by the State and the Church in important missions. A Scholar of Merton,
+though he was to obey the College authorities, took no monastic vow of
+obedience. He took no monastic vow of poverty; on the contrary, it was
+anticipated that he would gain wealth, of which he was exhorted to
+bestow a portion on his College. He took no monastic vow of celibacy,
+though, as one of the clerical order, he would of course not be
+permitted to marry. He was clerical as all Scholars in those days were
+clerical, not in the modern and professional sense of the term. The
+allowances of the Fellow were only his Commons, or food, and his Livery,
+or raiment, and there were to be as many Fellows as the estate could
+provide with these. Instruction was received not in College, but in the
+Schools of the University, to which the Scholars of Merton, like the
+other Scholars, were to resort. A sort of grammar school, for boys of
+the Founder's kin, was attached to the College. But otherwise the work
+of the College was study, not tuition, nor did the statutes contemplate
+the admission of any members except those on the foundation.
+
+[Illustration: MERTON COLLEGE, FROM FIELDS.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Merton's plan, meeting the need of the hour, found acceptance. His
+College became the pattern for others both at Oxford and Cambridge.
+University, Balliol, Exeter, Oriel, and Queen's were modelled after it,
+and monastic Orders seem to have taken the hint in founding Houses for
+their novices at Oxford. University College grew out of the benefaction
+of William of Durham, an ecclesiastic who had studied at Paris, and
+left the University a sum of money for the maintenance of students of
+divinity. The University lodged them in a Hall styled the Great Hall of
+the University, which is still the proper corporate name of the College.
+In after days, this Hall, having grown into a College, wished to slip
+its neck out of the visitorial yoke of the University, and on the
+strength of its being the oldest foundation at Oxford, claimed as
+founder Alfred, to whom the foundation of the University was ascribed by
+fable, asserting that as a royal foundation it was under the visitorship
+of the Crown. Courts of law recognised the claim; a Hanoverian court of
+law probably recognised it with pleasure, as transferring power from a
+Tory University to the King; and thus was consecrated a fiction in
+palliation of which it can only be said, that the earliest of our
+literary houses may not improperly be dedicated to the restorer of
+English learning. Oriel was founded by a court Almoner, Adam de Brome,
+who displayed his courtliness by allowing his Scholars to speak French
+as well as Latin. Queen's was founded by a court Chaplain, Robert
+Egglesfield, and dedicated to the honour of his royal mistress, Queen
+Philippa. It was for a Provost and twelve Fellows who were to represent
+the number of Christ and his disciples, to sit at a table as Egglesfield
+had seen in a picture the Thirteen sitting at the Last Supper, though
+in crimson robes. Egglesfield's building has been swept away to make
+room for the Palladian palace on its site. But his name is kept in mind
+by the quaint custom of giving, on his day, a needle (_aiguille_) to
+each member of the foundation, with the injunction, Take that and be
+thrifty. Yonder stone _eagles_ too on the building recall it. Exeter
+College was the work of a political Bishop who met his death in a London
+insurrection.
+
+As the fashion of founding Colleges grew, that of founding Monasteries
+decreased, and the more as the mediaeval faith declined, and the great
+change drew near. That change was heralded by the appearance of
+Wycliffe, a genuine off-spring of the University, for while he was the
+great religious reformer, he was also the great scholastic philosopher
+of his day. To what College or Hall his name and fame belong is a moot
+point among antiquaries. We would fain imagine him in his meditations
+pacing the old Mob Quadrangle of Merton. His teaching took strong and
+long hold of the University. His reforming company of "poor priests"
+drew with it the spiritual aspiration and energy of Oxford youth. But if
+his movement has left any traces in the shape of foundations, it is in
+the shape of foundations produced by the reaction against it, and
+destined for its overthrow.
+
+[Illustration: NEW COLLEGE, CLOISTERS AND TOWER.]
+
+[Illustration: NEW COLLEGE CHAPEL.]
+
+Yonder rises the bell tower of New College over a famous group of
+buildings, with ample quadrangle, rich religious chapel, a noble Hall
+and range of tranquil cloisters, defaced only by the addition of a
+modern upper story to the quadrangle and Vandalic adaptation of the
+upper windows to modern convenience. This pile was the work of William
+of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester, a typical character of the Middle
+Ages, prelate, statesman, and court architect in one, who negotiated the
+peace of Bretigny and built Windsor Castle. The eye of the great
+architect as well as of the pious Founder must have ranged with delight
+over his fair creation. It is likely that New College, as a foundation
+highly religious in its character, was intended to counteract Wycliffism
+as well as to replenish the clergy which had been decimated by the Black
+Death. Wykeham was a reformer in his way, and one of the party headed by
+the Black Prince which strove to correct the abuses of the court in the
+dark decline of Edward III. But he was a conservative, religious after
+the orthodox fashion, and devoted to the worship of the Virgin, to whom
+his College was dedicated, after whom it was named, and whose image
+surmounts its gate. The College of St. Mary of Winton his foundation was
+entitled. In its day it might well be called New College. New it was in
+its scale, having seventy Fellows and Scholars besides ten Chaplains,
+three Clerks, and sixteen Choristers for the services of the Chapel,
+which is still famous for its choir. New it was in the extent and
+magnificence of its buildings. New it was in the provision made for
+solemn services in its Chapel, for religious processions round its
+cloisters, for the daily orisons of all its members. New it was in the
+state assigned to its Warden, who was not to be like the Warden of
+Merton, only the first among his humble peers, living with them at the
+common board, but to resemble more a great Abbot with a separate
+establishment of his own, keeping a sumptuous hospitality and drawn by
+six horses when he went abroad. New it was in having undergraduates as
+well as graduates on the foundation, and providing for the training of
+the youth during the whole interval between school and the highest
+University degree. Even further back than the time of admittance to the
+University, stretched the care of the reformer of education. The most
+important novelty of all, perhaps, in his creation, was the connection
+between his College and the school which he founded at Winchester, his
+cathedral city, to feed his College with a constant supply of model
+Scholars. This was the first of those great Public Schools which have
+largely moulded the character of the ruling class  in England. The
+example was followed by Henry VI. in connecting King's College,
+Cambridge, with Eton, and would have been followed by Wolsey had he
+carried out his design of connecting Cardinal College with his school at
+Ipswich. From the admission of an undergraduate element into the College
+it naturally followed that there should be instruction of the juniors by
+the seniors, and superintendence of study within the College walls. This
+was yet another novelty, and Wykeham seems to have had an additional
+motive for adopting it in the low condition of the University Schools,
+from the exercises of which attention had perhaps been diverted by the
+religious movement. In the careful provision for the study of
+Grammatica, that is, the elements of Latin, we perhaps see a gleam of
+the Renaissance, as the style of the buildings belonging to the last
+order of mediaeval architecture indicates that the Middle Age was
+hastening to its close. But it was one of Wykeham's objects to
+strengthen the orthodox priesthood in a time of revolutionary peril. Ten
+of his Fellows were assigned to the study of civil, ten to that of
+canon, law. Two were permitted to study medicine. All the rest were to
+be theologians. The Founder was false to his own generous design in
+giving a paramount and perpetual preference in the election of Fellows
+to his own kin, who, being numerous, became at length a fearful incubus
+on his institution. It is not likely that his own idea of kinship was
+unlimited, or extended beyond the tenth degree. All the Fellows and
+Scholars were to be poor and indigent. This was in unison with the
+mediaeval spirit of alms-giving as well as with the mediaeval theory of
+poverty as a state spiritually superior, held, though not embodied, by
+wealthy prelates. Study, not teaching, it is always to be remembered,
+was the principal duty of those who were to eat the Founder's bread.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: MAGDALEN COLLEGE, FROM STREET.]
+
+The Statutes of New College are elaborate, and were largely copied by
+other founders. They present to us a half-monastic life, with the
+general hue of asceticism which pervades everything mediaeval. Here, as
+in the case of Merton, there are no vows, but there is strict
+discipline, with frugal fare. The Commons, or allowances for food, are
+not to exceed twelve pence per week, except in the times of dearth. Once
+a year there is an allowance of cloth for a gown. There is a chest for
+loans to the very needy, but there is no stipend. The Warden rules with
+abbatial power, though in greater matters he requires the consent of the
+Fellows, and is himself under the censorship of the Visitor, the Bishop
+of Winchester, who, however, rarely interposed. Every year he goes on
+"progress" to view the College estates, there being in those days no
+agents, and is received by tenants with homage and rural hospitality.
+The Fellows and Scholars are lodged three or four in a room, the seniors
+as monitors to the juniors. Each Scholar undergoes two years of
+probation. As in a baronial hall the nobles, so in the College Hall the
+seniors, occupy the dais, or high table, while the juniors sit at tables
+arranged down the Hall. In the dining-hall the Fellows and Scholars sit
+in silence, and listen to the reading of the Bible. In speaking they
+must use no tongue but the Latin. There is to be no lingering in the
+Hall after dinner, except when in winter a fire is lighted on some
+church festival. Then it is permitted to remain awhile and rehearse
+poems, or talk about the chronicles of the kingdom, the wonders of the
+world, and other things befitting clerical discourse. This seems to be
+the principal concession made to the youthful love of amusement. As a
+rule, it appears that the students were confined to the College and its
+cloisters when they were not attending the Schools of the University.
