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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:12:08 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:12:08 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/39205-8.txt b/39205-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..257ebad --- /dev/null +++ b/39205-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14313 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sheep, Swine, and Poultry, by Robert Jennings + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Sheep, Swine, and Poultry + Embracing the History and Varieties of Each; The Best Modes + of Breeding; Their Feeding and Management; Together with + etc. + +Author: Robert Jennings + +Release Date: March 19, 2012 [EBook #39205] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Harry Lamé and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + + + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | + | | + | [OE] and [oe] represent the oe ligature. Text printed in italics | + | and boldface in the original are represented here between under- | + | scores (as in _italics_) and equal signs (as in =boldface=), res- | + | pectively. Text printed in small capitals in the original have been| + | transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. | + | | + | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text. | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + +SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY; + +EMBRACING + +THE HISTORY AND VARIETIES OF EACH; THE BEST MODES OF BREEDING; THEIR +FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; TOGETHER WITH THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE +RESPECTIVELY SUBJECT, AND THE APPROPRIATE REMEDIES FOR EACH. + +BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S., + +PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE +OF PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE +AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY +ASSOCIATION OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES," +"CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES," ETC., ETC. + +[Illustration] + +With Numerous Illustrations. + +PHILADELPHIA: + +JOHN E. POTTER AND COMPANY. 617 SANSOM STREET + +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by + +JOHN E. POTTER, + +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and +for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Encouraged by the favorable reception of his former works, the author +presents in the following pages what is intended by him as a popular +compendium relative to Sheep, Swine, and Poultry. + +It would not have been a difficult matter to collect material bearing +upon each distinct class sufficient for an entire volume of the present +size. Indeed, the main trouble experienced has been the selecting of +such facts and suggestions only as seemed to him of paramount practical +importance. He has not deemed it advisable to cumber his work with items +of information which could be of service to particular sections and +localities only; but has rather endeavored to present, in a concise, yet +comprehensible shape, whatever is essential to be understood concerning +the animals in question. + +The amateur stock-raiser and the wealthy farmer will, of course, call to +their aid all the works, no matter how expensive or voluminous, which +are to be found bearing upon the subject in which they are for the time +interested. The present volume can scarcely be expected to fill the +niche which such might desire to see occupied. + +The author's experience as a veterinary surgeon among the great body of +our farmers convinces him that what is needed by them in the premises is +a treatise, of convenient size, containing the essential features of the +treatment and management of each, couched in language free from +technicality or rarely scientific expressions, and fortified by the +results of actual experience upon the farm. + +Such a place the author trusts this work may occupy. He hopes that, +while it shall not be entirely destitute of interest for any, it will +prove acceptable, in a peculiar degree, to that numerous and thrifty +class of citizens to which allusion has already been made. + +The importance of such a work cannot be overrated. Take the subject of +sheep for example: the steadily growing demand for woollen goods of +every description is producing a great and lucrative development of the +wool trade. Even light fabrics of wool are now extensively preferred +throughout the country to those of cotton. Our imports of wool from +England during the past six years have increased at an almost incredible +rate, while our productions of the article during the past few years +greatly exceed that of the same period in any portion of our history. + +Relative to swine, moreover, it may be said that they form so +considerable an item of our commerce that a thorough information as to +the best mode of raising and caring for them is highly desirable; while +our domestic poultry contribute so much, directly and indirectly, to the +comfort and partial subsistence of hundreds of thousands, that sensible +views touching that division will be of service in almost every +household. + +To those who are familiar with the author's previous works upon the +Horse and Cattle, it is needless to say any thing as to the method +adopted by him in discussing the subject of Diseases. To others he would +say, that only such diseases are described as are likely to be actually +encountered, and such curatives recommended as his own personal +experience, or that of others upon whose judgment he relies, has +satisfied him are rational and valuable. + +The following works, among others, have been consulted: Randall's Sheep +Husbandry; Youatt on Sheep; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; +Allen's Domestic Animals; Stephens's Book of the Farm; Youatt on the +Hog; Richardson on the Hog; Dixon and Kerr's Ornamental and Domestic +Poultry; Bennett's Poultry Book; and Browne's American Poultry Yard. + +To those professional brethren who have so courteously furnished him +with valuable information, growing out of their own observation and +practice, he acknowledges himself especially indebted; and were he +certain that they would not take offence, he would be pleased to mention +them here by name. + +Should the work prove of service to our intelligent American farmers and +stock-breeders as a body, the author's end will have been attained. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. + PAGE + HISTORY AND VARIETIES 15 + AMERICAN SHEEP 21 + Native Sheep 22 + The Spanish Merino 25 + The Saxon Merino 36 + The New Leicester 41 + The South-Down 47 + The Cotswold 52 + The Cheviot 54 + The Lincoln 56 + NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP 57 + Formation of the Teeth 59 + Structure of the Skin 63 + Anatomy of the Wool 64 + Long Wool 76 + Middle Wool 78 + Short Wool 80 + + CROSSING AND BREEDING 81 + BREEDING 81 + Points of the Merino 93 + Breeding Merinos 97 + General Principles of Breeding 106 + Use of Rams 112 + Lambing 117 + Management of Lambs 121 + Castration and Docking 127 + + FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 129 + FEEDING 129 + Shade 133 + Fences 133 + Hoppling 133 + Dangerous Rams 134 + Prairie Feeding 135 + Fall Feeding 137 + Winter Feeding 137 + Feeding with other Stock 142 + Division of Flocks 142 + Regularity in Feeding 143 + Effect of Food 144 + Yards 146 + Feeding-Racks 147 + Troughs 150 + Barns and Sheds 151 + Sheds 155 + Hay-Holder 156 + Tagging 157 + Washing 160 + Cutting the Hoofs 165 + Shearing 166 + Cold Storms 171 + Sun-Scald 171 + Ticks 171 + Marking or Branding 172 + Maggots 173 + Shortening the Horns 174 + Selection and Division 174 + The Crook 176 + Driving and Slaughtering 177 + Driving 177 + Points of Fat Sheep 181 + Slaughtering 184 + Cutting Up 186 + Relative qualities 187 + Contributions to Manufactures 191 + + DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 195 + ADMINISTERING MEDICINE 197 + BLEEDING 197 + FEELING THE PULSE 199 + Apoplexy 200 + Braxy 201 + Bronchitis 201 + Catarrh 202 + Malignant Epizoötic Catarrh 203 + Colic 205 + Costiveness 206 + Diarrh[oe]a 206 + Disease of the Biflex Canal 207 + Dysentery 208 + Flies 209 + Fouls 209 + Fractures 210 + Garget 211 + Goitre 211 + Grub in the Head 212 + Hoof-Ail 214 + Hoove 225 + Hydatid on the Brain 226 + Obstruction of the Gullet 228 + Ophthalmia 229 + Palsy 229 + Pelt-Rot 230 + Pneumonia 230 + Poison 233 + Rot 233 + Scab 236 + Small-Pox 239 + Sore Face 242 + Sore Mouth 243 + Ticks 243 + + ILLUSTRATIONS. + A LEICESTER RAM 15 + ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP 19 + A MERINO RAM 25 + A SPANISH SHEEP-DOG 28 + OUT AT PASTURE 35 + A COUNTRY SCENE 41 + A SOUTH-DOWN RAM 47 + THE COTSWOLD 52 + A CHEVIOT EWE 54 + SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE + MUSCLES 57 + THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP 64 + THE HAPPY TRIO 81 + THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG OR COLLEY 100 + EWE AND LAMBS 117 + FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 129 + A COVERED SALTING-BOX 130 + A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK 147 + A HOLE-RACK 148 + THE HOPPER-RACK 150 + AN ECONOMICAL SHEEP-TROUGH 151 + SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS 152 + A SHED OF RAILS 155 + WASHING APPARATUS 162 + TOE-NIPPERS 166 + FLEECE 167 + SHEPHERD'S CROOK 176 + THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK 179 + DROVER'S OR BUTCHER'S DOG 185 + QUIET ENJOYMENT 195 + AN ENGLISH RACK FOR FEEDING SHEEP 203 + A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP FODDER 228 + THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP 236 + + SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. + + CONTENTS. + + HISTORY AND BREEDS 245 (7) + AMERICAN SWINE 254 (16) + The Byefield 256 (18) + The Bedford 256 (18) + The Leicester 257 (19) + The Yorkshire 257 (19) + The Chinese 258 (20) + The Suffolk 260 (22) + The Berkshire 261 (23) + NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG 263 (25) + Formation of the Teeth 265 (27) + + BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 267 (29) + BREEDING 267 (29) + Points of a Good Hog 274 (36) + Treatment during Pregnancy 276 (38) + Abortion 277 (39) + Parturition 279 (41) + Treatment while Suckling 282 (44) + Treatment of Young Pigs 283 (45) + Castration 284 (46) + Spaying 286 (48) + Weaning 287 (49) + Ringing 289 (51) + Feeding and Fattening 290 (52) + Piggeries 295 (57) + Slaughtering 298 (60) + Pickling and Curing 300 (62) + Value of the Carcass 304 (66) + + DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 307 (69) + Catching the Pig 308 (70) + Bleeding 309 (71) + Drenching 310 (72) + Catarrh 310 (72) + Cholera 311 (73) + Crackings 314 (76) + Diarrh[oe]a 314 (76) + Fever 315 (77) + Foul Skin 317 (79) + Inflammation of the Lungs 317 (79) + Jaundice 318 (80) + Leprosy 319 (81) + Lethargy 319 (81) + Mange 320 (82) + Measles 322 (84) + Murrain 323 (85) + Quinsy 323 (85) + Staggers 323 (85) + Swelling of the Spleen 323 (85) + Surfeit 325 (87) + Tumors 325 (87) + + ILLUSTRATIONS. + THE WILD BOAR 245 (7) + THE WILD BOAR AT BAY 252 (14) + THE CHINESE HOG 259 (21) + THE SUFFOLK 260 (22) + A BERKSHIRE BOAR 261 (23) + SKELETON OF THE HOG AS COVERED BY THE + MUSCLES 263 (25) + THE OLD COUNTRY WELL 267 (29) + WILD HOGS 279 (41) + THE OLD ENGLISH HOG 299 (61) + A WICKED-LOOKING SPECIMEN 307 (69) + HUNTING THE WILD BOAR 315 (77) + + POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. + + CONTENTS. + + HISTORY AND VARIETIES 327 (7) + THE DOMESTIC FOWL 327 (7) + The Bantam 330 (10) + The African Bantam 331 (11) + The Bolton Gray 333 (13) + The Blue Dun 334 (14) + The Chittagong 335 (15) + The Cochin China 336 (16) + The Cuckoo 339 (19) + The Dominique 340 (20) + The Dorking 340 (20) + The Fawn-colored Dorking 343 (23) + The Black Dorking 343 (23) + The Dunghill Fowl 344 (24) + The Frizzled Fowl 344 (24) + The Game Fowl 345 (25) + The Mexican Hen-Cock 347 (27) + The Wild Indian Game 348 (28) + The Spanish Game 348 (28) + The Guelderland 349 (29) + The Spangled Hamburgh 350 (30) + The Golden Spangled 350 (30) + The Silver Spangled 351 (31) + The Java 352 (32) + The Jersey-Blue 352 (32) + The Lark-Crested Fowl 352 (32) + The Malay 354 (34) + The Pheasant-Malay 356 (36) + The Plymouth Rock 357 (37) + The Poland 358 (38) + The Black Polish 360 (40) + The Golden Polands 361 (41) + The Silver Polands 363 (43) + The Black-topped White 364 (44) + The Shanghae 364 (44) + The White Shanghae 367 (47) + The Silver Pheasant 368 (48) + The Spanish 369 (49) + NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS 372 (52) + The Guinea Fowl 378 (58) + The Pea Fowl 381 (61) + The Turkey 386 (66) + The Wild Turkey 386 (66) + The Domestic Turkey 391 (71) + The Duck 394 (74) + The Wild Duck 396 (76) + The Domestic Duck 398 (78) + The Goose 402 (82) + The Wild Goose 402 (82) + The Domestic Goose 404 (84) + The Bernacle Goose 407 (87) + The Bremen Goose 409 (89) + The Brent Goose 410 (90) + The China Goose 411 (91) + The White China 413 (93) + The Egyptian Goose 414 (94) + The Java Goose 415 (95) + The Toulouse Goose 415 (95) + The White-fronted Goose 416 (96) + The Anatomy of the Egg 417 (97) + + BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 421 (101) + BREEDING 421 (101) + High Breeding 422 (102) + Selection of Stock 429 (109) + Feeding 432 (112) + Bran 435 (115) + Millet 436 (116) + Rice 436 (116) + Potatoes 436 (116) + Green Food 437 (117) + Earth-Worms 437 (117) + Animal Food 438 (118) + Insects 439 (119) + Laying 439 (119) + Preservation of Eggs 443 (123) + Choice of Eggs for Setting 446 (126) + Incubation 449 (129) + Incubation of Turkeys 453 (133) + Incubation of Geese 454 (134) + Rearing of the Young 455 (135) + Rearing of Guinea Fowls 458 (138) + Rearing of Turkeys 459 (139) + Rearing of Ducklings 461 (141) + Rearing of Goslings 463 (143) + Caponizing 464 (144) + Fattening and Slaughtering 468 (148) + Slaughtering and Dressing 472 (152) + Poultry-Houses 474 (154) + + DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 478 (158) + Asthma 479 (159) + Costiveness 480 (160) + Diarrh[oe]a 481 (161) + Fever 482 (162) + Indigestion 482 (162) + Lice 483 (163) + Loss of Feathers 485 (165) + Pip 485 (165) + Roup 488 (168) + Wounds and Sores 490 (170) + + ILLUSTRATIONS. + VARIETIES OF FOWL 327 (7) + THE BANTAM 331 (11) + BANTAM 332 (12) + BOLTON GRAYS OR CREOLE FOWL 333 (13) + COCHIN CHINAS 337 (17) + WHITE DORKINGS 341 (21) + GRAY GAME FOWLS 346 (26) + GUELDERLANDS 349 (29) + HAMBURGH FOWLS 350 (30) + MALAYS 354 (34) + POLAND FOWLS 359 (39) + SHANGHAES 365 (45) + WHITE SHANGHAES 367 (47) + SPANISH FOWLS 369 (49) + THE GUINEA FOWL 379 (59) + THE PEA FOWL 382 (62) + THE WILD TURKEY 386 (66) + THE DOMESTIC TURKEY 392 (72) + THE EIDER DUCK 395 (75) + WILD DUCK 397 (77) + ROUEN DUCK 399 (79) + WILD OR CANADA GOOSE 403 (83) + A BREMEN GOOSE 409 (89) + CHINA OR HONG KONG GOOSE 411 (91) + BARNYARD SCENE 421 (101) + FIGHTING COCKS 429 (109) + ON THE WATCH 440 (120) + MARQUEE OR TENT-SHAPED COOPS 456 (136) + DUCK-POND AND HOUSES 461 (141) + A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING 468 (148) + RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE 475 (155) + A FANCY COOP IN CHINESE OR GOTHIC STYLE 476 (156) + AMONG THE STRAW 478 (158) + PRAIRIE HENS 483 (163) + SWANS 488 (168) + + + + +[Illustration: A LEICESTER RAM.] + +HISTORY AND VARIETIES + + +With a single exception--that of the dog--there is no member of the +beast family which presents so great a diversity of size, color, form, +covering, and general appearance, as characterizes the sheep; and none +occupy a wider range of climate, or subsist on a greater variety of +food. This animal is found in every latitude between the Equator and the +Arctic circle, ranging over barren mountains and through fertile +valleys, feeding upon almost every species of edible forage--the +cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals, and roots--browsing on aromatic +and bitter herbs alike, cropping the leaves and barks from stunted +forest shrubs and the pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of +Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or +flesh during the long, rigorous winter, and, if reduced to necessity, +even devours his own wool. + +In size, he is diminutive or massive; he has many horns, or but two +large or small spiral horns, or is polled or hornless. His tail may be +broad, or long, or a mere button, discoverable only by the touch. His +covering is long and coarse, or short and hairy, or soft and furry, or +fine and spiral. His color varies from white or black to every shade of +brown, dun, buff, blue, and gray. This wide diversity results from long +domestication under almost every conceivable variety of condition. + +Among the antediluvians, sheep were used for sacrificial offerings, and +their fleeces, in all probability, furnished them with clothing. Since +the deluge their flesh has been a favorite food among many nations. Many +of the rude, wandering tribes of the East employ them as beasts of +burden. The uncivilized--and, to some extent, the refined--inhabitants +of Europe use their milk, not only as a beverage, but for making into +cheese, butter, and curds--an appropriation of it which is also noticed +by Job, Isaiah, and other Old Testament writers, as well as most of the +Greek and Roman authors. The ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance +from that of the cow, though it is generally thicker, and yields a pale, +yellowish butter, which is always soft and soon becomes rancid. In dairy +regions the animal is likewise frequently employed at the tread-mill or +horizontal wheel, to pump water, churn milk, or perform other light +domestic work. + +The calling of the shepherd has, from time immemorial, been conspicuous, +and not wanting in dignity and importance. Abel was a keeper of sheep; +as were Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient +patriarchs. Job possessed fourteen thousand sheep. Rachel, the favored +mother of the Jewish race, "came with her father's sheep, for she kept +them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian "came and drew water +for their father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, "learned +in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," busied himself in tending "the +flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law." David, too, that sweet singer of +Israel and its destined monarch--the Jewish hero, poet, and divine--was +a keeper of sheep. To shepherds, "abiding in the field, keeping watch +over their flocks by night," came the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. +The Hebrew term for sheep signifies, in its etymology, fruitfulness, +abundance, plenty--indicative of the blessings which they were destined +to confer upon the human family. In the Holy Scriptures, this animal is +the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues, the victim of +propitiatory sacrifices, and the type of redemption to fallen man. + +Among profane writers, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, +introduce them in their pastoral themes; while their heroes and +demi-gods--Hercules and Ulysses, Eneas and Numa--carefully perpetuate +them in their domains. + +In modern times, they have engaged the attention of the most enlightened +nations, whose prosperity has been intimately linked with them, wherever +wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain +and Portugal, during the two centuries in which they figured as the +most enterprising European countries, excelled in the production and +manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a time, took precedence of England in +the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life; and the latter +country then sent what little wool she raised to the former to be +manufactured. This being soon found highly impolitic, large bounties +were offered by England for the importation of artists and machinery; +and by a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to +the utmost protection and increase of wool and woollens, she gradually +carried their production beyond any thing the world had ever seen. + +Of the original breed of this invaluable animal, nothing certain is +known; four varieties having been deemed by naturalists entitled to that +distinction. + +These are, 1. The _Musimon_, inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, and other +islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts of Spain and Greece, +and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea. These have been +frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds. + +2. The _Argali_ ranges over the steppes, or inland plains of Central +Asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. They are larger and hardier +than the Musimon and not so easily tamed. + +3. The _Rocky Mountain Sheep_--frequently called the _Bighorn_ by our +western hunters--is found on the prairies west of the Mississippi, and +throughout the wild, mountainous regions extending through California +and Oregon to the Pacific. They are larger than the Argali--which in +other respects they resemble--and are probably descended from them, +since they could easily cross upon the ice at Behring's Straits, from +the north-eastern coast of Asia. Like the Argali, when caught young +they are readily tamed; but it is not known that they have ever been +bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country was overrun by the +white ram, they probably inhabited the region bordering on the +Mississippi. Father Hennepin--a French Jesuit, who wrote some two +hundred years ago--often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels +through the territory which is now embraced by Illinois, Wisconsin, and +a portion of Minnesota. The wild, clambering propensities of these +animals--occupying, as they do, the giddy heights far beyond the reach +of the traveller--and their outer coating of hair--supplied underneath, +however, with a thick coating of soft wool--give them much the +appearance of goats. In summer they are generally found single; but when +they descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they are +gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders. + +[Illustration: ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP.] + +4. The _Bearded Sheep of Africa_ inhabit the mountains of Barbary and +Egypt. They are covered with a soft, reddish hair, and have a mane +hanging below the neck, and large, locks of hair at the ankle. + +Many varieties of the domesticated sheep--that is, all the subjugated +species--apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each +other. + +The _fat-rumped_ and the _broad-tailed sheep_ are much more extensively +diffused than any other, and occupy nearly all the south-eastern part of +Europe, Western and Central Asia, and Northern Africa. They are +supposed, from various passages in the Pentateuch in which "the fat and +the rump" are spoken of in connection with offerings, to be the +varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants, +the Jewish race. They certainly give indisputable evidence of remote and +continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly +artificial posterior developments, are characteristic of no wild or +recently domesticated race. + +This breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in all their +characteristics of size, fleece, color, etc., with quite as many and +marked shades of distinction as the modern European varieties. In +Madagascar, they are covered with hair; in the south of Africa, with +coarse wool; in the Levant, and along the Mediterranean, the wool is +comparatively fine; and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the +exquisite Cashmere shawls of commerce are manufactured. Both rams and +ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they +exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of scarcely +thirty pounds, while others have weighed two hundred pounds dressed. The +tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of +breeding; some are less than one-eighth, while others exceed one-third +of the entire dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is esteemed a +great delicacy; in hot climates resembling oil, and in colder, suet. + +It is doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to Great Britain; but they +are mentioned as existing there at very early periods. + + +AMERICAN SHEEP. + +In North America, there are none, strictly speaking, except the Rocky +Mountain breed, already mentioned. The broad-tailed sheep of Asia and +Africa were brought into the United States about seventy years ago, +under the name of the Tunisian Mountain sheep, and bred with the native +flocks. Some of them were subsequently distributed among the farmers of +Pennsylvania, and their mixed descendants were highly prized as +prolific, and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attaining large +weight, of a superior quality of carcass, and yielding a heavy fleece of +excellent wool. The principal objection made to them was the difficulty +of propagation, which always required the assistance of the shepherd. +The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black; but all, +excepting the black, grew white as they approached maturity, retaining +some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes +having the entire head tawny or black. The few which descended from the +original importations have become blended with American flocks, and have +long ceased to be distinguishable from them. The common sheep of Holland +were early imported by the Dutch emigrants, who originally colonized New +York; but they, in like manner, have long since ceased to exist as a +distinct variety. + +Improved European breeds have been so largely introduced during the +present century, that the United States at present possesses every known +breed which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. By the +census of 1860, there were nearly twenty-three and a half millions of +sheep in this country, yielding upwards of sixty and a half million +pounds of wool. An almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place +between the Spanish, English, and "native" families; carried, indeed, to +such an extent that there are, comparatively speaking, few flocks in the +United States that preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of +any one breed, or that can lay claim to unmixed purity of blood. + +The principal breeds in the United States are the so-called "Natives;" +the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from the countries whose names +they bear: the New Leicester, or Bakewell; the South-Down; the Cotswold; +the Cheviot; and the Lincoln--all from England. + + +NATIVE SHEEP. + +This name is popularly applied to the common coarse-woolled sheep of the +country, which existed here previously to the importation of the +improved breeds. These were of foreign and mostly of English origin, and +could probably claim a common descent from no one stock. The early +settlers, emigrating from different sections of the British Empire, and +a portion of them from other parts of Europe, brought with them, in all +probability, each the favorite breed of his own immediate neighborhood, +and the admixture of these formed the mongrel family now under +consideration. Amid the perils of war and the incursions of beasts of +prey, they were carefully preserved. As early as 1676, New England was +spoken of as "abounding with sheep." + +These common sheep yielded a wool suitable only for the coarsest +fabrics, averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from three to three +and a half pounds of wool to the fleece. They were slow in arriving at +maturity, compared with the improved English breeds, and yielded, when +fully grown, from ten to fourteen pounds of a middling quality of mutton +to the quarter. They were usually long-legged, light in the +fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back; although some rare +instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, and some +approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. They were +excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely destitute of care, +and without shelter, one hundred per cent. of lambs; and in small +flocks, a still larger proportion. These, too, were usually dropped in +March, or the earlier part of April. Restless in their disposition, +their impatience of restraint almost equalled that of the untamed +Argali, from which they were descended; and in many sections of the +country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with +little regard to enclosures, over the possessions of their owner and his +neighbors, leaving a large portion of their wool adhering to bushes and +thorns, and the remainder placed nearly beyond the possibility of +carding, by the tory-weed and burdock, so common on new lands. + +To this general character of the native flocks, there was but one +exception--a considerably numerous and probably accidental variety, +known as the _Otter breed_, or _Creepers_. These were excessively +duck-legged, with well-formed bodies, full chests, broad backs, yielding +a close, heavy fleece, of medium quality of wool. They were deserved +favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed, since their +power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if +protected by a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their +mutton equalled, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior +to, their longer-legged contemporaries. The race is now quite extinct. + +An excellent variety, called the Arlington sheep, was produced by +General Washington, from a cross of a Persian ram upon the Bakewell, +which bore wool fourteen inches in length, soft, silky, and admirably +suited to combing. These, likewise, have long since become incorporated +with the other flocks of the country. + +The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly or +quite disappeared, owing to universal crossing, to a greater or less +extent, with the foreign breeds of later introduction. The first and +second cross with the Merino resulted in a decided improvement, and +produced a variety exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool +solely for domestic purposes. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being +hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc.; but the general quality is much +improved, the quantity is considerably augmented, the carcass is more +compact and nearer the ground, and they have lost their unquiet and +roving propensities. The cross with the Saxon, for reasons hereafter to +be given, has not generally been so successful. With the Leicester and +Downs, the improvement, so far as form size, and a propensity to take on +fat are concerned, is manifest. + + +THE SPANISH MERINO. + +[Illustration: A MERINO RAM.] + +The Spanish sheep, in different countries, has, either directly or +indirectly, effected a complete revolution in the character of the +fleece. The race is unquestionably one of the most ancient extant. The +early writers on agriculture and the veterinary art describe various +breeds of sheep as existing in Spain, of different colors--black, red, +and tawny. The black sheep yielded a fine fleece, the finest of that +color which was then known; but the red fleece of Bætica--a considerable +part of the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, comprising the modern +Spanish provinces of Gaen, Cordova, Seville, Andalusia, and Granada, +which was early colonized by the enterprising Greeks--was, according to +Pliny, of still superior quality, and "had no fellow." + +These sheep were probably imported from Italy, and of the Tarentine +breed, which had gradually spread from the coast of Syria, and of the +Black Sea, and had then reached the western extremity of Europe. Many of +them mingled with and improved the native breeds of Spain, while others +continued to exist as a distinct race, and, meeting with a climate and +an herbage suited to them, retained their original character and value, +and were the progenitors of the Merinos of the present day. Columella, a +colonist from Italy, and uncle of the writer of an excellent work on +agriculture, introduced more of the Tarentine sheep into Bætica, where +he resided in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, in the year 41, and +otherwise improved on the native breed; for, struck with the beauty of +some African rams which had been brought to Rome to be exhibited at the +public games, he purchased them, and conveyed them to his farm in Spain, +whence, probably, originated the better varieties of the long-woolled +breeds of that country. + +Before his time, however, Spain possessed a valuable breed; since +Strabo, who flourished under Tiberius, speaking of the beautiful woollen +cloths that were worn by the Romans, says that the wool was brought from +Truditania, in Spain. + +The limited region of Italy--overrun, as it repeatedly was, by hordes of +barbarians during and after the times of the latest emperors--soon lost +her pampered flocks; while the extended regions of Spain--intersected in +every direction by almost impassable mountains--could maintain their +more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change. + +To what extent the improvements which have been noticed were carried is +unknown; but as Spain was at that time highly civilized, and as +agriculture was the favorite pursuit of the greater part of the +colonists that spread over the vast territory, which then acknowledged +the Roman power, it is highly probable that Columella's experiments laid +the foundation for a general improvement in the Spanish sheep--an +improvement, moreover, which was not lost, nor even materially impaired, +during the darker ages that succeeded. + +The Merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent surpassed by no +others. They have been improved in the general weight and evenness of +their fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet; in the +uniformity and excessive fineness of the fibre, as in the Saxons; and in +their form and feeding qualities, in various countries; but there has +never yet been deterioration, either in quantity or quality of fleece or +carcass, wherever they have been transported, if supplied with suitable +food and attention. Most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped; +while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for five years, when +allowed to remain unshorn. + +Conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding among +themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs +beneath the skin have become permanently established; and this property +is transmitted to a great extent, even among the crosses, thus marking +the Merino as an ancient and peculiar race. + +The remains of the ancient varieties of color, also, as noticed by +Pliny, Solinus, and Columella, may still be discovered in the modern +Merino. The plain and indeed the only reason that can be assigned for +the union of black and gray faces with white bodies, in the same breed, +is the frequent intermixture of black and white sheep, until the white +prevails in the fleece, and the black is confined to the face and legs. +It is still apt to break out occasionally in the individual, unless it +is fixed and concentrated in the face and legs, by repeated crosses and +a careful selection; and, on the contrary, in the Merino South-Down the +black may be reduced by a few crosses to small spots about the legs, +while the Merino hue overspreads the countenance. This hue--variously +described as a velvet, a buff, a fawn, or a satin-colored countenance, +but in which a red tinge not infrequently predominates, still indicates +the original colors of the indigenous breeds of Spain; and the black +wool, for which Spain was formerly so much distinguished, is still +inclined to break out occasionally in the legs and ears of the Merino. +In some flocks half the ear is invariably brown, and a coarse black hair +is often discernible in the finest pile. + +[Illustration: A SPANISH SHEEP DOG.] + +The conquest, in the eighth century, by the Moors of those fine +provinces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served rather to +encourage the production of fine wool. The conquerors were not only +enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, and carried on +extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, which they exported to +different countries. The luxury of the Moorish sovereigns has been the +theme of many writers; and in the thirteenth century, when the woollen +manufacture flourished in but few places, there were found in Seville no +less than sixteen thousand looms. A century later, Barcelona, Perpignan, +and Tortosa were celebrated for the fineness of their cloths, which +became staple articles of trade throughout the greater part of Europe, +as well as on the coast of Africa. + +After the expulsion of the Moors, in the fifteenth century, by +Ferdinand and Isabella, the woollen manufacture languished, and was, in +a great degree, lost to Spain, owing to the rigorous banishment of +nearly one million industrious Moors, most of whom were weavers. As a +consequence, the sixteen thousand looms of Seville dwindled down to +sixty. The Spanish government perceived its fatal mistake too late, and +subsequent efforts to gain its lost vantage-ground in respect to this +manufacture proved fruitless. During all that time, however, the Spanish +sheep appear to have withstood the baneful influence of almost total +neglect; and although the Merino flocks and Merino wool have improved +under the more careful management of other countries, the world is +originally indebted to Spain for the most valuable material in the +manufacture of cloth. + +The perpetuation of the Merino sheep in all its purity, amid the +convulsions which changed the entire political framework of Spain and +destroyed every other national improvement, strikingly illustrates the +primary determining power of blood or breeding, as well as the agency of +soil and climate--possibly too much underrated in modern times. + +These Spanish sheep are divided into two classes: the _stationary_, or +those that remain during the whole of the year on a certain farm, or in +a certain district, there being a sufficient provision for them in +winter and in summer; and the _migratory_, or those which wander some +hundreds of miles twice in the year, in quest of pasturage. The +principal breed of stationary sheep consists of true Merinos; but the +breeds most sought for, and with which so many countries have been +enriched, are the Merinos of the migratory description, which pass the +summer in the mountains of the north, and the winter on the plains +toward the south of Spain. + +The first impression made by the Merino sheep on one unacquainted with +its value would be unfavorable. The wool lying closer and thicker over +the body than in most other breeds, and being abundant in yolk--or a +peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, which nourishes the wool +and causes it to mat closely together--is covered with a dirty crust, +often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet small in the bone; the +breast and the back are narrow, and the sides somewhat flat; the +fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is +carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively +large, curved, and with more or less of a spiral form; the head is +large, but the forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned; +but, generally speaking, they are without horns. Both male and female +have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and +cheeks, which the careful shepherd cuts away before the shearing-time; +the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet +appearance. Under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin, +which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness +in the neck. The pile or hair, when pressed upon, is hard and +unyielding, owing to the thickness into which it grows on the pelf, and +the abundance of the yolk, retaining all the dirt and gravel which falls +upon it; but, upon examination, the fibre exceeds, in fineness and in +the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the +world produces. The average weight of the fleece in Spain is eight +pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. The staple differs in length +in different provinces. When fatted, these sheep will weigh from twelve +to sixteen pounds per quarter. + +The excellence of the Merinos consist in the unexampled fineness and +felting property of their wool, and in the weight of it yielded by each +individual sheep; the closeness of that wool, and the luxuriance of the +yolk, which enable them to support extremes of cold and wet quite as +well as any other breed; the readiness with which they adapt themselves +to every change of climate, retaining, with common care, all their +fineness of wool, and thriving under a burning tropical sun, and in the +frozen regions of the north; an appetite which renders them apparently +satisfied with the coarsest food; a quietness and patience into whatever +pasture they are turned; and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled +in any other breed. + +Their defects--partly attributable to the breed, but more to +the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally +subjected--are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form; a tendency to +abortion, or barrenness; a difficulty of yeaning, or giving birth to +their young; a paucity of milk; and a too frequent neglect of their +lambs. They are likewise said, notwithstanding the fineness of their +wool, and the beautiful red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, +to be more subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds. Man, +however, is far more responsible for this than Nature. Every thing was +sacrificed in Spain to fineness and quantity of wool. These were +supposed to be connected with equality of temperature, or, at least, +with freedom from exposure to cold; and, therefore, twice in the year, a +journey of four hundred miles was undertaken, at the rate of eighty or a +hundred miles per week--the spring journey commencing when the lambs +were scarcely four months old. It is difficult to say in what way the +wool of the migratory sheep was, or could be, benefited by these +periodical journeys. Although among them is found the finest and most +valuable wool in Spain, yet the stationary sheep, in certain +provinces--Segovia, Leon, and Estremadura--are more valuable than the +migratory flocks of others. Moreover, the fleece of some of the German +Merinos--which do not travel at all, and are housed all the +winter--greatly exceeds that obtained from the best migratory breed--the +Leonese--in fineness and felting property; and the wool of the migratory +sheep has been, comparatively speaking, driven out of the market by that +from sheep which never travel. With respect to the carcass, these +harassing journeys, occupying one-quarter of the year, tend to destroy +all possibility of fattening, or any tendency toward it, and the form +and the constitution of the flock are deteriorated, and the lives of +many sacrificed. + +The first importation of Merinos into the United States took place in +1801; a banker of Paris, Mr. Delessert, having shipped four, of which +but one arrived in safety at his farm near Kingston, in New York; the +others perished on the passage. The same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of +Massachusetts, imported a pair from France. In 1802, Chancellor +Livingston, then American Minister at the court of Versailles, sent two +choice pairs from the Rambouillet flock--which was started, in 1786, by +placing four hundred ewes and rams, selected from the choicest Spanish +flocks, on the royal farm of that name, in France--to Claremont, his +country-seat, on the Hudson river. In the latter part of the same year, +Colonel Humphreys, American Minister to Spain, shipped two hundred, on +his departure from that country. The largest importations, however, were +made through Hon. William Jarvis, of Vermont, then American Consul at +Lisbon, Portugal, in 1809, 1810, and 1811, who succeeded in obtaining +the choicest sheep of that country. Various subsequent importations took +place, which need not be particularized. + +The cessation of all commercial intercourse with England, in 1808 and +1809, growing out of difficulties with that country, directed attention, +in an especial manner, toward manufacturing and wool-growing. The +Merino, consequently, rose into importance, and so great was the +interest aroused, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a +head was paid for them. Some of the later importations, unfortunately, +arrived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the +sheep family, the scab and the foot-rot; which evils, together with +increased supply, soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part +of their former price. When, however, it was established, by actual +experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate in this country, as had +been feared by many, and that they became readily acclimated, they again +rose into favor. The prostration of the manufacturing interests of the +country, which ensued soon afterwards, rendered the Merino of +comparatively little value, and ruined many who had purchased them at +their previous high prices. Since that period, the valuation of the +sheep which bear the particular wool has, as a matter of course, kept +pace with the fluctuations in the price of the wool. + +The term Merino, it must be remembered, is but the general appellation +of a breed, comprising several varieties, presenting essential points of +difference in size, form, quality and quantity of wool. These families +have generally been merged, by interbreeding, in the United States and +other countries which have received the race from Spain. Purity of +_Merino_ blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its +ancestors, form the only standard in selecting sheep of this breed. +Families have, indeed, sprung up in this country, exhibiting wider +points of difference than did those of Spain. This is owing, in some +cases, doubtless, to particular causes of breeding; but more often, +probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. The +question, which has been at times raised, whether there are any Merinos +in the United States, descendants of the early importations, of +unquestionable purity of blood, has been conclusively settled in the +affirmative. + +The minor distinctions among the various families into which, as has +already been intimated, the American Merino has diverged, are numerous, +but may all, perhaps, be classed under three general heads. + +The _first_ is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, +carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine, free from hair in +properly bred flocks; somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much +so as the Rambouillets; bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some +flocks, but not commonly so; their wool rather long on back and belly, +and exceedingly dense; wool whiter within than the Rambouillets; skin +the same rich rose-color. Sheep of this class are larger and stronger +than those originally imported, carry much heavier fleeces, and in +well-selected flocks, or individuals, the fleece is of a decidedly +better quality. + +The _second_ class embraces smaller animals than the preceding; less +hardy; wool, as a general thing, finer, and covered with a black, pitchy +gum on its extremities; fleece about one-fourth lighter than in the +former class. + +The _third_ class, bred at the South, mostly, includes animals still +smaller and less hardy, and carrying still finer and lighter fleeces. +The fleece is destitute of external gum. The sheep and wool have a close +resemblance to the Saxon; and, if not actually mixed with that blood, +they have been formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of +breeding. + +[Illustration: OUT AT PASTURE.] + +The mutton of the Merino, notwithstanding the prejudices existing on the +subject, is short-grained, and of good flavor, when killed at a proper +age, and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to the quarter. It is +remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth, and continuing to +breed two or three years longer than the common sheep, and at least half +a dozen years longer than the improved English breeds. It should, +however, be remarked, in this connection, that it is correspondingly +slow in arriving at maturity, as it does not attain its full growth +before three years of age; and the ewes, in the best managed flocks, are +rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age. + +The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-woolled sheep, +and its lambs, when newly dropped, are claimed to be hardier than the +Bakewell, and equally so with the high-bred South-Down. The ewe, as has +been intimated, is not so good a nurse, and will not usually do full +justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent. is about the +ordinary number of lambs reared, though it often reaches one hundred per +cent., in carefully managed or small flocks. + +Allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between the Merino and +the native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the +Merinos, they were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the +cross was continued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out. When +the admixture took place with judiciously selected Saxons, the results +were not unfavorable for certain purposes. These instances of judicious +crossing were, unfortunately, rare. Fineness of wool was made the only +tests of excellence, no matter how scanty its quantity, or how +diminutive or miserable the carcass. The consequence was, as might be +supposed, the ruin of most of the Merino flocks. + + +THE SAXON MERINO. + +The indigenous breed of sheep in Saxony resembled that of the +neighboring states, and consisted of two distinct Varieties--one bearing +a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece applicable only to +the coarsest manufactures. + +At the close of the seven years war, Augustus Frederic, the Elector of +Saxony, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes from the most +improved Spanish flocks, and placed a part of them on one of his own +farms, in the neighborhood of Dresden, which he kept unmixed, as he +desired to ascertain how far the pure Spanish breed could be naturalized +in that country The other part of the flock was distributed on other +farms, and devoted to the improvement of the Saxon sheep. + +It was soon sufficiently apparent that the Merinos did not degenerate in +Saxony. Many parcels of their wool were not inferior to the choicest +Leonese fleeces. The best breed of the native Saxons was also materially +improved: The majority of the shepherds were, however, obstinately +prejudiced against the innovation; but the elector, resolutely bent upon +accomplishing his object, imported an additional number, and compelled +the crown-tenants, then occupying lands under him, to purchase a certain +number of the sheep. + +Compulsion was not long necessary; the true interest of the shepherds +was discovered; pure Merinos rapidly increased in Saxony, and became +perfectly naturalized. Indeed, after a considerable lapse of years, the +fleece of the Saxon sheep began, not only to equal the Spanish, but to +exceed it in fineness and manufacturing value. To this result the +government very materially contributed, by the establishment of an +agricultural school, and other minor schools for shepherds, and by +distributing various publications, which plainly and intelligibly showed +the value and proper management of the Merino. The breeders were +selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece. +Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year, and they +were housed on every slight emergency. By this course of breeding and +treatment the size and weight of the fleece were reduced, and that +hardiness and vigor of constitution, which had universally +characterized the migratory Spanish breed, were partially impaired. In +numerous instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the +character of the flocks. + +The first importation of Saxons into this country was made in 1823, by +Samuel Heustan, a merchant of Boston, Massachusetts, and consisted of +four good rams, of which two went to Boston, and the others to +Philadelphia. The following year, seventy-seven--about two-thirds of +which number only were pure-blooded--were brought to Boston, sold at +public auction at Brooklyn, N.Y., as "pure-blooded electoral Saxons," +and thus scattered over the country. Another lot, composed of grade +sheep and pure-bloods, was disposed of, not long afterwards, by public +sale, at Brighton, near Boston, and brought increased prices, some of +them realizing from four hundred to five hundred and fifty dollars. + +These prices gave rise to speculation, and many animals, of a decidedly +inferior grade, were imported, which were thrown upon the market for the +most they could command. The sales in many instances not half covering +the cost of importation, the speculation was soon abandoned. In 1827, +Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, N.Y., a native of Germany, and a highly +intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd, who had accompanied some of +the early importations, imported one hundred and fifteen choice animals +for his own breeding, and, in the following year, eighty more. These +formed the flock from which Mr. Grove bred, to the time of his decease, +in 1844. The average weight of fleece from his entire flock, nearly all +of which were ewes and lambs, was ten pounds and fourteen ounces, +thoroughly washed on the sheep's back. This was realized after a short +summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its equivalent +fed to the sheep did not exceed one and a half pounds, by actual weight, +per day, except to the ewes, which received an additional quantity just +before and after lambing. This treatment was attended with no disease or +loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, equalling one for every +ewe. + +The Saxon Merino differs materially in frame from the Spanish; there is +more roundness of carcass and fineness of bone, together with a general +form and appearance indicative of a disposition to fatten. Two distinct +breeds are noticed. One variety has stouter legs, stouter bodies, head +and neck comparatively short and broad, and body round; the wool grows +most on the face and legs; the grease in the wool is almost pitchy. The +other breed, called Escurial, has longer legs, with a long, spare neck +and head; very little wool on the latter; and a finer, shorter, and +softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity. + +From what has just been stated it will be seen that there are few Saxon +flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality of +grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure +which were imported together; all of them being sold to our breeders as +pure stock. Besides, there are very few flocks which have not been again +crossed with the Native or the Merino sheep of our country, or with +both. Those who early purchased the Merino crossed them with the Native; +and when the Saxons arrived those mongrels were bred to Saxon rams. This +is the history of three-quarters, probably, of the Saxon flocks of the +United States. + +As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the Saxon that their +wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it may well be questioned whether +they are any worse for the admixture; when crossed only with the Merino, +it is, undoubtedly, to their advantage. The American Saxon, with these +early crosses in its pedigree, is, by general admission, a hardier and +more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. +Climate, feed, and other causes have, doubtless, conspired, as in the +case of the Merino, to add to their size and vigor; but, after every +necessary allowance has been made, they generally owe these qualities to +those early crosses. + +The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from two or +two and a quarter to three pounds. They are, comparatively speaking, a +tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in +winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds; but +they are evidently hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and +patience under confinement, in late maturity and longevity, they +resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended; though they do not +mature so early as the Merino, nor do they ordinarily live so long. They +are poorer nurses; their lambs are smaller, fatter, and far more likely +to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched; they do not fatten so +well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food +considerably less. + +Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the +American Merinos; though this is not always the case, and many breeders +of Saxons cross with the Merino, for the purpose of increasing the +weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality. Our Saxon +wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of Germany; though +individual specimens from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio compare well +with the highest German grades. This inferiority is not attributable to +climate or other natural causes, or to a want of skill on the part of +our breeders; but to the fact that but a very few of our manufacturers +have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would +render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which +produce this exquisite quality of wool. + + +THE NEW LEICESTER. + +The unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy, coarse-woolled breed of +sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It was a slow feeder, +its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor. The breeders of that +period regarded only size and weight of fleece. + +[Illustration: A COUNTRY SCENE.] + +About the middle of the last century, Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, in +Leicestershire, first applied himself to the improvement of the sheep in +that country. Before his improvements, aptitude to fatten and symmetry +of shape--that is, such shape as should increase as much as possible the +most valuable parts of the animal, and diminish the offal in the same +proportion--were entirely disregarded. Perceiving that smaller animals +increased in weight more rapidly than the very large ones, that they +consumed less food, that the same quantity of herbage, applied to +feeding a large number of small sheep, would produce more meat than when +applied to feeding the smaller number of large sheep, which alone it +would support, and that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool possessed +less propensity to fatten than those which carried one of a more +moderate weight, he selected from the different flocks in his +neighborhood, without regard to size, the sheep which appeared to him to +have the greatest propensity to fatten, and whose shape possessed the +peculiarities which, in his judgment, would produce the largest +proportion of valuable meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and +offal. + +He was also of opinion that the first object to be attended to in +breeding sheep is the value of the carcass, and that the fleece ought +always to be a secondary consideration; and this for the obvious reason +that, while the addition of two or three pounds of wool to the weight of +a sheep's fleece is a difference of great amount, yet if this increase +is obtained at the expense of the animal's propensity to fatten, the +farmer may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton. + +The sort of sheep, therefore, which he selected were those possessed of +the most perfect symmetry, with the greatest aptitude to fatten, and +rather smaller in size than the sheep generally bred at that time. +Having formed his stock from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to +the peculiarities of the individuals from which he bred, and, so far as +can be ascertained--for all of Mr. Bakewell's measures were kept +secret, even from his most intimate friends, and he died without +throwing, voluntarily, the least light on the subject--did not object to +breeding from near relations, when, by so doing, he brought together +animals likely to produce a progeny possessing the characteristics which +he wished to obtain. + +Having thus established his flock, he adopted the practice--which has +since been constantly followed by the most eminent breeders of sheep--of +letting rams for the season, instead of selling them to those who wished +for their use. By this means the ram-breeder is enabled to keep a much +larger number of rams in his possession; and, consequently, his power of +selecting those most suitable to his flock, or which may be required to +correct any faults in shape or quality which may occur in it, is greatly +increased. By cautiously using a ram for one season, or by observing the +produce of a ram let to some other breeder, he can ascertain the +probable qualities of the lambs which such ram will get, and thus avoid +the danger of making mistakes which would deteriorate the value of his +stock. The farmers, likewise, who hire the rams, have an opportunity of +varying the rams from which they breed much more than they otherwise +could do; and they are also enabled to select from sheep of the best +quality, and from those best calculated to effect the greatest +improvement in their flocks. + +The idea, when first introduced by him, was so novel that he had great +difficulty in inducing the farmers to act upon it; and his first ram was +let for sixteen shillings. So eminent, however, was his success, that, +in 1787, he let three rams, for a single season, for twelve hundred and +fifty pounds (about six thousand two hundred dollars), and was offered +ten hundred and fifty pounds (about five thousand two hundred dollars) +for twenty ewes. Soon afterwards he received the enormous price of eight +hundred guineas (or four thousand dollars) for two-thirds of the +services of a ram for a single season, reserving the other third for +himself. + +The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the +original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser +varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, etc. Where there is a sufficiency of +feed, the New Leicester is unrivalled for its fattening propensities; +but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel +far in search of its food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a +lowland sheep. In its appropriate situation--on the luxuriant herbage of +the highly cultivated lands of England--it possesses unequalled +earliness of maturity; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good +quality, but is usually coarse, and comparatively deficient in flavor, +owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, +and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. The +wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the +succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty to +thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is +long, averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches; and the +fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse +quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloth, on account of its +length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater +or less extent, to all English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it +stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, and +the like textures. + +The high-bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell's stock became shy breeders +and poor nurses; but crosses subsequently adopted have, to some extent, +obviated these defects. The lambs are not, however, generally regarded +as very hardy, and they require considerable attention at the time of +yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moderately cold or stormy. +The grown sheep, too, are much affected by sudden changes in the +weather; an abrupt change to cold being pretty certain to be registered +on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or "snuffles." + +In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the +meat of this variety is in very great demand; and the consequent return +which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make +renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are recorded +of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these animals. +They have spread into all parts of the British dominions, and been +imported into the other countries of Europe and into the United States. + +They were first introduced into our own country, some forty years since, +by Christopher Dunn, of Albany, N.Y. Subsequent importations have been +made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen. The +breed, however, has never proved a favorite with any large class of +American farmers. Our long, cold winters--but, more especially, our dry, +scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, +tender feed in which the Leicester delights--together with the general +deprivation of green feed in the winter, rob it of its early maturity, +and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is +too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed to suit +American taste. Its wool is not very salable, owing to the dearth of +worsted manufactures in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool +constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so +difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, +notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the +vicinity of considerable markets, it will always in all probability make +a profitable return. + +The head of the New Leicester should be hornless, long, small, tapering +towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forward; the eyes +prominent, but with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long, and +directed backward; the neck full and broad at its base, where it +proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible +deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll; the +breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven +or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the +back--particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the +situation of these bones; the arm fleshy throughout its whole extent, +and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small, standing wide +apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively void of wool; +the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs forming a +considerable arch from the spine, so as, in some cases--and especially +when the animal is in good condition--to make the apparent width of the +chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed well home; no +irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the carcass +very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump; the quarters long +and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the muscles extending down to the +hock; the thighs also wide and full; the legs of a moderate length; and +the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a +good quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but +considerably finer. + + +THE SOUTH-DOWN. + +[Illustration: A SOUTH-DOWN RAM.] + +A long range of chalky hills, diverging from the chalky stratum which +intersects England from Norfolk to Dorchester, is termed the +South-Downs. They enter the county of Sussex on the west side, and are +continued almost in a direct line, as far as East Bourne, where they +reach the sea. They may be regarded as occupying a space of more than +sixty miles in length, and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a +succession of open downs, with few enclosures, and distinguished by +their situation and name from a more northern tract of similar elevation +and soil, passing through Surrey and Kent, and terminating in the cliffs +of Dover, and of the Forelands. On these downs a certain breed of sheep +has been produced for many centuries, in greater perfection than +elsewhere; and hence have sprung those successive colonies which have +found their way abroad and materially benefited the breed of +short-woolled sheep wherever they have gone. + +It is only, however, within a comparatively recent period that they have +been brought to their present perfection. As recently as 1776 they were +small in size, and of a form not superior to the common woolled sheep of +the United States; they were far from possessing a good shape, being +long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on +the loins, down on the rump, the tail set on very low, perpendicular +from the hip-bones, sharp on the back; the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow +in the fore-quarters, but good in the leg, although having big bones. +Since that period a course of judicious breeding, pursued by Mr. John +Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex, has mainly contributed to raise this +variety to its present value; and that, too, without the admixture of +the slightest degree of foreign blood. + +This pure, improved family, it will be borne in mind, is spoken of in +the present connection; inasmuch as the original stock, presenting, with +trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited +seventy-five years ago, are yet to be found in England; and the +intermediate space between these two classes is occupied by a variety of +grades, rising or falling in value, as they approximate to or recede +from the improved blood. + +The South-Down sheep are polled, but it is probable that the original +breed was horned, as it is not unusual to find among the male South-Down +lambs some with small horns. The dusky, or at times, black hue of the +head and legs fully establishes the original color of the sheep, and, +perhaps of all sheep; while the later period at which it was seriously +attempted to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful, only +confirms this view. Many of the lambs have been dropped entirely black. + +It is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool--which in point of +length belongs to the middle class, and differs essentially from Merino +wool of any grade, though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces maybe +of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood Merino--is +deficient in felting properties, making a fuzzy, hairy cloth, and is no +longer used in England, unless largely mixed with foreign wool, even for +the lowest class of cloths. As it has deteriorated, however, it has +increased in length of staple, in that country, to such an extent that +improved machinery enables it to be used as a combing-wool, for the +manufacture of worsteds. Where this has taken place it is quite as +profitable as when it was finer and shorter. In the United States, where +the demand for combing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a +better article, the same result would not probably follow. Indeed, it +may well be doubted whether the proper combing length will be easily +reached, or at least maintained in this country, in the absence of that +high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased +length in England. The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is +three pounds; on rich lowlands, a little more. + +The South-Down, however, is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, +which for quality takes precedence of all other--from sheep of good +size--in the English markets. Its early maturity and extreme aptitude to +lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. It is +turned off at the age of two years, and its weight at that age is, in +England, from eighty to one hundred pounds. High-fed wethers have +reached from thirty-two to even forty pounds a quarter. Notwithstanding +its weight, it has a patience of occasional short keep, and an +endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives it a +decided advantage over the bulkier Leicesters and Lincolns, as a mutton +sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage. +It is hardy and healthy, though, in common with the other English +varieties, much subject to catarrh, and no sheep better withstands our +American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and good nurses. + +The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and, though an industrious +feeder, exhibits but little disposition to rove. Like the Leicester, it +is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to +decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with +short and middle-woolled breeds than the Leicester. A sheep possessing +such qualities, must, of necessity, be valuable in upland districts in +the vicinity of markets. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellman three +hundred guineas (fifteen hundred dollars) for two rams; and, in 1800, a +ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford was let for one season at eighty +guineas (four hundred dollars), two others at forty guineas (two hundred +dollars) each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas (one hundred and +forty dollars) each. The first importation into the United States was +made by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia. A subsequent importation, in +1834, cost sixty dollars a head. + +The desirable characteristics of the South-Down may be thus summed up: +The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray, and neither too +long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and +the eyes narrow; the under-jaw or chap fine and thin; the ears tolerably +wide and well-covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole +space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the +fly; the eye full and bright, but not prominent; the orbits of the eye, +the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal +obstacle in lambing; the neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, +but enlarging toward the shoulders, where it should be broad and high +and straight in its whole course above and below. + +The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the +fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a disposition to thrive; +corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the +back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from the top to +the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it; +the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far +backward, and the last rib projecting more than others; the back flat +from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and +flat; the rump broad, and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level +with the spine. + +The hips should be wide; the space between them and the last rib on each +side as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular +form like a barrel; the belly as straight as the back; the legs neither +too long nor too short; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the +foot, not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart, both +before and behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and they +twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full; the +bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or +dark color; the belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down +before and behind to the knee and to the hock; the wool short, close, +curled and fine, and free from spiny projecting fibres. + + +THE COTSWOLD. + +[Illustration: THE COTSWOLD.] + +The Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, +coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter, and +shearing a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were formerly bred +only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the Severn and the +Thames; but with the enclosures of the Cotswold hills, and the +improvement of their cultivation, they have been reared and fatted in +the same district. They were hardy, prolific breeders, and capital +nurses; deficient in early maturity, and not possessing feeding +properties equalling those of the South-Down or New Leicester. + +They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep--producing +thus the modern or improved Cotswold--by which their size and fleece +have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses have been materially +improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are sometimes +fattened at fourteen months old, when they weigh from fifteen to +twenty-four pounds to a quarter; and at two years old, increase to +twenty or thirty pounds. + +The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, six +to eight inches in length, and from seven to eight pounds per fleece. +The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and +their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature +of the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many +places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late +years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under +which management still farther improvement has been made. They have also +been used in crossing other breeds, and have been mixed with the +Hampshire Downs. Indeed, the improved Cotswold, under the name of new, +or improved Oxfordshire sheep, have frequently been the successful +candidates for prizes offered for the best long-woolled sheep at some of +the principal agricultural meetings or shows in England. The quality of +their mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester; the tallow +being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh. + +The degree to which the cross between the Cotswold and Leicester may be +carried, must depend upon the nature of the old stock, and on the +situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat +scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. On a more +sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater +use may be made of the Leicester. Another circumstance that should guide +the farmer is the object which he has principally in view. If he expects +to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the +primitive Cotswolds; if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will +use the Leicester ram more freely. + +Sheep of this breed, now of established reputation, have been imported +into the United States by Messrs. Corning and Gotham, of Albany, and +bred by the latter. + + +THE CHEVIOT. + +[Illustration: A CHEVIOT EWE.] + +On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot hills, in the extreme north of +England, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in +resisting cold, and for feeding on coarse, heathery herbage. A cross +with the Leicester, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the +improved variety. + +The Cheviot readily amalgamates with the Leicester--the rams employed in +the system of breeding, which has been extensively introduced for +producing the first cross of this descent, being of the pure Leicester +breed--and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tendency +to fatten, to the native Cheviot. The benefit, however, may be said to +end with the first cross; and the progeny of this mixed descent is +greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form and fattening +properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. + +The improved Cheviot has greatly extended itself throughout the +mountains of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the black-faced +breed; but the change, though often advantageous, has in some cases been +otherwise--the latter being somewhat hardier, and more capable of +subsisting on heathy pasturage. They are a hardy race, however, well +suited for their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, +the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. The purest +specimens are to be found on the Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and +on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and +the sources of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, +provided the pasture resembles those hills, in containing a good +proportion of rich herbage. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep +of Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making +more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making it more quickly. + +They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, and are +without horns; the ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is +much space between the ears and eyes; the carcass is long; the back +straight; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular; and the +quarters good. The legs are small in the bone, and covered with wool, as +well as the body, with the exception of the face. The wether is fit for +the butcher at three years old, and averages from twelve to eighteen +pounds a quarter; the mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to +the South-Down, and of less flavor than the black-faced. The Cheviot, +though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and easily managed. + +The wool is about the quality of Leicester, coarse and long, suitable +only for the manufacture of low coatings and flushings. It closely +covers the body, assisting much in preserving it from the effects of wet +and cold. The fleece averages about three and a half pounds. Formerly, +the wool was extensively employed in making cloths; but having given +place to the finer Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined +to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether a secondary +consideration. + +The Cheviots have become an American sheep by their repeated +importations into this country. The wool on several choice sheep, +imported by Mr. Carmichael, of New York, was from five to seven inches +long, coarse, but well suited to combing. + + +THE LINCOLN. + +The old breed of Lincolnshire sheep was hornless, had white faces, and +long, thin, and weak carcasses; the ewes weighed from fourteen to twenty +pounds a quarter; the three-year old wethers from twenty to thirty +pounds; legs thick, rough and white; pelts thick; wool long--from ten to +eighteen inches--and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained carcass of +mutton. + +A judicious system of breeding, which avoided Bakewell's errors, has +wrought a decided improvement in this breed. The improved Lincolns +possess a rather more desirable robustness, approaching, in some few +specimens, almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters; +but they are more hardy, and less liable to disease. They attain as +large a size, and yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same +value. This breed, indeed, scarcely differs more from the Cotswold than +do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred for +several generations, from each other. They are prolific, and when +well-fed, the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for +which they provide liberally from their udders till the time for +weaning. The weight of the fleece varies from four to eight pounds per +head. + +Having alluded to the principal points of interest connected with the +various breeds of sheep in the United States, our next business is with + + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. + +[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. + +1. The intermaxillary bone. 2. The nasal bones. 3. The upper jaw. 4. The +union of the nasal and upper jaw-bones. 5. The union of the molar and +lachrymal bones. 6. The orbits of the eye. 7. The frontal bone. 8. The +lower jaw. 9. The incisor teeth, or nippers. 10. The molars or grinders. +11. The ligament of the neck supporting the head. 12. The seven +vertebræ, or the bones of the neck. 13. The thirteen vertebræ, or bones +of the back. 14. The six vertebræ of the loins. 15. The sacral bone. +16. The bones of the tail, varying in different breeds from twelve to +twenty-one. 17. The haunch and pelvis. 18. The eight true ribs, with +their cartilages. 19. The five false ribs, or those that are not +attached to the breast-bone. 20. The breast-bone. 21. The scapula, or +shoulder-blade. 22. The humerus, bone of the arm, or lower part of the +shoulder. 23. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 24. The ulna or +elbow. 25. The knee with its different bones. 26. The metacarpal or +shank-bones--the larger bones of the leg. 27. A rudiment of the smaller +metacarpal. 28. One of the sessamoid bones. 29. The first two bones of +the foot--the pasterns. 30. The proper bones of the foot. 31. The +thigh-bone. 32. The stifle-joint and its bone--the patella. 33. The +tibia, or bone of the upper part of the leg. 34. The point of the hock. +35. The other bones of the hock. 36. The metatarsal bones, or bone of +the hind-leg. 37. Rudiment of the small metatarsal. 38. A sessamoid +bone. 39. The first two bones of the foot--the pasterns. 40. The proper +bones of the foot.] + + DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. + CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. + ORDER. _Ruminantia_--chewing the cud. + FAMILY. _Capridæ_--the goat kind. + GENUS. _Oris_--the sheep family. + Of this _Genus_ there are three varieties: + ORIS, AMMON, or ARGALI. + _Oris Musmon._ + _Oris Aries_, or Domestic Sheep. + +Of the latter--with which alone this treatise is concerned--there are +about forty well known varieties. Between the _oris_, or sheep, and the +_capra_, or goat, another _genus_ of the same family, the distinctions +are well marked, although considerable resemblance exists between them. +The horns of the sheep have a spiral direction, while those of the goat +have a direction upward and backward; the sheep, except in a single wild +variety, has no beard, while the goat is bearded; the goat, in his +highest state of improvement, when he is made to produce wool of a +fineness unequalled by the sheep--as in the Cashmere breed--is mainly, +and always, externally covered with hair, while the hair on the sheep +may, by domestication, be reduced to a few coarse hairs, or got rid of +altogether; and, finally, the pelt or skin of the goat has thickness +very far exceeding that of the sheep. + +The age of sheep is usually reckoned, not from the time that they are +dropped, but from the first shearing; although the first year may thus +include fifteen or sixteen months, and sometimes more. When doubt exists +relative to the age, recourse is had to the teeth, since there is more +uncertainty about the horn in this animal than in cattle; ewes that have +been early bred, appearing always, according to the rings on the horn, a +year older than others that have been longer kept from the ram. + + +FORMATION OF THE TEETH. + +Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or ridges of the +palate thicken as they approach the forepart of the mouth; there also +the dense, fibrous, elastic matter, of which they are constituted, +becomes condensed, and forms a cushion or bed, which covers the converse +extremity of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor, +or cutting teeth, and partially discharge their functions. The herbage +is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad, +and thus partly bitten and partly torn asunder. Of this, the rolling +motion of the head is sufficient proof. + +The teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox. There are +eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the forepart of the lower jaw, and +six molars in each jaw above and below, and on either side. The incisors +are more admirably formed for grazing than in the ox. The sheep lives +closer, and is destined to follow the ox, and gather nourishment where +that animal would be unable to crop a single blade. This close life not +only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, but by +cutting off the short suckers and sproutings--a wise provision of +nature--causes the plants to throw out fresh, and more numerous, and +stronger ones, and thus is instrumental in improving and increasing the +value of the crop. Nothing will more expeditiously and more effectually +make a thick, permanent pasture than its being occasionally and closely +eaten down by sheep. + +In order to enable the sheep to bite this close, the upper lip is deeply +divided, and free from hair about the centre of it. The part of the +tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered with +enamel, to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the +enamel on the upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a +quarter of an inch, and presenting a convex surface outward, and a +concave within, forms a little scoop or gorge of wonderful execution. + +The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without incisor teeth or +it has two. The teeth rapidly succeed to each other, and before the +animal is a month old he has the whole of the eight. They continue to +grow with his growth until he is about fourteen or sixteen months old. +Then, with the same previous process of diminution as in cattle, or +carried to a still greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and +attain their full growth when the sheep is two years old. + +In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be very +considerable difference in the teeth of those that have not been +sheared, or those that have been once sheared; in some measure to be +accounted for by a difference in the time of lambing, and likewise by +the general health and vigor of the animal. There will also be a +material difference in different animals, attributable to the good or +bad keep which they have had. Those fed on good land, or otherwise well +kept, will generally take the start of others that have been half +starved, and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. There are +also irregularities in the times of renewing the teeth, not to be +accounted for by either of these circumstances; in fact, not to be +explained by any known circumstance relating to the breed or the keep of +the sheep. The want of improvement in sheep, which is occasionally +observed, and which cannot be accounted for by any deficiency or change +of food, may sometimes be justly attributed to the tenderness of the +mouth when the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums. + +Between two and three years old the next two incisors are shed; and when +the sheep is actually three years old, the four central teeth are fully +grown; at four years old, he has six teeth fully grown; and at five +years old--one year before the horse or the ox can be said to be +full-mouthed--all the teeth are perfectly developed. The sheep is a much +shorter-lived animal than the horse, and does not often attain the usual +age of the ox. Their natural age is about ten years, to which age they +will breed and thrive well; though there are recorded instances of their +breeding at the age of fifteen, and of living twenty years. + +The careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with regard to the +four-year-old mouth. He will see the teeth perfectly developed, no +diminutive ones at the sides, and the mouth apparently full; and then, +without giving himself the trouble of counting the teeth, he will +conclude that the animal is five years old. A process of displacement, +as well as of diminution, has taken place here; the remaining outside +milk-teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their +original size, but the four-year-old teeth have grown before them and +perfectly conceal them, unless the mouth is completely opened. + +After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully grown, +there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. In most cases, the +teeth remain sound for one or two years, and then, at uncertain +intervals--either on account of the hard work in which they have been +employed, or from the natural effect of age--they begin to loosen and +fall out; or, by reason of their natural slenderness, they are broken +off. When favorite ewes, that have been kept for breeding, begin to lose +condition, at six or seven years old, their mouths should be carefully +examined. If any of the teeth are loose, they should be extracted, and a +chance given to the animal to show how far, by browsing early and late, +she may be able to make up for the diminished number of her incisors. It +frequently happens that ewes with broken teeth, and some with all the +incisors gone, will keep pace in condition with the best in the flock; +but they must be well taken care of in the winter, and, indeed, nursed +to an extent that would scarcely answer the farmer's purpose to adopt as +a general rule, in order to prevent them from declining to such a degree +as would make it very difficult afterward to fatten them for the +butcher. It may certainly be taken as a general rule, that when sheep +become broken-mouthed they begin to decline. + +Causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which he has no +control, will sometimes hasten the loss of the teeth. One thing, +however, is certain--that close feeding, causing additional exercise, +does wear them down; and that the sheep of farmers who stock unusually +and unseasonably hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do. + + +THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. + +The skin of the sheep, in common with that of most animals, is composed +of three textures. Externally is the cuticle, or scarf-skin, which is +thin, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable minute holes, +through which pass the fibres of the wool and the insensible +perspiration. It seems to be of a scaly texture; although is not so +evident as in many other animals, on account of a peculiar +substance--the yolk--which is placed on it, to protect and nourish the +roots of the wool. It is, however, sufficiently evident in the scab and +other cutaneous eruptions to which this animal is liable. + +Below this cuticle is the _rete mucosum_, a soft structure; its fibres +having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, and being with great +difficulty separated from the skin beneath. This appears to be placed as +a defence to the terminations of the blood-vessels and nerves of the +skin, which latter are, in a manner, enveloped and covered by it. The +color of the skin, and probably that of the hair or wool also, is +determined by the _rete mucosum_; or, at least, the hair and wool are of +the same color as this substance. + +Beneath the _rete mucosum_ is the _cutis_, or true skin, composed of +numberless minute fibres crossing each other in every direction; highly +elastic, in order to fit closely to the parts beneath, and to yield to +the various motions of the body; and dense and firm in its structure, +that it may resist external injury. Blood-vessels and nerves innumerable +pierce it, and appear on its surface in the form of _papillæ_, or +minute eminences; while, through thousands of little orifices, the +exhalent absorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid. The +true skin is composed, principally or almost entirely, of gelatine; so +that, although it may be dissolved by long-continued boiling, it is +insoluble in water at the common temperature. This organization seems to +have been given to it, not only for the sake of its preservation while +on the living animal, but that it may afterwards become useful to man. +The substance of the hide readily combining with the tanning principle, +is converted into leather. + + +THE ANATOMY OF THE WOOL. + +[Illustration: THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP.] + +On the skin of most animals is placed a covering of feathers, fur, hair, +or wool. These are all essentially the same in composition, being +composed of an animal substance resembling coagulated albumen, together +with sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate of lime, and oxides of +iron and manganese. + +Wool is not confined to the sheep. The under-hair of some goats is not +only finer than the fleece of any sheep, but it occasionally has the +crisped appearance of wool; being, in fact, wool of different qualities +in different breeds--in some, rivalling or excelling that of the sheep, +but in others very coarse. A portion of wool is also found on many other +animals; as the deer, elk, the oxen of Tartary and Hudson's Bay, the +gnu, the camel, many of the fur-clad animals, the sable, the polecat, +and several species of the dog. + +Judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of most animals, +and the relative situation of these materials, it is not improbable that +such was the character of the fleece of the primitive sheep. It has, +indeed, been asserted that the primitive sheep was entirely covered with +hair; but this is, doubtless, incorrect. There exists, at the present +day, varieties of the sheep occupying extensive districts, that are +clothed outwardly with hair of different degrees of fineness and +sleekness; and underneath the external coat is a softer, shorter, and +closer one, that answers to the description of fur--according to most +travellers--but which really possesses all the characteristics of wool. +It is, therefore, highly improbable that the sheep--which has now +become, by cultivation, the wool-bearing animal in a pre-eminent +degree--should, in any country, at any time, have ever been entirely +destitute of wool. Sheep of almost every variety have at times been in +the gardens of the London (Eng.) Zoölogical Society; but there has not +been one on which a portion of crisped wool, although exceedingly small, +has not been discovered beneath the hair. In all the regions over which +the patriarchs wandered, and extending northward through the greater +part of Europe and Asia, the sheep is externally covered with hair; but +underneath is a fine, short, downy wool, from which the hair is easily +separated. This is the case with the sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, +and also in South America. + +The change from hair to wool, though much influenced by temperature, has +been chiefly effected by cultivation. Wherever hairy sheep are now found +the management of the animal is in a most disgraceful state; and among +the cultivated sheep the remains of this ancient hairy covering only +exists, to any great extent, among those that are comparatively +neglected or abandoned. + +The filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pore of +the skin, when it has to penetrate through another and singular +substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, is called _the yolk_. +This is found in greatest quantity about the breast and shoulders--the +very parts that produce the best, and healthiest, and most abundant +wool--and in proportion as it extends, in any considerable degree, over +other parts, the wool is then improved. It differs in quantity in +different breeds. It is very abundant on the Merinos; it is sufficiently +plentiful on most of the southern breeds, either to assist in the +production of the wool, or to defend the sheep from the inclemency of +the weather; but in the northern districts, where the cold is more +intense and the yolk of wool is deficient, a substitute for it is +sometimes sought by smearing the sheep with a mixture of tar, oil, or +butter. Where there is a deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is +dry, harsh, and weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy; where +the natural quantity of it is found, the wool is soft, oily, plentiful +and strong. + +This yolk is not the inspissated or thickened perspiration of the +animal; it is not composed of matter which has been accidentally picked +up, and which has lodged in the wool; but it is a peculiar secretion +from the glands of the skin, destined to be one of the agents in the +nourishment of the wool, and at the same time, by its adhesiveness, to +mat the wool together, and form a secure defence from the wet and cold. + +Chemical experiments have established its composition, as follows: +first, of a soapy matter with a basis of potash, which forms the greater +part of it; second, a small quantity of carbonate of potash; third, a +perceptible quantity of acetate of potash; fourth, lime, in a peculiar +and unknown state of combination; fifth, an atom of muriate of potash; +sixth, an animal oil, to which its peculiar odor is attributable. All +these materials are believed to be essential to the yolk, and not found +in it by mere accident, since the yolk of a great number of +samples--Spanish, French, English, and American--has been subjected to +repeated analyses, with the same result. + +The yolk being a true soap, soluble in water, it is not difficult to +account for the comparative ease with which sheep that have the natural +proportion of it are washed in a running stream. There is, however, a +small quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is not in +combination with the alkali, and which, remaining attached to the wool, +keeps it a little glutinous, notwithstanding the most careful washing. + +The fibre of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped from +the yolk, is of a circular form, generally larger toward the extremity, +and also toward the root, and in some instances very considerably +so. The filaments of white wool, when cleansed from grease, are +semi-transparent; their surface in some places is beautifully polished, +in others curiously incrusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a +very pleasing manner. When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic +microscope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering +appearance. Minute filaments, placed very regularly, are sometimes seen +branching from the main trunk, like boughs from the principal stem. This +exterior polish varies much in different wools, and in wools from the +same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal is in good +condition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is really +brilliant; but when the state of the constitution is bad, the fibre has +a dull appearance, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes scarcely +any, is reflected. As a general rule, the filament is most transparent +in the best and most useful wools, whether long or short. It increases +with the improvement of the breed, and the fineness and healthiness of +the fleece; yet it must be admitted that some wools have different +degrees of the transparency and opacity, which do not appear to affect +their value and utility. It is, however, the difference of transparency +in the same fleece, or in the same filament, that is chiefly to be +noticed as improving the value of the wool. + +As to the size of the fibre, the terms "fine" and "coarse," as commonly +used, are but vague and general descriptions of wool. All fine fleeces +have some coarse wool, and all coarse fleeces some fine. The most +accurate classification is to distinguish the various qualities of wool +in the order in which they are esteemed and preferred by the +manufacturer--as the following: first, fineness with close ground, that +is, thick-matted ground; second, pureness; third, straight-haired, when +broken by drawing; fourth, elasticity, rising after compression in the +hand; fifth, staple not too long; sixth, color; seventh, what coarse +exists to be very coarse; eighth, tenacity; and ninth, not much +pitch-mark, though this is no disadvantage, except the loss of weight in +scouring. The bad or disagreeable properties are--thin, grounded, tossy, +curly-haired, and, if in a sorted state, little in it that is very fine; +a tender staple, as elasticity, many dead white hairs, very yolky. Those +who buy wool for combing and other light goods that do not need milling, +wish to find length of staple, fineness of hair, whiteness, tenacity, +pureness, elasticity, and not too many pitch-marks. + +The property first attracting attention, and being of greater importance +than any other, is _the fineness_ of the pile--the quantity of fine wool +which a fleece yields, and the degree of that fineness. Of the absolute +fineness, little can be said, varying, as it does, in different parts of +the same fleece to a very considerable degree, and the diameter of the +same fibre often being exceedingly different at the extremity and the +centre. The micrometer has sometimes indicated that the diameter of the +former is five times as much as that of the latter; and, consequently, +that a given length of yield taken from the extremity would weigh +twenty-five times as much as the same length taken from the centre and +cleansed from all yolk and grease. That fibre may be considered as +coarse whose diameter is more than the five-hundredth part of an inch; +in some of the most valuable samples of Saxony wool it has not exceeded +the nine-hundredth part; yet in some animals, whose wool has not been +used for manufacturing purposes, it is less than one twelve-hundredth +part. + +The extremities of the wool, and frequently those portions which are +near to the root, are larger than the intermediate parts. The extremity +of the fibre has, generally, the greatest bulk of all. It is the +product of summer, soon after shearing-time, when the secretion of the +matter of the wool is increased, and when the pores of the skin are +relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre to protrude. The portion +near the root is the growth of spring, when the weather is getting warm; +and the intermediate part is the offspring of winter, when under the +influence of the cold the pores of the skin contract, and permit only a +finer hair to escape. If, however, the animal is well fed, the +diminution of the bulk of the fibre will not be followed by weakness or +decay, but, in proportion as the pile becomes fine, the value of the +fleece will be increased; whereas, if cold and starvation should go +hand-in-hand, the woolly fibre will not only diminish in bulk, but in +health, strength, and worth. + +The variations in the diameter of the wool in different parts of the +fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of heat at the time +the respective portions were produced. The fibre of the wool and the +record of the meteorologist will singularly agree, if the variations in +temperature are sufficiently distinct from each other for any +appreciable part of the fibre to form. It follows from this, that--the +natural tendency to produce wool of a certain fibre being the +same--sheep in a hot climate will yield a comparatively coarse wool, and +those in a cold climate will carry a finer, but at the same time a +closer and a warmer fleece. In proportion to the coarseness of a fleece +will generally be its openness, and its inability to resist either cold +or wet; while the coat of softer, smaller, more pliable wool will admit +of no interstices between its fibres, and will bid defiance to frost and +storms. + +The natural instinct of the sheep would seem to teach the wool-grower +the advantage of attending to the influence of temperature upon the +animal. He is evidently impatient of heat. In the open districts, and +where no shelter is near, he climbs to the highest parts of his walk, +that, if the rays of the sun must still fall on him, he may nevertheless +be cooled by the breeze; but, if shelter is near, of whatever kind, +every shaded spot is crowded with sheep. The wool of the Merinos after +shearing-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it very +difficult to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in +quality, compared with that which had been clipped from it in the course +of the same season. As the cold weather advances, the fleeces recover +their soft quality. + +Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. The +staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in +length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment; +and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease +like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. When +little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has +scarcely been checked, the sheep yields an abundant crop of wool, but +the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as heavier. When the frost has +been severe, and the ground long covered with snow, if the flock has +been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a +little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness, +and a proportional increase of value. Should, however, the sheep have +been neglected and starved during this continued cold weather, the +fleece as well as the carcass is thinner, and although it may have +preserved its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and +strength, and usefulness. + +Connected with fineness is _trueness of staple_--as equal in growth as +possible over the animals--a freedom from those shaggy portions, here +and there, which are occasionally observed on poor and neglected sheep. +These portions are always coarse and comparatively worthless, and they +indicate an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, +which will also probably weaken or render the fibre diseased in other +parts. Included in trueness of fibre is another circumstance to which +allusion has already been made--a freedom from coarse hairs which +project above the general level of the wool in various parts, or, if +they are not externally seen, mingle with the wool and debase its +qualities. + +_Soundness_ is closely associated with trueness. It means, generally +speaking, strength of the fibre, and also a freedom from those breaches +or withered portions of which something has previously been said. The +eye will readily detect the breaches; but the hair generally may not +possess a degree of strength proportioned to its bulk. This is +ascertained by drawing a few hairs out of the staple, and grasping each +of them singly by both ends, and pulling them until they break. The wool +often becomes injured by felting while it is on the sheep's back. This +is principally seen in the heavy breeds, especially those that are +neglected and half-starved, and generally begins in the winter season, +when the coat has been completely saturated with water, and it increases +until shearing-time, unless the cob separates from the wool beneath, and +drops off. + +Wool is generally injured by keeping. It will probably increase a +little in weight for a few months, especially if kept in a damp place; +but after that it will somewhat rapidly become lighter, until a very +considerable loss will often be sustained. This, however, is not the +moral of the case; for, except very great care is taken, the moth will +get into the bundles and injure and destroy the staple; and that which +remains untouched by them will become considerably harsh and less +pliable. If to this the loss of the interest of money is added, it will +be seen that he seldom acts wisely who hoards his wool, when he can +obtain what approaches to a fair remunerating price for it. + +_Softness_ of the wool is evidently connected with the presence and +quality of the yolk. This substance is undoubtedly designed not only to +nourish the hair, but to give it richness and pliability. The growth of +the yolk ought to be promoted, and agriculturists ought to pay more +attention to the quantity and quality of yolk possessed by the animals +selected for the purpose of breeding. + +Bad management impairs the pliability of the wool, by arresting the +secretion of the yolk. The softness of the wool is also much influenced +by the chemical elements of the soil. A chalky soil notoriously +deteriorates it; minute particles of the chalk being necessarily brought +into contact with the fleece and mixing with it, have a corrosive effect +on the fibre, and harden it and render it less pliable. The particles of +chalk come in contact with the yolk--there being a chemical affinity +between the alkali and the oily matter of the yolk--immediately unite, +and a true soap is formed. The first storm washes a portion of it; and +the wool, deprived of its natural pabulum and unguent, loses some of its +vital properties--its pliability among the rest. The slight degree of +harshness which has been attributed to the English South-Down has been +explained in this way. + +_The felting property_ of wool is a tendency of the fibres to entangle +themselves together, and to form a mass more or less difficult to +unravel. By moisture and pressure, the fibres of the wool may become +matted or felted together into a species of cloth. The manufacture of +felt was the first mode in which wool was applied to clothing, and felt +has long been in universal use for hats. The fulling of flannels and +broadcloths is effected by the felting principle. By the joint influence +of the moisture and the pressure, certain of the fibres are brought into +more intimate contact with each other; they adhere--not only the fibres, +but; in a manner, the threads--and the cloth is taken from the mill +shortened in all its dimensions; it has become a kind of felt, for the +threads have disappeared, and it can be cut in every direction with very +little or no unravelling; it is altogether a thicker, warmer, softer +fibre. This felting property is one of the most valuable qualities +possessed by wool, and on this property are the finer kinds of wool +especially valued by the manufacturer for the finest broadcloths. This +naturally suggests a consideration of the various forms in the structure +on which it depends. + +The most evident distinction between the qualities of hair and wool is +the comparative straightness of the former, and _the crisped or +spirally-curling form_ which the latter assumes. If a little lock of +wool is held up to the light, every fibre of it is twisted into numerous +minute corkscrew-like ringlets. This is especially seen in the fleece of +the short-woolled sheeps; but, although less striking, it is obvious +even in wool of the largest staple. + +The spirally-curving form of wool used, erroneously, to be considered as +the chief distinction between the covering of the goat and the sheep; +but the under-coat of some of the former is finer than that of any +sheep, and it is now acknowledged frequently to have the crisped and +curled appearance of wool. In some breeds of cattle, particularly in one +variety of the Devons, the hair assumes a curled and wavy appearance, +and a few of the minute spiral ringlets have been occasionally seen. It +is the same with many of the Highlands; but there is no determination to +take on the true crisped character, and throughout its whole extent, and +it is still nothing but hair. On some foreign breeds, however, as the +yak of Tartary, and the ox of Hudson's Bay, some fine and valuable wool +is produced. + +There is an intimate connection between the fineness of the wool and the +number of the curves, at least in sheep yielding wool of nearly the same +length; so that, whether the wool of different sheep is examined, or +that from different parts of the same sheep, it is enough for the +observer to take advice of the number of curves in a given space, in +order to ascertain with sufficient accuracy the fineness of the fibre. + +To this curled form of the wool not enough attention is, as a general +thing, paid by the breeder. It is, however, that on which its most +valuable uses depend. It is that which is essential to it in the +manufactory of cloths. The object of the carder is to break the wool in +pieces at the curves--the principle of the thread is the adhesion of the +particles together by their curves; and the fineness of the thread, and +consequent fineness of the cloth, will depend on the minuteness of +these curves, or the number of them found in a given length of fibre. + +It will readily be seen that this curling form has much to do with the +felting property of wool; it materially contributes to that disposition +in the fibres which enables them to attach and intwine themselves +together; it multiplies the opportunities for this interlacing, and it +increases the difficulty of unravelling the felt. + +The felting property of wool is the most important, as well as the +distinguishing one; but it varies essentially in different breeds, and +the usefulness and the consequent value of the fleece, for clothing +purposes, at least, depend on the degree to which it is pursued. + +_The serrated_--notched, like the teeth of a saw--_edge_ of wool, which +has been discovered by means of the microscope, is also, as well as the +spiral curl, deemed an important quality in the felting property. +Repeated microscopic observations have removed all doubts as to the +general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a central stem or +stalk, probably hollow, or, at least, porous, possessing a +semi-transparency, not found in the fibre of hair. From this central +stalk there springs, at different distances, on different breeds of +sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections. + + +LONG WOOL. + +The most valuable of the long-woolled fleeces are of British origin. A +considerable quantity is produced in France and Belgium; but the +manufacturers in those countries acknowledge the superiority of the +British wool. Long wool is distinguished, as its name would import, by +the length of its staple, the average of which is about eight inches. +It was much improved, of late years, both in England and in other +countries. Its staple has, without detriment to its manufacturing +qualities, become shorter; but it has also become finer, truer, and +sounder. The long-woolled sheep has been improved more than any other +breed; and the principal error which Bakewell committed having been +repaired since his death, the long wool has progressively risen in +value, at least for curling purposes. Some of the breeds have staples of +double the length that has been mentioned as the average one. Pasture +and breeding are the powerful agents here. + +Probably because the Leicester blood prevails in, or, at least, mingles +with, every other long-woolled breed, a great similarity in the +appearance and quality of this fleece has become apparent, of late +years, in every district of England. The short-woolled fleeces are, to a +very considerable degree, unlike in fineness, elasticity, and felting +property; the sheep themselves are still more unlike; but the long-wools +have, in a great degree, lost their distinctive points--the Lincoln, for +example, has not all of his former gaunt carcass, and coarse, entangled +wool--the Cotswold has become a variety of the Leicester--in fact, all +the long-woolled sheep, both in appearance and fleece, have almost +become of one variety; and rarely, except from culpable neglect in the +breeder, has the fleece been injuriously weakened, or too much +shortened, for the most valuable purposes to which it is devoted. + +In addition to its length, this wool is characterized by its strength, +its transparency, its comparative stoutness, and the slight degree in +which it possesses the felting property. Since the extension of the +process of combing to wools of a shorter staple, the application of +this wool to manufacturing purposes has undergone considerable change. +In some respects, the range of its use has been limited; but its demand +has, on the whole, increased, and its value is more highly appreciated. +Indeed, there are certain important branches of the woollen manufacture, +such as worsted stuffs, bombazines, muslin-delaines, etc., in which it +can never be superseded; and its rapid extension in the United States, +within the past few years, clearly shows that a large and increasing +demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. + +This long wool is classed under two divisions, distinguished both by +length and the fineness of the fibre. The first--_the long-combing +wool_--is used for the manufacture of hard yarn, and the worsted goods +for which that thread is adapted, and requires the staple to be long, +firm, and little disposed to felt. _The short-combing wool_ has, as its +name implies, a shorter staple, and is finer and more felty; the felt is +also closer and softer, and is chiefly used for hosiery goods. + + +MIDDLE WOOL. + +This article is of more recent origin than the former, but has rapidly +increased in quantity and value. It can never supersede, but will only +stand next in estimation to, the native English long fleece. It is +yielded by the half-bred sheep--a race that becomes more numerous every +year--being a cross of the Leicester ram with the South-Down, or some +other short-woolled ewe; retaining the fattening property and the early +maturity of the Leicester, or of both; and the wool deriving length and +straightness of fibre from the one, and fineness and feltiness from the +other. The average length of staple is about five inches. There is no +description of the finer stuff-goods in which this wool is not most +extensively and advantageously employed; and the nails, or portions +which are broken off by the comb, and left in, whether belonging to this +description of wool or to the long wool, are used in the manufacture of +several species of cloth of no inferior quality or value. + +Under the breed of middle wools must be classed those which, when there +were but two divisions, were known by the name of short wools; and if +English productions were alone treated of, would still retain the same +distinctive appellation. To this class belong the South-Down and +Cheviot; together with the fleece of several other breeds, not so +numerous, nor occupying so great an extent of country. From the change, +however, which insensibly took place in them all--the lengthening, and +the increased thickness of the fibre, and, more especially, from the +gradual introduction of other wools possessing delicacy of fibre, +pliability, and felting qualities beyond what these could claim, and at +the same time, being cheaper in the market--they lost ground in the +manufacture of the finer cloths, and have for some time ceased to be +used in the production of them. On the other hand, the changes which +have taken place in the construction of machinery have multiplied the +purposes to which they may be devoted, and very considerably enhanced +their value. + +These wools, of late, rank among the combing wools; they are prepared as +much by the comb as by the card, and in some places more. On this +account they meet with a readier sale, at fair, remunerating prices, +considering the increased weight of each individual fleece, and the +increased weight and earlier maturity of the carcass. The South-Downs +yield about seven-tenths of the pure short wools grown in the British +kingdoms; but the half-bred sheep has, as has been remarked, encroached +on the pure short-woolled one. The average staple of middle-woolled +sheep is three and a half inches. + +These wools are employed in the manufacture of flannels, army and navy +cloths, coatings, heavy cloths for calico printers and paper +manufacturers, woollen cords, coarse woollens, and blankets; besides +being partially used in cassinettes, baizes, bockings, carpets, +druggets, etc. + + +SHORT WOOL. + +From this division every wool of English production is excluded. These +wools, yielded by the Merinos, are employed, unmixed, in the manufacture +of the finer cloths, and, combined with a small proportion of wool from +the English breeds, in others of an inferior value. The average length +of staple is about two and a half inches. + +These wools even may be submitted to the action of the comb. There may +be fibres only one inch in length; but if there are others from two and +a half to three inches, so that the average of the staple shall be two +inches, a thread sufficiently tenacious may, from the improved state of +machinery, be spun, and many delicate and beautiful fabrics readily +woven, which were unknown not many years ago. + + + + +[Illustration] + +CROSSING AND BREEDING + + +No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those +points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable for +the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, +while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool; and another, which +is valuable for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some +varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of food and +climate; while others are much less affected by those conditions, and +will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the +most opposite qualities of verdure. + +In selecting a breed for any given locality, reference should be had, +_first_, to the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural +circumstances; and, _second_, to the market facilities and demand. +Choice should then be made of that breed which, with the advantages +possessed, and under all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net +value of the marketable product. + +Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green +during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of +large carcasses. If convenient to a market where mutton finds a prompt +sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which calls +for a mutton-producing, as contradistinguished from a wool-yielding, +sheep. Under such circumstances, the choice should undoubtedly be made +from the improved English varieties--the South-Down, the New Leicester, +and the improved Cotswolds or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding between +these, minor and more specific circumstances must be taken into account. +If large numbers are to be kept, the Downs will herd--remain thriving +and healthy when kept together in large numbers--much better than the +two larger breeds; if the feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to +be somewhat short during the droughts of summer, and there is not a +certain supply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Downs will better +endure occasional short keep; if the market demands a choice and +high-flavored mutton, the Downs possess a decided superiority. If, on +the other hand, but few are to be kept in the same enclosure, the large +breeds will be as healthy as the Downs; if the pastures are somewhat wet +or marshy, the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which +usually grows in such situations; if they do not afford so fine a +quality of mutton, they--particularly the Leicester--possess an earlier +maturity, and give more meat for the amount of food consumed, as well as +yield more tallow. + +The next point of comparison between the long and the middle woolled +families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal +object aimed at in the cultivation of any of these breeds, it is, in +this country, an important item of incident in determining their +relative profitableness. The American Leicester yields about six pounds +of long, coarse, combing wool; the Cotswold, somewhat more; but this +perhaps counterbalanced by these considerations; the Downs grow three to +four pounds of a low quality of carding wool. None of these wools are +very salable, at remunerating prices, in the American markets. Both, +however, will appreciate in proportion to the increase of manufactures +of worsted, flannels, baizes, and the like. The difference in the weight +of the fleeces between the breeds is, of itself, a less important +consideration than it would at first appear, for reasons which will be +given when the connection between the amount of wool produced and the +food consumed by the sheep is noticed. + +The Cheviots are unquestionably inferior to the breeds above named, +except in a capacity to endure a vigorous winter and to subsist on +healthy herbage. Used in the natural and artificial circumstances which +surround sheep-husbandry in many parts of England--where the fattest and +finest quality of mutton is consumed, as almost the only animal food of +the laboring classes--the heavy, early-maturing New Leicester, and the +still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep seem exactly adapted to the wants of +producers and consumers, and are of unrivalled value. To depasture +poorer soils, sustain a folding system, and furnish the mutton which +supplies the tables of the wealthy, the South-Down meets an equal +requirement. + +Sufficient attention is by no means paid in many portions of the country +to the profit which could be made to result from the cultivation of the +sheep. One of the most serious defects in the prevalent husbandry of New +England, for example, is the neglect of sheep. Ten times the present +number might be easily fed, and they would give in meat, wool, and +progeny, more direct profit than any other domestic animal, while the +food which they consume would do more towards fertilizing the farms than +an equal amount consumed by any other animal. It is notorious that the +pastures of that section of the country have seriously deteriorated in +fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds and bushes to the +exclusion of nutritious grasses. + +With sheep--as well as with all other animals--much or prolonged +exercise in pursuit of food, or otherwise, is unfavorable to taking on +fat. Some seem to forget, in their earnest advocacy of the merits of the +different breeds, that the general physical laws which control the +development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. +Better organs will, doubtless, make a better appropriation of animal +food; and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in +particular directions: in one breed, more especially to the production +of fat; in another, of muck, or lean meat; in yet another, of wool. But, +these things being equal, large animals will always require more food +than small ones. Animals which are to be carried to a high state of +fatness must have plentiful and nutritious food, and they must exercise +but little, in order to prevent the unnecessary combustion in the lungs +of that carbon which forms nearly four-fifths of their fat. No art of +breeding can counteract these established laws of Nature. + +In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for _wool-growing_ +purposes, it is undeniable that the question is not, what variety will +shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleece, irrespective of +the cost of production. Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, +must be deducted, in order to fairly test the profits of an animal. +If a large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give +but once and a-half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable--other +things being equal--to keep two of the smaller sheep. The next question, +then, is,--_from what breed_--with the same expense in other +particulars--_will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest +value of wool_? + +And, first, as to the comparative amount of food consumed by the several +breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments which show that _breed_, +in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of +food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the consumption is +in proportion to the live weight of the grown animal. Of course, this +rule is not invariable in its individual application; but its general +soundness has been satisfactorily established. Grown sheep take up +between two and a half and three and a third per cent. of their weight, +in what is equivalent to dry hay, to keep themselves in store condition. + +The consumption of food, then, being proportioned to the weight, it +follows that, if one acre is capable of sustaining three Merinos, +weighing one hundred pounds each, it will sustain two Leicesters, +weighing one hundred and fifty each, and two and two-fifth South-Downs, +weighing one hundred and twenty-five each. Merinos of this weight often +shear five pounds per fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an +acre, then, would give fifteen pounds of Merino wool, twelve of +Leicester, and but nine and three-fifths of South-Down--estimating the +latter as high as four pounds to the fleece. Even the finest and +lightest-fleeced sheep known as Merinos average about four pounds to the +fleece; so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest +quality of wool sold under the name of Merino as it would of New +Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down, while the former would +be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent. more per pound than either +of the latter. + +Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as in the foregoing +estimate the live weight of the English breeds is placed low, and that +of the Merinos high. The live weight of the five-pound fine-fleeced +Merino does not exceed ninety pounds; it ranges, in fact, from eighty to +ninety; so that three hundred pounds of live weight--it being understood +that all of these live weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what +is called store, condition--would give a still greater product of wool +to the acre. It is perfectly safe, therefore, to say that the herbage of +an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino that it +will of any of the English long or middle wools. + +What are the other relative expenses of these breeds? The full-blooded +Leicester is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino, though some +of its crosses are much hardier than the pure-bred sheep: indeed, it is +less hardy, under the most favorable circumstances. It is more subject +to colds; its constitution more readily gives way under disease; the +lambs are more liable to perish from exposure to cold, when newly +dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances--herded in large flocks, +famished for feed, or subjected to long journeys--its capacity to +endure, and its ability to rally from sad drawbacks, do not compare, +with those of the Merino. The high-bred South-Down, though considerably +less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to +the appellation of a hardy animal; it is, in fact, about on a pace with +the Merino, though it will not bear as hard stocking, without a rapid +diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are +to be considered in determining the expenses, as they surely should be, +the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as +well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The ewe not only frequently +produces twin lambs--as do both the Merino and Leicester--but, unlike +the latter, she possesses nursing properties to do justice to them. This +advantage, however, is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity +of the Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly +deteriorate in amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and general vigor, at +about five years old; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in +an animal kept for wool-growing purposes. This early decay requires +earlier and more rapid slaughter than is always economically convenient, +or even possible. + +It is well, on properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the +Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding +stock; but he will not particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay +the way with his fleece for several years longer. Breeding ewes are +rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until ten years +old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the +Downs and Leicester at five or six. Instances are known of Merino ewes +breeding uniformly until fifteen years old. The improved Cotswold is +said to be hardier than the Leicester; but this variety, from their +great size, and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, together +with the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of such +large animals, is incapacitated from being generally introduced as a +wool-growing sheep. All the coarse races have one advantage over the +Merino: they are less subject to the visitation of the hoof-ail, and +when untreated, this disease spreads with less violence and malignity +among them. This has been explained by the fact that their hoofs do not +grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Merino, and +thus retain dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot. + +Taking into account all the circumstances connected with the peculiar +management of each race, together with all the incidents, exigencies, +and risks of the husbandry of each, it may be confidently asserted that +the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller per head, or +even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the English +breeds above referred to, than in the Merino. Indeed, it may well be +doubted whether any of those English breeds, except the South-Down, is +on an equality, even, with the Merino, in these respects. For +wool-growing purposes, the Merino, then, possesses a marked and decided +superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-woolled sheep. +As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds; although not +so much as is popularly supposed. Many persons, who have never tasted +Merino mutton, and who have, consequently, an unfavorable impression of +it, would, if required to consume the fat and lean together, find it +more palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton +of the cross between the Merino and the Native would certainly be +preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer, +accustomed to the latter, since it is short-grained, tender, and of good +flavor. The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties, +which will hereafter be treated of more particularly. Grade Merino +wethers, half-bloods, for example, are favorites with the drover and +butcher, being of good size, extraordinarily heavy for their apparent +bulk, by reason of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse +breeds, making good mutton, tallowing well, and their pelts, from the +greater weight of wool on them, commanding an extra price. In speaking +of the Merino in this connection, no reference is made to the Saxons, +though they are, as is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the +former. + +Assuming it, then, as settled, that it is to the Merino race that the +wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, a few +considerations are subjoined as to the adaptability of the widely +diverse sub-varieties of the race to the wants and circumstances of +different portions of the country. + +Upon the first introduction of the Saxons, they were sought with avidity +by the holders of the fine-woolled flocks of the country, consisting at +that time of pure or grade Merinos. Under the decisive encouragement +offered both to the wool-grower and the manufacturer by the tariff of +1828, a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, +and the Saxon everywhere superseded, or bred out by crossing, the +Spanish Merinos. In New York and New England, the latter almost entirely +disappeared. In the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, +constitution, and every thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of +the wool. Then came the tariff of 1832, which, as well as that of 1828, +gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer, into +whose pursuits agricultural and mercantile speculators madly rushed. +Skill without capital, capital without skill, and in some cases, +probably, thirst for gain without either, laid hold of these favored +avocations. The natural and inevitable result followed. In the financial +crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary enterprises which +had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not +based on an adequate and vast capital, were involved in a common +destruction; and even the most solid and best conducted institutions of +the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly fell +almost fifty per cent. The grower began to be discouraged. The breeder +of the delicate Saxons--and they comprised the flocks of nearly all the +large wool-growers in the country, at that time--could not obtain for +his wool its actual first cost per pound. + +When the Saxon growers found that the tariff of 1842 brought them no +relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. +The example once set, it became contagious; and then was a period when +it seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed +to this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy +sacrifice of their fixtures for rearing sheep; others crossed with +coarse-woolled breeds; and, rushing from one extreme to the other, some +even crossed with the English mutton breeds; or some, with more +judgment, went back to the parent Merino stock, but usually selected the +heaviest and coarsest-woolled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated +the character of their wool. This period became distinguished by a mania +for heavy fleeces. The English crosses were, however, speedily +abandoned. The Merino regained his supremacy, lost for nearly a quarter +of a century, and again became the popular favorite. It was generally +adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new Western States, +and gives its type to the sheep of those regions. + +The supply of fine wool, then, proportionably decreased, and that of +medium and coarse increased. Wools, for convenience, may be classified +as follows: _superfine_, the choicest quality grown in the United +States, and never grown here excepting in comparatively small +quantities; _fine_, good ordinary Saxon; _good medium_, the highest +quality of wool usually known in the market as Merino; _medium_, +ordinary Merino; _ordinary_, grade Merino and selected South-Down +fleeces; and, _coarse_, the English long-wools, etc. This subdivision +is, perhaps, minute enough for all practical purposes here. + +It soon became apparent that, to sustain our manufacturing +interest--that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths--the diminution +of fine wools should not only be at once arrested, but that the growth +of them should be immediately and largely increased. An increased +attention was accordingly bestowed upon this branch of industry, and +sections of the country which had previously held aloof from +wool-growing, embarked in that calling with commendable enterprise. + +The climate north of forty-one degrees, or, beyond all dispute, north +of forty-two degrees, is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly +known, which bear either superfine or fine wools. In fact, the only such +variety in any thing like general use is the Saxon; and this, as has +been remarked, is a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely +withstanding our northern winters, without good shelter, good and +regularly-administered food, and careful and skilful management in all +other particulars. When the season is a little more than usually +back-hand, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, it +is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes; the young ewes will, +in many instances, disown their lambs, or, if they own them, not have a +drop of milk for them; and if, under such circumstances, as often +happens, a northeast or a northwest storm comes driving down, bearing +snow or sleet in its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the +temperature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from +perishing. If the time of having the lambs dropped is deferred, for the +purpose of escaping these evils, they will not attain size and strength +sufficient to enable them to pass safely through their first winter. +North of the latitude last named, it is necessary, as a general rule, +that they be dropped in the first half of May, to give them this +requisite size and strength; and occasional cold storms come, nearly +every season, up to that period, and, not unfrequently, up to the first +of June. + +These considerations have had their weight even with the few large +sheep-holders in that section, whose farms and buildings have been +arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing of these sheep; many of +whom have adopted a Merino cross. With the ordinary farmers--the small +sheep-owners, who, in the aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of +the northern wools--the Saxon sheep is, for these reasons, in marked +disrepute. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter +protection, and are unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on +them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with +this class, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. Above all, +they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care than their +cattle. The strong, compact, medium-woolled Merino, or, more generally, +its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the wool classed as +ordinary, is the common favorite. In the Northwest, this is especially +the case, where the climate is still worse for delicate sheep. + +At the South, on the contrary--where these disadvantages do not exist to +so great an extent, certainly--wool varying from good medium upward are +more profitable staples for cultivation than the lower classes; and in +that section a high degree of fineness in fleece has been sought in +breeding the Merino--the four-pound fine-fleeced Merino having received +marked attention. This is a far more profitable animal than the Saxon, +other things being equal--which is not the case, since the former is +every way a hardier animal and a better nurse; and, although about +twenty pounds heavier, and therefore consuming more feed, this +additional expense is more than counterbalanced by the additional care +and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon. + + +POINTS OF THE MERINO. + +For breeding purposes, the shape and general appearance of the Merino +should be as follows:--The head should be well carried up, and in the +ewe hornless. It would be better, on many accounts, to have the ram +also hornless, but, as horns are usually characteristic of the Merino +ram, many prefer to see them. The face should be rather short, broad +between the eyes, the nose pointed, and, in the ewe, fine and free +from wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately prominent, and +gentle in its expression. The neck should be straight--not curving +downward--short, round, and stout--particularly so at its junction with +the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink +below the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise +to any perceptible extent above the level of the back. The back, to +the hips, should be straight; the crops--that portion of the body +immediately back of the shoulder-blades--full; the ribs well arched; the +body large and capacious; the flank well let down; the hind-quarters +full and round--the flesh meeting well down between the thighs, or in +the "twists." The bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well +apart, and perpendicular--that is, not drawn under the body toward each +other when the sheep is standing. Viewed as a whole, the Merino should +present the appearance of a low, stout, plump, and--though differing +essentially from the English mutton-sheep model--a highly symmetrical +sheep. + +The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow, +and of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, +approaching to a butternut, hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject +of wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. As they are rather +characteristic of the Merino--like the black color in a Berkshire hog, +or the absence of all color in Durham cattle--these wrinkles have been +more regarded, by novices, than those points which give actual value to +the animal; and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this +hint. Many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled +skin; and this view of the case has led both the Spanish and French +breeders to cultivate them largely--the latter, to a monstrosity. An +exceedingly wrinkled neck, however, adds but little to the weight of the +fleece--not enough, in fact, to compensate for the deformity, and the +great impediment thus placed in the way of the shearer. A smoothly drawn +skin, and the absence of all dead lap, would not, on the other hand, +perhaps be desirable. + +The wool should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly +grow--from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on +the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, particularly in +young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks; but long +wool covering the legs, and on the nose, below the eyes, is unsightly, +without value; while on the face it frequently impedes the sight of the +animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm, and +disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool the +slightest indication of a heavy fleece--contrary to what seems to be +thought by some. It is very often seen in Saxons shearing scarcely two +pounds of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos. + +The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit is another mooted point. +Merino wool should be yolky, or oily, prior to washing--though not to +the extreme extent, occasionally witnessed, of giving it the appearance +of being saturated with grease. The extreme tips may exhibit a +sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast, particularly +in the ram; but a black, pitchy gum, resembling half-hardened tar, +extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which +cannot be removed by ordinary washing, is decidedly objectionable. There +is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, +which appears in the interior of some fleeces, and is equally +objectionable. + +The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with +compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, since it constitutes a +better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the +animal from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and +fall. The wool should be, as nearly as possible, of even length and +thickness over the entire body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or +thickness on the belly, are serious defects. + +Evenness of fleece is a point of the first importance. Many sheep +exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and +even hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc. Rams of this stamp should not be +bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-woolled flock; +and all such ewes should gradually be excluded from those selected for +breeding. + +The style of the wool is a point of as much importance as mere fineness. +Some very fine wool is stiff, and the fibres almost straight, like hair. +It has a dry, cottony look; and is a poor, unsalable article, however +fine the fibre. Softness of wool--a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel +between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to be regarded. +This is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good +qualities; so much so, indeed, that an experienced judge can decide, +with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces, in the +dark. Wool should be finely serrated, or crimped from one extremity to +the other: that is, it should present a regular series of minute curves; +and, generally, the greater the number of these curves in a given +length, the higher the quality of the wool in all other particulars. The +wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead +of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a +pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is +pressed open each way with the hands, it should be close enough to +conceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of +the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and +liveliness of appearance not surpassed in the best silk. + +The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon +particularly to avoid are, a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes; a +thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders; narrow loins; +flat ribs; steep, narrow hind-quarters; long legs; thighs scarcely +meeting at all; and legs drawn far under the body at the least approach +of cold. All these points were, separately or conjointly, illustrated in +many of the Saxon flocks which have been swept from the country. +Sufficient attention has already been paid to the points to be avoided +in the fleece. + + +BREEDING MERINOS. + +The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is, that "like +will beget like." If the sire and ewe are perfect in any given points, +the offspring will generally be; if either is defective, the +offspring--subject to a law which will possibly be noticed--will be +half-way between the two; if both are defective in the same points, +the progeny will be more so than either of its parents--it will +inherit the amount of defect in both parents added together. There are +exceedingly few perfect animals. Breeding, therefore, is a system of +counterbalancing--breeding out--in the offspring, the defects of one +parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, in the same +points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the +greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny; but, +blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater +degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from +ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impropriety, +provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose; but, where a high +standard of quality is aimed at, all ewes possessing even considerable +defects should gradually be thrown out from breeding. Every year should +add to the vigor of the selection. + +But, from the beginning--and at the beginning, more than at any other +time--the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. +If he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future +flock; if it is a material one--as, for example, a hollow back, bad +cross, or thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece--the flock will be one +of low quality and little value. If, on the other hand, he is perfect, +the defects in the female will be lessened, and gradually bred out. It +being, however, difficult to find perfect rams, those should be taken +which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of these material, +like those just enumerated. These defects are to be met and +counterbalanced by the decided excellence--sometimes, indeed, running +into a fault--of the ewe, in the same points. If the ram, then, is a +little too long-legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for +him; if gummy, the dryest-woolled; if his fleece is a trifle below the +proper standard of fineness--but he has been retained, as often happens, +for weight of fleece and general excellence--he is to be put to the +finest and lightest-fleeced ewes, and so on. With a selection of rams, +this system of counterbalancing would require but little skill, if each +parent possessed only a single fault. If the ewe be a trifle too +thin-fleeced, and good in all other particulars, it would require no +nice judgment to decide that she should be bred to an uncommonly +thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to a greater or less +degree, several defects. To select so that every one of these in the +dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and the contrary, requires not +only plentiful materials from which to select, but the keenest +discrimination. + +After the breeder has successfully established his flock, and given them +an excellent character, he soon encounters a serious evil. He must +"breed in-and-in," as it is called--that is, interbreed between animals +more or less nearly related in blood--or he must seek rams from other +flocks, at the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of +his flock, hitherto so carefully sought, and built up with so much +painstaking. The opponents of in-and-in breeding contend that it renders +diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease +of size, debility, and a general breaking up of the constitution. Its +defenders, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly +healthy, this mode does not, of itself, tend to any diminution of +healthfulness in the offspring; and they likewise claim--which must be +conceded--that it enables the skilful breeder much more rapidly to +bring his flock to a particular standard or model, and to keep it there +much more easily--unless it be true that, in course of time, they will +dwindle and grow feeble. + +[Illustration: THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG, OR COLLEY.] + +So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, both positions +may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, difficult always +to decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease, +but from all tendency or predisposition towards it. A brother or sister +may be apparently healthy--may be actually so--but may still possess a +peculiarity of individual conformation which, under certain +circumstances, will manifest itself. If these circumstances do not +chance to occur, they may live until old age, apparently possessing a +robust constitution. If tried together, their offspring--by a rule +already laid down--will possess this individual tendency in a double +degree. If the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, +granddaughters, etc., for several generations, the predisposition toward +a particular disease--in the first place slight, now strong, and +constantly growing stronger--will pervade, and become radically +incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time +the requisite exciting causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks +out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and +malignancy. If it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept +away; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring +intervals. The same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the +outward form which do not at first, from their slightness, attract the +notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased until, almost +before thought of by the owner, they destroy the value of the sheep. +That such are the common effects of in-and-in breeding, with such skill +as it is commonly conducted, all know who have given attention to the +subject; and for these reasons the system is regarded with decided +disapprobation and repugnance by nine out of ten of the best practical +farmers. + +The sheep-breeder can, however, avoid the effects of in-and-in breeding, +and at the same time preserve the character of his flock, by seeking +rams of the same breed, possessing, as nearly as possible, _the +characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock_. If this +rule is neglected--if he draws indiscriminately from all the different +varieties or families of a breed--some large, and some small--some +long-woolled, and some short-woolled--some medium, and some superfine in +quality--some tall, and some squatty--some crusted over with black gum, +and some entirely free from it--breeding will become a mere matter of +hap-hazard, and no certain or uniform results can be expected. So many +varieties cannot be fused into one for a number of generations--as is +evidenced by the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock, which was +commenced by a promiscuous admixture of all the Spanish families; and it +not merely happens, as between certain classes of Saxons, that +particular families can never be successfully amalgamated. + +If, however, the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard--if his +sheep are deficient in the requisites which he desires--he is still to +adhere to the breed--_provided the desired requisites are characteristic +of the breed he possesses_--and select better animals to improve his own +inferior ones. If he has, for instance, an inferior flock of +South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best Down dams, +he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes to +obtain qualities _not characteristic of the breed he possesses_, he must +cross with a breed which does possess them. If the possessor of +South-Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-woolled sheep similar to +the Merino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino +rams--constantly increasing the amount of Merino, and diminishing the +amount of South-Down blood. To effect the same result, he would take the +same course with the common sheep of the country, or with any other +coarse race. + +There are those, who, forgetting that some of the finest varieties now +in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of +crosses--bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any +and all circumstances. It is, it must be admitted, an unqualified +absurdity, as frequently conducted--as, for example, an attempt to unite +the fleece of a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses +between those breeds; but, under the limitations already laid down, and +with the objects specified as legitimate ones, this objection to +crossing savors of the most profound prejudice, or the most unblushing +quackery. It is neither convenient, nor within the means of every man +wishing to start a flock of sheep, to commence exclusively with +full-bloods. With a few to breed rams from, and to begin a full-blood +stock, the breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best +common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with Merino +rams. In selecting the ewes, good shape, fair size, and a robust +constitution, are the main points--the little difference in the quality +of the common sheep's wool being of no consequence. For their wool, they +are to look to the Merino; but good form and constitution they can and +ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely +unnecessary evils on their progeny. + +Satisfactory results have followed crossing a Down ram--small, compact, +exceedingly beautiful, fine and even fleeced--with large-sized Merino +ewes. The half-blood ewes were then bred to a Merino ram, and also their +female progeny, and so on. The South-Downs, from a disposition to take +on fat, manifested themselves, to a perceptible extent, in every +generation, and the wool of many of the sheep in the third +generation--seven-eighths blood Merino, and one-eighth blood Down--was +very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium Merino. +Their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood Merinos, but increased in +weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter. The mutton of +the first, and even of the second cross was of a beautiful flavor, and +retained, to the last, some of the superiority of South-Down mutton. + +Results are also noted of breeding Leicester ewes--taking one cross of +the blood, as in the preceding case--toward the Merino. The mongrels, to +the second generation--beyond which they were not bred--were about +midway between the parent stock in size--with wool shorter, but far more +fine and compact than the Leicester--their fleeces about the same +weight, five pounds--and, altogether, they were a showy and profitable +sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces, +however, lacked evenness, their thighs remaining disproportionately +coarser and heavy. + +A difference of opinion exists in relation to the number of crosses +necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram. Some high +authorities assert that it does not admit of the slightest doubt that a +Merino, in the fourth generation, from even the worst-woolled ones, is +in every respect equal to the stock of the sire--that no difference need +to be made in the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood, or a +fifteen-sixteenths--and that, however coarse the fleece of the parent +ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show +it. + +Others, however--while admitting that the only value of blood or +pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the +properties of the parent to the offspring, and that, as soon as a +mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on the +progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally +valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal--contend +that this cannot be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the +fourth Merino cross. They assert that the offspring of such crosses +invariably lack the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. The +sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the last, +perhaps, almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams; yet pure blood +is a fixed standard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty +to depart from it in his rams, each one more or less, according to his +judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become +adulterated. No man, assuredly, can be authorized to sell a ram of any +cross, whether the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood. + +It is of the utmost importance for those _commencing_ flocks, either of +full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram +may, by methods which will hereafter be described, be made to serve from +one hundred to one hundred and fifty ewes in a season. A good Merino ram +will, moderately speaking, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece +of the dam, or every lamb got by it, from a common-woolled ewe--that is, +if the ewe at three years old sheared three pounds of wool, the lamb at +the same age will shear four. This would give one hundred or one hundred +and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season; and +every lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount. Many a +ram gets, during his life, eight hundred or one thousand lambs. Nor is +the extra amount of wool all. He gets from eight hundred to one thousand +half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the +basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is +as important and, it may be, quite as valuable an animal as a good +farm-horse stallion. When the number of a ram's progeny are taken into +consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in +his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be +perpetuated, the folly of that economy which would select an inferior +animal is sufficiently obvious. + +It will be found the best economy in starting a flock, where the proper +flocks from which to draw rams are not convenient, to purchase several +of the same breed, of course, but _of different strains of blood_. Thus +ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and the reverse; No. 3 +can be put on the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. +3. The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, +without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any +considerable danger, are innumerable. + +The brother and sister, it will be born in mind, are of the same blood; +the father and daughter, half; the father and granddaughter, one-fourth; +the father and great-granddaughter, one-eighth; and so on. Breeding +between animals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be +considered very close breeding; and it is not unusual, in rugged, +well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of +the same blood. + +If, however, these rams of different strains are brought promiscuously, +without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and +probably will, be difference between them; and it might require time and +skill to give a flock descended from them a proper uniformity of +character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish +different strains of blood, with the necessary individual and family +uniformity. + + +GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. + +Some few suggestions upon the general principles to be observed in +breeding may not be superfluous here, referring the reader, who is +disposed to investigate this subject in detail, to its full discussion +in the author's treatise upon "Cattle and their Diseases." + +As illustrative of the importance of _breeding only from the best_, +taking care to avoid structural defects, and especially to secure +freedom from _hereditary diseases_, since both defects and diseases +appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities, it may +be remarked that scrofula is not uncommon among sheep, and presents +itself in various forms. Sometimes it is connected with consumption; +sometimes it affects the viscera of the abdomen, and particularly the +mesenteric glands, in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs. The +scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to affect the +f[oe]tus, and lambs have occasionally been dropped with it; but much +oftener they show it at an early age, and any affected in this way are +liable to fall an easy prey to any ordinary or prevalent disease, which +develops in such with unusual severity. Sheep are also liable to several +diseases of the brain, and of the respiratory and digestive organs. +Epilepsy, or "fits," and rheumatism sometimes occur. + +The breeder's aim should be to grasp and _render permanent_, and +increase so far as practicable, _every variation for the better_, and to +reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward tendency. A +remarkable instance of the success which has often attended the +well-directed efforts of intelligent breeders, is furnished in the new +Mauchamp-Merino sheep, which originated in a single animal--a product of +the law of variation--and which, by skilful breeding and selection, has +become an established breed of a peculiar type, and possessing valuable +properties. Samples of the wool of these sheep were shown at the great +exhibition in London, in 1851, as well as at the subsequent great +agricultural exhibition at Paris, and attracted much attention. + +This breed was originated by Mons. J. L. Graux. In 1828, a Merino ewe +produced a peculiar ram lamb, having a different shape from the ordinary +Merino, and possessing wool singularly long, straight, and silky. Two +years afterward, Mr. Graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe, +having the silky character of wool. Among the produce of the ensuing +year were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces; and in 1833, there +were rams enough of the new sort to serve the whole flock of ewes. In +each subsequent year, the lambs were of two kinds; one possessing the +curled, elastic wool of the old Merinos, only a little longer and finer, +and the other like the new breed. At last, the skilful breeder obtained +a flock containing the fine, silky fleece with a smaller breed, broader +flanks, and more capacious chest; and several flocks being crossed with +the Mauchamp variety, the Mauchamp-Merino breed is the result. + +The pure Mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as a +combing-wool, owing to the strength, as well as the length and fineness +of the fibre. It is found of great value by the manufacturers of +Cashmere shawls, and similar goods, being second only to the true +Cashmere fleece, in the fine, flexible delicacy of the fibre; and when +in combination with Cashmere wool, imparting strength and consistency. +The quantity of this wool has since become as great as that from +ordinary Merinos, or greater, while its quality commands twenty-five per +cent. higher price in the French market. Breeders, certainly, cannot +watch too closely any accidental peculiarity of conformation or +characteristic in their flocks. + +_The apparent influence of the male_ first having fruitful intercourse +with a female, _upon her subsequent offspring by other males_, has been +noticed by various writers. The following well-authenticated instances +are in point: + +A small flock of ewes, belonging to Dr. W. Wells, in the island of +Granada, was served by a ram procured for the purpose. The ewes were all +white and woolly; the ram was quite different, being of a chocolate +color, and hairy like a goat. The progeny were, of course, crosses, but +bore a strong resemblance to the male parent. The next season, Dr. Wells +obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes; but the progeny +showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram, in color and +covering. The same thing occurred on neighboring estates, under like +circumstances. + +Six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes, belonging to Mr. H. +Shaw, of Leochel, Cushnie, were served by a white-faced hornless +Leicester ram. The lambs were crosses. The next year they were served by +a ram of exactly the same breed as the ewes themselves, and their lambs +were, without an exception, hornless and brownish in the face, instead +of being black and horned. The third year they were again served by a +superior ram of their own breed; and again the lambs were mongrels, but +showed less of the Leicester characteristics than before; and Mr. Shaw +at last parted from these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred +lamb. + +To account for this result--seemingly regarded by most physiologists as +inexplicable--Mr. James McGillivray, V. S., of Huntley, has offered an +explanation, which has received the sanction of a number of competent +writers. His theory is, that when a pure animal of any breed has been +pregnant by an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal _is a +cross ever after_, the purity of her blood being lost, in consequence of +her connection with the foreign animal, and herself becoming a cross +forever, incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed. + +To cross, _merely for the sake of crossing_, to do so without that care +and vigilance which are highly essential, is a practice which cannot be +too much condemned, being, in fact, a national evil, if pushed to such +an extent as to do away with a useful breed of animals, and establish a +generation of mongrels in their place--a result which has followed in +numerous instances amongst every breed of animals. + +The principal use of crossing is to raise animals for the butcher. The +male, being generally an animal of a superior breed, and of a vigorous +nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size, and muscular +development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to +him; while their internal nature, derived from the dam, well adapts them +to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have +been accustomed. + +With sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil, as regards the goodness +of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent +the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and +superior ram is often very considerable; and the weight of mutton is +thereby materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while +earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, +more systematic attention than most farmers usually like to bestow, for +it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a +native ram, for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the +breed, and a foreign ram, to raise the improved cross-bred animals for +felting, either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders +of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South-Down rams to improve the +quality of the mutton. + +One inconvenience attending this plan is the necessity of fattening the +maiden ewes as well as the wethers. They may, however, be disposed of as +fat lambs, or the practice of spaying (fully explained in "Cattle and +their Diseases") might be adopted, so as to increase the felting +disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with +the greatest caution and skill, where the object is to improve the breed +of animals. It should never be practised carelessly or capriciously, but +it may be advantageously pursued, with a view to raising superior and +profitable animals for the butcher. For the latter purpose, it is +generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they +possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance +that the _pelvis_ of the female should be wide and capacious, so that no +injury may arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the +heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied for +the same reason. + +In crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new breed, the +size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; +although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed +which is sought to be improved. Thus, the South-Downs have vastly +improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester, the huge Lincolns and +the Cotswolds. + + +USE OF RAMS. + +Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and +even longer. The lambs of very old rams are commonly supposed not to be +as those of middle-aged ones; though where rams have not been +overtasked, and have been properly fed, little if any difference is +discoverable in their progeny by reason of their sire's age. A ram lamb +should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, in +many instances, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling +may run with thirty ewes, a two-year-old with from forty to fifty, and a +three-year-old with from fifty to sixty; while some very powerful, +mature rams will serve seventy or eighty. Fifty, however, is enough, +where they _run with_ the ewes. It is well settled that an impoverished +and overtasked animal does not transmit his individual properties so +decidedly to his offspring as does one in full vigor. + +Rams, of course, are not to be selected for ewes by mere chance, but +according as their qualities may improve those of the ewes. It may not +be superfluous, though seemingly a repetition, to state that a good ewe +flock should exhibit these characteristics: _strong bone_, supporting a +roomy frame, affording space for a large development of flesh; +_abundance of wool of a good quality_, keeping the ewes warm in +inclement weather, and insuring profit to the breeder; _a disposition to +fatten early_, enabling the breeder readily to get rid of his sheep +selected for the butcher; and _a prolific tendency_, increasing the +flock rapidly, and being also a source of profit. Every one of these +properties is advantageous in itself; but when all are combined in the +same individuals of a flock, that flock is in a high state of +perfection. In selecting rams, it should be observed whether or not they +possess one or more of those qualities in which the ewes may be +deficient, in which case their union with the ewes will produce in the +progeny a higher degree of perfection than is to be found in the ewes +themselves, and such a result will improve the state of the future +ewe-flock; but, on the contrary, if the ewes are superior in all points +to the rams, then, of course, the use of such will only serve to +deteriorate the future ewe-flock. + +Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnatural +and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant blows. +It is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be avoided, +and, as customarily managed, is destructive to every thing like careful +and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should +possess to the female is out of the question where half a dozen or more +rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes. + +Before the rams are let out, the breeding ewes should all be brought +together in one yard; the form of each noted, together with the length, +thickness, quality and style of her wool--ascertained by opening the +wool on the shoulder, thigh, and belly. When every point is thus +determined, that ram should be selected which, on the whole, is best +calculated to perpetuate the excellencies of each, both of fleece and +carcass, and to best counterbalance defects in the mutual offspring. +Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a distinct mark, +which will continue visible until the next shearing. For this purpose, +nothing is better than Venetian red and hog's lard, well incorporated, +and marked on with a cob. The ewes for each ram require a differently +shaped mark, and the mark should also be made on the ram, as noted in +the sheep-book. Thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the +ewe was tapped, any time before the next shearing. The ewes selected for +each ram are placed in different enclosures, and the chosen ram placed +with them. Rams require but little preparation on being put among ewes. +If their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they +are ready for the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. Most +of the ewes will be served during the second week the ram is among them, +and in the third, all. It is better, however, not to withdraw the rams +until the expiration of four weeks, when the flocks can be doubled, or +otherwise re-arranged for winter, as may be necessary. The trouble thus +taken is, in reality, slight--nothing, indeed, when the beneficial +results are considered. With two assistants, several hundred ewes may be +properly classified and divided in a single day. + +Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is desirable to make the +services of one go a great way, or where it is impossible to have +separate enclosures--as on farms where there are a great number of +breeding ewes, or where the shepherd system is adopted, to the exclusion +of fences--resort may be had to another method. A hut should be built, +containing as many apartments as the ram is desired to be used, with an +alley between them, each apartment to be furnished with a feeding-box +and trough in one corner, and gates or bars opening from each into the +alley, and at each end of the alley. Adjoining these apartments, a yard +should be inclosed, of size just sufficient to hold the flock of +breeding ewes. + +A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every hundred ewes, +are then aproned, their briskets rubbed with Venetian red and hog's +lard, and let loose among the ewes. _Aproning_ is performed by sewing a +belt of coarse sacking, broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind +legs, loosely but strongly around the body. To prevent its slipping +forward or back, straps are carried round the breast and back of the +breech. It should be made _perfectly secure_, or all the labor of this +method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on +the brisket should be renewed every two or three days; and it will be +necessary to change the "teasers"--as these aproned rams are +called--about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage +under such unnatural circumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought +into the yard in front of the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the +teasers are taken into the alley. Each is admitted _once_ to the ram for +which she is marked, and then goes out _at the opposite end of the +alley_ from which they entered, into a field separate from that +containing the flock from which she was taken. A powerful and vigorous +ram, from three to seven years old, and properly fed, can thus be made +to serve from one hundred and fifty to even two hundred ewes, with no +greater injury than from running loose with fifty or sixty. The labor +here required is likewise more apparent than real, when the operation is +conducted in a systematic manner. + +Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years +longer, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is better to +continue it. In all cases, they should, after serving, be put on good +pasture, as they will have lost a good deal of condition, being +indisposed to settle during the tapping season. A ram should receive +the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats daily, when worked +hard. They are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered +to run at large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat +from a measure held by the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their +stock-rams, from the time they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, +to have them halter-broke, so that they can be led about without +dragging or lifting them. An iron ring attached to one of the horns, +near the point, to which a cord can be fastened for leading, confining, +etc., is very useful and convenient. If rams are wild, it is a matter of +considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be +effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some breeders, in +addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks each night, +shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. To this practice +there is no objection, and it greatly saves their strength. + +Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at least +in the Northern States. It is much better that a ewe go dry than that +she have a lamb later than the first of June. Besides, after the rutting +season is over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant +ewes dangerous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. + +It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation and the first +period of gestation take place in cold weather, the f[oe]tus will be +fitted for the climate which rules during the early stages of its +existence. If this be so--and it is certainly in accordance with the +laws of Nature--fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their +excellence by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement +of cold weather; and, in the Northern States, this is done about the +first of December, thus bringing the yeaning time in the last of April, +or the first of May, when the early grass affords a large supply and +good quality of food. + + +LAMBING. + +[Illustration: EWE AND LAMBS.] + +The ewe goes with young about five months, varying from one hundred and +forty-five to one hundred and sixty-two days. Pregnant ewes require the +same food as at all other times. Until two or three weeks preceding +lambing, it is only necessary that they, like other store-sheep, be kept +in good, plump, ordinary condition; nor are any separate arrangements +necessary for them after that period, in a climate where they obtain +sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of milk. In +backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start prior to +the lambing-time, careful farmers feed their ewes on chopped roots, or +roots mixed with oat and pea-meal, which is excellent economy. Caution +is, however, necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is often +the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The first may be +remedied by blood-letting and spare diet; and both the last by restored +health and generous food. Sudden frights, as from dogs or strange +objects; long or severe journeys, great exertions, unwholesome food, +blows in the region of the f[oe]tus, and some other causes, produce +abortion. + +Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to the fifteenth +of May; in the South, they can safely come earlier. It is not expedient +to have them dropped when the weather is cold or boisterous, as they +require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the weather has +become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes +that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of +milk. It is customary, in the North, to have fields of clover, or the +earliest grasses, reserved for the early spring-feed of the +breeding-ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their stables, it is a +great convenience--for the ewes should be confined in the latter, on +cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season. + +If the weather be warm and pleasant, and the nights moderately warm, it +is better to have the lambing take place in the pasture; since sheep are +then more disposed to own their lambs, and take kindly to them, than in +the confusion of a small inclosure. In the latter, sheep, unless +particularly docile, crowd from one side to another when any one enters, +running over young lambs, pressing them severely, etc.; ewes become +separated from their lambs, and then run violently round from one to +another, jostling and knocking them about; young and timid ewes, when so +separated, will frequently neglect their lambs for an hour or more +before they will again approach them, while, if the weather is severely +cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, is in danger of perishing. +Lambs, too, when first dropped in a _dirty_ inclosure, tumble about, in +their first efforts to rise, and the membrane which adheres to them +becomes smeared with dirt and dung; and the ewe's refusing to lick them +dry much increases the hazard of freezing. + +In cold storms, however, and in sudden and severe weather, all this must +be encountered; and, therefore, every shepherd should teach his sheep +docility. It requires but a very moderately cold night to destroy the +new-born Saxon lamb, which--the pure blood--is dropped nearly as naked +as a child. During a severely cold period, of several days continuance, +it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. The +Merino, South-Down, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree +of cold with impunity. Where inclosures are used for yeaning, they +should be kept clean by frequent litterings of straw--not enough, +however, to be thrown on at any one time, to embarrass the lamb about +rising. + +The predisposing symptoms of lambing are, enlargement and reddening of +the parts under the tail, and drooping of the flanks. The more immediate +are, when the ewe stretches herself frequently; separating herself from +her companions; exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place +for any length of time; lying down and rising up again, as if +dissatisfied with the place; pawing the ground with a forefoot; +bleating, as if in quest of a lamb; and appearing fond of the lambs of +other ewes. In a very few hours, or even shorter time after the +exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate symptom of lambing is the +expulsion of the bag of water from the _vagina_. When this is observed, +the ewe should be narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may be +expected to come on immediately. When these are felt by her, the ewe +presses or forces with earnestness, changing one place or position for +another, as if desirous of relief. + +The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition. Her +labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud +moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go about +several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and nose +of the lamb protruding at the mouth of the _vagina_. If let alone, +however, Nature will generally relieve her. In case of a false +parturition of the f[oe]tus--which is comparatively rare--the shepherd +may apply his thumb and finger, after oiling, to push back the lamb, and +assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear. Where +feebleness in expelling the f[oe]tus exists, only the slightest aid +should be rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. The +objection to interfering--except as a last resort--is, that the ewe is +frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease. When +aided, in any case, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in +conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. The clearing, or _placenta_, +generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very short time--in many +cases, within a few minutes--after lambing. It should be carried away, +and not allowed to lie upon the lambing-pound. + +Common kale, or curly-greens, is excellent food for ewes that have +lambed, as its nutritive matter, being mucilaginous, is wholly soluble +in water, and beneficial in encouraging the necessary discharges of the +ewe at the time of lambing. In these respects, it is a better food than +Swedish turnips--upon which sheep are sometimes fed--which become rather +too fibrous and astringent, in spring, for the secretion of milk. In the +absence of kale or cabbage, a little oil-cake will aid the discharges +and purify the body. New grass also operates medicinally upon the +system. + + +MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. + +While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise--the ewe, +meanwhile, licking it dry--it is well to be in no haste to interfere. A +lamb that gets at the teat without help, and procures even a small +quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely +perishes. If helped, it sometimes continues to expect it, and will do +little for itself for two or three days. The same is true where lambs +are fed from a spoon or bottle. + +But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise--especially if the ewe +has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly--it is time to render +assistance. It is not advisable to throw the ewe down--as is frequently +practised--in order to suckle the lamb; because instinct teaches the +latter to point its nose _upward_ in search of the teats. It is, +therefore, doubly difficult to teach it to suck from the bag of the +prostrate ewe; and when it is taught to do this, by being so suckled +several times, it is awkward about finding the teat in the natural +position, when it begins to stand and help itself. Carefully disengaging +the ewe from her companions, with his crook--which useful article will +be hereafter described--the assistant should place one hand before the +neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe, and then, pressing +her against his knees, he should hold her firmly and still, so that she +will not be constantly crowding away from the shepherd, who should set +the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible; if not, +supporting it _on its feet_ by placing one hand under its body; put its +mouth to the teat, and encourage it to suck by tickling it about the +roots of the tail, flanks, etc., with a finger. The lamb, mistaking this +last for the caresses of its dam, will redouble its efforts to suck. +Sometimes it will manifest great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, +in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding +backward, etc.; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink +himself to the level of brute, by resenting the stupidity of a brute, +will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking a +little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will +induce it to take hold. + +If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed, until the natural supply +commences, with small quantities of the milk of a _new-milch_ cow. This +should be mixed, say half and half, with water, with enough molasses to +give it the purgative effect of the first milk, gently warmed to the +natural heat--not scalded and suffered to cool--and then fed through a +bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should _suck_, +if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a +spoon or bottle, it is frequently difficult, as before stated, to induce +it to suck. Moreover, unless milk is poured into the mouth slowly and +with care--no faster than the lamb can swallow--a speedy wheezing, the +infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid +has been forced into the lungs. Lambs have been frequently killed in +this way. + +If a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped in a woollen blanket, +placed in a warm room, and given a little milk as soon as it will +swallow. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and +with good effect, for the purpose of rousing the cold and torpid +stomach into action. In New England, under such circumstances, the lamb +is sometimes "baked," as it is called--that is, put in a blanket in a +moderately-heated oven, until warmth and animation are restored; others +immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry, which is said to +be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen. A good blanket +however, a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction +will generally suffice. + +If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chance to lose her lamb, she +should be required to bring up one of some other ewe's twins, or the +lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of milk. +Her own lamb should be skinned as soon as possible after death, and the +skin sewed over the lamb which she is to foster. She will sometimes be a +little suspicious for a day or two; and if so, she should be kept in a +small pen with the lamb, and occasionally looked to. After she has taken +well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If no +lamb is placed on a ewe which lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of +milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may +ensue; even if this is not the result, permanent indurations, or other +results of inflammatory action, will take place, injuring the subsequent +nursing properties of the animal. When milked, it is well to wash the +bag for some time in cold water, since it checks the subsequent +secretions of milk, as well as allays inflammation. + +Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her +lamb, will not stand for it to suck; and in this case, if the lamb is +not very strong and persevering, and particularly if the weather is +cold, it soon grows weak, and perishes. The conduct of the dam, in such +instances, is occasioned by inflammatory action about the bag or teats, +and perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position. In this case, the +sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted her bag, +and there will not often be any trouble afterward; though it may be well +enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined. + +Such pens--necessary in a variety of cases other than those +mentioned--need not exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built +of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so that they +can be readily moved by one man, or, at the most, two, from place to +place, where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted, +when sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles +laid up like a fence, and each nailed and pegged to the lower ones at +the corners, or laid on, are quite serviceable. Two or three sides of a +few of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered, +in order to shield feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, and the +like. + +Young lambs are subject to what is commonly known as "pinning"--that is, +their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of +the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering +matter, in such cases, should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed +with a little dry clay, to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will +frequently perish from this cause, if not looked to for the first few +days. + +The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks, and have +a frequent change of pasture. Some careful shepherds adopt the plan of +confining their lambs, allowing them to suck two or three times a day. +By this method they suffer no fatigue, and thrive much faster. It is, +however, troublesome as well as injurious, since the exercise is +essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for +rearing. It is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market; +and with those who rear them for this purpose it is a common practice. + +Where there are orphans or supernumeraries in the flock, the deserted +lambs must be brought up by hand. Such animals, called pet lambs, are +supported on cow's milk, which they receive warm from the cows each time +they are milked, and as much as they can drink. In the intervals of +meals, in bad weather, they are kept under cover; in good weather they +are put into a grass enclosure during the day, and sheltered at night +until the nights become warm. They are fed by hand out of a small +vessel, which should contain as much milk as it is known each can drink. +They are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the fingers, like +a calf, and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in the mouth, a +small tin tube, about three inches in length, and of the thickness of a +goose-quill, should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed +tightly on, to use as a substitute for a teat, by means of which they +will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and quickness. A +goose-quill would answer the same purpose, were it not easily squeezed +together by the mouth. When the same person feeds the lambs--and this +should be the dairy-maid--they soon become attached to her, and desire +to follow her everywhere; but to prevent their bleating, and to make +them contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a stake or bush in +the inclosure, will keep them together. + +It is much better for the lambs and for their dams that they be _weaned_ +from three and a half to four months old. When taken away, they should +be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that they may +not hear each other's bleatings, as the lambs, when in hearing of their +dams, continue restless much longer, and make constant and, frequently, +successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. One +or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, to teach them +to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat out of +troughs when winter approaches. + +When weaned, the lambs should be put on the freshest and tenderest +grass--rich, sweet food, but not too luxuriant. The grass and clover, +sown the preceding spring, on grain-fields seeded down, is often +reserved for them. The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a +fortnight on short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be +looked to after a day or two, and if the bags of any are found much +distended, the milk should be drawn away, and the bags washed for a +little time in cold water. On short feed, they rarely give much trouble +in this respect. When thoroughly dried off, they should have the best +fare, to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and +wintering. The fall is a critical period in which to lose flesh, either +for sheep or lambs; and if any are found deficient, they should at once +be provided with extra feed and attention. If cold weather overtake +them, poor or in ill health, they will scarcely outlive it; or if by +chance they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired constitution, and +scant fleece will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost. + + +CASTRATION AND DOCKING. + +Some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after birth, while +others will not allow the operation to be performed until the lamb is a +month old. The weight of authority, however, is in favor of any time +between two and six weeks after birth, when the creature has attained +some strength, and the parts have not become too rigid. In such +circumstances, the best English breeders recommend from ten to fifteen +days old as the proper time. A lamb of a day old cannot be confirmed in +all the functions of its body, and, indeed, in many instances, the +testicles can then scarcely be found. At a month old, on the other hand, +the lamb may be so fat, and the weather so warm, that the operation may +be attended with febrile action. Dry, pleasant weather should be +selected for this: a cool day, if possible; if warm, it should be done +early in the morning. + +Castration is a simple and safe process. Let a man hold a lamb with its +back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach, and all four legs +gathered in front in his hands. Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free +the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and then draw it steadily out, +or clip the cord with a knife if it does not snap off at a proper +distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles at once +with their teeth. It is usual to drop a little salt into the pouch. +Where the weather is very warm, some touch the end of the pouch with an +ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. As a general thing, +however, the animal will do as well without any application. + +The object of _docking_ is to keep the sheep behind clean from filth and +vermin; since the tail, if left on, is apt to collect filth, and, if the +animal purges, becomes an intolerable nuisance. The tail, however, +should not be docked too short, since it is a protection against cold in +winter. This operation is by many deferred till a late period, from +apprehension of too much loss of blood; but, if the weather be favorable +and the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at the same time as +castration with the least trouble and without injury. + +The tail should be laid upon a plank, the animal being held in the same +position as before. With one hand the skin is drawn toward the body, +while another person, with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off +at a blow, between the bone-joints, leaving it from one and a half to +two inches long. The skin immediately slips back over the wound, which +is soon healed. Should bleeding continue--as, however, rarely +happens--so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord should be tied +firmly round the end of the tail; but this must not be allowed to remain +on above twenty-four hours, as the points of the tail would slough off. +Ewe lambs should be docked closer than rams. To prevent flies and +maggots, and assist in healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed +of lard and tar, in the proportion of four pounds of the former to one +quart of the latter. The lambs should be carefully protected from cold +and wet till they are perfectly well. + + + + +[Illustration] + +FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT + + +FEEDING. + +As soon as the warm weather approaches and the grass appears, sheep +become restive and impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be +repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the grass has +acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for the change +of food by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. The +tendency to excessive purging which is induced by the first +spring-feed, may be checked by housing them at night and feeding them +for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. They must be +provided with pure water and salt; for, though they may do tolerably +well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply +secured by this slight attention. + +As to _water_, it may be said that it is not indispensable in the summer +pastures, since the dews and the succulence of the feed answer as a +substitute; but a wide experience having demonstrated that free access +to it is advantageous, particularly to those having lambs, it should be +considered a matter of importance on a sheep-farm so to arrange the +pastures, if possible, as to bring water into each of them. + +[Illustration: A COVERED SALTING BOX.] + +SALT is indispensable to the health, especially in the summer. It is +common to give it once a week, while they are at grass. It is still +better to give them free access to it, at all times, by keeping it in a +covered box, open on one side, as in the engraving annexed. A large +hollow log, with holes cut along the side for the insertion of the heads +of the animals, answers very well. A sheep having free access to salt at +all times will never eat too much of it; and it will take its supply at +such times and in such quantities as Nature demands, instead of eating +of it voraciously at stated periods, as intermediate abstinence will +stimulate it to do. When salt is fed but once a week, it is better to +have a stated day, so that it will not be forgotten; and it is well to +lay the salt on flat stones--though if laid in little handfuls on the +grass, very little of it will be lost. + +TAR. This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for +sheep, and they smear the nose with it, which is licked and swallowed as +the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it to +trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to +get unusually salt-hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, +and then scatter salt upon it so that both may be consumed together. +Applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, it may be +advantageous in catarrhs; and in the same place, at the proper periods, +its odor may, perhaps, repel the fly, the eggs of which produce the +"gout in the head," as it is termed. However valuable it may be as a +medicine, and even as a debergent in the case specified, there is but +slight ground for confidence in it merely as a condiment. + +_Dry_, _sweet pastures_, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter +plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, with the exception +of the goat, crops so great a variety of plants. They eat many which are +rejected by the horse and the ox, which are even essential to their own +wants. In this respect they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, +as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdock, thistles, marsh-mallows, +milk-weed, and various other offending plants; and the Merino exceeds +the more recent breeds in the range of his selections. + +In pastures, however, where the dry stalks of the burdock, or the +hound's-tongue, or tory-weed have remained standing over the winter, the +burs are caught in the now long wool, and, if they are numerous, the +wool is rendered entirely unmarketable and almost valueless. Even the +dry prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very +numerous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads +under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the northern +spring; and, independently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult +to wash and otherwise handle the sheep. Indeed, it is a matter of the +soundest policy to keep sheep on the cleanest pastures, those free from +these and similar plants; and in a region where they are pastured the +year round, they should be kept from contact with them for some months +prior to shearing. + +Many prepare _artificial pastures_ for their flocks, which may be done +with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, +may be fed off in the fall, without injury to the crop; and, in the +following spring, the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and +begin to form a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn +may be sown broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the +fields or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard is +also a valuable crop for this purpose. + +To give sheep sufficient variety, it is better _to divide their range_ +into several smaller ones, and change them as often, at least, as once a +week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on a dry, elevated part of the +field, which soon becomes soiled. By removing them from this for a few +days, rain will cleanse or the sun dry it, so as to make it again +suitable for them. More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, +where this practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same +pasture. + +SHADE. No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in +hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is +pouring down upon their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a +matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot +summer-months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common +rail-fence. Forest trees are the most natural and the best shades, and +it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them +entirely from the sheep-walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board +fence on the south and west sides of the pasture, forms a tolerable +substitute for trees. But in the absence of all these and of buildings +of any kind, a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in +the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, +which will be hereafter described. + +FENCES. Poor _fences_ will teach ewes and wethers, as well as rams, to +jump; and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high +fences, or extirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole +flock; and if one by chance is brought in, it should be immediately +hoppled or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy. + +HOPPLING is done by sewing the ends of a leather strap, broad at the +extremities, so that it will not cut into the flesh, to a fore and hind +leg, just above the pastern joints, leaving the legs at about the +natural distance apart. _Clogging_ is fastening a billet of wood to the +fore leg by a leather strap. _Yoking_ is fastening two rams two or three +feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of +timber, some two or three inches in size. _Poking_ is done by inserting +a bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit--worn on the under +side of the neck--a rod is inserted, which projects a couple of feet in +front of the sheep. + +These and similar devices, to prevent rams from scaling fences, may be +employed as a last resort by those improvident farmers who prefer, by +such troublesome, injurious, and, at best, insecure means, to guard +against that viciousness which they might so much more easily have +prevented from being acquired. + +DANGEROUS RAMS. From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted and +played with when young, and sometimes without any other stimulant than a +naturally vicious temper, rams occasionally become very troublesome by +their propensity to attack men or cattle. Some will allow no man to +enter the field where they are without making an immediate onset upon +him; while others will knock down the ox or horse which presumes to +dispute a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known to have acquired +this propensity should at once be _hooded_, and, if not valuable, at the +proper season converted into a wether. But the courage thus manifested +is usually the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution, +and of a powerfully developed frame. If good in other particulars, it is +a pity to lose the services of so valuable an animal. In such cases, +they may be hooded, by covering their faces with leather in such a +manner that they can only see a little backward and forward. They must +then, however, be kept apart from the flock of rams, or they will soon +be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape. + +It sometimes happens that a usually quiet-tempered ram will suddenly +exhibit some pugnacity when one is salting or feeding the flock. If such +a person turns to run, he is immediately knocked down, and the ram +learns, from that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the +propensity to exercise it. As the ram gives his blow from the summit of +the parietal and the posterior portion of the frontal bones on _the top_ +of his head, and not from the forehead, he is obliged to crouch his head +so low when he makes his onset that he does not see forward well enough +to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a few quick motions to the +right and left enable one to escape him. Run in upon him, as he dashes +by, with pitch-fork, club, or boot-heel, and punish him severely by +blows about the head, if the club is used, giving him no time to rally +until he is thoroughly cowed. This may be deemed harsh treatment, and +likely to increase the viciousness of the animal. Repeated instances +have, however, proved the contrary; and if the animal once is forced to +acknowledge that he is overcome, he never forgets the lesson. + +PRAIRIE FEEDING. Sheep, when destined for the prairies, ought to +commence their journey as early after the shearing as possible, since +they are then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and retain +as much dust as when driven later; feed is also generally better, and +the roads are dry and hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, +with early lambs; or, if the latter are too young, and the distance +great, they should be left, and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought +to accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or they +may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With good care, a +hardy flock may be driven at the rate of twelve or fourteen miles a day. +Constant watchfulness is requisite, in order to keep them healthy and in +good plight. One-half the expense of driving may be saved by the use of +well-trained shepherd-dogs. + +When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly washed, to +free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to any diseases which +they may have contracted, that these may be promptly removed. A variety +of suitable food and good shelter must be provided for the autumn, +winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given to them. +This would be necessary if they were indigenous to the country; but it +is much more so when they have just undergone a campaign to which +neither they nor their race have been accustomed. + +Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, artificial food, +and proper attention; and losses have often occurred, by reason of a +false system of economy attempted by many, from disease and mortality in +the flocks, amply sufficient to have made a generous provision for the +comfort and security of twice the number lost. More especially do they +require proper food and attention after the first severe frosts set in, +which wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the bog--the +frostbitten, dead grass--they are inevitably subject to constipation, +which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, etc., is alone sufficient to +remove. + +Roots, grain, good hay, straw, corn-stalks, and pea or bean-vines are +essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the +winter, everywhere north of thirty-nine degrees. In summer, the natural +herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they shall +have acquired a denser population of animals, when it will be found +necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial +grasses. + +The prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced +into the United States; and of such are the flocks made up, according to +the taste or judgment of the owners. Shepherd dogs are invaluable to the +owners of flocks, in these unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a +defence against the small prairie wolves, which prowl around the sheep, +but have been rapidly thinned off by the settlers, and also as +assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the +open ground. + +FALL FEEDING. In the North, the grass often gets very short by the tenth +or fifteenth of November, and it has lost most of its nutritiousness +from repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, although no snow may +have fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light, daily foddering of +bright hay, and a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or +twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder +pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. It is well +to feed oats in the bundle, or threshed oats, about a gill to the head, +in the feeding-troughs, carried to the field for that purpose. + +WINTER FEEDING. The time for taking sheep from the pastures must depend +on the state of the weather and food. Severe frosts destroy much of the +nutriment in the grasses, and they soon after cease to afford adequate +nourishment. Long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain +them, will rapidly reduce the condition of these animals. The only safe +rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they +cease to thrive abroad. + +There is no better food for sheep than well-ripened, sound Timothy hay; +though the clovers and nearly all the cultivated grasses may be +advantageously fed. Hundreds and thousands of northern flocks receive, +during the entire winter, nothing but ordinary hay, consisting mainly of +Timothy, some red and white clover, and frequently a sprinkling of gum, +or spear grass. Bean and pea straw are valuable, especially the former, +which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is well +adapted to the production of wool. Where hay is the principal feed, it +may be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks every fifth or +sixth feed, or even once a day; or the daily feed, not of hay, might +alternate between stalks, pea-straw, straws of the cereal grains, etc. +It is mainly a question of convenience with the farmer, provided a +proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass is given. +It would not, however, be entirely safe to confine any kind of sheep to +the straw of the cereal grains, unless it were some of those little +hardy varieties of animals which would be of no use in this country. + +The expediency of feeding _grain_ to store-sheep in winter depends much +on circumstances. If in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply +of grass or other green esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary; +nor is it a matter of necessity where the ground is frozen or covered +with snow for weeks or months, provided the sheep be plentifully +supplied with good dry fodder. Near markets where the coarser grains +find a quick sale at fair prices, it is not usual, in the North, to feed +grain. Remote from markets it is generally fed by the holders of large +flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a +gill a head per day. Some feed half the same amount of yellow corn. +Fewer sheep, particularly lambs and yearlings, get thin and perish where +they receive a daily feed of grain; they consume less hay, and their +fleeces are increased in weight. On the whole, therefore, it is +considered good economy. Where no grain is fed, three daily feeds of hay +are given. The smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two +pounds of hay; but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to +four or even five pounds per day. Sheep, in common with all other +animals, when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if well +protected, or during a warmer season. + +It is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats in the +bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay, one at morning and one +at night. Some feed greenish cut peas in the same way. In warm, thawing +weather, when sheep get to the ground and refuse dry hay, a little grain +assists materially in keeping up their strength and condition. When the +feed is shortest in winter, in the South, there are many localities +where sheep can get enough grass to take off their appetite for dry hay, +but not quite enough to keep them in prime order. A moderate daily feed +of oats or pease, placed in the depository racks, would keep them strong +and in good plight for the lambing season, and increase their weight of +wool. + +Few Northern farmers feed _Indian corn_ to store-sheep, as it is +considered too hot and stimulating, and sheep are thought to become more +liable to become "cloyed" on it than on oats, pease, etc. Yellow corn is +not generally judged a very safe feed for lambs and yearlings. +Store-sheep should be kept in good, fair, plump condition. Lambs and +yearlings may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding. It is +stated that sheep will eat _cotton-seed_, and thrive on it. + +It must be remembered that sheep are not to be allowed to get thin +during the winter, with the idea that their condition can at any time be +readily raised by better feed, as with the horse or ox. It is always +difficult, and, unless properly managed, expensive and hazardous, to +attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock in the winter, especially +if they have reached that point where they manifest weakness. If the +feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced, fatal +diarrh[oe]a will often supervene. All extra feeding, therefore, must be +begun very gradually; and it does not appear, in any case, to produce +proportionable results. + +_Roots_, such as ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes, and the like, make a good +substitute for grain, or as extra feed for grown sheep. The ruta-baga is +preferable to the potato in its equivalents of nutriment. No root, +however, is as good for lambs and yearlings as an equivalent of grain. +Sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cultivated roots. This is done +by withholding salt from them, and then feeding the chopped roots a few +times, rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root +to obtain it; but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt before +they have acquired a taste for the roots. + +It is customary with some farmers to cut down, from time to time in the +winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the _hemlock_, +whose foliage is greedily eaten by the sheep, after being confined for +some time to dry feed. This browse is commonly used, like tar, for some +supposed medicinal virtues. It is pronounced "healthy" for sheep. Much +the same remarks might be made about this as have been already made +concerning tar. No tonics and stimulants are needed for a healthy +animal. If the foliage of the hemlock were constantly accessible to +them, there would be no possible objection to their eating it, since +their instincts, in that case, would teach them whether, and in what +quantities, to devour it; but when entirely confined to dry feed for a +protracted period, sheep will consume injurious and even poisonous +succulents, and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful quantities. As a +mere _laxative_, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial; +though, in this point of view, a day's run at grass, in a thaw, or a +feed of roots, would produce the same result. In a climate where grass +is procurable most of the time, browse for medicinal purposes is +entirely unnecessary. + +Sheep undoubtedly require _salt_ in winter. Some salt their hay when it +is stored in the barn or stack. This is objectionable, since the +appetite of the sheep is much the safest guide in the premises. It may +be left accessible to them in the salt-box, as in summer; or an +occasional feed of grined hay or straw may be given them in warm, +thawing weather, when their appetite is poor. This last is an excellent +plan, and serves a double purpose. With a wisp of straw, sprinkle a thin +layer of straw with brine, then another layer of straw, and another +sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until the next day, for the brine to +be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to all the grazing animals on +the farm which need salting. + +_Water_ is indispensable, unless sheep have access to succulent food, or +clean snow. Constant access to a brook or spring is best; but, in +default of this, they should be watered at least _once a day_ in some +other way. + +FEEDING WITH OTHER STOCK. Sheep should not run, or be fed, _in yards_, +with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often mortally; and colts tease +and frequently injure them. It is often said that "colts will pick up +what sheep leave." But well-managed sheep rarely leave any thing; and, +if they chance so to do, it is better to rake it up and throw it into +the colts' yard, than to feed them together. If sheep are not required +to eat their food pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large +quantities. If, however, they are over-fed with either hay or grain, it +is not proper to compel them, by starvation, to come back and eat it. +This they will not do, unless sorely pinched. Clean out the troughs, or +rake up the hay, and the next time feed less. + +DIVISION OF FLOCKS. If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during +winter, according to the northern custom, it is necessary to divide them +into flocks of about one hundred each, consisting of sheep of about the +same size and strength; otherwise, the stronger rob the weaker, and the +latter rapidly decline. This is not so important where the sheep roam at +large; but, even in that case, some division and classification are +best. It is best, indeed, even in summer. The poorer and feebler can by +this means receive better pasture, or a little more grain and better +shelter in winter. + +By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and wethers, +are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter; and it is best to keep +yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, +and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but +which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding ewes. + +Old and feeble or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc., should be +placed by themselves, even if the number be small, as they require +better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. Unless the sheep are of +a peculiarly valuable variety, however, it is better to sell them off in +the fall at any price, or to give them to some poor neighbor who has +time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock. + +REGULARITY IN FEEDING. If any one principle in sheep husbandry deserves +careful attention more than others, it is, that _the utmost regularity +must be preserved in feeding_. + +First, there should be regularity as to _the times_ of feeding. However +abundantly provided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour +and sometimes at another--sometimes three times a day, and sometimes +twice--some days grain, and some days none--they cannot be made to +thrive. They will do far better on inferior keep, if fed with strict +regularity. In a climate where they require hay three times a day, the +best times for feeding are about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an +hour before dark at night. Unlike cattle and horses, sheep do not feed +well in the dark; and, therefore, they should have time to consume their +food before night sets in. Noon is the common time for feeding grain or +roots, and is the best time, if but two fodderings of hay are given. If +the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a matter of much +consequence with which feeding grain is given, only that the practice be +uniform. + +Secondly, it is highly essential that there should be regularity in _the +amount_ fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon +the weather; the keener the cold, the more the sheep will eat. In the +South, much depends upon the amount of grass obtained. In many places, a +light, daily foddering supplies; in others, a light foddering placed in +the depository racks once in two days, answers the purpose. In the +steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns to +determine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering +time. And this amount should, as near as may be, be regularly fed. In +feeding grain or roots, there is no difficulty in preserving entire +regularity; and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. Of the +latter, a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself; of the former, it +will. Even if it be not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, it will +expect a like amount, however over-plenteous, at the next feeding; +failing to receive which, it will pine for it, and manifest uneasiness. +The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of any animal +is bad; and the sheep suffers more from it than any other animal. It is +much better that the flock receive no grain at all, than that they +receive it without regard to regularity in the amount. The shepherd +should _measure_ out the grain to the sheep in all instances, instead of +_guessing_ it out, and measure it to each separate flock. + +EFFECT OF FOOD. Well-fed sheep, as has been previously remarked, produce +more wool than poorly fed ones. No doctrine is more clearly recognized +in agricultural chemistry than that animal tissues derive their chemical +components from the same components existing in their food. Various +analyses show that the chemical composition of wool, hair, hoofs, nails, +horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, nerves, etc., are +nearly identical. + +The organic part of wool, according to standard authorities, consists of +carbon, 50.65; hydrogen, 7.03; nitrogen, 17.71; oxygen and sulphur, +24.61. The inorganic constituents are small. When burned, it leaves but +a trifling per cent. of ash. + +The large quantity of nitrogen contained in wool shows that its +production is increased by highly azotized food; and from various +experiments made, a striking correspondence has been found to exist +between the amount of wool and the amount of nitrogen in food. _Pease_ +rank first in increasing the wool, and very high in the average +comparative increase which they produce in all the tissues. + +The increase of fat and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of +the food. It is not very common, in the North, for wool-growers to +fatten their wethers for market by extra winter feeding. Some give them +a little more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off, +and then salt them when they have obtained their maximum fatness the +succeeding fall. + +Stall-feeding is lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty animal. The perfection +of form and health, and the uniform good condition which characterizes +the thrifty one, indicate, too plainly to be misunderstood, those which +will best repay the care of their owner. The selection of any +indifferent animal for stall-fattening will inevitably be attended with +loss. Such ought to be got rid of, when first brought from the pasture, +for the wool they will bring. + +When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shelters, +and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice +a day in troughs--or meal once and chopped roots once. The equivalent of +from half a pint to a pint of yellow corn meal per head each day is +about as much as ordinary stocks of Merino wethers will profitably +consume; though in selected flocks, consisting of large animals, this +amount is frequently exceeded. + + +YARDS. + +Experience has amply demonstrated that--in the climate of the Northern +and Eastern States, where no grass grows from four to four and a half +months in the winter, and where, therefore, all that can be obtained +from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, unnutritious herbage left in +the fall--it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where +the ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at +other times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry +hay, but not enough to sustain them; they fall away, and toward spring +they become weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. +Flocks of some size are here, of course, alluded to, and on properly +stocked farms. A few sheep would do better with a boundless range. + +Some let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, during a thaw; +others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the +spring. The former course is preferable where the sheep ordinarily get +nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and a single +day's grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one +succeeding dry feed. It is necessary, in the North, to keep sheep in the +yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they will +get off from their feed--particularly the breeding ewes--and get weak at +the most critical time for them in the year. + +Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, and, in the northern climate, kept +well littered with straw. The yarding system is not practised to any +great extent in the South; nor should it be, where sheep can get their +living from the fields. + + +FEEDING-RACKS. + +When the ground is frozen, and especially when covered with snow, the +sheep eats hay well on the ground; but when the land is soft, muddy, or +foul with manure, they will scarcely touch hay placed on it--or, if they +do, will tread much of it into the mud, in their restlessness while +feeding. It should then be fed in racks, which are more economical, even +in the first-named case; since, when the hay is fed on the ground, the +leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are almost +wholly lost. + +[Illustration: A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK.] + +To make an economical _box-rack_--the one in most general use in the +North--take six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one +for each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of pine or +hemlock, twelve or fifteen feet long, and twelve or fourteen inches +wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, +which are separated by similar boards at the ends, two and a half feet +long. Boards twelve inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space +of from nine to twelve inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, which +completes the rack. The edges of the opening should be made perfectly +smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool. The largest +dimensions given are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for +the Saxon; and still smaller are proper for the lambs. These should be +set on dry ground, or under the sheds; and they can be easily removed +wherever necessary. Unless over-fed, sheep waste very little hay in +them. + +Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the +form of the common horse-rack. This kind should always be accompanied by +a broad trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls +in feeding. These racks may be attached to the side of a building, or +used double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a large +sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding; and this amount of room, +at least, should be provided around the racks for every sheep. + +[Illustration: A HOLE-RACK.] + +With what is termed a _hole-rack_, sheep do not crowd and take advantage +of each other so much as with log-racks; but they are too heavy and +unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. This rack is +box-shaped, with the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, or, +more commonly, by nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the +sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. The holes +should be at least eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen +inches from centre to centre. + +In the South, racks are not so necessary for that constant use to which +they are put in colder sections, as they are for depositories of dry +food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. In soft, warm +weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is +to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder; though the little +they will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden +freeze, or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the +racks, and fill themselves with dry food. They anticipate the coming +storm by instinct, and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the +animal heat during the succeeding depression of temperature. They should +always have racks of dry fodder for resort in such emergencies. + +These racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from +rain, as otherwise the feed would often be spoiled before but a small +portion of it would be consumed. Hay or straw, saturated with water, or +soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of absolute +necessity. The common box-rack would answer the purpose very well by +placing on the top a triangular cover or roof, formed of a couple of +boards, one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hinges, so that +it could be lifted up like a lid; making the ends tight; drawing in the +lower edges of the sides, so that it should not be more than a foot wide +on the bottom; inserting a flow; and then mounting it on, and making it +fast to, two cross-sills, four or five inches square, to keep the floor +off from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily +overturned. The lower side-board should be narrow, on account of the +increased height given its upper edge by the sills. + +A rack of the same construction, with the sides like those described for +the hole-rack, would be still better, though somewhat more expensive; or +the sides might consist of rundles, the top being nailed down in either +case, and the fodder inserted by little doors in the ends. + +[Illustration: THE HOPPER-RACK.] + +What is termed the _hopper-rack_, serving both for a rack and a +feeding-trough, is a favorite with many sheep-owners. The accompanying +cut represents a section of such a rack. A piece of durable wood, about +four and a half feet long, six or eight inches deep, and four inches +thick, having two notches, _a a_, cut into it, and two troughs, made of +inch boards, _b b b b_, placed in these notches, and nailed fast, +constitute the formation. If the rack is to be fourteen feet long, three +sills are required. The ends of the rack are made by nailing against the +side of the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have +the rack; and nails driven through these end-boards into the ends of the +side-boards, _f f_, secure them. The sides may be further strengthened +by pieces of board on the outside of them, fitted into the trough. A +roof may be put over all, if desired, by means of which the fodder is +kept entirely from the weather, and no seeds or chaff can get into the +wool. + + +TROUGHS. + +Threshed grain, chopped roots, etc., when fed to sheep, should be placed +in troughs. With either of the racks which have been described, except +the last, a separate trough would be required. The most economical are +made of two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve inches wide. +Nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other, fastening both +into a two or three-inch plank, fifteen inches long, and a foot wide, +notched in its upper edge in the form required. In snowy sections they +are turned over after feeding, and when falls of snow are anticipated +one end is laid on the yard-fence. + +[Illustration: AN ECONOMICAL SHEEP-TROUGH.] + +Various contrivances have been brought to notice for keeping grain where +sheep can feed on it at will, a description of which is omitted, since +it is not thought best, by the most successful stock-raisers, in feeding +or fattening any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will, stated feeds +being preferred by them; and the same is true of fodder. If this system +is departed from in using depository racks, as recommended, it is +because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A +Merino store-sheep, allowed as much grain as it chose to consume, would +be likely to inflict injury on itself; and grain so fed would, generally +speaking, be productive of more damage than benefit. + + +BARNS AND SHEDS. + +Shelters, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable +sheep-raising; and in every latitude north of the Gulf of Mexico, they +would probably be found advantageous. An animal eats much less when thus +protected; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, and his manure +is richer and more abundant. The feeding may be done in the open yard in +clear weather, and under cover in severe storms: for, even in the +vigorous climate of the North, none but the breeders of Saxons make a +regular practice of feeding under cover. + +[Illustration: SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS.] + +Humanity and economy alike dictate that, in the North, sheep should be +provided with shelters under which to lie nights, and to which they can +resort at will. It is not an uncommon circumstance in New York and New +England for snow to fall to the depth of from twenty to thirty inches +within twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and then to be succeeded by a +strong and intensely cold west or northwest wind of several days +continuance, which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling +huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, etc. + +A flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning their +backs to the storm, constantly stepping, and thus treading down the snow +as it rises about them. Strong, close-coated sheep do not seem to suffer +as much from the cold, for a period, as would be expected. It is, +however, almost impossible to feed them enough, or half enough, under +such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay--entirely +impossible, indeed, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an instant +by the wind; and, even if racks are used, the sheep, leaving their +huddle, where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting snow in +their wool, soon get chilled, and are disposed to return to their +huddle. Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is +lowered, and, at the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones +sink down hopelessly, the yearlings, and those somewhat old, receive a +shock from which nothing but the most careful nursing will enable them +to rally, and even the strongest suffer an injurious loss in condition. + +Few persons, therefore, who own as many as forty or fifty sheep, attempt +to get along without some kind of shelters, which are variously +constructed, to suit their tastes or circumstances. A sheep-barn, built +upon a side-hill, will afford two floors: one underneath, surrounded by +three sides of wall, should open to the south, with sliding or swinging +doors to guard against storms; and another may be provided above, if the +floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off the urine; +and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds +overhead. They may also be constructed with twelve or fifteen-feet posts +on level ground, allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the +fodder stored above. + +In all cases, however, _thorough ventilation should be provided_; for of +the two evils, of exposure to cold or of too great privation of air, the +former is to be preferred. Sheep cannot long endure close confinement +without injury. In all ordinary weather, a shed, closely boarded on +three sides, with a light roof, is sufficient protection; especially if +the open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a +well-inclosed yard. If the floors above are used for storage, they +should be made tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the +fleece. The sheds attached to the barn are not usually framed or silled, +but are supported by some posts of durable timber set in the ground. The +roofs are formed of boards battened with slats. The barn has generally +no partitions within, and is entirely filled with hay. + +There are many situations in which open sheds are very liable to have +snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all +severe gales to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large +drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and +are very inconvenient, particularly when they thaw. For these reasons, +many prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a +wide doorway for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for the +necessary ventilation. They are convenient for yarding sheep, and the +various processes for which this is required; as for shearing, marking, +sorting, etc., and especially so for lambing-places, or the confinement +of newly-shorn sheep in cold storms. They should have so much space +that, in addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily +through the middle when required. + +The facts must not be overlooked--as bearing upon the question of +shelter, even in the warmer regions of the country--that cold rains, or +rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing +weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even +snow-storms; and that, consequently, sheep must be adequately guarded +against them. + +[Illustration: A SHED OF RAILS.] + +SHEDS. The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles or +rails, the upper end resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by +crotched posts set in the ground. It may be rendered rain-proof by +pea-vines, straw, or pine boughs. In a region where timber is very +cheap, planks or boards, of a sufficient thickness not to spring +downward, and thus open the roof, battened with slats, may take the +place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more +durable roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a +couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed +will shelter more sheep. + +These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns--"hay-barracks"--or +they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle. In the +latter case, the yard should be square, on account of the divergence in +the lower ends of the boards or poles, which a round form would render +necessary. + +Sheds of this description are frequently made between two stacks. The +end of the horizontal supporting-pole is placed on the stack-pens when +the stacks are built, and the middle is propped by crotched posts. The +supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two +hay-barracks; or two such sheds, at angles with each other, might form +wings to this structure. + +On all large sheep-farms, convenience requires that there be one barn of +considerable size, to contain the shearing-floor, and the necessary +conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, etc. This should also, for +the sake of economy, be a hay-barn, where hay is used. It may be +constructed in the corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can +be fed from it, without racking flocks of improper size. At this barn it +would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all +the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number does not exceed four +hundred. The shepherd would thus be saved much travel at all times, and +particularly at the lambing-time, and each flock would be under his +almost constant supervision. + +The size of this barn is a question to be determined entirely by the +climate. For large flocks of sheep, the storage of some hay or other +fodder for winter is an indispensable precautionary measure, at least in +any part of the United States; and, other things being equal, the +farther north, or the more elevated the land, the greater would be the +amount necessary to be stored. + +HAY-HOLDER. Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper door of +a barn into the sheep-yard--as it always must necessarily be in any mere +hay-barn--or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep +immediately rush on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding +forkfuls fall on their backs, filling their wool with dust, seed, and +chaff. This is obviated by hay-holders--yards ten feet square--either +portable, by being made of posts and boards, or simply a pen of rails, +placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each stack or +barrack. The hay is pitched into this holder in fair weather, enough for +a day's foddering at a time, and is taken from it by the fork and placed +in the racks. + +The poles or rails for stack-pens or hay-holders should be so small as +to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads in them after +hay. A sheep will often insert his head where the opening is wide enough +for that purpose, shove it along, or get crowded, to where the opening +is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until +observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as often happens, it is +thus caught when its foreparts are elevated by climbing up the side of +the pen, it will continue to lose its footing in its struggles, and will +soon choke to death. + + +TAGGING. + +Tagging, or clatting, is the removal from the sheep of such wool as is +liable to get fouled when the animal is turned on to the fresh pastures. +If sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually +purge, more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The wool +around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into +hard pellets, if the purging ceases. Whether this take place or not, the +adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of +washing; and it forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and +straining the shears to cut through it, when in a dry state, and it is +often impracticable so to do. Besides, it is difficult to force the +shears between it and the skin, without frequently and severely +wounding the latter. Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under +this mass of filth prior to shearing; and the ensuing swarm of maggots, +unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a +miserable death. + +Before the animals are let out to grass, each one should have the wool +sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs; it +should likewise be sheared from off the entire bag of the ewe, that the +newly-dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, +and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram as is usually +kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration +sometimes ensue from the constant maceration of the urine. + +An assistant should catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. +The latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off +closely and smoothly, or the object is but half accomplished, and the +sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance when the +remainder of their fleeces is taken off; while, on the other hand, it is +not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is +peculiarly so to cut that or the bag of a ewe when near lambing. The +wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the expenses of the +operation. It answers well for stockings and other domestic purposes, or +it will sell for nearly half the price of fleece-wool. + +Care should be exercised at all times in handling sheep, especially ewes +heavy with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about +and handle them roughly; for, even if abortion, the worst consequence of +such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, +rendering it difficult to catch them or render them assistance at the +lambing period, and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes, in +which it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time, without +having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, etc. If a +sheep is suddenly caught by the wool on her running, or is lifted by the +wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the +points where it is thus seized; and, if killed a day or two afterward, +blood will be found settled about those parts. + +When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just +large enough to hold them without their being crowded, so that they +shall have no chance to run and dash about. The catcher should stop them +by seizing them by the hind-leg just above the hock, or by clapping one +hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not +waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw its +right arm over and about immediately back of the shoulders, place his +hand on the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. If the sheep is +very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under +the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. He +should then set it carefully on its rump upon the tagging-table, which +should be eighteen or twenty inches high, support its back with his +legs, and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed +his duty. Two men should not be allowed to lift the same sheep together, +as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good +shearer and assistant will tag two hundred sheep per day. + +When sheep receive green feed all the year round--as they do in many +parts of the South--and no purging ensues from eating the +newly-starting grasses in the spring, tagging is unnecessary. + + +WASHING. + +Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, on account of its +tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which this animal +is particularly subject; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the +wool is always rendered more salable; and if the operation is carefully +done, it need not be attended with injury. + +Mr. Randall, the extensive sheep-breeder of Texas, states that he does +not wash his sheep at all, for what he deems good reasons. About the +middle of April, or at the time when one-half of the ewes have young +lambs at their sides, and the balance about to drop, would be the only +time in that region when he could wash them. At this period he would not +race or worry his ewes at all, on any account; as they should be +troubled as little as possible, and no advantage to the fleece from +washing could compensate for the injury to the animal. In his high +mountain-region, lambing-time could not prudently come before the latter +part of March or April--the very period when washing and shearing must +be commenced--since in February, and even up to the fifteenth or +twentieth of March, there is much bad weather, and a single cold, rainy +or sleety norther would carry off one-half of the lambs dropped during +its continuance. + +In most of that portion of the United States lying north of forty +degrees, the washing is performed from the middle of May till the first +of June, according to the season and climate. When the streams are hard, +which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it is better to +attend to it immediately after an abundant rain, which proportionately +lessens the lime derived from the springs. The climate of the Southern +States would admit of an earlier time. The rule should be to wait until +the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold +rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be expected. + +The practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their sheep to +the watering-ground early in the morning, on a warm day, leaving the +lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a +temporary enclosure, from which they are taken, and, if not too heavy, +carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. +They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, +after which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as +possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the +wool frequently staggers and throws them down. + +By the best flock-masters, sheep are usually washed in vats. A small +stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct, formed +by nailing boards together, and carried till a sufficient fall is +obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The +body of water, to do the work fast and well, should be some twenty-four +inches wide, and five or six deep; and the swifter the current the +better. The vat should be some three and a half feet deep, and large +enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the vat, from +the gate of which a platform extends to and incloses the vat on three +sides. This keeps the washer from standing in the water, and makes it +much easier to lift the sheep in and out. The yard is built opposite the +corners of two fields--to take advantage of the angle of one of them to +drive the sheep more readily into the yard, which should be large enough +to contain the entire flock, if it does not exceed two hundred; and the +bottom of it, as well as the smaller yard, unless well sodded over, +should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid becoming muddy. If the +same establishment is used by a number of flock-masters, gravelling will +always be necessary. + +[Illustration: WASHING APPARATUS.] + +As soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard, the lambs are all +immediately caught out from among them, and set over the fence into the +yard to the left, to prevent their being trampled down, as often +happens, by the old sheep, or straying off, if let loose. As many sheep +are then driven out of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the +right, as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to +the vat, to open and shut it, or the gate is drawn together with a chain +and weight, and two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head +of "tagging," commence placing them in the water for the preparatory +process of "wetting." As soon as the water strikes through the wool, +which occupies but an instant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose. +Where there are conveniences for so doing, this process may be more +readily performed by driving them through a stream deep enough to compel +the sheep to swim; but _swimming_ the compact-fleeced, fine-woolled +sheep for any length of time--as is practised with the long-wools in +England--will not properly cleanse the wool for steaming. The vat +should, of course, be in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The +whole flock should thus be passed over, and again driven round through +the field into the middle yard, where they should stand for about an +hour before washing commences. + +There is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil, which acts upon +the dirt independent of the favorable effect which would result from +thus soaking it with water alone for some time. If washed soon after a +good shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with; and it is not, +perhaps, absolutely necessary in any case. If the water is warm enough +to allow the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period, they may be +got clean by washing without any previous wetting; though the snowy +whiteness of fleece, which has such an influence on the purchaser, is +not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way. But little +time is saved by dispensing with "wetting," as it takes proportionably +longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept so long +in the water at once. + +When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are plunged in +the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are washed. This +should not, however, be done, unless the water is very warm, and the +washers are uncommonly quick and expert; and it is, upon the whole, +rather an objectionable practice, since few animals suffer so much from +the effects of a chill as the sheep; and, if they have been previously +wetted, it is wholly unnecessary. When the sheep are in the water, the +two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the +dirtier parts--the breech, belly, etc.--and they continue to turn the +sheep so that the descending current of water can strike into all parts +of the fleece. + +As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running +entirely clear, each washer seizes his own animal by the foreparts, +plunges it deep in the vats, and, taking advantage of the rebound, lifts +it out, setting it gently down on its breech upon the platform. He +then--if the sheep is old and weak, and it is well in all cases--presses +out some of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to a +process presently to be mentioned, lets it go. + +There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not covered with sod, +being gravelled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures, from washing to +shearing--not where they can come in contact with the ground, burnt +logs, and the like--and they should not be driven over dusty roads. The +washers should be strong and capable men, and, protected as they are +from any thing but the water running over the sides of the vat, they can +labor several hours without inconvenience. Two hundred sheep will employ +two experienced men not over half a day, and this rate is at times much +exceeded. + +It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but +even as an item of profit, to get the wool clean, and of a snowy +whiteness, in which condition it will always sell for more than enough +extra to offset the increased labor and the diminution in weight. The +average loss in American Saxon wool in scouring, after being washed on +the back, is estimated at thirty-six per cent.; and in American Merino +forty-two and a half per cent. + + +CUTTING THE HOOFS. + +As the hoofs of fine-woolled sheep grow rapidly, turning up in front and +under at the sides, they must be clipped as often as once a year, or +they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the animal, and +the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung +in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from being +readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural +movement of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the +hoof in its proper place. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and +renders the curing of it more difficult; and it is thought by many to be +the exciting cause of the disease. + +It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the +time of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs; +but the animal must afterward be turned upon its back, to pare off the +crust which projects and turns under. If the weather be dry, or the +sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, as at shearing, the hoofs +are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty; and this is +increased by the grit and dirt adhering to the sole, which immediately +takes the edge off from the knife. These periods are ill-chosen, and the +method slow and bungling. It is particularly improper to submit +heavily-pregnant ewes to all this unnecessary handling at the time of +tagging. + +When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its +rump upon the platform, the gate-keeper should advance with a pair of +toe-nippers, and the washer present each foot separately, pressing the +toes together so that they can be severed at a single clip. The +nippers--which can be made by any blacksmith who can temper an axe or a +chisel--must be made strong, with handles a little more than a foot +long, the rivet being of half-inch iron, and confined with a nut, so +that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting-edge should +descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from +being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are +severed by a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened +knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then +grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to +each foot, the side-crust, being free from dirt, and soaked almost as +soft as a cucumber, is reduced to the level of the sole. Two expert men +will go through these processes in a very short space of time. The +closer the paring and clipping the better, if blood be not drawn. An +occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall. + +[Illustration: TOE-NIPPERS.] + + +SHEARING. + +The time which should elapse between washing and shearing depends +altogether on circumstances. From four to six days of bright, warm +weather is sufficient; if cold, or rainy, or cloudy, more time must +intervene. Sometimes the wool remains in a condition unfit for shearing +for a fortnight after washing. The rule to be observed is, that the +water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool +should so far exude as to give the wool an unctious feeling, and a +lively, glittering look. If it is sheared when dry, like cotton, and +before the oil has exuded, it is very difficult to thrust the shears +through, the umer is checked, and the wool will not keep so well for +long periods. If it is left until it gets too oily, either the +manufacturer is cheated, or, what more frequently happens, the owner +loses on the price. + +[Illustration: FLEECE.] + +Shearing, in this country, is always done on the threshing-floors of the +barns--sometimes upon low platforms, some eighteen or twenty inches +high, but more commonly on the floor itself. The place where the sheep +remain should be well littered down with straw, and fresh straw thrown +on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. No chaff or +other substance which will stick in the wool should be used for this +purpose. The shearing should not commence until the dew, if any, has +dried off from the sheep. All loose straws sticking to the wool should +be picked off, and whatever dung may adhere to any of the feet brushed +off. The floor or tables used should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, +so that they will not hold dirt, or catch the wool. They should all be +thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to the +process. If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging, or other +causes, they should first be caught out, to prevent them from +contaminating others. + +The manner of shearing varies with almost every district; and it is +difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical +instructions, which would guide an entire novice in skilfully shearing +a sheep. Practice is requisite. The following directions are as plain, +perhaps, as can be made: + +The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to +him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture with his right knee +on a cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left thigh. +He grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow, resting +his thumb along the blades, which gives him better command of the +points. He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, +proceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of +the ribs, the external sides of both sides to the edges of the flanks; +then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from the +breast, front, and both sides of the neck, but not yet the back of it, +and also the poll, or forepart, and top of the head. Then "the jacket is +opened" of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the shearer, +is changed by the animal's being turned flat upon its side, one knee of +the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the +fore-quarter of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then resumes +cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onward to the head. Thus one +side is complete. The sheep is then turned on the other side--in doing +which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn--and the +shearer proceeds as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take +the sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly +trim the legs, leaving not a solitary lock anywhere as a lodging-place +for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand +to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled +with the fleece-wool. In the use of the shears, the blades should be +laid as flat to the skin as possible, the points not lowered too much, +nor should more than from one to two inches be cut at a clip, and +frequently not so much, depending on the part, and the compactness of +the wool. + +The wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and +even. It may, indeed, be cut too close, so that the sheep can scarcely +avoid sun-scald; but this is very unusual. If the wool is left in +ridges, and uneven, it betrays a want of workmanship very distasteful to +the really good farmer. Great care should be taken not to cut the wool +twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do, since it is a +great damage to the wool. This results from cutting too far from the +points of the shears, and suffering them to get too elevated. In such +cases, every time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before, cut +off by the points, say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the +hide, is again severed. To keep the fleece entire, which is of great +importance to its good appearance when done up, and, therefore, to its +salableness, it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for +itself, so that it will not struggle violently. No man can hold it still +by main strength, and shear it well. The posture of the shearer should +be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that it +is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece; but it should not be +confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be continually +kicking and struggling. Clumsy, careless men, therefore, always complain +of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, may be +confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg +on which the shearer kneels; but the lazy or brutal shearer who suffers +his leg to rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which +the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even, +perhaps, to draw its breath. + +Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day; +but a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to +one-half of that number. It is the last process in the world which +should be hurried, as the shearer will, in that case, soon leave more +than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day's wages. Wool ought not +to be sheared, and must not be done up with any water in it. If wounds +are made, as sometimes happens with unskilful operators, a mixture of +tar and grease ought to be applied. + +Shearing lambs is, in the Northern climate, at least, an unprofitable +practice; since the lamb, at a year old, will give the same amount of +wool, and it is thus stripped of its natural protection from cold when +it is young and tender, for the mere pittance of the interest on a +pound, or a pound and a half of wool for six months, not more than two +or three cents, and this all consumed by the expense of shearing. Much +the same may be said of the custom, which obtains in some places, of +shearing from sheep twice a year. There may be a reason for it, where +they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear +every half year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder +by bushes, thorns, etc., if left for a long period; but when sheep are +inclosed, and treated as domestic animals, although there may be less +barbarity in shearing them in the fall also, than in the case of the +tender lambs, there is no ground for it on the score of utility; since +any gain accruing from it cannot pay the additional expense which it +occasions. + +COLD STORMS occurring soon after shearing sometimes destroy sheep, in +the northern portions of the country, especially the delicate Saxons; +forty or fifty of which have, at times, perished out of a single flock, +from one night's exposure. Sheep, in such cases, should be housed; or, +where this is impracticable, driven into dense forests. + +SUN-SCALD. When they are sheared close in very hot weather, have no +shade in their pastures, and especially where they are driven +immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over burning and dusty +roads, their backs are sometimes so scorched by the sun that their wool +comes off. If let alone, the matter is not a serious one; but the +application of refuse lard to the back will hasten the cure, and the +starting of the wool. + +TICKS. These vermin, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble the +sheep in winter, and should be kept entirely out of the flock. After +shearing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep, soon +drive off the tick, and it takes refuge in the wool of the lamb. Let a +fortnight elapse after shearing, to allow all to make this change of +residence. Then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong +enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure, which may be ascertained by +experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent +in stems, and the like, may be made to answer for a hundred lambs. + +This decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for the purpose, +which has an inclined shelf on one side, covered with a wooden grate. +One man holds the lamb by its hind legs, while another clasps the fore +legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the +liquid from entering them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. It +is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, and the +water squeezed out of its wool, when it is turned over and squeezed on +the other side. The grate conducts the fluid back into the box. If the +lambs are regularly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock. + + +MARKING OR BRANDING. + +The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or mistakes may occur. +Every sheep-owner should be provided with a marking instrument, which +will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a small +circle, an oval, a triangle, or a square, at a single stroke, and with +uniformity, on the sheep. It is customary to have the mark cut out of a +plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminating in wood; but one +made by cutting a type, or raised letter, or character, on the end of a +stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be better. If +the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a little too +deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the wood, as +it does from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and +spoil the appearance of the mark; and, if the pigment be applied hot, +the former will not get heated, like the latter, and increase the danger +of burning the hide. + +Various pigments are used for marking. Many boil tar until it assumes a +glazed, hard consistency when cold, and give it a brilliant, black color +by stirring in a little lampblack during the boiling. This is applied +when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a +bright, conspicuous mark all the year round. The manufacturer, however, +prefers the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter +is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. It should be boiled in +an iron vessel, with high sides, to prevent it from taking fire, on a +small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is to be used. When cool +enough, forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It +is then warmed from time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. +Paint, made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is +first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil, is also used. +The rump is a better place to mark than the side, since it is there +about as conspicuous under any circumstances, and more so when the sheep +are huddled in a pen, or running away from one. Besides, should any wool +be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on +the side. Ewes are commonly distinguished from wethers by marking them +on different sides of the rump. + +Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer; +but it consumes much less time to do it at a single job, after the +shearing is completed; and it is necessary to take the latter course if +a hot pigment is used. + +MAGGOTS. Rams with horns growing closely to their heads are very liable +to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on the +surrounding parts becomes broken by fighting; and these, unless removed, +soon destroy the animal. Boiled tar, or the marking substance first +described, is both remedy and preventive. If it is put under the horns +at the time of marking, no trouble will ever arise from this cause. + +Sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres +about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes +miserably. As a preventive, the dung should be removed; as a remedy, the +dung and maggots should be removed--the latter by touching them with a +little turpentine--and sulphur and grease afterward applied to the +excoriated surface. + +Maggot-flies sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of the long, +open-woolled English sheep, and the maggots, during the few days before +they assume the _pupa_ state, so tease and irritate the animal, that +fever and death ensue. Tar and turpentine, or butter and sulphur, +smeared over the parts, are admirable preventives. The Merino and Saxon +are exempt from these attacks. + +SHORTENING THE HORNS. A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so +presses in upon the side of the head or neck that it is necessary to +shave or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal +effects. The point of the horn of both ram and ewe both frequently turn +in so that they will grow into the flesh, and sometimes into the eye, +unless shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin +extremity of a horn; if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking-time +affords the best opportunity for attending to this operation. + + +SELECTION AND DIVISION. + +The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding all its +members falling below a certain standard of quality, and the points +which should be regarded in fixing that standard, have already been +brought to notice in connection with the principles of breeding. + +The time of shearing is by far the most favorable period for the +flock-master to make his selection. He should be present on the +shearing-floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually +taken off; since, if there are faults about it, he will then discover it +better than at any other time. A glance will likewise reveal to him +every defect in form, previously concealed, wholly, or in part, by the +wool, as soon as the newly-shorn sheep is permitted to stand up on its +feet. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently retained until she dies of +old age; a rather poor nurse or breeder is excluded for the slightest +fault, and so on. Whatever animals are to be excluded, may be marked on +the shoulder with Venetian red and hog's lard, conveniently applied with +a brush or cob. Such of the wethers as have attained their prime, and +those ewes that have passed it, should be provided with the best feed, +and fitted for the butcher. If they have been properly pushed on grass, +they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it; and, if +not intended for stall-feeding, the sooner they are then disposed of the +better. + +Those _divisions_, also, in large flocks, which utility demands, are +generally made at or soon after shearing. Not more than two hundred +sheep should be allowed to run together in the pastures; although the +number might, perhaps, be safely increased to three hundred, if the +range is extensive. + +Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off should be kept separate from the +nursing-ewes; and if the flock is large enough to require a third +division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year-old ewes and +wethers, and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better, in all cases, +to separate the rams from all the other sheep at the time of shearing, +and to inclose them in a field which is particularly well-fenced. If +they are put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome; and when cool +nights arrive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant +efforts to ride the wethers. + +The Merino ram, although a quiet animal compared with the common-woolled +one, will be tempted to jump, by poor fences, or fences half the time +down; and if he is once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome +as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or +poking is resorted to, either of which causes him to waste his strength, +besides being the occasion of frequent accidents. + + +THE CROOK. + +This convenient implement for catching sheep is of the form represented +in the cut accompanying, of three-eighths inch round iron, drawn smaller +toward the point, which is made safe by a knot. The other end is +furnished with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet long. + +[Illustration: SHEPHERD'S CROOK.] + +In using it, the hind leg is hooked in from behind the sheep, and it +fills up the narrow part beyond that point, while passing along it until +it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the hook, and when +secured, its foot easily slips through the loop. Some caution is +required in its use; for, should the animal give a sudden start forward +to get away, the moment it feels the crook, the leg will be drawn +forcibly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with such violence +against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, +and even occasion lameness for some days. On first embracing the leg, +the crook should be drawn quickly toward the shepherd, so as to bring +the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before the +sheep has time even to break off; and being secure, its struggles will +cease the moment the hand seizes the leg. + +No shepherd should be without this implement, as it saves much yarding +and running, and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or +suspicious appearance, and a seasonable application of remedy or +preventive, which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be +driven to a distant yard to effect the catching of a single sheep. + +Dexterity in its use is speedily acquired by any one; and if a flock are +properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught by it at +salting-time, or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom the +flock are familiar. It is, however, at the lambing-time, when sheep and +lambs require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more +particularly serviceable. For this purpose, at that time alone, it will +pay for itself ten times over in a single season, in saving time, to say +nothing of the advantage of the sheep. + + +DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. + +DRIVING. Mutton can be grown cheaper than any other kind of meat. It is +fast becoming better appreciated; and, strange as it may seem, good +mutton brings a higher price in our best markets than the same quality +does in England. Its substitution in a large measure for pork would +contribute materially to the health of the community. + +Winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable and +deserves greater attention, especially where manure is an object; and +the instances are few, indeed, where it is not. In England, it is +considered good policy to fatten sheep, if the increase of weight will +pay for the oil-cake or grain consumed; the manure being deemed a fair +equivalent for the other food--that is, as much straw and turnips as +they will eat. Lean sheep there usually command as high a price per +pound in the fall as fatted ones in the spring; while, in this country, +the latter usually bear a much higher price, which gives the feeder a +great advantage. + +The difference may be best illustrated by a simple calculation. Suppose +a wether of a good mutton breed, weighing eighty pounds in the fall, to +cost six cents per pound, amounting to four dollars and eighty cents, +and to require twenty pounds of hay per week, or its equivalent in other +food, and to gain a pound and a half each week; the gain in weight in +four months would be about twenty-five pounds, which, at six cents per +pound, would be one dollar and fifty cents, or less than ten dollars per +ton for the hay consumed; but if the same sheep could be bought in the +fall for three cents per pound, and sold in the spring for six cents, +the gain would amount to three dollars and ninety cents, or upwards of +twenty dollars per ton for the hay--the manure being the same in either +case. + +For fattening, it is well to purchase animals as large and thrifty, and +in as good condition as can be had at fair prices; and to feed +liberally, so as to secure the most rapid increase that can be had +without waste of food. The fattening of sheep by the aid of oil-cake, or +grain purchased for the purpose, may often be made a cheaper mode of +obtaining manure than by the purchase of artificial fertilizers, as +guano, super-phosphate of lime, and the like; and it is altogether +preferable. It is practised extensively and advantageously abroad, and +deserves at least a fair trial among us. + +[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK.] + +Sheep which are to be driven to market should not begin their journey +either when too full or too hungry; in the former state, they are apt to +purge while on the road, and in the latter, they will lose strength at +once. The sheep selected for market should be those in the best +condition at the time; and to ascertain this, it is necessary to examine +the whole lot, and separate the fattest from the rest, which is best +done at about mid-day, before the sheep feed again in the afternoon. The +selected ones are placed in a field by themselves, where they remain +until the time for starting. If there be rough pasture to give them, +they should be allowed to use it, in order to rid themselves of some of +the food which might be productive of inconvenience on the journey. If +there is no such pasture, a few cut turnips will answer. All their +hoofs should be carefully examined, and every unnecessary appendage +removed, though the firm portion of the horn should not be touched. +Every clotted piece of wool should also be removed with the shears, and +the animals properly marked. + +Being thus prepared, they should have feed early in the morning, and be +started, in the cold season, about mid-day. Let them walk quietly away; +and as the road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to +prevent which, the drover should go before them, and let his dog bring +up the rear. In a short time they will assume the proper speed--about +one mile an hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, they will +proceed nibbling their way onward at the grass along both sides; but if +it is a narrow turnpike, the drover will require all his attention in +meeting and being passed by various vehicles, to avoid injury to his +charge. In this part of their business, drovers generally make too much +ado; and the consequence is, that the sheep are driven more from side to +side of the road than is requisite. Upon meeting a carriage, it would be +much better for the sheep, were the drover to go forward, instead of +sending his dog, and point off with his stick the leading sheep to the +nearest side of the road; and the rest will follow, as a matter of +course, while the dog walks behind the flock and brings up the +stragglers. Open gates to fields are sources of great annoyance to +drovers, the stock invariably making an endeavor to go through them. On +observing an open gate ahead, the drover should send his dog behind him +over the fence, to be ready to meet the sheep at the gate. When the +sheep incline to rest, they should be allowed to lie down. + +When the animals are lodged for the night, a few turnips or a little hay +should be furnished to them, if the road-sides are bare. If these are +placed near the gate of the field which they occupy, they will be ready +to take the road again in the morning. As a precaution against worrying +dogs, the drover should go frequently through the flock with a light, +retire to rest late, and rise up early in the morning. These precautions +are necessary; since, when sheep have once been disturbed by dogs, they +will not settle again upon the road. The first day's journey should be a +short one, not exceeding four or five miles. The whole journey should be +so marked out as that, allowance being made for unforeseen delays, the +animals may have one day's rest near the market. + +POINTS OF FAT SHEEP. The formation of fat, in a sheep destined to be +fattened, commences in the inside, the web of fat which envelopes the +intestines being first formed, and a little deposited around the +kidneys. After that, fat is seen on the outside; and first upon the end +of the rump at the tail-head, continuing to move on along the back, on +both sides of the spine, or back-bone, to the bend of the ribs to the +neck. Then it is deposited between the muscles, parallel with the +cellular tissue. Meanwhile, it is covering the lower round of the ribs +descending to the flanks, until the two sides meet under the belly, +whence it proceeds to the brisket, or breast, in front, and the sham or +cod behind, filling up the inside of the arm-pits and thighs. While all +these depositions are proceeding on the outside, the progress in the +inside is not checked, but rather increased, by the fattening +disposition encouraged by the acquired condition; and, hence, +simultaneously, the kidneys become entirely covered, and the space +between the intestines and the lumbar region, or loin, gradually filled +up by the web and kidney fat. + +By this time the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle are +receiving their share; and when fat is deposited there in quantity, it +gives to the meat the term _marbled_. These inter-fibrous spaces are the +last to receive a deposition of fat; but after this has begun, every +other part at the same time receives its due share, the back and kidneys +securing the most, so much so that the former literally becomes +_nicked_, as it is termed--that is, the fat is felt through the skin to +be divided into two portions, from the tail-head along the back to the +top of the shoulder; and the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of +the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck toward the +breasts full, and the hollows between the breast-bone and the inside of +the fore legs, and between the cod and the inside of the hind thighs, +filled up. When all this has been accomplished, the sheep is said to be +_fat_, or _ripe_. + +When the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat, it is in the +most valuable state as mutton. Few sheep, however, lay on fat entirely +over their body; one laying the largest proportion on the rump, another +on the back; one on the parts adjoining the fore-quarter, another on +those of the hind-quarter; and one more on the inside, and another more +on the outside. Taking so many parts, and combining any two or more of +them together, a considerable variety of condition will be found in any +lot of fat sheep, while any one is as ripe in its way as any other. + +With these data for guides, the state of a sheep in its progress toward +ripeness may be readily detected by handling. A fat sheep, however, is +easily known by the eye, from the fullness exhibited by all the +external parts of the particular animal. It may exhibit want in some +parts when compared with others; but those parts, it may easily be seen, +would never become so ripe as the others; and this arises from some +constitutional defect in the animal itself; since, if this were so, +there is no reason why all the parts should not be alike ripe. The state +of a sheep that is obviously not ripe cannot altogether be ascertained +by the eye. It must be handled, or subjected to the scrutiny of the +hand. Even in so palpable an act as handling, discretion is requisite. A +full-looking sheep needs hardly to be handled on the rump; for he would +not seem so full, unless fat had first been deposited there. A +thin-looking sheep, on the other hand, should be handled on the rump; +and if there be no fat there, it is useless to handle the rest of the +body, for certainly there will not be so much as to deserve the name of +fat. Between these two extremes of condition, every variety exists; and +on that account examination by the hand is the rule, and by the eye +alone the exception. The hand is, however, much assisted by the eye, +whose acuteness detects deficiencies and redundancies at once. + +In handling sheep, the points of the fingers are chiefly employed; and +the accurate knowledge conveyed by them, through practice, of the exact +state of the condition, is truly surprising, and establishes a +conviction in the mind that some intimate relation exists between the +external and internal state of an animal. Hence originates this +practical maxim in judging stock of all kinds--that no animal will +appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat had previously been acquired +in the inside as constitutional habit will allow. + +The application of this rule is easy. When the rump is found nicked, on +handling, fat is to be found on the back; when the back is found nicked, +fat is to be expected on the top of the shoulder and over the ribs; and +when the top of the shoulder proves to be nicked, fat may be anticipated +on the under side of the belly, To ascertain its existence below, the +animal must be _turned up_, as it is termed; that is, the sheep is set +upon his rump, with his back down, and his hind feet pointing upward and +outward. In this position, it can be seen whether the breast and thighs +are filled up. Still, all these alone would not disclose the state of +the inside of the sheep, which should, moreover, be looked for in the +thickness of the flank; in the fullness of the breast, that is, the +space in front from shoulder to shoulder toward the neck; in the +stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail; and in the breadth of +the back of the neck. All these latter parts, especially with the +fullness of the inside of the thighs, indicate a fullness of fat in the +inside; that is, largeness of the mass of fat on the kidneys, thickness +of net, and thickness of layers between the abdominal muscles. Hence, +the whole object of feeding sheep on turnips and the like seems to be to +lay fat upon all the bundles of fleshy fibres, called muscles, that are +capable of acquiring that substance; for, as to bone and muscle, these +increase in weight and extent independently of fat, and fat only +increases in their magnitude. + +SLAUGHTERING. Sheep are easily slaughtered, and the operation is +unattended with cruelty. They require some preparation before being +deprived of life, which consists in food being withheld from them for +not less than twenty-four hours, according to the season. The reason for +fasting sheep before slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and +intestines to empty themselves entirely of food, as it is found that, +when an animal is killed with a full stomach, the meat is more liable to +putrefy, and it not so well flavored; and, as ruminating animals always +retain a large quantity of food in their intestines, it is reasonable +that they should fast somewhat longer to get rid of it, than animals +with single stomachs. + +Sheep are placed on their side--sometimes upon a stool, called a +killing-stool--to be slaughtered, and, requiring no fastening with +cords, are deprived of life by the use of a straight knife through the +neck, between its bone and the windpipe, severing the carotid artery and +the jugular vein of both sides, from which the blood flows freely out, +and the animal soon dies. + +[Illustration: DROVER'S OR BUTCHER'S DOG.] + +The skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken off, leaving that +on the legs and head, which are covered with hair, the legs being +disjointed by the knee. The entrails are removed by an incision along +the belly, after the carcass has been hung up by the tendons of the +boughs. The net is carefully separated from the viscera, and rolled up +by itself; but the kidney fat is not then extracted. The intestines are +placed on the inner side of the skin until divided into the _pluck_, +containing the heart, lungs, and liver; the bag, containing the stomach; +and the _puddings_, consisting of the viscera, or guts. The latter are +usually thrown away; though the Scotch, however, clean them and work +them up into their favorite _haggis_. The skin is hung over a rope or +pole under cover, with the skin-side uppermost, to dry in an airy place. + +The carcass should hang twenty-four hours in a clean, cool, airy, dry +apartment before it is cut down. It should be cool and dry; for, if +warm, the meat will not become firm; and, if damp, a clamminess will +cover it, and it will never feel dry, and present a fresh, clean +appearance. The carcass is divided in two, by being sawed right down the +back-bone. The kidney-fat is then taken out, being only attached to the +peritoneum by the cellular membrane, and the kidney is extracted from +the _suet_, the name given to sheep-tallow in an independent state. + +CUTTING UP. Of the two modes of cutting up a carcass of mutton, the +English and the Scotch--of the former, the practice in London being +taken as the standard, and of the latter, that of Edinburgh, since more +care is exercised in this respect in these two cities--the English is, +perhaps, preferable; although the Scotch accomplish the task in a +cleanly and workmanlike manner. + +The _jigot_ is the most handsome and valuable part of the carcass, +bringing the highest price, and is either a roasting or a boiling piece. +A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot, or South-Down mutton makes a beautiful +boiled leg of mutton, which is prized the more the fatter it is--this +part of the carcass being never overloaded with fat. The _loin_ is +almost always roasted, the flap of the flank being skewered up, and it +is a juicy piece. Many consider this piece of Leicester mutton, roasted, +as too rich; and when warm this is, probably, the case; but a cold +roast loin is an excellent summer dish. The _back-rib_ is divided into +two, and used for very different purposes. The forepart--the neck--is +boiled, and makes sweet barley-broth; and the meat, when boiled, or +rather the whole simmered for a considerable time beside the fire, eats +tenderly. The back-ribs make an excellent roast; indeed, there is not a +sweeter or more varied one in the whole carcass, having both ribs and +shoulder. The shoulder-blade eats best cold, and the ribs, warm. The +ribs make excellent chops, the Leicester and South-Down affording the +best. The _breast_ is mostly a roasting-piece, consisting of rib and +shoulder, and is particularly good when cold. When the piece is large, +as of the South-Down or Cheviot, the gristly parts of the ribs may be +divided from the true ribs, and helped separately. This piece also boils +well; or, when corned for eight days, and served with onion sauce, with +mashed turnips in it, there are few more savory dishes at a farmer's +table. The _shoulder_ is separated before being dressed, and makes an +excellent roast for family use, being eaten warm or cold, or carved and +dressed as the breast mentioned above. The shoulder is best from a large +carcass of South-Down, Cheviot, or Leicester. The _neck-piece_ is partly +laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the forepart being fitted for +boiling and making into broth, and the best part for roasting or +broiling into chops. On this account, it is a good family piece, and +generally preferred to any part of the hind-quarter. Heavy sheep, such +as the Leicester, South-Down, and Cheviot, supply the most thrifty +neck-piece. + +RELATIVE QUALITIES. The different sorts of mutton in common use differ +as well in quality as in quantity. The flesh of the _Leicester_ is +large, though not coarse-grained, of a lively red color, and the +cellular tissue between the fibres contains a considerable quantity of +fat. When cooked, it is tender and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and +having a sweet, rich taste; but the fat is rather too much and too rich +for some people's tastes, and can be put aside. It must be allowed that +the lean of fat meat is far better than lean meat that has never been +fat. _Cheviot_ mutton is smaller in the grain, not so bright of color, +with less fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet; but the flavor is +higher, and the fat not so luscious. The mutton of _South-Downs_ is of +medium fineness in grain, color pleasant red, fat well intermixed with +the meat, juicy, and tenderer than Cheviot. The mutton of rams of any +breed is always hard, of disagreeable flavor, and, in autumn, not +eatable; that of old ewes is dry, hard, and tasteless; of young ones, +well enough flavored, but still rather dry; while wether-mutton is the +meat in perfection, according to its kind. + +The want of relish, perhaps the distaste, for mutton has served as an +obstacle to the extension of sheep husbandry in the United States. The +common mistake in the management of mutton among us is, that it is +eaten, as a general thing, at exactly the wrong time after it is killed. +It should be eaten immediately after being killed, and, if possible, +before the meat has time to get cold; or, if not, then it should be kept +a week or more--in the ice-house, if the weather require--until the time +is just at hand when the fibre passes the state of toughness which it +takes on at first, and reaches that incipient or preliminary point in +its process toward putrefaction when the fibres begin to give way, and +the meat becomes tender. + +An opinion likewise generally prevails that mutton does not attain +perfection in juiciness and flavor much under five years. + +If this be so, that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable which takes +five years to attain its full state; and there is no breed of sheep in +this country which requires five years to bring it to perfection. This +being the case, it must be folly to restrain sheep from coming to +perfection until they have reached that age. Lovers of five-year-old +mutton do not pretend that this course bestows profit on the farmer, but +only insist on its being best at that age. Were this the fact, one of +two absurd conditions must exist in this department of agriculture: +namely, the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot, or that should not be +allowed to, attain to perfection before it is five years old; either of +which conditions makes it obvious that mutton cannot be in its _best_ +state at five years. + +The truth is, the idea of mutton of this age being especially excellent, +is founded on a prejudice, arising, probably, from this circumstance: +before winter food was discovered, which could maintain the condition of +stock which had been acquired in summer, sheep lost much of their summer +condition in winter, and, of course, an oscillation of condition +occurred, year after year, until they attained the age of five years; +when their teeth beginning to fail, would cause them to lose their +condition the more rapidly. Hence, it was expedient to slaughter them at +not exceeding five years of age; and, no doubt, mutton would be +high-flavored at that age, that had been exclusively fed on natural +pasture and natural hay. Such treatment of sheep cannot, however, be +justified on the principles of modern practice; because both reason and +taste concur in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their +perfect state of growth and condition, not their largest and heaviest; +and as one breed attains its perfect state at an earlier age than +another, its mutton attains its best before another breed attains what +is its best state, although its sheep may be older; but taste alone +prefers one kind of mutton to another, even when both are in their best +state, from some peculiar property. The cry for five-year-old mutton is +thus based on very untenable grounds; the truth being that well-fed and +fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth in its +second year; and the farmer cannot afford to keep it longer, unless the +wool would pay for the keep, since we have not the epicures and men of +wealth who would pay the butcher the extra price, which he must have, to +enable him to pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his +sheep two or three years over. + +All writers on diet agree in describing mutton as the most valuable of +the articles of human food. Pork may be more stimulating, beef perhaps +more nutritious, when the digestive powers are strong; but, while there +is in mutton sufficient nutriment, there is also that degree of +consistency and readiness of assimilation which renders it most +congenial to the human stomach, most easy of digestion, and most +promotive of human health. Of it, almost alone, can it be said that it +is our food in sickness, as well as in health; its broth is the first +thing, generally, that an invalid is permitted to taste, the first thing +that he relishes, and is a natural preparation for his return to his +natural aliment. In the same circumstances, it appears that fresh +mutton, broiled or boiled, requires three hours for digestion; fresh +mutton, roasted, three and one-fourth hours; and mutton-suet, boiled, +four and one-half hours. + +Good _ham_ may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton, though the +leg is preferable; and for this purpose it is cut in the English +fashion. It should be rubbed all over with good salt, and a little +saltpetre, for ten minutes, and then laid in a dish and covered with a +cloth for eight or ten days. After that, it should be slightly rubbed +again, for about five minutes, and then hung up in a dry place, say the +roof of the kitchen, until used. Wether mutton is used for hams, because +it is fat, and it may be cured any time from November to May; but +ram-mutton makes the largest and highest-flavored ham, provided it be +cured in spring, because it is out of season in autumn. + +There is an infallible rule for ascertaining the _age_ of mutton by +certain marks on the carcass. Observe the color of the breast-bone, when +a sheep is dressed--that is, where the breast-bone is separated--which, +in a lamb, or before it is one year old, will be quite red; from one to +two years old, the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a +small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, +and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue red; at three +years old, a very small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the +four middle bones, and the others will be white; and at four years, all +the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly color. + +CONTRIBUTIONS TO MANUFACTURES. The products of sheep are not merely +useful to man; they provide his luxuries as well. The skin of sheep is +made into _leather_, and, when so manufactured with the fleece on, makes +comfortable mats for the doors of rooms, and rugs for carriages. For +this purpose, the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with +the longest and most beautiful fleece. _Tanned sheep-skin_ is used in +coarse book-binding. _White sheep-skin_, which is not tanned, but so +manufactured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by many classes of +workmen, and, in agriculture, as gloves in the harvest; and, when cut +into strips, as twine for sewing together the leather coverings and +stuffings of horse-collars. _Morocco leather_ is made of sheep-skins, as +well as of goat-skins, and the bright red color is given to it by +cochineal. _Russia leather_ is also made of sheep-skins, the peculiar +odor of which repels insects from its vicinity, and resists the mould +arising from damp, the odor being imparted to it in currying, by the +empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch-tree. Besides soft leather, +sheep-skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known by the +name of _parchment_; and, though the skins of all animals might be +converted into writing materials, only those of the sheep and the +she-goat are used for parchment. The finer quality of the substance, +called _vellum_, is made of the skins of kids and dead-born lambs; and +for its manufacture the town of Strasburgh has long been celebrated. + +Mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common _candles_, with a +proportion of ox-tallow. Minced suet, subjected to the action of +high-pressure steam in a digester, at two hundred and fifty or two +hundred and sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, becomes so hard as to be +sonorous when struck, whiter, and capable, when made into candles, of +giving very superior light. _Stearic candles_, the invention of the +celebrated Guy Lussac, are manufactured solely from mutton-suet. + +Besides the fat, the intestines of sheep are manufactured into various +articles of luxury and utility, which pass under the absurd name of +_catgut_. All the intestines of sheep are composed of four layers, as in +the horse and cattle. The outer, or _peritoneal_ one, is formed of that +membrane, by which every portion of the belly and its contents is +invested, and confined in its natural and proper situation. It is highly +smooth and polished, and secretes a watery fluid which contributes to +preserve that smoothness, and to prevent all friction and concussion +during the different motions of the animal. The second is the _muscular_ +coat, by means of which the contents of the intestines are gradually +propelled from the stomach to the rectum, thence to be expelled when all +the useful nutriment is extracted. The muscles, as in all the other +intestines, are disposed in two layers, the fibres of the outer coat +taking a longitudinal direction, and the inner layer being circular--an +arrangement different from that of the muscles of the [oe]sophagus, and +in both beautifully adapted to the respective functions of the tube. The +_submucous_ coat comes next. It is composed of numerous glands, +surrounded by cellular tissue, and by which the inner coat is +lubricated, so that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the +food. The _mucous_ coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal +cavity. In its healthy state, it is always covered with mucus; and when +the glands beneath are stimulated, as under the action of physic, the +quantity of mucus is increased; it becomes of a more watery character; +the contents of the intestines are softened and dissolved by it; and by +means of the increased action of the muscular coat, which, as well as +the mucous one, feels the stimulus of the physic, the fæces are +hurried on more rapidly and discharged. + +In the manufacture of some sorts of _cords_ from the intestines of +sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a +thread to sew intestines, and make the cords of rackets and battledores. +Future washings cleanse the guts, which are then twisted into +different-sized cords for various purposes; some of the best known of +which are whip-cords, hatter's cords for bow-strings, clock-maker's +cords, bands for spinning-wheels, now almost obsolete, and fiddle and +harp-strings. Of the last class, the cords manufactured in Italy are +superior in goodness and strength; and the reason assigned is, that the +sheep of that country are both smaller and leaner than the breeds most +in vogue in England and in this country. The difficulty in manufacturing +from other breeds of sheep lies, it seems, in making the treble strings +from the fine peritoneal coat, their chief fault being weakness; by +reason of which the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch +required for the higher notes in concert-pitch, maintaining, at the same +time, in their form and construction, that tenuity or smallness of +diameter which is required in order to produce a brilliant and clear +tone. + + + + +[Illustration] + +DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. + + +The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and +varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, insure +perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, unless +they are peculiarly exposed to disease. No country is better suited to +sheep than most of the Northern and some of the Southern portions of our +own. In Europe, and especially in England, where the system of +management is, necessarily, in the highest degree artificial, +consisting, frequently, in an early and continued forcing of the system, +folding on wet, ploughed ground, and the excessive use of that watery +food, the Swedish turnip, there are numerous and fatal diseases, a long +list of which invariably cumbers the pages of foreign writers on this +animal. + +The diseases incident to our flocks, on the contrary, may generally be +considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising +from the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely +asserted that, with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and +nutritious grasses; a clear, running stream; sufficient shade and +protection against severe storms; a constant supply of salt, tar, and +sulphur in summer; good hay, and sometimes roots, with ample shelters in +winter--young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or never +become diseased on American soil. + +The comparatively few diseases, which it may be necessary here to +mention, are arranged in alphabetical order--as in the author's "Cattle +and their Diseases"--for convenience of reference, and treated in the +simplest manner. Remedies of general application, to be administered +often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor +complicated; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly +purchased by their application. + +A sheep, which has been reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is +the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its +owner. The wool and felt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while +the carcass of other animals will be worthless, except for manure. The +loss of sheep, from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket +in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses +or cattle. Humanity, however, alike with interest, dictates the use of +such simple remedies, for the removal of suffering and disease, as may +be within reach. + + +ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. + +The stomach into which medicines are to be administered is the fourth, +or digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen, +or paunch, are but slightly acted upon, except by doses of very improper +magnitude. Medicine, to reach the fourth stomach, should be given in a +state as nearly approaching fluidity as may be. Even then it may be +given in such a manner as to defeat the object in view. + +If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily +and bodily, they will follow the caul at the base of the gullet with +considerable momentum, force asunder the pillars, and enter the rumen; +if they are drunk more slowly, or administered gently, they will trickle +down the throat, glide over these pillars, and pass on through the +maniplus to the true stomach. + + +BLEEDING. + +Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, rarely +extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is +indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a knife is usually +inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed +down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face. + +Bleeding from the angular or cheek-vein is recommended, in the lower +part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is +placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the +external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, +sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin +of the cheek is touched. This tubercle is a certain index to the +angular vein, which is placed below. The shepherd takes the sheep +between his legs; his left hand more advanced than his right, which he +places under the head, and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder +extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in that +place, for the purpose of making it swell; he touches the right cheek at +the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and mouth, and there finds the +tubercle which is to guide him, and also feels the angular vein swelled +below this tubercle; he then makes the incision from below upward, half +a finger's breadth below the middle of the tubercle. When the vein is no +longer pressed upon, the bleeding will commonly cease; if not, a pin may +be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a lock of wool tied round +them. + +For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred. +The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the +body confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of +the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular +vein, and a ligature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the +wool, is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein +will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as before +described. + +The good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the _rapidity_ +with which the blood is abstracted, as the _amount_ taken. This is +especially true in acute diseases. _Either bleed rapidly or do not bleed +at all._ The orifice in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, +and made lengthwise with the vein. A lancet is by far the best +implement; and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the +bungling gleam. Bleeding, moreover, should always be resorted to, when +it is indicated at all, as nearly as possible to the _commencement_ of +the malady. + +The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasurement, +but by constitutional effect--the lowering of the pulse, and indications +of weakness. In urgent cases--apoplexy, or cerebral inflammation, for +example--it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. +The quantity of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in +the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth +part of his weight; and that of the ox at least one-twentieth; while +that of the sheep, in ordinary condition, is one-twenty-second. For this +reason, more caution should be exercised in bleeding the latter, +especially in frequently resorting to it; otherwise, the vital powers +will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. Many a sheep has been destroyed +by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which +did require it at the commencement, but of which the inflammatory stage +had passed. + + +FEELING THE PULSE. + +The number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on +the left side. The femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across +the inside of the thigh, and about the middle of the thigh its +pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted. The +pulsations per minute, in a healthy adult sheep, are sixty-five in +number; though they have been stated at seventy, and even seventy-five. + + +APOPLEXY. + +Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of the +best-conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead. +The symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted. The +sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself +on the ground, and suddenly rises, and dies in a few minutes. + +Where animals in somewhat poor condition are rather forced forward for +the purpose of raising their condition, it sometimes happens that they +become suddenly blind and motionless; they will not follow their +companions; when approached, they run about, knocking their heads +against fences, etc.; the head is drawn round toward one side; they +fall, grind their teeth, and their mouths are covered with a frothy +mucus. Such cases are, unquestionably, referable to a determination of +blood to the brain. + +_Treatment._ If the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the +mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the +respiration labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the +pulse strong and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial +or entire loss of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of +apoplexy which require immediate and energetic treatment. Recourse +should at once be had to the jugular vein, and the animal bled until an +obvious constitutional effect is produced--the pulse lowered, and the +rigidity of the muscles relaxed. An aperient should at once follow +bleeding; and if the animal is strong and plathoric, a sheep of the size +of the Merino would require at least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one +of the large mutton sheep, more. If this should fail to open the +bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be given, say twice a day. + + +BRAXY. + +This is manifested by uneasiness; loathing of food; frequent drinking; +carrying the head down; drawing the back up; swollen belly; feverish +symptoms; and avoidance of the flock. It appears mostly in late autumn +and spring, and may be induced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in +water when hot, and especially by constipation, brought on by feeding on +frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. Many sheep die on the +prairies from this disease, induced by exposure and miserable forage. +Entire prevention is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, dry +food. + +_Treatment._ Remedies, to be successful, must be promptly applied. Bleed +freely; and to effect this, immersion in a tub of hot water may be +necessary, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood. Then give +two ounces of Epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of +common salt. If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a +pipeful of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. +Administer half; and if this is not effectual, follow with the +remainder. Then bed the animal in dry straw, and cover with blankets; +assisting the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative +provender till well. + + +BRONCHITIS. + +Where sheep are subject to pneumonia, they are liable to bronchitis as +well, which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the +bronchial tubes, or the air-passages of the lungs. The _symptoms_ are +those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever, and a +tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon. + +_Treatment._ Administer salt in doses of from one and a half to two +ounces, with six or eight ounces of lime-water, given in some other part +of the day. + + +CATARRH. + +This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the nasal +passages, and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pharynx. In the +first instance--where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not +very violently affected--it is merely accompanied by an increased +discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In this +form, it is usually termed _snuffles_; and high-bred English +mutton-sheep, in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, +after every sudden change of weather. When the inflammation extends to +the mucous lining of the larynx and the pharynx, some degree of fever +usually supervenes, accompanied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At +this point, bleeding and purging are serviceable. + +Catarrh rarely attacks the American fine-woolled sheep with sufficient +violence in summer to require the application of remedies. Depletion, in +catarrh, in our severe winter months, however, rapidly produces that +fatal prostration, from which it is almost impossible to bring the sheep +back, without bestowing an amount of time and care upon it, costing far +more than the worth of an ordinary animal. + +The best course is to _prevent_ the disease by judicious precaution. +With that amount of attention which every prudent farmer should bestow +on his sheep, the American Merino is but little subject to it. Good, +comfortable, and well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the +sheep in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, are +usually a sufficient safeguard. + + +MALIGNANT EPIZOÖTIC CATARRH. + +[Illustration: AN ENGLISH RACK FOR FEEDING SHEEP.] + +Essentially differing, in type and virulence, from the preceding, is an +epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizoötic malady, which, as +often as once in every eight or ten years, sweeps over extended sections +of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than all other diseases +combined. It commonly makes its appearance in winters characterized by +rapid and violent changes of temperature, which are spoken of by the +farmers as "bad winters" for sheep. The disease is sometimes termed the +"distemper," and also, but erroneously, "grub in the head." The winter +of 1846-7 proved peculiarly destructive to sheep in New York, and some +of the adjoining States; some owners losing one-half, others +three-quarters, and a few seven-eighths, of their flocks. One person +lost five hundred out of eight hundred; another, nine hundred out of a +thousand. These severe losses, however, mainly fell on the holders of +the delicate Saxons, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the +best accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill. + +_Symptoms._ The primary and main disease, in such instances, is a +species of catarrh; differing, however, from ordinary catarrh in its +diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the +primary and the symptomatic diseases. The animals affected do not, +necessarily, at first show any signs of violent colds, as coughing, +sneezing, or labored respiration; the only indications of catarrh +noticed, oftentimes, being a nasal discharge. Animals having this +discharge appear dull and drooping; their eyes run a little, and are +partially closed; the caruncle and lids look pale; their movements are +languid, and there is an indisposition to eat; the pulse is nearly +natural, though at times somewhat too languid. In a few days these +symptoms are evidently aggravated; there is rapid emaciation, +accompanied with debility; the countenance is exceedingly dull and +drooping; the eye is kept more than half closed; the caruncle, lids, +etc., are almost bloodless; a gummy, yellow secretion about the eye; +thick, glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils; appetite +feeble; pulse languid; and muscular energy greatly prostrated. They +rapidly grow weaker, stumble, and fall as they walk, and soon become +unable to rise; the appetite grows feebler; the mucus at the nose is, in +some instances, tinged with dark, grumous blood; the respiration becomes +oppressed; and the animals die within a day or two after they become +unable to rise. Upon a _post-mortem_ examination, the mucous membrane +lining the whole nasal cavity is found highly congested and thickened +throughout its entire extent, accompanied with the most intense +inflammation; slight ulcers are found on the membranous lining, at the +junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribriform plate, in the +ethmoidal cells; and the inflammation extends to the mucous membrane of +the pharynx, and some inches, from two to four, of the upper portion of +the [oe]sophagus. + +No sheep, affected with this disease, recovers after emaciation and +debility have proceeded to any great extent. In the generality of +instances, the time, from the first observed symptoms until death, +varies from ten to fifteen days; although death, in some cases, results +more speedily. + +_Treatment._ Nothing has been found so serviceable as mercury, which, +from its action on the entire secretory system, powerfully tends to +relieve the congested membranes of the head. Dissolve one grain of +bi-chloride of mercury--corrosive sublimate--in two ounces of water; and +give one-half ounce of the water, or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive +sublimate, daily, in two doses. To stimulate and open the bowels, give, +also, rhubarb in a decoction, the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at +a dose, accompanied with the ordinary carminative and stomachic +adjuvants, ginger and gentian in infusion. + + +COLIC. + +Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying down and +rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore and +hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. They +appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, +unless relieved. This disease, popularly known as the "stretches," is +erroneously attributed to an involution of the part of the intestine +within another; it being, in reality, a species of flatulent colic, +induced by costiveness. + +_Treatment._ Half an ounce of Epsom salts, a drachm of Jamaica ginger, +and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will +effect the cure; as will, also, an equivalent dose of linseed oil, or +even hog's lard. + + +COSTIVENESS. + +This difficulty is removed by giving two table-spoonfuls of castor oil +every twelve hours, till the trouble ceases; or give one ounce of Epsom +salts. This may be assisted by an injection of warm weak suds and +molasses. + + +DIARRH[OE]A. + +Common diarrh[oe]a--purging, or scours--manifests itself simply by the +copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is generally +owing to improper food, as bad hay, or noxious weeds; to a sudden +change, as from dry food to fresh grass; to an excess, as from +overloading the stomach; and sometimes to cold and wet. It is important +to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. In diarrh[oe]a, +there is no apparent general fever; the appetite remains good; the +stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime, or mucus, and +blood; odor of the fæces is far less offensive than in dysentery; and +the general condition of the animal is but little changed. When it is +light, and not of long continuance, no remedy is called for, since it is +a healthful provision of Nature for the more rapid expulsion of some +offending matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to +disease. + +_Treatment._ Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual +return to it, often suffices, in the case of grown sheep. With lambs, +especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the +purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the +fæces, the feculent matter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle +cathartic; half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed oil, or half +an ounce of Epsom salts to a lamb. This should be followed by an +astringent; and, in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the +first instance. Give one quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk in half a +pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days; at the end of +which, and frequently after the first dose, the purging will have +ordinarily abated, or entirely ceased. + +"Sheep's cordial" is also a safe and excellent remedy--in severe cases, +better than simple chalk and milk. Take of prepared chalk, one ounce; +powdered catechu, half an ounce; powdered Jamaica ginger, two drachms; +and powdered opium, half a drachm; mix with half a pint of peppermint +water; give two or three table-spoonfuls morning and night to a grown +sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. + + +DISEASE OF THE BIFLEX CANAL. + +From the introduction of foreign bodies into the biflex canal, or +from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. +This canal is a small orifice, opening externally on the point of each +pastern, immediately above the cleft between the toes. It bifurcates +within, a tube passing down on each side of the inner face of the +pastern, winding round and ending in a _cul de sac_. Inflammation +of this canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, +particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are +thrown wide apart by the tumor. It rarely attacks more than one foot, +and should not be allowed to proceed to the point of ulceration +which it will do, if neglected. There is none of that soreness and +disorganization between the back part of the toes, and none of that +peculiar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail, with which disease it +is sometimes confounded. + +_Treatment._ Scarify the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in +the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal; and cover the foot +with tar. + + +DYSENTERY. + +This is occasioned by an inflammation of the mucous or inner coat of the +larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their secretions, +and a morbid alteration in their character. It is frequently consequent +on that form of diarrh[oe]a, which is caused by an inflammation of the +mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflammation extends +throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in virulence, and +becomes dysentery, a disease frequently dangerous and obstinate in its +character, but, fortunately, not common among sheep, generally, in the +United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of diarrh[oe]a, in +several readily observed particulars. There is evident fever; the +appetite is capricious, commonly very feeble; the stools are as thin as +in diarrh[oe]a, or even thinner, but much more adhesive, in consequence +of the presence of large quantities of mucus. As the erosion of the +intestines advances, the fæces are tinged with blood; their odor is +intolerably offensive; and the animal rapidly wastes away, the course of +the disease extending from a few days to several weeks. + +_Treatment._ Moderate bleeding should be resorted to, in the first or +inflammatory shape, or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be +present. Two doses of physic having been administered, astringents are +serviceable. The "sheep's cordial," already described, is as good as +any; and to this, tonics may soon begin to be added; an additional +quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial, and +gentian powder will be an useful auxiliary. With this, as an excellent +stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the +mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels opening on the +inner surface of the intestines, a half grain of strychnine may be +combined. Smaller doses should be given for three or four days. + + +FLIES. + +The proper treatment, upon the appearance of flies or maggots, has +already been detailed under the head of "FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT," to +which the reader is referred. + + +FOULS. + +Sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle are; but +encounter it, if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground. +It is an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly +resembling incipient hoof-ail, and producing lameness. It occasions, +however, no serious structural disorganization, disappears without +treatment, is not contagious, and appears in the wet weather of spring +and fall, instead of in the dry, hot period of summer, when the hoof-ail +rages most. A little solution of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of +turpentine--either followed by a coating of warm tar--promptly cures it. + +For foul noses, dip a small swab in tar, then roll it in salt; put some +on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity. + + +FRACTURES. + +If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone simply being broken, +the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking +care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes. When the swelling is +considerable, and fever present, the best course is to open a vein of +the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned +to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the +symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. Epsom +salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be +found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, +the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of +reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should +the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone +protrude, recovery is very uncertain; and it will become a question +whether it would not be better to convert the animal at once into +mutton. + + +GARGET. + +This is an inflammation of the udder, sometimes known as "caked bag," +with or without general inflammation. Where it is simply an inflammation +of the udder, it is usually caused by too great an accumulation of milk +in the latter prior to lambing, or in consequence of the death of the +lamb. + +_Treatment._ Drawing the milk partly from the bag, so that the hungry +lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, +and bathing it a few times in _cold_ water, usually suffices. If the +lamb is dead, the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing +intervals, washing the udder for some time in cold water at each +milking. In cases of obdurate induration, the udder should be anointed +with iodine ointment. If there is general fever in the system, an ounce +of Epsom salts may be given. If suppuration forms, the part affected +should be opened with the lancet. + + +GOITRE. + +The "swelled neck" in lambs is, like the goitre, or bronchocele, an +enlargement of the thyroid glands, and is strikingly analogous to that +disease, if not identical with it. It is congenital. The glands at birth +are from the size of a pigeon's egg to that of a hen's _egg_, though +more elongated and flattened than an egg in their form. The lamb is +exceedingly feeble, and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. +Many even make no effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. +It is rare, indeed, that one lives. + +A considerable number of lambs annually perish from this disease, which +does not appear to be an epizoötic, though it is more prevalent in some +seasons than in others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, or +any other natural circumstances of a region, as goitre is generally +supposed to, since it may not prevail in the same flock, or on the same +farm, once in ten years; nor can it be readily traced to any particular +kind of food. When it does appear, however, its attacks are rarely +isolated; from which circumstance some have inferred that it is induced +by some local or elimentary cause. Losses from this disease have ranged +from ten per cent. to twenty, thirty, and even fifty per cent. of the +whole number of lambs. Possibly, high condition in the ewes may be one +of the inducing causes. + +_Treatment._ None is known which will reach the case. Should one having +the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be worth while to attempt +reducing the entanglement of the glands. Perhaps keeping the +breeding-ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not _high_ condition, would +be as effectual a preventive as any. + + +GRUB IN THE HEAD. + +What is popularly known as the "grub" is the larva of the _[oe]strus +oris_, or gad-fly of the sheep. It is composed of five rings; is +tiger-colored on the back and belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of +brown; its wings are striped. + +The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the +nostrils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this--most common in July, +August, and September--are always indicated by the sheep, which collect +in close clumps, with their heads inward, and their noses thrust close +to the ground, and into it, if any loose dirt or sand is within reach. +If the fly succeeds in depositing its egg, the latter is immediately +hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or +larvæ, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, +where, by means of their tentaculæ, or feelers, they attach themselves +to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During the ascent of the +larvæ, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and often dashes +away from its companions wildly over the field. The larvæ remain on the +sinuses, feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and apparently +creating no further annoyance, until ready to assume their _pupa_ form +in the succeeding spring. + +Having remained in the sinuses during the fall and winter, they abandon +them as the warm weather approaches in the latter part of spring. They +crawl down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement +than when they originally ascended, drop on the ground, and rapidly +burrow into it. In a few hours, the skin of the larvæ has contracted, +become of a dark-brown color, and it has assumed the form of chrysalis. +This fly never eats; the male, after impregnating two or three females, +dies; and the latter, having deposited their _ova_ in the nostrils of +the sheep, also soon perish. + +The larvæ in the heads of sheep may, and probably do, add to the +irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which attack +the membranous lining of the nasal cavities; and they are a powerful +source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to, +and descending from, their lodging-place in the head. But in the +interval between these events, extending over a period of several +months, not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoyance at +their presence. They are, moreover, found in the heads of nearly all +sheep, the healthy as well as the diseased, at the proper season. + +_Treatment._ Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, +some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. One +simple way of effecting this is, by turning up with a plough a furrow of +earth in the sheep-pasture, into which the sheep will thrust their noses +on the approach of the _[oe]strus_, and thus many of them escape its +attacks. Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep occasionally With +tar, the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Another plan, +deemed efficacious in dislodging the larvæ from the sinuses, is as +follows: Take half a pound of good Scotch snuff, and two quarts of +boiling water; stir, and let it stand till cold. Inject about a +table-spoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril, with a +syringe; repeat this three or four times, at intervals, from the middle +of October till January. The efficacy of the snuff will be increased by +adding half an ounce of asaf[oe]tida, pounded in a little water. The +effects on the sheep are immediate prostration and apparent death; but +they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco affords a substitute for +snuff; and some recommend blowing tobacco smoke through the tail of a +pipe into each nostril. + + +HOOF-AIL. + +The first symptom of this troublesome malady, known, likewise, as +foot-ail, which is ordinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of +the fore-feet. On daily examining, however, the feet of a flock which +have the disease among them, it will readily be seen that the lesions +manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with +lameness. + +The horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, gradually thinning +out, some way between the toes and divisions of the hoof, and above +these horny walls the cleft is lined with skin. When the points of the +toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered with short, +soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the heels, can be separated +only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is +naked. In a healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as +firm, dry, and uneroded as on any other part of the animal. + +The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with +inflammation and heat of the naked skin in the _back parts_ of the +clefts, immediately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated +appearance, and is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge +from the ulcerated surface. As the inflammation extends, the friction of +the parts causes pain, and the sheep limps. At this stage, the foot, +_externally_, in a great majority of cases, exhibits not the least trace +of disease, with the exception of a slight redness, and sometimes the +appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, when viewed +from behind. + +The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges of +the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is +established between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid +matter is discharged from the cavity. The extent of the separation +increases daily, and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy +sole. The bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, +and the outer walls, entirely separated from the flesh, hang only by +their attachments at the coronet. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely +disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of black, putrid +ulceration; or, as more commonly happens, the fly has struck it, and a +dense mass of writhing maggots cover the surface, and burrow in every +cavity. + +The fore-feet are generally first attacked; and, most usually but one of +them. The animal at first manifests but little constitutional +disturbance, and eats as usual. By the time that any considerable +disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot, and +sometimes sooner, the other forefoot is attacked. That becoming as lame +as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its knees; and, if +forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony +occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There is a +bare spot under the brisket, of the size of a man's hand, which looks +red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever, and the appetite +is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition. The appearance of the +maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in +contact with the side, in lying down, the filthy, ulcerous matter +adheres to, and saturates the short wool--it being but a month and a +half, or two months, after shearing--and maggots are either carried +there by the foot, or they are soon generated there. A black crust is +speedily formed round the spot, which is the decomposition of the +surrounding structures; and innumerable maggots are at work below, +burrowing into the integuments and muscles, and eating up the wretched +animal alive. The black, festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor +sufferer perishes, apparently in tortures the most excruciating. + +Sometimes but one forefoot is attacked, and subsequently one or both +hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular; and it is a +singular fact that, when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully +diseased, the fourth may be entirely sound. So, also, one foot may be +cured, while every other one is laboring under the malady. The highly +offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly +characteristic of the disease, and would reveal its character, to one +familiar with it, in the darkest night. + +Hoof-ail is probably propagated in this country exclusively by +inoculation--the contact of the matter of a diseased foot with the +integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. That it is +propagated in some of the ways classed under the ordinary designation of +_contagion_, is certain. That it may be propagated by inoculation, has +been established by experiment. The matter of diseased feet has been +placed on the skin lining the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of +circumstances--sometimes when that skin is in its ordinary and natural +state, sometimes after a very slight scorification, sometimes when +macerated by moisture; and under each of these circumstances the +disease has been communicated. The same inference may be drawn, also, +from the manner in which the disease attacks flocks. The whole, or +any considerable number, though sometimes rapidly, are never +_simultaneously_ attacked, as would be expected, among animals so +gregarious, if the disease could be transmitted by simple contact, +inhaling the breath, or other effluvium. + +The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other +substances, and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of +healthy feet. Sheep, therefore, contract the disease from being driven +over the pastures, yarded on the straw, etc., where diseased sheep have +been, perhaps even days, before. The matter would probably continue to +inoculate, until dried up by the air and heat, or washed away by the +rains. The stiff, upright stems of closely mown grass, as on meadows, +are almost as well calculated to receive the matter of diseased feet, +and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones, as any means which could +be artificially devised. It is not entirely safe to drive healthy sheep +over roads, and especially into washing-yards, or sheep houses, where +diseased sheep have been, until rain has fallen, or sufficient time has +elapsed for the matter to dry up. On the moist bottom of a washing-yard, +and particularly in houses or sheds, kept from sun and wind and rain, +this matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to +inoculate. + +When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its +attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely +disappear as cold weather approaches, and it does not manifest itself +until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a +mitigated form; the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked; +there seems to be less inflammatory action constitutionally, and in the +diseased parts; the course of the disease is less malignant and more +tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. If well kept under the +second summer, it is still milder the third. A sheep will occasionally +be seen to limp; but its condition will scarcely be affected, and +dangerous symptoms will rarely supervene. One or two applications made +during the summer, in a manner presently to be described, will suffice +to keep the disease under. At this point, a little vigor in the +treatment will rapidly extinguish the disease. + +_Treatment._ The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual +treatment is resolved upon, is always necessary, at least in bad cases. +Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if +practicable, as the hoofs can then be readily cut. In a dry time, and +after a night which left no dew upon the grass, their hoofs are almost +as tough as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on +their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their +feet. The yard should be small, so that they can be easily caught, and +it must be kept well littered down, to prevent their filling their feet +with their own excrement. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not, +of course, dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. If the yard could +be built over a shallow, gravelly-bottomed brook, it would be an +admirable arrangement; for this purpose, a portion of any little brook +might be prepared, by planking the bottom, and widening it, if +desirable. By such means the hoofs would be kept so soft that the +greatest and most unpleasant part of the labor, as ordinarily performed, +would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that +dung which, by any other arrangement, will, more or less, get into their +clefts. + +The principal operator seats himself on a chair, having within his reach +a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers already +described, a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, together +with such medicines as may be deemed necessary. The assistant catches a +sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the +foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then +kneels on some straw, or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder +extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are long, and especially if they +are dry and tough, the assistant presents each foot to the operator who +shortens the hoof with the toe-nippers. If there is any filth between +the toes, each man takes his rag from the bucket of water, and draws it +between the toes, and rinses it, until the filth is removed. Each then +takes a knife, and the process of paring away the horn commences, _upon +the effectual performance of which_ all else depends. A glance at the +foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. The least +experience cannot fail in properly settling this question. An +experienced finger, even, placed upon the back of the pastern close +above the heel, will at once detect the local inflammation, in the dark, +_by its heat_. + +If the disease is in the first stage--that is, if there are merely +erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft _above_ the +walls of the hoof--no paring is necessary. But if ulceration has +established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, _the ulcerated +parts_, however extensive, _must be entirely stripped of their horny +covering_, no matter what amount of time and care it may require. It is +better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the +running blood will wash off the subsequent application; but no fear of +wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule laid down +above. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, +during which time no application needs to be made to the foot. + +If the foot is in the third stage--a mass of rottenness, and filled with +maggots--pour, in the first place, a little spirits of turpentine--a +bottle of which, with a quill through the cork, should be always +ready--on the maggots, and most of them will immediately decamp, and the +others can be removed with a probe or small stick. Then _remove every +particle of loose horn_, though it should take the entire hoof, as it +generally will in such cases. The foot should next be cleansed with a +solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride +to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot +repeatedly in hot water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every +purpose. The great object is _to clean the foot thoroughly_. If there is +any considerable "proud flesh," it should be removed with a pair of +scissors, or by the actual cautery--hot iron. + +The following are some of the most popular remedies: Take two ounces of +blue vitriol and two ounces of verdigris, to a junk-bottle of wine; or +spirits of turpentine, tar, and verdigris in equal parts; or three +quarts of alcohol, one pint of spirits of turpentine, one pint of strong +vinegar, one pound of blue vitriol, one pound of copperas, one and a +half pounds of verdigris, one pound of alum, and one pound of saltpetre, +pounded fine; mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand +six or eight days before using; also mix two pounds of honey and two +quarts of tar, which must be applied after the preceding compound. Or +apply diluted aquafortis--nitric acid--with a feather to the ulcerated +surface; or diluted oil of vitriol--sulphuric acid--in the same way; or +the same of muriatic acid; or dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling +point. + +In the first and second stages of the disease, before the ulcers have +formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its +structure, the best application is a saturated solution of blue +vitriol--sulphate of copper. In the third stage, when the foot is a +festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already +directed, it requires some strong caustic to remove the unhealthy +granulations--the dead muscular structures--and to restore healthy +action. Lunar caustic, which is preferable to any other application, is +too expensive; chloride of antimony is excellent, but frequently +unattainable in the country drug-stores; and muriatic acid, or even +nitric or sulphuric acids, may be used instead. The diseased surface is +touched with the caustic, applied with a swab, formed by fastening a +little tow on the end of a stick, until the objects above pointed out +are attained. The foot is then treated with the solution of blue +vitriol, and subsequently coated over with tar which has been boiled, +and is properly cooled, for the purpose of protecting the raw wound from +dirt, flies, etc. Sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be +separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three +days. With this degree of attention, their cure will be rapid, and the +obliterated structures of the foot will be restored with astonishing +rapidity. + +The common method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it +from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal +lies on its back between the operators, as already described. In this +way a few cents' worth of vitriol will answer for a large number of +sheep. The method is, however, imperfect; since, without extraordinary +care, there will almost always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered +by the knife, which the solution will not reach, the passages to them +being devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed. The disease will thus +be only temporarily suppressed, not cured. + +A flock of sheep which were in the second season of the disease, had +been but little looked to during the summer, and as cold weather set in, +many of them became considerably lame, and some of them quite so. Their +feet were thoroughly pared; and into a large washing-tub, in which two +sheep could conveniently stand, a saturated solution of blue vitriol and +water, _as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment_, was +poured. The liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, +and was kept at that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. As +soon as a sheep's feet were pared, it was placed in the tub, and held +there by the neck. A second one was then prepared, and placed beside it; +when the third was ready, the first was taken out; and so on. Two sheep +were thus constantly in the tub, each remaining some five minutes. The +cure was perfect; there was not a lame sheep in the flock during the +winter or the next summer. The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of +the foot; and doubtless had a far more decisive effect, even on the +uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them. +The expense attending the operation was about _four cents_ per sheep. +Three such applications, at intervals of a week, would effectually cure +the disease, since every new case would thus be arrested and cured +before it would have time to inoculate others. It would, undoubtedly, +accomplish this at any time of year, and even during the first and most +malignant prevalence of the contagion, _provided the paring was +sufficiently thorough_. The second and third parings would be a mere +trifle; and the liquid left at the first and second applications could +again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head, +which is much cheaper, in the long run, than any ordinary temporizing +method, where the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol is counted, but +not the time consumed; and the disease is thus kept lingering in the +flock for years. + +Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy for +this disease; and in cases of ordinary virulence, especially where the +disease is chronic, it seems to dry up the ulcers, and keep the malady +under. Sheep are also sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface, +and driving them over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered with +quick-lime. It may sometimes, and under peculiar circumstances, be cured +by dryness, and repeated washing with soap-suds. + +Many farmers select rainy weather as the time for doctoring their sheep. +Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good +economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, +_provided_ they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any +kind, until the rain is over, and the grass again dry. If immediately +let out in wet grass of any length, the vitriol or other application is +measurably washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in +more tar--an admirable plan under such circumstances. + +A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, is considered +more valuable than one which has never had it. They are far less liable +to contract the disease from any casual exposure; and its ravages are +far less violent and general among them. + +This ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness, or +inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, +rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the +cause; or, if it continues, white paint or tar may be applied, after a +thorough washing. + + +HOOVE. + +This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep; but, if turned +upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will sometimes ensue. + +Hoove is a distension of the paunch by gas extricated from the +fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in +larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline +secretions of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is +prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is +determined to the head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from +making its ordinary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes +difficult and imperfect. Death, in such cases, soon supervenes. + +_Treatment._ In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driving will effect +a cure. When the animal appears swelled almost to bursting, and is +disinclined to move, it is better to open the paunch at once. At the +most protruberant point of the swelling, on the left side, a little +below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point and +dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, +carrying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. +If no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well +as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the +abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of +the former will escape into the cavity of the latter. + +However perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the belly will +ultimately produce fatal irritation. To prevent this, a canula, or +little tube, should be inserted through both orifices as soon as the +puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent, alkalies have +sometimes been successfully administered, which combine with the +carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexible +probang, or in default of it, a rattan, or grape-vine, with a knot on +the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and the gas thus +permitted to escape. + + +HYDATID ON THE BRAIN. + +The symptoms of this disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, staggers, water +in the head, etc., are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating +from the flock, a wandering and blue appearance of the eye, and +sometimes partial or total blindness; the sheep appears unsteady in its +walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop +across the field, and, after the disease has existed for some time, will +almost constantly move round in a circle--there seems, indeed, to be an +aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely +all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent +any mistake as to the nature of the disease. + +On examining the brain of sheep thus affected, what appears to be a +watery bladder, called a hydatid, is found, which may be either small or +of the size of a hen's egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozoöns, +has been termed by naturalists the _hydatis polycephalus cerebralis_, or +many-headed hydatid of the brain; these heads being irregularly +distributed on the surface of the bladder, and on the front part of each +head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of +sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment, by forming +a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus, by +the aid of the hooks, the parasite is nourished. The coats of the +hydatid are disposed in several layers, one of which appears to possess +a muscular power. These facts are developed by the microscope, which +also discloses numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. +The fluid in the bladder is usually clear but occasionally turbid, and +then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. + +_Treatment._ This is deemed an almost incurable disorder. Where the +hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly +enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the +part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield +under the pressure of the finger. + +When such a spot is discovered, the English veterinarians usually +dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, +carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if +possible, remove the hydatid whole; or, failing to do this, remove its +fluid contents. The membranes and integuments are then restored to their +position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French +veterinarians usually simply puncture the cranium and the cyst with a +trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, allow the fluid to run out +through the orifice thus made. A common awl would answer every purpose +for such a puncture; and the puncture is the preferable method for the +unskilled practitioner. An instance is, indeed, recorded of a cure +having been effected, where the animal had been given up, by boring with +a gimlet into the soft place on the head, when the water rushed out, +and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture. + +When, however, the hazard and cruelty attending the operation, under the +most favorable circumstances, are considered, as well as the conceded +liability of a return of the malady--the growth of new hydatids--it is +evident that in this country, it would not be worth while, except in the +case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to adopt any other remedy than +depriving the miserable animal of life. + + +OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET. + +[Illustration: A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP-FODDER.] + +After pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing substance +which occasions the "choking," can frequently be removed up or down by +external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down with the +flexible probang, described in "Cattle and their Diseases," or a +flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knot, or a little bag of +flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or +two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through +the cloth, and protects the [oe]sophagus, or gullet, from laceration. +But little force must be used, and the whole operation conducted with +the utmost care and gentleness; or the [oe]sophagus will be so far +lacerated as to produce death, although the obstruction is removed. + + +OPHTHALMIA. + +Ophthalmia, or inflammation of the eyes, is not uncommon in this +country; but it is little noticed, as, in most cases, it disappears in a +few days, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract, which, being +usually confined to one eye, does not appreciably effect the value of +the animal, and therefore has no influence on its market price. + +_Treatment._ Some recommend blowing pulverized red chalk in the inflamed +eye; others squirt into it tobacco juice. As a matter of humanity, blood +may be drawn from under the eye, and the eye bathed in tepid water, and +occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with +tincture of opium. These latter applications diminish the pain, and +hasten the cure. + + +PALSY. + +Paralysis, or palsy, is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of +motion in some parts of the body. In the winter, poor lambs, or poor +pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the +spring, occasionally lose the power of walking or standing rather too +suddenly to have it referable to increasing debility. The animal seems +to have lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are +powerless; it makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand if +placed upon its feet. + +_Treatment._ Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing may raise the +patient; but, in the vast majority of cases, it is more economical and +equally humane, to deprive it of life at once. + + +PELT-ROT. + +This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is, in fact, a different and +less dangerous disease. The wool falls off, and leaves the sheep nearly +naked; but it is attended with no soreness, though a reddish crust will +cover the skin, from the wool which has dropped. It generally arises +from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet; and, in fact, the +animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers on account +of the loss of its coat. + +The _remedy_ is full feeding, a warm stall, and anointing the hard part +of the skin with tar, oil, and butter. Some, however, do nothing for it, +scarcely considering it a disease. Such say that if the condition of a +poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the +winter, the wool is very apt to drop off; and, if yet cold, the sheep +will require warm shelter. + + +PNEUMONIA. + +Pneumonia--or inflammation of the lungs--is not a common disease in the +Northern States; but undoubted cases of it sometimes occur, after sheep +have been exposed to sudden cold, particularly when recently shorn. The +adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of +slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this disease in the +animal--though, in many instances, it was so slight as to be mistaken, +at the time, for a hard cold. + +_Symptoms._ The animal is dull, ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, +drinks frequently and largely, and its breathing is rapid and laborious; +the eye is clouded; the nose discharges a tenacious, fetid matter; the +teeth are ground frequently, so that the sound is audible at some +distance; the pulse is at first hard and rapid, sometimes intermits, but +before death it becomes weak. During the height of the fever, the flanks +heave violently; there is a hard, painful cough during the first stages, +which becomes weaker, and seems to be accompanied with more pain as +death approaches. + +After death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized--that is, +permanently condensed and engorged with blood, so that their structure +resembles that of the _hepar_, or liver--and they have so far lost their +integrity that they are torn asunder by the slightest force. It may here +be remarked that when sheep die from any cause, _with their blood in +them_, the lungs have a dark, hepatized appearance. Whether they are +actually hepatized or not, can readily be decided by compressing the +windpipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then between such +compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting orifice, +inserting a goose-quill, or other tube, and continuing to blow until the +lungs are inflated as far as they can be. As they inflate, they will +become of a lighter color, and plainly manifest their cellular +structure. If any portions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their +dark, liver-like consistence, and color, they exhibit hepatization--the +result of high inflammatory action--and a state utterly incompatible, in +the living animal, with the discharge of the natural functions of the +viscus. + +_Treatment._ In the first, or inflammatory stages, bleeding and +aperients are clearly called for. Some recommend early and copious +bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours; this followed by +aperient medicines, such as two ounces of Epsom salts, which may be +repeated in smaller doses, if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. +The following sedative may also be given with gruel, twice a day: +nitrate of potash, one drachm; powdered digitalis, one scruple; and +tartarized antimony, one scruple. + +While depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance--the +short continuance--of the febrile state, yet excitation like this will +soon be followed by corresponding exhaustion, when the bleeding and +purging would be murderous expedients; and gentian, ginger, and the +spirits of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure. + + +POISON. + +Sheep will often, in the winter or spring, eat greedily of the low +laurel. The animal appears afterward to be dull and stupid, swells a +little, and is constantly gulping up a feverish fluid, which it swallows +again; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its +lips. The plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stomach, and +nature endeavors to throw off the poisonous herb by retching or +vomiting. + +_Treatment._ In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be allowed to +escape from the stomach, the animal generally recovers. To effect this, +gag the sheep, which may be done in this manner: Take a stick of the +size of the wrist, six inches long--place it in the animal's mouth--tie +a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other +end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as +fast as thrown up from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted +onions and sweetened milk freely. A better plan, however, is to force a +gill of melted lard down the throat; or, boil for an hour the twigs of +the white ash, and give one-half to one gill of the strong liquor +immediately; to be repeated, if not successful. Drenchers of milk and +castor-oil are also recommended. + + +ROT. + +This disease, which sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep, in +England, in a single year, is comparatively unknown in this country. It +prevails somewhat in the Western States, from allowing sheep to pasture +on land that is overflowed with water. Even a crop of green oats, early +in the fall, before a frost comes; has been known to rot young sheep. + +_Symptoms._ The first are by no means strongly marked; there is no loss +of condition, but rather the contrary, to all appearance. A paleness and +want of liveliness of the membranes, generally, may be considered as the +first symptoms, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at +the corner of the eye. When in warm, sultry, or rainy weather, sheep +that are grazing on low and moist lands, feed rapidly, and some of them +die suddenly, there is ground for fearing that they have contracted the +rot. This suspicion will be farther increased if, a few days afterward, +the sheep begin to shrink and grow flaccid about the loins. By pressure +about the hips at this time, a crackling is perceptible now or soon +afterward, the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece, the +skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, and the +wool is easily separated from the felt; and as the disorder advances, +the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots. To these symptoms +succeed increased dullness, loss of condition, and greater paleness of +the mucous membranes, the eye-lids becoming almost white, and afterward +yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a watery +fluid appears under the skin, the latter becoming loose and flabby, and +the wool coming off readily. The symptoms of dropsy often extend over +the body, and sometimes the sheep becomes _chockered_, as it is termed; +a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearance of the +fluid which it contains, is sometimes called the _watery poke_. The +duration of the disease is uncertain; the animal occasionally dies +shortly after becoming affected, but more frequently it extends to from +three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away, +particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging +supervenes. + +_Post-mortem._ The whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and +a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft +and flabby, having the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are +pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands are enlarged, and +engorged with yellow serous fluid. The belly is frequently filled with +water, or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and +the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is +enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The +principal alterations of structure are in the liver, which is pale, +livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure; and on being boiled, +it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often +curiously spotted; in some cases it is speckled, like the back of a +toad; some parts of it, however, are hard and schirrous; others are +ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. The malady is, +unquestionably, inflammation of the liver. This fluke is from +three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, and from +one-third to one-half an inch in its greatest breadth. These fluke-worms +undoubtedly aggravate the disease, and perpetuate a state of +irritability and disorganization, which must necessarily undermine the +strength of any animal. + +_Treatment._ This must, to a considerable extent, be very +unsatisfactory. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the +best _preventives_ is the abundant use of pure salt. In violent attacks, +take eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood, according to the +circumstances of the case; to this, let a dose of physic succeed--two or +three ounces of Epsom salts; and to these means add a change of diet, +good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff in the yard. After the +operation of the physic--an additional dose having been administered, +oftentimes, in order to quicken the action of the first--two or three +grains of calomel may be given daily, mixed with half the quantity of +opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious +effects on the ruminant. To this should be added common salt, which acts +as a purgative and a tonic. A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is +plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. The doses should +be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When the +inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to +the salt, and there are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots; +from one to two drachms of each, finely pounded, may be added to each +dose of the salt. The sheep having a little recovered from the disease, +should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and +should always have salt within their reach. The rot is not infectious. + + +SCAB. + +This is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in horses and the +itch in man, and is caused and propagated by a minute insect, the +_acarus_. + +[Illustration: THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP.] + +If one or more female _acari_ are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, +they quickly travel to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, +the place at which they penetrate being scarcely visible, or only +distinguishable by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelfth day, a +little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes +its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly +formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, when the mothers again +appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by a +portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These +little ones immediately set to work, penetrate the neighboring skin, +bury themselves beneath it, find their proper nourishment, and grow and +propagate, until the poor creature has myriads of them preying upon him. +It is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, he should speedily +sink. The male _acari_, when placed on the sound skin of a sheep, will +likewise burrow their way and disappear for a while, the pustule rising +in due time; but the itching and the scab soon disappear without the +employment of any remedy. The female brings forth from eight to fifteen +young at a time. + +In the United States, this disease is comparatively little known, and +never originates spontaneously. The fact, that short-woolled sheep--like +the Merino--are much less subject to its attacks, is probably one reason +for this slight comparative prevalence. The disease spreads from +individual to individual, and from flock to flock, not only by means of +direct contact, but by the _acari_ left on posts, stones, and other +substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy +sheep are, therefore, liable to contract the malady, if turned on +pastures previously occupied by scabby sheep, although some considerable +time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter. + +The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs +itself with violence against trees, stones, fences, etc.; scratches +itself with its feet, bites its sores, and tears off its wool with its +teeth; as the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms +scabs, causing red, inflamed sores, which constantly extend, increasing +the misery of the tortured animal; if unrelieved, he pines away, and +soon perishes. + +The _post-mortem_ appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There +is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence +of a great number of worms. The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the +spleen enlarged; and there are frequently serous effusions in the belly, +and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy between the +digestive and the cutaneous systems. + +_Treatment._ First, separate the sheep; then cut off the wool as far as +the skin feels hard to the finger; the scab is then washed with +soap-suds, and rubbed hard With a shoe-brush, so that it may be cleansed +and broken. For this use take a decoction of tobacco, to which add +one-third, by measure, of the lye of wood-ashes, as much hog's lard as +will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from a tar-bucket, +which contains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole, by measure, of +spirits of turpentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and +spread to a little distance around it, in three washings, with an +interval of three days each. This will invariably effect a cure, when +the disorder is only partial. + +Or, the following: Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the +proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The +sheep should be previously washed in soap and water. The infusion must +not be permitted to enter the mouth or nostrils. + +Or, take common mercurial ointment; for bad cases, rub it down with +three times its weight of lard--for ordinary cases, five times its +weight. Rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part +the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, +and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. +Make a similar furrow and application on each side, four inches from the +first; and so on, over the whole body. The quantity of ointment after +composition with the lard, should not exceed two ounces; and, generally, +less will suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown +sheep. This will generally cure; but, if the animal should continue to +rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten +days. + +Or, take two pounds of lard or palm oil; half a pound of oil of tar; and +one pound of sulphur; gradually mix the last two, then rub down the +compound with the first. Apply as before. Or, take of corrosive +sublimate, one half a pound; white hellabore, powdered, three-fourths of +a pound; whale or other oil, six gallons; rosin, two pounds; and tallow, +two pounds. The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the +rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed. This is a +powerful preparation, and must not be applied too freely. + +An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable +itching, sometimes troubles sheep. This is a febrile disease, and is +treated with a cooling purgative, bleeding, and oil or lard applied to +the sores. + + +SMALL-POX. + +The author acknowledges himself indebted for what follows under this +head to R. McClure, V. S., of Philadelphia, author of a Prize Essay on +Diseases of Sheep, read before the U. S. Agricultural Society, in 1860, +for which a medal and diploma were awarded. + +Although the small-pox in domestic animals has, fortunately, been as yet +confined to the European Continent--where it has been chiefly limited to +England--no good reason can ever be assigned why it should not at some +future time make its appearance among us, especially when we remember +how long a period elapsed, during which we escaped the cattle plague, +although the Continent had long been suffering from it. + +The small-pox in sheep--_variola overia_--is, at times, epizoötic in the +flocks of France and Italy, but was unknown in England until 1847, when +it was communicated to a flock at Datchett and another at Pinnier by +some Merinos from Spain. It soon found its way into Hampshire and +Norfolk, but was shortly afterward supposed to be eradicated. In 1862, +however, it suddenly reappeared in a severe form among the flocks of +Wiltshire; for which reappearance neither any traceable infection nor +contagion could be assigned. With the present light upon the subject, it +would seem to be an instance of the origination _anew_ of a malignant +type of varioloid disease. Such an origin is, in fact, assigned to this +disease in Africa, it being well established that certain devitalizing +atmospheric influences produce skin diseases, and facilitate the +appearance of pustular eruptions. + +The disease once rooted soon becomes epizoötic, and causes a greater +mortality than any other malady affecting this animal. Out of a flock +numbering 1720, 920 were attacked in a natural way, of which 50 per +cent. died. Of 800 inoculated cases, but 36 per cent. died. + +Numerous experiments have proved beyond all doubt that this disease in +sheep is both infectious and contagious; its period of incubation varies +from seven to fourteen days. The mortality is never less than 25 per +cent., and not unfrequently whole flocks have been swept away, death +taking place in the early stages of the eruption, or in the stages of +suppuration and ulceration. + +The _symptoms_ may be mapped out as follows: The animal is seized with a +shivering fit, succeeded by a dull stupidity, which remains until death +or recovery results; on the second or third day, pimples are seen on the +thighs and arm-pits, accompanied with extreme redness of the eyes, +complete loss of appetite, etc., etc. It is needless to enumerate other +symptoms which exist in common with those of other disorders. + +_Prevention._ At present, but two modes are resorted to, for the purpose +of preventing the spread of the disease, which promise any degree of +certainty of success. The first is by _inoculation_, which was +recommended by Professor Simonds, of London. This distinguished +pathologist appears to have overlooked the fact that he was thereby only +enlarging the sphere of mischief, by imparting the disease to animals +that, in all probability, would otherwise have escaped it. By +inoculation, moreover, a form of the disease is given, not of a modified +character, but with all the virulence of the original affection which is +to be arrested, and equally as potent for further destruction of others. +By such teaching, inoculation and vaccination would be made one and the +same thing, notwithstanding their dissimilarity. Even vaccination will +not protect the animal, as has been already shown by the experiments of +Hurbrel D'Arboval. + +The second and best plan of prevention is _isolation and destruction_, +as recommended by Professor Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College. +This proved a great protection to the sheep-farmers of Wiltshire, in +1862. In all epizoötic diseases, individual cases occur, which, when +pointed out and recognized as soon as the fever sets in and the early +eruptions appear, should be slaughtered at once and buried, and the rest +of the flock isolated. By this means the disease has been confined to +but two or three in a large flock. + +_Treatment._ In treating this disease, resort has of late been had to a +plant, known as _Sarracenia purpura_--Indian cup, or pitcher +plant--used for this purpose by the Micmacs, a tribe of Indians in +British North America. This plant is indigenous, perennial, and is found +from the coast of Labrador to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, growing +in great abundance on wet, marshy ground. The use of this plant is +becoming quite general, and good results have almost uniformly attended +it. + +Take from one to two ounces of the dried root, and slice in thin pieces; +place in an earthen pot; add a quart of cold water, and allow the liquid +to simmer gently over a steady fire for two or three hours, so as to +lose one-fourth of the quantity. Give of this decoction three +wine-glassfuls at once, and the same quantity from four to six hours +afterwards, when a cure will generally be affected. Weaker and smaller +doses are certain preventives of the disease. The public are indebted to +Dr. Morris, physician to the Halifax (Nova Scotia) Dispensary, for the +manner of preparing this eminently useful article. + + +SORE FACE. + +Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John's wort, frequently exhibit +an irritation of skin about the nose and face, which causes the hair to +drop off from the parts. The irritation sometimes extends over the +entire body. If this plant is eaten in too large quantities, it produces +violent inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, +and sometimes to adults. + +_Treatment._ Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If +there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, this should be put +into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick. Abundance of salt is +deemed a _preventive_. + + +SORE MOUTH. + +The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter, and +swell to the thickness of a man's hand. The malady occasionally attacks +whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. It is usually attributed to +noxious weeds cut with the hay. + +_Treatment._ Daub the lips and mouth plentifully with tar. + + +TICKS. + +The treatment necessary as a preventive against these insects, and a +remedy for them, has already been indicated under the head of "FEEDING +AND MANAGEMENT," to which the reader is referred. + + + + + SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. + + + + +[Illustration] + +HISTORY AND BREEDS. + + +The hog is a cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every climate; +though its natural haunts--like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, +the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals--are in warm +countries. They are most abundant in China, the East Indies, and the +immense range of islands extending throughout the whole Southern and +Pacific oceans; but they are also numerous throughout Europe, from its +Southern coast to the Russian dominions within the Arctic. + +As far back as the records of history extend, this animal appears to +have been known, and his flesh made use of as food. Nearly fifteen +hundred years before Christ, Moses gave those laws to the Israelites +which have given rise to so much discussion; and it is evident that, had +not pork been the prevailing food of that nation at the time, such +stringent commandments and prohibitions would not have been necessary. +The various allusions to this kind of meat, which repeatedly occur in +the writings of the old Greek authors, show the esteem in which it was +held among that nation; and it appears that the Romans made the art of +breeding, rearing, and fattening pigs a study. In fact, the hog was very +highly prized among the early nations of Europe; and some of the +ancients even paid it divine honors. + +The Jews, the Egyptians, and the Mohammedans alone appear to have +abstained from the flesh of swine. The former were expressly denied its +use by the laws of Moses. "And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and +be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean unto you." +Lev. xi. 7. Upon this prohibition, Mohammed, probably, founded his own. +For the Mosaic prohibition, various reasons have been assigned: the +alleged extreme filthiness of the animal; it being afflicted with a +leprosy; the great indigestibility of its flesh in hot climates; the +intent to make the Jews "a peculiar people;" a preventive of gluttony; +and an admonition of abstinence from sensual and disgusting habits. + +At what period the animal was reclaimed from his wild State, and by what +nation, cannot be stated. From the earliest times, in England, the hog +has been regarded as a very important animal, and vast herds were tended +by swineherds, who watched over their safety in the woods, and collected +them under shelter at night. Its flesh was the staple article of +consumption in every household, and much of the wealth of the rich and +free portion of the community consisted in these animals. Hence bequests +of swine, with land for their support, were often made; rights and +privileges connected with their feeding, and the extent of woodland to +be occupied by a given number, were granted according to established +rules. Long after the end of the Saxon dynasty, the practice of feeding +swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was continued till the +forests were cut down, and the land laid open for the plough. + +Nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions in a forest +country. By his burrowing after roots and the like, he turns up and +destroys the larvæ of innumerable insects, which would otherwise injure +the trees as well as their fruit. He destroys the slug-snail and adder, +and thus not only rids the forests of these injurious and unpleasant +inhabitants, but also makes them subservient to his own nourishment, and +therefore to the benefit of mankind. The fruits which he eats are such +as would otherwise rot on the ground and be wasted, or yield nutriment +to vermin; and his diggings for earth-nuts and the like, loosens the +soil, and benefits the roots of the trees. Hogs in forest land may, +therefore, be regarded as eminently beneficial; and it is only the abuse +which is to be feared. + +The hog is popularly regarded as a stupid, brutal, rapacious, and filthy +animal, grovelling and disgusting in all his habits, intractable and +obstinate in temper. The most offensive epithets among men are borrowed +from him, or his peculiarities. In their native state, however, swine +seem by no means destitute of natural affections; they are gregarious, +assemble together in defence of each other, herd together for warmth, +and appear to have feelings in common; no mother is more tender to her +young than the sow, or more resolute in their defence. Neglected as this +animal has ever been by authors, recorded instances are not wanting of +their sagacity, tractability, and susceptibility of affection. Among the +European peasantry, where the hog is, so to speak, one of the family, he +may often be seen following his master from place to place, and grunting +his recognition of his protectors. + +The hog, in point of actual fact, is also a much more cleanly animal +than he has the credit of being. He is fond of a good, cleanly bed; and +when this is not provided for him, it is oftentimes interesting to note +the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for himself. It is, +however, so much the vogue to believe that he may be kept in any state +of neglect, that the terms "pig," and "pig-sty" are usually regarded as +synonymous with all that is dirty and disgusting. His rolling in the mud +is cited as a proof of his filthy habits. This practice, which he shares +in common with all the pachydermatous animals, is undoubtedly the +teaching of instinct, and for the purpose of cooling himself and keeping +off flies. + +Pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will nestle +together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle vehemently to +secure the warmest berth. They are likewise peculiarly sensitive of +approaching changes in the weather, and may often be observed suddenly +leaving the places in which they had been quietly feeding, and running +off to their styes at full speed, making loud outcries. When storms are +overhanging, they collect straw in their mouths, and run about as if +inviting their companions to do the same; and if there is a shed or +shelter near at hand, they will carry it there and deposit it, as if for +the purpose of preparing a bed. + +In their domesticated state, they are, undeniably, very greedy animals; +eating is the business of their lives; nor do they appear to be very +delicate as to the kind or quality of food which is placed before them. +Although naturally herbivorous animals, they have been known to devour +carrion with all the voracity of beasts of prey, to eat and mangle +infants, and even gorge their appetites with their own young. It is not, +however, unreasonable to believe that the last revolting act--rarely if +ever happening in a state of nature--arises more from the pain and +irritation produced by the state of confinement, and often filth, in +which the animal is kept, and the disturbances to which it is subjected, +than from any actual ferocity; for it is well known that a sow is always +unusually irritable at this period, snapping at all animals that +approach her. If she is gently treated, properly supplied with +sustenance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there is little danger +of this practice ever happening. + +All the offences which swine commit are attributed to a disposition +innately bad; whereas they too often arise from bad management, or total +neglect. They are legitimate objects for the sport of idle boys, hunted +with curs, pelted with stones, often neglected and obliged to find a +meal for themselves, or wander about half-starved. Made thus the +Ishmaelites of our domestic animals, is it a matter of wonder that they +should, under such circumstances, incline to display Ishmaelitish +traits? In any well-regulated farm-yard, the swine are as tractable and +as little disposed to wander or trespass as any of the animals that it +contains. + +The WILD BOAR is generally admitted to be the parent of the stock from +which all our domesticated breeds and varieties have sprung. This animal +is generally of a dusky brown or iron-gray color, inclining to black, +and diversified with black spots or streaks. The body is covered with +coarse hairs, intermixed with a downy wool; these hairs become bristles +as they approach the neck and shoulders, and are in those places so long +as to form a mane, which the animal erects when irritated. The head is +short, the forehead broad and flat, the ears short, rounded at the tips, +and inclined toward the neck, the jaw armed with sharp, crooked tusks, +which curve slightly upward, and are capable of inflicting fearful +wounds, the eye full, neck thick and muscular, the shoulders high, the +loins broad, the tail stiff, and finished off with a tuft of bristles at +the tip, the haunch well turned, and the leg strong. A full-grown wild +boar in India averages from thirty to forty inches in height at the +shoulder; the African wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty inches +high. + +The wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and becomes fiercer +as he grows older. When existing in a state of nature, he is generally +found in moist, shady, and well-wooded situations, not far remote from +streams or water. In India, they are found in the thick jungles, in +plantations of sugar-cane or rice, or in the thick patches of high, long +grass. In England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, their resorts have +been in the woods and forests. This animal is naturally herbivorous, +and appears to feed by choice upon plants, fruits, and roots. He will, +however, eat the worms and larvæ which he finds in the ground, also +snakes and other such reptiles, and the eggs of birds. They seldom quit +their coverts during the day, but prowl about in search of food during +twilight and the night. Their acute sense of smell enables them to +detect the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil, and +they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground in search +of them, particularly as they do not, like the common hog, root up a +little spot here and there, but plough long, continuous, furrows. + +The wild boar, properly so called, is neither a solitary nor a +gregarious animal. For the first two or three years, the whole herd +follows the sow, and all unite in defence against any enemies, calling +upon each other with loud cries in case of emergency, and forming in +regular line of battle, the weakest occupying the rear. When arrived at +maturity, the animals wander alone, as if in perfect consciousness of +their strength, and appear as if they neither sought nor avoided any +living creature. They are reputed to live about thirty years; as they +grow old, the hair becomes gray, and the tusks begin to show symptoms of +decay. Old boars rarely associate with a herd, but seem to keep apart +from the rest, and from each other. + +The female produces but one litter in the year, much smaller in number +than those of the domestic pig; she carries her young sixteen or twenty +weeks, and generally is only seen with the male during the rutting +season. She suckles her young for several months, and continues to +protect them for some time afterward; if attacked at that time, she will +defend herself and them with exceeding courage and fierceness. Many +sows will often be found herding together, each followed by her litter +of young; and in such parties they are exceedingly formidable to man and +beast. Neither they nor the boar, however, seem desirous of attacking +any thing; and only when roused by aggression, or disturbed in their +retreat, do they turn upon their enemies and manifest the mighty +strength with which Nature has endowed them. When attacked by dogs, the +wild boar at first sullenly retreats, turning upon them from time to +time and menacing them with his tusks; but gradually his anger rises, +and at length he stands at bay, fights furiously for his life, and tears +and rends his persecutors. He has even been observed to single out the +most tormenting of them, and rush savagely upon him. Hunting this animal +has been a favorite sport, in almost all countries in which it has been +found, from the earliest ages. + +[Illustration: THE WILD BOAR AT BAY.] + +Wild boars lingered in the forests of England and Scotland for several +centuries after the Norman conquest, and many tracts of land in those +countries derived their name from this circumstance; while instances of +valor in their destruction are recorded in the heraldic devices of many +of their noble families. The precise period at which the animal became +exterminated there cannot be precisely ascertained. They had, however, +evidently been long extinct in the time of Charles I., since he +endeavored to re-introduce them, and was at considerable expense to +procure a wild boar and his mate from Germany. They still exist in Upper +Austria, on the Syrian Alps, in many parts of Hungary, and in the +forests of Poland, Spain, Russia, and Sweden; and the inhabitants of +those countries hunt them with hounds, or attack them with fire-arms, or +with the proper boar-spear. + +All the varieties of the domestic hog will breed with the wild boar; the +period of gestation is the same in the wild and the tame sow; their +anatomical structure is identical; their general form bears the same +characters; and their habits, so far as they are not changed by +domestication, remain the same. Where individuals of the pure wild race +have been caught young and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic +pig, their fierceness has disappeared, they have become more social and +less nocturnal in their habits, lost their activity, and lived more to +eat. In the course of one or two generations, even the form undergoes +certain modifications; the body becomes larger and heavier; the legs +shorter, and less adapted for exercise; the formidable tusks of the +boar, being no longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear; the shape +of the head and neck alters; and in character as well as in form, the +animal adapts itself to its situation. Nor does it appear that a return +to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance; for, +in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man, and bred +in the wilderness and woods, not a single instance is on record in which +they have resumed the habits and form of the wild boar. They, indeed, +become fierce, wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon roots and fruits; +but they are, notwithstanding, merely degenerated swine, and they still +associate together in herds, and do not walk solitary and alone, like +their grim ancestors. + + +AMERICAN SWINE. + +In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its +earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market has been found for +pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. +Swine are not, however, indigenous to this country, but were doubtless +originally brought hither by the early English settlers; and the breed +thus introduced may still be distinguished by the traces they retain of +their parent stock. France, also, as well as Spain, and, during the +existence of the slave-trade, Africa, have also combined to furnish +varieties of this animal, so much esteemed throughout the whole of the +country, as furnishing a valuable article of food. For nearly twenty +years following the commencement of the general European wars, soon +after the organization of our national government, pork was a +comparatively large article of commerce; but exports for a time +diminished, and it was not until within a more recent period that this +staple has been brought up to its former standard as an article of +exportation to that country. The recent use which has been made of its +carcass in converting it into lard oil, has tended to still further +increase its consumption. By the census of 1860, there were upward of +thirty-two and a half millions of these animals in the United States. + +They are reared in every part of the Union, and, when properly managed, +always at a fair profit. At the extreme North, in the neighborhood of +large markets, and on such of the Southern plantations as are +particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond +the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food +produced. Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or +orchard; since, with little additional food besides what is thus +afforded, they can be put in good condition for the butcher. + +On the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, however, where Indian +corn is raised in profusion and at small expense, they can be reared in +the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The Scioto, Miami, +Wabash, Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, +Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining States, have for many years +taken the lead in the production of Swine; and it is probable that the +climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as +well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them to hold their +position as the leading pork-producers of the North American Continent. + +The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous; and, like our native +cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst, to be +found among the species. Great attention has been paid, for many years, +to their improvement in the Eastern States; and nowhere are there better +specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended +West and South; and among most of the intelligent farmers, who make them +a leading object of attention, on their rich corn-grounds, swine have +attained a high degree of excellence. This does not consist in the +introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the +breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such +meritorious individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within +their reach. + + +THE BYEFIELD. + +This breed was formerly in high repute in the Eastern States, and did +much good among the species generally. They are white, with fine curly +hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad +backs, and at fifteen months attaining some three hundred to three +hundred and fifty pounds net. + + +THE BEDFORD. + +The Bedford or Woburn is a breed originating with the Duke of Bedford, +on his estate at Woburn, and brought to their perfection, probably, by +judicious crosses of the Chinese hog on some of the best English swine. +A pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present to General +Washington; but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger, in +Maryland, in which State, and in Pennsylvania, they were productive of +much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through +different States. Several other importations of this breed have been +made at various times, and especially by the enterprising masters of the +Liverpool packets, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a large, +spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and +fattening. This is an exceedingly valuable hog, but nearly extinct, both +in England and in this country, as a breed. + + +THE LEICESTER. + +The old Leicestershire breed, in England, was a perfect type of the +original hogs of the midland counties; large, ungainly, slab-sided +animals, of a light color, and spotted with brown or black. The only +good parts about them were their heads and ears, which showed greater +traces of breeding than any other portions. These have been materially +improved by various crosses, and the original breed has nearly lost all +its peculiarities and defects. They may now be characterized as a large, +white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow +in maturing. Some varieties differ essentially in these particulars, and +mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses with small +compact breeds are generally thrifty, desirable animals. + + +THE YORKSHIRE. + +The old Yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, and one of +the most unprofitable for a farmer, being greedy feeders, difficult to +fatten, and unsound in constitution. They were of a dirty white or +yellow color, spotted with black, had long legs, flat sides, narrow +backs, weak loins, and large bones. Their hair was short and wirey, and +intermingled with numerous bristles about the head and neck, and their +ears long. When full grown and fat, they seldom weighed more than from +three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds. + +These have been crossed with pigs of the improved Leicester breed; and +where the crossings have been judiciously managed, and not carried too +far, a fine race of deep-sided, short-legged, thin-haired animals has +been obtained, fattening kindly, and rising to a weight of from two +hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds, when killed between one and +two years old; and when kept over two years, reaching even from five +hundred to seven hundred pounds. + +They have also been crossed with the Chinese, Neapolitan, and Berkshire +breeds, and hardy, profitable, well-proportioned animals thereby +obtained. The original breed, in its purity, size, and defectiveness, is +now hardly to be met with, having shared the fate of the other large old +breeds, and given place to smaller and more symmetrical animals. The +_Yorkshire white_ is among the large breeds deserving commendation among +us. To the same class belong also the large _Miami white_, and the +_Kenilworth_; each frequently attaining, when dressed, a weight of from +six hundred to eight hundred pounds. + + +THE CHINESE. + +This hog is to be found in the south-eastern countries of Asia, as Siam, +Cochin China, the Burman Empire, Cambodia, Malacca, Sumatra, and in +Batavia, and other Eastern islands; and is, without doubt, the parent +stock of the best European and American swine. + +There are two distinct varieties, the _white_ and the _black_; both +fatten readily, but from their diminutive size attain no great weight. +They are small in limb, round in body, short in the head, wide in the +cheek, and high in the chime; covered with very fine bristles growing +from an exceedingly thin skin; and not peculiarly symmetrical, since, +when fat, the head is so buried in the neck that little more than the +tip of the snout is visible. The pure Chinese is too delicate and +susceptible to cold ever to become a really profitable animal in this +country; it is difficult to rear, and the sows are not good nurses; but +one or two judicious crosses have, in a manner, naturalized it. This +breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quantity of +food; the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does not make good bacon, +and is often too fat and oily to be generally esteemed as pork. They are +chiefly kept by those who rear sucking-pigs for the market, as they make +excellent roasters at three weeks or a month old. Five, and even seven, +varieties of this breed are distinguished, but these are doubtless the +results of different crosses with our native kinds; among these are +black, white, black and white, spotted, blue and white, and sandy. + +[Illustration: THE CHINESE HOG.] + +Many valuable crosses have been made with these animals; for the +prevalent fault of the old English breeds having been coarseness of +flesh, unwieldiness of form, and want of aptitude to fatten, an +admixture of the Chinese breed has materially corrected these defects. +Most of our smaller breeds are more or less indebted to the Asiatic +swine for their present compactness of form, the readiness with which +they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their early maturity; but +these advantages are not considered, in the judgment of some, as +sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size, the +increased delicacy of the animals, and the decrease of number in the +litters. The best cross is between the Berkshire and Chinese. + + +THE SUFFOLK. + +The old Suffolks are white in color, long-legged, long-bodied, with +narrow backs, broad foreheads, short hams, and an abundance of bristles. +They are by no means profitable animals. A cross between the Suffolk and +Lincoln has produced a hardy animal, which fattens kindly, and attains +the weight of from four hundred to five hundred and fifty, and even +seven hundred pounds. Another cross, much approved by farmers, is that +of the Suffolk and Berkshire. + +[Illustration: THE SUFFOLK PIG.] + +There are few better breeds, perhaps, than the improved Suffolk--that +is, the Suffolk crossed with the Chinese. The greater part of the pigs +on the late Prince Albert's farm, near Windsor, were of this breed. They +are well-formed, compact, of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, +short legs, small heads, and fat cheeks. Many, at a year or fifteen +months old, weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds; +at which age they make fine bacon hogs. The sucking-pigs are also very +delicate and delicious. + +Those arising from Berkshire and Suffolk are not so well shaped as the +latter, being coarser, longer-legged, and more prominent about the hips. +They are mostly white, with thin, fine hair; some few are spotted, and +are easily kept in fine condition; they have a decided aptitude to +fatten early, and are likewise valuable as store-pigs. + + +THE BERKSHIRE. + +[Illustration: A BERKSHIRE BOAR.] + +The Berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are distinguished by +their color, which is a sandy or whitish brown, spotted regularly with +dark brown or black spots, and by their having no bristles. The hair is +long, thin, somewhat curly, and looks rough; the ears are fringed with +long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a ragged or feathery +appearance; the body is thick, compact, and well formed; the legs short, +the sides broad, the head well set on, the snout short, the jowl thick, +the ears erect, skin exceedingly thin in texture, the flesh firm and +well flavored, and the bacon very superior. This breed has generally +been considered one of the best in England, on account of its smallness +of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood, +and the females being good breeders. Hogs of the pure original breed +have been known to weigh from eight hundred to nine hundred and fifty +pounds. + +Numerous crosses have been made from this breed; the principal foreign +ones are those with the Chinese and Neapolitan swine, made with the view +of decreasing the size of the animal, improving the flavor of the flesh, +and rendering it more delicate; and the animals thus attained are +superior to almost any others in their aptitude to fatten; but are very +susceptible to cold, from being almost entirely without hair. A cross +with the Suffolk and Norfolk also is much improved, which produces a +hardy kind, yielding well when sent to the butcher; although, under most +circumstances, the pure Berkshire is the best. + +No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, +within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, and they have +produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. They weigh +variously, from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net, at +sixteen months, according to their food and style of breeding; and some +full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred pounds. They +particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and heavy, and +contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best +flavor. + +None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it +is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department +of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are obliged to import most of +what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This improvement is +manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow +to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing +face, delicate muzzle, and wild eye; and in the short legs, low flanks, +deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity. + + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG. + +[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE HOG AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. + +1. The lower jaw. 2. The teeth. 3. The nasal bones. 4. The upper jaw. 5. +The frontal bone. 6. The orbit or socket of the eye. 7. The occipital +bone. 8. The first vertebræ of the neck. 9. The vertebræ of the neck. +10. The vertebræ of the back. 11. The vertebræ of the loins. 12. The +bones of the tail. 13, 14. The true and false ribs. 15. The +shoulder-blade. 16. The round shoulder-bone 17. The breast-bone. 18. The +elbow. 19. The bone of the fore-arm. 20. The navicular bone. 21. The +first and second bones of the foot. 22. The bones of the hoof. 23. The +haunch bones. 24. The thigh bone. 25. The stifle bone. 26. The upper +bone of the leg. 27. The hock bones. 28. The navicular bone. 29. The +first digits of the foot. 30. The second digits of the foot.] + + DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. + CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. + ORDER. _Pachydermata_--thick-skinned. + FAMILY. _Suidæ_--the swine kind. + GENUS. _Sus_--the hog. Of this genus there are five +varieties. + _Sus Scropa_, or Domestic Hog. + _Sus Papuensis_, or Bene. + _Sus Guineensis_, or Guinea Hog. + _Sus Africanus_, or Masked Boar. + _Sus Babirussa_, or Babirussa. + +A very slight comparison of the face of this animal with that of any +other will prove that strength is the object in view--strength toward +the inferior part of the bone. In point of fact, the snout of the hog is +his spade, with which, in his natural state, he digs and ruts in the +ground for roots, earth-nuts, worms, etc. To render this implement more +nearly perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone, being +connected with it by strong ligaments, cartilages, and muscles, and +termed the snout-bone, or spade-bone, or ploughshare. By it and its +cartilaginous attachment, the snout is rendered strong as well as +flexible, and far more efficient than it otherwise could be; and the hog +often continues to give both farmers and gardeners very unpleasant +proofs of its efficiency, by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-sown +fields, and grubbing up the soil in all directions in quest of living +and dead food. + +As roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food of the +hog, his face terminates in this strong, muscular snout, insensible at +the extremity, and perfectly adapted for turning up the soil. There is a +large plexus or fold of nerves proceeding down each side of the nose; +and in these, doubtless, resides that peculiar power which enables the +hog to select his food, though buried some inches below the surface of +the ground. The olfactory nerve is likewise large, and occupies a middle +rank between that of the herbivorous and carnivorous animals; it is +comparatively larger than that of the ox; indeed, few animals--with the +exception of the dog, none--are gifted with a more acute sense of smell +than the hog. To it epicures are indebted for the truffles which form +such a delicious sauce, for they are the actual finders. A pig is turned +into a field, allowed to pursue his own course, and watched. He stops, +and begins to grub up the earth; the man hurries up, drives him away, +and secures the truffle, which is invariably growing under that spot; +and the poor pig goes off to sniff out another, and another, only now +and then being permitted, by way of encouragement, to reap the fruits of +his research. + + +FORMATION OF THE TEETH. + +The hog has fourteen _molar_ teeth in each jaw, six _incisors_, and two +_canines_; these latter are curved upward, and commonly denominated +_tushes_. The molar teeth are all slightly different in structure, and +increase in size from first to last; they bear no slight resemblance to +those of the human being. The incisors are so fantastic in form that +they cannot well be described, and their destined functions are by no +means clear. Those in the lower jaw are long, round, and nearly +straight; of those in the upper jaw, four closely resemble the +corresponding teeth in the horse; while the two corner incisors bear +something of the shape of those of the dog. These latter are placed so +near the tushes as often to obstruct their growth, and it is sometimes +necessary to draw them, in order to relieve the animal and enable him to +feed. + +The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw; by the time he +is three or four months old, he is provided with his incisive milk-teeth +and the tushes; the supernumerary molars protrude between the fifth and +seventh month, as does the first back molar; the second back molar is +cut at about the age of ten months; and the third, generally, not until +the animal is three years old. The upper corner teeth are shed at about +the age of six or eight months; and the lower ones at about seven, nine, +or ten months old, and replaced by the permanent ones. The milk tushes +are also shed and replaced between six and ten months old. The age of +twenty months, and from that to two years, is denoted by the shedding +and replacement of the middle incisors, or _pincers_, in both jaws, and +the formation of a black circle at the base of each of the tushes. At +about two years and a half or three years of age, the adult middle teeth +in both jaws protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded at +the ends. + +After three years, the age may be computed by the growth of the tushes; +at about four years, or rather before, the upper tushes begin to raise +the lip; at five, they protrude through the lips; and at six years, the +tushes of the lower jaw begin to show themselves out of the mouth, and +assume a spiral form. These acquire a prodigious length in old animals, +and particularly in uncastrated boars; and as they increase in size, +they become curved backward and outward, and at length are so crooked as +to interfere with the motion of the jaws to such a degree that it is +necessary to cut off those projecting teeth, which is done with the +file, or with nippers. + + + + +[Illustration] + +BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT + + +BREEDING + +In the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, much more attention and +consideration are requisite than is generally imagined. It is as easy, +with a very little judgment and management, to procure a good as an +inferior breed; and the former is much more remunerative, in proportion +to the outlay, than the latter can possibly ever be. + +The object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such an +animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has in view, whether +that is the consumption of certain things which could not otherwise be +so well disposed of, the converting into hams, bacon, and pork, or the +raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market. Almost all farmers +keep one or more pigs to devour the offal and refuse, which would +otherwise be wasted. This is, however, a matter totally distinct from +breeding swine. In the former case, the animal or animals are purchased +young for a small price, each person buying as many as he considers he +shall have food enough for, and then sold to the butcher, or killed, +when in proper condition; and thus a certain degree of profit is +realized. In the latter, many contingencies must be taken into account: +the available means of feeding them; whether or not the food may be more +profitably disposed of; the facilities afforded by railroads, the +vicinity of towns, or large markets, etc., for disposing of them. + +In the breeding of swine, as much as that of any other livestock, it is +important to pay great attention, not only to the breed, but also to the +choice of individuals. The sow should produce a great number of young +ones, and she must be well fed to enable her to support them. Some sows +bring forth ten, twelve, or even fifteen pigs at a birth; but eight or +nine is the usual number; and sows which produce fewer than this must be +rejected. It is, however, probable that fecundity depends also on the +boar; he should, therefore, be chosen from a race which multiplies +quickly. + +If a bacon and a late market be objects, the large and heavy varieties +should be selected, care being taken that the breed has the character of +possessing those qualities most likely to insure a heavy return--growth, +and facility of taking fat. Good one-year bacon-hogs being in great +demand, they may be known by their long bodies, low bellies, and short +legs. With these qualities are usually coupled long, pendulous ears, +which attract purchasers. If, however, hogs are to be sold at all +seasons to the butchers, the animals must attain their full growth and +be ready for killing before they are a year old. This quality is +particularly prominent in the Chinese breed; but among our ordinary +varieties, hogs are often met with better adapted for this purpose than +for producing large quantities of bacon and lard. The Berkshire crossed +with Chinese is an excellent porker. + +The sow should be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape, sound +and free from blemishes and defects. In every case--whether the object +be pork or bacon--the _points_ to be looked for in the _sow_ are a +small, lively head; a broad and deep chest; round ribs; capacious +barrel; a haunch falling almost to the hough; deep and broad loin; ample +hips; and considerable length of body, in proportion to its height. One +qualification should ever be kept in view, and, perhaps, should be the +first point to which the attention should be directed--that is, +smallness of bone. She should have at least twelve teats; for it is +observed that each pig selects a teat for himself and keeps to it, so +that a pig not having one belonging to him would be starved. A good sow +should produce a great number of pigs, all of equal vigor. She must be +very careful of them, and not crush them by her weight; above all, she +must not be addicted to eating the after-birth, and, what may often +follow, her own young. If a sow is tainted with those bad habits, or if +she has difficult labors, or brings forth dead pigs, she must be spayed +forthwith. It is, therefore, well to bring up several young sows at +once, so as to keep those only which are free from defects. Breeding +sows and boars should never be raised from defective animals. Sows that +have very low bellies, almost touching the ground, seldom produce large +or fine litters. A good-sized sow is generally considered more likely to +prove a good breeder and nurse, and to farrow more easily and safely +than a small, delicate animal. + +The ancients considered the distinguishing marks of a good _boar_ to be +a small head, short legs, a long body, large thighs and neck, and this +latter part thickly covered with strong, erect bristles. The most +experienced modern breeders prefer an animal with a long, cylindrical +body; small bones; well-developed muscles; a wide chest, which denotes +strength of constitution; a broad, straight back; short head and fine +snout; brilliant eyes; a short, thick neck; broad, well-developed +shoulders; a loose, mellow skin; fine, bright, long hair, and few +bristles; and small legs and hips. Some give the preference to long, +flapping ears; but experience seems to demonstrate that those animals +are best which have short, erect, fine ears. The boar should always be +vigorous and masculine in appearance. + +Few domesticated animals suffer so much from in-and-in breeding as +swine. Where this system is pursued, the number of young ones is +decreased at every litter, until the sows become, in a manner, barren. +This practice also undoubtedly contributes to their liability to +hereditary diseases, such as scrofula, epilepsy, and rheumatism; and +when those possessing any such diseases are coupled, the ruin of the +flock is easily and speedily effected, since they are propagated by +either parent, and always most certainly and in most aggravated form, +when occurring in both. As soon as the slightest degeneracy is observed, +the breed should be crossed from time to time, keeping sight, however, +while so doing, of the end in view. The Chinese will generally be found +the best which can be used for this purpose; since a single cross, and +even two, with one of these animals, will seldom do harm, but often +effect considerable improvements. The best formed of the progeny +resulting from this cross must be selected as breeders, and with them +the old original stock crossed back again. Selection, with judicious and +cautious admixture, is the true secret of forming and improving the +breed. Repeated and indiscriminate crosses are as injurious as an +obstinate adherence to one particular breed, and as much to be avoided. + +The following rules for the selection of the best stock of hogs will +apply to all breeds: + +_Fertility._ In a breeding sow, this quality is essential, and it is one +which is inherited. Besides this, she should be a careful mother. A +young, untried sow will generally display in her tendencies those which +have predominated in the race from which she has descended. Both boar +and sow should be sound, healthy, and in fair, but not over fat, +condition. + +_Form._ Where a farmer has an excellent breed, but with certain defects, +or too long in the limb, or too heavy in the bone, the sire to be +chosen, whether of a pure or of a cross breed, should exhibit the +opposite qualities, even to an extreme; and be, moreover, one of a +strain noted for early and rapid fattening. If in perfect health, young +stock selected for breeding will be lively, animated, hold up the head, +and move freely and nimbly. + +_Bristles._ These should be fine and scanty, so as to show the skin +smooth and glossy; coarse, wirey, rough bristles usually accompany heavy +bones, large, spreading hoofs, and flapping ears, and thus become one of +the indications of a thick-skinned and low breed. + +_Color._ Different breeds of high excellence have their own colors; +white, black, parti-colored, black and white, sandy, mottled with large +marks of black, are the most prevalent. A black skin, with short, scanty +bristles, and small stature, demonstrate the prevalence of the +Neapolitan strain, or the black Chinese, or, perhaps, an admixture of +both. Many prefer white; and in sucking-pigs, destined for the table, +and for porkers, this color has its advantages, and the skin looks more +attractive; it is, however, generally thought that the skin of black +hogs is thinner than that of white, and less subject to eruptive +diseases. + +The influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent progeny by other +males is at times curiously illustrated. This has been noticed in +respect of the sow. A sow of the black and white breed, in one instance, +became pregnant by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color. +The pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar being very +predominant in some. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same +breed as herself, some of the produce were still stained or marked with +the chestnut color which prevailed in the first litter; and the same +occurred after a third impregnation, the boar being then of the same +kind as herself. What adds to the force of this case is, that in the +course of many years' observation, the breed in question was never +known to produce progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color. + +A sow is capable of conceiving at the age of six or seven months; but it +is always better not to let her commence breeding too early, as it tends +to weaken her. From ten to twelve months--and the latter is +preferable--is about the best age. The boar should be, at least, a +twelvemonth old--some even recommend eighteen months, at least--before +he is employed for the purpose of propagating his species. If, however, +the sow has attained her second year, and the boar his third, a vigorous +and numerous offspring is more likely to result. The boar and sow retain +their ability to breed for almost five years; that is, until the former +is upward of eight years old, and the latter seven. It is not advisable, +however, to use a boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow +after her fourth, unless she has proved a peculiarly valuable +breeder--in which case she might produce two or three more litters. + +A boar left on the pasture, at liberty with the sows, might suffice for +thirty or forty of them; but as he is commonly shut up, and allowed +access at stated times only, so that the young ones may be born at +nearly the same time, it is usual to allow him to serve from six to +ten--on no account should he serve more. The best plan is, to shut up +the boar and sow in a sty together; for, when turned in among several +females, he is apt to ride them so often that he exhausts himself +without effect. The breeding boar should be fed well and kept in high +condition, but not fat. Full grown boars being often savage and +difficult to tame, and prone to attack men and animals, should be +deprived of their tusks. + +Whenever it is practicable, it should always be so arranged that the +animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the latter end of +summer, or quite the beginning of autumn. In the former case, the young +pigs will have the run of the early pastures, which will be a benefit to +them, and a saving to their owners; and there will also be more whey, +milk, and other dairy produce which can be spared for them by the time +they are ready to be weaned. In the second case, there will be +sufficient time for the young to have grown and acquired strength before +the cold weather comes on, which is always very injurious to +sucking-pigs. + + +POINTS OF A GOOD HOG. + +It may be not amiss to group together what is deemed desirable under +this head. No one should be led away by mere name in his selection of a +hog. It may be called a Berkshire, or a Suffolk, or any other breed most +in estimation, and yet, in reality, may possess none of this valuable +blood. The only sure way to avoid imposition is, to make _name_ always +secondary to _points_. If a hog is found possessing such points of form +as are calculated to insure early maturity and faculty of taking on +flesh, one needs to care but little by what name he is called; since no +mere name can bestow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities +already indicated. + +The true Berkshire--that possessing a dash of the Chinese and Neapolitan +varieties--comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired standard than any +other. + +The chief points which characterize such a hog are the following:--In +the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, and such an elongation of +body as will insure a sufficient lateral expansion. The loin and breast +should be broad. The breadth of the former denotes good room for the +play of the lungs, and, as a consequence, a free and healthy +circulation, essential to the thriving or fattening of any animal. The +bone should be small, and the joints fine--nothing is more indicative of +high breeding than this; and the legs should be no longer than, when +fully fat, would just prevent the animal's belly from trailing upon the +ground. The leg is the least profitable portion of the hog, and no more +of it is required than is absolutely necessary for the support of the +rest. The feet should be firm and sound; the toes should lie well +together, and press straightly upon the ground; the claws, also, should +be even, upright and healthy. + +The form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or no consequence, it +being generally, perhaps, supposed that a good hog may have an ugly +head; but the head of all animals is one of the very principal points in +which pure or impure breeding will be most obviously indicated. A +high-bred animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at +maturity, to take flesh more easily, and at an earlier period, and, +altogether, to turn out more profitably than one of questionable or +impure stock. Such being the case, the head of the hog is a point by no +means to be overlooked. The description of head most likely to +promise--or, rather to be the accompaniment of--high breeding, is one +not carrying heavy bones, not too flat on the forehead, or possessing a +snout too elongated; the snout should be short, and the forehead rather +convex, curving upward; and the ear, while pendulous, should incline +somewhat forward, and at the same time be light and thin. The carriage +of the pig should also be noticed. If this be dull, heavy, and dejected, +one may reasonably suspect ill health, if not some concealed disorder +actually existing, or just about to break forth; and there cannot be a +more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down, slouching head. Of course, a +fat hog for slaughter and a sow heavy with young, have not much +sprightliness of deportment. + +Color is, likewise, not to be disregarded. Those colors are preferable +which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds. If the hair is +scant, black is desirable, as denoting connection with the Neapolitan; +if too bare of hair, a too intimate alliance with that variety may be +apprehended, and a consequent want of hardihood, which--however +unimportant, if pork be the object--renders such animals a hazardous +speculation for store purposes, on account of their extreme +susceptibility of cold, and consequent liability to disease. If white, +and not too small, they are valuable as exhibiting connection with the +Chinese. If light, or sandy, or red with black marks, the favorite +Berkshire is detected; and so on, with reference to every possible +variety of hue. + + +TREATMENT DURING PREGNANCY. + +Sows with pigs should be well and judiciously fed; that is to say, they +should have a sufficiency of wholesome, nutritious food to maintain +their strength and keep them in good condition, but should by no means +be allowed to get fat; as when they are in high condition, the dangers +of parturition are enhanced, the animal is more awkward and liable to +smother and crush her young, and, moreover, never has as much or as good +milk as a leaner sow. She should also have a separate sty; for swine are +prone to lie so close together that, if she is even among others, her +young would be in great danger; and this sty should be perfectly clean +and comfortably littered, but not so thickly as to admit of the young +being able to bury themselves in the straw. + +As the time of her farrowing approaches, she should be well supplied +with food, especially if she be a young sow, and this her first litter, +and also carefully watched, in order to prevent her devouring the +after-birth, and thus engendering a morbid appetite which will next +induce her to fall upon her own young. A sow that has once done this can +never afterward be depended upon. Hunger, thirst, or irritation of any +kind, will often induce this unnatural conduct, which is another reason +why a sow about to farrow should have a sty to herself, and be carefully +attended to, and have all her wants supplied. + + +ABORTION. + +This is by no means of so common occurrence in the case of the sow as in +many other of the domesticated animals. Various causes tend to produce +it: insufficiency of food, eating too much succulent vegetable food, or +unwholesome, unsubstantial diet; blows and falls; and the animal's habit +of rubbing itself against hard bodies, for the purpose of allaying the +irritation produced by the vermin or cutaneous eruptions to which it is +subject. Reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in +the sow; at least to the extent it does in other animals. + +The symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are similar to those of +parturition, but more intense. There are, generally, restlessness, +irritation, and shivering; and the cries of the animal evince the +presence of severe labor-pains. Sometimes the rectum, vagina, or +uterus, becomes relaxed, and one or the other protrudes, and often +becomes inverted at the moment of the expulsion of the f[oe]tus, +preceded by the placenta, which presents itself foremost. + +Nothing can be done, at the last hour, to prevent abortion; but, from +the first, every predisposing cause should be removed. The treatment +will depend upon circumstances. Where the animal is young, vigorous, and +in high condition, bleeding will be beneficial--not a copious +blood-letting, but small quantities taken at different times; purgatives +may also be administered. If, when abortion has taken place, the whole +of the litter was not born, emollient injections may be resorted to with +considerable benefit; otherwise, the after treatment should be made the +same as in parturition, and the animal should be kept warm, quiet, and +clean, and allowed a certain degree of liberty. Whenever one sow has +aborted, the causes likely to have produced this accident should be +sought, and an endeavor made, by removing them, to secure the rest of +the inmates of the piggery from a similar mishap. + +In cases of abortion, the f[oe]tus is seldom born alive, and often has +been dead for some days; where this is the case--which may be readily +detected by a peculiarly unpleasant putrid exhalation, and the discharge +of a fetid liquid from the vagina--the parts should be washed with a +diluted solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one part of +chloride to three parts of water, and a portion of this lotion gently +injected into the uterus, if the animal will submit to it. Mild doses of +Epsom salts, tincture of gentian, and Jamaica ginger, will also act +beneficially in such cases, and, with attention to diet, soon restores +the animal. + + +PARTURITION. + +The period of gestation varies according to age, constitution, food, and +the peculiarities of the individual breed. The most usual period during +which the sow carries her young is, according to some, three months, +three weeks, and three days, or one hundred and eight days; according to +others, four lunar months, or sixteen weeks, or about one hundred and +thirteen days. It may safely be said to range from one hundred and nine +to one hundred and forty-three days. + +[Illustration: WILD HOGS.] + +The sow produces from eight to thirteen young at a litter, and sometimes +even more. Young and weakly sows not only produce fewer pigs, but farrow +earlier than those of maturer age and sounder condition; and besides, as +might be expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor, oftentimes, +indeed, puny and feeble. Extraordinary fecundity is not however, +desirable, for nourishment cannot be afforded to more than twelve, the +sow's number of teats. The supernumerary pigs must therefore suffer; if +but one, it is, of course, the smallest and weakest; a too numerous +litter are all, indeed, generally undersized and weakly, and seldom or +never prove profitable; a litter not exceeding ten will usually be found +to turn out most advantageously. On account of the discrepancy between +the number farrowed by different sows, it is a good plan, if it can be +managed, to have more than one breeding at the same time, in order that +the number to be suckled by each may be equalized. The sow seldom +recognizes the presence of a strange little one, if it has been +introduced among the others during her absence, and has lain for half an +hour or so among her own offspring in their sty. + +The approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the immense size of +the belly, by a depression of the back, and by the distention of the +teats. The animal manifests symptoms of acute suffering, and wanders +restlessly about, collecting straw, and carrying it to her sty, grunting +piteously meanwhile. As soon as this is observed, she should be +persuaded into a separate sty, and carefully watched. On no account +should several sows be permitted to farrow in the same place at the same +time, as they will inevitably irritate each other, or devour their own +or one another's young. + +The young ones should be taken away as soon as they are born, and +deposited in a warm spot; for the sow being a clumsy animal, is not +unlikely in her struggles to overlie them; nor should they be returned +to her, until all is over, and the after-birth has been removed, which +should always be done the moment it passes from her; for young sows, +especially, will invariably devour it, if permitted, and then, as the +young are wet with a similar fluid, and smell the same they will eat +them also, one after another. Some advise washing the backs of young +pigs with a decoction of aloes, colocynth, or some other nauseous +substance, as a remedy for this; but the simplest and easiest one is to +remove the little ones until all is over, and the mother begins to +recover herself and seek about for them, when they should be put near +her. Some also recommend strapping up the sow's mouth for the first +three or four days, only releasing it to admit of her taking her meals. + +Some sows are apt to lie upon and crush their young. This may best be +avoided by not keeping her too fat or heavy, and by not leaving too many +young upon her. The straw forming the bed should likewise be short, and +not in too great quantity, lest the pigs get huddled up under it, and +the sow unconsciously overlie them in that condition. + +It does not always happen that the parturition is effected with ease. +Cases of false presentation, of enlarged f[oe]tus, and of debility in +the mother, often render it difficult and dangerous. The womb will +occasionally become protruded and inverted, in consequence of the +forcing pains of difficult parturition, and even the bladder has been +known to come away. These parts must be returned as soon as may be; and +if the womb has come in contact with the dung or litter, and acquired +any dirt, it must first be washed in lukewarm water, and then returned, +and confined in its place by means of a suture passed through the lips +of the orifice. The easiest and perhaps the best way, however, is not to +return the protruded parts at all, but merely tie a ligature round them +and leave them to slough off, which they will do in the course of a few +days, without effusion of blood, or farther injury to the animal. No +sow that has once suffered from protrusion of the womb should be +allowed to breed again. + + +TREATMENT WHILE SUCKLING. + +Much depends upon this; as many a fine sow and promising litter have +been ruined for want of proper and judicious care at this period. +Immediately after farrowing, many sows incline to be feverish; where +this is the case, a light and sparing diet only should be given them for +the first day or two, as gruel, oatmeal porridge, whey, and the like. +Others, again, are very much debilitated, and require strengthening; for +them, strong soup, bread steeped in wine, or in a mixture of brandy and +sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small quantities, will often +prove highly beneficial. + +The rations must gradually be increased and given more frequently; and +they must be composed of wholesome, nutritious, and succulent +substances. All kinds of roots--carrots, turnips, potatoes, and +beet-roots--well steamed or boiled, but never raw, may be given; bran, +barley, and oatmeal, bran-flour, Indian corn, whey, sour, skim, and +butter-milk, are all well adapted for this period; and, should the +animal appear to require it, grain well bruised and macerated may be +added. Whenever it is possible, the sow should be turned out for an hour +each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the fresh air, +exercise, and herbage, will do her immense good. The young pigs must be +shut up for the first ten days or fortnight, after which they will be +able to follow her, and take their share of the benefit. + +The food should be given regularly at certain hours; small and +often-repeated meals are far preferable to large ones, since +indigestion, or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach +vitiates the milk, and produces diarrh[oe]a and other similar affections +in the young. The mother should always be well fed, but not over-fed; +the better and more carefully she is fed, the more abundant and +nutritious will her milk be, the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, +and the less will she be reduced by suckling them. + +When a sow is weakly, and has not a sufficiency of milk, the young pigs +must be taught to feed as early as possible. A kind of gruel, made of +skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, is a good thing for this purpose, or +potatoes, boiled and then mashed in milk or whey, with or without the +addition of a little bran or oatmeal. Toward the period when the pigs +are to be weaned, the sow must be less plentifully fed, otherwise the +secretion of milk will be as great as ever; it will, besides, +accumulate, and there will be hardness, and perhaps inflammation of the +teats. If necessary, a dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying +off the milk; but, in general, a little judicious management in the +feeding and weaning will be all that is required. + + +TREATMENT OF YOUNG PIGS. + +For the first ten days, or a fortnight, the mother will generally be +able to support her litter without assistance, unless, as has been +already observed, she is weakly, or her young are too numerous; in +either of which cases they must be fed from the first. When the young +pigs are about a fortnight old, warm milk should be given to them. In +another week, this may be thickened with some species of farina; and +afterward, as they gain strength and increase in size, boiled roots and +vegetables may be added. As soon as they begin to eat, an open frame or +railing should be placed in the sty under which the little pigs can run, +and on the other side of this should be the small troughs containing +their food; for it never answers to let them eat out of the same trough +with their mother, because the food set before her is generally too +strong and stimulating for them, even if they should secure any of it, +which is, to say the least, extremely doubtful. Those intended to be +killed for sucking-pigs should not be above four weeks old; most kill +them for this purpose on the twenty-first or twenty-second day. The +others, excepting those kept for breeding, should be castrated at the +same time. + + +CASTRATION AND SPAYING. + +Pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them; and, +doubtless, this operation has the desired effect--for at the same time +that it increases the quiescent qualities of the animal, it diminishes +also his courage, spirits, and nobler attributes, and even affects his +form. The tusks of a castrated boar never grow like those of the natural +animal, but always have a dwarfed, stunted appearance. The operation, if +possible, should be performed in the spring or autumn, as the +temperature is the more uniform, and care should be taken that the +animal is in perfect health. Those which are fat and plethoric should be +prepared by bleeding, cooling diet and quiet. Pigs are castrated at all +ages, from a fortnight to three, six and eight weeks, and even four +months old. + +There are various modes of performing this operation. If the pig is not +more than six weeks old, an incision is made at the bottom of the +scrotum, the testicle pushed out, and the cord cut, without any +precautionary means whatever. When the animal is older, there is reason +to fear that hemorrhage, to a greater or less extent, will supervene; +consequently, it will be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a +little above the spot where the division is to take place. + +By another mode--to be practised only on very young animals--a portion +of the base of the scrotum is cut off, the testicles forced out, and the +cord sawn through with a somewhat serrated but blunt instrument. If +there is any hemorrhage, it is arrested by putting ashes in the wound. +The animal is then dismissed and nothing further done with him. + +On animals two and three years old, the operation is some times +performed in the following manner: An assistant holds the pig, pressing +the back of the animal against his chest and belly, keeping the head +elevated, and grasping all the four legs together; or, which is the +preferable way, one assistant holds the animal against his chest, while +another kneels down and secures the four legs. The operator then grasps +the scrotum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision across its +base, opening both divisions of the bag at the same time. The testicles +are then pressed out with his finger and thumb, and removed with a blunt +knife, which lacerates the part without bruising it and rendering it +painful. Laceration only is requisite in order to prevent the subsequent +hemorrhage which would occur, if the cord were simply severed by a sharp +instrument. The wound is then closed by pushing the edges gently +together with the fingers, and it speedily heals. Some break the +spermatic cord without tearing it; they twist it, and then pull it +gently and finally until it gives way. + +In other cases, a waxed cord is passed as tightly as possible round the +scrotum, above the epididymus, which completely stops the circulation, +and in a few days the scrotum and testicles will drop off. This +operation should never be performed on pigs of more than six weeks of +age, and the spermatic should always, first of all, be measured. It, +moreover requires great nicety and skill; otherwise, accidents will +occur, and considerable pain and inflammation be caused. Too thick a +cord, a knot not tied sufficiently tight, or a portion of the testicle +included in the ligature, will prevent its success. + +The most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, or lockjaw, induced +by the shock communicated to the nervous system by the torture of the +operation. + + +SPAYING. + +This operation consists in removing the ovaries, and sometimes a portion +of the uterus, more or less considerable, of the female. The animal is +laid upon its left side, and firmly held by one or two assistants; an +incision is then made into the flank, the forefinger of the right hand +introduced into it, and gently moved about until it encounters and hooks +hold of the right ovary, which it draws through the opening; a ligature +is then passed round this one, and the left ovary felt for in like +manner. The operator then severs these two ovaries, either by cutting or +tearing, and returns the womb and its appurtenances to their proper +position. This being done, he closes the wound with two or three +stitches, sometimes rubs a little oil over it, and releases the animal. +All goes on well, for the healing power of the pig is very great. + +The after-treatment is very simple. The animals should be well littered +with clean straw, in styes weather-tight and thoroughly ventilated; +their diet should be cared for; some milk or whey, with barley-meal is +an excellent article; it is well to confine them for a few days, as they +should be prevented from getting into cold water or mud until the wound +is perfectly healed, and also from creeping through fences. + +The best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks; indeed, as a general +rule, the younger the animal is when either operation is performed the +quicker it recovers. Some persons, however, have two or three litters +from their sows before they operate upon them; where this is the case, +the result is more to be feared, as the parts have become more +susceptible, and are, consequently, more liable to take on inflammation. + + +WEANING. + +Some farmers wean the pigs a few hours after birth, and turn the sow at +once to the boar. The best mode, however, is to turn the boar into the +hog-yard about a week after parturition, at which time the sow should be +removed a few hours daily from her young. It does not injure either the +sow or her pigs if she takes the boar while suckling; but some sows will +not do so until the drying of their milk. + +The age at which pigs may be weaned to the greatest advantage is when +they are about eight or ten weeks old; many, however, wean them as early +as six weeks, but they seldom turn out as well. They should not be taken +from the sow at once, but gradually weaned. At first they should be +removed from her for a certain number of hours each day, and accustomed +to be impelled by hunger to eat from the trough; then they may be turned +out for an hour without her, and afterwards shut up while she also is +turned out by herself. Subsequently, they must only be allowed to suck a +certain number of times in twenty-four hours; perhaps six times at +first, then four, then three, and, at last, only once; and meanwhile +they must be proportionably better and more plentifully fed, and the +mother's diet in a like manner diminished. Some advise that the whole +litter should be weaned at once; this is not best, unless one or two of +the pigs are much weaker and smaller than the others; in such case, if +the sow remain in tolerable condition, they might be suffered to suck +for a week longer; but this should be the exception, and not a general +rule. + +Pigs are more easily weaned than almost any other animals, because they +learn to feed sooner; but attention must, nevertheless, be paid to them, +if they are to grow up strong, healthy animals. Their styes must be +warm, dry, clean, well-ventilated, and weather-tight. They should have +the run of a grass meadow or enclosure for an hour or two every fine +day, in spring and summer, or be turned into the farm-yard among the +cattle in the winter, as fresh air and exercise tend to prevent them +from becoming rickety or crooked in the legs. + +The most nutritious and succulent food that circumstances will permit +should be furnished them. Newly-weaned pigs require five or six meals in +the twenty-four hours. In about ten days, one may be omitted; in another +week, a second; and then they should do with three _regular_ meals each +day. A little sulphur mingled with the food, or a small quantity of +Epsom or Glauber salts dissolved in the water, will frequently prove +beneficial. A plentiful supply of clear, cold water should always be +within their reach; the food left in the trough after the animals have +finished eating should be removed, and the trough thoroughly rinsed out +before any more is put into it. Strict attention should also be paid to +cleanliness. The boars and sows should be kept apart from the period of +weaning. + +The question, which is more profitable, to breed swine, or to buy young +pigs and fatten them, can best be determined by those interested; since +they know best what resources they can command, and what chance of +profits each of these separate branches offers. + + +RINGING. + +This operation is performed to counteract the propensity which swine +have of digging and furrowing up the earth. The ring is passed through +what appears to be a prolongation of the septum, between the +supplemental, or snout-bone, and the nasal. The animal is thus unable to +obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout with any effect, without +causing the ring to press so painfully upon the part that he is forced +to desist. The ring, however, is apt to break, or it wears out in +process of time, and has to be replaced. + +The snout should be perforated at weaning-time, after the animal has +recovered from castration or spaying; and it will be necessary to renew +the operation as it becomes of large growth. It is too generally +neglected at first; but no pigs, young or old, should be suffered to run +at large without this precaution. The sow's ring should be ascertained +to be of sufficient strength previously to her taking the boar, on +account of the risk of abortion, if the operation is renewed while she +is with pig. Care must be taken by the operator not to go too close to +the bone, and that the ring turn easily. + +A far better mode of proceeding is, when the pig is young, to cut +through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations, by which the +supplementary bone is united to the proper nasals. The divided edges of +the cartilage will never re-unite, and the snout always remains +powerless. + + +FEEDING AND FATTENING. + +Roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as well as +in a domesticated state; and it is evident that, however omnivorous it +may occasionally appear, its palate is by no means insensible to the +difference in eatables, since, whenever it finds variety, it will select +the best with as much cleverness as other quadrupeds. Indeed, the hog is +more nice in the selection of his vegetable diet than any of the other +domesticated herbivorous animals. To a certain extent he is omnivorous, +and may be reared on the refuse of slaughter-houses; but such food is +not wholesome, nor is it natural; for, though he is omnivorous, he is +not essentially carnivorous. The refuse of the dairy-farm is more +congenial to his health, to say nothing of the quality of its flesh. + +Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months old; +and for bacon, at from a year to two years. Eighteen months is generally +considered the proper age for a good bacon hog. The feeding will always, +in a great measure, depend upon the circumstances of the owner--upon the +kind of food which he has at his disposal, and can best spare--and the +purpose for which the animal is intended. It will also, in some degree, +be regulated by the season; it being possible to feed pigs very +differently in the summer from what they are fed in the winter. + +The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries and +distilleries, may be given to swine with advantage, and seem to induce a +tendency to lay on flesh. They should not, however, be given in too +large quantities, nor unmixed with other and more substantial food; +since, although they give flesh rapidly when fed on it, the meat is not +firm, and never makes good bacon. Hogs eat acorns and beech-mast +greedily, and so far thrive on this food that it is an easy matter to +fatten them afterwards. Apples and pumpkins are likewise valuable for +this