+They are forbidden to keep hounds or hawks, as well as to throw stones
+or indulge in any rough or noisy sports. The injunctions against
+spilling wine and slops in the upper rooms, or beer on the floor of the
+Hall, to the annoyance of those who lodged beneath, betoken a rough
+style of living and rude manners. The admission of strangers is
+jealously restricted, and on no account must a woman enter the College,
+except a laundress, who must be of safe age. There were daily prayers
+for the Founder's soul, daily masses, and fifty times each day every
+member of the College was to repeat the salutation to the Virgin. The
+Founder's obit was to be celebrated with special pomp. Self-love in a
+mediaeval ascetic was not annihilated by humility, though it took a
+religious form. Thrice every year are held scrutinies into life and
+conduct, at which the hateful practice of secret denunciation is
+admitted, and the accused is forbidden to call for the name of his
+accuser. Every cloistered society, whether monastic or academic, is
+pretty sure to seethe with cabals, suspicions, and slanders. Leave of
+absence from the College was by statute very sparingly allowed, and
+seldom could the young Scholar pay what, in the days before the letter
+post, must have been angel's visits to the old people on the paternal
+homestead. The ecclesiastical and ascetic system of the Middle Ages had
+little regard for domestic affection. It treated the boy as entirely a
+child of the Church. In times of pestilence, then common, the inmates of
+the Colleges usually went to some farm or grange belonging to the
+College in the neighbourhood of Oxford, and those were probably pleasant
+days for the younger members. Oaths of fearful length and stringency
+were taken to the observation of the statutes. They proved sad traps for
+conscience when the statutes had become obsolete, a contingency of which
+the Founders, ignorant of progress and evolution, never dreamed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the interval between the foundation of New College and the
+revolution, religious and intellectual, which we call the Reformation,
+were founded Lincoln, All Souls', Magdalen, and Brasenose. Lincoln, All
+Souls', and Brasenose lie immediately round us, close to what was the
+centre of academical life. Magdalen we recognise in the distance by the
+most beautiful of towers. Lincoln was theological, and was peculiar in
+being connected with two of the Churches of Oxford, which its members
+served, and the tithes and oblations of which formed its endowment. Its
+Founder, Fleming, Bishop of Lincoln, had as a graduate resident at
+Oxford been noted for sympathy with the Wycliffites. But when he became
+Bishop of Lincoln, the fact dawned upon him that the Scriptures too
+freely interpreted were dangerous. He went over to the Reaction, burned
+Wycliffe's body, and determined to found a little college of true
+students in theology, who would "defend the mysteries of the sacred page
+against those ignorant laics who profaned with swinish snouts its most
+holy pearls." His successor, Bishop Rotherham, being of the same mind,
+carried forward the work, and gave the College statutes enjoining the
+expulsion of any Fellow convicted of favouring in public or in private
+heretical tenets, and in particular the tenets of "that heretical sect
+lately sprung up which assails the sacraments, diverse orders and
+dignities, and properties of the Church." Rotherham had evidently a keen
+and just sense of the fact, that with the talismanic sacraments of the
+Church were bound up its dignity and wealth. The two orthodox prelates
+would have stood aghast if they could have foreseen that their little
+College of true theologians would one day number among its Fellows John
+Wesley, and that Methodism would be cradled within its walls. They would
+not less have stood aghast if they could have foreseen that such a chief
+of Liberals as Mark Pattison, would one day be its Rector. The history
+of these foundations is full of lessons for benefactors who fancy that
+they can impress their will upon posterity.
+
+All Souls' was designed by its Founder, Archbishop Chicheley, _ad
+orandum_ as well as _ad studendum_; it was to serve the purpose of a
+chantry not less than of a College. The sculptured group of souls over
+the gateway in High Street denotes that the Warden and Fellows were to
+pray for the souls of all Christian people. But particularly were they
+to pray for the souls of "the illustrious Prince Henry, late King of
+England, of Thomas, Duke of Clarence, and of all the Dukes, Earls,
+Barons, Knights, Esquires, and others who fell in the war for the Crown
+of France." Of that unhappy war Chicheley had been the adviser; and
+seeing the wreck which his folly, or, if the suspicion immortalised by
+Shakespeare is true, his selfish policy, as the head of a bloated
+Establishment threatened with depletion, had wrought, he may well have
+felt the sting of conscience in his old age. The figures in the new
+reredos of the Chapel tell the story of the foundation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: ST. JOHN'S PULPIT.
+
+Magdalen College, First Quadrangle.]
+
+Magdalen was the work of Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor
+of Henry VI., another statesman-prelate who turned from the political
+storm to found a house of learning. Of all the houses of learning in
+England, perhaps of any country, that which Waynflete founded is the
+loveliest, as he will say who stands in its cloistered and ivy-mantled
+quadrangle, either beneath the light of the summer's sun or that of the
+winter's moon. Some American architect, captivated by the graces of
+Magdalen, has reproduced them in his plan for a new University
+in California. Those courts, when newly built, were darkened by the
+presence of Richard III. Waynflete came to Oxford to receive the king;
+and this homage, paid by a saintly man, seems to show that in those
+fierce times of dynastic change, Richard, before the murder of his
+nephews, was not regarded as a criminal usurper, perhaps not as a
+usurper at all. The tyrant was intellectual. In him, as still more
+notably in Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, nicknamed for his cruelty the
+Butcher, but literary and a benefactor to the University, was something
+like an English counterpart of the mixture in the Italian Renaissance of
+culture with licentiousness and crime. But as he sat beside Waynflete
+in the Hall wooing popularity by apparent attention to the exercises,
+Richard's thoughts probably were far away. A red rose among the
+architectural ornaments is found to have been afterwards painted white.
+It changed, no doubt, with fortune, when she left the red for the white
+rose. A new relation between College and University is inaugurated by
+the institution at Magdalen of three Readers to lecture to the
+University at large.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The old quadrangle of Brasenose remains much as it was left by its
+co-founders, a munificent Bishop and a pious Knight. It is of no special
+historic interest, and its importance belongs to later times. It
+absorbed several Halls, the sign of one of which was probably the brazen
+nose which now adorns its gate, and so far it marks an epoch.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The quiet and sombre old quadrangle of Corpus Christi lies yonder, by
+the side of Merton, much as its Founder left it. Now we have come to the
+real dawn of the English Renaissance, a gray dawn which never became a
+very bright day; for in England, as in Germany and other Teutonic
+countries, reawakened and emancipated intellect turned to the pursuit of
+truth rather than of beauty, and the great movement was less a birth of
+literature and of art than of reformation in religion. This is the age
+of Grocyn, the teacher of Greek; of Linacre, the English Hippocrates; of
+Colet, the regenerator of education; of Sir Thomas More, who carried
+culture to the Chancellorship of the realm, and whose "Utopia" proclaims
+the growth of fresh aspirations and the opening of a new era in one way,
+as Rabelais did in another. Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, uncle of Henry
+VI., had perhaps opened the epoch at Oxford by his princely gift of
+books, in which the Renaissance literature was strongly represented, and
+which was the germ of the University Library. Soon Erasmus will visit
+Oxford and chant in elegant Latin the praises of the classical and
+cultured circle which he finds there. Now rages the war between the
+humanists of the new classical learning, called the Greeks, and its
+opponents, the Trojans, who desired to walk in the ancient paths, and
+who, though bigoted and grotesque, were, after all, not far wrong in
+identifying heresy with Greek, since the study of the New Testament in
+the original was subversive of the mediaeval faith. Again, as in the
+cases of Merton, Wykeham, and Waynflete, a statesman-prelate turns in
+old age from the distractions of State to found a house of learning.
+Foxe, Bishop of Winchester, was the chief counsellor and diplomatist of
+Henry VII., in whose service he had no doubt passed anxious hours and
+trodden dark paths. It may have been partly for the good of his soul
+that he proposed to found a house in Oxford for the reception of young
+monks from St. Swithin's Priory in Winchester while studying in Oxford.
+He was diverted from that design, and persuaded to found a College
+instead, by his friend Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter, who is represented
+as saying, "What, my Lord, shall we build houses and provide livelihoods
+for a company of bussing monks whose end and fall we ourselves may live
+to see? No, no. It is more meet, a great deal, that we should have care
+to provide for the increase of learning and for such as by their
+learning shall do good in the Church and Commonwealth." Supposing the
+prognostication embodied in these words genuine, they show that to an
+enlightened Bishop the dissolution of the Monasteries seemed inevitable.
+The statutes of Foxe's College are written in a style which affects the
+highest classical elegance. They elaborate throughout the metaphor of a
+bee-hive with its industrious insects and its store of intellectual
+honey. They embody the hopes of the Renaissance and depict a College of
+the Humanities. There is to be a Reader in Greek, and for the subjects
+of his lectures a long list of great Greek authors is assigned. There is
+to be a Reader of Latin, for whose lectures a similar list of Latin
+authors is given, and who is to keep "barbarism," that mortal sin in
+the eyes of a devotee of the Renaissance, out of the hive. Theology is
+not forgotten. The Founder pays a due, possibly somewhat conventional,
+tribute to its surpassing importance. Of this, also, there is a
+Professor, but its guides in interpreting Scripture are not to be the
+mediaeval textbooks, such as Aquinas and the Master of the Sentences, but
+the Greek and Latin Fathers, including the daring Origen and Augustine
+the favourite of Luther. The Readers are to lecture not to the College
+only, but to the University at large, a new provision, connecting the
+College with the University, which hardly took effect till very recent
+times. One of the first Readers was the learned Spaniard, Juan Luis
+Vives, whose appointment bespoke the cosmopolitan character of the
+humanist republic of letters. The statutes were signed by the Founder
+with a trembling hand eight months before his death, so that only in
+imagination did he see his literary bees at work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Yonder to the south is Tom Tower, where hangs the great bell, which,
+"swinging slow with sullen roar," was heard by Milton at Forest Hill. It
+was tolled a hundred and one times for the hundred and one students of
+Wolsey's House. The Tower, or Cupola, was the work, not of Wolsey but
+of Wren. Around the great quadrangle over which it rises are seen the
+lines for cloisters which were never built. The balustrade on the top of
+the quadrangle is an alien work of modern times. The Church of St.