purpose. + +There is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in every way adapted +for the purpose of fattening, as are the various kinds of grain--nothing +that tends more to create firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh. +Indian corn is equal, if not superior, to any kind of grain for +fattening purposes, and can be given in its natural state, as pigs are +so fond of it that they will eat up every kernel. The pork and bacon of +animals that have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid. Animal +food tends to make swine savage and feverish, and often lays the +foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines. Weekly washing +with soap and a brush adds wonderfully to the thriving condition of a +hog. + +In the rich corn regions of our States, upon that grain beginning to +ripen, as it does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable +lots, and large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the +grain at their leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, which in +that land of plenty are considered of little value, and they are still +useful as manure for succeeding crops; and whatever grain is left by +them, leaner droves which follow will readily glean. Peas, early +buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way. + +There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' +keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and the +cost of storage. If fattened early in the season, hogs will consume less +food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will +require less attention; and, generally, early pork will command the +highest price in market. + +It is most economical to provide swine with a fine clover pasture, to +run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have access +to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that +falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to +which add meal, and let it sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than +one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to hogs, is saved by +grinding and cooking, or souring. Care must, however, be taken that the +souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A +mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of +a former fermentation as adhere to the sides or bottom of the vessel, +and exposure to a temperature between sixty-eight and seventy-seven +degrees Fahrenheit, will produce immediate fermentation. + +In this process there are five stages: the _saccharine_, by which the +starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are +converted into sugar; the _vinous_, which changes the sugar into +alcohol; the _mucilaginous_, sometimes taking the place of the vinous, +and occurring where the sugar solution, or fermenting principle, is +weak, producing a slimy, glutinous product; the _acetic_, forming +vinegar, from the vinous or alcoholic stage; and the _putrefactive_, +which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a +poison. The precise points in fermentation, when the food becomes most +profitable for feeding, has not as yet been satisfactorily determined; +but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full +maturity of the acetic, is certain. + +The roots for fattening ought to be washed, and steamed or boiled; and +when not intended to be fermented, the meal may be scalded with the +roots. A small quantity of salt should be added. Potatoes are the best +roots for swine; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian; +sugar-beets; mangel-wurtzels; ruta-bagas; and then white turnips, in the +order mentioned. The nutritive properties of turnips are diffused +through so large a bulk that it is doubtful if they can ever be fed to +fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain life when +fed to them uncooked. + +There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without +cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, +to prevent imperfect mastication, and consequent loss of the food. It is +better, indeed, to have it always before them. The animal machine is an +expensive one to keep in motion; and it should be the object of the +farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate +conversion into fat and muscle. + +The following injunctions should be rigidly observed, if one would +secure the greatest results: + +1. Avoid _foul feeding_. + +2. Do not omit adding _salt_ in moderate quantities to the mess given. + +3. Feed at _regular intervals_. + +4. _Cleanse_ the troughs previous to feeding. + +5. Do not _over-feed_; give only as much as will be consumed at the +meal. + +6. _Vary_ the food. Variety will create, or, at all events, increase +appetite, and it is most conducive to health. Let the variations be +governed by the condition of the _dung_ cast, which should be of a +medium consistence, and of a grayish-brown color; if _hard_, increase +the quantity of bran and succulent roots; if too _liquid_, diminish, or +dispense with bran, and make the mess firmer; add a portion of corn. + +7. Feed the stock _separately_, in classes, according to their relative +conditions. Keep sows with young by themselves; store-hogs by +themselves; and bacon-hogs and porkers by themselves. It is not +advisable to keep the store-hogs too high in flesh, since high feeding +is calculated to retard development of form and bulk. It is better to +feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon _loosely_ and not too +abundantly, until they have attained their full stature; they can then +be brought into the highest possible condition in a surprisingly short +space of time. + +8. Keep the swine _clean_, dry, and warm. Cleanliness, dryness, and +warmth are _essential_, and as imperative as feeding; for an inferior +description of food will, by their aid, succeed far better than the +highest feeding will without them. + + +PIGGERIES. + +Few items conduce more to the thriving and well-being of swine than +airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and above all, cleanliness. +They were formerly too often housed in damp, dirty, close, and +imperfectly-built sheds, which was a fruitful source of disease and of +unthrifty animals. Any place was once thought good enough to keep a pig +in. + +In large establishments, where numerous pigs are kept, there should be +divisions appropriated to all the different kinds; the boars, the +breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the fattening pigs should all be +kept separate; and in the divisions assigned to the second and last of +these classes, it is best to have a distinct apartment for each animal, +all opening into a yard or inclosure of limited extent. As pigs require +warmth, these buildings should face the south, and be kept weather-tight +and well drained. Good ventilation is also important; for it is idle to +expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health, unless they +have a sufficiency of pure air. The blood requires this to give it +vitality and free it from impurities, as much as the stomach requires +wholesome and strengthening food; and when it does not have it, it +becomes vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions. Bad smells and +exhalations, moreover, injure the flavor of the meat. + +Damp and cold floors should be guarded against, as they tend to induce +cramp and diarrh[oe]a; and the roof should be so contrived as to carry +off the wet from the pigs. The walls of a well-constructed sty should be +of solid masonry; the roof sloping, and furnished with spouts to carry +off the rain; the floors either slightly inclined toward a gutter made +to carry off the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or +joists, and perforated so that all urine and moisture shall drain off. +Bricks and tiles, sometimes used for flooring, are objectionable, +because, however well covered with straw, they still strike cold. Wood +is far superior in this respect, as well as because it admits of those +clefts or perforations being made, which serve not only to drain off all +moisture, but also to admit fresh air. + +The manure proceeding from the pig-sty has often been much undervalued, +and for this reason, that the litter is supposed to form the principal +portion of it; whereas it constitutes the least valuable part, and, +indeed, it can scarcely be regarded as manure at all--at least by +itself--where the requisite attention is paid to the cleanliness of the +animals and of their dwellings. The urine and the dung are valuable, +being, from the very nature of the food of the animals, exceedingly rich +and oleaginous, and materially beneficial to cold soils and grass-lands. +The manure from the sty should always be collected as carefully as that +from the stable or cow-house, and husbanded in the same way. + +The door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inward or +outward, so as to give the animals free ingress and egress. For this +purpose, it should be hung across from side to side, and the animal can +push it up to effect its entry or exit; for, if it were hung in the +ordinary way, it would derange the litter every time it opened inward, +and be very liable to hitch. If it is not intended that the pigs shall +leave their sty, there should be an upper and lower door; the former of +which should always be left open when the weather is warm and dry, while +the latter will serve to confine the animal. There should likewise be +windows or slides, which can be opened or closed at will, to give +admission to the fresh air, or exclude rain or cold. + +Wherever it can be managed, the troughs--which should be of stone or +cast metal, since wooden ones will soon be gnawed to pieces--should be +so situated that they can be filled and cleaned from the outside, +without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all; and for this +purpose it is well to have a flap, or door, with swinging hinges, made +to hang horizontally on the trough, so that it can be moved to and fro, +and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of the +manger. When the hogs have fed sufficiently, the door is swung inward +and fastened, and so remains until feeding-time, when the trough is +cleansed and refilled without any trouble, and then the flap drawn back, +and the animals admitted to their food. Some cover the trough with a lid +having as many holes in it as there are pigs to eat from it, which gives +each pig an opportunity of selecting his own hole, and eating away +without interfering with or incommoding his neighbor. + +A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and +evacuations; of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the +highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried +into the first two as possible. The piggery should always be built as +near as possible to that portion of the establishment from which the +chief part of the provision is to come, since much labor will thus be +saved. Washings, and combings, and brushings, as has been previously +suggested, are valuable adjuncts in the treatment of swine; the energies +of the skin are thus roused, the pores opened, the healthful functions +aided, and that inertness, so likely to be engendered by the lazy life +of a fattening pig, counteracted. + +A supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of swine, and +should be freely furnished. If a stream can be brought through the +piggery, it answers better than any thing else. Swine are dirty feeders +and dirty drinkers, usually plunging their fore-feet into the trough or +pail, and thus polluting with mud or dirt whatever may be given to them. +One of the advantages, therefore, to be derived from the stream of +running water is, its being kept constantly clean and wholesome by its +running. If this advantage cannot be procured, it is desirable to +present water in vessels of a size to receive but one head at a time, +and of such height as to render it impossible, or difficult, for the +drinker to get his feet into it. The water should be renewed twice +daily. If swine are closely confined in pens, they should have as much +charcoal twice a week as they will eat, for the purpose of correcting +any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an imperfect +substitute for charcoal. + + +SLAUGHTERING. + +A pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for from twelve +to sixteen hours previous to slaughtering; a little water must, however, +be within his reach. He should, in the first place, be stunned by a blow +on the head. Some advise that the knife should be thrust into the neck +so as to sever the artery leading from the heart; while others prefer +that the animal should be stuck through the brisket in the direction of +the heart--care being exercised not to touch the first rib. The blood +should then be allowed to drain from the carcass into vessels placed for +the purpose; and the more completely it does so, the better will be the +meat. + +A large tub, or other vessel, has been previously got ready, which is +now filled with boiling water. The carcass of the hog is plunged into +this, and the hair is then removed with the edge of a knife. The hair is +more easily removed if the hog is scalded before he stiffens, or becomes +quite cold. It is not, however, necessary, but simply brutal and +barbarous, to scald him while there is yet some life in him. Bacon-hogs +may be singed, by enveloping the body in straw, and setting the straw on +fire, and then scraping it all over. When this is done, care must be +observed not to burn or parch the cuticle. The entrails should then be +removed, and the interior of the body well washed with lukewarm water, +so as to remove all blood and impurities, and afterward wiped dry with a +clean cloth; the carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for +eighteen or twenty hours, to become set and firm. + +[Illustration: THE OLD ENGLISH HOG.] + +For cutting up, the carcass should be laid on the back, upon a strong +table. The head should then be cut off close by the ears, and the +hinder feet so far below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams, and +leave room sufficient for hanging them up; after which the carcass is +divided into equal halves, up the middle of the back bone, with a +cleaving-knife, and, if necessary, a hand-mallet. Then cut the ham from +the side by the second joint of the back-bone, which will appear on +dividing the carcass, and dress the ham by paring a little off the +flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half round point, +clearing off any top fat which may appear. Next cut off the sharp edge +along the back bone with a knife and mallet, and slice off the first rib +next the shoulder, where there is a bloody vein, which must be taken +out, since, if it is left in, that part is apt to spoil. The corners +should be squared off when the ham is cut. The ordinary practice is to +cut out the spine, or back bone. Some take out the chine and upper parts +of the ribs in the first place; indeed, almost every locality has its +peculiar mode of proceeding. + + +PICKLING AND CURING. + +The usual method of curing is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding +brine to the barrel when filled. But it may be dry-salted, by rubbing it +in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber +firmly secured to the palm of the right hand. The pieces are then thrown +into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured; +or it may at once be packed in dry casks, which are rolled at times to +bring the salt into contact with every part. + +Hams and shoulders may be cured in the same manner either dry or in +pickle, but with differently arranged materials. The following is a +good pickle for two hundred pounds: Take fourteen pounds of Turk's +Island salt; one-half pound of saltpetre; two quarts of molasses, or +four pounds of brown sugar; with water enough to dissolve them. Bring +the liquor to the scalding-point, and skim off all the impurities which +rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be +perfectly cool, but not frozen, and closely packed; if not sufficient to +cover it, add pure water for this purpose. Some extensive packers of +choice hams add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves. + +The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then should be +hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from ten +to twenty days, according to the quantity of smoke. The fire should not +be near enough to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is +made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry +chamber. This is, undoubtedly, the best mode of smoking. The hams should +at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green +sugar-maple chips are best for smoke; next to them are hickory, sweet +birch, corn-cobs, white ash, or beech. + +The smoke-house is the best place in which to keep hams until they are +wanted. If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. +A canvas cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a +whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be +kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, +without injury. A common method is to pack in dry oats, baked saw-dust, +etc. + +The following is the method in most general use in several of the +Western States. The chine is taken out, as also the spare-ribs from +the shoulders, and the mouse-pieces and short-ribs, or griskins, +from the middlings. No acute angles should be left to shoulders or +hams. In salting up, all the meat, except the heads, joints, and +chines, and smaller pieces, is put into powdering-tubs--water-tight +half-hogsheads--or into large troughs, ten feet long and three or four +feet wide at the top, made of the poplar tree. The latter are much more +convenient for packing the meat in, and are easily caulked, if they +should crack so as to leak. The salting-tray--or box in which the meat +is to be salted, piece by piece, and from which each piece, as it is +salted, is to be transferred to the powdering-tub, or trough--must be +placed just so near the trough that the man standing between can +transfer the pieces from one to the other easily, and without wasting +the salt as they are lifted from the salting-box into the trough. The +salter stands on the off-side of the salting-box. The hams should be +salted first, the shoulders next, and the middlings last, which may be +piled up two feet above the top of the trough or tub. The joints will +thus in a short time be immersed in brine. + +Measure into the salting-tray four measures of salt--a peck measure will +be found most convenient--and one measure of clean, dry, sifted ashes; +mix, and incorporate them well. The salter takes a ham into the tray, +rubs the skin, and the raw end with his composition, turns it over, and +packs the composition of salt and ashes on the fleshy side till it is at +least three-quarters of an inch deep all over it; and on the interior +lower part of the ham, which is covered with the skin, as much as will +lie on it. The man standing ready to transfer the pieces, deposits it +carefully, without disturbing the composition, with the skin-side down, +in the bottom of the trough. Each succeeding ham is then deposited, side +by side, so as to leave the least possible space unoccupied. + +When the bottom is wholly covered, see that every visible part of this +layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes. Then +begin another layer, every piece being covered on the upper or fleshy +side three-quarters of an inch thick with the composition. When the +trough is filled, even full, in this way, with the joints, salt the +middlings with salt only, without the ashes, and pile them up on the +joints so that the liquified salt may pass from them into the trough. +Heads, joints, back bones, etc., receive salt only, and should not be +put in the trough with the large pieces. + +Much slighter salting will preserve them, if they are salted upon loose +boards, so that the bloody brine from them can pass off. The joints and +middlings are to remain in and above the trough without being +re-handled, re-salted, or disturbed in any way, till they are to be hung +up to be smoked. + +If the hogs do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds, the +joints need not remain longer than five weeks in the pickle; if they +weigh two hundred, or upward, six or seven weeks are not too long. It is +better that they should stay in too long, rather than too short a time. + +In three weeks, the joints, etc., may be hung up. Taking out of pickle, +and preparing for hanging up to smoke, are thus performed: Scrape off +the undissolved salt; if the directions have been followed, there will +be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not immersed in the brine; +this salt and the brine are all saved; the brine is boiled down, and the +dry composition given to stock, especially to hogs. Wash every piece in +lukewarm water, and with a rough towel clean off the salt and ashes. +Next, put the strings in to hang up. Set the pieces up edgewise, that +they may drain and dry. Every piece is then to be dipped into the +meat-paint, as it is termed, composed of warm--not hot--water and very +fine ashes, stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick +paint, and hang up to smoke. By being thus dipped, they receive a +coating which protects them from the fly, prevents dripping, and tends +to lessen all external injurious influences. Hang up the pieces while +yet moist with the paint, and smoke them well. + + +VALUE OF THE CARCASS. + +No part of the hog is valueless, excepting, perhaps, the bristles of the +fine-bred races. The very intestines are cleansed, and knotted into +chittarlings, very much relished by some; the blood, mixed with fat and +rice, is made into black puddings; and the tender muscle under the +lumbar vertebræ is worked up into sausages, sweet, high-flavored, and +delicious; the skin, roasted, is a rare and toothsome morsel; and a +roast sucking-pig is a general delight; salt pork and bacon are in +incessant demand, and form important articles of commerce. + +One great value arises from the peculiarity of its fat, which, in +contradistinction to that of the ox or of the sheep, is termed _lard_, +and differs from either in the proportion of its constituent principles, +which are essentially oleine and stearine. It is rendered, or fried out, +in the same manner as mutton-suet. It melts completely at ninety-nine +degrees Fahrenheit, and then has the appearance of a transparent and +nearly colorless fixed oil. Eighty degrees is the melting-point. It +consists of sixty-two parts oleine, and thirty-eight of stearine, out of +one hundred. When subjected to pressure between folds of blotting-paper, +the oleine is absorbed, while the stearine remains. For domestic +purposes, lard is much used: it is much better than butter for frying +fish; and is much used in pastry, on the score of economy. + +The stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids, which, when +separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or +spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, +and in American commerce is known as _lard-oil_, which is very pure, and +extensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for +which olive or spermaceti oils are valued. It has given to pork a new +and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly +increased. A large amount of pork has thus been withdrawn from the +market, and the depression, which must otherwise have occurred, has been +thereby prevented. + +Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams +and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bottoms, the upper one +perforated with holes. The pork is laid on the latter, and then tightly +covered. Steam, at a high temperature, is then admitted into the tub, +and in a short time all the fat is extracted, and falls upon the lower +bottom. The remaining mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs, +poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are +either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, valuable +for various purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a +fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering fat then +carefully scraped off; thus avoiding the oily, viscid matter of the +skin. + +The _bristles_ of the coarse breeds are long, strong, firm, and elastic. +These are formed into brushes for painters and artists, as well as for +numerous domestic uses. The _skin_, when tanned, is of a peculiar +texture, and very tough. It is used for making pocket-books, and for +some ornamental purposes; but chiefly for the seats of riding-saddles. +The numerous little variegations on it, which constitute its beauty, are +the orifices whence the bristles have been removed. + + + + +[Illustration] + +DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES + + +By reason of being generally considered a subordinate species of stock, +swine do not, in many cases, share in the benefits which an improved +system of agriculture and the present advanced state of veterinary +science, have conferred upon other domesticated animals. Since they are +by no means the most tractable of patients, it is any thing but an easy +matter to compel them to swallow any thing to which their appetite does +not incite them; and, hence, prevention will be found better than cure. +_Cleanliness_ is the great point to be insisted upon in the management +of these animals. If this, and warmth, be only attended to, ailments +among them are comparatively rare. + +As, however, disappointment may occasionally occur, even under the best +system of management, a brief view of the principal complaints with +which they are liable to be attacked is presented, together with the +best mode of treatment to be adopted in such cases. + + +CATCHING THE PIG. + +Swine are very difficult animals to obtain any mastery over, or to +operate on, or examine. Seldom tame, or easily handled, they are at such +periods most unmanageable--kicking, screaming, and even biting fiercely. +The following method of getting hold of them has been recommended: +Fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let +there be a running noose in the cord; tie a piece of bread to the cord, +and present it to the animal; and when he opens his mouth to seize the +bait, catch the upper jaw in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is +fast. + +Another method is, to catch one foot in a running noose suspended from +some place, so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground; or, to +envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack. + +All coercive measures, however, should, as far as possible, be avoided; +for the pig is naturally so averse to being handled that in his +struggles he will often do himself far more mischief than the disease +which is to be investigated or remedied would effect. + + +BLEEDING. + +The common mode of drawing blood from the pig is by cutting off portions +of the ears or tail; this should only be resorted to when local and +instant blood-letting is requisite. The jugular veins of swine lie too +deep, and are too much imbedded in fat to admit of their being raised by +any ligature about the neck; it is, therefore, useless to attempt to +puncture them, as it would only be striking at random. + +Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface of the ear, +and especially toward its outer edge, may be opened without much +difficulty; if the ear is turned back on the poll, one or more of them +may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit of its being +punctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear, near to the +conch. When the necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the +finger may be raised, and it will cease to flow. + +The palate veins, running on either side of the roof of the mouth, are +also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each side of the +palate, about half way between the centre of the roof of the mouth and +the teeth. The flow of blood may be readily stopped by means of a +pledget of tow and a string, as in bleeding the horse. + +The brachial vein of the fore-leg--commonly called the +plate-vein--running along the inner side under the skin affords a good +opportunity. The best place for puncturing it is about an inch above the +knee, and scarcely half an inch backward from the radius, or the bone of +the fore-arm. No danger need to be apprehended from cutting two or three +times, if sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once. This vein will +become easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly around the leg, +just below the shoulder. + +This operation should always be performed with the lancet, if possible. +In cases of urgent haste, where no lancet is at hand, a small penknife +may be used; but the fleam is a dangerous and objectionable instrument. + + +DRENCHING. + +Whenever it is possible, the medicine to be administered should be +mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus cheated or coaxed +into taking it; since many instances are on record, in which the pig has +ruptured some vessel in his struggles, and died on the spot, or so +injured himself as to bring on inflammation and subsequent death. + +Where this cannot be done, the following is the best method: Let a man +get the head of the animal firmly between his knees--without, however, +pinching it--while another secures the hinder parts. Then let the first +take hold of the head from below, raise it a little, and incline it +slightly toward the right, at the same time separating the lips on the +left side so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually +poured--no more being introduced into the mouth at a time than can be +swallowed at once. Should the animal snort or choke, the head must be +released for a few moments, or he will be in danger of being strangled. + + +CATARRH. + +This ailment--an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, +etc.--is, if taken in time, easily cured by opening medicines, followed +up by warm bran-wash--a warm, dry sty--and abstinence from rich grains, +or stimulating, farinaceous diet. The cause, in most cases, is exposure +to drafts of air, which should be guarded against. + + +CHOLERA. + +For what is presented concerning this disease, the author is indebted to +his friend, G. W. Bowler, V. S., of Cincinnati, Ohio, whose familiarity +with the various diseases of our domestic animals and the best modes of +treating them, entitles his opinions to great weight. + +The term "cholera" is employed to designate a disease which has been +very fatal among swine in different parts of the United States; and for +the reason, that its symptoms, as well as the indications accompanying +its termination, are very nearly allied to what is manifested in the +disease of that name which visits man. + +Epidemic cholera has, for several years past, committed fearful ravages +among the swine of, particularly, Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. Indeed, +many farmers who, until recently, have been accustomed to raise large +numbers of these animals, are, in a great measure, disinclined to invest +again in such stock, on account of the severe losses--in some instances +to the extent of the entire drove upon particular places. + +Various remedies have, of course, been prescribed; but the most have +failed in nearly every case where the disease has secured a firm +foothold. Preventives are, therefore, the most that can at present be +expected; and in this direction something may be done. Although some +peculiar change in the atmosphere is, probably, an impelling cause of +cholera, its ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other +predisposing associate causes. + +Granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting among +filth, it is by no means necessary to persist, for that reason, in +surrounding him with all the nastiness possible; for even a hog, when +penned up in a filthy place, in company with a large number of other +hogs--particularly when that place is improperly ventilated--is not as +healthy as when the animals are kept together in smaller numbers in a +clean and well ventilated barn or pen. Look, for a moment, at a drove of +hogs coming along the street, the animals all fat and ready for the +knife. They have been driven several miles, and are scarcely able to +crawl along, many of them having to be carried on drays, while others +have died on the road. At last they are driven into a pen, perhaps, +several inches deep with the manure and filth deposited there by +hundreds of predecessors; every hole in the ground has become a puddle; +and in such a place some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled +together, exhausted from the drive which they have had. They lie down in +the mud; and in a short time one can see the steam beginning to rise +from their bodies in volumes, increasing their already prostrate +condition by the consequent inhalation of the noxious gas thus thrown +off from the system; the blood becomes impregnated with poison; the +various functions of the body are thereby impaired; and disease will +inevitably be developed in one form or another. Should the disease, +known as the hog cholera, prevail in the neighborhood, the chances are +very greatly in favor of their being attacked by it, and consequently +perishing. + +The _symptoms_ of cholera are as follows: The animal appears to be +instantaneously deprived of energy; loss of appetite; lying down by +himself; occasionally moving about slowly, as though experiencing some +slight uneasiness internally; the eyes have a very dull and sunken +appearance, which increases with the disease; the evacuations are almost +continuous, of a dark color, having a fetid odor, and containing a large +quantity of bile; the extremities are cold, and soreness is evinced when +the abdomen is pressed; the pulse is quickened, and sometimes hardly +perceptible, while the buccal membrane--that belonging to the +cheek--presents a slight purple hue; the tongue has a furred appearance. +The evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires, which may be in +twelve hours from the first attack, or the disease may run on for +several days. + +In a very short time after death, the abdomen becomes of a dark purple +color, and upon examination, the stomach is found to contain but a +little fluid; the intestines are almost entirely empty, retaining a +slight quantity of the dark colored matter before mentioned; the mucous +membrane of the alimentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation, +which sometimes appears only in patches, while the other parts are +filled with dark venous blood--indicating a breaking up of the capillary +vessels in such places. + +_Treatment._ As a preventive, the following will be found valuable: +Flour of sulphur, six pounds; animal charcoal, one pound; sulphate of +iron, six ounces; cinchona pulverized, one pound. Mix well together in a +large mortar; afterwards give a table-spoonful to each animal, mixed +with a few potato-peelings and corn meal, three times a day. Continue +this for one week, keeping the animal at the same time in a clean, dry +place, and not allowing too many together. + + +CRACKINGS. + +These will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog, especially about the +root of the ears and of the tail, and at the flanks. They are not at all +to be confounded with mange, as they never result from any thing but +exposure to extremes of temperature, while the animal is unable to avail +himself of such protection as, in a state of nature, instinct would have +induced him to adopt. They are peculiarly troublesome in the heat of +summer, if he does not have access to water, in which to lave his +parched limbs and half-scorched carcass. + +Anoint the cracked parts twice or three times a day with tar and lard, +well melted up together. + + +DIARRH[OE]A. + +Before attempting to stop the discharge in this disease--which, if +permitted to continue unchecked, will rapidly prostrate the animal, and +probably terminate fatally--ascertain the quality of food which the +animal has recently had. + +In a majority of instances, this will be found to be the cause. If taken +in its incipient stage, a mere change to a more binding diet, as corn, +flour, etc., will suffice for a cure. If acidity is present--produced, +probably, by the hog's having fed upon coarse, rank grasses in swampy +places--give some chalk in the food, or powdered egg-shells, with about +half a drachm of powdered rhubarb; the dose, of course, should vary with +the size of the animal. In the acorn season, they alone will be found +sufficiently curative, where facilities for obtaining them exist. Dry +lodging is indispensable; and diligence is requisite to keep it dry and +clean. + + +FEVER. + +The _symptoms_ of this disease are, redness of the eyes, dryness and +heat of the nostrils, the lips, and the skin generally; appetite gone, +or very defective; and, generally, a very violent thirst. + +[Illustration: HUNTING THE WILD BOAR.] + +Bleed as soon as possible; after which house the animal well, taking +care, at the same time, to have the sty well and thoroughly ventilated. +The bleeding will usually be followed, in an hour or two, by such a +return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient quantity +of food to be made the vehicle for administering external remedies. The +best is bread, steeped in broth. The hog, however, sinks so rapidly when +his appetite is near gone, that no depletive medicines are, in general, +necessary or proper; the fever will ordinarily yield to the bleeding, +and the only object needs to be the support of his strength, small +portions of nourishing food, administered frequently. + +Do not let the animal eat as much as his inclination might prompt; when +he appears to be no longer ravenous, remove the mess, and do not offer +it again until after a lapse of three or four hours. If the bowels are +confined, castor and linseed oil, in equal quantities, should be added +to the bread and broth, in the proportion of two to six ounces. + +A species of fever frequently occurs as an _epizoötic_, oftentimes +attacking the male pigs, and generally the most vigorous and best +looking, without any distinction of age, and with a force and rapidity +absolutely astonishing. At other times, its progress is much slower; the +symptoms are less intense and alarming; and the veterinary surgeon, +employed at the outset, may meet with some success. + +The _causes_ are, in the majority of instances, the bad styes in which +the pigs are lodged, and the noisome food which they often contain. In +addition to these is the constant lying on the dung-heap, whence is +exhaled a vast quantity of deleterious gas; also, the remaining far too +long on the muddy or parched ground, or too protracted exposure to the +rigor of the season. + +When an animal is attacked with this disease, he should be separated +from the others, placed in a warm situation, some stimulating ointment +applied to the chest, and a decoction of sorrel administered. Frictions +of vinegar should also be applied to the dorsal and lumbar region. The +drinks should be emolient, slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar, and +with aromatic fumigation about the belly. + +If the fever then appears to be losing ground, which may be ascertained +by the regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the plaintive cries +before heard, by a less laborious respiration, by the absence of +convulsions, and by the non-appearance of blotches on the skin, there is +a fair chance of recovery. Then administer, every second hour, as before +directed, and give a proper allowance of white water, with ground barley +and rye. + +When the symptoms redouble in intensity, it is best to destroy the +animal; for it is rare that, after a certain period, much chance of +recovery exists. Bleeding is seldom of much avail, but produces, +occasionally, considerable loss of vital power, and augments the putrid +diathesis. + + +FOUL SKIN. + +A simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to +cleanliness, and a washing with a solution of chloride of lime; but, if +it is neglected for any length of time, it assumes a malignant +character--scabs and blotches, or red and fiery eruptions appear--and +the disease rapidly passes into mange, which will be hereafter noticed. + + +INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. + +This disease, popularly known as heavings, is scarcely to be regarded as +curable. Were it observed in its first stage, when indicated by loss of +appetite and a short, hard cough, it might, possibly, be got under by +copious bleeding, and friction with stimulating ointment on the region +of the lungs; minute and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be +given in butter--all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided--and +the animal kept dry and warm. If once the heavings set in, it may be +calculated with confidence that the formation of tubercles in the +substance of the lungs has begun; and when these are formed, they are +very rarely absorbed. + +The _causes_ of the disease are damp lodging, foul air, want of +ventilation, and unwholesome food. When tubercular formation becomes +established, the disease may be communicated through the medium of the +atmosphere, the infectious influence depending upon the noxious +particles respired from the lungs of the diseased animal. + +The following may be tried, though the knife is probably the best +resort, if for no other reason, at least to provide against the danger +of infection: Shave the hair away from the chest, and beneath each +fore-leg; wet the part with spirits of turpentine, and set fire to it, +having previously had the animal well secured, with his head well +raised, and a flannel cloth at hand with which to extinguish the flame +after it has, burned a sufficient time to produce slight blisters; if +carried too far, a sore is formed, productive of no good effects, and +causing unnecessary suffering. Calomel may also be used, with a view to +promote the absorption of the tubercles; but the success is +questionable. + + +JAUNDICE. + +The _symptoms_ of this disease are, yellowness of the white of the eye; +a similar hue extending to the lips; and sometimes, but not invariably, +swelling of the under part of the jaw. + +_Treatment._ Bleed freely; diminish the quantity of food; and give an +active aperient every second day. Aloes are, perhaps, the best, combined +with colocynth; the dose will vary with the size of the animal. + + +LEPROSY. + +This complaint commonly commences with the formation of a small tumor in +the eye, followed by a general prostration of spirits; the head is held +down; the whole frame inclines toward the ground; universal languor +succeeds; the animal refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls away in +flesh; blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue, then upon +the throat, the jaws, the head, and the entire body. + +The _Causes_ of this disease are want of cleanliness, absence of fresh +air, want of due attention to ventilation, and foul feeding. The obvious +_treatment_, therefore, is, first, bleed; clean out the sty daily; wash +the affected animal thoroughly with soap and water, to which soda or +potash has been added; supply him with a clean bed; keep him dry and +comfortable; let him have gentle exercise, and plenty of fresh air; +limit the quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness; give bran +with wash, in which add, for an average-sized hog--say one of one +hundred and sixty pounds weight--a table-spoonful of the flour of +sulphur, with as much nitre as will cover a dime, daily. A few grains of +powdered antimony may also be given with effect. + + +LETHARGY. + +_Symptoms_: torpor; desire to sleep; hanging of the head; and, +frequently, redness of the eyes. The origin of this disease is, +apparently, the same as that of indigestion, or surfeit, except that, in +this instance, it acts upon a hog having a natural tendency to a +redundancy of blood. + +_Treatment._ Bleed copiously; then administer an emetic. A decoction of +camomile flowers will be safest; though a sufficient dose of tartar +emetic will be far more certain. After this, reduce for a few days the +amount of the animal's food, and administer a small portion of nitre and +sulphur in each morning's meal. + + +MANGE. + +This cutaneous affection owes its existence to the presence of a minute +insect, called _acarus scabiei_, or mange-fly, which burrows beneath the +cuticle, and occasions much irritation and annoyance in its progress +through the skin. + +Its _symptoms_ are sufficiently well known, consisting of scabs, +blotches, and sometimes multitudes of minute pustules on different parts +of the body. If neglected, these symptoms become aggravated; the disease +spreads rapidly over the entire surface of the skin, and if allowed to +proceed on its course unchecked, will before long produce deep-seated +ulcers and malignant sores, until the whole carcass of the affected +animal becomes a mass of corruption. + +The _cause_ is to be looked for in dirt, accompanied by hot-feeding. +Hogs, however well and properly kept, will occasionally become affected +with this disease from contagion. Few diseases are more easily +propagated by contact than mange. The introduction of a single affected +pig into an establishment may, in one night, cause the seizure of scores +of others. No foul-skinned pigs, therefore, should be introduced into +the piggery; indeed, it would be an excellent precaution to wash every +animal newly purchased with a strong solution of chloride of lime. + +_Treatment._ If the mange is but of moderate violence, and not of very +long standing, the best mode is to wash the animal, from snout to tail, +leaving no portion of the body uncleansed, with soft soap and water. +Place him in a dry and clean sty, which is so situated as to command a +constant supply of fresh air, without, at the same time, an exposure to +cold or draught; furnish a bed of clean, fresh straw. Reduce his food, +both in quality and quantity; let boiled or steamed roots, with +butter-milk, or dairy-wash take the place of any food of a heating or +inflammatory character. Keep him without food for five or six hours, and +then give to a hog of average size two ounces of Epsom salts in a warm +bran mash--to be increased or diminished, of course, as the animal's +size may require. This should be previously mixed with a pint of warm +water, and added to about half a gallon of warm bran mash, and it will +act as a gentle purgative. Give in every meal afterward one +table-spoonful of flour of sulphur, and as much nitre as will cover a +dime, for from three days to a week, according to the state of the +disease. When the scabs begin to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the +fiery sores to fade, a cure may be anticipated. + +When the above treatment has been practised for fourteen days, without +effecting a cure, prepare the following: train oil, one pint; oil of +tar, two drachms; spirits of turpentine, two drachms; naphtha, one +drachm; with as much flour of sulphur as will form the foregoing into a +thick paste. Rub the animal previously washed with this mixture; let no +portion of the hide escape. Keep the hog dry and warm after this +application, and allow it to remain on his skin for three days. On the +fourth day wash him again with soft soap, adding a small quantity of +soda to the water. Dry him well afterward, and let him remain as he is, +having again changed his bedding, for a day or so; continue the sulphur +and nitre as before. Almost all cases of mange, however obstinate, will, +sooner or later, yield to this treatment. After he is convalescent, +whitewash the sty, and fumigate it by placing a little chloride of lime +in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a little vitriol upon it. In the +absence of vitriol, boiling water will answer nearly as well. + + +MEASLES. + +This is one of the most common diseases to which hogs are liable. The +_symptoms_ are, redness of the eyes, foulness of the skin, and +depression of spirits; decline, or total departure of the appetite; +small pustules about the throat, and red and purple eruptions on the +skin. The last are more plainly visible after death, when they impart a +peculiar appearance to the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, +and distention of the fibre, giving an appearance similar to that which +might be produced by puncturing the flesh. + +_Treatment._ Allow the animal to fast, in the first instance, for +twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, containing a drachm +of carbonate of soda, and an ounce of bole armenian; wash the animal, +cleanse the sty, and change the bedding; give at every feeding, or +thrice a day, thirty grains of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. + +This malady is attributable to dirt, combined with the giving of steamed +food or wash to hogs at too high a temperature. It is troublesome to +eradicate, but usually yields to treatment, and is rarely fatal. + + +MURRAIN. + +This resembles leprosy in its _symptoms_, with the addition of +staggering, shortness of breath, and discharge of viscid matter from the +eyes and mouth. + +The _treatment_ should consist of cleanliness, coolness, bleeding, +purging, and limitation of food. Cloves of garlic are recommended; and +as in all febrile diseases there exists a greater or less disposition to +putrefaction, it is probable that garlic, from its antiseptic +properties, may be useful. + + +QUINSY. + +This is an inflammatory affection of the glands of the throat. + +_Treatment._ Shave away the hair, and rub with tartar-emetic ointment. +Fomenting with very warm water is also useful. When external suppuration +takes place, it is to be regarded as a favorable symptom. In this case, +wait until the swellings are thoroughly ripe; then with a sharp knife +make an incision through the entire length, press out the matter, wash +with warm water, and afterward dress the wound with any resinous +ointment, or yellow soap with coarse brown sugar. + + +STAGGERS. + +This disease is caused by an excessive determination of blood to the +head. + +_Treatment._ Bleed freely and purge. + + +SWELLING OF THE SPLEEN. + +The _symptom_ most positively indicative of this disease is the +circumstance of the affected animal leaning toward one side, cringing, +as it were, from internal pain, and bending toward the ground. + +The _cause_ of the obstruction on which the disease depends, is +over-feeding--permitting the animal to indulge its appetite to the +utmost extent that gluttony may prompt, and the capacity of its stomach +admits. A very short perseverance in this mode of management--or, +rather, mismanagement--will produce this, as well as other maladies, +deriving their origin from a depraved condition of the secretions and +the obstruction of the excretory ducts. + +_Treatment._ Clean out the alimentary canal by means of a powerful +aperient. Allow the animal to fast for four or five hours, when he will +take a little sweet wash or broth, in which may be mingled a dose of +Epsom salts proportioned to his size. This will generally effect the +desired end--a copious evacuation--and the action of the medicine on the +watery secretions will also relieve the existing diseased condition of +the spleen. + +If the affection has continued for any length, the animal should be +bled. A decoction of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liverwort, +produced by boiling them in soft water for six hours, may be given in +doses of from half a pint to a pint and a half, according to the size, +age, etc., of the animal. Scammony and rhubarb, mixed in a bran wash, or +with Indian meal, may be given with advantage on the following day; or, +equal portions of blue-pill mass and compound colocynth pill, formed +into a bolus with butter. The animal having been kept fasting the +previous night, will probably swallow it; if not, let his fast continue +a couple of hours longer. Lower his diet, and keep him on reduced fare, +with exercise, and, if it can be managed, grazing, until the malady has +passed away. If he is then to be fattened, it should be done gradually; +be cautious of at once restoring him to full diet. + + +SURFEIT. + +This is another name for indigestion. The _symptoms_ are, panting; loss +of appetite; swelling of the region about the stomach, etc.; and +frequently throwing up the contents of the stomach. + +_Treatment._ In general, this affection will pass away, provided only it +is allowed to cure itself, and all food carefully kept from the animal +for a few hours; a small quantity of sweet grains, with a little bran +mash, may then be given, but not nearly as much as the animal would wish +to take. For a few days, the food should be limited in quantity, and of +a washy, liquid nature. The ordinary food may then be resumed, only +observing to feed regularly, and remove the fragments remaining after +each meal. + + +TUMORS. + +These are hard swellings, which make their appearance on different parts +of the body. They are not formidable, and require only to be suffered to +progress until they soften; then make a free incision, and press out the +matter. Sulphur and nitre should be given in the food, as the appearance +of these swellings, whatever be their cause, indicates the necessity of +alterative medicines. + + + + + POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. + + + + +[Illustration] + +HISTORY AND VARIETIES + + +THE DOMESTIC FOWL. The cock tribe is used as a generic term, to include +the whole family of domestic fowls; the name of the male, in this +instance, furnishing an appellation sufficiently comprehensive and well +recognized. + +The domestic cock appears to have been known to man from a very early +period. Of his real origin there is little definitely known; and even +the time and manner of his introduction into Greece, or Southern Europe, +are enveloped in obscurity. In the palmiest days of Greece and Rome, +however, he occupied a conspicuous place in those public shows which +amused the masses of the people. He was dedicated to the service of the +pagan deities, and was connected with the worship of Apollo, Mercury, +Mars, and particularly Esculapius. The flesh of this bird was highly +esteemed as a delicacy, and occupied a prominent place at the Roman +banquets. Great pains were taken in the rearing and fattening of poultry +for this purpose. + +The practice of cock-fighting, barbarous as it is, originated in classic +times, and among the most polished and civilized people of antiquity. To +its introduction into Britain by the Cæsars we owe our acquaintance with +the domestic fowl. + +It is impossible to state positively to what species of the wild cock, +known at present, we are to look for the primitive type, so remote is +the date of the original domestication of the fowl. Many writers have +endeavored to show that all the varieties of the domestic fowl, of which +we now have knowledge, are derived from a single primitive stock. It +has, also, been confidently asserted that the domestic cock owes his +origin to the jungle fowl of India. The most probable supposition, +however, is, that the varieties known to us may be referred to a few of +the more remarkable fowls, as the progenitors of the several species. +The great fowl of St. Jago and Sumatra may, perhaps, safely be +recognized as the type of some of the larger varieties, such as the +Spanish and the Padua fowls, and those resembling them; while to the +Bankiva cock, probably, the smaller varieties belong, such as Bantams, +the Turkish fowl, and the like. + +The reasons assigned for supposing these kinds to be the true originals +of our domestic poultry, are, _first_, the close resemblance subsisting +between their females and our domestic hens; _second_, the size of our +domestic cock being intermediate between the two, and alternating in +degree, sometimes inclining toward the one, and sometimes toward the +other; _third_, from the nature of their feathers and their general +aspect--the form and distribution of their tails being the same as our +domestic fowls; and, _fourth_, in these two birds alone are the females +provided with a crest and small wattles, characteristics not to be met +with in any other wild species. + +The wild cock, or the St. Jago fowl, is frequently so tall as to be able +to peck crumbs without difficulty from an ordinary dinner-table. The +weight is usually from ten to thirteen or fourteen pounds. The comb of +both cock and hen is large, crown-shaped, often double, and sometimes, +but not invariably, with a tufted crest of feathers, which occurs with +the greatest frequency, and grows to the largest size, in the hen. The +voice is strong and very harsh; and the young do not arrive to full +plumage until more than half grown. + +The Bankiva fowl is a native of Java, and is characterized by a red +indented comb, red wattles, and ashy-gray legs and feet. The comb of the +cock is scolloped, and the tail elevated a little above the rump, the +feathers being disposed in the form of tiles or slates; the +neck-feathers are of a gold color, long, dependent, and rounded at the +tips; the head and neck are of a fawn color; the wing coverts a dusky +brown and black; the tail and belly, black. The color of the hen is a +dusky ash-gray and yellow; her comb and wattles much smaller than those +of the cock, and--with the exception of the long hackles--she has no +feathers on her neck. These fowl are exceedingly wild, and inhabit the +skirts of woods, forests, and other savage and unfrequented places. +These Bankivas resemble our Bantams very much; and, like them, are also +occasionally to be seen feathered to the feet and toes. + +Independent of all considerations of profitableness, domestic fowls are +gifted with two qualifications, which--whether in man, beast, or +bird--are sure to be popular: a courageous temper and an affectionate +disposition. When we add to these beauty of appearance and hardiness of +constitution, it is no wonder that they are held in such universal +esteem. + +The courage of the cock is emblematic, his gallantry admirable, and his +sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary. The hen is +deservedly the acknowledged pattern of maternal love. When her passion +of philoprogenitiveness is disappointed by the failure or subtraction of +her own brood, she will either continue incubating till her natural +powers fail, or will violently kidnap the young of other fowls, and +insist upon adopting them. + +It would be idle to attempt an enumeration here of the numerous breeds +and varieties of the domestic fowl. Those only, therefore, will be +described which are generally accepted as the best varieties; and these +arranged, not in the order of their merits necessarily, but +alphabetically, for convenience of reference. + + +THE BANTAM. + +The original of the Bantam is, as has been already remarked, the Bankiva +fowl. The small white, and also the colored Bantams, whose legs are +heavily feathered, are sufficiently well-known to render a particular +description unnecessary. Bantam-fanciers generally prefer those which +have clean, bright legs, without any vestige of feathers. A +thorough-bred cock, in their judgment, should have a rose comb; a +well-feathered tail, but without the sickle feathers; full hackles; a +proud, lively carriage; and ought not to exceed a pound in weight. The +nankeen-colored, and the black are the general favorites. + +[Illustration: THE BANTAM.] + +These little creatures exhibit some peculiar habits and traits of +disposition. Amongst others, the cocks are so fond of sucking the eggs +laid by the hen that they will often drive her from the nest in order to +obtain them; they have even been known to attack her, tear open the +ovarium, and devour its shell-less contents. To prevent this, first a +hard-boiled, and then a marble egg may be given them to fight with, +taking care, at the same time, to prevent their access either to the hen +or to any real eggs. Another strange propensity is a passion for sucking +each other's blood, which is chiefly exhibited when they are moulting, +when they have been known to peck each other naked, by pulling out the +new feathers as they appear, and squeezing with their beaks the blood +from the bulbs at the base. These fowls being subject to a great heat of +the skin, its surface occasionally becomes hard and tightened; in which +cases the hard roots of the feathers are drawn into a position more +nearly at right angles with the body than at ordinary times, and the +skin and superficial muscles are thus subjected to an unusual degree of +painful irritation. The disagreeable habit is, therefore, simply a +provision of Nature for their relief, which may be successfully +accomplished by washing with warm water, and the subsequent application +of pomatum to the skin. + +[Illustration: BANTAM.] + +Bantams, in general, are greedy devourers of some of the most +destructive of our insects; the grub of the cock-chafer and the +crane-fly being especial favorites with them. Their chickens can hardly +be raised so well, as by allowing them free access to minute insect +dainties; hence, the suitableness of a worn-out hotbed for them during +the first month or six weeks. They are thus positively serviceable +creatures to the farmer, as far as their limited range extends; and +still more so to the gardener and the nurseryman, as they will save +various garden crops from injuries to which they would otherwise be +exposed. + +The fowl commonly known as the Bantam is a small, elegantly-formed, and +handsomely tinted variety, evidently but remotely allied to the game +breed, and furnished with feathers to the toes. + +THE AFRICAN BANTAM. The cock of this variety is red upon the neck, back, +and hackles; tail, black and erect, studded with glossy green feathers +upon the sides; breast, black ground spotted with yellow, like the +Golden Pheasant; comb, single; cheeks, white or silvery; the pullet is +entirely black, except the inside of the wing-tips, which is perfectly +white. In size, they compare with the common pigeon, being very small; +their wings are about two inches longer than their bodies; and their +legs dark and destitute of feathers. They are very quiet, and of decided +benefit in gardens, in destroying bugs. + +These symmetrically-formed birds are highly prized, both by the fancier +and the practical man, and the pure-bloods are very rare. They weigh +from eight to twelve ounces each for the hens; and the cocks, from +sixteen to twenty ounces. + + +THE BOLTON GRAY. + +[Illustration: BOLTON GRAYS OR CREOLE FOWL.] + +These fowls--called, also, Dutch Every-day Layers, Pencilled Dutch Fowl, +Chittaprats, and, in Pennsylvania, Creole Fowl--were originally imported +from Holland to Bolton, a town in Lancashire, England, whence they were +named. + +They are small sized, short in the leg, and plump in the make; color of +the genuine kind, invariably pure white in the whole cappel of the neck; +the body white, thickly spotted with black, sometimes running into a +grizzle, with one or more black bars at the extremity of the tail. A +good cock of this breed may weigh from four to four and a half pounds; +and a hen from three to three and a half pounds. + +The superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so much in rapid +as in continued laying. She may not produce as many eggs in a month as +some other kinds, but she will, it is claimed, lay more months in the +year than probably any other variety. They are said to be very hardy; +but their eggs, in the judgment of some, are rather watery and +innutritious. + + +THE BLUE DUN. + +The variety known under this name originated in Dorsetshire, England. +They are under the average size, rather slenderly made, of a soft and +pleasing bluish-dun color, the neck being darker, with high, single +combs, deeply serrated. The cock is of the same color as the hen, but +has, in addition, some handsome dark stripes in the long feathers of the +tail, and sometimes a few golden, or even scarlet marks, on the wings. +They are exceedingly impudent, familiar, and pugnacious. + +The hens are good layers, wanting to sit after laying a moderate number +of eggs, and proving attentive and careful rearers of their own +chickens, but rather savage to those of other hens. The eggs are small +and short, tapering slightly at one end, and perfectly white. The +chickens, on first coming from the egg, sometimes bear a resemblance to +the gray and yellow catkin of the willow, being of a soft bluish gray, +mixed with a little yellow here and there. + +Some class these birds among the game fowls, not recognizing them as a +distinct race, upon the ground that, as there are Blue Dun families +belonging to several breeds--the Spanish, the Polish, the Game, and the +Hamburghs, for example--it is more correct to refer each Blue Dun to its +own proper ancestry. + + +THE CHITTAGONG. + +The Chittagong is a very superior bird, showy in plumage, exceedingly +hardy, and of various colors. In some, the gray predominates, +interspersed with lightish yellow and white feathers upon the pullets. +The legs are of a reddish flesh-color; the meat is delicately white, the +comb large and single, wattles very full, wings good size. The legs are +more or less feathered; the model is graceful, carriage proud and easy, +and action prompt and determined. + +This breed is the largest in the world; the pullets usually weighing +from eight to nine pounds when they begin to lay, and the cocks from +nine to ten pounds at the same age. They do not lay as many eggs in a +year as smaller hens; but they lay as many pounds of eggs as the best +breeds. This breed has been, by some, confounded with the great Malay; +but the points of difference are very noticeable. There is less offal; +the flesh is finer, although the size is greatly increased; their +fecundity is greater; and the offspring arrive earlier at maturity than +in the common Malay variety. + +There is also a _red_ variety of the Chittagong, which is rather +smaller than the gray. These have legs sometimes yellow and sometimes +blue; the latter color, perhaps, from some mixture with the dark +variety; the wings and tail are short. Sometimes there is a rose-colored +comb, and a top-knot, through crossing. This variety may weigh sixteen +or eighteen pounds a pair, as ordinarily bred. The eggs are large and +rich, but not very abundant, and they do not hatch remarkably well. + +There is, besides, a _dark-red_ variety; the hens yellow or brown, with +single serrated comb, and no top-knot; legs heavily feathered, the +feathers black and the legs yellow. The cock is black on the breast and +thighs. + +The Chittagongs are generally quite leggy, standing some twenty-six +inches high; and the hens twenty-two inches. A first cross with the +Shanghae makes a very large and valuable bird for the table, but not for +breeding purposes. + + +THE COCHIN CHINA. + +The Cochin China fowl are said to have been presented to Queen Victoria +from the East Indies. In order to promote their propagation, her majesty +made presents of them occasionally to such persons as she supposed +likely to appreciate them. They differ very little in their qualities, +habits, and general appearance from the Shanghaes, to which they are +undoubtedly nearly related. The egg is nearly the same size, shape, and +color; both have an equal development of comb and wattles--the Cochins +slightly differing from the Shanghaes, chiefly in being somewhat fuller +and deeper in the breast, not quite so deep in the quarter, and being +usually smooth-legged, while the Shanghaes, generally, are more or less +heavily feathered. The plumage is much the same in both cases; and the +crow in both is equally sonorous and prolonged, differing considerably +from that of the Great Malay. + +[Illustration: COCHIN CHINAS.] + +The cock has a large, upright, single, deeply-indented comb, very much +resembling that of the Black Spanish, and, when in high condition, of +quite as brilliant a scarlet; like him, also, he has sometimes a very +large white ear-hole on each cheek, which, if not an indispensable or +even a required qualification, is, however, to be preferred, for beauty +at least. The wattles are large, wide, and pendent. The legs are of a +pale flesh-color; some specimens have them yellow, which is +objectionable. The feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright +chestnut-brown, large and well-defined, giving a scaly or imbricated +appearance to those parts. The hackle of the neck is of a light +yellowish brown; the lower feathers being tipped with dark brown, so as +to give a spotted appearance to the neck. The tail-feathers are black, +and darkly iridescent; back, scarlet-orange; back-hackle, yellow-orange. +It is, in short, altogether a flame-colored bird. Both sexes are lower +in the leg than either the Black Spanish or the Malay. + +The hen approaches in her build more nearly to the Dorking than to any +other breed, except that the tail is very small and proportionately +depressed; it is smaller and more horizontal than in any other fowl. Her +comb is of moderate size, almost small; she has, also, a small, white +ear-hole. Her coloring is flat, being composed of various shades of very +light brown, with light yellow on the neck. Her appearance is quiet, and +only attracts attention by its extreme neatness, cleanliness, and +compactness. + +The eggs average about two ounces each. They are smooth, of an oval +shape, equally rounded at each end, and of a rich buff color, nearly +resembling those of the Silver Pheasant. The newly-hatched chickens +appear very large in proportion to the size of the egg. They have light, +flesh-colored bills, feet, and legs, and are thickly covered with down, +of the hue commonly called "carroty." They are not less thrifty than any +other chickens, and feather somewhat more uniformly than either the +Black Spanish or the Malay. It is, however, most desirable to hatch +these--as well as other large-growing varieties--as early in the spring +as possible; even so soon as the end of February. A peculiarity in the +cockerels is, that they do not show even the rudiments of their +tail-feathers till they are nearly full-grown. They increase so rapidly +in other directions, that there is no material to spare for the +production of these decorative appendages. + +The merits of this breed are such that it may safely be recommended to +people residing in the country. For the inhabitants of towns it is less +desirable, as the light tone of its plumage would show every mark of +dirt and defilement; and the readiness with which they sit would be an +inconvenience, rather than otherwise, in families with whom perpetual +layers are most in requisition. Expense apart, they are equal or +superior to any other fowl for the table; their flesh is delicate, +white, tender, and well flavored. + + +THE CUCKOO. + +The fowl so termed in Norfolk, England, is, very probably, an old and +distinct variety; although they are generally regarded as mere Barn-door +fowls--that is, the merely accidental result of promiscuous crossing. + +The name probably originated from its barred, plumage, which resembles +that on the breast of the Cuckoo. The prevailing color is a slaty blue, +undulated, and softly shaded with white all over the body, forming bands +of various widths. The comb is very small; irides, bright orange; feet +and legs, light flesh-color. The hens are of a good size; the cocks are +large, approaching the heaviest breeds in weight. The chickens, at two +or three months old, exhibits the barred plumage even more perfectly +than the full-grown birds. The eggs average about two ounces each, are +white, and of porcelain smoothness. The newly-hatched chickens are +gray, much resembling those of the Silver Polands, except in the color +of the feet and legs. + +This breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers, good sitters, +good mothers and good feeders; and is well worth promotion in the +poultry-yard. + + +THE DOMINIQUE. + +This seems to be a tolerably distinct and permanent variety, about the +size of the common Dunghill Fowl. Their combs are generally double--or +rose, as it is sometimes called--and the wattles small. Their plumage +presents, all over, a sort of greenish appearance, from a peculiar +arrangement of blue and white feathers, which is the chief +characteristic of the variety; although, in some specimens, the plumage +is inevitably gray in both cock and hen. They are very hardy, healthy, +excellent layers, and capital incubators. No fowl have better stood the +tests of mixing without deteriorating than the pure Dominique. + +Their name is taken from the island of Dominica, from which they are +reported to have been imported. Take all in all, they are one of the +very best breeds of fowl which we have; and although they do not come in +to laying so young as the Spanish, they are far better sitters and +nursers. + + +THE DORKING. + +This has been termed the Capon Fowl of England. It forms the chief +supply for the London market, and is distinguished by a white or +flesh-colored smooth leg, armed with five, instead of four toes, on each +foot. Its flesh is extremely delicate, especially after caponization; +and it has the advantage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly, and +growing to a very respectable size when properly managed. + +[Illustration: WHITE DORKINGS.] + +For those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls of the most +desirable shape and size, clothed in rich and varigated plumage, and, +not expecting perfection, are willing to overlook one or two other +points, the Speckled Dorkings--so called from the town of Surrey, +England, which brought them into modern repute--should be selected. The +hens, in addition to their gay colors, have a large, vertically flat +comb, which, when they are in high health, adds very much to their +brilliant appearance, particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The cocks +are magnificent. The most gorgeous hues are lavished upon them, which +their great size and peculiarly square-built form display to the +greatest advantage. Their legs are short; their breast broad; there is +but a small proportion of offal; and the good, profitable flesh is +abundant. The cocks may be brought to considerable weight, and the +flavor and appearance of their meat are inferior to none. The eggs are +produced in reasonable abundance; and, though not equal in size to those +of Spanish hens, may fairly be called large. + +They are not everlasting layers, but at due or convenient intervals +manifest the desire of sitting. In this respect, they are steady and +good mothers when the little ones appear. They are better adapted than +any other fowl, except the Malay, to hatch superabundant turkeys' eggs; +as their size and bulk enable them to afford warmth and shelter to the +young for a long period. For the same reason, spare goose eggs may be +entrusted to them. + +With all these merits, however, they are not found to be a profitable +breed, if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. Their powers seem to fail at +an early age. They are also apt to pine away and die just at the point +of reaching maturity. They appear at a certain epoch to be seized with +consumption--in the Speckled Dorkings, the lungs seeming to be the seat +of the disease. The White Dorkings are, however, hardy and active birds, +and are not subject to consumption or any other disease. + +As mothers, an objection to the Dorkings is, that they are too heavy and +clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and more delicate bird than +themselves. Pheasants, partridges, bantams, and Guinea fowl are trampled +under foot and crushed, if in the least weakly. The hen, in her +affectionate industry in scratching for grub, kicks her smallest +nurslings right and left, and leaves them sprawling on their backs; and +before they are a month old, half of them will be muddled to death with +this rough kindness. + +In spite of these drawbacks, the Dorkings are still in high favor; but a +cross is found to be more profitable than the true breed. A glossy, +energetic game-cock, with Dorking hens, produces chickens in size and +beauty little inferior to their maternal parentage, and much more +robust. The supernumerary toe on each foot almost always disappears +with the first cross; but it is a point which can very well be spared +without much disadvantage. In other respects, the appearance of the +newly-hatched chickens is scarcely altered. The eggs of the Dorkings are +large, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each +end. The chickens are brownish-yellow, with a broad brown stripe down +the middle of the back, and a narrower one on each side; feet and legs +yellow. + +THE FAWN-COLORED DORKING. The fowl bearing this name is a cross between +the white Dorking and the fawn-colored Turkish fowl. They are, of lofty +carriage, handsome, and healthy. The males of this breed weigh from +eight to nine pounds, and the females from six to seven; and they come +to maturity early for so large a fowl. Their tails are shorter and their +eggs darker than those of other Dorkings; their flesh is fine and their +eggs rich. It is one of the best varieties of fowl known, as the size is +readily increased without diminishing the fineness of the flesh. + +THE BLACK DORKING. The bodies of this variety are of a large size, with +the usual proportions of the race, and of a jet-black color. The +neck-feathers of some of the cocks are tinged with a bright gold color, +and those of some of the hens bear a silvery complexion. Their combs are +usually double, and very short, though sometimes cupped, rose, or +single, with wattles small; and they are usually very red about the +head. Their tails are rather shorter and broader than most of the race, +and they feather rather slowly. Their legs are short and black, with +five toes on each foot, the bottom of which is sometimes yellow. The two +back toes are very distinct, starting from the foot separately; and +there is frequently a part of an extra toe between the two. + +This breed commence laying when very young, and are very thrifty layers +during winter. Their eggs are of a large size, and hatch well; they are +perfectly hardy, as their color indicates, and for the product are +considered among the most valuable of the Dorking breed. + + +THE DUNGHILL FOWL. + +This is sometimes called the Barn-door fowl, and is characterized by a +thin, serrated, upright comb, and wattles hanging from each side of the +lower mandible; the tail rises in an arch, above the level of the rump; +the feathers of the rump are long and line-like; and the color is finely +variegated. The female's comb and wattles are smaller than those of the +cock; she is less in size, and her colors are more dull and sombre. + +In the best specimens of this variety, the legs should be white and +smooth, like those of the Dorking, and their bodies round and plump. +Being mongrels, they breed all colors, and are usually from five to +seven or eight pounds per pair. + + +THE FRIZZLED FOWL. + +This fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of Japan, and, by an +equally common error, is frequently called the "Friesland," under the +apprehension that it is derived from that place. Its name, however, +originates from its peculiar appearance. It is difficult to say whether +this is an aboriginal variety, or merely a peculiar instance of the +morphology of feathers; the circumstance that there are also frizzled +Bantams, would seem to make in favor of the latter position. + +The feathers are ruffled or frizzled, and the reversion makes them +peculiarly susceptible of cold and wet, since their plumage is of little +use as clothing. They have thus the demerit of being tender as well as +ugly. In good specimens, every feather looks as if it had been curled +the wrong way with a pair of hot curling-irons. The plumage is +variegated in its colors; and there are two varieties, called the Black +and White Frizzled. The stock, which is rather curious than valuable, is +retained in this country more by importation than by rearing. + +Some writers say that this variety is a native of Asia, and that it +exists in a domestic state throughout Java, Sumatra, and all the +Philippine islands, where it succeeds well. It is, according to such, +uncertain in what country it is still found wild. + + +THE GAME FOWL. + +It is probable that these fowl, like other choice varieties, are natives +of India. It is certain that in that country an original race of some +fowl exists, at the present day, bearing in full perfection all the +peculiar characteristics of the species. In India, as is well known, the +natives are infected with a passion for cock-fighting. These fowls are +carefully bred for this barbarous amusement, and the finest birds become +articles of great value. In Sumatra, the inhabitants are so much +addicted to the cruel sports to which these fowls are devoted, that +instances are recorded of men staking not only their property upon the +issue of a fight, but even their wives and children. The Chinese are +likewise passionately fond of this pastime; as, indeed, are all the +inhabitants of the Indian countries professing the Mussulman creed. The +Romans introduced the practice into Britain, in which country the +earliest recorded cock-fight dates back to about the year 1100. In +Mexico and the South American countries it is still a national +amusement. + +[Illustration: GRAY GAME FOWLS.] + +The game fowl is one of the most gracefully formed and beautifully +colored of our domestic breeds of poultry; and in its form, aspect, and +that extraordinary courage which characterizes its natural disposition, +exhibits all that either the naturalist or the sportsman would at once +recognize as the purest type of high blood, embodying, in short, all the +most indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy. + +It is somewhat inferior in size to other breeds, and in its shape +approximates more closely to the elegance and lightness of form usually +characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated race. Amongst poultry, he is +what the Arabian is amongst horses, the high-bred Short-horn amongst +cattle, and the fleet greyhound amongst the canine race. + +The flesh is beautifully white, as well as tender and delicate. The hens +are excellent layers, and although the eggs are under the average size, +they are not to be surpassed in excellence of flavor. Such being the +character of this variety of fowl, it would doubtless be much more +extensively cultivated than it is, were it not for the difficulty +attending the rearing of the young; their pugnacity being such, that a +brood is scarcely feathered before at least one-half are killed or +blinded by fighting. + +With proper care, however, most of the difficulties to be apprehended +may be avoided. It is exceedingly desirable to perpetuate the race, for +uses the most important and valuable. As a cross with other breeds, they +are invaluable in improving the flavor of the flesh, which is an +invariable consequence. The plumage of all fowl related to them is +increased in brilliancy; and they are, moreover, very prolific, and the +eggs are always enriched. + +THE MEXICAN HEN-COCK. This unique breed is a favorite variety with the +Mexicans, who term them Hen-cocks from the fact that the male birds have +short, broad tails, and, in color and plumage, the appearance of the +hens of the same variety, differing only in the comb, which is very +large and erect in the cock, and small in the hen. They are generally +pheasant-colored, with occasional changes in plumage from a light yellow +to a dark gray; and, in some instances, there is a tendency to black +tail-feathers and breast, as well as an inclination to gray and light +yellow, and with a slight approximation to red hackles in some rare +instances. + +This variety has a strong frame, and very large and muscular thighs. The +cocks are distinguished by large, upright combs, strong bills, and very +large, lustrous eyes. The legs vary from a dirty to a dark-green color. +The hen does not materially differ in appearance from the cock. They +are as good layers and sitters as any other game breed, and are good +nurses. + +THE WILD INDIAN GAME. This variety was originally imported into this +country from Calcutta. The hen has a long neck, like a wild goose; +neither comb nor wattles; of a dark, glossy green color; very short fan +tail; lofty in carriage, trim built, and wild in general appearance; +legs very large and long, spotted with blue; ordinary weight from four +and a half to six pounds. As a layer, she is equal to other fowls of the +game variety. + +The cock stands as high as a large turkey, and weighs nine pounds and +upward; the plumage is of a reddish cast, interspersed with spots of +glossy green; comb very small; no wattles; and bill unlike every other +fowl, except the hen. + +THE SPANISH GAME. This variety is called the English fowl by some +writers. It is more slender in the body, the neck, the bill, and the +legs, than the other varieties, and the colors, particularly of the +cock, are very bright and showy. The flesh is white, tender, and +delicate, and on this account marketable; the eggs are small, and +extremely delicate. The plumage is very beautiful--a clear, dark red, +very bright, extending from the back to the extremities, while the +breast is beautifully black. The upper convex side of the wing is +equally red and black, and the whole of the tail-feathers white. The +beak and legs are black; the eyes resemble jet beads, very full and +brilliant; and the whole contour of the head gives a most ferocious +expression. + + +THE GUELDERLAND. + +The Guelderland fowl were originally imported into this country from the +north of Holland, where they are supposed to have originated. They are +very symmetrical in form, and graceful in their motions. They have one +noticeable peculiarity, which consists in the absence of a comb in +either sex. This is replaced by an indentation on the top of the head; +and from the extreme end of this, at the back, a small spike of feathers +rises. This adds greatly to the beauty of the fowl. The presence of the +male is especially dignified, and the female is little inferior in +carriage. + +[Illustration: GUELDERLANDS.] + +The plumage is of a beautiful black, tinged with blue, of very rich +appearance, and bearing a brilliant gloss. The legs are black, and, in +some few instances, slightly feathered. Crosses with the Shanghae have +heavily feathered legs. The wattles are of good size in the cock, while +those of the hen are slightly less. The flesh is fine, of white color, +and of excellent flavor. The eggs are large and delicate--the shell +being thicker than in those of most other fowls--and are much prized for +their good qualities. The hens are great layers, seldom inclining to +sit. Their weight is from five pounds for the pullets, to seven pounds +for the cocks. + +The Guelderlands, in short, possess all the characteristics of a perfect +breed; and in breeding them, this is demonstrated by the uniform aspect +which is observable in their descendants. They are light and active +birds, and are not surpassed, in point of beauty and utility, by any +breed known in this country. The only objection, indeed, which has been +raised against them is the tenderness of the chickens. With a degree of +care, however, equal to their value, this difficulty can be surmounted, +and the breed must be highly appreciated by all who have a taste for +beauty, and who desire fine flesh and luscious eggs. + + +THE SPANGLED HAMBURGH. + +The Spangled Hamburgh fowl are divided into two varieties, the +distinctive characteristics being slight, and almost dependent upon +color; these varieties are termed the Golden and Silver Spangled. + +[Illustration: HAMBURGH FOWLS.] + +_The Golden Spangled_ is one of no ordinary beauty; it is well and very +neatly made, has a good body, and no very great offal. On the crest, +immediately above the beak, are two small, fleshy horns, resembling, to +some extent, an abortive comb. Above this crest, and occupying the place +of a comb, is a very large brown or yellow tuft, the feathers composing +it darkening toward their extremities. Under the insertion of the lower +mandible--or that portion of the neck corresponding to the chin in +man--is a full, dark-colored tuft, somewhat resembling a beard. The +wattles are very small; the comb, as in other high-crested fowls, is +very diminutive; and the skin and flesh white. The hackles on the neck +are of a brilliant orange, or golden yellow; and the general +ground-color of the body is of the same hue, but somewhat darker. The +thighs are of a dark-brown or blackish shade, and the legs and feet are +of a bluish gray. + +In the _Silver Spangled_ variety, the only perceptible difference is, +that the ground color is a silvery white. The extremity and a portion of +the extreme margin of each feather are black, presenting, when in a +state of rest, the appearance of regular semicircular marks, or +spangles--and hence the name, "Spangled Hamburgh;" the varieties being +termed _gold_ or _silver_, according to the prevailing color being +bright yellow, or silvery white. + +The eggs are of moderate size, but abundant; chickens easily reared. In +mere excellence of flesh and as layers, they are inferior to the Dorking +or the Spanish. They weigh from four and a half to five and a half +pounds for the male, and three and a half for the female. The former +stands some twenty inches in height, and the latter about eighteen +inches. + + +THE JAVA. + +The Great Java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its purity. They +are of a black or dark auburn color, with very large, thick legs, single +comb and wattles. They are good layers, and their eggs are very large +and well-flavored; their gait is slow and majestic. They are, in fact, +amongst the most valuable fowls in the country, and are frequently +described as Spanish fowls, than which nothing is more erroneous. + +They are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded Great +Malay, and possess about the same qualities as to excellence, but fall +rather short of them in beauty. Some, however, consider the pure Java +superior to all other large fowls, so far as beauty is concerned. Their +plumage is decidedly rich. + + +THE JERSEY-BLUE. + +The color of this variety is light-blue, sometimes approaching to dun; +the tail and wings rather shorter than those of the common fowl; its +legs are of various colors, generally black, sometimes lightly +feathered. Of superior specimens, the cocks weigh from seven to nine +pounds, and the hens from six to eight. + +They are evidently mongrels; and though once much esteemed, they have +been quite neglected, so far as breeding from them is concerned, since +the introduction of the purer breeds, as the Shanghaes and the +Cochin-Chinas. + + +THE LARK-CRESTED FOWL. + +This breed is sometimes confounded with the Polish fowl; but the shape +of the crest, as well as the proportions of the bird, is different. +This variety, of whatever color it may be, is of a peculiar taper-form, +inclining forward, with a moderately depressed, backward-directed crest, +and deficient in the neatness of the legs and feet so conspicuous in the +Polands; the latter are of more upright carriage and of a more +squarely-built frame. Perhaps a good distinction between the two +varieties is, that the Lark-crested have an occipital crest, and the +Poland more of a frontal one. + +They are of various colors: pure snow white, brown with yellow hackles, +and black. The white is, perhaps, more brilliant than is seen in any +other domesticated gallinaceous bird, being much more dazzling than that +of the White Guinea Fowl, or the White Pea Fowl. This white variety is +in great esteem, having a remarkably neat and lively appearance when +rambling about a homestead. They look very clean and attractive when +dressed for market; an old bird, cleverly trussed, will be, apparently, +as delicate and transparent in skin and flesh as an ordinary chicken. +Their feathers are also more salable than those from darker colored +fowls. They are but little, if, indeed, any, more tender than other +kinds raised near the barn-door; they are in every way preferable to the +White Dorkings. + +In the cocks, a single, upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the +place of the crest; the hens, too, vary in this respect, some having not +more than half a dozen feathers in their head-dress. + +If they were not of average merit, as to their laying and sitting +qualifications, they would not retain the favor they do with the thrifty +house-wives by whom they are chiefly cultivated. + + +THE MALAY. + +[Illustration: MALAYS.] + +This majestic bird is found on the peninsula from which it derives its +name, and, in the opinion of many, forms a connecting link between the +wild and domesticated races of fowls. Something very like them is, +indeed, still to be found in the East. This native Indian bird--the +_Gigantic Cock_, the _Kulm Cock_ of Europeans--often stands considerably +more than two feet from the crown of the head to the ground. The comb +extends backward in a line with the eyes; it is thick, a little +elevated, rounded upon the top, and has almost the appearance of having +been cut off. The wattles of the under mandibles are comparatively +small, and the throat is bare. Pale, golden-reddish hackles ornament the +head, neck, and upper part of the back, and some of these spring before +the bare part of the throat. The middle of the back and smaller +wing-coverts are deep chestnut, the webs of the feathers disunited; pale +reddish-yellow, long, drooping hackles cover the rump and base of the +tail, which last is very ample, and entirely of a glossy green, of which +color are the wing-coverts; the secondaries and quills are pale +reddish-yellow on their outer webs. All the under parts are deep glossy +blackish-green, with high reflections; the deep chestnut of the base of +the feathers appears occasionally, and gives a mottled and interrupted +appearance to those parts. + +The weight of the Malay, in general, exceeds that of the Cochin-China; +the male weighing, when full-grown, from eleven to twelve, and even +thirteen pounds, and the female from eight to ten pounds; height, from +twenty-six to twenty-eight inches. They present no striking uniformity +of plumage, being of all shades, from black to white; the more common +color of the female is a light reddish-yellow, with sometimes a faint +tinge of dunnish-blue, especially in the tail. + +The cock is frequently of a yellowish-red color, with black intermingled +in the breast, thighs, and tail. He has a small, but thick comb, +generally inclined to one side; he should be snake-headed, and free from +the slightest trace of top-knot; the wattles should be extremely small, +even in an old bird; the legs are not feathered, as in the case of the +Shanghaes, but, like them and the Cochin-Chinas, his tail is small, +compared with his size. In the female, there is scarcely any show of +comb or wattles. Their legs are long and stout; their flesh is very +well flavored, when they have been properly fattened; and their eggs are +so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of our +ordinary fowls. + +The Malay cock, in his perfection, is a remarkably courageous and strong +bird. His beak is very thick, and he is a formidable antagonist when +offended. His crow is loud, harsh, and prolonged, as in the case of the +Cochin-China, but broken off abruptly at the termination; this is quite +characteristic of the bird. + +The chickens are at first very strong, with yellow legs, and are thickly +covered with light brown down; but, by the time they are one-third +grown, the increase of their bodies has so far outstripped that of their +feathers, that they are half naked about the back and shoulders, and +extremely susceptible of cold and wet. The great secret of rearing them +is, to have them hatched very early indeed, so that they may have safely +passed through this period of unclothed adolescence during the dry, +sunny part of May and June, and reached nearly their full stature before +the midsummer rains descend. + +Malay hens are much used by some for hatching the eggs of turkeys--a +task for which they are well adapted in every respect but one, which is, +that they will follow their natural instinct in turning off their +chickens at the usual time, instead of retaining charge of them as long +as the mother turkey would have done. Goslings would suffer less from +such untimely desertion. + +THE PHEASANT MALAY. This variety is highly valued by many, not on +account of its intrinsic merits, which are considerable, but because it +is believed to be a cross between the pheasant and the common fowl. This +is, however, an erroneous opinion. Hybrids between the pheasant and the +fowl are, for the most part, absolutely sterile; when they do breed, it +is not with each other, but with the stock of one of their progenitors; +and the offspring of these either fail or assimilate to one or the other +original type. No half-bred family is perpetuated, no new breed created, +by human or volucrine agency. + +The Pheasant Malays are large, well-flavored, good sitters, good layers, +good mothers, and, in many points, an ornamental and desirable stock. +Some object to them as being a trifle too long in their make; but they +have a healthy look of not being over-bred, which is a recommendation to +those who rear for profit as well as pleasure. The eggs vary in size; +some are very large in summer, smooth, but not polished, sometimes +tinged with light buff, balloon-shaped, and without the zone of +irregularity. The chickens, when first hatched, are all very much alike; +yellow, with a black mark all down the back. The cock has a black tail, +with black on the neck and wings. + + +THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. + +This name has been given to a very good breed of fowls, produced by +crossing a China cock with a hen, a cross between the Fawn-colored +Dorking, the Great Malay, and the Wild Indian. + +At a little over a year old, the cocks stand from thirty-two to +thirty-five inches high, and weigh about ten pounds; and the pullets +from six and a half to seven pounds each. The latter commence laying +when five months old, and prove themselves very superior layers. Their +eggs are of a medium size, rich, and reddish-yellow in color. Their +plumage is rich and variegated; the cocks usually red or speckled, and +the pullets darkish brown. They have very fine flesh, and are fit for +the table at an early age. The legs are very large, and usually blue or +green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally having five toes upon +each foot. Some have their legs feathered, but this is not usual. They +have large and single combs and wattles, large cheeks, rather short +tails, and small wings in proportion to their bodies. + +They are domestic, and not so destructive to gardens as smaller fowls. +There is the same uniformity in size and general appearance, at the same +age of the chickens, as in those of the pure bloods of primary races. + + +THE POLAND. + +The Poland, or Polish fowl, is quite unknown in the country which would +seem to have suggested the name, which originated from some fancied +resemblance between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of +the feathered caps worn by the Polish soldiers. + +The breed of crested fowls is much esteemed by the curious, and is +bred with great care. Those desirous of propagating any singular +varieties, separate and confine the individuals, and do not suffer them +to mingle with such as have the colors different. The varieties are more +esteemed in proportion to the variety of the colors, or the contrast of +the tuft with the rest of the plumage. Although the differences of +plumage are thus preserved pretty constant, they seem to owe their +origin to the same breed, and cannot be reproduced pure without careful +superintendence. The cocks are much esteemed in Egypt, in consequence of +the excellence of their flesh, and are so common that they are sold at +a remarkably cheap rate. They are equally abundant at the Cape of Good +Hope, where their legs are feathered. + +[Illustration: POLAND FOWLS.] + +The Polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way, and in a clean +and grassy place. They are certainly not so fit for the farm-yard, as +they become blinded and miserable with dirt. Care should be exercised to +procure them genuine, since there is no breed of fowls more disfigured +by mongrelism than this. They will, without any cross-breeding, +occasionally produce white stock that are very pretty, and equally good +for laying. If, however, an attempt is made to establish a separate +breed of them, they become puny and weak. It is, therefore, better for +those who wish for them to depend upon chance; every brood almost of the +black produces one white chicken, as strong and lively as the rest. + +These fowls are excellent for the table, the flesh being white, tender, +and juicy; but they are quite unsuitable for being reared in any +numbers, or for general purposes, since they are so capricious in their +growth, frequently remaining stationary in this respect for a whole +month, getting no larger; and this, too, when they are about a quarter +or half grown--the time of their life when they are most liable to +disease. As aviary birds, they are unrivalled among fowls. Their plumage +often requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate beauty; +the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to their health; and +their plumage improves in attractiveness with almost every month. + +The great merit, however, of all the Polish fowls is, that for three or +four years they continue to grow and gain in size, hardiness, and +beauty--the male birds especially. This fact certainly points out a very +wide deviation in constitution from those fowls which attain their full +stature and perfect plumage in twelve or fifteen months. The similarity +of coloring in the two sexes--almost a specific distinction of Polish +and perhaps Spanish fowls--also separates them from those breeds, like +the Game, in which the cocks and hens are remarkably dissimilar. Their +edible qualities are as superior, compared with other fowls, as their +outward apparel surpasses in elegance. They have also the reputation of +being everlasting layers, which further fits them for keeping in small +enclosures; but, in this respect, individual exceptions are often +encountered--as in the case of the Hamburghs--however truly the habit +may be ascribed to the race. + +There are four known varieties of the Polish fowl, one of which appears +to be lost to this country. + +THE BLACK POLISH. This variety is of a uniform black--both cock and +hen--glossed with metallic green. The head is ornamented with a handsome +crest of white feathers, springing from a fleshy protuberance, and +fronted more or less deeply with black. The comb is merely two or three +spikes, and the wattles are rather small. Both male and female are the +same in color, except that the former has frequently narrow stripes of +white in the waving feathers of the tail, a sign, it is said, of true +breeding. The hens, also, have two or three feathers on each side of the +tail, tinged in the tip with white. They do not lay quite so early in +the spring as some varieties, especially after a hard winter; but they +are exceedingly good layers, continuing a long time without wanting to +sit, and laying rather large, very white, sub-ovate eggs. They will, +however, sit at length, and prove of very diverse dispositions; some +being excellent sitters and nurses, others heedless and spiteful. + +The chickens, when first hatched, are dull black, with white breasts, +and white down on the front of the head. They do not always grow and get +out of harm's way so quickly as some other sorts, but are not +particularly tender. In rearing a brood of these fowls, some of the hens +may be observed with crests round and symmetrical as a ball, and others +in which the feathers turn all ways, and fall loosely over the eyes; and +in the cocks, also, some have the crest falling gracefully over the back +of the head, and others have the feathers turning about and standing on +end. These should be rejected, the chief beauty of the kind depending +upon such little particulars. One hen of this variety laid just a +hundred eggs, many of them on consecutive days, before wanting to +incubate; and after rearing a brood successfully, she laid twenty-five +eggs before moulting in autumn. + +THE GOLDEN POLANDS. These are sometimes called Gold Spangled, as their +plumage approaches to that of the Gold Spangled Hamburghs; but many of +the finest specimens have the feathers merely fringed with a darker +color, and the cocks, more frequently than the hens, exhibit a spotted +or spangled appearance. Many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard; +as to which the question has been raised whether it is an original +appendage to these birds or not. A distinct race, of which the muff is +one permanent characteristic, is not at present known. This appendage, +whenever introduced into the poultry-yard, is not easily got rid of; +which has caused some to suspect either that the original Polish were +beardless, or that there were two ancient races. + +The Golden Polands, when well-bred, are exceedingly handsome; the cock +has golden hackles, and gold and brown feathers on the back; breast and +wings richly spotted with ochre and dark brown; tail darker; large +golden and brown crest, falling back over the neck; but little comb and +wattles. The hen is richly laced with dark-brown or black on an ochre +ground; dark-spotted crest; legs light-blue, very cleanly made, and +displaying a small web between the toes, almost as proportionately large +as that in some of the waders. + +They are good layers, and produce fair-sized eggs. Many of them make +excellent mothers, although they cannot be induced to sit early in the +season. The chickens are rather clumsy-looking little creatures, of a +dingy-brown, with some dashes of ochre about the head, breast and wings. +They are sometimes inclined to disease in the first week of their +existence; but, if they pass this successfully, they become tolerably +hardy, though liable to come to a pause when about half-grown. It may be +noted as a peculiarity in the temper of this breed, that, if one is +caught, or attacked by any animal, the rest, whether cocks or hens, will +instantly make a furious attack upon the aggressor, and endeavor to +effect the rescue of their companion. + +THE SILVER POLANDS. These are similar to the preceding in shape and +markings, except that white, black, and gray are exchanged for ochre or +yellow, and various shades of brown. They are even more delicate in +their constitution, more liable to remain stationary at a certain point +of their adolescence, and, still more than the other varieties, require +and will repay extra care and accommodation. Their top-knots are, +perhaps, not so large, as a general thing; but they retain the same neat +bluish legs and slightly-webbed feet. The hens are much more ornamental +than the cocks; though the latter are sure to attract notice. They may, +unquestionably, be ranked among the choicest of fowls, whether their +beauty or their rarity is considered. They lay, in tolerable abundance, +eggs of moderate size, French-white, much pointed at one end; and when +they sit, acquit themselves respectably. + +The newly-hatched chickens are very pretty; gray, with black eyes, light +lead-colored legs, and a swelling of down on the crown of the head, +indicative of the future top-knot, which is exactly the color of a +powdered wig, and, indeed, gives the chicken the appearance of wearing +one. There is no difficulty in rearing them for the first six weeks or +two months; the critical time being the interval between that age and +their reaching the fifth or sixth month. They acquire their peculiar +distinctive features at a very early age, and are then the most elegant +little miniature fowls which can possibly be imagined. The distinction +of sex is not very manifest till they are nearly full-grown; the first +observable indication being in the tail. That of the pullet is carried +uprightly, as it ought to be; but in the cockerel, it remains depressed, +awaiting the growth of the sickle-feathers. The top-knot of the cockerel +inclines to hang more backward than that of the pullets. It is +remarkable that the Golden Polish cock produces as true Silver chickens, +and those stronger, with the Silver Polish hen, as the Silver Polish +cock would bring. + +The Silver Polands have all the habits of their golden companions, the +main difference being the silvery ground instead of the golden. This +variety will sometimes make its appearance even if merely its Golden +kind is bred, precisely as the Black Polish now and then produce some +pure White chickens that make very elegant birds. + +THE BLACK-TOPPED WHITE. This variety does not at present exist among us; +and some have even questioned whether it ever did. Buffon mentions them +as if extant in France in his time. An attempt has been made to obtain +them from the preceding, by acting on the imagination of the parents. +The experiment failed, though similar schemes are said to have succeeded +with animals; it proved, however, that it will not do to breed from the +White Polish as a separate breed. Being Albinos, the chickens come very +weakly, and few survive. + +This breed is now recoverable, probably, only by importation from Asia. + + +THE SHANGHAE. + +For all the purposes of a really good fowl--for beauty of model, good +size, and laying qualities--the thorough-bred Shanghae is among the +best, and generally the most profitable of domestic birds. The cock, +when full-grown, stands about twenty-eight inches high, if he is a good +specimen; the female, about twenty-two or twenty-three inches. A large +comb or heavy wattles are rarely seen on the hen at any age; but the +comb of the male is high, deeply indented, and his wattles double and +large. The comb and wattles are not, however, to be regarded as the +chief characteristics of this variety, nor even its reddish-yellow +feathered leg; but the abundant, soft, and downy covering of the thighs, +hips, and region of the vent, together with the remarkably short tail, +and large mound of feathers piled over the upper part of its root, +giving rise to a considerable elevation on that part of the rump. It +should be remarked, also, that the wings are quite short and small in +proportion to the size of the fowl, and carried very high up the body, +thus exposing the whole of the thighs, and a considerable portion of the +side. + +[Illustration: SHANGHAES.] + +These characteristics are not found, in the same degree, in any other +fowl. The peculiar arrangement of feathers gives the Shanghae in +appearance, what it has in reality--a greater depth of quarter, in +proportion to the brisket, than any other fowl. + +As to the legs, they are not very peculiar. The color is usually +reddish-white, or flesh-color, or reddish-yellow, mostly covered down +the outside, even to the end of the toes, with feathers. This last, +however, is not always the case. The plumage of the thorough-bred is +remarkably soft and silky, or rather downy; and is, in the opinion of +many, equally as good for domestic purposes as that of the goose. The +feathers are certainly quite as fine and soft, if not as abundant. + +In laying qualities, the pure Shanghae equals, if it does not excel, any +other fowl. The Black Poland, or the Bolton Gray, may, perhaps, lay a +few more eggs in the course of a year, in consequence of not so +frequently inclining to sit; but their eggs are not so rich and +nutritious. A pullet of this breed laid one hundred and twenty eggs in +one hundred and twenty-five days, then stopped six days, then laid +sixteen eggs more, stopped four days, and again continued her laying. +The eggs are generally of a pale yellow, or nankeen color, not +remarkably large, compared with the size of the fowl, and generally +blunt at the ends. The comb is commonly single, though, in some +specimens, there is a slight tendency to rose. + +The flesh of this fowl is tender, juicy, and unexceptionable in +every respect. Taking into consideration the goodly size of the +Shanghae--weighing, as the males do, at maturity, from ten to twelve +pounds, and the females from seven and a half to eight and a half, +and the males and females of six months, eight and six pounds +respectively--the economical uses to which its soft, downy feathers may +be applied, its productiveness, hardiness, and its quiet and docile +temper, this variety must occupy, and deservedly so, a high rank among +our domestic fowls; and the more it is known, the better will it be +appreciated. + +THE WHITE SHANGHAE. This variety is entirely white, with the legs +usually feathered, and differ in no material respect from the red, +yellow, and Dominique, except in color. The legs are yellowish, or +reddish-yellow, and sometimes of flesh-color. Many prefer them to all +others. The eggs are of a nankeen, or dull yellow color, and blunt at +both ends. + +[Illustration: WHITE SHANGHAES.] + +It is claimed by the friends of this variety that they are larger and +more quiet than other varieties, that their flesh is much superior, +their eggs larger, and the hens more profitable. Being more quiet in +their habits, and less inclined to ramble, the hens are invaluable as +incubators and nurses; and the mildness of their disposition makes them +excellent foster-mothers, as they never injure the chickens belonging to +other hens. + +These fowls will rank among the largest coming from China, and are very +thrifty in our climate. A cock of this variety attained a weight of +eight pounds, at about the age of eight months, and the pullets of the +same brood were proportionably large. They are broad on the back and +breast, with a body well rounded up; the plumage white, with a downy +softness--in the latter respect much like the feathering of the Bremen +goose; the tail-feathers short and full; the head small, surmounted by a +small, single, serrated comb; wattles long and wide, overlaying the +cheek-piece, which is also large, and extends back on the neck; and the +legs of a yellow hue, approaching a flesh-color, and feathered to the +ends of the toes. + + +THE SILVER PHEASANT. + +This variety of fowls is remarkable for great brilliancy of plumage and +diversity of colors. On a white ground, which is usually termed silvery, +there is an abundance of black spots. The feathers on the upper part of +the head are much longer than the rest, and unite together in a tuft. +They have a small, double comb, and their wattles are also comparatively +small. A remarkable peculiarity of the cock is, that there is a spot of +a blue color on the cheeks, and a range of feathers under the throat, +which has the appearance of a collar. + +The hen is a smaller bird, with plumage similar to that of the cock, and +at a little distance seems to be covered with scales. On the head is a +top-knot of very large size, which droops over it on every side. The +Silver Pheasants are beautiful and showy birds, and chiefly valuable as +ornamental appendages to the poultry-yard. + + +THE SPANISH. + +[Illustration: SPANISH FOWLS.] + +This name is said to be a misnomer, as the breed in question was +originally brought by the Spaniards from the West Indies; and, although +subsequently propagated in Spain, it has for some time been very +difficult to procure good specimens from that country. From Spain, they +were taken in considerable numbers into Holland, where they have been +carefully bred, for many years; and it is from that quarter that our +best fowls of this variety come. + +The Spanish is a noble race of fowls, possessing many merits; of +spirited and animated appearance; of considerable size; excellent for +the table, both in whiteness of flesh and skin, and also in flavor; and +laying exceedingly large eggs in considerable numbers. Among birds of +its own breed it is not deficient in courage; though it yields, without +showing much fight, to those which have a dash of game blood in their +veins. It is a general favorite in all large cities, for the additional +advantage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its plumage. + +The thorough-bred birds should be entirely black, as far as feathers are +concerned; and when in high condition, display a greenish, metallic +lustre. The combs of both cock and hen are exceedingly large, of a vivid +and most brilliant scarlet; that of the hen droops over upon one side. +Their most singular feature is a large, white patch, or ear-hole, on the +cheek--in some specimens extending over a great part of the face--of a +fleshy substance, similar to the wattle; it is small in the female, but +large and very conspicuous in the male. This marked contrast of black, +bright red, and white, makes the breed of the Spanish cock as handsome +as that of any variety which we have; in the genuine breed, the