+Frydeswide's Monastery does duty as the College Chapel, in place of the
+grand Chapel in the perpendicular style, which, had the Founder's plan
+taken effect, would have stood there. Moreover, that which should have
+been wholly a College is made to serve and to expend a part of its power
+as the Chapter of the Diocese of Oxford, lending its Chapel as the
+Cathedral, a niggardly arrangement which has been productive of strained
+relations between occupants of the See and Heads of the College. Ample
+and noble are the courts of Wolsey. Worthy of his magnificence is the
+great Hall, the finest room, barring Westminster Hall, in England, and
+filled with those portraits of _Alumni_, which, notwithstanding the
+frequency of pudding sleeves, form the fairest tapestry with which hall
+was ever hung. But it all falls short of Wolsey's conception. Had
+Wolsey's conception been fulfilled, Ipswich would have been a nursery of
+scholars for Cardinal College, as Winchester was for New College, and
+Eton for King's College, Cambridge. The Cardinal was an English Leo X.
+in morals, tastes, perhaps in beliefs; a true Prince, not of the Church
+but of the Renaissance. For him, perhaps, as for Foxe, it was a
+refreshment to turn from public life, full, as it must have been, of
+care and peril for the Vizier of a headstrong and capricious despot, to
+the calm happiness of seeing his great College rise, and gathering into
+it the foremost of teachers and the flower of students. But in the midst
+of his enterprise the sky of the Renaissance became overcast with
+clouds, and the storm of religious revolution, which had long been
+gathering, broke. Forewarnings of the storm Wolsey had received, for he
+had found that in opening his gates to the highest intellectual activity
+he had opened them to free inquiry and to heterodoxy. Himself, too, had
+set the example of suppressing monasteries, though he did this not for
+mere rapine or to gorge his parasites, but to turn useless and abused
+endowments to a noble use. Wolsey all but drew his foundation down with
+him in his fall. The tyrant and his minions were builders of nothing but
+ruin. Christ Church, as at last it was called, was threatened with
+confiscation and destruction, but was finally spared in its incomplete
+condition, appropriated by Henry as his own foundation, and dedicated to
+the honour of the king, whose portrait, in its usual attitude of
+obtrusive self-conceit, occupies in the Hall the central place, where
+the portrait of the Cardinal should be. The Cardinal's hat, on the
+outer wall of the house, is left to speak of the true Founder. That the
+College was to be called after its Founder's name, not, like the
+Colleges of Wykeham and Waynflete, after the name of a Saint, seems a
+symptom of the pride which went before Wolsey's fall.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Now come upon the hapless University forty years of religious
+revolution, the monuments of which are traces of destruction and records
+of proscription. All the monastic houses and houses for monastic novices
+were forfeited to the Crown, and their buildings were left desolate,
+though, from the ruins of some of them, new Colleges were afterwards to
+rise. Libraries which would now be priceless, were sacked and destroyed
+because the illumination on the manuscripts was Popish. It was the least
+to be deplored of all the havoc, that the torn leaves of the arid tomes
+of Duns Scotus were seen flying about the quadrangle of New College,
+while a sporting gentleman of the neighbourhood was picking them up to
+be used in driving the deer. There is a comic monument of the religious
+revolution in the coffer shrine at Christ Church, in which the dust of
+Catherine, wife of the Protestant Doctor, Peter Martyr, is mingled with
+that of the Catholic Saint, Frydeswide. Catholicism, in its hour of
+triumph under Mary, had dug up the corpse of the heretic's concubine and
+buried it under a dung-hill. Protestantism, once more victorious,
+rescued the remains, and guarded against a repetition of the outrage, in
+case fortune should again change, by mingling them with those of the
+Catholic Saint. A more tragic memorial of the conflict is yonder
+recumbent cross in Broad Street, close to the spot, then a portion of
+the town ditch, where Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley died. Bocardo, the
+prison over the neighbouring gate of the city, from the window of which
+Cranmer, then confined there, witnessed the burning of Latimer and
+Ridley, was pulled down at the beginning of this century. The Divinity
+School, Christ Church Cathedral, and St. Mary's Church witnessed
+different scenes of the drama. St. Mary's witnessed that last scene, in
+which Cranmer filled his enemies with fury and confusion by suddenly
+recanting his recantation, and declaring that the hand which had signed
+it should burn first. College archives record the expulsion,
+readmission, and re-expulsion of Heads and Fellows, as victory inclined
+to the Protestant or Catholic side. So perished the English Renaissance.
+For the cultivation of the humanities there could be no room in a centre
+of religious strife.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Fatal bequests of the religious war were the religious tests. Leicester,
+as Chancellor, introduced subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles to
+keep out Romanists; King James, that to the three articles of the
+Thirty-sixth Canon to keep out Puritans. These tests, involving scores
+of controverted propositions in theology, were imposed on the
+consciences of mere boys. The Universities were thus taken from the
+nation and given to the State Church, which, in the course of time, as
+dissent from its doctrines gained ground, came to be far from identical
+with the nation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE--GARDEN FRONT.]
+
+In the first lull, however, new Colleges arose, partly out of the ruins
+of the monastic houses of the past. Trinity College, of which the quiet
+old quadrangle is curiously mated with a fantastic Chapel of much later
+date, was founded out of the ruin of Durham College, a Benedictine
+House. Its Founder, Sir Thomas Pope, was one of that group of highly
+educated lay statesmen, eminent both in the councils of kings and among
+the patrons of learning, which succeeded the great Prelates of the
+Middle Ages. He was a Catholic, as his statutes show; but a liberal
+Catholic, not unfriendly to light, though little knowing perhaps whither
+it would lead him. Among his friends was Sir Nicholas Bacon, who
+bequeathed to him the splendid whistle, then used to call servants,
+which is seen round his neck in his portrait. Another of his friends was
+Pole, who showed his intellectual liberality by recommending him to
+enjoin in his statutes the study of Greek. St. John's College, again,
+rose out of the wreck of a Bernardine House. The Founder was not a
+statesman or a prelate, but a great citizen, Sir Thomas White, sometime
+Lord Mayor of London, who had amassed wealth in trade, and made a noble
+use of it. White also was of the olden faith. That the storm was not
+over when his College was founded is tragically shown by the fate of
+Campion, who, when White was laid in the College Chapel, preached the
+funeral sermon, and afterwards becoming  a Jesuit and an emissary of
+his Order, was brought to the rack and to the scaffold. There was also a
+great secession of Fellows when the final rupture took place between
+Rome and Elizabeth. In the group of cultivated Knights and statesmen,
+who patronised learning and education, may be placed Sir William Petre,
+the second Founder of Exeter College, whose monument is its old
+quadrangle, and Sir Thomas Bodley, whose monument is the Bodleian
+Library. If Petre and Bodley were Protestants, while Pope and White were
+Catholics, the difference was rather political than religious. In
+religion the public men changed with the national government, little
+sharing the passions of either theological party.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Jesus, whose old quadrangle, chapel, and hall belong to early Stuart
+times, was the first distinctly Protestant College. This its name, in
+contrast with Colleges named after Saints, denotes. The second
+Protestant College was Wadham, the buildings of which stand in their
+pristine beauty, vying with Magdalen, perhaps even excelling it in the
+special air of a house of learning, and proving that to be interesting
+and impressive it is not necessary to be mediaeval. At the same time
+Wadham shows how long the spirit of the Middle Ages clung to Oxford; for
+the style of the Chapel is anterior by a century and a half to the date.
+Here we have a conscious desire, on the part of the architect, to
+recall the past. The Founder, Sir Nicholas Wadham, was a wealthy Western
+land-owner. We may dismiss the tradition that his first design was to
+found a College of Roman Catholic priests in Italy, and his second to
+found a Protestant College at Oxford, as at most significant of the
+prolonged wavering of the religious balance in the minds of a number of
+the wealthier class. The statutes were, in the main, like those of the
+mediaeval Colleges, saving in making the Fellowship terminable after
+about twenty-two years, thus more clearly designating the College as a
+school for active life. The prohibition of marriage was retained, not as
+an ascetic ordinance, but as a concomitant of the College system. In
+the mediaeval Colleges it was not necessary to extend the prohibition to
+the Heads, who, being priests, were bound to celibacy by the regulations
+of their Order; but marriage being now permitted to the clergy
+generally, the prohibition was in the statutes of Wadham expressly
+extended, in the interest of the College system, to the Head. Hence it
+is an aspersion on the reputation of Dame Dorothy Wadham, who, after her
+husband's death, carried out his design, and whose effigy kneels
+opposite that of her loving lord in the old quadrangle, to say that she
+was in love with the first Warden, and because he would not marry her,
+forbade him by statute to marry any other woman.
+
+[Illustration: WADHAM COLLEGE--GARDEN FRONT.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These foundations, followed by that of Pembroke and the building of the
+South quadrangle of Merton, of the South quadrangle of Lincoln, of the
+West front of St. John's, of the quadrangle and hall of Exeter, of part
+of the quadrangle of Oriel, of the West quadrangle of University
+College, as well as of the Bodleian Library, the Schools' quadrangle,
+the Convocation House, and of the gateway of the Botanic Garden, prove
+that, though the old University system, with its scholastic exercises,
+had become hollow, there was life in Oxford, and the interest of patrons
+of learning was attracted to it during the period between the
+Reformation and the Rebellion. It was also felt to be a centre of power.
+Elizabeth twice visited it, once in the heyday of her youthful glory,
+and again in her haggard decline. On the first occasion she exerted with
+effect those arts of popularity which were the best part of her
+statesmanship. On both occasions she was received with ecstatic flattery
+and entertained with academical exercises at tedious length, and plays,
+to our taste not less tedious, performed in College Halls. Her successor
+could not fail to exhibit himself in a seat of learning, where he felt
+supreme, and, to do him justice, was not unqualified, to shine. To his
+benignity the University owes the questionable privilege of sending two
+members to the House of Commons, whereby it became entangled in
+political as well as in theological frays.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Great changes, however, had by this time passed or were passing over the
+University. As in former days the Halls had absorbed the Chamberdekyns,
+so the Colleges had now almost absorbed the Halls. They did this, not by
+any aggression, but by the natural advantages of wealth, their riches
+always increasing with the value of land, and by their reputation. Most
+of them, in addition to the members on the foundation, took students as
+boarders, and they got the best and wealthiest. Universities, losing
+their pristine character as marts of available knowledge, and becoming
+places of general education, ceased, by a process equally natural, to be
+the heritage of the poor and became the resort of the rich. The mediaeval
+statutes of the Colleges still limited the foundations to the poor, but
+even these in time, by cunning interpretation, were largely evaded.
+Already in the later Middle Ages Oxford had received, and, it seems, too
+complacently received, young scions of the aristocracy and gentry, the
+precursors of the noblemen and the silk-gowned gentleman-commoners of a
+later day. The Black Prince had been for a short time at Queen's
+College. In the reign of Henry VI., George Neville, the brother of the
+King-maker, had celebrated the taking of his degree, a process which was
+probably made easy to him, with banquets which lasted through two days
+on a prodigious scale. At the same time and for the same causes the
+system of College instruction grew in importance and gradually ousted
+the lectures of University Professors. Fellows of Colleges were not
+unwilling to add to their Commons and Livery the Tutor's stipend. Thus
+the importance of the College waxed while that of the University waned,
+and the College Statutes became more and more collectively the law of
+the University. These Statutes were mediaeval and obsolete, but they
+were unalterable, the Heads and Fellows being sworn to their observance,
+and there being no power of amendment, since the Visitor could only
+interpret and enforce. Thus the mediaeval type of life and study was
+stereotyped and progress was barred. The Fellowships having been
+originally not teacherships or prizes, but aids to poor students, the
+Founders deemed themselves at liberty in regulating the elections to
+give free play to their local and family partialities, and the
+consequence was a mass of preferences to favoured counties or to kin.
+With all these limitations, the teaching body of the University was now
+practically saddled. Even the restrictions to particular schools--as to
+Winchester in the case of New College, to Westminster, which had been
+substituted for Wolsey's Ipswich, in the case of Christ Church, and to
+Merchant Tailors' School in the case of St. John's--were noxious, though
+in a less degree, albeit their bad influence might be redeemed by some
+pleasant associations. Worst of all, however, in their effect were the
+restrictions to the clerical Order. This meant little in the Middle
+Ages, when all intellectual callings were clerical, when at Oxford
+gownsman and clerk, townsman and laic, were convertible terms. Wykeham,
+Foxe, and Wolsey themselves were thorough laymen in their pursuits and
+character, though they had received the tonsure, were qualified, if
+they pleased, to celebrate mass, and derived their incomes from
+bishoprics and abbeys. But the Reformation drew a sharp line between the
+clerical and the other professions. The clergyman was henceforth a
+pastor. The resident body of graduates and the teaching staff of Oxford
+belonging almost exclusively to the clerical profession, the studies and
+interests of that profession now reigned alone. Whatever life remained
+to the University was chiefly absorbed in theological study and
+controversy. This was the more deplorable as theology, in the mediaeval
+sense, was a science almost as extinct as astrology or alchemy. Oxford
+was turned into the cock-pit of theological party. At the same time she
+was bound hand and foot to a political faction, because her clergymen
+belonged to the Episcopal and State Church, the patrons and upholders of
+which, from political motives, were the Kings and the Cavaliers, or, as
+they were afterwards called, the Tories. Cambridge suffered like Oxford,
+though with some abatement, because there, owing to the vicinity of a
+great Puritan district, high Anglicanism did not prevail, and, for
+reasons difficult to define, the clergy altogether were less clerical.
+Newton was near forfeiting his Fellowship and the means of prosecuting
+his speculations because he was not in Holy Orders. Luckily, a Lay
+Fellowship fell just in time. Let Founders, and all who have a passion
+for regulating the lives of other people, for propagating their wills
+beyond the reach of their foresight, and for grasping posterity, as it
+were, with a dead hand, take warning by a disastrous example.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+As the Colleges became the University, their Heads became the governors
+of the University. They formed a Board called the Hebdomadal Council,
+which initiated all legislation, while the executive was the
+Vice-Chancellorship, which, though legally elective, was appropriated by
+the Heads, and passed down their list in order. With a single exception,
+the Headships were all clerical, and they were almost always filled by
+men of temperament, to say the least, eminently conservative. Thus
+academical liberty and progress slept.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: ST. MARY'S CHURCH.]
+
+On the eve of another great storm we have a pleasant glimpse of Oxford
+life and study in Clarendon's picture of Falkland's circle, at Great
+Tew, within ten miles of Oxford, whither, he says, "most polite and
+accurate men of that University resorted, dwelling there as in a College
+situated in a purer air, so that his was a University bound in a less
+volume, whither his intellectual friends came not so much for repose as
+study, and to examine and refine those grosser propositions which
+laziness and consent made current in conversation." This indicates that,
+while study was going on, liberal inquiry was also on foot. But clouds
+again gathered, the storm again came, and once more from the
+ecclesiastical quarter. The triumph of the Reformation, the accession of
+a Protestant Queen, and the Chancellorship of Leicester, who, for
+politic purposes, played the Puritan, had been attended by a general
+expulsion or secession of the Romanising party, which left the
+University for a time in the hands of the Calvinists and Low Churchmen.
+Hooker, the real father of Anglicanism, had, for a time, studied Church
+antiquity in the quiet quadrangle of Corpus, but he had come into
+collision with Puritanism, and had, for a time, been driven away by it.
+Perhaps its prevalence may have ultimately inclined him to exchange the
+University for a far less congenial sphere. The clergy, however, of an
+Episcopal Church, and one which laid claim to Apostolical succession,
+was sure in time to come round to High Church doctrine. To High Church
+doctrine the clergy of Oxford did come round under the leadership of
+Laud, University Preacher, Proctor, President of St. John's College, and
+afterwards Chancellor of the University. Of Laud there are several
+memorials at Oxford. One is the inner quadrangle of St. John's College,
+ornamented in the style of Inigo Jones, where the Archbishop and
+Chancellor, in the noontide of his career, received with ecstasies of
+delight, ecclesiastical, academical, and political, his doomed king and
+master with the fatal woman at Charles's side. Another is a fine
+collection of oriental books added to the Bodleian Library. A third and
+more important is the new code of statutes framed for the reformation of
+the University by its all-powerful Chancellor. A fourth is the statue of
+the Virgin and Child over the porch of St. Mary's Church, which, as
+proof of a Romanising tendency, formed one of the charges against the
+Archbishop, though it was really put up by his Chaplain. The fifth is
+the headless corpse which lies buried in the Chapel of St. John's
+College, whither pious hands conveyed it after the Restoration. Laud was
+a true friend of the University and of learned men, in whom, as in
+Hales, he respected the right of inquiry, and to whom he was willing to
+allow a freedom of opinion which he would not allow to the common herd.
+He was not so much a bigot as a martinet. It was by playing the martinet
+in ecclesiastical affairs that he was brought into mortal collision with
+the nation. In the code of statutes which by his characteristic use of
+autocratic power he imposed on Oxford the martinet is betrayed; so is
+the belief in the efficacy of regulation. We see the man who wrecked a
+kingdom for the sake of his forms. Nor had Laud the force to deliver
+University education from the shackles of the Middle Ages and the
+scholastic system. But the code is dictated by a genuine spirit of
+reform, and might have worked improvement had it been sustained by a
+motive power.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The period of the Civil War is a gap in academical history. Its
+monuments are only traces of destruction, such as the defacement of
+Papistical images and window paintings by the Puritan soldiery, and the
+sad absence of the old College plate, of which two thousand five hundred
+ounces went to the Royal mint in New Inn Hall, only a few most sacred
+pieces, such as the Founder's drinking-horn at Queen's, and the covered
+cup, reputed that of the Founder, at Corpus, being left to console us
+for the irreparable loss. Exeter College alone seems to have shown
+compunction; perhaps there had remained in her something of the free
+spirit for which in the days of Wycliffe she had been noted. Art and
+taste may mourn, but the University, as a centre of Episcopalianism, had
+little cause to complain; for the war was justly called the Bishops'
+war, and by the Episcopal Church and the Queen, between them, Charles
+was brought to the block. Oxford was bound by her ecclesiasticism to
+the Royal cause, and she had the ill luck to be highly available as a
+place of arms from her position between the two rivers, while she formed
+an advanced post to the Western country in which the strength of the
+King's cause lay. During those years the University was in buff and
+bandolier, on the drill ground instead of in the Schools, while the
+Colleges were filled with the exiled Court and its ghost of a
+Parliament. Traces of works connecting the two rivers were not long ago
+to be seen, and tradition points to the angle in the old city wall under
+Merton College as the spot where Windebank, a Royalist officer, was shot
+for surrendering his post. There was a reign of garrison manners as
+well as of garrison duties, and to the few who still cared for the
+objects of the University, even if they were Royalists, the surrender of
+the city to the Parliament may well have been a relief.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Then came Parliamentary visitation and the purge, with the inevitable
+violence and inhumanity. Heads and Fellows, who refused submission to
+the new order of things, were turned out. Mrs. Fell, the wife of the
+Dean of Christ Church, deposed for Royalism, refused to quit the
+Deanery, and at last had to be carried out of the quadrangle, venting
+her wrath in strong language as she went, by a squad of Parliamentary
+musketeers. But the Puritans put in good men: such as Owen, who was
+made Dean of Christ Church; Conant, who was made Rector of Exeter;
+Wilkins, who was made Warden of Wadham; and Seth Ward, the
+mathematician, who was made President of Trinity College. Owen and
+Conant appear to have been model Heads. The number of students
+increased. Evelyn, the Anglican and Royalist, visiting Oxford, seems to
+find the academical exercises, and the state of the University
+generally, satisfactory to his mind. He liked even the sermon, barring
+some Presbyterian animosities. Nor did he find much change in College
+Chapels. New College was "in its ancient garb, notwithstanding the
+scrupulosity of the times." The Chapel of Magdalen College, likewise,
+was "in pontifical order," and the organ remained undemolished. The
+Protectorate was tolerant as far as the age allowed. Evelyn was
+cordially received by the Puritan authorities and hospitably
+entertained. Puritanism does not seem to have been so very grim,
+whatever the satirist in "The Spectator" may say. Tavern-haunting and
+swearing were suppressed. So were May-poles and some innocent
+amusements. But instrumental music was much cultivated, as we learn from
+the Royalist and High Church antiquary Anthony Wood, from whom, also, we
+gather that dress, though less donnish, was not more austere. Cromwell,
+having saved the Universities from fanatics who would have laid low all
+institutions of worldly learning, made himself Chancellor of Oxford, and
+sought to draw thence, as well as from Cambridge, promising youths for
+the service of the State. Even Clarendon admits that the Restoration
+found the University "abounding in excellent learning," notwithstanding
+"the wild and barbarous depopulation" which it had undergone; a
+miraculous result, which he ascribes, under God's blessing, to "the
+goodness and richness of the soil, which could not be made barren by all
+the stupidity and negligence, but choked the weeds, and would not suffer
+the poisonous seeds, which were sown with industry enough, to spring
+up." Puritanism might be narrow and bibliolatrous, but it was not
+obscurantist nor the enemy of science. We see this in Puritan Oxford as
+well as in Puritan Harvard and Yale. In Puritan Oxford the scientific
+circle which afterwards gave birth to the Royal Society was formed. Its
+chief was Warden Wilkins, and it included Boyle, Wallis, Seth Ward, and
+Wren. It met either in Wilkins's rooms at Wadham, or in those of Boyle.