whole +form is equally good. + +Spanish hens are celebrated as good layers, and produce very large, +quite white eggs, of a peculiar shape, being very thick at both ends, +and yet tapering off a little at each. They are, by no means, good +mothers of families, even when they do sit--which they will not often +condescend to do--proving very careless, and frequently trampling half +their brood under foot. The inconveniences of this habit are, however, +easily obviated by causing the eggs to be hatched by some more motherly +hen. + +This variety of fowl has frequently been known to lose nearly all the +feathers in its body, besides the usual quantity on the neck, wings, and +tail; and, if they moult late, and the weather is severe, they feel it +much. This must often happen in the case of an "everlasting layer;" for +if the system of a bird is exhausted by the unremitting production of +eggs, it cannot contain within itself the material for supplying the +growth of feathers. They have not, even yet, become acclimated in this +country, since continued frost at any time is productive of much injury +to their combs; frequently causing mortification in the end, which at +times terminates in death. A warm poultry-house, high feeding, and care +that they do not remain too long exposed to severe weather, are the best +means of preventing this disfigurement. Some birds are occasionally +produced, handsomely streaked with red on the hackle and back. This is +no proof of bad breeding, if other points are right. + +The chickens are large, as would be expected from such eggs, entirely +shining black, except a pinafore of white on the breast--in which +respect they are precisely like the Black Polish chickens--and a slight +sprinkling under the chin, with sometimes also a little white round the +back and eyes; their legs and feet are black. Many of them do not get +perfectly feathered till they are three-fourths grown; and, therefore, +to have this variety come to perfection in a country where the summers +are much shorter than in their native climate, they must be hatched +early in spring, so that they may be well covered with plumage before +the cold rains of autumn. There is, however, a great lack of uniformity +in the time when they get their plumage; the pullets are always earlier +and better feathered than the cockerels--the latter being generally half +naked for a considerable time after being hatched, though some feather +tolerably well at an early age. + +The _Black_ is not the only valuable race of Spanish fowl; there is, +also, the _Gray_, or _Speckled_, of a slaty gray color, with white legs. +Their growth is so rapid, and their size, eventually, so large, that +they are remarkably slow in obtaining their feathers. Although well +covered with down when first hatched, they look almost naked when +half-grown, and should, therefore, be hatched as early in spring as +possible. The cross between the Pheasant-Malay and the Spanish produces +a particularly handsome fowl. + +As early pullets, for laying purposes in the autumn and winter after +they are hatched, no fowls can surpass the Spanish. They are believed, +also, to be more precocious in their constitution; and consequently to +lay at an earlier age than the pullets of other breeds. + + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS. + +Fowls are classed by modern naturalists as follows: + + DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back bone. + CLASS. _Aves_--birds. + ORDER. _Rasores_--scrapers. + FAMILY. _Phasianidæ_--Pheasants. + GENUS. _Gallus_--the cock. + +Birds, as well as quadrupeds, may be divided into two great classes, +according to their food: the Carnivorous and the Graminivorous. Fowls +belong, strictly speaking, to the latter. + +In the structure of the _digestive organs_, birds exhibit a great +uniformity. The [oe]sophagus, which is often very muscular, is +dilated into a large sac--called the _crop_--at its entrance into +the breast; this is abundantly supplied with glands, and serves as a +species of first stomach, in which the food receives a certain amount +of preparation before being submitted to the action of the proper +digestive organs. A little below the crop, the narrow [oe]sophagus is +again slightly dilated, forming what is called the _ventriculus +succenturiatus_, the walls of which are very thick, and contain a great +number of glands, which secrete the gastric juice. Below this, the +intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the _gizzard_, in +which the process of digestion is carried still farther. In the +graminivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and +muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny _epithelium_, +serving for the trituration of the food. The intestine is rather short, +but usually exhibits several convolutions; the large intestine is always +furnished with two _corea_. It opens by a semicircular orifice into the +_cloaca_, which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative +organs. The liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a +gall-bladder. The pancreas is lodged in a kind of loop, formed by the +small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. There are also +large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, which pour their +secretion into that cavity. + +The _organs of circulation and respiration_ in birds are adapted to +their peculiar mode of life; but are not separated from the abdominal +cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mammalia. The heart consists of four +cavities distinctly separated--two auricles and two ventricles--so that +the venous and arterial blood can never mix in that organ; and the +whole of the blood returned from the different parts of the body passes +through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries. +The blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle, +from which it passes through a tabular opening into the right ventricle, +and is thence driven into the lungs. From these organs it returns +through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, and passes thence +into the ventricles of the same side, by the contraction of which it is +driven into the aorta. This soon divides into two branches, which, by +their subdivision, give rise to the arteries of the body. + +_The jaws_, or mandibles, are sheathed in a horny case, usually of a +conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. In most birds, the +sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp; but in some they are +denticulated along the margins. The two anterior members of the body are +extended into wings. The beak is used instead of hands; and such is the +flexibility of the vertebral column, that the bird is able to touch with +its beak every part of its body. This curious and important result is +obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebræ of the neck, which, in the +swan, consists of twenty-three bones, and in the domestic cock, +thirteen. The vertebræ of the back are seven to eleven; the ribs never +exceed ten on each side. + +The clothing of the skin consists of _feathers_, which in their nature +and development resemble hair, but are of a more complicated structure. +A perfect feather consists of the _shaft_, a central stem, which is +tubular at the base, where it is inserted into the skin, and the +_barbs_, or fibres, which form the _webs_ on each side of the shaft. The +two principal modifications of feathers are _quills_ and _plumes_; the +former confined to the wings and tail, the latter constituting the +general clothing of the body. Besides the common feathers, the skin of +many birds is covered with a thick coating of down, which consists of a +multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction; each of these down +feathers is composed of a very small, soft tube imbedded in the skin, +from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments, +without any central shaft. These filaments are very slender, and bear on +each side a series of still more delicate filaments, which may be +regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers. This +downy coat fulfils the same office as the soft, woolly fur of many +quadrupeds; the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long, smooth +hair by which the fur of these animals is concealed. The skin also bears +many hair-like appendages, which are usually scattered sparingly over +its surface; they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and +usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence +of a few minute barbs toward the apex. + +Once or twice in the course of a year the whole plumage of the bird is +renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called _moulting_. The +base of the quills is covered by a series of large feathers, called the +_wing coverts_; and the feathers of the tail are furnished with numerous +muscles, by which they can be spread out and folded up like a fan. In +the aquatic birds--like the goose, the duck, and the swan--the feathers +are constantly lubricated by an oily secretion, which completely +excludes the water. + +In their reproduction, birds are strictly oviparous. The _eggs_ are +always enclosed in a hard shell, consisting of calcareous matter, and +birds almost invariably devote their whole attention, during the +breeding season, to the hatching of their eggs and the development of +their offspring; sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them +the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and +attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter +are in a condition to shift for themselves. + +In the structure and development of the egg there is a great uniformity; +but there is a remarkable difference in the condition of the young bird +at the moment of hatching. In the class under consideration, the young +are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell; +and the only care of the parents is devoted to protecting their +offspring from danger, and leading them into those places where they are +likely to meet with food. + +The _longevity_ of birds is various, and, unlike the case of men and +quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they +acquire maturity. A few months, or even a few weeks, suffice to bring +them to their perfection of stature, instincts, and powers. Domestic +fowls live to the age of twenty years; geese, fifty; while swans exceed +a century. + +The order _Rasores_ includes the numerous species of _gallinaceous +birds_, and the term is applied to them from their habit of scratching +in the ground in search of food. They are generally marked by a small +head, stout legs, plumage fine, the males usually adorned with +magnificent colors, and the tails often developed in a manner to render +the appearance extremely elegant. The wings are usually short and weak, +and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor prolonged. The +_corla_ of this order are larger than in any other birds. + +The species are found in almost all parts of the world, from the tropics +to the frozen regions of the north; but the finest and most typical +kinds are inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of Asia. They +feed principally on seeds, fruit, and herbage, but also, to a +considerable extent, on insects, worms, and other small animals. Their +general habitation is on the ground, where they run with great celerity, +but many of them roost on trees. They are mostly polygamous in their +habits, the males being usually surrounded by a considerable troop of +females; and to these, with a few exceptions, the whole business of +incubation is generally left. The nest is always placed on the ground in +some sheltered situation, and very little art is exhibited in its +construction; indeed, an elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the +young are able to run about and feed almost as soon as they have left +the egg; and at night or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath +the wings of their mother. Most of these species are esteemed for the +table, and many of them are among the most celebrated of game birds. + +The _pheasant family_, of this order, includes the most beautiful of the +rasorial birds; indeed, some of them may, perhaps, be justly regarded as +pre-eminent in this respect over all the rest of their class. In these, +the bill is of moderate size and compressed, with the upper mandible +arched to the tip, where it overhangs the lower one; the _tarsi_ are of +moderate length and thickness, usually armed with one or two spurs; the +toes are moderate, and the hinder one short and elevated; the wings are +rather short and rounded, and the tail more or less elongated and +broad, but frequently wedge-shaped and pointed. The head is rarely +feathered all over; the naked skin is sometimes confined to a space +about the eye, but generally occupies a greater portion of the surface, +occasionally covering the whole head, and even a part of the neck, and +frequently forming combs and wattles of very remarkable forms. In some +species, the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers. + +The birds of this family are, for the most part, indigenous to the +Asiatic continent and islands, from which, however, several species have +been introduced into other parts of the globe. The Guinea Fowl of +Africa, and the Turkeys of America, are almost the only instances of +wild Phasianidous birds out of Asia. Some species, such as the Domestic +Fowl, the Peacock, the Turkey, and the Guinea Fowl, have been reduced to +a state of complete domestication, and are distributed pretty generally +over the world. + + +THE GUINEA FOWL. + +This bird belongs to the same division, class, order, and family as the +Domestic Fowl; but is assigned by naturalists to the genus Numida, or +Numidian. It is indigenous to the tropical parts of Africa, and in a +wild state, Guinea Fowls live in flocks, in woods, preferring marshy +places, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds; they roost on trees; the +nest is made on the ground, and usually contains as many as twenty eggs. +They have been propagated in the Island of Jamaica to such an extent as +to have become wild, and are shot like other game. They do much damage +to the crops, and are therefore destroyed by various means; one of which +is, to get them tipsy by strewing corn steeped in rum, and mixed with +the intoxicating juice of the cassava, upon the ground; the birds +devour this, and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety. + +The Guinea Fowl, to a certain degree, unites the characteristics of the +pheasant and the turkey; having the delicate shape of the one, and the +bare head of the other. There are several varieties: the White, the +Spotted, the Madagascar, and the Crested. The latter is not so large as +the common species; the head and neck are bare, of a dull blue, shaded +with red, and, instead of the casque, it has an ample crest of +hair-like, disunited feathers, of a bluish black, reaching as far +forward as the nostrils, but, in general, turned backward. The whole +plumage, except the quills, is of a bluish black, covered with small +grayish spots, sometimes four, sometimes six on each feather. + +[Illustration: THE GUINEA FOWL.] + +This fowl is not a great favorite among many keepers of poultry, being +so unfortunate as to have gained a much worse reputation than it really +deserves, from having been occasionally guilty of a few trifling faults. +It is, however, useful, ornamental, and interesting during its life; +and, when dead, a desirable addition to the table, at a time when all +other poultry is scarce. + +The best way to commence keeping Guineas is to procure a sitting of eggs +which can be depended upon for freshness, and if possible, from a place +where but a single pair is kept. A Bantam hen is the best mother; she is +lighter, and less likely to injure them by treading on them than a +full-sized fowl. She will cover nine eggs, and incubation will last a +month. The young are excessively pretty. When first hatched, they are so +strong and active as to appear not to require the attention which is +really necessary to rear them. Almost as soon as they are dry from the +moisture of the egg, they will peck each other's toes, as if supposing +them to be worms, scramble with each other for a crumb of bread, and +domineer over any little Bantam or chicken that may chance to have been +hatched at the same time with themselves. No one, ignorant of the fact, +would guess, from their appearance, to what species of bird they +belonged; their orange-red bills and legs, and the dark, zebra-like +stripes with which they are regularly marked from head to tail, bear no +traces of the speckled plumage of their parents. + +Of all known birds, the Guinea fowl is, perhaps, the most prolific of +eggs. Week after week, and month after month, there are very few +intermissions, if any, of the daily deposit. Even the process of +moulting is sometimes insufficient to draw off the nutriment which it +takes to make feathers instead of eggs; and the poor thing will +sometimes go about half-naked in the chilly autumn months, unable to +refrain from its diurnal visit to the nest, and consequently unable to +furnish itself with a new outer garment. The body of the Guinea hen may +be regarded, in fact, as a most admirable machine for producing eggs +out of insects, grain, and vegetables, garbage, or whatever material an +omnivorous creature can appropriate. + +Its normal plumage is singularly beautiful, being spangled over with an +infinity of white spots on a black ground, shaded with gray and brown. +The spots vary from the size of a pea to extreme minuteness. The black +and white occasionally change places, causing the bird to appear covered +with a net of lace. + +The white variety is not uncommon, and is said to be equally hardy and +profitable with the usual kind; but the peculiar beauty of the original +plumage is, certainly, all exchanged for a dress of not the purest +white. It is doubtful how long either this or the former variety would +remain permanent; though, probably, but for a few generations. Pied +birds blotched with patches of white, are frequent, but are not +comparable, in point of beauty, with those of the original wild color. + + +THE PEA FOWL. + +This bird is assigned to the genus _paro_, or peacock--the division, +class, or sex, and family, being the same as the preceding. The male of +this species is noted for its long, lustrous tail, which it occasionally +spreads, glittering with hundreds of jewel-like eye-spots, producing an +unrivalled effect of grace and beauty. The form of the bird is also +exceedingly elegant, and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich +metallic tints; that of the neck, particularly, being of a fine deep +blue, tinged with golden green. The female, however, is of a much more +sober hue, her whole plumage being usually of a brownish color. The +voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to the beauty of its +external appearance, consisting of a harsh, disagreeable cry, not unlike +the word _paon_, which is the French name of the bird. + +[Illustration: THE PEA FOWL.] + +Although naturalized as a domestic bird in Europe and America, the pea +fowl is a native of India, where it is still found abundantly in a wild +state; and the wild specimens are said to be more brilliant than those +bred in captivity. The date of its introduction into England is not +known; but the first peacocks appear to have been brought into Europe by +Alexander the Great, although these birds were among the articles +imported into Judea by the fleets of Solomon. They reached Rome toward +the end of the republic, and their costliness soon caused them to be +regarded as one of the greatest luxuries of the table, though the +moderns find them dry and leathery. This, perhaps, as much as the desire +of ostentation, may have induced the extravagance of Vitellius and +Heliogabulus, who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and +tongues of peacocks at their feasts. In Europe, during the middle ages, +the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill of fare of grand +entertainments, at which it was served with the greatest pomp and +magnificence. And during the period of chivalry, it was usual for +knights to make vows of enterprise on these occasions, "before the +peacock and the ladies." At present, however, the bird is kept entirely +on account of the beauty of its appearance. + +In a state of nature, pea fowl frequent jungles and wooded localities, +feeding upon grain, fruits, and insects. They are polygamous, and the +females make their nests upon the ground among bushes; the nest is +composed of grass, and the number of eggs laid is said to be five or +six. They roost in high trees, and, even in captivity, their inclination +to get into an elevated position frequently manifests itself; and they +may often be seen perched upon high walls, or upon the ridges of +buildings. + +The latter characteristic is, indirectly, one reason why many are +disinclined to keep pea fowl in a domestic state. Their decided +determination so to roost prevents such a control being exercised over +them as would restrain them from mischief, until an eye could be kept on +their movements; and, consequently, they commit many depredations upon +gardens, stealing off to their work of plunder at the first dawn, or at +the most unexpected moments. Their cunning indeed is such that, if +frequently driven away from the garden at any particular hour of the day +or evening, they will never be found there, after a certain time, at +that special hour, but will invariably make their inroads at day-break. +Many have tried, as a last resort, to eject them with every mark of +scorn and insult, such as harsh words, the cracking of whips, and the +throwing of harmless brooms; but they remain incorrigible marauders, +indifferent to this disrespectful usage, and careless of severe rebuke. + +A mansion, therefore, where the fruit and vegetable garden is at a +distance, is almost the only place where they can be kept without daily +vexation. The injury they do to flowers is comparatively trifling; +though, like the Guinea-fowl, they are great eaters of buds, cutting +them out cleanly from the _axillae_ of leaves. They must likewise have a +dusting-hole, which is large and unsightly; but this can be provided for +them in some nook out of the way; and by feeding and encouragement, they +will soon be taught to dispose themselves into a pleasing spectacle, at +whatever point of view may be deemed desirable. No one with a very +limited range should attempt to keep them at all, unless confined in an +aviary. Where they can be kept at large, they should be collected in +considerable numbers, that their dazzling effects may be as impressive +as possible. + +A wanton destructiveness toward the young of other poultry is also +charged upon them. Relative to this, however, statements differ; some +contending that such instances of cruelty constitute the exceptions, and +not the rule. + +The hen does not lay till her third summer; but she then seems to have +an instinctive fear of her mate, manifested by the secrecy with which +she selects the place for her nest; nor, if the eggs are disturbed, will +she go there again. She lays from four or five to seven. If these are +taken, she will frequently lay a second time during the summer; and the +plan is recommended to those who are anxious to increase their stock. +She sits from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. A common hen will hatch +and rear the young; but the same objection lies against her performing +that office, except in very fine, long summers, for the pea fowl as for +turkeys--that the young require to be brooded longer than the hen is +conveniently able to do. A turkey will prove a much better foster-mother +in every respect. The peahen should, of course, be permitted to take +charge of one set of eggs. Even without such assistance, she will be +tolerably successful. + +The same wise provision of Nature noticed in the case of the Guinea fowl +is evinced in a still greater degree in the little pea chickens. Their +native jungle--tall, dense, sometimes impervious, swarming with reptile, +quadruped, and even insect, enemies--would be a most dangerous +habitation for a little tender thing that could merely run and squall. +Accordingly, they escape from the egg with their quill-feathers very +highly developed. In three days, they will fly up, and perch upon any +thing three feet high; in a fortnight, they will roost on trees, or the +tops of sheds; and in a month or six weeks, they will reach the ridge of +a barn, if there are any intermediate low stables or other buildings to +help them to mount from one to the other. + +There are two varieties of the common pea fowl: the _pied_ and the +_white_. The first has irregular patches of white about it, like the +pied Guinea fowl, and the remainder of the plumage resembling the +original sorts; the white have the ocellated spots on the tail faintly +visible in certain lights. These last are tender, and much prized by +those who prefer variety to real beauty. They are occasionally produced +by birds of the common kind, in cases where no intercourse with other +white birds can have taken place. In one instance, in the same brood, +whose parents were both of the usual colors, there were two of the +common sort, and one white cock, and one white hen. + + +THE TURKEY. + +THE WILD TURKEY. The turkey belongs to the genus _meleagris_, and, +though now known as a domestic fowl in most civilized countries, was +confined to America until after the discovery of that country by +Columbus. It was probably introduced into Europe by the Spaniards about +the year 1530. It was found in the forests of North America, when the +country was first settled, from the Isthmus of Darien to Canada, being +then abundant even in New England; at present, a few are found in the +mountains of Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey; in the Western and +the Southwestern States they are still numerous, though constantly +diminishing before the extending and increasing settlements. + +[Illustration: THE WILD TURKEY.] + +The wild male bird measures about three feet and a half, or nearly four +feet, in length, and almost six in expanse of the wings, and weighs from +fifteen to forty pounds. The skin of the head is of a bluish color, as +is also the upper part of the neck, and is marked with numerous reddish, +warty elevations, with a few black hairs scattered here and there. On +the under part of the neck, the skin hangs down loosely, and forms a +sort of wattle; and from the point where the bill commences, and the +forehead terminates, arises a fleshy protuberance, with a small tuft of +hair at the extremity, which becomes greatly elongated when the bird is +excited; and at the lower part of the neck is a tuft of black hair, +eight or nine inches in length. + +The feathers are, at the base, of a bright dusky tinge, succeeded by a +brilliant metallic band, which changes, according to the point whence +the light falls upon it, to bronze, copper, violet, or purple; and the +tip is formed by a narrow, black, velvety band. This last marking is +absent from the neck and breast. The color of the tail is brown, mottled +with black, and crossed with numerous lines of the latter color; near +the tip is a broad, black band, then a short mottled portion, and then a +broad band of dingy yellow. The wings are white, banded closely with +black, and shaded with brownish yellow, which deepens in tint toward the +back. The head is very small, in proportion to the size of the body; the +legs and feet are strongly made, and furnished with blunt spurs, about +an inch long, and of a dusky reddish color; the bill is reddish, and +brown-colored at the tip. + +The female is less in size; her legs are destitute of spurs; her neck +and head are less naked, being furnished with short, dirty, gray +feathers; the feathers on the back of the neck have brownish tips, +producing on that part a brown, longitudinal band. She also, +frequently, but not invariably, wants the tuft of feathers on the +breast. Her prevailing color is a dusky gray, each feather having a +metallic band, less brilliant than that of the cock, then a blackish +band, and a grayish fringe. Her whole color is, as usual among birds, +duller than that of the cock; the wing-feathers display the white, and +have no bands; the tail is similarly colored to that of the cock. When +young, the sexes are so much alike that it is not easy to discern the +difference between them; and the cock acquires his beauty only by +degrees, his plumage not arriving at perfection until the fourth or +fifth year. + +The habits of these birds in their native wilds are exceedingly curious. +The males, called _Gobblers_, associate in parties of from ten to a +hundred, and seek their food apart from the females, which either go +about singly with their young, at that time about two-thirds grown, or +form troops with other females and their families, sometimes to the +number of seventy or eighty. These all avoid the old males, who attack +and destroy the young, whenever they can, by reiterated blows upon the +skull. But all parties travel in the same direction, and on foot, unless +the dog or the hunter or a river on their line of march compels them to +take wing. When about to cross a river, they select the highest +eminences, that their flight may be more sure, and in such positions +they sometimes stay for a day or more, as if in consultation. The males +upon such occasions gobble obstreperously, strutting with extraordinary +importance, as if to animate their companions; and the females and the +young assume much of the same pompous manner, and spread their tails as +they move silently around. Having mounted, at length, to the tops of the +highest trees, the assembled multitude, at the signal note of their +leader, wing their way to the opposite shore. The old and fat birds, +contrary to what might be expected, cross without difficulty, even when +the river is a mile in width; but the wings of the young and the meagre, +and, of course, those of the weak, frequently fail them before they have +completed their passage, when they drop in, and are forced to swim for +their lives, which they do cleverly enough, spreading their tails for a +support, closing their wings, stretching out their necks, and striking +out quickly and strongly with their feet. All, however, do not succeed +in such attempts, and the weaker often perish. + +The wild turkeys feed on maize, all sorts of berries, fruits, grasses, +and beetles; tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards, are occasionally found +in their crops. The pecan nut is a favorite food, and so is the acorn, +on which last they fatten rapidly. About the beginning of October, while +the mast still hangs on the trees, they gather together in flocks, +directing their course to the rich bottom-lands, and are then seen in +great numbers on the Ohio and Mississippi. This is the _turkey-month_ of +the Indians. When they have arrived at the land of abundance, they +disperse in small, promiscuous flocks of both sexes and every age, +devouring all the mast as they advance. Thus they pass the autumn and +winter, becoming comparatively familiar after their journeys, when they +venture near plantations and farm-houses. They have even been known, on +such occasions, to enter stables and corn-cribs in quest of food. +Numbers are killed in the winter, and preserved in a frozen state for +distant markets. + +The beginning of March is the pairing season, for a short time previous +to which the females separate from their mates, and shun them, though +the latter pertinaciously follow them, gobbling loudly. The sexes roost +apart, but at no great distance, so that when the female utters a call, +every male within hearing responds, rolling note after note in the most +rapid succession; not as when spreading the tail and strutting near the +hen, but in a voice resembling that of the tame turkey when he hears any +unusual or frequently-repeated noise. + +Where the turkeys are numerous, the woods, from one end to the other, +sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with this remarkable voice of +their wooing, uttered responsively from their roosting-places. This is +continued for about an hour; and, on the rising of the sun, they +silently descend from their perches, and the males begin to strut for +the purpose of winning the admiration of their mates. + +If the call of a female be given from the ground, the males in the +vicinity fly toward the individual, and, whether they perceive her or +not, erect and spread their tails, throw the head backward, and distend +the comb and wattles, shout pompously, and rustle their wings and +body-feathers, at the same moment ejecting a puff of air from the lungs. +While thus occupied, they occasionally halt to look out for the female, +and then resume their strutting and puffing, moving with as much +rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit. During this ceremonious +approach, the males often encounter each other, and desperate battles +ensue, when the conflict is only terminated by the flight or death of +the vanquished. The usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the +conqueror, who is followed by one or more females, that roost near him, +if not upon the same tree, until they begin to lay, when their habits +are altered, with the view of saving their eggs, which the male breaks, +if he can get at them. These are usually from nine to fifteen in number, +sometimes twenty, whitish and spotted with brown, like those of the +domestic bird. The nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the +ground, sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes on the fallen top of a dead +leafy tree, under a thicket of sumach or briers, or by the side of a +log. Whenever the female leaves the nest, she covers it with leaves, so +as to screen it from observation. She is a very close sitter, and when +she has chosen a spot will seldom leave it, on account of its being +discovered by a human intruder. Should she find one of her eggs, +however, sucked by a snake, or other enemy, she abandons the nest +forever. When the eggs are near hatching, she will not forsake her nest +while life remains. + +The females are particularly attentive to their young, which are very +sensitive to the effects of damp; and consequently wild turkeys are +always scarce after a rainy season. The flesh of the wild turkey is much +superior to that of the domestic bird; yet the flesh of such of the +latter as have been suffered to roam at large in the woods and in the +plains is, in no respect, improved by this partially wild mode of life. + + +THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. + +The origin of the popular name, turkey, appears to be the confusion at +first unaccountably subsisting relative to the identity of the bird with +the Guinea fowl, which was still scarce at the time of the introduction +of the turkey. Some, however, say that the name arose from the proud and +_Turkish_ strut of the cock. There is a question whether the domestic +turkey is actually a second and distinct species, or merely a variety of +the wild bird, owing its diversity of aspect to circumstances dependent +on locality, and consequent change of habit, combined with difference of +climate and other important causes, which are known in the case of other +animals to produce such remarkable effects. + +[Illustration: THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.] + +The _varieties_ of the domesticated turkey are not very distinct; and as +to their relative value, it is, perhaps, difficult to give any decisive +opinion. Some suppose that the _white_ turkey is the most robust, and +most easily fattened. Experience has, however, shown to the contrary. +The pure white are very elegant creatures; and though very tender to +rear, are not so much so as the white pea fowl. Most birds, wild as well +as tame, occasionally produce perfectly white individuals, of more +delicate constitution than their parents. The selection and pairing of +such have probably been the means of establishing and keeping up this +breed. With all care, they will now and then produce speckled birds and +so show a tendency to return to the normal plumage. It is remarkable +that in specimens which are, in other respects, snow-white, the tuft on +the breast remains coal-black, appearing, in the hens, like a tail of +ermine, and so showing us a great ornament. The head and caruncles on +the neck of the male are, when excited, of the same blue and scarlet +hues. The bird is truly beautiful, with its snowy and trembling flakes +of plumage thus relieved with small portions of black, blue, and +scarlet. They have one merit--they dress most temptingly white for +market; but they are unsuited for mirey, smokey, or clayey situations, +and show and thrive best where they have a range of clean, short +pasture, on a light or chalky subsoil. + +The _bronze_ and _copper-colored_ varieties are generally undersized, +and are among the most difficult of all to rear; but their flesh is, +certainly, very delicate, and, perhaps, more so than that of other +kinds--a circumstance, however, that may partly result from their far +greater delicacy of constitution, and the consequent extra trouble +devoted to their management. + +The _brown_ and _ashy-gray_ are not particularly remarkable; but the +_black_ are decidedly superior, in every respect, not only as regards +greater hardiness, and a consequent greater facility of rearing, but as +acquiring flesh more readily, and that, too, of the very best and +primest quality. Those of this color appear also to be far less removed +than the others from the original wild stock. Fortunately, the black +seems to be the favorite color of Nature; and black turkeys are produced +far more abundantly than those of any other hue. + +The turkey is a most profitable bird, since it can almost wholly provide +for itself about the roads; snails, slugs, and worms are among the +number of its dainties, and the nearest stream serves to slake its +thirst. To the farmer, however, it is often a perfect nuisance, from its +love of grain; and should, therefore, be kept in the yard until all +corn is too strong in the root to present any temptation. + +Notwithstanding the separation which, with the exception of certain +seasons, subsists between the cock and hen turkey in a wild state, they +have been taught to feed and live amiably together in a state of +domesticity. The former, however, retains sufficient of his hereditary +propensities to give an occasional sly blow to a froward chicken, but +that very seldom of a serious or malicious character. + +One reason why the turkeys seen in poultry-yards do not vie in splendor +of plumage with their untamed brethren is, that they are not allowed to +live long enough. For the same cause, the thorough development of their +temper and disposition is seldom witnessed. It does not attain its full +growth till its fifth or sixth year, yet it is killed at latest in the +second, to the evident deterioration of the stock. If some of the best +breeds were retained to their really adult state, and well fed +meanwhile, they would quite recompense their keeper by their beauty in +full plumage, their glancing hues of gilded green and purple, their +lovely shades of bronze, brown, and black, and the pearly lustre that +radiates from their polished feathers. + + +THE DUCK. + +This bird is of the order of _natatores_, or swimmers; family, +_anatidæ_, of the duck kind; genus, _anas_, or duck. The most striking +character of the swimming bird is derived from the structure of the +_feet_, which are always palmate--that is, furnished with webs between +the toes. There are always three toes directed forward, and these are +usually united by a membrane to their extremities; but, in some cases, +the membrane is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, +and furnished with a distinct web on each side. The fourth toe is +generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; when +present, it is usually directed backward, and the membrane is sometimes +continued to it along the side of the feet. These webbed feet are the +principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water, +upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their +time. The feet are generally placed very far back, a position which is +exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming, but which renders +their progression on the land somewhat awkward. + +[Illustration: THE EIDER DUCK.] + +The _body_ is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very thick, +close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the +greasy secretions of the caudal gland, so that it is completely +water-proof. The _wings_ exhibit a great variety in their development; +in some species being merely rudimentary, destitute of quills, and +covered with a scaly skin--in others, being of vast size and power, and +the birds passing a great part of their lives in the air. The form of +the _bill_ is also very remarkable; in some, broad and flat; in others, +deep and compressed; and in others, long and slender. + +Most of these birds live in societies, which are often exceedingly +numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes. + +The distinguishing characteristic of the family of the _anatidæ_ is the +_bill_, which is usually of a flattened form, covered with a soft skin, +and furnished at the edges with a series of _lamellæ_, which serve to +sift or strain the mud in which they generally seek their food. The feet +are furnished with four toes, three of which are directed forward, and +united by a web; the fourth is directed backward, usually of small size, +and quite free. They are admirable swimmers, and live and move on the +water with the utmost security, ease, and grace. Such is their +adaptation to this element that the young, immediately after being +hatched, will run to it, and fearlessly launch themselves upon its +bosom, rowing themselves along with their webbed feet, without a single +lesson, and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman. They are +generally inhabitants of the fresh waters, and for the most part, prefer +ponds and shallow lakes, in which they can investigate the bottom with +their peculiar bills, without actually diving beneath the surface; yet +at some seasons they are found along the borders of the sea. Their food +generally consists of worms, mollusca, and aquatic insects, which they +separate from the mud by the agency of the lamellæ at the margin of the +bill; but most of them also feed upon seeds, fruits, and other vegetable +substances. + + +THE WILD DUCK. + +This bird, known also by the name of _mallard_, is the original of all +the domestic varieties. It is twenty-four inches long, and marked with +green, chestnut and white. Wild ducks are gregarious in their habits, +and generally migrate in large flocks. The males are larger than the +females, and the latter are also usually of a more uniform and sober +tint. + +It is an inhabitant of all the countries of Europe, especially toward +the north, and is also abundant in North America, where it is migratory, +passing to the North in Spring, and returning to the South in autumn. It +frequents the lakes of the interior, as well as the sea-coasts. It is +plentiful in Great Britain at all seasons, merely quitting the more +exposed situations at the approach of winter, and taking shelter in the +valleys; or, in case of a severe winter, visiting the estuaries. + +[Illustration: WILD DUCK.] + +They moult twice in the year, in June and November; in June, the males +acquire the female plumage to a certain extent, but regain their proper +dress at the second moult, and retain it during the breeding season. In +a wild state, the mallard always pairs, and, during the period of +incubation, the male, although taking no part in the process, always +keeps in the neighborhood of the female; and it is singular that +half-bred birds between the wild and tame varieties always exhibit the +same habits, although the ordinary domestic drakes are polygamous, +always endeavoring to get as many wives as they can. The nest is usually +placed upon the ground among reeds and ledges near the water; sometimes +in holes or hollow trees, but rarely among the branches. The eggs vary +from about eight to fourteen in number, and the young are active from +the moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the water, where they +are as much at home as the old birds. + +As the flesh of wild ducks is greatly valued, immense numbers are shot, +or taken in other ways. In England, large numbers are captured by +decoys, consisting of a piece of water situated in the midst of a quiet +plantation, from which six semicircular canals are cut, which are roofed +over with hoops, and covered in with netting. Into this vast trap the +ducks are enticed by young ducks trained for the purpose. + + +THE DOMESTIC DUCK. + +The duck should always find a place in the poultry-yard, provided that +it can have access to water, even a small supply of which will suffice. +They have been kept with success, and the ordinary duck fattened to the +weight of eight pounds, with no further supply of water than that +afforded by a large pool sunk in the ground. In a garden, ducks will do +good service, voraciously consuming slops, frogs, and insects--nothing, +indeed, coming amiss to them; not being scratchers, they do not, like +other poultry, commit such a degree of mischief, in return, as to +partially counterbalance their usefulness. A drake and two or three +ducks cost little to maintain; and the only trouble they will give is, +that if there is much extent of water or shrubbery about their home, +they will lay and sit abroad, unless they are brought up every night, +which should be done. They will otherwise drop their eggs carelessly +here and there, or incubate in places where their eggs will be sucked by +crows, and half their progeny destroyed by rats. + +[Illustration: ROUEN DUCK.] + +The duck is very prolific, and its egg is very much relished by some, +having a rich piquancy of flavor, which gives it a decided superiority +over the egg of the domestic fowl; and these qualities render it much in +request with the pastry-cook and confectioner--three duck's eggs being +equal in culinary value to six hen's eggs. The duck does not lay during +the day, but generally in the night; exceptions, regulated by +circumstances, will, of course, occasionally occur. While laying, it +requires, as has been intimated, more attention than does the hen, until +it is accustomed to resort to a regular nest for depositing its eggs; +when, however, this is once effected, little care is needed beyond what +has been indicated. + +The duck is a bad hatcher, being too fond of the water, and, +consequently, too apt to allow her eggs to get cold; she will also, no +matter what kind of weather it may be, bring the ducklings to the water +the moment they break the shell--a practice always injurious, and +frequently fatal; hence the very common practice of setting duck's eggs +under hens. + +There are several _varieties_ of tame ducks; but their merits are more +diverse in an ornamental than in a profitable point of view. Of _white_ +ducks, the best is the _Aylesbury_, with its unspotted, snowy plumage, +and yellow legs and feet. It is large and excellent for the table, but +not larger or better than several others. They are assiduous mothers and +nurses, especially after the experience of two or three seasons. A much +smaller race of white ducks is imported from Holland, useful only to the +proprietors of extensive or secluded waters, as enticers of passing wild +birds to alight and join their society. This variety has a yellow-orange +bill; that of the Aylesbury should be flesh-colored. There is, also, the +_white hook-billed_ duck, with a bill monstrously curved downward--a +Roman-nosed duck, in fact--with Jewish features, of a most grotesque and +ludicrous appearance; the bill has some resemblance in its curvature to +that of the Flamingo. White ducks, of course, make but a sorry figure in +towns or dirty suburbs, or in any place where the means of washing +themselves are scanty. + +There are one or two pretty varieties, not very common; one of a +_slate-gray_, or bluish dun, another of a _sandy-yellow_; there are also +some with top-knots as compact and spherical as those of any Polish +fowl, which rival the hook-billed in oddity. What are termed the _white_ +Poland and the _black_ Poland are crested; they breed early, and are +excellent layers; the former are deemed the most desirable though the +black are the larger. + +Of _mottled_ and _pied_ sorts, there exists a great variety; black and +white, bronze and white, lightly speckled, and many other mixtures. To +this class belongs the _Rouen_--or Rhone, or Rohan, since each +designation has been used--duck, which has been needlessly overpraised +by interested dealers. This variety is highly esteemed by epicures; it +is a prolific bird, and lays large eggs; its size is the criterion of +its value. There is also a pied variety of the _Poland_ ducks, a hybrid +between the white and the black, the Beaver. + +Another variety, known as the _Labrador_, the Buenos Ayres, or the black +East Indian duck, is somewhat rare and highly esteemed by dealers. They +are very beautiful birds. The feet, legs, and entire plumage should be +black; a few white feathers will occasionally appear. The bill also is +black, with a slight under-tinge of green. Not only the neck and back, +but the larger feathers of the tail and wings are gilt with metallic +green; the female also exhibits slight traces of the same decoration. On +a sunshiny spring day, the effect of these glittering black ducks +sporting in the blue water is very pleasing. + +A peculiarity of this variety is, that they occasionally--that is, at +the commencement of the season--lay black eggs; the color of those +subsequently laid gradually fades to that of the common kinds. This +singular appearance is not caused by any internal strain penetrating the +whole thickness of the shell, but by an oily pigment, which may be +scraped off with the nail. They lay, perhaps, a little later than other +ducks, but are not more difficult to rear. Their voice, likewise, is +said to differ slightly from that of other varieties; but they are far +superior in having a high, wild-duck flavor and, if well kept, are in +deserved repute as being excellent food when killed immediately from the +pond, without any fattening. + +Still another breed, known as the _Muscovy_ duck, is a distinct species +from the common duck; and the hybrid race will not, therefore, breed +again between themselves, although they are capable of doing so with +either of the species from the commixture of which they spring. This +duck does not derive its name from having been brought from the country +indicated, but from the flavor of its flesh, and should more properly be +termed the _musk_ duck, of which this name is but a corruption. It is +easily distinguished by a red membrane surrounding the eyes, and +covering the cheeks. Not being in esteem, on account of their peculiar +odor, and the unpleasant flavor of their flesh, they are not worth +breeding, unless to cross with the common varieties; in which case, the +musk drake must be put to the common duck. This will produce a very +large cross, while the opposite course will beget a very inferior one. + + +THE GOOSE. + +THE WILD GOOSE. The goose belongs to the same family as the duck, but is +classed with the genus _anser_. The _gray-leg_ goose--a common wild +goose of England--is by some regarded as the original of the domestic +bird. It is thirty-five inches long; upper parts ash-brown and ash-gray; +under parts white. This variety is migratory, proceeding to the Northern +parts of Europe and Asia in summer, and to the South in winter. + +The _Canada_, or Cravat goose, the wild goose of this country, is a fine +species, forty inches long, often seen in spring and autumn in large, +triangular flocks, high in air, and led by an old, experienced gander, +who frequently utters a loud _honk_, equivalent, doubtless, to "All's +well!" This sound often comes upon the ear at night, when the flock are +invisible; and it is frequently heard even in the daytime, seeming to +come from the sky, the birds being beyond the reach of vision. Immense +numbers of these noble birds are killed in Canada, as well as along our +coasts, where they assemble in the autumn in large flocks, and remain +till driven to more Southern climates by the season. + +[Illustration: WILD OR CANADA GOOSE.] + +The Canada goose is capable of domestication, and, in spite of its +original migratory habits--which it appears, in almost every instance, +to forget in England--shows much more disposition for a truly domestic +life than the swan; and it may be maintained in perfect health with very +limited opportunities for bathing. They eat worms and soft insects, as +well as grass and aquatic plants; with us, they do not breed until they +are at least two years old, and so far approach the swan; like which +bird, also, the male appears to be fit for reproduction at an earlier +period than the female. Many writers speak highly of the half-bred +Canada. They are, certainly, very large, and may merit approbation on +the table; but with whatever other species the cross is made, they are +hideously disgusting. + + +THE DOMESTIC GOOSE. + +The goose is not mentioned in the Bible, but it was known to the ancient +Egyptians, and is represented in numerous instances on their monuments, +showing that it was anciently used for food, as in our own times. It was +held sacred by the Romans, because it was said to have alarmed, by its +cackling at night, the sentinels of the capitol, at the invasion of the +Gauls, and thus to have saved the city. This was attributed by one of +the Roman writers to its fine sense of smell, which enables them to +perceive at a great distance the odor of the human race. The liver of +this bird seems to have been a favorite morsel with epicures in all +ages; and invention appears to have been active in exercising the means +of increasing the volume of that organ. It is generally esteemed a +foolish bird; yet it displays courage in defending its young, and +instances of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not +deficient in sentiment. The value and usefulness of geese are scarcely +calculable. The only damage which they do lies in the quantity of food +which they consume; the only care they require is to be saved from +starvation. All the fears and anxieties requisite to educate the turkey +and prepare it for making a proper appearance at the table are with them +unnecessary; grass by day, a dry bed at night, and a tolerably attentive +mother, are all that is required. Roast goose, fatted to the point of +repletion, is almost the only luxury that is not deemed an extravagance +in an economical farm-house; for there are the feathers, to swell the +stock of beds; there is the dripping, to enrich the dumpling or pudding; +there are the giblets, for market or a pie; and there is the wholesome, +solid, savory flesh for all parties interested. + +They are accused by some of rendering the spots where they feed +offensive to other stock; but the explanation is simple. A horse bites +closer than an ox; a sheep goes nearer to the ground than a horse; but, +after the sharpest shearing by sheep, the goose will polish up the tuft, +and grow fat upon the remnants of others. Consequently, where geese are +kept in great numbers on a small area, little will be left to maintain +any other grass-eating creature. If, however, the pastures are not +short, it will not be found that other grazing animals object to feeding +either together with, or immediately after, a flock of geese. + +The goose has the merit of being the earliest of poultry. In three +months, or, about four, from leaving the egg, the birds ought to be fit +for the feather-bed, the spit, and the fire. It is not only very early +in its laying, but also very late. It often anticipates the spring in +November, and, afterward, when spring really comes in March, it cannot +resist its general influence. The autumnal eggs afford useful employment +to turkeys and hens that choose to sit at unseasonable times; and the +period of incubation is less tedious than that required for the eggs of +some other birds. + +The flight of the domestic goose is quite powerful enough, especially in +young birds, to allow them to escape in that way, where they are so +inclined. In the autumn, whole broods may be seen by early risers taking +their morning flight, and circling in the air for matutinal exercise, +just like pigeons, when first let out of their locker. The bird lives to +a very great age, sometimes seventy years or more. + +As to the origin of our domestic species, opinions differ. By some, as +already remarked, the gray-leg is regarded as the parent stock; others +consider it a mongrel, like the dunghill fowl, made up of several +varieties, to each of which it occasionally shows more or less affinity; +and yet others contend that it is not to be referred to any existing +species. The latter assert that there is really but one variety of the +domestic goose, individuals of which are found from entirely white +plumage, through different degrees of patchedness with gray, to entirely +gray coloring, except on the abdomen. + +The domestic gander is polygamous, but he is not an indiscriminate +libertine; he will rarely couple with females of any other species. +Hybrid common geese are almost always produced by the union of a wild +gander with a domestic goose, and not by the opposite. The ganders are +generally, though not invariably, white, and are sometimes called Embden +geese, from a town of Hanover. High feeding, care, and moderate warmth +will induce a prolific habit, which becomes, in some measure, +hereditary. The season of the year at which the young are hatched--and +they may be reared at any season--influences their future size and +development. After allowing for these causes of diversity, it is claimed +that the domestic goose constitutes only one species or permanent +variety. + + +THE BERNACLE GOOSE. + +This bird is sometimes called the Barnacle goose; its name originates +from the fact that it was formerly supposed to be bred from the shells +so termed, which cling to wood in the sea. It is about twenty-five +inches long, and is found wild in Europe, abundantly in the Baltic; and, +occasionally, as it is said, in Hudson's Bay, on this continent. + +This bird is one of those species in which the impulse of reproduction +has at length overcome the sullenness of captivity, and instances of +their breeding when in confinement have increased in frequency to such +an extent that hopes are entertained of the continuance of that +increase. The young so reared should be pinioned at the wrist as a +precaution. They would probably stay at home contentedly, if unpinioned, +until the approach of inclement weather, when they would be tempted to +leave their usual haunts in search of marshes, unfrozen springs, +mud-banks left by the tide, and the open sea; or they might be induced +to join a flock of wild birds, instead of returning to their former +quarters. + +Broods of five, six, and seven have been reared; but they are generally +valued as embellishments to ponds merely, their small size rendering +them suitable even for a very limited pleasure-ground, and the variety +being perhaps the prettiest geese that are thus employed. The lively +combination of black, white, gray, and lavender, gives them the +appearance of being in agreeable half-mourning. The female differs +little from the male, being distinguished by voice and deportment more +than by plumage. Their short bill, the moderate-sized webs of their +feet, and their rounded proportions, indicate an affinity with the +curious Cereopsis goose, which is found in considerable numbers on the +seashore of Sucky Bay and Goose Island, at the south-eastern point of +Australia. + +The number of eggs laid is six or seven, and the time of incubation is +about a month; it being difficult to name the exact period, from the +uncertainty respecting the precise hour when the process commences. They +are steady sitters. The young are lively and active little creatures, +running hither and thither, and tugging at the blades of grass. Their +ground color is of a dirty white; their legs, feet, eyes, and short +stump of a bill, are black; they have a gray spot on the crown of the +head, gray patches on the back and wings, and a yellowish tinge about +the forepart of the head. The old birds are very gentle in their +disposition and habits, and are less noisy than most geese. + +The service they may render as weed-eaters is important, though their +size alone precludes any comparison of them, in this respect, with the +swan. Their favorite feeding-grounds are extensive flats, partially +inundated by the higher tides; and their breeding may perhaps best be +promoted by their being furnished with a little sea-weed during winter +and early spring; a few shrimps, or small mussels, would probably not be +unacceptable. A single pair is more likely to breed than if they are +congregated in larger numbers. + + +THE BREMEN GOOSE. + +[Illustration: A BREMEN GOOSE.] + +The Bremen geese--so called from the place whence they were originally +imported, though some term them Embden geese--have been bred in this +country, pure, and to a feather, since 1821; no single instance having +occurred in which the slightest deterioration of character could be +observed. The produce has invariably been of the purest white; the bill, +legs, and feet being of a beautiful yellow. + +The flesh of this goose does not partake of that dry character which +belongs to other and more common kinds, but is as tender and juicy as +the flesh of a wild fowl; it shrinks less in cooking than that of any +other fowl. Some pronounce its flesh equal if not superior to that of +the canvas-back duck. + +They likewise sit and hatch with more certainty than common barn-yard +geese; will weigh nearly, and in some instances quite, twice the +weight--the full-blood weighing twenty pounds and upward; they have +double the quantity of feathers; and never fly. + + +THE BRENT GOOSE. + +This is a small species, twenty-one inches long, common in a wild state, +in both Europe and America. On our coast, it is a favorite game-bird, +and known by the name of _Brant_. It is easily tamed, and is said to +have produced young in captivity, though no details have been furnished. + +This and the Sandwich Island goose are the smallest of their tribe yet +introduced to our aquatic aviaries. Their almost uniform color of leaden +black, and their compactness of form, make them a striking feature in +the scene, though they cannot be compared in beauty with many other +waterfowl. There is so little difference in the sexes that it is not +easy to distinguish them. Their chief merit rests in their fondness for +water-weeds, in which respect they appear to be second only to the swan. +They are quiet, gentle and harmless in captivity. Some praise their +flesh, while others pronounce it fishy, strong, and oily; they may, +however, be converted into tolerable meat by being skinned and baked in +a pie. + + +THE CHINA GOOSE. + +[Illustration: CHINA OR HONG KONG GOOSE.] + +This bird figures under a variety of _aliases_: Knob goose, Hong Kong +goose, Asiatic goose, Swan goose, Chinese Swan Guinea goose, Polish +goose, Muscovy goose, and, probably, others. + +There is something in the aspect of this creature--in the dark-brown +stripe down its neck, its small, bright eye, its harsh voice, its +ceremonious strut, and its affectation of seldom being in a hurry--which +seems to say that it came from China. If so, it has no doubt been +domesticated for many hundred years, perhaps as long as the pea fowl or +the common fowl. They may be made to lay a large number of eggs by an +increased supply of nourishing food. If liberally furnished with oats, +boiled rice, etc., the China goose will, in the spring, lay from twenty +to thirty eggs before she begins to sit, and again in the autumn, after +her moult, from ten to fifteen more. Another peculiarity is their +deficient power of flight, compared with other geese, owing to the +larger proportionate size of their bodies. Indeed, of all geese, this is +the worst flyer; there is no occasion to pinion them; the common +domestic goose flies much more strongly. + +The prevailing color of their plumage is brown, comparable to the color +of wheat. The different shades are very harmoniously blended, and are +well relieved by the black tuberculated bill, and the pure white of the +abdomen. Their movements on the water are graceful and swan-like. Slight +variations occur in the color of the feet and legs, some having them of +a dull orange, others black; a delicate fringe of minute white feathers +is occasionally seen at the base of the bill. These peculiarities are +hereditarily transmitted. + +The male is almost as much disproportionately larger than the female as +the Musk drake is in comparison with his mate. He is much inclined to +libertine wanderings, without, however, neglecting proper attention at +home. If there is any other gander on the premises, a disagreement is +sure to result. Both male and female are, perhaps, the noisiest of all +geese; at night, the least footfall or motion in their neighborhood is +sufficient to call forth their clangor and resonant trumpetings. + +The eggs are somewhat less than those of the domestic kind, of a short +oval, with a smooth, thick shell, white, but slightly tinged with yellow +at the smaller end. The goslings, when first hatched, are usually very +strong. They are of a dirty green, like the color produced by mixing +India-ink and yellow ochre, with darker patches here and there. The legs +and feet are lead-color, but afterward change to a dull red. With good +pasturage, they require no farther attention than that bestowed by their +parents. After a time, a little grain will strengthen and forward them. +If well fed, they come to maturity very rapidly; in between three and +four months from the time of leaving the shell, they will be full-grown +and ready for food. They do not bear being shut up to fatten so well as +common geese, and, therefore, those destined for the table are the +better for profuse hand-feeding. Their flesh is well-flavored, short, +and tender; their eggs, excellent for cooking purposes. + +They are said to be a short-lived species; the ganders, at least, not +lasting more than ten or a dozen years. Hybrids between them and the +common goose are prolific with the latter; the second and third cross is +much prized by some farmers, particularly for their ganders; and in many +flocks the blood of the China goose may be traced oftentimes by the more +erect gait of the birds, accompanied by a faint stripe down the back of +the neck. With the White-grented goose they also breed freely. + +_The White-China._ These are larger than the preceding, and apparently +more terrestrial in their habits; the knob on the head is not only of +greater proportion, but of a different shape. It is of a spotless, pure +white--though a very few gray feathers occasionally appear--more +swan-like than the brown, with a bright orange-colored bill, and a large +knot of the same color at its base. It is particularly beautiful, +either in or out of the water, its neck being long, slender, and +gracefully arched when swimming. It breeds three or four times in the +season; the egg is quite small for the size of the bird, being not more +than half the size of that of the common goose. + +In many instances, efforts to obtain young from their eggs have been +unsuccessful; but if the female is supplied with the eggs of the common +goose, she invariably hatches and rears the goslings. They sit +remarkably well, never showing themselves out of the nest by day; but, +possibly, they may leave the nest too long in the cold of the night. +Some think that a quiet lake is more to their taste than a rapid running +stream, and more conducive to the fecundity of their eggs. It is also +believed by many that, under favorable circumstances, they would be very +prolific. + + +THE EGYPTIAN GOOSE. + +This species is bred to a certain extent in this country. It is a most +stately and rich bird, reminding one of the solemn antiquity of the +Nile, with its gorgeous mantle of golden hues and its long history. + +It is dark red round the eyes; red ring round the neck; white bill; neck +and breast light fawn-gray; a maroon star on the breast; belly red and +gray; half of the wing-feathers rich black, the other part of them pure +white; black bar running across the centre, back light-red, growing +dark-red toward the tail; the tail a deep black. + +They are very prolific, bringing off three broods a year, from eight to +twelve each time; their weight is about eight pounds each. + + +THE JAVA GOOSE. + +The gander of this species is white, with head and half the neck +light-fawn; red tubercle at the root of the bill; larger than the common +goose, and longer in the body; walks erect, standing as high as the +China goose, the female appearing to carry two pouches, or egg-bags, +under the belly. + +It is very prolific; and the meat is of fine flavor. + + +THE TOULOUSE GOOSE. + +This bird is said to have been originally imported from the +Mediterranean; and is known also by the names Mediterranean goose, and +Pyrenean goose. It is chiefly remarkable for its vast size, in which +respect it surpasses all others. + +Its prevailing color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and +occasionally relieved with black; the head, neck, as far as the +beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck, as far as the +shoulders, of a dark-brown; the breast slaty-blue; the belly is white, +in common with the under surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, +and the feet flesh-color. + +In habit, the Toulouse goose resembles his congeners, but seems to +possess a milder and more tractable disposition, which greatly conduces +to the chance of his early fattening, and that, too, at a little cost. +The curl of the plumage on the neck comes closer to the head than that +on common geese, and the abdominal pouch, which, in other varieties, is +an accompaniment of age, exists from the shell. The flesh is said to be +tender and well-flavored. + +Some pronounce this bird the unmixed and immediate descendant of the +Gray-leg; while others assert that it is only the common domestic, +enlarged by early hatching, very liberal feeding during youth, fine +climate, and, perhaps, by age, and style them grenadier individuals of +the domestic goose--nothing more. + + +THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. + +In its wild state, the White-fronted or Laughing goose is twenty-seven +inches long, and found in great numbers in Europe and in the North +American Fur countries, but rare along our coasts. + +When domesticated, it belongs to the class of birds which are restrained +from resuming their original wild habits more by the influence of local +and personal attachment than from any love which they seem to have for +the comforts of domestication; which may be trusted with their entire +liberty, or nearly so, but require an eye to be kept on them from time +to time, lest they stray away and assume an independent condition. The +white-fronted goose well deserves the patronage of those who have even a +small piece of grass. + +The first impression of every one, upon seeing this species in +confinement, would be that it could not be trusted with liberty; and the +sight of it exercising its wings at its first escape would make its +owner despair of recovering it. This is not, however, the case. By no +great amount of care and attention, they will manifest such a degree of +confidence and attachment as to remove all hesitation as to the future; +and they may be regarded as patterns of all that is valuable in anserine +nature--gentle, affectionate, cheerful, hardy, useful, and +self-dependent. The gander is an attentive parent, but not a faithful +spouse. + +The eggs are smaller than those of the common goose, pure white, and of +a very long oval; the shell is also thinner than in, most others; the +flesh is excellent. + + * * * * * + +Having completed the enumeration and description of the varieties of +poultry, it will, perhaps, be appropriate to give some account, before +proceeding to the next general division of the subject, of the +structure, or anatomy, so to speak, of + + +THE EGG. + +In a laying hen may be found, upon opening the body, what is called the +_ovarium_--a cluster of rudimental eggs, of different sizes, from very +minute points up to shapes of easily-distinguished forms. These +rudimental eggs have as yet no shell or white, these being exhibited in +a different stage of development; but consist wholly of _yolk_, on the +surface of which the germ of the future chicken lies. The yolk and the +germ are enveloped by a very thin membrane. + +When the rudimental egg, still attached to the ovarium, becomes longer +and larger, and arrives at a certain size, either its own weight, or +some other efficient cause, detaches it from the cluster, and makes it +fall into a sort of funnel, leading to a pipe, which is termed the +_oviduct_. + +Here the yolk of the rudimental egg, hitherto imperfectly formed, puts +on its mature appearance of a thick yellow fluid; while the rudimental +chick or embryo, lying on the surface opposite to that by which it had +been attached to the ovarium, is white, and somewhat like paste. + +The white, or _albumen_, of the egg now becomes diffused around the +yolk, being secreted from the blood vessels of the egg-pipe, or oviduct, +in the form of a thin, glassy fluid; and it is prevented from mixing +with the yolk and the embryo chicken by the thin membrane which +surrounded them before they were detached from the egg-cluster, while +it is strengthened by a second and stronger membrane, formed around the +first, immediately after falling into the oviduct. This second membrane, +enveloping the yolk of the germ of the chicken, is thickest at the two +ends, having what may be termed bulgings, termed _chalazes_ by +anatomists; these bulgings of the second membrane pass quite through the +white at the ends, and being thus, as it were, embedded in the white, +they keep the inclosed yolk and germ somewhat in a fixed position, +preventing them from rolling about within the egg when it is moved. + +The white of the egg being thus formed, a third membrane, or, rather, a +double membrane, much stronger than either of the first two, is formed +around it, becoming attached to the chalazes of the second membrane, and +tending still more to keep all the parts in their relative positions. + +During the progress of these several formations, the egg gradually +advances about half way along the oviduct. It is still, however, +destitute of the shell, which begins to be formed by a process similar +to the formation of the shell of a snail, as soon as the outer layer of +the third membrane has been completed. When the shell is fully formed, +the egg continues to advance along the oviduct, till the hen goes to her +nest and lays it. + +From ill health, or accidents, eggs are sometimes excluded from the +oviducts before the shell has begun to be formed, and in this state they +are popularly called _wind-eggs_. + +Reckoning, then, from the shell inward, there are _six_ different +envelopes, of which one only could be detected before the descent of the +egg into the oviduct: the shell; the external layer of the membrane +lining the shell; the internal layer of same lining; the white, composed +of a thinner liquid on the outside, and a thicker and more yellowish +liquid on the inside; the bulgings, or chalaziferous membrane; and the +proper membrane. + +One important part of the egg is the _air-bag_, placed at the larger +end, between the shell and its lining membrane. This is about the size +of the eye of a small bird in new-laid eggs, but is increased as much as +ten times in the process of hatching. The air bag is of such great +importance to the development of the chicken--probably by supplying it +with a limited atmosphere of oxygen--that, if the blunt end of an egg be +pierced with the point of the smallest needle, the egg cannot be +hatched. + +Instead of one rudimental egg falling from the ovarium, two may be +detected, and will, of course, be inclosed in the same shell, when the +egg will be double-yolked. The eggs of a goose have, in some instances, +contained even three yolks. If the double-yolked eggs be hatched, they +will rarely produce two separate chickens, but, more commonly, +monstrosities--chickens with two heads, and the like. + +The _shell_ of an egg, chemically speaking, consists chiefly of +carbonate of lime, similar to chalk, with a small quantity of phosphate +of lime, and animal mucus. When burnt, the animal matter and the +carbonic acid gas of the carbonate of lime are separated; the first +being reduced to ashes, or animal charcoal, while the second is +dissipated, leaving the decarbonized lime mixed with a little phosphate +of lime. + +The _white_ of the egg is without taste or smell, of a viscid, glairy +consistence, readily dissolving in water, coagulable by acids, by +spirits of wine, and by a temperature of one hundred and sixty-five +degrees, Fahrenheit. If it has once been coagulated, it is no longer +soluble in either cold or hot water, and acquires a slight insipid +taste. It is composed of eighty parts of water, fifteen and a half parts +of albumen, and four and a half parts of mucus; besides giving traces of +soda, benzoic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The latter, on an egg +being eaten on a silver spoon, stains the spoon of a blackish purple, by +combining with the silver, and forming sulphuret of silver. + +The white of the egg is a very feeble conductor of heat, retarding its +escape; and preventing its entrance to the yolk; a providential +contrivance, not merely to prevent speedy fermentation and corruption, +but to arrest the fatal chills, which might occur in hatching, when the +mother hen leaves her eggs, from time to time, in search of food. Eels +and other fish which can live long out of water, secrete a similar +viscid substance on the surface of their bodies, furnished to them, +doubtless, for a similar purpose. + +The _yolk_ has an insipid, bland, oily taste; and, when agitated with +water, forms a milky emulsion. If it is long boiled it becomes a +granular, friable solid, yielding upon expression, a yellow, insipid, +fixed oil. It consists, chemically, of water, oil, albumen, and +gelatine. In proportion to the quantity of albumen, the egg boils hard. + +The weight of the eggs of the domestic fowl varies materially; in some +breeds, averaging thirty-three ounces per dozen, in others, but fourteen +and a half ounces. A fair average weight for a dozen is twenty-two and a +half ounces. Yellow, mahogany, and salmon-colored eggs are generally +richer than white ones, containing, as they do, a larger quantity of +yolk. These are generally preferred for culinary purposes; while the +latter, containing an excess of albumen, are preferred for boiling, +etc., for the table. + + + + +[Illustration] + +BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT + + +BREEDING. Good fowls are very profitable in the keeping of intelligent +breeders. It is stated, by those most competent to express the opinion, +that four acres of land, devoted to the rearing of the best varieties of +poultry, will, at ordinary prices, be quite as productive as a farm of +one hundred and fifty acres cultivated in the usual way. The eggs of the +common and cheaper kinds which might be used for incubators and nurses, +would pay--or could be made to pay, if properly preserved, and sold at +the right time--all expenses of feed, etc.; while good capons of the +larger breeds will bring, in any of our larger markets, from three to +five dollars per pair, and early spring chickens from twenty to +twenty-five cents per pound. + +To make poultry profitable, then, it is only necessary that the better +kinds be bred from, that suitable places be provided for them, that they +be properly fed, and carefully and intelligently managed. These +requirements are too rarely complied with, in every respect, to enable a +correct opinion to be formed as to what may be made out of poultry under +the most favorable circumstances. + +A few general principles, well-understood and faithfully applied, will +prove of great value. By "in-and-in breeding" is meant commerce between +individuals of the same brood, or brother and sister, so to speak; by +"close breeding," commerce between the parent and his offspring, in +whatever degree. + +_Crossing the breed._ To insure successful and beneficial crossing of +distinct breeds, in order to produce a new and valuable variety, the +breeder must have an accurate knowledge of the laws of procreation, and +the varied influences of parents upon their offspring. All the breeds in +this country are crosses, produced either by accident or design. +Crossing does not necessarily produce a breed; but it always produces a +variety, and that variety becomes a breed only where there is a +sufficiency of stamina to make a distinctive race, and continue a +progeny with the uniform or leading characteristics of its progenitors. + +_High breeding._ When uniformity of plumage can be effected in mixed +breeds or varieties without a resort to in-and-in, or close breeding, +and without sacrificing the health and vigor of the race, it is +desirable; and, in many instances, it can be accomplished in a +satisfactory manner. What are called highly-bred fowls are, however, +too often the deteriorated offspring of progenitors far below +the original stock. Genuine high breeding consists in the selection +of parent stock of the same race, perfect in all the general +characteristics, and _of remote consanguinity_. This should be resorted +to periodically, in order to secure the best results. + +If a race is _pure_--that is, if the species or variety is absolutely +distinct and unsophisticated--the progeny resembles the progenitors in +almost every respect. The mixture of races, where the consanguinity is +remote, is productive of decided benefits. + +To illustrate, in the case of fowls: when the blood is _unmixed_--as +with the Guelderlands, and some others--the offspring, _in all +respects_, resemble their parents; in plumage, general habits, form, +outline, etc. In this case, they look almost identically the same. But +when the blood is _mixed_--as with the Cochin Chinas, and many +others--the plumage will vary widely, or slightly, according to +circumstances, though many or most of the general characteristics may +remain the same. The close breeding, to which many resort for the +purpose of procuring uniformity, generally results in an absolute +deterioration of the race in important respects. + +In some cases, close breeding--and, occasionally, in-and-in--seems to be +in accordance with the laws of Nature; as with the wild turkey, which, +in its natural state, resorts to these modes of breeding; and yet the +race does not change in appearance or degenerate. The reason is that the +breed is pure. In comparing any number of these birds, not the least +dissimilarity is discoverable; they all look alike, as they always +have, and always will. They are changed, or deteriorated, only by +crossing or confinement. + +Most breeds of the hen kind degenerate rapidly from close, or in-and-in +breeding, because they are not perfect of their kind; that is, the breed +is not pure, but of mixed blood; and in such objectionable breeding, the +race degenerates just in proportion as the breed is imperfect, or +impure. The perfect Guelderland will admit of these modes of breeding, +for a great length of time, without deterioration; but the impure or +mixed will rapidly degenerate. This is also true of all breeds, wherein +the characteristic marks are uniform and confirmed, showing perfection +in the race. + +As a general rule, however, close and in-and-in breeding should be +carefully avoided where the race is not absolutely perfect, if it is +desired to improve the breed; and as all the breeds of this kind of +fowls are of mixed blood, the danger of such breeding is greater or +less, in exact proportion as the distinctive characteristics are variant +or fixed; and the danger still increases if the breed is composed of +strains of blood greatly dissimilar, or of races widely differing in the +conformation or general habits. + +_Preserving the distinctive breeds._ As to the time when the different +breeds of hens should be separated in the spring, in order to preserve +the breed pure, the most ample experience indicates that if the eggs be +preserved and set after a separation of _two days_, the breed will be +perfect, the offspring having all the characteristics or distinctive +marks. + +When a valuable breed is produced, either by accident or design, it +should be preserved, and the subsequent breeding should continue from +that stock; otherwise, there is no certainty of the purity of the blood +of the new breed, for it does not follow that a different parentage, +though of the same name or original breed precisely, will produce the +same new breed, or any thing resembling it. The Dorking fowl, for +instance, was originally produced by crossing the Great Malay with the +English Game, as an accident; but it by no means follows that Dorkings +are the uniform, or even the common result of such a cross, for hundreds +of similar experiments have proved unsuccessful. The breeding, +therefore, to be pure-blooded, must continue from the stock originally +produced by accident; and as such breeding produces the leading +characteristics of the race with great uniformity, the genuineness of +the breed cannot be doubted. + +In order to produce a good cross, the parentage should be healthy, and +from healthy races, not materially dissimilar in their general habits. +The _size of the leg_ should always be looked to, in order to judge +accurately as to purity of blood. If the leg is large for the +breed--that is, if larger than the generality of the same breed--the +purity of the blood, the fineness of the flesh, and most of the other +valuable qualities, can be relied on; but, if the legs are smaller than +most others of the same breed, the fowl is spurious, and of deteriorated +blood. The fifth toe and feathered legs of some breeds were originally +the result of accident; but by long and careful breeding, they have +become incorporated into the nature of certain races of general, though +not universal or essential, requisites. When a fowl exhibits any special +marks indicative of all the races or breeds from which the cross +originated, it is a sure evidence of extraordinary purity of blood, and +of the superior excellence of the race. The best fowls of the race +should always be selected for crossing or general breeding; otherwise +the breeds will degenerate. + +The _quality_--that is, the fineness, juiciness, and richness of +flavor--of the flesh of domestic fowls is of much more importance than +their size. All coarse-meated fowls should, therefore, be rejected, no +matter how large they may be. There is no difficulty in discriminating +between coarse and fine fowls at any time. In the case of chickens, if +the down is straight and stands out, and the body and limbs are loosely +joined, the meat is coarse; but if the down is glossy, and lies close to +the body, and the body and limbs are compactly formed, the meat is fine; +and when grown, if the fowl is light in weight, in proportion to its +size, the flesh is coarse; but if heavy, the flesh is fine. + +There is also a _fitness_ in the quality of the flesh; for, if the meat +is fine, the bones are fine, and the feathers are fine; and the converse +holds true. If the flesh is fine, it is juicy and richly flavored; if +coarse, it is dry, fibrous, and insipid. + +The _color of the legs_, too, is quite material in judging of the +quality of fowls. All other things being equal, dark-legged fowls have +the finest flesh, and are most hardy. Turkeys, which have the finest +flesh of any fowl of their size, have black legs; the game-cock, +likewise, which is universally acknowledged to be the finest-fleshed of +any of the domestic fowls, except the Wild Indian fowl of Calcutta, has +dark legs. It does not, however, of necessity follow that all +dark-legged fowls are fine, or that all yellow or white-legged ones are +coarse, since much depends upon the breed; but it is true that the +darkest leg which pertains to the breed indicates the finest fowl. + +The _color of the feathers_, also, has more or less to do with the +quality of the fowl. Some breeds have a much more brilliant plumage than +others; but when brilliancy of plumage is here spoken of, it is to be +understood in comparison with others of the same breed. If, therefore, a +fowl is selected of rich and glossy plumage, when compared with others +of the same breed, the legs will be dark of the kind, and the quality of +the bird will excel. + +The _best_ breeding is to cross or mix the races; this process improves +the breeds, in all respects. When the object in view is to perpetuate +distinct varieties of uncontaminated blood, the first requisite is to +procure fowls known to be of pure blood, and possessing all the +necessary characteristics of their kind. Labor is lost, unless the fowl +selected is a perfect specimen of the variety; for whatever imperfection +exists is likely to be perpetuated in the progeny. Regard should be had +to plumage, size, and form, in making a selection either of a cock or a +pullet; and those are preferable which are hatched earliest in the year. +The _age_ of the fowls is a matter of considerable importance; and, +though it is true that a pullet will lay the greatest number of eggs in +her first year, yet it is believed that the chickens which are hatched +from the second year's eggs are more vigorous and hardy. Old hens are +generally preferred to pullets as sitters, on account of their more +sedate and matronly character. A young cock, though more active in his +earliest days, and likely to bestow his attention on the hens with less +reserve, is not, however, best for use in keeping up a breed. The eggs +impregnated by him after his first season are likely to produce the +strongest chickens. It is an error to suppose--as is often +represented--that his procreative power is decayed or vitiated after +three or four years. On the contrary, a healthy, vigorous cock, if not +allowed to walk with too many hens, may be valuable and useful in the +poultry-yard for a longer time. + +An error is often committed by assigning too many hens to one cock; and +the result is a weakly and otherwise deteriorated progeny. Not more than +_five_ hens should be allowed to associate with a single cock, when the +quality of the breed is a matter of interest. _Three_, indeed, would be +the better number for restriction; but five is the farthest limit which +can be safely assigned. + +Most persons, in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen of a desirable +variety, find their anticipations more than realized in the production +of a fine progeny. The plumage is brilliant, and the chickens are of +increased size, and remarkably strong and healthy. This desirable state +of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number +of hens; but as soon as his harem is enlarged, different effects +are manifested, and a deterioration in the stock is clearly +observable--attributable, not to close-breeding, but to the increased +disproportion of the females to the male, and the consequent overtasking +of his powers. + +In breeding-time, great cleanliness should be preserved in the lodgings +of the fowls, and the quantity and quality of food should be attended +to. They should not be suffered to feed to repletion, and such kinds of +food as are most nutritious should be carefully provided. Variety of +food is essential; and a proper proportion of animal and green food +should be given with their usual fare. Suitable arrangements should, of +course, be made to prevent any intermixture of breeds. A constant +vigilance in this respect is the price of success; and when all proper +precautions are taken, the breeder may be perfectly secure that his +anticipations will be realized. + + +SELECTION OF STOCK. + +The habits of the domestic fowl, in a wild state, are too little known +to ascertain whether the cocks always associate with the hens, or only +occasionally. Though hens will lay some eggs without pairing, as this is +not natural, the number will, for the most part, be less, and the laying +uncertain; it is, therefore, indispensable to attend to the laws of +Nature in this respect. + +The number of hens to be allowed to one cock should vary with the object +in view. The limit for valuable breeding purposes has already been +indicated. If profit is sought for, in the production of eggs alone, one +cock--if a stout, young, and lively bird--may have as many as +twenty-four hens. + +[Illustration: FIGHTING COCKS.] + +_The choice of a cock_ is a very important thing. He is considered to +have every requisite quality when he is of a good middling size; carries +his head high; has a quick, animated look; a strong and shrill voice; a +fine red comb, shining as if varnished; wattles of a large size, and of +the same color as the comb; the breast broad; the wings strong; the +plumage black or of an obscure red; the thighs very muscular; the legs +thick, and furnished with strong spurs; and the claws rather bent and +sharply pointed. He ought, also, to be free in his motions, to crow +frequently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so +much for himself as to treat his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, +spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens; quick in defending +them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and +in assembling them at night. + +In breeding _game cocks_, the qualities required are every mark of +perfect health, such as a ruddy complexion; the feathers close, short, +and not feeling cold or dry; the flesh firm and compact; and a full +breast, betokening good lungs; a tapering and thinness behind. He should +be full in the girth, well coupled, lofty and aspiring, with a good +thigh, the beam of his leg very strong, the eye large and vivid, and the +beak strong, crooked, and thick at the base. + +A cock is in his prime at two years old; though cocks are sometimes so +precocious as to show every mark of full vigor at four months, while +others of the same brood do not appear in that state for several months +afterward. When marks of declining vigor are perceived, the cock must be +displaced, to make way for a successor, which should be chosen from +among the finest and bravest of the supernumerary young cocks, that +ought to be reared for this special purpose. + +The change of cocks is of much importance, and is frequently very +troublesome to manage; for peace does not long subsist between them when +they hold a divided dominion in the poultry-yard, since they are all +actuated by a restless, jealous, hasty, fiery, ardent disposition; and +hence their quarrels become no less frequent than sanguinary. A battle +soon succeeds to provocation or affront. The two opponents face each +other, their feathers bristling up, their necks stretched out, their +heads low, and their beaks ready for the onslaught. They observe each +other in silence, with fixed and sparkling eyes. On the least motion of +either, they stand stiffly up, and rush furiously forward, dashing at +each other with beak and spur in repeated sallies, till the more +powerful or the more adroit has grievously torn the comb and wattles of +his adversary, has thrown him down by the heavy stroke of his wings, or +has stabbed him with his spurs. + +In _the choice of a hen_ for sitting, a large bird should be selected, +with large, wide-spreading wings. Though large, she must not, however, +be heavy nor leggy. No one of judgment would sit a Malay; as, in such +case, not only would many eggs remain uncovered, but many, also, would +be trampled upon and broken. Elderly hens will be more willing to sit +than young and giddy pullets. + +After the common hen, which, on account of her fecundity, is deservedly +esteemed, the tufted hens may be justly ranked; particularly from being +more delicate eating, because she fattens more readily, on account of +laying less. The large breed, though less prolific, is preferable in +rearing chickens for the market, or for making capons. With regard to +these three kinds, the general opinion of breeders is, that the first is +more prolific in the number of eggs, while the others produce larger +chickens, which bring good prices. + +The Spanish fowl are not generally good sitters, but are excellent +layers; the Dorkings reverse the order, being better sitters than +layers. These qualities will be found to extend pretty generally to hens +partaking of the prevailing colors of these two varieties; the black +being usually the best layers, and but careless or indifferent sitters, +while gray or checkered hens are the best that can be produced. + + +FEEDING. + +Experiments have demonstrated that what may be called the gastric juice +in fowls has not sufficient power to dissolve their food, without the +aid of the grinding action of the gizzard. Before the food is prepared +for digestion, therefore, the grains must be subjected to a triturating +process; and such as are not sufficiently bruised in this manner, before +passing into the gizzard, are there reduced to the proper state, by its +natural action. The action of the gizzard is, in this respect, +mechanical; this organ serving as a mill to grind the food to pieces, +and then, by means of its powerful muscles, pressing it gradually into +the intestines, in the form of pulp. The power of this organ is said to +be sufficient to pulverize hollow globules of glass in a very short +time, and solid masses of the same substance in a few weeks. The +rapidity of this process seems to be proportionate, generally, to the +size of the bird. A chicken, for example, breaks up such substances as +are received into its stomach less readily than the capon; while a goose +performs the same operation sooner than either. Needles, and even +lancets, given to turkeys, have been broken in pieces and voided, +without any apparent injury to the stomach. The reason, undoubtedly, is, +that the larger species of birds have thicker and more powerful organs +of digestion. + +It has long been the general opinion that, from some deficiency in the +digestive apparatus, fowls are obliged to resort to the use of stones +and gravel, in order to enable them to dispose of the food which they +consume. Some have supposed that the use of these stones is to sheath +the gizzard, in order to fit it to break into smaller fragments the +hard, angular substances which might be swallowed; they have also been +considered to have a medicinal effect; others have imagined that they +acted as absorbents for undue quantities of acids in the stomach, or as +stimulants to digestion; while it has even been gravely asserted that +they contribute directly to nutrition. + +Repeated experiments, however, have established that pebbles are not at +all necessary to the trituration of the hardest kinds of substances +which can be introduced into their stomachs; and, of course, the usual +food of fowls can be bruised without their aid. They do, however, serve +a useful auxiliary purpose. When put in motion by the muscles, they are +capable of producing some effects upon the contents of the stomach; thus +assisting to grind down the grain, and separating its parts, the +digestive fluid, or gastric juice, comes more readily in contact with +it. + +VARIETIES OF FOOD. Fowls about a poultry-yard can usually pick up a +portion of their subsistence, and, under favorable circumstances, the +largest portion. When so situated, the keeping of poultry pays decidedly +the best. The support even of poultry not designed for fattening should +not, however, be made to depend entirely upon such precarious resources. +Fowls should be fed with punctuality, faithfulness, and discretion. + +They are fond of all sorts of grain--such as Indian corn, wheat, oats, +rye, buckwheat, barley, millet, etc.; but their particular preferences +are not so likely to guide in the selection of their food, as the +consideration of what is most economical, and easiest to be procured on +the part of their owner. They will readily eat most kinds of vegetables +in their green state, both cooked and raw. They likewise manifest an +inclination for animal food--such as blood, fish, and flesh--whether raw +or otherwise; and seem by no means averse to feeding on their own +species. Insects, worms, and snails they will take with avidity. + +It is usual to give to domestic fowls a quantity of grain once, at +least, daily; but, commonly, in less quantity than they would consume, +if unrestricted. They feed with great voracity; but their apparent +greediness is not the criterion by which the possibility of satisfying +them is to be judged. Moderate quantities of food will suffice; and the +amount consumed will usually be proportioned to the size of the +individuals. Whatever is cheapest, at any given time, may be given, +without regard to any other considerations. Different circumstances and +different seasons may occasion a variation in their appetite; but a gill +of grain is, generally speaking, about the usual daily portion. Some +very voracious fowls, of the largest size, will need the allowance of a +third of a pint each day. + +_Wheat_ is the most nutritive of cereal grains--with, perhaps, the +exception of rice--as an article of human food. It is, therefore, +natural to suppose that it is the best for fowls; and the avidity with +which they eat it would induce the conclusion that they would eat more +of this than of any other grain. Yet it appears that when fowls have as +much wheat as they can consume, they will eat about a fourth part less +than of oats, barley, or buckwheat; the largest quantity of wheat eaten +by a fowl in one day being, according to several experiments, about +three-sixteenths of a pint. The difference in bulk is, however, +compensated by the difference in weight, these three-sixteenths of wheat +weighing more than one-fourth of a pint of oats. The difference in +weight is not, in every instance, the reason why a fowl is satisfied +with a larger or smaller measure of one sort than another. _Rye_ weighs +less than wheat; but still a fowl will be satisfied with half the +quantity of this grain. _Indian corn_ ranks intermediately between wheat +and rye; five-fourths of a pint of Indian corn with fowls being found, +by experiment, equal to six-fourths of wheat, and three-fourths of rye. + +In estimating the quantity of grain daily consumed by the common fowl, +it is wise to use data a little above than below the average. It may, +therefore, safely be said that a fowl of the common size, having free +access to as much as can be eaten through the day, will consume, day by +day, of oats, buckwheat, or barley, one-fourth of a pint; of wheat, +three-sixteenths; of Indian corn, five thirty-seconds; and of rye, three +thirty-seconds. + +It has been conclusively settled, by experiments instituted to that end, +that there is the best economy in feeding poultry with _boiled_ grain +rather than with dry, in every case where Indian corn, barley, and wheat +can be procured. The expense of fuel, and the additional trouble +incident to the process of cooking, are inconsiderable in comparison +with the advantages derived. Where oats, buckwheat, or rye are used, +boiling is useless, when profit is concerned. + +BRAN. It is an erroneous notion that money can be saved by feeding bran +to fowls; since, then, so little of the farina of the grain remains in +it, that the nourishment derived from its use is hardly worth +mentioning. When boiled, as it always must be, its bulk is but slightly +increased. Two measures of dry bran, mixed with water, are equal to but +three-fifths of a measure of dry barley. + +MILLET. This is recommended as excellent food for young chickens. Fowls +always prefer it raw; though, as its bulk is increased one-half by +boiling, it is doubtless more economical to feed it cooked. + +RICE. Fowls are especially fond of this food, although they soon lose +their relish for it when allowed to have it at their discretion. It +should always be boiled; but its expense puts it out of the question as +a daily diet. When used continuously, it should always be mixed with +some substance containing less nutritive matter, in order that the +appetite may not be cloyed by it. + +POTATOES. These are very nutritious, and are usually acceptable to +fowls, when properly prepared. When raw, or in a cold state, they appear +to dislike them; they should, therefore, be boiled and given when +moderately hot; when very hot, it is said that fowls will injure +themselves by eating them, and burning their mouths. They should also be +broken into pieces of convenient size; otherwise, they will be avoided. +Occasionally raw pieces of potato will be devoured; but fowls cannot be +said to be fond of the root in this state. The same remark applies to +most other roots, especially to _carrots_ and _parsnips_; these should +always be prepared, in order to be wholesome and palatable. Fowls should +never be confined to a root diet, in any case; but such food should be +mingled or alternated with a sufficient quantity of grain. + +GREEN FOOD. Indulgence in this kind of diet is absolutely necessary to +the health of fowls, and is also advantageous in an economical point of +view. The more delicate kinds of green vegetables are eaten with the +utmost avidity; all succulent weeds, grass, and the leaves of trees and +shrubs will also be consumed. If hens have green plots to graze in +during the day, the expense of their keeping will be reduced one-half. +All the refuse of the kitchen, of a vegetable nature, should be freely +thrown into the poultry-yard. + +Green food, however, will not answer for an exclusive diet. Experiment +has shown that fowls fed with this food alone for a few days together +exhibit severe symptoms of relaxation of the bowels; and, after the +lapse of eight or nine days, their combs become pale and livid, which is +the same indication of disease in them that paleness of the lips is in +the human species. + +EARTH-WORMS. These are regarded as delicacies by the inhabitants of the +poultry-yard; and the individual who is fortunate enough to capture one +is often forced to undergo a severe ordeal in order to retain his +captive. Earth-worms are more plentiful in moist land, such as pastures, +etc., than in that which is cultivated; in gardens, also, they exist in +vast numbers. When it is desirable to take worms in quantities, it is +only necessary to thrust a stake or three-pronged fork into the ground, +to the depth of about a foot, and to move it suddenly backward and +forward, in order to shake the soil all around; the worms are +instinctively terrified by any motion in the ground, and, when +disturbed, hasten to the surface. + +It is advisable to store worms, on account of the trouble and difficulty +of making frequent collections. They may be placed in casks, filled +one-third full with earth, in quantities at least equal in bulk to the +earth. The earth should be sprinkled occasionally, to prevent it from +becoming too dry. Care should, however, be exercised that the earth does +not become too moist; since, in such an event, the worms will perish. In +rainy weather, the casks should be protected with a covering. + +ANIMAL FOOD. Fowls readily eat both fish and flesh meat, and have no +reluctance to feeding even on their own kind, picking much more +faithfully than quadrupeds. Blood of any kind is esteemed by them a +delicacy; and fish, even when salted, is devoured with a relish. They +seem to be indifferent whether animal food is given to them in a cooked +or raw state; though, if any preference can be detected, it is for the +latter. They are sometimes so greedy that they will attack each other in +order to taste the blood which flows from the wounds so inflicted; and +it is quite common for them, in the moulting season, to gratify +themselves by picking at the sprouting feathers on their own bodies and +those of their companions. They appear to be partial to suet and fat; +but they should not be allowed to devour these substances in large +quantities, on account of their tendency to render them inconveniently +fat. + +It is highly advantageous to fowls to allow them a reasonable quantity +of animal food for their diet, which should be fed to them in small +pieces, both for safety and convenience. Bones and meat may be boiled; +and the liquor, when mixed with bran or meal, is healthy, and not +expensive. + +INSECTS. Fowls have a decided liking to flies, beetles, grasshoppers, +and crickets; and grubs, caterpillars, and maggots are held by them in +equal esteem. It is difficult, however, to supply the poultry-yard with +this species of food in sufficient quantity; but enough may be provided, +probably, to serve as luxuries. Some recommend that pailfuls of blood +should be thrown on dunghills, where fowls are allowed to run, for the +purpose of enticing flies to deposit their eggs; which, when hatched, +produce swarms of maggots for the fowls. With the same view, any sort of +garbage or offal may be thrown out, if the dunghill is so situated--as +it always should be--that its exhalations will not prove an annoyance. + + +LAYING. + +The ordinary productiveness of a single individual of the family of +domestic fowls is astonishing. While few hens are capable of hatching +more than fifteen eggs, and are incapable usually of sitting more than +twice in the year, frequent instances have occurred of hens laying three +hundred eggs annually, while two hundred is the average number. Some +hens are accustomed to lay at longer intervals than others. The habit of +one variety is to lay once in three days only; others will lay every +other day; and some produce an egg daily. The productiveness of hens +depends, undoubtedly, upon circumstances, to a great degree. Climate has +a great influence in this respect; and their lodging and food, as well +as the care bestowed upon them, have more or less effect in promoting or +obstructing their fecundity. + +[Illustration: ON THE WATCH.] + +There seems to be, naturally, two periods of the year in which fowls +lay--early in the spring, and in the summer; and this fact would seem +to indicate that, if they were left to themselves, like wild birds, they +would bring forth two broods in a year. The laying continues, with few +interruptions, till the close of summer, when the natural process of +moulting causes them to cease. This annual process commences about +August, and continues through the three following months. The +constitutional effect attending the beginning, continuance, and +consequences of this period--a very critical one in the case of all +feathered animals--prevents them from laying, until its very close, when +the entire coat of new feathers replaces the old, the washing of the +nutritive juices, yielded by the blood for the express purpose of +promoting this growth, is a great drain upon the system; and the +constitutional forces, which would otherwise assist in forming the egg, +are rendered inoperative. The approach of cold weather, also, at the +close of the moulting period, contributes to the same result. As the +season of moulting is every year later, the older the hen is, the later +in the spring she will begin to lay. As pullets, on the contrary, do not +moult the first year, they commence laying sooner than the elder hens; +and it is possible, by judicious and careful management, so to arrange, +in a collection of poultry tolerably numerous, as to have eggs +throughout the year. It is a singular fact that pullets hatched very +late in autumn, and therefore of stunted growth, will lay nearly as +early as those hatched in spring. The checking of their growth seems to +have a tendency to produce eggs; of course, very tiny ones at first. + +When a hen is near to the time of laying, her comb and wattles change +from their previous dull hue to a bright red, while the eye becomes more +bright, the gait more spirited, and she occasionally cackles for three +or four days. These signs rarely prove false; and when the time comes +that she desires to lay, she appears very restless, going backward and +forward, visiting every nook and corner, cackling meanwhile, as if +displeased because she cannot suit herself with a convenient nest. Not +having looked out for one previously, she rarely succeeds in pleasing +herself till the moment comes when she can no longer tarry, when she is +compelled to choose one of the boxes or baskets provided for this +purpose in the poultry-house, where she settles herself in silence and +lays. + +In some instances, a hen will make choice of a particular nest in which +to lay, and when she finds, upon desiring to lay, that this is +pre-occupied by another hen, she will wait till it is vacated; but, in +other cases, hens will go into any nest which they find, preferring, for +the most part, those having the greatest number of eggs. The process of +laying is, most probably, rather painful, though the hen does not +indicate this by her cries; but the instant she has done she leaves the +nest, and utters her joy by peculiarly loud notes, which are re-echoed +by the cock, as well as by some of the other hens. Some hens, however, +leave the nest in silence, after laying. + +It seems ever to have been an object of great importance, in an +economical point of view, to secure the laying of hens during those +parts of the year when, if left to themselves, they are indisposed to +deposit their eggs. For this purpose many methods have been devised, the +most of which embrace an increase of rich and stimulating food. Some +recommend shutting hens up in a warm place during winter, and giving +them boiled potatoes, turnips, carrots, and parsnips. Others assign as +the reason for their not laying in winter, in some climates, that the +earth is covered with snow, so that they can find no ground, or other +calcareous matter, to form the shells; and advise, therefore, that bones +of meat or poultry should be pounded and given to them, either mixed +with their food, or by itself, which they will greedily eat. Upon the +whole, it would seem that the most feasible means of obtaining fresh +eggs during the winter is to have young hens--pullets hatched only the +previous spring being the best--to use extreme liberality in feeding, +and to cautiously abstain from over-stocking the poultry-yard. + +As serviceable _food_ to increase laying, scraps of animal food, given +two or three times a week, answer admirably; the best mode of doing so +is throwing down a bullock's liver, leaving it with them, and permitting +them to pick it at will; this is better raw than boiled. Lights, or +guts, or any other animal refuse, will be found to answer the same +purpose; but these substances require, or, at all events, are better +for, boiling. Cayenne pepper--in fact all descriptions of pepper, but +especially cayenne pepper in pods--is a favorite food with fowls; and, +being a powerful stimulant, it promotes laying. + +An abundant supply of lime, in some form, should not be omitted; either +chopped bones, old mortar, or a lump of chalky marl. The shell of every +egg used in the house should be roughly crushed and thrown down to the +hens, which will greedily eat them. A green, living turf will be of +service, both for its grass and the insects it may contain. A +dusting-place, wherein to get rid of vermin, is indispensable. A daily +hot meal of potatoes, boiled as carefully as for the family table, then +chopped, and sprinkled or mixed with bran, will be comfortable and +stimulating. After every meal of the household, the bones and other +scraps should be collected and thrown out. + +As to _the number of eggs_, the varieties which possess the greatest +fecundity are the Shanghaes, Guelderlands, Dorkings, Polish, and +Spanish. The Poland and Spanish lay the largest eggs; the Dorkings, eggs +of good size; while the Game and the smaller kinds produce only small +eggs. Those eggs which have the brightest yolks are the finest flavored; +and this is usually the case with the smaller kinds. The large eggs of +the larger varieties often have yolks of a pale color, and are inferior +in flavor. + + +PRESERVATION OF EGGS. + +Eggs, after being laid, lose daily, by transpiration, a portion of the +matter which they contain, notwithstanding the compact texture of their +shell, and of the close tissue of the flexible membranes lining the +shell, and enveloping the white. When an egg is fresh, it is full, +without any vacancy; and this is a matter of common observation, whether +it be broken raw, or when it is either soft or hard-boiled. In all