+Evelyn, visiting Wilkins, is ravished with the scientific inventions and
+experiments which he sees. On the stones of Oxford, Puritanism has left
+no trace; there was hardly any building during those years. There were
+benefactions not a few, among which was the gift of Selden's Library.
+
+Upon the Restoration followed a Royalist proscription, more cruel, and
+certainly more lawless, than that of the Puritans had been. All the good
+Heads of the Commonwealth era were ejected, and the Colleges received
+back a crowd of Royalists, who, during their exclusion, had probably
+been estranged from academical pursuits. Anthony Wood himself is an
+unwilling witness to the fact that the change was much for the worse.
+"Some Cavaliers that were restored," he says, "were good scholars, but
+the majority were dunces." "Before the War," he says in another place,
+"we had scholars who made a thorough search in scholastic and polemical
+divinity, in humane learning and natural philosophy, but now scholars
+study these things not more than what is just necessary to carry them
+through the exercises of their respective Colleges and the University.
+Their aim is not to live as students ought to do, temperate, abstemious,
+and plain in their apparel, but to live like gentry, to keep dogs and
+horses, to turn their studies into places to keep bottles, to swagger in
+gay apparel and long periwigs." Into the Rectorship of Exeter, in place
+of the excellent Conant, was put Joseph Maynard, of whom Wood says,
+"Exeter College is now much debauched by a drunken Governor; whereas,
+before, in Doctor Conant's time, it was accounted a civil house, it is
+now rude and uncivil. The Rector is good-natured, generous, and a good
+scholar, but he has forgot the way of College life, and the decorum of a
+scholar. He is much given to bibbing, and when there is a music meeting
+in one of the Fellow's chambers, he will sit there, smoke, and drink
+till he is drunk, and has to be led to his lodgings by the junior
+Fellows." This is not the only evidence of the fact that drinking,
+idling, and tavern-haunting were in the ascendant. Study as well as
+morality, having been the badge of the Puritan, was out of fashion.
+Wilkins's scientific circle took its departure from Oxford to London,
+there to become the germ of the Royal Society. The hope was gone at
+Oxford of a race of "young men provided against the next age, whose
+minds, receiving the first impressions of sober and generous knowledge,
+should be invincibly armed against all the encroachments of enthusiasm."
+The presence of the merry monarch, with his concubines, at Oxford, when
+his Parliament met there, was not likely to improve morals. Oxford sank
+into an organ of the High Church and Tory party, and debased herself by
+servile manifestos in favour of government by prerogative.
+Non-conformists were excluded by the religious tests, the operation of
+which was more stringent than ever since the passing of the Act of
+Uniformity. The love of liberty and truth embodied in Locke was expelled
+from Christ Church; not, however, by the act of the College or of the
+University, but by Royal warrant, though Fell, Dean of Christ Church,
+bowed slavishly to the tyrant's pleasure; so that Christ Church may look
+with little shame on the portrait of the philosopher, which now hangs
+triumphant in her Hall. The Cavaliers did not much, even in the way of
+building. The Sheldonian Theatre was given them by the Archbishop, to
+whom subscriptions had been promised, but did not come in, so that he
+had to bear the whole expense himself. He was so deeply disgusted that
+he refused ever to look upon the building.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Over the gateway of University College stands the statue of James II.
+That it should have been left there is a proof both of the ingrained
+Toryism of old Oxford, and of the mildness of the Revolution of 1688.
+Obadiah Walker, the Master of the Colleges, was one of the political
+converts to Roman Catholicism, and it was in ridicule of him that "Old
+Obadiah, Ave Maria," was sung by the Oxford populace. A set of rooms in
+the same quadrangle bears the trace of its conversion into a Roman
+Catholic Chapel for the king. It faces the rooms of Shelley. Reference
+was made the other day, in an ecclesiastical lawsuit, to the singular
+practice which prevails in this College, of filing out into the
+ante-chapel after the sacrament to consume the remains of the bread and
+wine, instead of consuming them at the altar or communion table. This
+probably is a trace of the Protestant reaction which followed the
+transitory reign of Roman Catholicism under Obadiah Walker. All are
+familiar with the Magdalen College case, and with the train of events by
+which the most devoutly royalist of Universities was brought, by its
+connection with the Anglican Church and in defence of the Church's
+possessions, into collision with the Crown, and arrayed for the moment
+on the side of constitutional liberty. After the Revolution the recoil
+quickly followed. Oxford became the stronghold of Jacobitism, the scene
+of treasonable talk over the wine in the Common Room, of riotous
+demonstrations by pot-valiant undergraduates in the streets, of Jacobite
+orations at academical festivals, amid frantic cheers of the assembled
+University, of futile plotting and puerile conspiracies which never put
+a man in the field. "The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse." But the
+troop of horse was not called upon to act. There was a small Hanoverian
+and constitutional party, and now and then it scored a point against its
+adversaries, who dared not avow their disloyalty to the reigning
+dynasty. A Jacobite Proctor, having intruded into a convivial meeting of
+Whigs, they tendered him the health of King George, which, for fear of
+the treason law, he was fain to drink upon his knees.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: STAIRCASE, CHRIST CHURCH.]
+
+In the early part of the eighteenth century there was some intellectual
+life in Christ Church, to which Westminster still sent up good scholars,
+and which was the resort of the nobility, in whom youthful ambition and
+desire for improvement might be stirred by the influences of political
+homes, and the prospects of a public life. Dean Aldrich was a scholar
+and a virtuoso. The spire of All Saints' Church  is a soaring
+monument of his taste, if not of his genius, for architecture. In the
+controversy with Bentley about the Epistles of Phalaris, Christ Church,
+though she was hopelessly in the wrong, showed that she had some
+learning and some interest in classical studies. Otherwise the
+eighteenth century is a blank, or worse than a blank, in the history of
+the University. The very portraits on the College walls disclose the
+void of any but ecclesiastical eminence. That tendency to torpor, which,
+as Adam Smith and Turgot have maintained, is inherent in the system of
+endowments, fell upon Oxford in full measure. The Colleges had now, by
+the increase in value of their estates, become rich, some of them very
+rich. The estates of Magdalen, Gibbon tells us, were thought to be worth
+thirty thousand pounds a year, equivalent to double that sum now.
+Instead of being confined to their original Commons and Livery, the
+Heads and Fellows, as administrators of the estate, were now dividing
+among themselves annually large rentals, though they failed to increase
+in equal proportion the stipends of the Scholars and others who had no
+share in the administration. The statutes of mediaeval Founders had
+become utterly obsolete, and were disregarded, notwithstanding the oath
+taken to observe them, or observed only so far as they guarded the
+interest of sinecurists against the public. Nor were any other duties
+assumed. A few of the Fellows in each College added to their income by
+holding the tutorships, the functions of which they usually performed in
+the most slovenly way, each Tutor professing to teach all subjects,
+while most of them knew none. In the Common Room, with which each of the
+Colleges now provided itself, the Fellows spent lives of Trulliberian
+luxury, drinking, smoking, playing at bowls, and, as Gibbon said, by
+their deep but dull potations excusing the brisk intemperance of youth.
+Even the obligation to residence was relaxed, and at last practically
+annulled, so that a great part of the Fellowships became sinecure
+stipends held by men unconnected with the University. About the only
+restriction which remained was that on marriage. Out of this the Heads
+had managed to slip their necks, and from the time of Elizabeth
+downwards there had been married Heads, to the great scandal of Anthony
+Wood and other academical precisians, to whom, in truth, one lady, at
+least, the wife of Warden Clayton of Merton, seems to have afforded some
+grounds for criticism by her usurpations. But in the case of the
+Fellows, the statute, being not constructive, but express, could not be
+evaded except by stealth, and by an application of the aphorism then
+current, that he might hold anything who would hold his tongue. The
+effect of this, celibacy being no longer the rule, was to make all the
+Fellows look forward to the benefices, of a number of which each College
+was the patron, and upon which they could marry. Thus devotion to a life
+of study or education in College, had a Fellow been inclined to it, was
+impossible, under the ordinary conditions of modern life. Idleness,
+intemperance, and riot were rife among the students, as we learn from
+the novels and memoirs of the day. Especially were they the rule among
+the noblemen and gentlemen-commoners, who were privileged by their birth
+and wealth, and to whom by the servility of the Dons every license was
+allowed. Some Colleges took only gentlemen-commoners, who paid high
+fees and did what they pleased. All Souls' took no students at all, and
+became a mere club which, by a strange perversion of a clause in their
+statutes, was limited to men of high family. The University as a
+teaching and examining body had fallen into a dead swoon. Few of the
+Professors even went through the form of lecturing, and the statutory
+obligation of attendance was wholly disregarded by the students. The
+form of mediaeval disputations was kept up by the farcical repetition of
+strings of senseless syllogisms, which were handed down from generation
+to generation of students. The very nomenclature of the system had
+become unmeaning. Candidates for the theological degree paced the
+Divinity School for an hour, nominally challenging opponents to
+disputation, but the door was locked by the Bedel, that no opponent
+might appear. Examinations were held, but the candidates, by feeing the
+University officer, were allowed to choose their own examiners, and they
+treated the examiner after the ordeal. The two questions, "What is the
+meaning of Golgotha?" and "Who founded University College?" comprised
+the examination upon which Lord Eldon took his degree. A little of that
+elegant scholarship, with the power of writing Latin verses, of which
+Addison was the cynosure, was the most of which Oxford could boast.
+Even this there could hardly have been had not the learned languages
+happened to have formed an official part of the equipment of the
+clerical profession. Of science, or the mental habit which science
+forms, there was none. Such opportunities for study, such libraries,
+such groves, a livelihood so free from care could scarcely fail, now and
+then, to give birth to a learned man, an Addison, a Lowth, a Thomas
+Warton, an Elmsley, a Martin Routh.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Universities being the regular finishing schools of the gentry and
+the professions, men who had passed through them became eminent in after
+life, but they owed little or nothing to the University. Only in this
+way can Oxford lay claim to the eminence of Bishop Butler, Jeremy
+Bentham, or Adam Smith, while Gibbon is her reproach. The figures of
+Lord Eldon and Lord Stowell, whose ponderous twin statues sit side by
+side in the Library of University College, were more academical,
+especially that of Lord Stowell, who was Tutor of his College, and held
+a lectureship of Ancient History. Here and there a Tutor of the better
+stamp, no doubt, would try to do his duty by his pupils. A rather
+pathetic interest attaches to Richard Newton, who tried to turn Hart
+Hall into a real place of education, and had some distinguished pupils,
+among them Charles Fox. But the little lamp which he had kindled went
+out in the uncongenial air. On the site, thanks to the munificence of
+Mr. Baring, now stands Hertford College. Johnson's residence at Pembroke
+College was short, and his narrative shows that it was unprofitable,
+though his High Church principles afterwards made him a loyal son and
+eulogist of the University. One good effect the interdiction of marriage
+had. It kept up a sort of brotherhood, and saved corporate munificence
+from extinction by the private interest of fathers of families. As the
+College revenues increased, building went on, though after the false
+classical fashion of the times and mostly for the purpose of College
+luxury. Now rose the new quadrangle of Queen's, totally supplanting the
+mediaeval College, and the new buildings at Magdalen and Corpus. A plan
+is extant, horrible to relate, for the total demolition of the old
+quadrangle of Magdalen, and its replacement by a modern palace of
+idleness in the Italian style. To this century belong Peckwater and
+Canterbury quadrangles, also in the classical style, the first redeemed
+by the Library which fills one side of the square, and which has a heavy
+architectural grandeur as well as a noble purpose. To the eighteenth
+century we also mainly owe the College gardens and walks as we see them;
+and the gardens of St. John's, New College, Wadham, Worcester, and
+Exeter, with the lime walk at Trinity and the Broadwalk--now unhappily
+but a wreck--at Christ Church, may plead to a student's heart for some
+mitigation of the sentence on the race of clerical idlers and
+wine-bibbers, who, for a century, made the University a place, not of
+education and learning, but of dull sybaritism, and a source, not of
+light, but of darkness, to the nation. It is sad to think how different
+the history of England might have been had Oxford and Cambridge done
+their duty, like Harvard and Yale, during the last century.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: CHRIST CHURCH--FRONT.]
+
+At the end of the last or beginning of the present century came the
+revival. At  the end of the last century Christ Church had some
+brilliant classical scholars among her students, though the great scene
+of their eminence was not the study but the senate. The portraits of
+Wellesley and Canning hang in her Hall. In the early part of the present
+century the general spirit of reform and progress, which had been
+repressed during the struggle with revolutionary France, began to move
+again over the face of the torpid waters. Eveleigh, Provost of Oriel,
+led the way. At his College and at Balliol the elections to Fellowships
+were free from local or genealogical restrictions. They were now opened
+to merit, and those two Colleges, though not among the first in wealth
+or magnificence, attained a start in the race of regeneration which
+Balliol, being very fortunate in its Heads, has since in a remarkable
+manner maintained. The examination system of Laud had lacked a motive
+power, and had depended, like his policy, on his fiat instead of vital
+force. There was no sufficient inducement for the examiner to be strict
+or for the candidate to excel. The motive power was now supplied by a
+list of honours in classics and mathematics, and among the earliest
+winners in the first class in both schools was Robert Peel.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Scarcely, however, had the University begun to awake to a new life, when
+it was swept by another ecclesiastical storm, the consequence of its
+unhappy identification with clericism and the State Church. The liberal
+movement which commenced after the fall of Napoleon and carried the
+Reform Bill, threatened to extend to the religious field, and to
+withdraw the support of the State from the Anglican Church. This led the
+clergy to look out for another basis, which they found in the
+reassertion of High Church and sacerdotal doctrines, such as apostolical
+succession, eucharistical real presence, and baptismal regeneration.
+Presently the movement assumed the form of a revival of the Church of
+the Middle Ages, such as High Church imagination pictured it, and
+ultimately of secession to Rome. Oxford, with her mediaeval buildings,
+her High Church tradition, her half-monastic Colleges, and her body of
+unmarried clergy, became the centre of the movement. The Romanising
+tendencies of Tractarianism, as from the "Tracts for the Times" it was
+called, visible from the first, though disclaimed by the leaders,
+aroused a fierce Protestant reaction, which encountered Tractarianism
+both in the press and in the councils of the University. The Armageddon
+of the ecclesiastical war was the day on which, in a gathering of
+religious partisans from all sections of the country which the
+Convocation House would not hold, so that it was necessary to adjourn
+to the Sheldonian Theatre, Ward, the most daring of the Tractarian
+writers, after a scene of very violent excitement, was deprived of his
+degree. This was the beginning of the end. Newman, the real leader of
+the movement, though Pusey, from his academical rank, was the official
+leader, soon recognised the place to which his principles belonged, and
+was on his knees before a Roman Catholic priest, supplicating for
+admission to the Church of Rome. A ritualistic element remained, and now
+reigns, in the Church of England; but the party which Newman left,
+bereft of Newman, broke up, and its relics were cast like drift-wood on
+every theological or philosophical shore. Newman's poetic version of
+mediaeval religion, together with the spiritual graces of his style and
+his personal influence, had for a time filled the imaginations and
+carried away the hearts of youth, while the seniors were absorbed in the
+theological controversy, renounced lay studies, and disdained
+educational duty except as it might afford opportunities of winning
+youthful souls to the Neo-Catholic faith. Academical duty would have
+been utterly lost in theological controversy, had it not been for the
+Class List, which bound the most intellectual undergraduates to lay
+studies by their ambition, and kept on foot a staff of private teachers,
+"coaches," as they were called, to prepare men for the examinations,
+who did the duty which the ecclesiastical Fellows of the University
+disdained. The Oxford movement has left a monument of itself in the
+College founded in memory of Keble, the gentle and saintly author of
+"The Christian Year." It has left an ampler monument in the revival of
+mediaeval architecture at Oxford, and the style of new buildings which
+everywhere meet the eye. The work of the Oxford Architectural Society,
+which had its birth in the Neo-Catholic movement, may prove more durable
+than that movement itself. Of the excess to which the architectural
+revival was carried, the new Library at University College, more like a
+mediaeval Chapel than a Library, is a specimen. It was proposed to give
+Neo-Catholicism yet another monument by erecting close to the spot where
+Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley died for truth, the statue of Cardinal
+Newman, the object of whose pursuit through life had been, not truth,
+but an ecclesiastical ideal. Of the reaction against the Tractarian
+movement the monument is the memorial to the Protestant martyrs Cranmer,
+Latimer, and Ridley, the subscription for which commenced among the
+Protestants who had come up to vote for the condemnation of Ward, and
+which Tractarians scornfully compared to the heap of stones raised over
+the body of Achan.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: GATE TOWER AND CLOISTERS, MAGDALEN.]