stale +eggs, on the contrary, there is uniformly more or less vacancy, +proportioned to the loss they have sustained by transpiration; hence, +in order to judge of the freshness of an egg, it is usual to hold it up +to the light, when the transparency of the shell makes it appear whether +or not there is any vacancy in the upper portion, as well as whether the +yolk and white are mingled and muddy, by the rotting and bursting of +their enveloping membranes. + +The transpiration of eggs, besides, is proportional to the temperature +in which they are placed, cold retarding and heat promoting the process; +hence, by keeping fresh-lain eggs in a cool cellar, or, better still, in +an ice-house, they will transpire less, and be preserved for a longer +period sound, than if they are kept in a warm place, or exposed to the +sun's light, which has also a good effect in promoting the exhalation of +moisture. As, therefore, fermentation and putridity can only take place +by communication with the air at a moderate temperature, such connection +must be excluded by closing the pores of the shell. + +It is an indispensable condition of the material used for this purpose, +that it shall be incapable of being dissolved by the moisture transpired +from the interior. Spirits of wine varnish, made with lac, answers the +requirement; this is not very expensive, but is rather an uncommon +article in country places, where eggs are most abundantly produced. + +A better material is a mixture of mutton and beef suet, which should be +melted together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth +into an earthen pan. The chief advantage in the use of this is, that the +eggs rubbed over with it will boil as quickly as if nothing had been +done to them, the fat melting off as soon as they touch the water. The +transpiration is as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat as +by a thick coating, provided that no sensible vestige be left on the +surface of the shell. All sorts of fat, grease, or oil are well adapted +to this purpose; by means of butter, hog's lard, olive oil, and similar +substances, eggs maybe preserved for nine months as fresh as the day +upon which they were laid. + +Another method is, to dip each egg into melted pork-lard, rubbing it +into the shell with the finger, and pack them in old fig-drums, or +butter firkins, setting every egg upright, with the small end downward. +Or, the eggs may be packed in the same way in an upright earthen pan; +then cut some rough sheep's tallow, procured the same day that the +animal is killed, into small pieces, and melt it down; strain it from +the scraps, and pour it while warm, not hot, over the eggs in the jar +till they are completely covered. When all is cold and firm, set the +vessel in a cool, dry place till the contents are wanted. + +Eggs will also keep well when preserved in salt, by arranging them in a +barrel, first a layer of salt, then a layer of eggs, alternately. This +can, however, also act mechanically, like bran or saw-dust, so long as +the salt continues dry; for, in that case, the chlorine, which is the +antiseptic principle of the salt, is not evolved. When the salt, +however, becomes damp, its preservative principle will be brought into +action, and may penetrate through the pores of the shell. + +Immersing eggs in vitriol, or sulphuric acid, is likewise a very +effectual means of preserving them; the sulphuric acid acts chemically +upon the carbonate of lime in the shell, by setting free the carbonic +acid gas, while it unites with the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, or +plaster of Paris. Another method is, to mix together a bushel of +quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, +adding a sufficient quantity of water, so that eggs may be plunged into +the paint. When a paste is made of this consistence, the eggs are put +into it, and may be kept fresh, it is said, for two years. + +Another method of preserving eggs a long while fresh, depends upon a +very different principle. Eggs that have not been rendered reproductive +by the cock have been found to continue very uncorrupted. In order, +therefore, to have eggs keep fresh from spring to the middle or even to +the end of Winter, it is only necessary to deprive the hens of all +communication with the cocks, for at least a month before the eggs are +put away. + +It ought not to be overlooked, in this connection, that eggs not only +spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation +of their contents, in consequence of air penetrating through the pores +of the shell, but also by being moved about and jostled, when carried to +a distance by sea or land. Any kind of rough motion, indeed, ruptures +the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the +chicken in their appropriate places; and, upon these being mixed, +putrefaction is promoted. + + +CHOICE OF EGGS FOR SETTING. + +Eggs for hatching should be as fresh as possible; if laid the very same +day, so much the better. This is not always possible when a particular +stock is required; but, if a numerous and healthy brood is all that is +wanted, the most recent eggs should be selected. Eggs may be kept for +this purpose in either of the ways first mentioned; or they may be +placed on their points in a box, in a cool, dry place; the temperature +about sixty or sixty-five, Fahrenheit; the bottom of the box should be +covered with a layer of wheat bran, then a layer of eggs put in, and +covered with bran; and so on, alternating. In this mode, evaporation is +prevented, and the eggs are almost as certain to hatch out, at the end +of six weeks, or even two months, as when they were laid. + +It is difficult to fix the exact term during which the vitality of an +egg remains unextinguished; as it, unquestionably, varies from the very +first, according to the vigor of the parents of the inclosed germ, and +fades away gradually till the final moment of non-existence. The +chickens in stale eggs have not sufficient strength to extricate +themselves from the shell; if assisted, the yolk is found to be +partially absorbed into the abdomen, or not at all; they are too faint +to stand; the muscles of the neck are unable to lift their heads, much +less to peck; and although they may sometimes be saved by extreme care, +their usual fate is to be trampled to death by the mother, if they do +not expire almost as soon as they begin to draw their breath. +Thick-shelled eggs, like those of geese, Guinea fowls, etc., will retain +life longer than thin-shelled ones, as those of hens and ducks. When +choice eggs are expected to be laid, it is more prudent to have the hen +which is to sit upon them wait for them, than to keep other eggs waiting +for her. A good sitter may be amused for two or three weeks with a few +addle-eggs, and so be ready to take charge of those of value immediately +upon their arrival. + +As to the choice of eggs for hatching, such should be taken, of course, +as are believed to have been rendered productive. Those of medium +size--the average size that the hen lays--are most apt to fulfil this +requirement. A very fair judgment may be formed of eggs from their +specific gravity; such as do not sink to the bottom in a bowl of tepid +water should be rejected. + +The old-time notion, that small, round eggs produce females, and long, +pointed ones males--originally applied, by the ancients, to eating +rather than hatching purposes--may be considered exploded. The hen that +lays one round egg, continues to lay all her eggs round; and the hen +that lays one oblong, lays all oblong. According to this theory, then, +one hen would be the perpetual mother of cocks, and another the +perpetual producer of pullets; which is absurd, as daily experience +proves. + +The same fate has been meted out to that other venerable test of sex, +the position of the air-bag at the blunt end of the shell. "If the +vacancy is a little on one side, it will produce a hen; if it is exactly +in the centre, a cock." Upon this assumption, the cock should be a very +rare bird; since there are very few eggs indeed in which the air bottle +is exactly concentric with the axis of the egg. In many breeds, on the +contrary, the cockerels bear a proportion of at least one-third, and +sometimes two-thirds, especially in those hatched during winter, or in +unfavorable seasons; the immediate cause, doubtless, being that the eggs +producing a more robust sex possess a stronger vitality. + +Nor are these two alleged tests--the shape of the egg, and the position +of the air-tube--consistent with each other; for, if the round egg +produces a pullet, and an egg with the air-bag a little on one side does +the same, then all round eggs should have the air bag in that position, +or one test contradicts the other; and the same argument applies to the +long or oval egg. The examination of a few eggs by the light of a candle +will satisfy any one that the position of the air-bag differs as much +in a long egg as it does in a round. + +There are, indeed, no known means of determining beforehand the sex of +fowl; except, perhaps, that cocks may be more likely to issue from large +eggs, and hens from small ones. As, however, the egg of each hen may be +recognized, the means are accessible of propagating from those parents +whose race it is judged most desirable to continue. + + +INCUBATION. + +The hen manifests the desire of incubation in a manner different from +that of any other known bird. Nature having been sufficiently tasked in +one direction, she becomes feverish, and loses flesh; her comb is livid; +her eyes are dull; she bristles her feathers to intimidate an imaginary +enemy; and, as if her chickens were already around her, utters the +maternal "cluck." + +When the determination to sit becomes fixed--it is not necessary to +immediately gratify the first faint inclinations--the nest which she has +selected should be well cleaned, and filled with fresh straw. The number +of eggs to be allowed will depend upon the season, and upon the size of +egg and hen. The wisest plan is not to be too greedy; the number of +chickens hatched is often in inverse proportion to the number of eggs +set--five have only been obtained from sixteen. An odd number is, +however, to be preferred, as being better adapted to covering in the +nest. Hens will, in general, well cover from eleven to thirteen eggs +laid by themselves. A bantam may be trusted with about half a dozen eggs +of a large breed, such as the Spanish. A hen of the largest size as a +Dorking, will successfully hatch, at the most, five goose-eggs. + +When hens are determined to sit at seasons of the year at which there is +little chance of bringing up chickens, the eggs of ducks or geese may be +furnished her; the young may be reared, with a little painstaking, at +any time of the year. The autumnal laying of the China and of the common +goose is very valuable for this purpose. Turkey-hens frequently have +this fit of unseasonable incubation. + +Where, however, it is inconvenient to gratify the desire, one or two +doses of jalap will often entirely remove it; and fowls often lay in +three weeks afterward. Some place the would-be sitter in an aviary, for +four or five days at most, and feed her but sparingly; from the +commencement of her confinement, she will gradually leave off clucking, +and when this has ceased, she may be again set free, without manifesting +the least desire to take to the nest again, and in a short time the hen +will commence laying with renewed vigor. The barbarous measures +sometimes resorted to should be frowned upon by every person with humane +feelings. + +Three weeks is the period of incubation; though chickens are sometimes +excluded on the eighteenth day. When the hen does not sit close for the +first day or two, or in early spring, it will occasionally be some hours +longer; when the hen is assiduous, and the weather hot, the time will be +a trifle shorter. Chickens have been known to come out as late as the +twenty-seventh day. + +It may not be uninteresting to note the changes which the egg passes +through in hatching. In _twelve hours_, traces of the head and body of +the chicken may be discerned; at the end of the _second day_, it +assumes the form of a horse-shoe, but no red blood as yet is seen; at +the _fiftieth hour_, two vesicles of blood, the rudiments of the heart, +may be distinguished, one resembling a noose folded down on itself, and +pulsating distinctly; at the end of _seventy hours_, the wings may be +seen, and, in the head, the brain and the bill, in the form of bubbles; +toward the end of the _fourth day_, the heart is more completely formed; +and on the _fifth day_, the liver is discernible; at the end of _one +hundred and thirty hours_, the first voluntary motions may be observed; +in _seven hours_ more, the lungs and stomach appear; and, _in four +hours_ after this, the intestines, the loins, and the upper jaw. At the +end of the one _hundred and forty-fourth hour_, two drops of blood are +observable in the heart, which is also further developed; and, on the +_seventh day_, the brain exhibits some consistence. At the _one hundred +and ninetieth hour_, the bill opens, and the muscular flesh appears on +the breast; in _four hours_ more, the breast bone is seen; and, in _six +hours_ afterward, the ribs may be observed forming from the back. At the +expiration of _two hundred and thirty-six hours_, the bill assumes a +green color, and, if the chicken be taken out of the egg, it will +visibly move. At _two hundred and sixty-four hours_, the eyes appear; at +_two hundred and eighty-eight hours_, the ribs are perfect; and _at +three hundred and thirty-one hours_, the spleen approaches near to the +stomach, and the lungs to the chest; at the end of _three hundred and +fifty-five hours_, the bill frequently opens and shuts. At the end of +the _eighteenth day_, the first cry of the chicken is heard; and it +gradually acquires more strength, till it is enabled to release itself +from confinement. + +After the hen has set a week, the fertility of the eggs may be +satisfactorily ascertained by taking a thin board with a small orifice +in it, placing a candle at the back, and holding up each egg to the +points of light. The barren eggs may then be removed, and used, +hard-boiled, for young chickens. Some reserve this for the eleventh or +twelfth day. + +About the _twenty-first day_, the chicken is excluded from the _egg_; +for the purpose of breaking the shell of which it is furnished with a +horny-pointed scale, greatly harder than the bill itself, at the upper +tip of the bill--a scale which falls off, or becomes absorbed, after the +chicken is two or three days old. The chicken is rolled up in the egg in +the form of a ball, with its forepart toward the highest end, and its +beak uppermost, the hard scale nearly touching the shell. + +The first few strokes of the chicken's beak produce a small crack, +rather nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg, and the egg is +said to be _chipped_. From the first crack, the chicken turns gradually +round, from left to right, chipping the shell as it turns, in a circular +manner, never obliquely. All do not succeed in producing the result in +the same time; some being able to complete the work within an hour, and +others taking two or three hours, while half a day is most usually +employed, and some require twenty-four hours or more, but rarely two +days. Some have greater obstacles to overcome than others, all shells +not being alike in thickness and hardness. + +When chickens do not effect their escape easily, some little assistance +is needed; but the difficulty is to know when to give it, as a rash +attempt to help them, by breaking the shell, particularly in a downward +direction toward the smaller end, is often followed by a loss of blood, +which can ill be spared. It is better not to interfere, until it is +apparent that a part of the brood have been hatched for some time, say +twelve hours, and that the rest cannot succeed in making their +appearance. It will then generally be found that the whole fluid +contents of the egg, yolk and all, are taken up into the body of the +chicken, and that weakness alone has prevented its forcing itself out. +The causes of such weakness are various; sometimes, insufficient warmth, +from the hen having set on too many eggs; sometimes the original +feebleness of the vital spark; but, most frequently, the staleness of +the eggs employed for incubation. + +The chances of rearing such chickens are small; but, if they survive the +first twenty-four hours, they may be considered as safe. The only thing +to be done is to take them from the hen till she is settled at night, +keeping them in the meanwhile as snug and warm as possible. If a gentle +hand can persuade a crust of bread down their throats, it will do no +harm; but all rough and clumsy manipulation will utterly defeat the end +in view. Animal heat will be their greatest restorative. At night, they +should be quietly slipped under their mother; the next morning will +disclose the sequel. + +The period of incubation in the _Guinea fowl_ is twenty-eight days, or +one month; in the _pea fowl_, from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days; in +_turkeys_, a month; in _ducks_, thirty or thirty-one days; and in +_geese_, from twenty-seven to thirty days. + +INCUBATION OF TURKEYS. When the turkey hen has once selected a spot for +her nest, she will continue to lay there till the time for incubation; +so that the egg may be brought home from day to day, there being no +need of a nest-egg, as with the domestic fowl. She will lay from fifteen +to twenty eggs, more or less. If there are any dead leaves or dry grass +at hand, she will cover her eggs with these; but if not, she will take +no trouble to collect them from a distance. + +Her determination to sit will be known by her constantly remaining on +the nest, though it is empty; and, as it is seldom in a position +sufficiently secure against the weather or pilferers, a nest should be +prepared for her, by placing some straw, with her eggs, on the floor of +a convenient out-building. She should then be brought home, and gently +and kindly placed upon it. With the smallest varieties, thirteen eggs +will suffice; a large hen might cover more. At the end of a week, it is +usual to add some fowls' eggs; the activity of the chickens excites some +emulation in the larger brethren, and the eggs take up but little room +in the nest. + +Some believe it necessary to turn the eggs once a day; but the hen +herself does that many times daily. If the eggs are marked, and their +position noticed when she leaves the nest, they will never be found in +the same order. In about four weeks, the young will be hatched. + +INCUBATION OF GEESE. Geese breed in general only once a year; but, if +well kept, they sometimes hatch twice a season. During the sitting, in +sections where the most attention is paid to breeding them, each bird +has a space allotted to it, in rows of wicker-pens, placed one above +another, and the person in charge of them drives the whole flock to +water three times a day, and, bringing them back to their habitations, +places each bird in its own nest. + +The most successful breeders of _Bremen geese_ adopt the following +method: The birds are, in the first place, carefully and properly fed; +the eggs are removed every day in the gentlest manner from the nest, and +placed in a basket of cotton kept in a moderate temperature, and free +from damp. When all the geese begin to sit steadily, each is furnished +with a nest composed of chopped straw; and care is taken that it is +sufficiently capacious. + +Not more than one of the geese is allowed to leave the eggs at a time. +As soon as one leaves, she makes a cackling noise, which is the signal +for the attendant to shut up the boxes in which the others are sitting. +These are made somewhat like a dog-kennel, with a roof pitched both +ways; and are thirty inches long, by twenty-four wide, and twenty-four +high; the door is in the end, and is covered by a sliding panel, which +moves upward, when egress or ingress is sought, and may be shut down at +pleasure. The goose, upon returning, finds only her own box open. When +she re-enters her box, the whole of the doors are again opened, and the +same rule observed throughout the period of hatching. In this way, each +goose is kept to its own nest. + + +REARING OF THE YOUNG. + +For about twenty-four hours after birth, the chickens can not only do +well enough without any extraneous nourishment, but will be far more +likely to thrive subsequently, if let alone, than if crammed or incited +to eat prematurely. More chickens are destroyed by over-feeding than are +lost by the want of it. It is, however, well to turn them in among other +chickens that already feed themselves; they will, in such cases, +generally follow the example of the rest, and pick away at whatever is +around. + +[Illustration: MARQUEE OR TENT-SHADED COOPS.] + +A roomy, boarded coop, in a dry, sunny spot, is the best position for +them during the first month; after which it may be left open during the +day, for the hen to retire to when she pleases. In quiet grassy places, +it is scarcely necessary to coop the hen at all. As to food, they may +have every thing which is not absolutely poisonous; though if wet food +is given, the chicken is thus obliged to take water, whether it requires +it or not, in order to get a sufficient supply of solid food, and +diseased bowels will be likely to follow; whereas, if the food is dry, +they can supply themselves with food and water according to their +pleasure. If Indian meal is well boiled, and fed not too moist, it will +answer a very good purpose, particularly after they are eight or ten +days old. Pure water must be placed near them in such a manner as to +enable them to drink without getting into the water, which, by wetting +their feathers, benumbs and injures them. Meat and insect diet are +almost necessary; but, whatever the food, the meals must be given at +short intervals; as much as they can swallow, and as often as they can +eat. With all their industry, they are only half-clad till flesh and +bone stop growing for a while, and allow down and feathers to overtake +them. + +Chickens should not be let out of their coops too early in the morning, +or whilst the dew is on the ground; still less should they be suffered +to range over the wet grass, which is a common cause of disease and +death. They should also be guarded against sudden unfavorable changes of +the weather, more particularly if attended with rain. Nearly all the +diseases of gallinaceous fowls arise from cold moisture. + +The period at which they are left to shift for themselves depends upon +the disposition of the hen. Some will continue their attentions to their +chickens till they are nearly full-grown, while others will cast them +off much earlier. In the latter case, an eye should be kept upon them +for a few days; for chickens in this half-grown state are much more +liable to disease than when they were apparently tender little +weaklings, crowded under their mother's wings. They should be kept in a +dry, warm, place; dryness is especially necessary. + +If the chickens feather rapidly when very young--as is the case with the +Golden Pheasant, Black Poland, Guelderland, and some others--they are +always weakly, however healthy in other respects, from the fact that +their food goes to sustain their feathers rather than their bodies; and +they frequently languish and die, from this circumstance alone. If, on +the other hand, they feather slowly, as do the Cochin Chinas, Shanghaes, +and others, the food in early life goes to nourish and sustain their +bodies until they become more vigorous, and old enough to sustain the +shock of feathering without detriment. Pure tan-colored Dorkings are +more easily raised than others of the race, because they feather more +slowly. + +Chickens which feather rapidly must be kept perfectly dry and warm, or +they will die; while naked chickens, as they are termed, or those which +feather at a more advanced age, and very slowly, seldom suffer from the +cold, from the fact that their down is very warm, and their blood is +hotter, and circulates more rapidly; since their food principally goes +to blood, and flesh, and bones, and not to feathers. + +REARING OF GUINEA FOWLS. For the young of these, ants' eggs, so called, +hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, small worms, maggots, bread-crumbs, +chopped meat, or suet--whatever, in short, is most nutritious, is the +most appropriate food. This need not be offered to them in large +quantities, as it would only be devoured by the mother Bantam as soon as +she saw that they had for the time satisfied their appetites, or it +would be stolen by other birds; but it should frequently be administered +to them in small supplies. Feeding them three, four, or five times a +day, is not often enough; every half hour during daylight they should be +tempted to fill their craws, which are soon emptied again by an +extraordinary power and quickness of digestion. + +The newly-hatched Guinea fowl is a tiny creature, and its growth is, +consequently, very rapid, requiring incessant supplies. A check once +received can never be recovered. They do not, in such cases, mope and +pine for a day or two; like young turkeys under similar circumstances, +and then die; but, in half an hour after being in apparent health, they +fall on their backs, give a convulsive kick or two, and fall victims, in +fact, to starvation. The demands of Nature for the growth of bone, +muscle, and particularly of feathers, are so great, that no subsequent +abundant supply of food can compensate for a fast of a couple of hours. +The feathers still go on growing in geometrical progression, and drawing +the sources of vitality still faster than they can be supplied, till the +bird faints and expires from inanition. + +A dry, sunny corner in the garden will be the best place to coop them +with their bantam hen. As they increase in strength, they will do no +harm, but much good, by devouring worms, grubs, caterpillars, maggots, +and all sorts of insects. By the time their bodies are little longer +than those of sparrows, they will be able to fly with some degree of +strength; other additions to their complete stature are successively and +less immediately developed, the spurs, comb, and ornamental plumage not +appearing till a subsequent period. + +When they are about the size of thrushes, or a little larger, unless the +summer be very fine, the bantam may be allowed to range loose in the +orchard and shrubbery, and no longer permitted to enter the garden. The +young must, however, still receive a bountiful and frequent supply of +food; they are not to be considered safe till the horn on their head is +fairly grown. Oatmeal is a great treat; cooked potatoes, boiled rice, or +any thing, in short, that is eatable, may be thrown to them; they will +pick the bones left after dinner with evident satisfaction. The tamer +they can be made, the less troublesome will they be when grown; the more +kindly they are treated, the fatter will they be for food, and the +better price will they bring in market. + +For rearing the young of the _pea fowl_, the same directions will be +found useful, and should be carried out in practice. + +REARING OF TURKEYS. Much quackery has been recommended in the treatment +of young turkeys. Nothing, however, should be given to them, nothing +done for them; they should remain in the nest, under the shelter of +their mother's wings, for at least eight or ten hours; if hatched in the +afternoon, till the following morning. The hen should then be placed on +the grass, in the sun, under a roomy coop. If the weather is fine, she +may be stationed at any point desired, by a long piece of flannel-list +tied round one leg, and fastened to a stump or stone. + +At first, a few crumbs of bread should be offered; for some hours, the +little ones will be in no hurry to eat; but, when they do commence, they +should be supplied constantly and abundantly with chopped egg, shreds of +meat and fat, curd, boiled rice mixed with cress, lettuce, and the green +of onions; melted mutton-suet poured over barley-meal, and cut up when +cold, as also bullock's liver boiled and minced, are excellent things. +Young turkeys do not like to have their food minced much smaller than +they can swallow it, preferring to make a meal at three or four +mouthfuls, rather than to trouble themselves with the incessant pecking +and scratching in which chickens so much delight. Pepper will be found +particularly useful in feeding them; as, indeed, all stimulating +vegetables, such as horse-radish, and the like. + +Young turkeys are sometimes attacked by _fasciolæ_, or worms in the +trachea; but not so often as chickens. Cramp is the most fatal to them, +particularly in bad weather. A few pieces of board laid under and about +the coop are useful; sometimes rubbing the leg with spirit will bring +back the circulation. + +The time when the hen may be allowed full liberty with her brood depends +most upon the season, the situation, etc. Some think that if the young +are thriving, the sooner the old ones are out with them the better, +after the first ten days or so. A safer rule may be fixed at the season, +called "shooting the red," when young turkeys approach the size of a +partridge, or before the granular, fleshy excrescences on the head and +neck begin to appear; soon after, the whole plumage, particularly the +tail-feathers, shoot into rapid growth, and liberal nourishment is +imperatively required. If let loose at this time, they will obtain much +foraging, and still be thankful for all that is given to them. +Caraway-seeds, as a tonic, are beneficial, if added to plenty of barley, +boiled potatoes, chopped vegetables, and refuse meat. At this time the +turkeys, naturally enough, begin to be troublesome and voracious; they +have to grow from the size of a lark to twelve or fourteen pounds, in +eight or nine months. One great merit in old birds is, that in +situations where nuts, acorns, and mast are to be had, they will lead +off their brood to these, and all of them will abstain, comparatively, +from ravaging other crops. + +[Illustration: DUCK-POND AND HOUSES.] + +REARING OF DUCKLINGS. The best mode of rearing the young of ducks +depends very much upon the situation in which they are hatched. It is +customary to dip their feet in water as soon as they are hatched, and +then to clip the down on their tails close with a pair of scissors, to +prevent their becoming drabbled and water-logged; and before their +introduction to the pond, which should not be until a day or two after +hatching, it is thought advisable by many to let them have a private +swim or two in a small pan of water, that they may try their strength +and practice their webbed feet before venturing upon a larger space. + +For the first month, the confinement of the mother under a coop is +better than too much liberty. Their first food may be boiled eggs, +nettles, and a little barley; all kinds of sapped food, cornmeal and +water mixed thin, worms, etc., suit them; they will also greedily eat +cabbages or other greens, mixed with boiled bran; and this mess, with +the addition of pepper, forms a valuable dietetic. In a few days, they +require no care, being perfectly able to shift for themselves; but at +any age they are the most helpless of the inhabitants of the +poultry-yard, having no weapons with which to defend themselves from +vermin, or animals of prey, and their awkward, waddling gait precluding +their seeking safety in flight. The old duck is not so brave in defence +of her brood as the hen; but she will, nevertheless, display at times +much spirit. The young seldom die of any disease, and with proper +precaution there will be no trouble in raising almost as many ducklings +as are hatched. They come early to maturity, being nearly full-grown and +in fine eating order at three months old; far excelling, in this +respect, all other poultry, except geese. + +None are more successful in rearing ducklings than those who keep them, +for the first period of their existence, in pens two or three yards +square, and cram them night and morning with long, dried pellets of +flour and water, or egg and flour, until they are judged old enough to +be turned out with their mother to forage for themselves. They are +cheerful, harmless, good-natured, cleanly creatures, carefully washing +themselves, and arranging their dress, before commencing their meals; +and the healthy heartiness of their appetite is amusing, rather than +disgusting. + +REARING OF GOSLINGS. For the first three or four days, goslings must be +kept warm and dry, and fed on barley-meal, or oatmeal, mixed with milk, +if easily procurable; if not, with water. They will begin to grow in +about a week. For a week or two, they should not be turned out until +late in the morning, and should always be taken in early in the evening. +Their great enemy is the cramp, which can be kept off by making them +sleep on dry straw. A little boiled rice, daily, assists their growth; +with corn, of course, as soon as they can eat it. When goslings are +first allowed to go at large with their mother, every plant of hemlock +which grows within their range should be pulled up, as they are very apt +to eat it, and it generally proves fatal. Nightshade is equally +pernicious to them; and they have been known to be poisoned by eating +sprigs of yew-tree. + +The young of _Bremen geese_, when first hatched, are of a very delicate +and tender constitution. It is best to let them remain in the +breeding-box in which they are hatched for twenty-four hours after they +leave the shell. This should, however, be regulated by the weather; +since, if it is fair and warm, they may be let out an hour or two in the +middle of the day, when they will wet their little bills and nibble at +the grass. They ought not to be out in the rain at any time during the +first month; and both geese and goslings should be shut up in the boxes +at night, during the same period, as a protection against rats and +vermin. A very shallow pool, dug in the yard, with a bucket or two of +water thrown into it, to suit the temporary purpose of bathing, is +sufficient during that period. If well fed on grain from the time they +are hatched, twenty-five pounds weight can be secured, at seven or eight +months old. By feeding them till four days old, and then literally +turning them out to grass, an average weight of from seventeen to +eighteen pounds each has been attained, at that age after the feathers +are cleanly picked off. + + +CAPONIZING. + +Capons have ever been esteemed among the greatest delicacies of the +table; and are made by the extirpation of the reproductive organs in +male fowls. If a cock, when young, is emasculated, a remarkable change +takes place in him. His natural fierceness is calmed; he becomes placid +and peaceful; his pugnacity has deserted him; he no longer seeks the +company of the hens; he loses his previous strong, shrill voice; he +grows to a far larger size than he would otherwise have done, having +nothing to interfere with the main business of his life--to eat, drink, +sleep, and get fat as speedily as possible; his flesh is peculiarly +white, firm and succulent; and even the fat is perfectly destitute of +rankness. The capon may, also, by a little management be converted into +an admirable nurse. Some assert that caponized cocks are never afterward +subject to the natural process of moulting; but this is denied by +others. + +The art has been practised from the earliest antiquity, in Greece, +India, and China, for the purpose of improving the flesh of birds for +the table, in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. It is extensively +performed in the great poultry-breeding districts of England; but in +this country it is by no means so generally practised as would naturally +be expected. + +The instruments most approved by skilful operators consist of two five +or seven-pound weights for confining the fowl; a scalpel, for cutting +open the thin skin enveloping the testicles; a silver retractor, for +stretching open the wound sufficiently wide for operating within; a pair +of spring forceps--with a sharp, cutting edge, resembling that of a +chisel, having a level half an inch in its greatest width--for making +the incision, and securing the thin membrane; a spoon-shaped instrument, +with a sharp hook at one end, for pushing and removing the testicles, +adjusting the loop, and assisting in tearing open the tender covering; +and a double silver canula, for containing the two ends of horse-hair, +or fibre, constituting the loop. The expense of these instruments is in +the neighborhood of six dollars. A cheap penknife may be used instead of +the scalpel; and the other instruments may be obtained of a cheaper +construction--the whole not costing more than half the above-named +amount. + +The cockerel intended for capons should be of the largest breeds, as the +Dorking, Cochin China, or the Great Malay. They may be operated upon at +any time after they are a month old; the age of from two to three months +is considered preferable. If possible, it should be done before July; as +capons made later never prove so fine. + +The fowl should be confined to a table or board, by laying him with the +left side downward, the wings drawn behind the rump, the legs extended +backward, with the upper one farthest drawn out, and the head and neck +left perfectly free. The feathers are next to be plucked from the right +side, near the hip-joint, on a line with, and between the joint of the +shoulder. The space uncovered may be from an inch to an inch and a half +in diameter, according to the size of the bird. After drawing off the +skin from the part, backward--so that, when left to itself after the +operation is completed, it will cover the wound in the flesh--make an +incision with the bevel-edged knife, at the end of the forceps, between +the last two ribs, commencing about an inch from the back-bone, and +extending it obliquely downward, from an inch to an inch and a half, +cutting just deep enough to separate the ribs, taking due care not to +wound the intestines. + +Next, adjust and apply the retractor by means of the small thumb-screw, +and stretch the wound sufficiently wide apart to afford room for an +examination of the organs to be removed. Then, with the scalpel, or a +sharp penknife, carefully cut open the skin, or membrane, covering the +intestines, which, if not sufficiently drawn up, in consequence of the +previous confinement, may be pushed forward toward the breast-bone, by +means of the bowl of the spoon-shaped instrument, or--what would answer +equally well--with the handle of a tea-spoon. + +As the testicles are exposed to view, they will be found connected with +the back and sides by a thin membrane, or skin, passing over them. This +covering must then be seized with the forceps, and torn open with the +sharp-pointed hook at the small end of the spoon-shaped instrument; +after which the bowl of the spoon must be introduced, with the left +hand, under the lower or left testicle, which is, generally, a little +nearer to the rump than the right one. Then take the double canula, +adjust the hair-loop, and, with the right hand, pass the loop over the +small hooked end of the spoon, running it down under the bowl of the +spoon containing the testicle, so as to bring the loop to act upon the +parts which connect the testicle to the back. By drawing the ends of the +hair-loop backward and forward, and at the same time pushing the lower +end of the tube, or canula, toward the rump of the fowl, the cord or +fastening of the testicle is severed. + +A similar process is then to be repeated with the uppermost or right +testicle; after which, any remains of the testicles, together with the +blood at or around the bottom of the wound, must be scooped out with the +bowl of the spoon. The left testicle is first cut out, in order to +prevent the blood which may issue from covering the one remaining, and +so rendering it more difficult to be seen. The operation, if skilfully +done, occupies but a few moments; when the skin of the fowl should be +drawn over the wound with the retractor, and the wound covered with the +feathers that were plucked off at the commencement. + +In some fowls, the fore part of the thigh covers the two hindmost ribs; +in which case, care must be taken to draw the fleshy part of the thigh +well back, to prevent it from being cut; since, otherwise, the operation +might lame the fowl, or even cause its death. + +For loops, nothing answers better than the fibre of a cocoa-nut husk, +which is rough, and readily separates the testicles by sawing. The next +best substance is the hair of a horse's mane or tail. + +After the operation, the bird may be placed in a warm house, where there +are no perches; since if such appliances are present, the newly-made +capon will very probably injure himself in his attempts to perch. For +about a week, the food should be soft, meal porridge, and that in small +quantities, alternated with bread steeped in milk; he may be given as +much pure water as he will drink, it being best to use it in a tepid +state, or at least with the chill taken off. At the end of a week, or +ten days, at most, the fowl, if previously of a sound, vigorous +constitution, will be all right, and may be turned out with the others. + +The usual method, in France, of making _poulardes_, or hen-capons, as +they are sometimes improperly designated, is to extirpate the +egg-cluster, or _ovarium_, in the same manner as the testicles are +extracted from the cockerel; but it is quite sufficient merely to cut +across the oviduct, or egg-tube, with a sharp knife. Otherwise, they may +be treated in the same manner as the capons. Capons are fattened in +precisely the same manner as other fowls. + + +FATTENING AND SLAUGHTERING. + +[Illustration: A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING.] + +Fat is not a necessary part of any animal body, being the form which +superabundant nourishment assumes, which would, if needed, be converted +into muscles and other solids. It is contained in certain membranous +receptacles provided for it, distributed over the body, and it is turned +to use whenever the supply of nourishment is defective, which should be +provided by the stomach, and other great organs. In such emergencies it +is taken up, in the animal economy, by the absorbents; if the latter, +from any cause, act feebly, the health suffers. When, however, +nourishment is taken into the system in greater quantities than is +necessary for ordinary purposes, the absorbent vessels take it up; and +the fat thus made is generally healthy, provided there is a good +digestion. + +A common method of fattening fowl is to give them the run of a +farm-yard, where they thrive upon the offal of the stable and other +refuse, with perhaps some small regular daily feeds; but at +threshing-time, they become fat, and are styled _barn-door fowls_, +probably the most delicate and high-flavored of all, both from their +full allowance of the finest grain, and the constant health in which +they are kept, by living in the natural state, and having the full +enjoyment of air and exercise; or, they are confined in coops during a +certain number of weeks, those fowls which are soonest ready being taken +as wanted. + +Fowls may also be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved in a +healthy state--their flesh being equal in quality to that of the +barn-door fowl--when confined in feeding-houses. These should be at once +warm and airy, with earth floors, well-raised, and sufficiently +capacious to accommodate well the number desired. The floor may be +slightly littered down, the litter being often changed; and the greatest +cleanliness should be observed. Sandy gravel should be placed in several +different layers, and often changed. A sufficient number of troughs, for +both water and food, should be placed around, that the fowls may feed +with as little interruption as possible from each other; and perches in +the same proportion should be furnished for those which are inclined to +avail themselves of them; though the number will be few, after they have +begun to fatten. This arrangement, however, assists in keeping them +quiet and contented until that period. Insects and animal food forming a +part of the natural diet of poultry, they are medicinal to them in a +weakly state, and the want of such food may sometimes impede their +thriving. + +The least nutritious articles of food, so far as it can be done +conveniently, should be fed out first; afterward, those that are more +nutritive. Fattening fowls should be kept quiet, and suffered to take no +more exercise than is necessary for their health; since more exercise +than this calls for an expenditure of food which does not avail any +thing in the process of fattening. They should be fed regularly with +suitable food, and that properly prepared; and as much should be given +them as they are able to convert into flesh and fat, without waste. The +larger the quantity of food which a fattening animal can be made to +consume daily, with a good appetite, or which it can digest thoroughly, +the greater will be the amount of flesh and fat gained, in proportion to +the whole quantity of food consumed. + +Substances in which the nutriment is much concentrated should be fed +with care. There is danger, especially when the bird is first put to +feed, that more may be eaten at once than the digestive organs can +manage. Meal of Indian corn is highly nutritive; and, when properly fed, +causes fowls to fatten faster than almost any other food. They will not, +however, bear to be kept exclusively on this article for a great length +of time. Meal made from the heaviest varieties of corn, especially that +made from the hard, flinty kinds grown in the Northern and Eastern +States, is quite too strong for fowls to be full-fed upon. Attention +should also be paid to the bulk of the food given; since sufficient bulk +is necessary to effect a proper distending of the stomach, as a +necessary condition of healthy digestion. + +One simple mode of fattening, which is adopted by many, is the +following: Shut the fowls up where they can get no gravel; keep corn by +them all the time, and also give them dough enough once a day; for +drink, give them skimmed milk; with this feed, they will fatten in ten +days; if kept longer, they should have some gravel, or they will fall +away. + +Oats ground into meal, and mixed with a little molasses and water, +barley-meal with sweet milk, and boiled oats, mixed with meat, are all +excellent for fattening poultry--reference being had to time, expense, +and quality of flesh. + +In _fattening ducks_, it must be remembered that their flesh will be +found to partake, to a great extent, of the flavor of the food on which +they have been fattened; and as they are naturally quite indiscriminate +feeders, care should be taken, for at least a week or so before killing, +to confine them to select food. Boiled potatoes are very good feeding, +and are still better if a little grain is mixed with them; Indian meal +is both economical and nutritive, but should be used sparingly at first. +Some recommend butcher's offal; but, although ducks may be fattened on +such food to an unusual weight, and thus be profitable for the market, +their flesh will be rendered rank and gross, and not at all fit for the +table. + +To _fatten geese_, it is necessary to give them a little corn daily, +with the addition of some raw Swedish turnips, carrots, mangel-wurtzel +leaves, lucerne, tares, cabbage leaves, and lettuces. Barley-meal and +water is recommended by some; but full-grown geese that have never been +habituated to the mixture when young, will occasionally refuse to eat +it. Cooked potatoes, in small quantities, do no harm; and, apart from +the consideration of expense, steeped wheat would produce a first-rate +delicacy. + +Those who can only afford to bring up one or two, should confine them in +a crib or some such place, about the beginning of July, and feed them as +directed, giving them a daily supply of clean water for drink. If from a +dozen to twenty are kept, a large pen of from fifteen to twenty feet +square should be made, well covered with straw on the bottom, and a +covered house in a corner for protection against the sun and rain, when +required; since exposure to either of these is not good. It will be +observed that, about noon, if geese are at liberty, they will seek some +shady spot, to avoid the influence of the sun; and when confined in +small places, they have not sufficient space for flapping their wings, +and drying themselves after being wet, nor have they room for moving +about so as to keep themselves warm. There should be three troughs in +the crib: one for dry oats; another for vegetables, which ought always +to be cut down; and a third for clean water, of which they must always +have a plentiful supply. The riper the cabbages and lettuces are with +which they are supplied the better. + +SLAUGHTERING AND DRESSING. Both ducks and geese should be led out to the +pond a few hours before being slaughtered, where they will neatly purify +and arrange their feathers. The common mode of slaughtering the +latter--bleeding them from the internal parts of the throat--is +needlessly slow and cruel. + +Fowls for cooking, that are to be sent to a distance, or to be kept any +time before being served, should be plucked, drawn, and dressed +immediately after being killed. The feathers strip off much more easily +and cleanly while the bird is yet warm. When large numbers are to be +slaughtered and prepared in a short time, the process is expedited by +scalding the bird in boiling water, when the feathers drop off almost at +once. Fowls thus treated are, however, generally thought inferior in +flavor, and are more likely to acquire a taint in close, warm weather, +than such as are plucked and dressed dry. + +In dressing, all bruises or rupturing of the skin should be avoided. A +coarse, half-worn cloth, that is pervious to the air, like a wire sieve, +and perfectly dry and clean, forms the best wrapper. The color of +yellow-skinned turkeys--equally well-flavored, by the way--is improved +for appearance at market by wrapping them for twelve or twenty-four +hours in cloths soaked in cold salt and water, frequently changed. For +the same purpose, the loose fat is first laid in warm salt and water, +and afterward in milk and water for two or three hours. Some dust with +flour, inside and out, any fowls that are to be carried far or to hang +many days before being cooked. + +The oldest and toughest fowls, which are often pronounced unfit for +eating, thrown away, and wasted, may be made into a savory and +nutritious dish by jointing, after the bird is plucked and drawn, as for +a pie; it should not be skinned. Stew it five hours in a close saucepan, +with salt, mace, onions, or any other flavoring ingredients desired. +When tender, turn it out into a deep dish, so that the meat may be +entirely covered with the liquor. Let it stand thus in its own jelly +for a day or two; it may then be served in the shape of a curry, a +hash, or a pie, and will be found to furnish an agreeable repast. + +Old geese, killed in the autumn, after they have recovered from +moulting, and before they have begun to think about the breeding time, +make excellent meat, if cut into small portions, stewed slowly five or +six hours with savory condiments, and made into pie the next day. By +roasting and broiling, the large quantity of nutriment contained in the +bones and cartilages is lost, and what might easily be made tender has +to be swallowed tough. Young geese, as well as the old, are, also, often +salted and boiled. + + +POULTRY-HOUSES. + +The three grand requisites in a poultry house are _cleanliness_, +_dryness_, and _warmth_. A simple arrangement for this purpose is a shed +built against the gable of the house, opposite to the part warmed by the +kitchen fire, in which are placed cross-bars for roosting, with boxes +for laying in, or quantities of fresh straw. This should always have an +opening, to allow the poultry-house to be cleansed out, at least once a +week. Fowls will never thrive long amidst uncleanliness; and even with +the utmost care a place where they have been long kept becomes tainted, +as it is called; the surface of the ground becomes saturated with their +_exuriæ_, and is therefore no longer conducive to health. + +To avoid this effect, some persons in the country frequently change the +sites of their poultry-houses, to obtain fresh ground; while others, who +cannot thus change, purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch, +by washing with hot lime water, and by strewing large quantities of +pure sand both within and without. Washing the floor every week is a +necessity; for which purpose it is advantageous to have the house paved +either with stones, bricks, or tiles. A good flooring, however, and +cheaper than either of these, may be formed by using a composition of +lime and smithy ashes, together with the riddlings of common kitchen +ashes; these, having been all finely broken, must be mixed together with +water, put on the floor with a mason's trowel, and nicely smoothed on +the surface. If this is put on a floor which is in a tolerably dry +situation, and allowed to harden before being used, it will become +nearly as solid and compact as stone, and is almost as durable. + +[Illustration: RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE.] + +The inside of the laying-boxes should be frequently washed with hot lime +water, to free them from vermin, which greatly torment the sitting hens. +For the same purpose, poultry should always have a heap of dry sand, or +fine ashes, laid under some covered place or thick tree near their yard, +in which they may dust themselves; this being their means of ridding +themselves of the vermin with which they are annoyed. + +In every establishment for poultry-rearing, there ought to be some +separate crib or cribs, into which to remove fowl when laboring under +disease; for, not only are many of the diseases to which poultry are +liable highly contagious, but the sick birds are also regarded with +dislike by such as are in health; and the latter will, generally, attack +and maltreat them, aggravating, at least, their sufferings, if not +actually depriving them of life. The moment, therefore, that a bird is +perceived to droop, or appears pining, it should be removed to one of +these infirmaries. + +[Illustration: A FANCY COOP IN CHINESE OR GOTHIC STYLE.] + +Separate pens are also necessary, to avoid quarrelling among some of the +highly-blooded birds, more particularly the game fowl. They are also +necessary when different varieties are kept, in order to avoid improper +or undesirable commixture from accidental crossing. These lodgings may +be most readily constructed in rows, parallel to each other; the +partitions may be formed of lattice-work, being thus rather ornamental, +and the cost of erection but trifling. Each of these lodgings should be +divided into two compartments, one somewhat larger than the other; one +to be close and warm, for the sleeping-room; and the other, a large one, +airy and open, that the birds may enjoy themselves in the daytime. Both +must be kept particularly dry and clean, and be well protected from the +weather. + +A _hen-ladder_ is an indispensable piece of furniture, though frequently +absent. This is a sort of ascending scale of perches, one a little +higher than the other; not exactly above its predecessor, but somewhat +in advance. By neglecting the use of this very simple contrivance, many +valuable fowls may be lost or severely injured, by attempting to fly +down from their roost--an attempt from succeeding in which the birds are +incapacitated, in consequence of the bulk of their body preponderating +over the power of their wings. + +Some people allow their fowl to roost abroad all night, in all weathers, +in trees, or upon fences near the poultry-house. This is a slovenly mode +of keeping even the humblest live stock; it offers a temptation to +thieves, and the health of the fowls cannot be improved by their being +soaked all night long in drenching rain, or having their feet frozen to +the branches or rails. There is no difficulty in accustoming any sort of +poultry, except the pea fowl, to regular housing at night. + +It is better that turkeys should not roost in the same house with the +domestic fowl, as they are apt to be cross to sitting and laying hens. + +No poultry-house is what it ought to be, it may be suggested, in +conclusion, unless it is in such a state as to afford a lady, without +offending her sense of decent propriety, a respectable shelter on a +showery day. + + + + +[Illustration] + +DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. + + +In our climate, the disorders to which poultry are liable are, +comparatively, few in number, and they usually yield to judicious +treatment. The little attention that has too generally been bestowed +upon this subject may be accounted for from the circumstance that, in an +economical point of view, the value of an individual fowl is relatively +insignificant; and while the ailments of other domesticated animals +generally claim a prompt and efficient care, the unhappy inhabitants of +the poultry-yard are too often relieved of their sufferings in the most +summary manner. There are reasons, however, which will justify a more +careful regard in this matter, besides the humanity of adding to the +comfort of these useful creatures; and the attempt to cure, in cases of +disease, will often be rewarded by their flesh being rendered more +palatable, and their eggs more wholesome. + +Most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the result of errors +in diet or management, and should have been prevented, or may be removed +by a change, and the adoption of a suitable regimen. When an individual +is attacked, it should be forthwith removed, to prevent the +contamination of the rest of the flock. Nature, who proves a guardian to +fowls in health, will nurse them in their weakness, and act as a most +efficient physician to the sick; and the aim of all medical treatment +should be to follow the indications which Nature holds out, and assist +in the effort which she constantly makes for the restoration of health. + +The more common diseases which afflict poultry will be so described that +they need not be misapprehended, and such remedies suggested as +experience has proved to be salutary; and, taken alphabetically, the +first on the list is + + +ASTHMA. + +This common disease seems to differ sufficiently in its characteristics +to warrant a distinction into two species. In one it appears to be +caused by an obstruction of the air-cells, by an accumulation of phlegm, +which interferes with the exercise of their functions. The fowl labors +for breath, in consequence of not being able to take in the usual +quantity of air at an inspiration. The capacity of the lungs is thereby +diminished, the lining membrane of the windpipe becomes thickened, and +its minute branches are more or less affected. These effects may, +perhaps, be attributed to the fact that, as our poultry are originally +natives of tropical climates, they require a more equal temperature than +is afforded, except by artificial means, however well they may appear +acclimated. + +Another variety of asthma is induced by fright, or undue excitement. It +is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to catch them, by seizing them +suddenly, or by their fighting with each other. In these cases, a +blood-vessel is often ruptured, and sometimes one or more of the +air-cells. The symptoms are, short breathing; opening of the beak often, +and for quite a time; heaving and panting of the chest; and, in case of +a rupture of a blood-vessel, a drop of blood appearing on the beak. + +_Treatment._ Confirmed asthma is difficult to cure. For the disease in +its incipient state, the fowl should be kept warm, and treated with +repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter, with the +addition of a small quantity of Cayenne pepper. + + +COSTIVENESS. + +The existence of this disorder will become apparent by observing the +unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to relieve itself. It frequently +results from continued feeding on dry diet, without access to green +vegetables. Indeed, without the use of these, or some substitute--such +as mashed potatoes--costiveness is certain to ensue. The want of a +sufficient supply of good water will also occasion the disease, on +account of that peculiar structure of the fowl, which renders them +unable to void their urine, except in connection with the _fæces_ of +solid food, and through the same channel. + +_Treatment._ Soaked bread, with warm skimmed-milk, is a mild remedial +agent, and will usually suffice. Boiled carrots or cabbage are more +efficient. A meal of earth-worms is sometimes advisable; and hot +potatoes, mixed with bacon-fat, are said to be excellent. Castor-oil and +burned butter will remove the most obstinate cases; though a clyster of +oil, in addition, may sometimes be required, in order to effect a cure. + + +DIARRH[OE]A. + +There are times when fowls dung more loosely than at others, especially +when they have been fed on green or soft food; but this, may occur +without the presence of disease. Should this state, however, deteriorate +into a confirmed and continued laxity, immediate attention is required +to guard against fatal effects. The causes of diarrh[oe]a are dampness, +undue acidity in the bowels, or the presence of irritating matter there. + +The _symptoms_ are lassitude and emaciation; and, in very severe cases, +the voiding of calcareous matter, white, streaked with yellow. This +resembles the yolk of a stale egg, and clings to the feathers near the +vent. It becomes acrid, from the presence of ammonia, and causes +inflammation, which speedily extends throughout the intestines. + +_Treatment._ This, of course, depends upon the cause. If the disease is +brought on by a diet of green or soft food, the food must be changed, +and water sparingly given; if it arises from undue acidity, chalk mixed +with meal is advantageous, but rice-flour boluses are most reliable. +Alum-water, of moderate strength, is also beneficial. In cases of +_bloody flux_, boiled rice and milk, given warm, with a little magnesia, +or chalk, may be successfully used. + + +FEVER. + +The most decided species of fever to which fowls are subject occurs at +the period of hatching, when the animal heat is often so increased as to +be perceptible to the touch. A state of fever may also be observed when +they are about to lay. This is, generally, of small consequence, when +the birds are otherwise healthy; but it is of moment, if any other +disorder is present, since, in such case, the original malady will be +aggravated. Fighting also frequently occasions fever, which sometimes +proves fatal. + +The _symptoms_ are an increased circulation of the blood; excessive +heat; and restlessness. + +_Treatment._ Light food and change of air; and, if necessary, aperient +medicine, such as castor oil, with a little burned butter. + + +INDIGESTION. + +Cases of indigestion among fowls are common, and deserve attention +according to the causes from which they proceed. A change of food will +often produce _crop-sickness_, as it is called, when the fowl takes but +little food, and suddenly loses flesh. Such disease is of little +consequence, and shortly disappears. When it requires attention at all, +all the symptoms will be removed by giving their diet in a warm state. + +Sometimes, however, a fit of indigestion threatens severe consequences, +especially if long continued. Every effort should be made to ascertain +the cause, and the remedy must be governed by the circumstances of the +case. + +The _symptoms_ are heaviness, moping, keeping away from the nest, and +want of appetite. + +[Illustration: PRAIRIE HENS.] + +_Treatment._ Lessen the quantity of food, and oblige the fowl to +exercise in an open walk. Give some powdered cayenne and gentian, mixed +with the usual food. Iron-rust, mixed with soft food, or diffused in +water, is an excellent tonic, and is indicated when there is atrophy, or +diminution of the flesh. It may be combined with oats or grain. +Milk-warm ale has also a good effect, when added to the diet of diseased +fowls. + + +LICE. + +The whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly liable to be infested +with lice; and there have been instances when fowls have been so covered +in this loathsome manner that the natural color of the feathers has been +undistinguishable. The presence of vermin is not only annoying to +poultry, but materially interferes with their growth, and prevents their +fattening. They are, indeed, the greatest drawback to the success and +pleasure of the poultry fanciers; and nothing but unremitting vigilance +will exterminate them, and keep them exterminated. + +_Treatment._ To attain this, whitewash frequently all the parts +adjacent to the roosting-pole, take the poles down and run them slowly +through a fire made of wood shavings, dry weeds, or other light +waste combustibles. Flour of sulphur, placed in a vessel, and set on +fire in a close poultry-house, will penetrate every crevice, and +effectually exterminate the vermin. When a hen comes off with her +brood, the old nest should be cleaned out, and a new one placed; and +dry tobacco-leaves, rubbed to a powder between the hands, and mixed +with the hay of the nest, will add much to the health of the poultry. + +Flour of sulphur may also be mixed with Indian-meal and water, and fed +in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to two dozen fowls, in two +parcels, two days apart. Almost any kind of grease, or unctuous matter, +is also certain death to the vermin of domestic poultry. In the case of +very young chickens, it should only be used in a warm, sunny day, When +they should be put into a coop with their mother, the coop darkened for +an hour or two, and every thing made quiet, that they may secure a good +rest and nap after the fatigue occasioned by greasing them. They should +be handled with great care, and greased thoroughly; the hen, also. After +resting, they may be permitted to come out and bask in the sun; and in a +few days they will look sprightly enough. + +To guard against vermin, however, it should not be forgotten that +_cleanliness_ is of vital importance; and there must always be plenty of +slacked lime, dry ashes, and sand, easy of access to the fowls, in which +they can roll and dust themselves. + + +LOSS OF FEATHERS. + +This disease, common to confined fowls, should not be confounded with +the natural process of moulting. In this diseased state, no new feathers +come to replace the old, but the fowl is left bald and naked; a sort of +roughness also appears on the skin; there is a falling off in appetite, +as well as moping and inactivity. + +_Treatment._ As this affection is, in all probability, constitutional +rather than local, external remedies may not always prove sufficient. +Stimulants, however, applied externally, will serve to assist the +operation of whatever medicine may be given. Sulphur may be thus +applied, mixed with lard. Sulphur and cayenne, in the proportion of one +quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, is good to be given internally, +and will act as a powerful alterative. The diet should be changed; and +cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable. + +In _diseased moulting_, where the feathers stare and fall off, till the +naked skin appears, sugar should be added to the water which the fowls +drink, and corn and hemp-seed be given. They should be kept warm, and +occasionally be treated to doses of cayenne pepper. + + +PIP. + +This disorder, known also as the _gapes_, is the most common ailment of +poultry and all domestic birds. It is especially the disease of young +fowls, and is most prevalent in the hottest months, being not only +troublesome but frequently fatal. + +As to its _cause_ and nature, there has been some diversity of opinion. +Some consider it a catarrhal inflammation, which produces a thickening +of the membrane lining the nostrils and mouth, and particularly the +tongue; others assert that it is caused by want of water, or by bad +water; while others describe it as commencing in the form of a vesicle +on the tip of the tongue, which occasions a thickened state of the skin, +by the absorption of its contents. The better opinion, however, is, that +the disease is occasioned by the presence of worms, or _fasciolæ_, in +the windpipe. On the dissection of chickens dying with this disorder, +the windpipe will be found to contain numerous small, red worms, about +the size of a cambric needle, which, at the first glance, might be +mistaken for blood-vessels. It is supposed by some that these worms +continue to grow, until, by their enlargement, the windpipe is so filled +up that the chicken is suffocated. + +The common _symptoms_ of this malady are the thickened state of the +membrane of the tongue, particularly toward the tip; the breathing is +impeded, and the beak is frequently held open, as if the creature were +gasping for breath; the beak becomes yellow at its base; and the +feathers on the head appear ruffled and disordered; the tongue is very +dry; the appetite is not always impaired; but yet the fowl cannot eat, +probably on account of the difficulty which the act involves, and sits +in a corner, pining in solitude. + +_Treatment._ Most recommend the immediate removal of the thickened +membrane, which can be effected by anointing the part with butter or +fresh cream. If necessary, the scab may be pricked with a needle. It +will also be found beneficial to use a pill, composed of equal parts of +scraped garlic and horse-radish, with as much cayenne pepper as will +outweigh a grain of wheat; to be mixed with fresh butter, and given +every morning; the fowl to be kept warm. + +If the disease is in an advanced state, shown by the chicken's holding +up its head and gaping for want of breath, the fowl should be thrown on +its back, and while the neck is held straight, the bill should be +opened, and a quill inserted into the windpipe, with a little +turpentine. This being round, will loosen and destroy a number of small, +red worms, some of which will be drawn up by the feather, and others +will be coughed up by the chicken. The operation should be repeated the +following day, if the gaping continues. If it ceases, the cure is +effected. + +It is stated, also, that the disease has been entirely prevented by +mixing a small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the food of fowls; +from five to ten drops, to a pint of meal, to be made into a dough. +Another specific recommended is to keep iron standing in vinegar, and +put a little of the liquid in the food every few days. + +Some assert that it is promoted by simply scanting fowls in their food; +and this upon the ground that chickens which are not confined with the +hen, but both suffered to run at large and collect their own food, are +not troubled with this disease. There can be little doubt that it is +caused by inattention to cleanliness in the habits and lodgings of +fowls; and some, therefore, think that if the chicken-houses and coops +are kept clean, and frequently washed with thin whitewash, having plenty +of salt and brine mixed with it, that it would be eradicated. + + +ROUP. + +This disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture; but it is often +ascribed to improper feeding and want of cleanliness and exercise. It +affects fowls of all ages, and is either acute or chronic; sometimes +commencing suddenly, on exposure; at others gradually, as the +consequence of neglected colds, or damp weather or lodging. Chronic roup +has been known to extend through two years. + +[Illustration: SWANS.] + +The most prominent _symptoms_ are difficult and noisy breathing and +gaping, terminating in a rattling in the throat; the head swells, and is +feverish; the eyes are swollen, and the eye-lidsappear livid; the sight +decays, and sometimes total blindness ensues; there are discharges from +the nostrils and mouth, at first thin and limpid, afterward thick, +purulent, and fetid. In this stage, which resembles the glanders in +horses, the disease becomes infectious. + +As _secondary_ symptoms, it may be noticed that the appetite fails, +except for drink; the crop feels hard; the feathers are staring, +ruffled, and without the gloss that appears in health; the fowl mopes by +itself and seems to suffer much pain. + +_Treatment._ The fowls should be kept warm, and have plenty of water and +scalded bran, or other light food. When chronic, change of food and air +is advisable. The ordinary remedies--such as salt dissolved in +water--are inefficacious. A solution of sulphate of zinc, as an +eye-water, is a valuable cleansing application. Rue-pills, and a +decoction of rue, as a tonic, have been administered with apparent +benefit. + +The following is recommended: of powdered gentian and Jamaica ginger, +each one part; Epsom salts, one and a half parts; and flour of sulphur, +one part; to be made up with butter, and given every morning. + +The following method of treatment is practised by some of the most +successful poulterers in the country. As soon as discovered, if in warm +weather, remove the infected fowls to some well-ventilated apartment, or +yard; if in winter, to some warm place; then give a dessert-spoonful of +castor-oil; wash their heads with warm Castile-soap suds, and let them +remain till next morning fasting. Scald for them Indian-meal, adding two +and a half ounces of Epsom salts for ten hens, or in proportion for a +less or larger number; give it warm, and repeat the dose in a day or +two, if they do not recover. + +Perhaps, however, the best mode of dealing with roup and all putrid +affections is as follows: Take of finely pulverized, fresh-burnt +charcoal, and of new yeast, each three parts; of pulverized sulphur, two +parts; of flour, one part; of water, a sufficient quantity; mix well, +and make into two doses, of the size of a hazel-nut, and give one three +times a day. _Cleanliness_ is no less necessary than warmth; and it will +sometimes be desirable to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk and +water, or suds, as convenient. + + +WOUNDS AND SORES. + +Fowls are exposed to wounds from many sources. In their frequent +encounters with each other, they often result; the poultry-house is +besieged by enemies at night, and, in spite of all precaution, rats, +weasels, and other animals will assault the occupants of the roost, or +nest, to their damage. These wounds, if neglected, often degenerate into +painful and dangerous ulcers. + +When such injuries occur, _cleanliness_ is the first step toward a cure. +The wound should be cleared from all foreign matter, washed with tepid +milk and water, and excluded as far as possible from the air. The fowl +should be removed from its companions, which, in such cases, seldom or +never show any sympathy, but, on the contrary, are always ready to +assault the invalid, and aggravate the injury. Should the wound not +readily heal, but ulcerate, it may be bathed with alum-water. The +ointment of creosote is said to be effectual, even when the ulcer +exhibits a fungous character, or _proud flesh_ is present. Ulcers may +also be kept clean, if dressed with a little lard, or washed with a weak +solution of sugar of lead; if they are indolent, they may be touched +with blue-stone. + +When severe _fractures_ occur to the limbs of fowls, the best course, +undoubtedly, to pursue--unless they are very valuable--is to kill them +at once, as an act of humanity. When, however, it is deemed worth while +to preserve them, splints may be used, when practicable. Great +cleanliness must be observed; the diet should be reduced; and every +precaution taken against the inflammation, which is sure to supervene. +When it is established, cooling lotions--such as warm milk and +water--may be applied. + + + + +LIST OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. + + * * * * * + +MAILING NOTICE.--Single copies of any of these Books will be sent to any +address, post-paid, on receipt of price. This very convenient mode may +be adopted where your neighboring bookseller is not supplied with the +work. Address, + +JOHN E. 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Plain pictures, $1 50. Illuminated, $2. + +FAMILY AND PULPIT BIBLES. Nearly sixty different styles; with Family +Record and with and without Photograph Record. With clasps or otherwise, +and ranging in price from $5 to $30. + +JUVENILE AND TOY BOOKS. Embracing 150 varieties, beautifully illustrated +and adapted to the tastes of the little ones everywhere; at prices +ranging from 10 cents to $2. + +PHOTOGRAPH ALBUMS in every size and variety, holding from twelve to two +hundred pictures, and ranging in price from 75 cents to $20. + + +Persons wishing a full catalogue of all our Books, Albums, and Bibles, +will please send two red stamps to pay return postage. + +The trade everywhere supplied on favorable terms. + + +Address, =JOHN E. POTTER & CO., Publishers, 617 Sansom Street, +Philadelphia.= + + + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's notes: | + | | + | Several minor typographical and punctuation errors have been fixed.| + | Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in | + | the original book. | + | | + | More important changes made: | + | 'inter-fibrous' changed to 'inter-fibrous spaces' (page 182); | + | illegible text in original taken as reading 'the other side of' | + | (page 284) and 'omnivorous' (page 290); | + | part of sentence missing in original, completed as 'meet with | + | some success' (page 316); | + | 'muscles' changed to 'mussels' (page 408); | + | 'white-grented' changed to 'white-fronted' (page 413). | + | | + | The parts on swine and poultry have two page numbers in the | + | original work: one for that particular part, one for the complete | + | three-part book. The latter has been used in the Table of Contents,| + | with the former being given between brackets. | + | | + | The chapter headers in the original book consist of illustrations | + | with the chapter title included in the illustration. For the sake | + | of clarity, these chapter titles have been separated from the | + | illustrations and are used as text-only chapter titles. | + | | + | The original book does not contain separator pages between the | + | three parts: the illustrations make it clear where one animal ends | + | and the next begins. In this text headers have been included to | + | mark these transitions. | + | | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Sheep, Swine, and Poultry, by Robert Jennings + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 39205-8.txt or 39205-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/2/0/39205/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Harry Lamé and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Sheep, Swine, and Poultry + Embracing the History and Varieties of Each; The Best Modes + of Breeding; Their Feeding and Management; Together with + etc. + +Author: Robert Jennings + +Release Date: March 19, 2012 [EBook #39205] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Harry Lamé and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></span></p> + +<p class="center fsize250"><b>SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY;</b></p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.25em;" class="center fsize80">EMBRACING</p> + +<p class="center"> +THE HISTORY AND VARIETIES OF EACH; THE BEST MODES OF<br /> +BREEDING; THEIR FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; TO-<br /> +GETHER WITH THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY<br /> +ARE RESPECTIVELY SUBJECT, AND THE<br /> +APPROPRIATE REMEDIES<br /> +FOR EACH.</p> + +<p style="line-height: 1.5em;" class="center fsize125">BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S.,</p> + +<p class="center fsize60"> +PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE OF PHILA-<br /> +DELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE<br /> +OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION OF PHILA-<br /> +DELPHIA; AUTHOR OF “THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES,”<br /> +“CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES,” ETC., ETC.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo001.png" alt="illustration title page" width="150" height="109" /> +<p class="center oldtype" style="line-height: 1.5em;">With Numerous Illustrations.</p></div> + +<p class="center gesp">PHILADELPHIA:</p> + +<p class="center fsize125" style="line-height: .8em;"><b><span class="smcap">John E. Potter and Company.</span></b></p> +<p class="center fsize80 smcap">617 Sansom Street</p> + +<hr class="c65" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a></span></p> + +<p class="center fsize80">Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by</p> + +<p class="center gesp fsize80">JOHN E. POTTER,</p> + +<p class="center fsize80">In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States, in and +for the Eastern<br /> District of Pennsylvania.</p> +<hr class="c65" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> + +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/chapline.png" alt="chapter line" width="100" height="11" /></div> + +<p>Encouraged by the favorable reception of his former works, the author +presents in the following pages what is intended by him as a popular +compendium relative to Sheep, Swine, and Poultry.</p> + +<p>It would not have been a difficult matter to collect material bearing +upon each distinct class sufficient for an entire volume of the present +size. Indeed, the main trouble experienced has been the selecting of +such facts and suggestions only as seemed to him of paramount practical +importance. He has not deemed it advisable to cumber his work with items +of information which could be of service to particular sections and +localities only; but has rather endeavored to present, in a concise, yet +comprehensible shape, whatever is essential to be understood concerning +the animals in question.</p> + +<p>The amateur stock-raiser and the wealthy farmer will, of course, call to +their aid all the works, no matter how expensive or voluminous, which +are to be found bearing upon the subject in which they are for the time +interested. The present volume can scarcely be expected to fill the +niche which such might desire to see occupied.</p> + +<p>The author’s experience as a veterinary surgeon among the great body of +our farmers convinces him that what is needed by them in the premises is +a treatise, of convenient size, containing the essential features of the +treatment and management of each, couched in language free from +technicality or rarely scientific expressions, and fortified by the +results of actual experience upon the farm.</p> + +<p>Such a place the author trusts this work may occupy. He hopes that, +while it shall not be entirely destitute of interest for any, it will +prove acceptable, in a peculiar degree, to that numerous and thrifty +class of citizens to which allusion has already been made.</p> + +<p>The importance of such a work cannot be overrated. Take the subject of +sheep for example: the steadily growing demand for woollen goods of +every description is producing a great and lucrative +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>development of the +wool trade. Even light fabrics of wool are now extensively preferred +throughout the country to those of cotton. Our imports of wool from +England during the past six years have increased at an almost incredible +rate, while our productions of the article during the past few years +greatly exceed that of the same period in any portion of our history.</p> + +<p>Relative to swine, moreover, it may be said that they form so +considerable an item of our commerce that a thorough information as to +the best mode of raising and caring for them is highly desirable; while +our domestic poultry contribute so much, directly and indirectly, to the +comfort and partial subsistence of hundreds of thousands, that sensible +views touching that division will be of service in almost every +household.</p> + +<p>To those who are familiar with the author’s previous works upon the +Horse and Cattle, it is needless to say any thing as to the method +adopted by him in discussing the subject of Diseases. To others he would +say, that only such diseases are described as are likely to be actually +encountered, and such curatives recommended as his own personal +experience, or that of others upon whose judgment he relies, has +satisfied him are rational and valuable.</p> + +<p>The following works, among others, have been consulted: Randall’s Sheep +Husbandry; Youatt on Sheep; Goodale’s Breeding of Domestic Animals; +Allen’s Domestic Animals; Stephens’s Book of the Farm; Youatt on the +Hog; Richardson on the Hog; Dixon and Kerr’s Ornamental and Domestic +Poultry; Bennett’s Poultry Book; and Browne’s American Poultry Yard.</p> + +<p>To those professional brethren who have so courteously furnished him +with valuable information, growing out of their own observation and +practice, he acknowledges himself especially indebted; and were he +certain that they would not take offence, he would be pleased to mention +them here by name.</p> + +<p>Should the work prove of service to our intelligent American farmers and +stock-breeders as a body, the author’s end will have been attained.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></p> + +<h2 class="gesp">CONTENTS.</h2> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/tocline.png" alt="Line" width="100" height="5" /></div> + +<table summary="ToC"> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center fsize150">SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="3" class="right fsize80">PAGE</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top">HISTORY AND VARIETIES</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td style="width: 5%;"> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">American Sheep</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Native Sheep</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Spanish Merino</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Saxon Merino</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The New Leicester</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The South-Down</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Cotswold</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Cheviot</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Lincoln</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Natural History of the Sheep</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Formation of the Teeth</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Structure of the Skin</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Anatomy of the Wool</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Long Wool</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Middle Wool</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Short Wool</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top">CROSSING AND BREEDING</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Breeding</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Points of the Merino</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Breeding Merinos</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">General Principles of Breeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Use of Rams</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Lambing</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Management of Lambs</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Castration and Docking</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Feeding</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Shade</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Fences</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Hoppling</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Dangerous Rams</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Prairie Feeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Fall Feeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Winter Feeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Feeding with other Stock</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Division of Flocks</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Regularity in Feeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Effect of Food</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Yards</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Feeding-Racks</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Troughs</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Barns and Sheds</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Sheds</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Hay-Holder</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Tagging</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Washing</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Cutting the Hoofs</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Shearing</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Cold Storms</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Sun-Scald</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Ticks</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Marking or Branding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Maggots</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Shortening the Horns</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Selection and Division</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Crook</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Driving and Slaughtering</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Driving</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Points of Fat Sheep</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Slaughtering</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Cutting Up</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Relative qualities</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Contributions to Manufactures</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Administering Medicine</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Bleeding</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Feeling the Pulse</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Apoplexy</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Braxy</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Bronchitis</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Catarrh</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Malignant Epizoötic Catarrh</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Colic</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Costiveness</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Diarrhœa</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Disease of the Biflex Canal</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Dysentery</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Flies</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Fouls</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Fractures</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Garget</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Goitre</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Grub in the Head</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Hoof-Ail</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Hoove</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Hydatid on the Brain</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Obstruction of the Gullet</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Ophthalmia</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Palsy</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Pelt-Rot</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Pneumonia</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Poison</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Rot</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Scab</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Small-Pox</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Sore Face</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Sore Mouth</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Ticks</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span><span +class="fsize125">ILLUSTRATIONS.</span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="figcenter"><img src="images/tocline.png" alt="Line" width="100" height="5" /></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Leicester Ram</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Rocky Mountain Sheep</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Merino Ram</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Spanish Sheep-Dog</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Out at Pasture</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Country Scene</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A South-Down Ram</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Cotswold</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Cheviot Ewe</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Sheep as Covered by the Muscles</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Wallachian Sheep</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Happy Trio</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Scotch Sheep-Dog or Colley</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Ewe and Lambs</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Feeding and Management</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Covered Salting-Box</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Convenient Box-Rack</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Hole-Rack</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Hopper-Rack</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">An Economical Sheep-Trough</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Sheep-Barn with Sheds</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Shed of Rails</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Washing Apparatus</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Toe-nippers</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Fleece</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Shepherd’s Crook</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Shepherd and his Flock</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Drover’s or Butcher’s Dog</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Quiet Enjoyment</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">An English Rack for Feeding Sheep</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Barrack for Storing Sheep Fodder</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Broad-tailed Sheep</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span><span +class="fsize150">CONTENTS.</span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="figcenter"><img src="images/tocline.png" alt="Line" width="100" height="5" /></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center fsize150">SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top">HISTORY AND BREEDS</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(7)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">American Swine</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(16)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Byefield</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(18)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Bedford</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(18)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Leicester</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(19)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Yorkshire</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(19)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Chinese</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(20)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Suffolk</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(22)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Berkshire</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(23)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Natural History of the Hog</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(25)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Formation of the Teeth</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(27)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top">BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(29)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Breeding</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(29)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Points of a Good Hog</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(36)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Treatment during Pregnancy</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(38)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Abortion</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(39)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Parturition</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(41)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Treatment while Suckling</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(44)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Treatment of Young Pigs</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(45)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Castration</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(46)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Spaying</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(48)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Weaning</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(49)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Ringing</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(51)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Feeding and Fattening</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(52)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Piggeries</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(57)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Slaughtering</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(60)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Pickling and Curing</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(62)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Value of the Carcass</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(66)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(69)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Catching the Pig</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(70)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Bleeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(71)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Drenching</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(72)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Catarrh</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(72)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Cholera</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(73)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Crackings</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(76)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Diarrhœa</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(76)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Fever</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(77)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Foul Skin</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(79)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Inflammation of the Lungs</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(79)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Jaundice</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(80)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Leprosy</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(81)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Lethargy</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_319">319</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(81)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Mange</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(82)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Measles</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(84)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Murrain</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(85)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Quinsy</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(85)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Staggers</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(85)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Swelling of the Spleen</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(85)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Surfeit</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(87)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Tumors</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(87)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="figcenter"><img src="images/tocline.png" alt="Line" width="100" height="5" /></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center fsize150">ILLUSTRATIONS.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Wild Boar</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(7)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Wild Boar at Bay</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(14)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Chinese Hog</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(21)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Suffolk</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(22)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Berkshire Boar</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(23)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Skeleton of the Hog as Covered by the Muscles</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(25)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Old Country Well</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(29)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Wild Hogs</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(41)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Old English Hog</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(61)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Wicked-Looking Specimen</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(69)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Hunting The Wild Boar</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(77)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span><span +class="fsize150">CONTENTS.</span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="figcenter"><img src="images/tocline.png" alt="Line" width="100" height="5" /></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center fsize150">POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top">HISTORY AND VARIETIES</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(7)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Domestic Fowl</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(7)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Bantam</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(10)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The African Bantam</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(11)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Bolton Gray</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(13)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Blue Dun</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(14)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Chittagong</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(15)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Cochin China</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(16)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Cuckoo</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(19)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Dominique</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(20)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Dorking</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(20)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Fawn-colored Dorking</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(23)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Black Dorking</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(23)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Dunghill Fowl</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(24)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Frizzled Fowl</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(24)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Game Fowl</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(25)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Mexican Hen-Cock</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(27)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Wild Indian Game</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(28)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Spanish Game</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(28)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Guelderland</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(29)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Spangled Hamburgh</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(30)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Golden Spangled</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(30)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Silver Spangled</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(31)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Java</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(32)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Jersey-Blue</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(32)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Lark-Crested Fowl</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(32)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>The Malay</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(34)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Pheasant-Malay</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(36)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Plymouth Rock</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(37)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Poland</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(38)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Black Polish</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(40)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Golden Polands</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(41)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Silver Polands</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(43)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Black-topped White</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_364">364</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(44)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Shanghae</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_364">364</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(44)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The White Shanghae</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(47)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Silver Pheasant</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(48)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Spanish</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(49)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Natural History of Domestic Fowls</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_372">372</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(52)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Guinea Fowl</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(58)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Pea Fowl</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(61)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Turkey</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(66)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Wild Turkey</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(66)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Domestic Turkey</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_391">391</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(71)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Duck</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_394">394</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(74)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Wild Duck</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(76)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Domestic Duck</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(78)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(82)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Wild Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(82)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Domestic Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_404">404</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(84)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Bernacle Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(87)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Bremen Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_409">409</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(89)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Brent Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_410">410</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(90)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The China Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(91)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The White China</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(93)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Egyptian Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_414">414</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(94)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Java Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(95)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Toulouse Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_415">415</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(95)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The White-fronted Goose</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(96)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">The Anatomy of the Egg</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_417">417</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(97)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top">BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(101)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Breeding</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(101)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">High Breeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_422">422</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(102)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Selection of Stock</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(109)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Feeding</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_432">432</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(112)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>Bran</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(115)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Millet</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(116)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Rice</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(116)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Potatoes</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(116)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Green Food</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(117)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Earth-Worms</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(117)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Animal Food</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(118)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Insects</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(119)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Laying</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(119)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Preservation of Eggs</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(123)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Choice of Eggs for Setting</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_446">446</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(126)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Incubation</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_449">449</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(129)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Incubation of Turkeys</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_453">453</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(133)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Incubation of Geese</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_454">454</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(134)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Rearing of the Young</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_455">455</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(135)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Rearing of Guinea Fowls</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_458">458</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(138)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Rearing of Turkeys</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_459">459</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(139)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Rearing of Ducklings</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_461">461</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(141)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Rearing of Goslings</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_463">463</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(143)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Caponizing</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_464">464</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(144)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Fattening and Slaughtering</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_468">468</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(148)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Slaughtering and Dressing</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_472">472</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(152)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Poultry-Houses</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_474">474</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(154)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="left top">DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_478">478</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(158)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Asthma</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_479">479</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(159)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Costiveness</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_480">480</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(160)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Diarrhœa</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_481">481</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(161)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Fever</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(162)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Indigestion</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(162)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Lice</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(163)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Loss of Feathers</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(165)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Pip</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_485">485</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(165)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Roup</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_488">488</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(168)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top">Wounds and Sores</td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_490">490</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(170)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span><span +class="fsize150">ILLUSTRATIONS.