+
+Here ended the reign of ecclesiasticism, of the Middle Ages, and of
+religious exclusion. The collision into which Romanising Oxford had been
+brought with the Protestantism of the British nation, probably helped to
+bring on the revolution which followed, and which restored the
+University to learning, science, and the nation. The really academical
+element in the University invoked the aid of the national government and
+Legislature. A Royal Commission of Inquiry into the state of the
+University and its Colleges was appointed, and though some Colleges
+closed their muniment rooms, and inquiry was obstructed, enough was
+revealed in the Report amply to justify legislative reform and
+emancipation. An act of Parliament was passed which set free the
+University and Colleges alike from their mediaeval statutes, restored the
+University Professoriate, opened the Fellowships to merit, and relaxed
+the religious tests. The curriculum, the examination system, and the
+honour list were liberalised, and once more, as in early times, all the
+great departments of knowledge were recognised and domiciled in the
+University. Science, long an exile, was welcomed back to her home at the
+moment when a great extension of her empire was at hand. Strictly
+professional studies, such as practical law and medicine, could not be
+recalled from their professional seats. Elections to Fellowships by
+merit replaced election by local or school preferences, by kinship, or
+by the still more objectionable influences which at one time had been
+not unfelt. Colleges which had declined the duty of education, which had
+been dedicated to sinecurism and indolence, and whose quadrangles had
+stood empty, were filled with students, and once more presented a
+spectacle which would have gladdened the heart of the Founder. A
+Commission, acting on a still more recent Act of Parliament, has carried
+the adaptation of Oxford to the modern requirements of science and
+learning further than the old Commission, which acted in the penumbra of
+mediaeval and ecclesiastical tradition, dared. The intellectual Oxford
+of the present day is almost a fresh creation. Its spirit is new; it is
+liberal, free, and progressive. It is rather too revolutionary, grave
+seniors say, so far as the younger men are concerned. This is probably
+only the first forward bound of recovered freedom, which will be
+succeeded in time by the sober pace of learning and scientific
+investigation. Again, as in the thirteenth century, the day of
+Grosseteste and Simon de Montfort, Oxford is a centre of progress,
+instead of being, as under the later Stuarts, the stronghold of
+reaction. Of the College revival, the monuments are all around in the
+new buildings, for which increasing  numbers have called, and which
+revived energy has supplied. Christ Church, New College, Magdalen,
+Merton, Balliol, Trinity, University have all enlarged their courts, and
+in almost every College new life has been shown by improvement or
+restoration. Of the reign of mediaevalism the only trace is the
+prevalence in the new buildings of the mediaeval style, which
+architectural harmony seemed to require, though the new buildings of
+Christ Church and Trinity are proofs of a happy emancipation from
+architectural tradition. The University revival has its monument in the
+new examination Schools in High Street, where the student can no longer
+get his degree by giving the meaning of Golgotha and the name of the
+Founder of University College. There are those who, like Mark Pattison,
+look on it with an evil eye, regarding the examination system as a
+noxious excrescence and as fatal to spontaneous study and research;
+though they would hardly contend that spontaneous study and research
+flourished much at Oxford before the revival of examinations, or deny
+that since the revival Oxford has produced the fruits of study and
+research, at least to a fair extent. The restoration of science is
+proclaimed by the new Museum yonder; a strange structure, it must be
+owned, which symbolises, by the unfitness of its style for its purpose,
+at once the unscientific character of the Middle Ages, and the
+lingering attachment of Oxford to the mediaeval type. Of the abolition of
+the religious tests, and the restoration of the University to the
+nation, a monument is Mansfield College for Congregationalists, a vision
+of which would have thrown an orthodox and Tory Head of a College into
+convulsions half a century ago. Even here the mediaeval style of
+architecture keeps its hold, though the places of Catholic Saints are
+taken by the statues of Wycliffe, Luther, John Knox, Whitefield, and
+Wesley. By the side of Mansfield College rises also Manchester College
+for Independents, in the same architectural style. Neither of them,
+however, is in the Oxford sense a College; both are places of
+theological instruction.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+On the North of the city, where fifty years ago stretched green fields,
+is now seen a suburb of villas, all of them bespeaking comfort and
+elegance, few of them overweening wealth. These are largely the
+monuments of another great change, the removal of the rule of celibacy
+from the Fellowships, and the introduction of a large body of married
+teachers devoted to their profession, as well as of the revival of the
+Professorships, which were always tenable by married men. Fifty years
+ago the wives of Heads of Houses, who generally married late in life if
+they married at all, constituted, with one or two officers of the
+University, the whole female society of Oxford. The change was
+inevitable, if education was to be made a profession, instead of being,
+as it had been in the hands of celibate Fellows of Colleges, merely the
+transitory occupation of a man whose final destination was the parish.
+Those who remember the old Common Room life, which is now departing,
+cannot help looking back with a wistful eye to its bachelor ease, its
+pleasant companionship, its interesting talk and free interchange of
+thought, its potations neither "deep" nor "dull." Nor were its symposia
+without important fruits when such men as Newman and Ward, on one side,
+encountered such men as Whately, Arnold, and Tait, on the other side, in
+Common Room talk over great questions of the day. But the life became
+dreary when a man had passed forty, and it is well exchanged for the
+community that fills those villas, and which, with its culture, its
+moderate and tolerably equal incomes, permitting hospitality but
+forbidding luxury, and its unity of interests with its diversity of
+acquirements and accomplishments, seems to present the ideal conditions
+of a pleasant social life. The only question is, how the College system
+will be maintained when the Fellows are no longer resident within the
+walls of the College to temper and control the younger members, for a
+barrack of undergraduates is not a good thing. The personal bond and
+intercourse between Tutor and pupil under the College system was
+valuable as well as pleasant; it cannot be resigned without regret. But
+its loss will be compensated by far superior teaching. Half a century
+ago conservatism strove to turn the railway away from Oxford. But the
+railway came, and it brings, on summer Sundays, to the city of study and
+thought not a few leaders of the active world. Oxford is now, indeed,
+rather too attractive; her academical society is in danger of being
+swamped by the influx of non-academical residents.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: THE RIVER--BOATS RACING.]
+
+The buildings stand, to mark by their varying architecture the
+succession of the changeful centuries through which the University has
+passed. In the Libraries are the monuments of the successive generations
+of learning. But the tide of youthful life that from age to age has
+flowed through college, quadrangle, hall, and chamber, through
+University examination-rooms and Convocation Houses, has left no
+memorials of itself except the entries in the University and College
+books; dates of matriculation, which tell of the bashful boy standing
+before the august Vice-Chancellor at entrance; dates of degrees, which
+tell of the youth putting forth, from his last haven of tutelage, on
+the waves of the wide world. Hither they thronged, century after
+century, in the costume and with the equipments of their times, from
+mediaeval abbey, grange, and hall, from Tudor manor-house and homestead,
+from mansion, rectory, and commercial city of a later day, bearing with
+them the hopes and affections of numberless homes. Year after year they
+departed, lingering for a moment at the gate to say farewell to College
+friends, the bond with whom they vowed to preserve, but whom they were
+never to see again, then stepped forth into the chances and perils of
+life, while the shadow on the College dial moved on its unceasing round.
+If they had only left their names in the rooms which they had occupied,
+there would be more of history than we have in those dry entries in the
+books. But, at all events, let not fancy frame a history of student life
+at Oxford out of "Verdant Green." There are realities corresponding to
+"Verdant Green," and the moral is, that many youths come to the
+University who had better stay away, since none get any good and few
+fail to get some harm, saving those who have an aptitude for study. But
+the dissipation, the noisy suppers, the tandem-driving, the fox-hunting,
+the running away from Proctors, or, what is almost as bad, the childish
+devotion to games and sports as if they were the end of existence,
+though they are too common a part of  undergraduate life in the
+University of the rich, are far from being the whole of it. Less than
+ever are they the whole of it since University reform and a more liberal
+curriculum have increased, as certainly they have, industry and
+frugality at the same time. Of the two or three thousand lamps which
+to-night will gleam from those windows, few will light the supper-table
+or the gambling-table; most will light the book. Youthful effort,
+ambition, aspiration, hope, College character and friendship have no
+artist to paint them,--at least as yet they have had none. But whatever
+of poetry belongs to them is present in full measure here.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Addison, Joseph, 136.
+
+  Aldrich, Henry, 128.
+
+  Alfred (King), 24, 51.
+
+  All Souls' College, 67 _et sq._
+
+  Amusements, mediaeval, 43.
+
+  Antiquity, apparent, of the buildings, 3.
+
+  Architectural revival at Oxford, 147, 148.
+
+  Aristotle, 31.
+
+  Ashmolean Museum, 24.
+
+  Augustinians, 35.
+
+  _Aulae_, 39.
+
+
+  Bacon, Roger, 32, 33, 37.
+
+  Bacon, Sir Nicholas, 91.
+
+  Balliol College, 50;
+    intellectual revival in, 141.
+
+  Baring, T. C., 138.
+
+  Benedictines, 35.
+
+  Bentham, Jeremy, 137.
+
+  Bentley, Richard, 129.
+
+  Black Prince, the, 100.
+
+  Bocardo, 88.
+
+  Bodleian Library, 19, 20, 21, 97.
+
+  Bodley, Sir Thomas, 20, 93.
+
+  Bologna, University of, 29.
+
+  Botanic Garden, 97.
+
+  Boyle, Charles, 119.
+
+  Bradwardine, Thomas, 31.
+
+  Brasenose College, 67 _et sq._, 74, 75.
+
+  Broadwalk, the, 140.
+
+  Brome, Adam de, 52.
+
+  Buildings, dates of, 3 _et sq._
+
+  Butler, Bishop, 137.
+
+
+  Cardinal College, 83.
+
+  Carmellites, 35.
+
+  Celibacy enjoined on Heads of Colleges, 96;
+    effects of its withdrawal, 132, 133.
+
+  Chamberdekyns, 39, 99.
+
+  Charles I. at Oxford, 113, 114.
+
+  Charles II. at Oxford, 123.
+
+  Chicheley, Archbishop, 70, 71.
+
+  Christ Church Cathedral, 35.
+
+  Christ Church College, 80 _et sq._;
+    intellectual revival in, 128, 129, 140, 141.
+
+  Cistercians, 35.
+
+  Civil War, Oxford in the time of the, 112 _et sq._
+
+  Clarendon, Earl of, 18, 107.
+
+  Clarendon Building, 18, 19.
+
+  Clarendon Press, 19.
+
+  Class Lists, 142.
+
+  Clayton, Thos., wife of, 132.
+
+  Clerical profession, dominance of, 104.
+
+  Colet, John, 76.
+
+  College life, 9 _et sq._
+
+  Colleges, administration and government of, 9 _et sq._;
+    growing importance of, 99 _et sq._;
+    the present intellectual revival in the, 152 _et sq._
+
+  Commemoration, 15.
+
+  Common Room life, 157.
+
+  Commons, 49.
+
+  Commonwealth, Oxford in the time of the, 114 _et sq._
+
+  Conant, John, 116.
+
+  Congregation, 8.
+
+  Convocation, 8.
+
+  Convocation House, 13, 14, 97.
+
+  Corpus Christi College, 75.
+
+  Cranmer, Archbishop, 88, 89.
+
+  Cromwell, Oliver, Chancellor of Oxford, 118.
+
+
+  Degrees, manner of conferring, 13.
+
+  Disputation, stress laid upon, 30.
+
+  Divinity School, 14.
+
+  Dominicans, 36.
+
+  Duns Scotus, 31.
+
+  Durham College, 91.
+
+
+  Egglesfield, Robert, 52.
+
+  Eldon, Lord, 135, 137.
+
+  Elizabeth (Queen), 98.
+
+  Elmsley, Peter, 136.
+
+  Erasmus, D., 76.
+
+  "Essays and Reviews," authors of, 24.
+
+  Eton, 59.
+
+  Eveleigh, John, 141.
+
+  Evelyn, John, 116, 119.
+
+  Examinations, 21, 22.
+
+  Examination system, the, 153, 154.
+
+  Examination-rooms. _See_ Schools.
+
+  Exeter College, 50, 53 _et sq._
+
+
+  Faculties, 28.
+
+  Falkland, Viscount, 107.
+
+  Fawkes's (Guy) lantern, 21.
+
+  Fell, John, 124.
+
+  Fellows, 46.
+
+  Fellowships, 102.
+
+  Fleming, Bishop, 68.
+
+  Founders, portraits of, 21.
+
+  Foxe, Bishop, 77.
+
+  Franciscans, 36.
+
+  Frydeswide, St., 87.
+
+
+  Gibbon, Edward, 137.
+
+  Gladstone, W. E., 22.
+
+  Graduation. _See_ Degrees.
+
+  Great Hall of the University, the, 51.
+
+  Great Tew, 107.
+
+  Grocyn, William, 76.
+
+  Grosseteste, Robert, 38, 44.
+
+
+  Halls, 39, 98, 99.
+
+  Hart Hall, 137.
+
+  Hebdomadal Council, 106.
+
+  Hertford College, 138.
+
+  High Church Traditions at Oxford, 144 _et sq._
+
+  Hooker, Richard, 108.
+
+  Houses, monastic, 50.
+
+  Humanists, the, 77.
+
+  Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, 20, 76.
+
+
+  Inception, 31.
+
+
+  Jacobitism at Oxford, 127, 128.
+
+  James I., 22, 98.
+
+  James II., statue of, 125.
+
+  Jesus College, 94.
+
+  Jews at Oxford in the Middle Ages, 42.
+
+  Johnson, Samuel, at Oxford, 138.
+
+
+  Keble, John, 147.
+
+  Keble College, 147.
+
+
+  Laud, Archbishop, 109 _et sq._
+
+  Leicester, Earl of, 108.
+
+  Lime Walk at Trinity College, the, 140.
+
+  Linacre, Thomas, 76.
+
+  Lincoln College, 67 _et sq._
+
+  Livery, 49.
+
+  Locke, John, 124.
+
+  Lowth, Robert, 136.
+
+
+  Magdalen College, 67 _et sq._, 72 _et sq._, 130.
+
+  Magdalen College Case, 126.
+
+  Manchester College, 155.
+
+  Manning, H. E., 24.
+
+  Mansfield College, 155.
+
+  Marisco, Adam de, 44.
+
+  Martyr, Catherine, 87.
+
+  Maynard, Joseph, 121.
+
+  Mendicant Orders, 36.
+
+  Merton, Walter de, 44, 45.
+
+  Merton College, 45 _et sq._
+
+  Mob Quad, 45.
+
+  Monastic Orders, 35.
+
+  Monastic Oxford, 35.
+
+  Monasteries, 35, 37, 50, 53.
+
+  Montfort, Simon de, 37, 38.
+
+  More, Sir Thomas, 76.
+
+  Museum, the Ashmolean. _See_ Ashmolean.
+
+  Museum, the University, 153, 154.
+
+
+  Neo-Catholicism. _See_ Tractarianism.
+
+  Neville, George, 101.
+
+  Newman, J. H., 14, 24, 145, 148.
+
+  New College, 55 _et sq._
+
+  Newton, Isaac, 105.
+
+  Newton, Richard, 137.
+
+  Non-conformists excluded, 123.
+
+
+  Ockham, 31.
+
+  Oldham, Hugh, 78.
+
+  Oriel College, 50, 52.
+
+  Osney Abbey, 35.
+
+  Owen, John, 116.
+
+  Oxford (the name), derivation of, 2.
+
+  Oxford Architectural Society, 147.
+
+  Oxford (the city), situation of, 1;
+    environs of, 1, 2;
+    of the 13th century, 27 _et sq._
+
+  Oxford (the University),
+    administration and government of, 7 _et sq._, 106 _et sq._;
+    origin and growth of, 25 _et sq._;
+    political proclivities of, 28, 37, 105;
+    in the 18th century, 130 _et sq._;
+    in the 19th century, 140 _et sq._;
+    intellectual revival of, in the present day, 152.
+
+  Oxford Movement, the. _See_ Tractarianism.
+
+  Oxford University Commissions (1850 and 1876), 149, 151.
+
+
+  Papacy, the, and the Universities, 34, 37.
+
+  Paris, University of, 27, 34.
+
+  Pattison, Mark, 70.
+
+  Pembroke College, 97.
+
+  Peel, Robert, 142.
+
+  Petre, Sir William, 93.
+
+  Philippa, Queen, 52.
+
+  Philosophy, Scholastic, early addiction to, 30.
+
+  Pope, Cardinal, 92.
+
+  Pope, Sir Thomas, 91.
+
+  Portraits of Founders, 21.
+
+  Press, the University (_see also_ Clarendon Press), 19.
+
+  Proctors, 10, 13, 14.
+
+  Professors, 10.
+
+  Protectorate, the. _See_ Commonwealth.
+
+  Puritanism and Oxford, 115 _et sq._
+
+  Pusey, E. B., 24, 145.
+
+
+  Queen's College, 50, 52.
+
+
+  Radcliffe, Dr. John, 23.
+
+  Radcliffe Library, 23.
+
+  Reformation, influence of, on Oxford, 108, 110.
+
+  Religious tests, 90.
+
+  Renaissance, the Mediaeval, 23.
+
+  Restoration, the, and Oxford, 120 _et sq._
+
+  Revolution, the (1688), and Oxford, 125, 127.
+
+  Richard III. at Oxford, 73, 74.
+
+  Rotheram, Bishop, 69.
+
+  Routh, Martin, 136.
+
+  Royal Commissions. _See_ Oxford University Commissions.
+
+  Royal Society, The, 119 _et sq._
+
+
+  St. Frydeswide's Church, 35.
+
+  St. John's College, 92.
+
+  St. Mary of Winton, College of, 56.
+
+  St. Mary's Church, 15, 24.
+
+  St. Michael's Church, 25.
+
+  Salerno, University of, 27.
+
+  Scholars, 46 _et sq._
+
+  Schools, the, 21.
+
+  Schools, the new examination, 153.
+
+  Sermons, University, 24.
+
+  Sheldon, Archbishop, 14.
+
+  Sheldonian Theatre, 14, 15, 124, 125.
+
+  Smith, Adam, 137.
+
+  _Socii_, 46.
+
+  Sports, 162.
+
+  Statutes, fettering influence of, 101, 102;
+    disregarded, 130.
+
+  Stowell, Lord, 137.
+
+  Student life, mediaeval, 39 _et sq._, 63 _et sq._
+
+  Students, mediaeval, 39, 41 _et sq._;
+    their affrays with the townspeople, 41, 42;
+    their amusements, 43.
+
+  Suburbs of Oxford, 156 _et sq._
+
+
+  Teachers, the first, at Oxford, 28.
+
+  Tests. _See_ Religious tests.
+
+  Theology, 32.
+
+  Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, 73.
+
+  Tom Tower, 81.
+
+  Tractarianism, 145 _et sq._
+
+  Trinity College, 91.
+
+  "Trojans, The," 77.
+
+  Turner's picture of Oxford, 2.
+
+  Tutors, 9.
+
+
+  Undergraduate life, modern, 162, 163.
+
+  Universities, rise of, in Europe, 27.
+
+  University College, 51.
+
+  University Gallery, 21.
+
+
+  "Verdant Green," 162.
+
+  Vice-Chancellorship, the, 106.
+
+  Vives, Juan Luis, 81.
+
+
+  Wadham, Dorothy, 96.
+
+  Wadham, Sir Nicholas, 95.
+
+  Wadham College, 94.
+
+  Walker, Obadiah, 126.
+
+  Ward, Seth, 116.
+
+  Ward, W. G., 145.
+
+  Warton, Thomas, 136.
+
+  Waynflete, Bishop, 72, 73.
+
+  Wellington, Duke of, his inauguration as Chancellor, 17.
+
+  Wesley, John, 70.
+
+  White, Sir Thomas, 92, 93.
+
+  Wilkins, John, 116, 119, 122.
+
+  William of Durham, 50.
+
+  William of Wykeham, 55 _et sq._
+
+  Winchester School, 58.
+
+  Windebank, Thos., 114.
+
+  Wolsey, Cardinal, 59, 81, 82 _et sq._
+
+  Wood, Anthony (_quoted_), 120, 121.
+
+  Worcester College, 35.
+
+  Wren, Christopher, 3, 82.
+
+  Wycliffe, John, 54.
+
+  Wykeham. _See_ William of Wykeham.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Oxford and Her Colleges, by Goldwin Smith
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