</span></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4" class="figcenter"><img src="images/tocline.png" alt="Line" width="100" height="5" /></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="4"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Varieties of Fowl</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(7)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Bantam</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(11)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Bantam</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(12)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Bolton Grays or Creole Fowl</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(13)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Cochin Chinas</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(17)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">White Dorkings</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(21)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Gray Game Fowls</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(26)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Guelderlands</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(29)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Hamburgh Fowls</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(30)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Malays</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(34)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Poland Fowls</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(39)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Shanghaes</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(45)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">White Shanghaes</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(47)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Spanish Fowls</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(49)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Guinea Fowl</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(59)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Pea Fowl</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_382">382</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(62)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Wild Turkey</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(66)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Domestic Turkey</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(72)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">The Eider Duck</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(75)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Wild Duck</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(77)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Rouen Duck</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_399">399</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(79)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Wild or Canada Goose</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(83)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Bremen Goose</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_409">409</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(89)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">China or Hong Kong Goose</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(91)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Barnyard Scene</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(101)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Fighting Cocks</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(109)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">On the Watch</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(119)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Marquee Or Tent-shaped Coops</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(136)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Duck-Pond and Houses</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_461">461</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(141)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Bad Style of Slaughtering</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_468">468</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(148)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Rustic Poultry-House</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(155)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">A Fancy Coop in Chinese or Gothic Style</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_476">476</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(156)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Among the Straw</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_478">478</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(158)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Prairie Hens</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_483">483</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(163)</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td> </td> +<td class="left top"><span class="smcap">Swans</span></td> +<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_488">488</a></td> +<td class="right bot padl1">(168)</td> +</tr> + +</table> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo015.png" alt="A Leicester Ram" width="350" height="298" /></div> + +<p>With a single exception—that of the dog—there is no member of the +beast family which presents so great a diversity of size, color, form, +covering, and general appearance, as characterizes the sheep; and none +occupy a wider range of climate, or subsist on a greater variety of +food. This animal is found in every latitude between the Equator and the +Arctic circle, ranging over barren mountains and through fertile +valleys, feeding upon almost every species of edible forage—the +cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals, and roots—browsing on aromatic +and bitter herbs alike, cropping the leaves and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> barks from stunted +forest shrubs and the pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of +Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or +flesh during the long, rigorous winter, and, if reduced to necessity, +even devours his own wool.</p> + +<p>In size, he is diminutive or massive; he has many horns, or but two +large or small spiral horns, or is polled or hornless. His tail may be +broad, or long, or a mere button, discoverable only by the touch. His +covering is long and coarse, or short and hairy, or soft and furry, or +fine and spiral. His color varies from white or black to every shade of +brown, dun, buff, blue, and gray. This wide diversity results from long +domestication under almost every conceivable variety of condition.</p> + +<p>Among the antediluvians, sheep were used for sacrificial offerings, and +their fleeces, in all probability, furnished them with clothing. Since +the deluge their flesh has been a favorite food among many nations. Many +of the rude, wandering tribes of the East employ them as beasts of +burden. The uncivilized—and, to some extent, the refined—inhabitants +of Europe use their milk, not only as a beverage, but for making into +cheese, butter, and curds—an appropriation of it which is also noticed +by Job, Isaiah, and other Old Testament writers, as well as most of the +Greek and Roman authors. The ewe’s milk scarcely differs in appearance +from that of the cow, though it is generally thicker, and yields a pale, +yellowish butter, which is always soft and soon becomes rancid. In dairy +regions the animal is likewise frequently employed at the tread-mill or +horizontal wheel, to pump water, churn milk, or perform other light +domestic work.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>The calling of the shepherd has, from time immemorial, been conspicuous, +and not wanting in dignity and importance. Abel was a keeper of sheep; +as were Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient +patriarchs. Job possessed fourteen thousand sheep. Rachel, the favored +mother of the Jewish race, “came with her father’s sheep, for she kept +them.” The seven daughters of the priest of Midian “came and drew water +for their father’s flocks.” Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, “learned +in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,” busied himself in tending “the +flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law.” David, too, that sweet singer of +Israel and its destined monarch—the Jewish hero, poet, and divine—was +a keeper of sheep. To shepherds, “abiding in the field, keeping watch +over their flocks by night,” came the glad tidings of a Saviour’s birth. +The Hebrew term for sheep signifies, in its etymology, fruitfulness, +abundance, plenty—indicative of the blessings which they were destined +to confer upon the human family. In the Holy Scriptures, this animal is +the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues, the victim of +propitiatory sacrifices, and the type of redemption to fallen man.</p> + +<p>Among profane writers, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, +introduce them in their pastoral themes; while their heroes and +demi-gods—Hercules and Ulysses, Eneas and Numa—carefully perpetuate +them in their domains.</p> + +<p>In modern times, they have engaged the attention of the most enlightened +nations, whose prosperity has been intimately linked with them, wherever +wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain +and Portugal, during the two centuries in which they figured as the +most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> enterprising European countries, excelled in the production and +manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a time, took precedence of England in +the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life; and the latter +country then sent what little wool she raised to the former to be +manufactured. This being soon found highly impolitic, large bounties +were offered by England for the importation of artists and machinery; +and by a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to +the utmost protection and increase of wool and woollens, she gradually +carried their production beyond any thing the world had ever seen.</p> + +<p>Of the original breed of this invaluable animal, nothing certain is +known; four varieties having been deemed by naturalists entitled to that +distinction.</p> + +<p>These are, 1. The <i>Musimon</i>, inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, and other +islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts of Spain and Greece, +and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea. These have been +frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds.</p> + +<p>2. The <i>Argali</i> ranges over the steppes, or inland plains of Central +Asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. They are larger and hardier +than the Musimon and not so easily tamed.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>Rocky Mountain Sheep</i>—frequently called the <i>Bighorn</i> by our +western hunters—is found on the prairies west of the Mississippi, and +throughout the wild, mountainous regions extending through California +and Oregon to the Pacific. They are larger than the Argali—which in +other respects they resemble—and are probably descended from them, +since they could easily cross upon the ice at Behring’s Straits, from +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> north-eastern coast of Asia. Like the Argali, when caught young +they are readily tamed; but it is not known that they have ever been +bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country was overrun by the +white ram, they probably inhabited the region bordering on the +Mississippi. Father Hennepin—a French Jesuit, who wrote some two +hundred years ago—often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels +through the territory which is now embraced by Illinois, Wisconsin, and +a portion of Minnesota. The wild, clambering propensities of these +animals—occupying, as they do, the giddy heights far beyond the reach +of the traveller—and their outer coating of hair—supplied underneath, +however, with a thick coating of soft wool—give them much the +appearance of goats. In summer they are generally found single; but when +they descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they are +gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/illo019.png" alt="Rocky Mountain Sheep" width="350" height="368" /> +<p class="caption">ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. The <i>Bearded Sheep of Africa</i> inhabit the mountains of Barbary and +Egypt. They are covered with a soft, reddish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> hair, and have a mane +hanging below the neck, and large, locks of hair at the ankle.</p> + +<p>Many varieties of the domesticated sheep—that is, all the subjugated +species—apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each +other.</p> + +<p>The <i>fat-rumped</i> and the <i>broad-tailed sheep</i> are much more extensively +diffused than any other, and occupy nearly all the south-eastern part of +Europe, Western and Central Asia, and Northern Africa. They are +supposed, from various passages in the Pentateuch in which “the fat and +the rump” are spoken of in connection with offerings, to be the +varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants, +the Jewish race. They certainly give indisputable evidence of remote and +continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly +artificial posterior developments, are characteristic of no wild or +recently domesticated race.</p> + +<p>This breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in all their +characteristics of size, fleece, color, etc., with quite as many and +marked shades of distinction as the modern European varieties. In +Madagascar, they are covered with hair; in the south of Africa, with +coarse wool; in the Levant, and along the Mediterranean, the wool is +comparatively fine; and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the +exquisite Cashmere shawls of commerce are manufactured. Both rams and +ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they +exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of scarcely +thirty pounds, while others have weighed two hundred pounds dressed. The +tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of +breeding; some are less than one-eighth, while others exceed one-third +of the entire<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is esteemed a +great delicacy; in hot climates resembling oil, and in colder, suet.</p> + +<p>It is doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to Great Britain; but they +are mentioned as existing there at very early periods.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>AMERICAN SHEEP.</h3> + +<p>In North America, there are none, strictly speaking, except the Rocky +Mountain breed, already mentioned. The broad-tailed sheep of Asia and +Africa were brought into the United States about seventy years ago, +under the name of the Tunisian Mountain sheep, and bred with the native +flocks. Some of them were subsequently distributed among the farmers of +Pennsylvania, and their mixed descendants were highly prized as +prolific, and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attaining large +weight, of a superior quality of carcass, and yielding a heavy fleece of +excellent wool. The principal objection made to them was the difficulty +of propagation, which always required the assistance of the shepherd. +The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black; but all, +excepting the black, grew white as they approached maturity, retaining +some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes +having the entire head tawny or black. The few which descended from the +original importations have become blended with American flocks, and have +long ceased to be distinguishable from them. The common sheep of Holland +were early imported by the Dutch emigrants, who originally colonized New +York; but they, in like manner, have long since ceased to exist as a +distinct variety.</p> + +<p>Improved European breeds have been so largely introduced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> during the +present century, that the United States at present possesses every known +breed which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. By the +census of 1860, there were nearly twenty-three and a half millions of +sheep in this country, yielding upwards of sixty and a half million +pounds of wool. An almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place +between the Spanish, English, and “native” families; carried, indeed, to +such an extent that there are, comparatively speaking, few flocks in the +United States that preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of +any one breed, or that can lay claim to unmixed purity of blood.</p> + +<p>The principal breeds in the United States are the so-called “Natives;” +the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from the countries whose names +they bear: the New Leicester, or Bakewell; the South-Down; the Cotswold; +the Cheviot; and the Lincoln—all from England.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>NATIVE SHEEP.</h3> + +<p>This name is popularly applied to the common coarse-woolled sheep of the +country, which existed here previously to the importation of the +improved breeds. These were of foreign and mostly of English origin, and +could probably claim a common descent from no one stock. The early +settlers, emigrating from different sections of the British Empire, and +a portion of them from other parts of Europe, brought with them, in all +probability, each the favorite breed of his own immediate neighborhood, +and the admixture of these formed the mongrel family now under +consideration. Amid the perils of war and the incursions of beasts of +prey, they were carefully preserved. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> early as 1676, New England was +spoken of as “abounding with sheep.”</p> + +<p>These common sheep yielded a wool suitable only for the coarsest +fabrics, averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from three to three +and a half pounds of wool to the fleece. They were slow in arriving at +maturity, compared with the improved English breeds, and yielded, when +fully grown, from ten to fourteen pounds of a middling quality of mutton +to the quarter. They were usually long-legged, light in the +fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back; although some rare +instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, and some +approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. They were +excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely destitute of care, +and without shelter, one hundred per cent. of lambs; and in small +flocks, a still larger proportion. These, too, were usually dropped in +March, or the earlier part of April. Restless in their disposition, +their impatience of restraint almost equalled that of the untamed +Argali, from which they were descended; and in many sections of the +country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with +little regard to enclosures, over the possessions of their owner and his +neighbors, leaving a large portion of their wool adhering to bushes and +thorns, and the remainder placed nearly beyond the possibility of +carding, by the tory-weed and burdock, so common on new lands.</p> + +<p>To this general character of the native flocks, there was but one +exception—a considerably numerous and probably accidental variety, +known as the <i>Otter breed</i>, or <i>Creepers</i>. These were excessively +duck-legged, with well-formed bodies, full chests, broad backs, yielding +a close, heavy fleece, of medium quality<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> of wool. They were deserved +favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed, since their +power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if +protected by a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their +mutton equalled, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior +to, their longer-legged contemporaries. The race is now quite extinct.</p> + +<p>An excellent variety, called the Arlington sheep, was produced by +General Washington, from a cross of a Persian ram upon the Bakewell, +which bore wool fourteen inches in length, soft, silky, and admirably +suited to combing. These, likewise, have long since become incorporated +with the other flocks of the country.</p> + +<p>The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly or +quite disappeared, owing to universal crossing, to a greater or less +extent, with the foreign breeds of later introduction. The first and +second cross with the Merino resulted in a decided improvement, and +produced a variety exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool +solely for domestic purposes. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being +hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc.; but the general quality is much +improved, the quantity is considerably augmented, the carcass is more +compact and nearer the ground, and they have lost their unquiet and +roving propensities. The cross with the Saxon, for reasons hereafter to +be given, has not generally been so successful. With the Leicester and +Downs, the improvement, so far as form size, and a propensity to take on +fat are concerned, is manifest.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></p> +<h3>THE SPANISH MERINO.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo025.png" alt="A Merino Ram" width="350" height="331" /> +<p class="caption">A MERINO RAM.</p></div> + +<p>The Spanish sheep, in different countries, has, either directly or +indirectly, effected a complete revolution in the character of the +fleece. The race is unquestionably one of the most ancient extant. The +early writers on agriculture and the veterinary art describe various +breeds of sheep as existing in Spain, of different colors—black, red, +and tawny. The black sheep yielded a fine fleece, the finest of that +color which was then known; but the red fleece of Bætica—a considerable +part of the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, comprising the modern +Spanish provinces of Gaen, Cordova, Seville, Andalusia, and Granada, +which was early colonized by the enterprising Greeks—was, according to +Pliny, of still superior quality, and “had no fellow.”</p> + +<p>These sheep were probably imported from Italy, and of the Tarentine +breed, which had gradually spread from the coast of Syria, and of the +Black Sea, and had then reached the western extremity of Europe. Many of +them mingled with and improved the native breeds of Spain, while others +continued to exist as a distinct race, and, meeting with a climate and +an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> herbage suited to them, retained their original character and value, +and were the progenitors of the Merinos of the present day. Columella, a +colonist from Italy, and uncle of the writer of an excellent work on +agriculture, introduced more of the Tarentine sheep into Bætica, where +he resided in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, in the year 41, and +otherwise improved on the native breed; for, struck with the beauty of +some African rams which had been brought to Rome to be exhibited at the +public games, he purchased them, and conveyed them to his farm in Spain, +whence, probably, originated the better varieties of the long-woolled +breeds of that country.</p> + +<p>Before his time, however, Spain possessed a valuable breed; since +Strabo, who flourished under Tiberius, speaking of the beautiful woollen +cloths that were worn by the Romans, says that the wool was brought from +Truditania, in Spain.</p> + +<p>The limited region of Italy—overrun, as it repeatedly was, by hordes of +barbarians during and after the times of the latest emperors—soon lost +her pampered flocks; while the extended regions of Spain—intersected in +every direction by almost impassable mountains—could maintain their +more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change.</p> + +<p>To what extent the improvements which have been noticed were carried is +unknown; but as Spain was at that time highly civilized, and as +agriculture was the favorite pursuit of the greater part of the +colonists that spread over the vast territory, which then acknowledged +the Roman power, it is highly probable that Columella’s experiments laid +the foundation for a general improvement in the Spanish sheep—an +improvement, moreover, which was not lost, nor even materially impaired, +during the darker ages that succeeded.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +The Merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent surpassed by no +others. They have been improved in the general weight and evenness of +their fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet; in the +uniformity and excessive fineness of the fibre, as in the Saxons; and in +their form and feeding qualities, in various countries; but there has +never yet been deterioration, either in quantity or quality of fleece or +carcass, wherever they have been transported, if supplied with suitable +food and attention. Most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped; +while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for five years, when +allowed to remain unshorn.</p> + +<p>Conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding among +themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs +beneath the skin have become permanently established; and this property +is transmitted to a great extent, even among the crosses, thus marking +the Merino as an ancient and peculiar race.</p> + +<p>The remains of the ancient varieties of color, also, as noticed by +Pliny, Solinus, and Columella, may still be discovered in the modern +Merino. The plain and indeed the only reason that can be assigned for +the union of black and gray faces with white bodies, in the same breed, +is the frequent intermixture of black and white sheep, until the white +prevails in the fleece, and the black is confined to the face and legs. +It is still apt to break out occasionally in the individual, unless it +is fixed and concentrated in the face and legs, by repeated crosses and +a careful selection; and, on the contrary, in the Merino South-Down the +black may be reduced by a few crosses to small spots about the legs, +while the Merino hue overspreads the countenance. This hue—variously +described as a velvet, a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> buff, a fawn, or a satin-colored countenance, +but in which a red tinge not infrequently predominates, still indicates +the original colors of the indigenous breeds of Spain; and the black +wool, for which Spain was formerly so much distinguished, is still +inclined to break out occasionally in the legs and ears of the Merino. +In some flocks half the ear is invariably brown, and a coarse black hair +is often discernible in the finest pile.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo028.png" alt="Spanish Sheep Dog" width="350" height="261" /> +<p class="caption">A SPANISH SHEEP DOG.</p></div> + +<p>The conquest, in the eighth century, by the Moors of those fine +provinces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served rather to +encourage the production of fine wool. The conquerors were not only +enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, and carried on +extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, which they exported to +different countries. The luxury of the Moorish sovereigns has been the +theme of many writers; and in the thirteenth century, when the woollen +manufacture flourished in but few places, there were found in Seville no +less than sixteen thousand looms. A century later, Barcelona, Perpignan, +and Tortosa were celebrated for the fineness of their cloths, which +became staple articles of trade throughout the greater part of Europe, +as well as on the coast of Africa.</p> + +<p>After the expulsion of the Moors, in the fifteenth century,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> by +Ferdinand and Isabella, the woollen manufacture languished, and was, in +a great degree, lost to Spain, owing to the rigorous banishment of +nearly one million industrious Moors, most of whom were weavers. As a +consequence, the sixteen thousand looms of Seville dwindled down to +sixty. The Spanish government perceived its fatal mistake too late, and +subsequent efforts to gain its lost vantage-ground in respect to this +manufacture proved fruitless. During all that time, however, the Spanish +sheep appear to have withstood the baneful influence of almost total +neglect; and although the Merino flocks and Merino wool have improved +under the more careful management of other countries, the world is +originally indebted to Spain for the most valuable material in the +manufacture of cloth.</p> + +<p>The perpetuation of the Merino sheep in all its purity, amid the +convulsions which changed the entire political framework of Spain and +destroyed every other national improvement, strikingly illustrates the +primary determining power of blood or breeding, as well as the agency of +soil and climate—possibly too much underrated in modern times.</p> + +<p>These Spanish sheep are divided into two classes: the <i>stationary</i>, or +those that remain during the whole of the year on a certain farm, or in +a certain district, there being a sufficient provision for them in +winter and in summer; and the <i>migratory</i>, or those which wander some +hundreds of miles twice in the year, in quest of pasturage. The +principal breed of stationary sheep consists of true Merinos; but the +breeds most sought for, and with which so many countries have been +enriched, are the Merinos of the migratory description, which pass the +summer in the mountains of the north, and the winter on the plains +toward the south of Spain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +The first impression made by the Merino sheep on one unacquainted with +its value would be unfavorable. The wool lying closer and thicker over +the body than in most other breeds, and being abundant in yolk—or a +peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, which nourishes the wool +and causes it to mat closely together—is covered with a dirty crust, +often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet small in the bone; the +breast and the back are narrow, and the sides somewhat flat; the +fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is +carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively +large, curved, and with more or less of a spiral form; the head is +large, but the forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned; +but, generally speaking, they are without horns. Both male and female +have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and +cheeks, which the careful shepherd cuts away before the shearing-time; +the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet +appearance. Under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin, +which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness +in the neck. The pile or hair, when pressed upon, is hard and +unyielding, owing to the thickness into which it grows on the pelf, and +the abundance of the yolk, retaining all the dirt and gravel which falls +upon it; but, upon examination, the fibre exceeds, in fineness and in +the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the +world produces. The average weight of the fleece in Spain is eight +pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. The staple differs in length +in different provinces. When fatted, these sheep will weigh from twelve +to sixteen pounds per quarter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>The excellence of the Merinos consist in the unexampled fineness and +felting property of their wool, and in the weight of it yielded by each +individual sheep; the closeness of that wool, and the luxuriance of the +yolk, which enable them to support extremes of cold and wet quite as +well as any other breed; the readiness with which they adapt themselves +to every change of climate, retaining, with common care, all their +fineness of wool, and thriving under a burning tropical sun, and in the +frozen regions of the north; an appetite which renders them apparently +satisfied with the coarsest food; a quietness and patience into whatever +pasture they are turned; and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled +in any other breed.</p> + +<p>Their defects—partly attributable to the breed, but more to the +improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally +subjected—are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form; a tendency to +abortion, or barrenness; a difficulty of yeaning, or giving birth to +their young; a paucity of milk; and a too frequent neglect of their +lambs. They are likewise said, notwithstanding the fineness of their +wool, and the beautiful red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, +to be more subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds. Man, +however, is far more responsible for this than Nature. Every thing was +sacrificed in Spain to fineness and quantity of wool. These were +supposed to be connected with equality of temperature, or, at least, +with freedom from exposure to cold; and, therefore, twice in the year, a +journey of four hundred miles was undertaken, at the rate of eighty or a +hundred miles per week—the spring journey commencing when the lambs +were scarcely four months old. It is difficult to say in what way the +wool of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> migratory sheep was, or could be, benefited by these +periodical journeys. Although among them is found the finest and most +valuable wool in Spain, yet the stationary sheep, in certain +provinces—Segovia, Leon, and Estremadura—are more valuable than the +migratory flocks of others. Moreover, the fleece of some of the German +Merinos—which do not travel at all, and are housed all the +winter—greatly exceeds that obtained from the best migratory breed—the +Leonese—in fineness and felting property; and the wool of the migratory +sheep has been, comparatively speaking, driven out of the market by that +from sheep which never travel. With respect to the carcass, these +harassing journeys, occupying one-quarter of the year, tend to destroy +all possibility of fattening, or any tendency toward it, and the form +and the constitution of the flock are deteriorated, and the lives of +many sacrificed.</p> + +<p>The first importation of Merinos into the United States took place in +1801; a banker of Paris, Mr. Delessert, having shipped four, of which +but one arrived in safety at his farm near Kingston, in New York; the +others perished on the passage. The same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of +Massachusetts, imported a pair from France. In 1802, Chancellor +Livingston, then American Minister at the court of Versailles, sent two +choice pairs from the Rambouillet flock—which was started, in 1786, by +placing four hundred ewes and rams, selected from the choicest Spanish +flocks, on the royal farm of that name, in France—to Claremont, his +country-seat, on the Hudson river. In the latter part of the same year, +Colonel Humphreys, American Minister to Spain, shipped two hundred, on +his departure from that country. The largest importations, however, were +made through Hon. William Jarvis, of Vermont,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> then American Consul at +Lisbon, Portugal, in 1809, 1810, and 1811, who succeeded in obtaining +the choicest sheep of that country. Various subsequent importations took +place, which need not be particularized.</p> + +<p>The cessation of all commercial intercourse with England, in 1808 and +1809, growing out of difficulties with that country, directed attention, +in an especial manner, toward manufacturing and wool-growing. The +Merino, consequently, rose into importance, and so great was the +interest aroused, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a +head was paid for them. Some of the later importations, unfortunately, +arrived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the +sheep family, the scab and the foot-rot; which evils, together with +increased supply, soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part +of their former price. When, however, it was established, by actual +experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate in this country, as had +been feared by many, and that they became readily acclimated, they again +rose into favor. The prostration of the manufacturing interests of the +country, which ensued soon afterwards, rendered the Merino of +comparatively little value, and ruined many who had purchased them at +their previous high prices. Since that period, the valuation of the +sheep which bear the particular wool has, as a matter of course, kept +pace with the fluctuations in the price of the wool.</p> + +<p>The term Merino, it must be remembered, is but the general appellation +of a breed, comprising several varieties, presenting essential points of +difference in size, form, quality and quantity of wool. These families +have generally been merged, by interbreeding, in the United States and +other countries which have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> received the race from Spain. Purity of +<i>Merino</i> blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its +ancestors, form the only standard in selecting sheep of this breed. +Families have, indeed, sprung up in this country, exhibiting wider +points of difference than did those of Spain. This is owing, in some +cases, doubtless, to particular causes of breeding; but more often, +probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. The +question, which has been at times raised, whether there are any Merinos +in the United States, descendants of the early importations, of +unquestionable purity of blood, has been conclusively settled in the +affirmative.</p> + +<p>The minor distinctions among the various families into which, as has +already been intimated, the American Merino has diverged, are numerous, +but may all, perhaps, be classed under three general heads.</p> + +<p>The <i>first</i> is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, +carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine, free from hair in +properly bred flocks; somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much +so as the Rambouillets; bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some +flocks, but not commonly so; their wool rather long on back and belly, +and exceedingly dense; wool whiter within than the Rambouillets; skin +the same rich rose-color. Sheep of this class are larger and stronger +than those originally imported, carry much heavier fleeces, and in +well-selected flocks, or individuals, the fleece is of a decidedly +better quality.</p> + +<p>The <i>second</i> class embraces smaller animals than the preceding; less +hardy; wool, as a general thing, finer, and covered with a black, pitchy +gum on its extremities; fleece about one-fourth lighter than in the +former class.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/illo035.png" alt="Out at pasture" width="350" height="402" /> +<p class="caption">OUT AT PASTURE.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +The <i>third</i> class, bred at the South, mostly, includes animals still +smaller and less hardy, and carrying still finer and lighter fleeces. +The fleece is destitute of external gum. The sheep and wool have a close +resemblance to the Saxon; and, if not actually mixed with that blood, +they have been formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of +breeding.</p> + +<p>The mutton of the Merino, notwithstanding the prejudices existing on the +subject, is short-grained, and of good flavor, when killed at a proper +age, and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to the quarter. It is +remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth, and continuing to +breed two or three years longer than the common sheep, and at least half +a dozen years longer than the improved English breeds. It should, +however, be remarked, in this connection, that it is correspondingly +slow in arriving at maturity, as it does not attain its full growth +before three years of age; and the ewes, in the best managed flocks, are +rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-woolled sheep, +and its lambs, when newly dropped, are claimed to be hardier than the +Bakewell, and equally so with the high-bred South-Down. The ewe, as has +been intimated, is not so good a nurse, and will not usually do full +justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent. is about the +ordinary number of lambs reared, though it often reaches one hundred per +cent., in carefully managed or small flocks.</p> + +<p>Allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between the Merino and +the native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the +Merinos, they were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the +cross was continued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out. When +the admixture took place with judiciously selected Saxons, the results +were not unfavorable for certain purposes. These instances of judicious +crossing were, unfortunately, rare. Fineness of wool was made the only +tests of excellence, no matter how scanty its quantity, or how +diminutive or miserable the carcass. The consequence was, as might be +supposed, the ruin of most of the Merino flocks.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE SAXON MERINO.</h3> + +<p>The indigenous breed of sheep in Saxony resembled that of the +neighboring states, and consisted of two distinct Varieties—one bearing +a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece applicable only to +the coarsest manufactures.</p> + +<p>At the close of the seven years war, Augustus Frederic, the Elector of +Saxony, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes from the most +improved Spanish flocks, and placed a part of them on one of his own +farms, in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>neighborhood of Dresden, which he kept unmixed, as he +desired to ascertain how far the pure Spanish breed could be naturalized +in that country The other part of the flock was distributed on other +farms, and devoted to the improvement of the Saxon sheep.</p> + +<p>It was soon sufficiently apparent that the Merinos did not degenerate in +Saxony. Many parcels of their wool were not inferior to the choicest +Leonese fleeces. The best breed of the native Saxons was also materially +improved: The majority of the shepherds were, however, obstinately +prejudiced against the innovation; but the elector, resolutely bent upon +accomplishing his object, imported an additional number, and compelled +the crown-tenants, then occupying lands under him, to purchase a certain +number of the sheep.</p> + +<p>Compulsion was not long necessary; the true interest of the shepherds +was discovered; pure Merinos rapidly increased in Saxony, and became +perfectly naturalized. Indeed, after a considerable lapse of years, the +fleece of the Saxon sheep began, not only to equal the Spanish, but to +exceed it in fineness and manufacturing value. To this result the +government very materially contributed, by the establishment of an +agricultural school, and other minor schools for shepherds, and by +distributing various publications, which plainly and intelligibly showed +the value and proper management of the Merino. The breeders were +selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece. +Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year, and they +were housed on every slight emergency. By this course of breeding and +treatment the size and weight of the fleece were reduced, and that +hardiness and vigor of constitution, which had universally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>characterized the migratory Spanish breed, were partially impaired. In +numerous instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the +character of the flocks.</p> + +<p>The first importation of Saxons into this country was made in 1823, by +Samuel Heustan, a merchant of Boston, Massachusetts, and consisted of +four good rams, of which two went to Boston, and the others to +Philadelphia. The following year, seventy-seven—about two-thirds of +which number only were pure-blooded—were brought to Boston, sold at +public auction at Brooklyn, N.Y., as “pure-blooded electoral Saxons,” +and thus scattered over the country. Another lot, composed of grade +sheep and pure-bloods, was disposed of, not long afterwards, by public +sale, at Brighton, near Boston, and brought increased prices, some of +them realizing from four hundred to five hundred and fifty dollars.</p> + +<p>These prices gave rise to speculation, and many animals, of a decidedly +inferior grade, were imported, which were thrown upon the market for the +most they could command. The sales in many instances not half covering +the cost of importation, the speculation was soon abandoned. In 1827, +Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, N.Y., a native of Germany, and a highly +intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd, who had accompanied some of +the early importations, imported one hundred and fifteen choice animals +for his own breeding, and, in the following year, eighty more. These +formed the flock from which Mr. Grove bred, to the time of his decease, +in 1844. The average weight of fleece from his entire flock, nearly all +of which were ewes and lambs, was ten pounds and fourteen ounces, +thoroughly washed on the sheep’s back. This was realized after a short +summer and winter’s keep, when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> quantity of hay or its equivalent +fed to the sheep did not exceed one and a half pounds, by actual weight, +per day, except to the ewes, which received an additional quantity just +before and after lambing. This treatment was attended with no disease or +loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, equalling one for every +ewe.</p> + +<p>The Saxon Merino differs materially in frame from the Spanish; there is +more roundness of carcass and fineness of bone, together with a general +form and appearance indicative of a disposition to fatten. Two distinct +breeds are noticed. One variety has stouter legs, stouter bodies, head +and neck comparatively short and broad, and body round; the wool grows +most on the face and legs; the grease in the wool is almost pitchy. The +other breed, called Escurial, has longer legs, with a long, spare neck +and head; very little wool on the latter; and a finer, shorter, and +softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity.</p> + +<p>From what has just been stated it will be seen that there are few Saxon +flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality of +grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure +which were imported together; all of them being sold to our breeders as +pure stock. Besides, there are very few flocks which have not been again +crossed with the Native or the Merino sheep of our country, or with +both. Those who early purchased the Merino crossed them with the Native; +and when the Saxons arrived those mongrels were bred to Saxon rams. This +is the history of three-quarters, probably, of the Saxon flocks of the +United States.</p> + +<p>As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> Saxon +that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it may well be questioned whether +they are any worse for the admixture; when crossed only with the Merino, +it is, undoubtedly, to their advantage. The American Saxon, with these +early crosses in its pedigree, is, by general admission, a hardier and +more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. +Climate, feed, and other causes have, doubtless, conspired, as in the +case of the Merino, to add to their size and vigor; but, after every +necessary allowance has been made, they generally owe these qualities to +those early crosses.</p> + +<p>The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from two or +two and a quarter to three pounds. They are, comparatively speaking, a +tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in +winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds; but +they are evidently hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and +patience under confinement, in late maturity and longevity, they +resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended; though they do not +mature so early as the Merino, nor do they ordinarily live so long. They +are poorer nurses; their lambs are smaller, fatter, and far more likely +to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched; they do not fatten so +well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food +considerably less.</p> + +<p>Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the +American Merinos; though this is not always the case, and many breeders +of Saxons cross with the Merino, for the purpose of increasing the +weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality. Our Saxon +wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of Germany; though +individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> specimens from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio compare well +with the highest German grades. This inferiority is not attributable to +climate or other natural causes, or to a want of skill on the part of +our breeders; but to the fact that but a very few of our manufacturers +have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would +render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which +produce this exquisite quality of wool.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE NEW LEICESTER.</h3> + +<p>The unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy, coarse-woolled breed of +sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It was a slow feeder, +its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor. The breeders of that +period regarded only size and weight of fleece.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/illo041.png" alt="Country Scene" width="350" height="234" /> +<p class="caption">A COUNTRY SCENE.</p></div> + +<p>About the middle of the last century, Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, in +Leicestershire, first applied himself to the improvement of the sheep in +that country. Before his improvements, aptitude to fatten and symmetry +of shape—that is, such shape as should increase as much as possible the +most valuable parts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> of the animal, and diminish the offal in the same +proportion—were entirely disregarded. Perceiving that smaller animals +increased in weight more rapidly than the very large ones, that they +consumed less food, that the same quantity of herbage, applied to +feeding a large number of small sheep, would produce more meat than when +applied to feeding the smaller number of large sheep, which alone it +would support, and that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool possessed +less propensity to fatten than those which carried one of a more +moderate weight, he selected from the different flocks in his +neighborhood, without regard to size, the sheep which appeared to him to +have the greatest propensity to fatten, and whose shape possessed the +peculiarities which, in his judgment, would produce the largest +proportion of valuable meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and +offal.</p> + +<p>He was also of opinion that the first object to be attended to in +breeding sheep is the value of the carcass, and that the fleece ought +always to be a secondary consideration; and this for the obvious reason +that, while the addition of two or three pounds of wool to the weight of +a sheep’s fleece is a difference of great amount, yet if this increase +is obtained at the expense of the animal’s propensity to fatten, the +farmer may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton.</p> + +<p>The sort of sheep, therefore, which he selected were those possessed of +the most perfect symmetry, with the greatest aptitude to fatten, and +rather smaller in size than the sheep generally bred at that time. +Having formed his stock from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to +the peculiarities of the individuals from which he bred, and, so far as +can be ascertained—for all of Mr. Bakewell’s measures were kept +secret,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> even from his most intimate friends, and he died without +throwing, voluntarily, the least light on the subject—did not object to +breeding from near relations, when, by so doing, he brought together +animals likely to produce a progeny possessing the characteristics which +he wished to obtain.</p> + +<p>Having thus established his flock, he adopted the practice—which has +since been constantly followed by the most eminent breeders of sheep—of +letting rams for the season, instead of selling them to those who wished +for their use. By this means the ram-breeder is enabled to keep a much +larger number of rams in his possession; and, consequently, his power of +selecting those most suitable to his flock, or which may be required to +correct any faults in shape or quality which may occur in it, is greatly +increased. By cautiously using a ram for one season, or by observing the +produce of a ram let to some other breeder, he can ascertain the +probable qualities of the lambs which such ram will get, and thus avoid +the danger of making mistakes which would deteriorate the value of his +stock. The farmers, likewise, who hire the rams, have an opportunity of +varying the rams from which they breed much more than they otherwise +could do; and they are also enabled to select from sheep of the best +quality, and from those best calculated to effect the greatest +improvement in their flocks.</p> + +<p>The idea, when first introduced by him, was so novel that he had great +difficulty in inducing the farmers to act upon it; and his first ram was +let for sixteen shillings. So eminent, however, was his success, that, +in 1787, he let three rams, for a single season, for twelve hundred and +fifty pounds (about six thousand two hundred dollars), and was offered +ten hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> and fifty pounds (about five thousand two hundred dollars) +for twenty ewes. Soon afterwards he received the enormous price of eight +hundred guineas (or four thousand dollars) for two-thirds of the +services of a ram for a single season, reserving the other third for +himself.</p> + +<p>The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the +original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser +varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, etc. Where there is a sufficiency of +feed, the New Leicester is unrivalled for its fattening propensities; +but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel +far in search of its food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a +lowland sheep. In its appropriate situation—on the luxuriant herbage of +the highly cultivated lands of England—it possesses unequalled +earliness of maturity; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good +quality, but is usually coarse, and comparatively deficient in flavor, +owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, +and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. The +wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the +succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty to +thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is +long, averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches; and the +fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse +quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloth, on account of its +length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater +or less extent, to all English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it +stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, and +the like textures.</p> + +<p>The high-bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell’s stock became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> shy breeders +and poor nurses; but crosses subsequently adopted have, to some extent, +obviated these defects. The lambs are not, however, generally regarded +as very hardy, and they require considerable attention at the time of +yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moderately cold or stormy. +The grown sheep, too, are much affected by sudden changes in the +weather; an abrupt change to cold being pretty certain to be registered +on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or “snuffles.”</p> + +<p>In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the +meat of this variety is in very great demand; and the consequent return +which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make +renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are recorded +of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these animals. +They have spread into all parts of the British dominions, and been +imported into the other countries of Europe and into the United States.</p> + +<p>They were first introduced into our own country, some forty years since, +by Christopher Dunn, of Albany, N.Y. Subsequent importations have been +made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen. The +breed, however, has never proved a favorite with any large class of +American farmers. Our long, cold winters—but, more especially, our dry, +scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, +tender feed in which the Leicester delights—together with the general +deprivation of green feed in the winter, rob it of its early maturity, +and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is +too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed to suit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +American taste. Its wool is not very salable, owing to the dearth of +worsted manufactures in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool +constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so +difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, +notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the +vicinity of considerable markets, it will always in all probability make +a profitable return.</p> + +<p>The head of the New Leicester should be hornless, long, small, tapering +towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forward; the eyes +prominent, but with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long, and +directed backward; the neck full and broad at its base, where it +proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible +deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll; the +breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven +or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the +back—particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the +situation of these bones; the arm fleshy throughout its whole extent, +and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small, standing wide +apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively void of wool; +the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs forming a +considerable arch from the spine, so as, in some cases—and especially +when the animal is in good condition—to make the apparent width of the +chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed well home; no +irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the carcass +very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump; the quarters long +and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the muscles extending down to the +hock;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> the thighs also wide and full; the legs of a moderate length; and +the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a +good quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but +considerably finer.</p> + + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE SOUTH-DOWN.</h3> + +<p>A long range of chalky hills, diverging from the chalky stratum which +intersects England from Norfolk to Dorchester, is termed the +South-Downs. They enter the county of Sussex on the west side, and are +continued almost in a direct line, as far as East Bourne, where they +reach the sea. They may be regarded as occupying a space of more than +sixty miles in length, and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a +succession of open downs, with few enclosures, and distinguished by +their situation and name from a more northern tract of similar elevation +and soil, passing through Surrey and Kent, and terminating in the cliffs +of Dover, and of the Forelands. On these downs a certain breed of sheep +has been produced for many centuries, in greater perfection than +elsewhere; and hence have sprung those successive colonies which have +found their way abroad and materially benefited the breed of +short-woolled sheep wherever they have gone.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 355px; height: 340px; background-image: url('images/illo047.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat;"> +<p class="caption bot" style="padding-top: 300px; padding-right: 175px;">A SOUTH-DOWN RAM.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +It is only, however, within a comparatively recent period that they have +been brought to their present perfection. As recently as 1776 they were +small in size, and of a form not superior to the common woolled sheep of +the United States; they were far from possessing a good shape, being +long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on +the loins, down on the rump, the tail set on very low, perpendicular +from the hip-bones, sharp on the back; the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow +in the fore-quarters, but good in the leg, although having big bones. +Since that period a course of judicious breeding, pursued by Mr. John +Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex, has mainly contributed to raise this +variety to its present value; and that, too, without the admixture of +the slightest degree of foreign blood.</p> + +<p>This pure, improved family, it will be borne in mind, is spoken of in +the present connection; inasmuch as the original stock, presenting, with +trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited +seventy-five years ago, are yet to be found in England; and the +intermediate space between these two classes is occupied by a variety of +grades, rising or falling in value, as they approximate to or recede +from the improved blood.</p> + +<p>The South-Down sheep are polled, but it is probable that the original +breed was horned, as it is not unusual to find among the male South-Down +lambs some with small horns. The dusky, or at times, black hue of the +head and legs fully establishes the original color of the sheep, and, +perhaps of all sheep; while the later period at which it was seriously +attempted to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful, only +confirms this view. Many of the lambs have been dropped entirely black.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +It is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool—which in point of +length belongs to the middle class, and differs essentially from Merino +wool of any grade, though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces maybe +of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood Merino—is +deficient in felting properties, making a fuzzy, hairy cloth, and is no +longer used in England, unless largely mixed with foreign wool, even for +the lowest class of cloths. As it has deteriorated, however, it has +increased in length of staple, in that country, to such an extent that +improved machinery enables it to be used as a combing-wool, for the +manufacture of worsteds. Where this has taken place it is quite as +profitable as when it was finer and shorter. In the United States, where +the demand for combing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a +better article, the same result would not probably follow. Indeed, it +may well be doubted whether the proper combing length will be easily +reached, or at least maintained in this country, in the absence of that +high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased +length in England. The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is +three pounds; on rich lowlands, a little more.</p> + +<p>The South-Down, however, is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, +which for quality takes precedence of all other—from sheep of good +size—in the English markets. Its early maturity and extreme aptitude to +lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. It is +turned off at the age of two years, and its weight at that age is, in +England, from eighty to one hundred pounds. High-fed wethers have +reached from thirty-two to even forty pounds a quarter. Notwithstanding +its weight, it has a patience of occasional short<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> keep, and an +endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives it a +decided advantage over the bulkier Leicesters and Lincolns, as a mutton +sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage. +It is hardy and healthy, though, in common with the other English +varieties, much subject to catarrh, and no sheep better withstands our +American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and good nurses.</p> + +<p>The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and, though an industrious +feeder, exhibits but little disposition to rove. Like the Leicester, it +is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to +decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with +short and middle-woolled breeds than the Leicester. A sheep possessing +such qualities, must, of necessity, be valuable in upland districts in +the vicinity of markets. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellman three +hundred guineas (fifteen hundred dollars) for two rams; and, in 1800, a +ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford was let for one season at eighty +guineas (four hundred dollars), two others at forty guineas (two hundred +dollars) each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas (one hundred and +forty dollars) each. The first importation into the United States was +made by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia. A subsequent importation, in +1834, cost sixty dollars a head.</p> + +<p>The desirable characteristics of the South-Down may be thus summed up: +The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray, and neither too +long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and +the eyes narrow; the under-jaw or chap fine and thin; the ears tolerably +wide and well-covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole +space<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the +fly; the eye full and bright, but not prominent; the orbits of the eye, +the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal +obstacle in lambing; the neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, +but enlarging toward the shoulders, where it should be broad and high +and straight in its whole course above and below.</p> + +<p>The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the +fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a disposition to thrive; +corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the +back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from the top to +the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it; +the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far +backward, and the last rib projecting more than others; the back flat +from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and +flat; the rump broad, and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level +with the spine.</p> + +<p>The hips should be wide; the space between them and the last rib on each +side as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular +form like a barrel; the belly as straight as the back; the legs neither +too long nor too short; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the +foot, not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart, both +before and behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and they +twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full; the +bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or +dark color; the belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down +before and behind to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> knee and to the hock; the wool short, close, +curled and fine, and free from spiny projecting fibres.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE COTSWOLD.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo052.png" alt="The Cotswold" width="350" height="291" /> +<p class="caption">THE COTSWOLD.</p></div> + +<p>The Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, +coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter, and +shearing a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were formerly bred +only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the Severn and the +Thames; but with the enclosures of the Cotswold hills, and the +improvement of their cultivation, they have been reared and fatted in +the same district. They were hardy, prolific breeders, and capital +nurses; deficient in early maturity, and not possessing feeding +properties equalling those of the South-Down or New Leicester.</p> + +<p>They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep—producing +thus the modern or improved Cotswold—by which their size and fleece +have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses have been materially +improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are sometimes +fattened at fourteen months old, when they weigh from fifteen to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +twenty-four pounds to a quarter; and at two years old, increase to +twenty or thirty pounds.</p> + +<p>The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, six +to eight inches in length, and from seven to eight pounds per fleece. +The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and +their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature +of the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many +places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late +years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under +which management still farther improvement has been made. They have also +been used in crossing other breeds, and have been mixed with the +Hampshire Downs. Indeed, the improved Cotswold, under the name of new, +or improved Oxfordshire sheep, have frequently been the successful +candidates for prizes offered for the best long-woolled sheep at some of +the principal agricultural meetings or shows in England. The quality of +their mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester; the tallow +being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh.</p> + +<p>The degree to which the cross between the Cotswold and Leicester may be +carried, must depend upon the nature of the old stock, and on the +situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat +scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. On a more +sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater +use may be made of the Leicester. Another circumstance that should guide +the farmer is the object which he has principally in view. If he expects +to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> to the +primitive Cotswolds; if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will +use the Leicester ram more freely.</p> + +<p>Sheep of this breed, now of established reputation, have been imported +into the United States by Messrs. Corning and Gotham, of Albany, and +bred by the latter.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE CHEVIOT.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo054.png" alt="A Cheviot Ewe" width="350" height="311" /> +<p class="caption">A CHEVIOT EWE.</p></div> + +<p>On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot hills, in the extreme north of +England, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in +resisting cold, and for feeding on coarse, heathery herbage. A cross +with the Leicester, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the +improved variety.</p> + +<p>The Cheviot readily amalgamates with the Leicester—the rams employed in +the system of breeding, which has been extensively introduced for +producing the first cross of this descent, being of the pure Leicester +breed—and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tendency +to fatten, to the native Cheviot. The benefit, however, may be said to +end with the first cross; and the progeny of this mixed descent is +greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> and fattening +properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution.</p> + +<p>The improved Cheviot has greatly extended itself throughout the +mountains of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the black-faced +breed; but the change, though often advantageous, has in some cases been +otherwise—the latter being somewhat hardier, and more capable of +subsisting on heathy pasturage. They are a hardy race, however, well +suited for their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, +the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. The purest +specimens are to be found on the Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and +on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and +the sources of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, +provided the pasture resembles those hills, in containing a good +proportion of rich herbage. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep +of Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making +more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making it more quickly.</p> + +<p>They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, and are +without horns; the ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is +much space between the ears and eyes; the carcass is long; the back +straight; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular; and the +quarters good. The legs are small in the bone, and covered with wool, as +well as the body, with the exception of the face. The wether is fit for +the butcher at three years old, and averages from twelve to eighteen +pounds a quarter; the mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to +the South-Down, and of less flavor than the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> black-faced. The Cheviot, +though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and easily managed.</p> + +<p>The wool is about the quality of Leicester, coarse and long, suitable +only for the manufacture of low coatings and flushings. It closely +covers the body, assisting much in preserving it from the effects of wet +and cold. The fleece averages about three and a half pounds. Formerly, +the wool was extensively employed in making cloths; but having given +place to the finer Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined +to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether a secondary +consideration.</p> + +<p>The Cheviots have become an American sheep by their repeated +importations into this country. The wool on several choice sheep, +imported by Mr. Carmichael, of New York, was from five to seven inches +long, coarse, but well suited to combing.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE LINCOLN.</h3> + +<p>The old breed of Lincolnshire sheep was hornless, had white faces, and +long, thin, and weak carcasses; the ewes weighed from fourteen to twenty +pounds a quarter; the three-year old wethers from twenty to thirty +pounds; legs thick, rough and white; pelts thick; wool long—from ten to +eighteen inches—and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained carcass of +mutton.</p> + +<p>A judicious system of breeding, which avoided Bakewell’s errors, has +wrought a decided improvement in this breed. The improved Lincolns +possess a rather more desirable robustness, approaching, in some few +specimens, almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters; +but they are more hardy, and less liable to disease. They attain as +large a size, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same +value. This breed, indeed, scarcely differs more from the Cotswold than +do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred for +several generations, from each other. They are prolific, and when +well-fed, the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for +which they provide liberally from their udders till the time for +weaning. The weight of the fleece varies from four to eight pounds per +head.</p> + +<p>Having alluded to the principal points of interest connected with the +various breeds of sheep in the United States, our next business is with</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo057.png" alt="Skeleton of the Sheep" width="500" height="358" /> +<p class="caption">SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES.</p></div> + +<p class="ind05 fsize80">1. The intermaxillary bone. 2. The nasal bones. 3. The upper jaw. +4. The union of the nasal and upper jaw-bones. 5. The union of the molar and +lachrymal bones. 6. The orbits of the eye. 7. The frontal bone. 8. The +lower jaw. 9. The incisor teeth, or nippers. 10. The molars or grinders. +11. The ligament of the neck supporting the head. 12. The seven +vertebræ, or the bones of the neck. 13. The thirteen vertebræ, or bones +of the back. 14. The six vertebræ of the loins. 15. The sacral bone.<span class="pagenumcapt"><a +name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +16. The bones of the tail, varying in different breeds from twelve to +twenty-one. 17. The haunch and pelvis. 18. The eight true ribs, with +their cartilages. 19. The five false ribs, or those that are not +attached to the breast-bone. 20. The breast-bone. 21. The scapula, or +shoulder-blade. 22. The humerus, bone of the arm, or lower part of the +shoulder. 23. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 24. The ulna or +elbow. 25. The knee with its different bones. 26. The metacarpal or +shank-bones—the larger bones of the leg. 27. A rudiment of the smaller +metacarpal. 28. One of the sessamoid bones. 29. The first two bones of +the foot—the pasterns. 30. The proper bones of the foot. 31. The +thigh-bone. 32. The stifle-joint and its bone—the patella. 33. The +tibia, or bone of the upper part of the leg. 34. The point of the hock. +35. The other bones of the hock. 36. The metatarsal bones, or bone of +the hind-leg. 37. Rudiment of the small metatarsal. 38. A sessamoid +bone. 39. The first two bones of the foot—the pasterns. 40. The proper +bones of the foot.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Division.</span> <i>Vertebrata</i>—possessing a back-bone.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Class.</span> <i>Mammalia</i>—such as give suck.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Order.</span> <i>Ruminantia</i>—chewing the cud.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Family.</span> <i>Capridæ</i>—the goat kind.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Genus.</span> <i>Oris</i>—the sheep family.<br /> +<span class="ind02">Of this <i>Genus</i> there are three varieties:<br /></span> +<span class="smcap">Oris, Ammon</span>, or <span class="smcap">Argali</span>.<br /> +<i>Oris Musmon.</i><br /> +<i>Oris Aries</i>, or Domestic Sheep.</p> + +<p>Of the latter—with which alone this treatise is concerned—there are +about forty well known varieties. Between the <i>oris</i>, or sheep, and the +<i>capra</i>, or goat, another <i>genus</i> of the same family, the distinctions +are well marked, although considerable resemblance exists between them. +The horns of the sheep have a spiral direction, while those of the goat +have a direction upward and backward; the sheep, except in a single wild +variety, has no beard, while the goat is bearded; the goat, in his +highest state of improvement, when he is made to produce wool of a +fineness unequalled by the sheep—as in the Cashmere breed—is mainly, +and always, externally covered with hair, while the hair on the sheep +may, by domestication, be reduced to a few coarse hairs, or got rid of +altogether; and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> finally, the pelt or skin of the goat has thickness +very far exceeding that of the sheep.</p> + +<p>The age of sheep is usually reckoned, not from the time that they are +dropped, but from the first shearing; although the first year may thus +include fifteen or sixteen months, and sometimes more. When doubt exists +relative to the age, recourse is had to the teeth, since there is more +uncertainty about the horn in this animal than in cattle; ewes that have +been early bred, appearing always, according to the rings on the horn, a +year older than others that have been longer kept from the ram.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FORMATION OF THE TEETH.</h3> + +<p>Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or ridges of the +palate thicken as they approach the forepart of the mouth; there also +the dense, fibrous, elastic matter, of which they are constituted, +becomes condensed, and forms a cushion or bed, which covers the converse +extremity of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor, +or cutting teeth, and partially discharge their functions. The herbage +is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad, +and thus partly bitten and partly torn asunder. Of this, the rolling +motion of the head is sufficient proof.</p> + +<p>The teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox. There are +eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the forepart of the lower jaw, and +six molars in each jaw above and below, and on either side. The incisors +are more admirably formed for grazing than in the ox. The sheep lives +closer, and is destined to follow the ox, and gather nourishment where +that animal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> would be unable to crop a single blade. This close life not +only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, but by +cutting off the short suckers and sproutings—a wise provision of +nature—causes the plants to throw out fresh, and more numerous, and +stronger ones, and thus is instrumental in improving and increasing the +value of the crop. Nothing will more expeditiously and more effectually +make a thick, permanent pasture than its being occasionally and closely +eaten down by sheep.</p> + +<p>In order to enable the sheep to bite this close, the upper lip is deeply +divided, and free from hair about the centre of it. The part of the +tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered with +enamel, to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the +enamel on the upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a +quarter of an inch, and presenting a convex surface outward, and a +concave within, forms a little scoop or gorge of wonderful execution.</p> + +<p>The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without incisor teeth or +it has two. The teeth rapidly succeed to each other, and before the +animal is a month old he has the whole of the eight. They continue to +grow with his growth until he is about fourteen or sixteen months old. +Then, with the same previous process of diminution as in cattle, or +carried to a still greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and +attain their full growth when the sheep is two years old.</p> + +<p>In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be very +considerable difference in the teeth of those that have not been +sheared, or those that have been once sheared; in some measure to be +accounted for by a difference in the time of lambing, and likewise by +the general health and vigor of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> animal. There will also be a +material difference in different animals, attributable to the good or +bad keep which they have had. Those fed on good land, or otherwise well +kept, will generally take the start of others that have been half +starved, and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. There are +also irregularities in the times of renewing the teeth, not to be +accounted for by either of these circumstances; in fact, not to be +explained by any known circumstance relating to the breed or the keep of +the sheep. The want of improvement in sheep, which is occasionally +observed, and which cannot be accounted for by any deficiency or change +of food, may sometimes be justly attributed to the tenderness of the +mouth when the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums.</p> + +<p>Between two and three years old the next two incisors are shed; and when +the sheep is actually three years old, the four central teeth are fully +grown; at four years old, he has six teeth fully grown; and at five +years old—one year before the horse or the ox can be said to be +full-mouthed—all the teeth are perfectly developed. The sheep is a much +shorter-lived animal than the horse, and does not often attain the usual +age of the ox. Their natural age is about ten years, to which age they +will breed and thrive well; though there are recorded instances of their +breeding at the age of fifteen, and of living twenty years.</p> + +<p>The careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with regard to the +four-year-old mouth. He will see the teeth perfectly developed, no +diminutive ones at the sides, and the mouth apparently full; and then, +without giving himself the trouble of counting the teeth, he will +conclude that the animal is five years old. A process of displacement, +as well as of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> diminution, has taken place here; the remaining outside +milk-teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their +original size, but the four-year-old teeth have grown before them and +perfectly conceal them, unless the mouth is completely opened.</p> + +<p>After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully grown, there +is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. In most cases, the teeth +remain sound for one or two years, and then, at uncertain +intervals—either on account of the hard work in which they have been +employed, or from the natural effect of age—they begin to loosen and +fall out; or, by reason of their natural slenderness, they are broken +off. When favorite ewes, that have been kept for breeding, begin to lose +condition, at six or seven years old, their mouths should be carefully +examined. If any of the teeth are loose, they should be extracted, and a +chance given to the animal to show how far, by browsing early and late, +she may be able to make up for the diminished number of her incisors. It +frequently happens that ewes with broken teeth, and some with all the +incisors gone, will keep pace in condition with the best in the flock; +but they must be well taken care of in the winter, and, indeed, nursed +to an extent that would scarcely answer the farmer’s purpose to adopt as +a general rule, in order to prevent them from declining to such a degree +as would make it very difficult afterward to fatten them for the +butcher. It may certainly be taken as a general rule, that when sheep +become broken-mouthed they begin to decline.</p> + +<p>Causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which he has no +control, will sometimes hasten the loss of the teeth. One thing, +however, is certain—that close feeding,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +causing additional exercise, +does wear them down; and that the sheep of farmers who stock unusually +and unseasonably hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.</h3> + +<p>The skin of the sheep, in common with that of most animals, is composed +of three textures. Externally is the cuticle, or scarf-skin, which is +thin, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable minute holes, +through which pass the fibres of the wool and the insensible +perspiration. It seems to be of a scaly texture; although is not so +evident as in many other animals, on account of a peculiar +substance—the yolk—which is placed on it, to protect and nourish the +roots of the wool. It is, however, sufficiently evident in the scab and +other cutaneous eruptions to which this animal is liable.</p> + +<p>Below this cuticle is the <i>rete mucosum</i>, a soft structure; its fibres +having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, and being with great +difficulty separated from the skin beneath. This appears to be placed as +a defence to the terminations of the blood-vessels and nerves of the +skin, which latter are, in a manner, enveloped and covered by it. The +color of the skin, and probably that of the hair or wool also, is +determined by the <i>rete mucosum</i>; or, at least, the hair and wool are of +the same color as this substance.</p> + +<p>Beneath the <i>rete mucosum</i> is the <i>cutis</i>, or true skin, composed of +numberless minute fibres crossing each other in every direction; highly +elastic, in order to fit closely to the parts beneath, and to yield to +the various motions of the body; and dense and firm in its structure, +that it may resist external injury. Blood-vessels and nerves innumerable +pierce it, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +appear on its surface in the form of <i>papillæ</i>, or +minute eminences; while, through thousands of little orifices, the +exhalent absorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid. The +true skin is composed, principally or almost entirely, of gelatine; so +that, although it may be dissolved by long-continued boiling, it is +insoluble in water at the common temperature. This organization seems to +have been given to it, not only for the sake of its preservation while +on the living animal, but that it may afterwards become useful to man. +The substance of the hide readily combining with the tanning principle, +is converted into leather.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE ANATOMY OF THE WOOL.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="background-image: url('images/illo064.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; width: 355px; height: 375px;"> +<p class="caption bot" style="padding-top: 300px;">THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP.</p></div> + +<p>On the skin of most animals is placed a covering of feathers, fur, hair, +or wool. These are all essentially the same in composition, being +composed of an animal substance resembling coagulated albumen, together +with sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate of lime, and oxides of +iron and manganese.</p> + +<p>Wool is not confined to the sheep. The under-hair of some goats is not +only finer than the fleece of any sheep, but it occasionally has the +crisped appearance of wool; being, in fact,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> wool of different qualities +in different breeds—in some, rivalling or excelling that of the sheep, +but in others very coarse. A portion of wool is also found on many other +animals; as the deer, elk, the oxen of Tartary and Hudson’s Bay, the +gnu, the camel, many of the fur-clad animals, the sable, the polecat, +and several species of the dog.</p> + +<p>Judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of most animals, +and the relative situation of these materials, it is not improbable that +such was the character of the fleece of the primitive sheep. It has, +indeed, been asserted that the primitive sheep was entirely covered with +hair; but this is, doubtless, incorrect. There exists, at the present +day, varieties of the sheep occupying extensive districts, that are +clothed outwardly with hair of different degrees of fineness and +sleekness; and underneath the external coat is a softer, shorter, and +closer one, that answers to the description of fur—according to most +travellers—but which really possesses all the characteristics of wool. +It is, therefore, highly improbable that the sheep—which has now +become, by cultivation, the wool-bearing animal in a pre-eminent +degree—should, in any country, at any time, have ever been entirely +destitute of wool. Sheep of almost every variety have at times been in +the gardens of the London (Eng.) Zoölogical Society; but there has not +been one on which a portion of crisped wool, although exceedingly small, +has not been discovered beneath the hair. In all the regions over which +the patriarchs wandered, and extending northward through the greater +part of Europe and Asia, the sheep is externally covered with hair; but +underneath is a fine, short, downy wool, from which the hair is easily +separated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> This is the case with the sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, +and also in South America.</p> + +<p>The change from hair to wool, though much influenced by temperature, has +been chiefly effected by cultivation. Wherever hairy sheep are now found +the management of the animal is in a most disgraceful state; and among +the cultivated sheep the remains of this ancient hairy covering only +exists, to any great extent, among those that are comparatively +neglected or abandoned.</p> + +<p>The filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pore of +the skin, when it has to penetrate through another and singular +substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, is called <i>the yolk</i>. +This is found in greatest quantity about the breast and shoulders—the +very parts that produce the best, and healthiest, and most abundant +wool—and in proportion as it extends, in any considerable degree, over +other parts, the wool is then improved. It differs in quantity in +different breeds. It is very abundant on the Merinos; it is sufficiently +plentiful on most of the southern breeds, either to assist in the +production of the wool, or to defend the sheep from the inclemency of +the weather; but in the northern districts, where the cold is more +intense and the yolk of wool is deficient, a substitute for it is +sometimes sought by smearing the sheep with a mixture of tar, oil, or +butter. Where there is a deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is +dry, harsh, and weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy; where +the natural quantity of it is found, the wool is soft, oily, plentiful +and strong.</p> + +<p>This yolk is not the inspissated or thickened perspiration of the +animal; it is not composed of matter which has been <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>accidentally picked +up, and which has lodged in the wool; but it is a peculiar secretion +from the glands of the skin, destined to be one of the agents in the +nourishment of the wool, and at the same time, by its adhesiveness, to +mat the wool together, and form a secure defence from the wet and cold.</p> + +<p>Chemical experiments have established its composition, as follows: +first, of a soapy matter with a basis of potash, which forms the greater +part of it; second, a small quantity of carbonate of potash; third, a +perceptible quantity of acetate of potash; fourth, lime, in a peculiar +and unknown state of combination; fifth, an atom of muriate of potash; +sixth, an animal oil, to which its peculiar odor is attributable. All +these materials are believed to be essential to the yolk, and not found +in it by mere accident, since the yolk of a great number of +samples—Spanish, French, English, and American—has been subjected to +repeated analyses, with the same result.</p> + +<p>The yolk being a true soap, soluble in water, it is not difficult to +account for the comparative ease with which sheep that have the natural +proportion of it are washed in a running stream. There is, however, a +small quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is not in +combination with the alkali, and which, remaining attached to the wool, +keeps it a little glutinous, notwithstanding the most careful washing.</p> + +<p>The fibre of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped from the +yolk, is of a circular form, generally larger toward the extremity, and +also toward the root, and in some instances very considerably so. The +filaments of white wool, when cleansed from grease, are +semi-transparent; their surface in some places is beautifully polished, +in others curiously incrusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a +very pleasing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> manner. When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic +microscope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering +appearance. Minute filaments, placed very regularly, are sometimes seen +branching from the main trunk, like boughs from the principal stem. This +exterior polish varies much in different wools, and in wools from the +same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal is in good +condition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is really +brilliant; but when the state of the constitution is bad, the fibre has +a dull appearance, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes scarcely +any, is reflected. As a general rule, the filament is most transparent +in the best and most useful wools, whether long or short. It increases +with the improvement of the breed, and the fineness and healthiness of +the fleece; yet it must be admitted that some wools have different +degrees of the transparency and opacity, which do not appear to affect +their value and utility. It is, however, the difference of transparency +in the same fleece, or in the same filament, that is chiefly to be +noticed as improving the value of the wool.</p> + +<p>As to the size of the fibre, the terms “fine” and “coarse,” as commonly +used, are but vague and general descriptions of wool. All fine fleeces +have some coarse wool, and all coarse fleeces some fine. The most +accurate classification is to distinguish the various qualities of wool +in the order in which they are esteemed and preferred by the +manufacturer—as the following: first, fineness with close ground, that +is, thick-matted ground; second, pureness; third, straight-haired, when +broken by drawing; fourth, elasticity, rising after compression in the +hand; fifth, staple not too long; sixth, color; seventh, what coarse +exists to be very coarse; eighth, tenacity; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> ninth, not much +pitch-mark, though this is no disadvantage, except the loss of weight in +scouring. The bad or disagreeable properties are—thin, grounded, tossy, +curly-haired, and, if in a sorted state, little in it that is very fine; +a tender staple, as elasticity, many dead white hairs, very yolky. Those +who buy wool for combing and other light goods that do not need milling, +wish to find length of staple, fineness of hair, whiteness, tenacity, +pureness, elasticity, and not too many pitch-marks.</p> + +<p>The property first attracting attention, and being of greater importance +than any other, is <i>the fineness</i> of the pile—the quantity of fine wool +which a fleece yields, and the degree of that fineness. Of the absolute +fineness, little can be said, varying, as it does, in different parts of +the same fleece to a very considerable degree, and the diameter of the +same fibre often being exceedingly different at the extremity and the +centre. The micrometer has sometimes indicated that the diameter of the +former is five times as much as that of the latter; and, consequently, +that a given length of yield taken from the extremity would weigh +twenty-five times as much as the same length taken from the centre and +cleansed from all yolk and grease. That fibre may be considered as +coarse whose diameter is more than the five-hundredth part of an inch; +in some of the most valuable samples of Saxony wool it has not exceeded +the nine-hundredth part; yet in some animals, whose wool has not been +used for manufacturing purposes, it is less than one twelve-hundredth +part.</p> + +<p>The extremities of the wool, and frequently those portions which are +near to the root, are larger than the intermediate parts. The extremity +of the fibre has, generally, the greatest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> bulk of all. It is the +product of summer, soon after shearing-time, when the secretion of the +matter of the wool is increased, and when the pores of the skin are +relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre to protrude. The portion +near the root is the growth of spring, when the weather is getting warm; +and the intermediate part is the offspring of winter, when under the +influence of the cold the pores of the skin contract, and permit only a +finer hair to escape. If, however, the animal is well fed, the +diminution of the bulk of the fibre will not be followed by weakness or +decay, but, in proportion as the pile becomes fine, the value of the +fleece will be increased; whereas, if cold and starvation should go +hand-in-hand, the woolly fibre will not only diminish in bulk, but in +health, strength, and worth.</p> + +<p>The variations in the diameter of the wool in different parts of the +fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of heat at the time +the respective portions were produced. The fibre of the wool and the +record of the meteorologist will singularly agree, if the variations in +temperature are sufficiently distinct from each other for any +appreciable part of the fibre to form. It follows from this, that—the +natural tendency to produce wool of a certain fibre being the +same—sheep in a hot climate will yield a comparatively coarse wool, and +those in a cold climate will carry a finer, but at the same time a +closer and a warmer fleece. In proportion to the coarseness of a fleece +will generally be its openness, and its inability to resist either cold +or wet; while the coat of softer, smaller, more pliable wool will admit +of no interstices between its fibres, and will bid defiance to frost and +storms.</p> + +<p>The natural instinct of the sheep would seem to teach the<span +class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> wool-grower +the advantage of attending to the influence of temperature upon the +animal. He is evidently impatient of heat. In the open districts, and +where no shelter is near, he climbs to the highest parts of his walk, +that, if the rays of the sun must still fall on him, he may nevertheless +be cooled by the breeze; but, if shelter is near, of whatever kind, +every shaded spot is crowded with sheep. The wool of the Merinos after +shearing-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it very +difficult to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in +quality, compared with that which had been clipped from it in the course +of the same season. As the cold weather advances, the fleeces recover +their soft quality.</p> + +<p>Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. The +staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in +length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment; +and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease +like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. When +little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has +scarcely been checked, the sheep yields an abundant crop of wool, but +the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as heavier. When the frost has +been severe, and the ground long covered with snow, if the flock has +been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a +little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness, +and a proportional increase of value. Should, however, the sheep have +been neglected and starved during this continued cold weather, the +fleece as well as the carcass is thinner, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> although it may have +preserved its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and +strength, and usefulness.</p> + +<p>Connected with fineness is <i>trueness of staple</i>—as equal in growth as +possible over the animals—a freedom from those shaggy portions, here +and there, which are occasionally observed on poor and neglected sheep. +These portions are always coarse and comparatively worthless, and they +indicate an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, +which will also probably weaken or render the fibre diseased in other +parts. Included in trueness of fibre is another circumstance to which +allusion has already been made—a freedom from coarse hairs which +project above the general level of the wool in various parts, or, if +they are not externally seen, mingle with the wool and debase its +qualities.</p> + +<p><i>Soundness</i> is closely associated with trueness. It means, generally +speaking, strength of the fibre, and also a freedom from those breaches +or withered portions of which something has previously been said. The +eye will readily detect the breaches; but the hair generally may not +possess a degree of strength proportioned to its bulk. This is +ascertained by drawing a few hairs out of the staple, and grasping each +of them singly by both ends, and pulling them until they break. The wool +often becomes injured by felting while it is on the sheep’s back. This +is principally seen in the heavy breeds, especially those that are +neglected and half-starved, and generally begins in the winter season, +when the coat has been completely saturated with water, and it increases +until shearing-time, unless the cob separates from the wool beneath, and +drops off.</p> + +<p>Wool is generally injured by keeping. It will probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> increase a +little in weight for a few months, especially if kept in a damp place; +but after that it will somewhat rapidly become lighter, until a very +considerable loss will often be sustained. This, however, is not the +moral of the case; for, except very great care is taken, the moth will +get into the bundles and injure and destroy the staple; and that which +remains untouched by them will become considerably harsh and less +pliable. If to this the loss of the interest of money is added, it will +be seen that he seldom acts wisely who hoards his wool, when he can +obtain what approaches to a fair remunerating price for it.</p> + +<p><i>Softness</i> of the wool is evidently connected with the presence and +quality of the yolk. This substance is undoubtedly designed not only to +nourish the hair, but to give it richness and pliability. The growth of +the yolk ought to be promoted, and agriculturists ought to pay more +attention to the quantity and quality of yolk possessed by the animals +selected for the purpose of breeding.</p> + +<p>Bad management impairs the pliability of the wool, by arresting the +secretion of the yolk. The softness of the wool is also much influenced +by the chemical elements of the soil. A chalky soil notoriously +deteriorates it; minute particles of the chalk being necessarily brought +into contact with the fleece and mixing with it, have a corrosive effect +on the fibre, and harden it and render it less pliable. The particles of +chalk come in contact with the yolk—there being a chemical affinity +between the alkali and the oily matter of the yolk—immediately unite, +and a true soap is formed. The first storm washes a portion of it; and +the wool, deprived of its natural pabulum and unguent, loses some of its +vital properties—its pliability<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> among the rest. The slight degree of +harshness which has been attributed to the English South-Down has been +explained in this way.</p> + +<p><i>The felting property</i> of wool is a tendency of the fibres to entangle +themselves together, and to form a mass more or less difficult to +unravel. By moisture and pressure, the fibres of the wool may become +matted or felted together into a species of cloth. The manufacture of +felt was the first mode in which wool was applied to clothing, and felt +has long been in universal use for hats. The fulling of flannels and +broadcloths is effected by the felting principle. By the joint influence +of the moisture and the pressure, certain of the fibres are brought into +more intimate contact with each other; they adhere—not only the fibres, +but; in a manner, the threads—and the cloth is taken from the mill +shortened in all its dimensions; it has become a kind of felt, for the +threads have disappeared, and it can be cut in every direction with very +little or no unravelling; it is altogether a thicker, warmer, softer +fibre. This felting property is one of the most valuable qualities +possessed by wool, and on this property are the finer kinds of wool +especially valued by the manufacturer for the finest broadcloths. This +naturally suggests a consideration of the various forms in the structure +on which it depends.</p> + +<p>The most evident distinction between the qualities of hair and wool is +the comparative straightness of the former, and <i>the crisped or +spirally-curling form</i> which the latter assumes. If a little lock of +wool is held up to the light, every fibre of it is twisted into numerous +minute corkscrew-like ringlets. This is especially seen in the fleece of +the short-woolled sheeps; but,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> although less striking, it is obvious +even in wool of the largest staple.</p> + +<p>The spirally-curving form of wool used, erroneously, to be considered as +the chief distinction between the covering of the goat and the sheep; +but the under-coat of some of the former is finer than that of any +sheep, and it is now acknowledged frequently to have the crisped and +curled appearance of wool. In some breeds of cattle, particularly in one +variety of the Devons, the hair assumes a curled and wavy appearance, +and a few of the minute spiral ringlets have been occasionally seen. It +is the same with many of the Highlands; but there is no determination to +take on the true crisped character, and throughout its whole extent, and +it is still nothing but hair. On some foreign breeds, however, as the +yak of Tartary, and the ox of Hudson’s Bay, some fine and valuable wool +is produced.</p> + +<p>There is an intimate connection between the fineness of the wool and the +number of the curves, at least in sheep yielding wool of nearly the same +length; so that, whether the wool of different sheep is examined, or +that from different parts of the same sheep, it is enough for the +observer to take advice of the number of curves in a given space, in +order to ascertain with sufficient accuracy the fineness of the fibre.</p> + +<p>To this curled form of the wool not enough attention is, as a general +thing, paid by the breeder. It is, however, that on which its most +valuable uses depend. It is that which is essential to it in the +manufactory of cloths. The object of the carder is to break the wool in +pieces at the curves—the principle of the thread is the adhesion of the +particles together by their curves; and the fineness of the thread, and +consequent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> fineness of the cloth, will depend on the minuteness of +these curves, or the number of them found in a given length of fibre.</p> + +<p>It will readily be seen that this curling form has much to do with the +felting property of wool; it materially contributes to that disposition +in the fibres which enables them to attach and intwine themselves +together; it multiplies the opportunities for this interlacing, and it +increases the difficulty of unravelling the felt.</p> + +<p>The felting property of wool is the most important, as well as the +distinguishing one; but it varies essentially in different breeds, and +the usefulness and the consequent value of the fleece, for clothing +purposes, at least, depend on the degree to which it is pursued.</p> + +<p><i>The serrated</i>—notched, like the teeth of a saw—<i>edge</i> of wool, which +has been discovered by means of the microscope, is also, as well as the +spiral curl, deemed an important quality in the felting property. +Repeated microscopic observations have removed all doubts as to the +general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a central stem or +stalk, probably hollow, or, at least, porous, possessing a +semi-transparency, not found in the fibre of hair. From this central +stalk there springs, at different distances, on different breeds of +sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>LONG WOOL.</h3> + +<p>The most valuable of the long-woolled fleeces are of British origin. A +considerable quantity is produced in France and Belgium; but the +manufacturers in those countries acknowledge the superiority of the +British wool. Long wool is distinguished, as its name would import, by +the length of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> staple, the average of which is about eight inches. +It was much improved, of late years, both in England and in other +countries. Its staple has, without detriment to its manufacturing +qualities, become shorter; but it has also become finer, truer, and +sounder. The long-woolled sheep has been improved more than any other +breed; and the principal error which Bakewell committed having been +repaired since his death, the long wool has progressively risen in +value, at least for curling purposes. Some of the breeds have staples of +double the length that has been mentioned as the average one. Pasture +and breeding are the powerful agents here.</p> + +<p>Probably because the Leicester blood prevails in, or, at least, mingles +with, every other long-woolled breed, a great similarity in the +appearance and quality of this fleece has become apparent, of late +years, in every district of England. The short-woolled fleeces are, to a +very considerable degree, unlike in fineness, elasticity, and felting +property; the sheep themselves are still more unlike; but the long-wools +have, in a great degree, lost their distinctive points—the Lincoln, for +example, has not all of his former gaunt carcass, and coarse, entangled +wool—the Cotswold has become a variety of the Leicester—in fact, all +the long-woolled sheep, both in appearance and fleece, have almost +become of one variety; and rarely, except from culpable neglect in the +breeder, has the fleece been injuriously weakened, or too much +shortened, for the most valuable purposes to which it is devoted.</p> + +<p>In addition to its length, this wool is characterized by its strength, +its transparency, its comparative stoutness, and the slight degree in +which it possesses the felting property. Since the extension of the +process of combing to wools of a shorter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> staple, the application of +this wool to manufacturing purposes has undergone considerable change. +In some respects, the range of its use has been limited; but its demand +has, on the whole, increased, and its value is more highly appreciated. +Indeed, there are certain important branches of the woollen manufacture, +such as worsted stuffs, bombazines, muslin-delaines, etc., in which it +can never be superseded; and its rapid extension in the United States, +within the past few years, clearly shows that a large and increasing +demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices.</p> + +<p>This long wool is classed under two divisions, distinguished both by +length and the fineness of the fibre. The first—<i>the long-combing +wool</i>—is used for the manufacture of hard yarn, and the worsted goods +for which that thread is adapted, and requires the staple to be long, +firm, and little disposed to felt. <i>The short-combing wool</i> has, as its +name implies, a shorter staple, and is finer and more felty; the felt is +also closer and softer, and is chiefly used for hosiery goods.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>MIDDLE WOOL.</h3> + +<p>This article is of more recent origin than the former, but has rapidly +increased in quantity and value. It can never supersede, but will only +stand next in estimation to, the native English long fleece. It is +yielded by the half-bred sheep—a race that becomes more numerous every +year—being a cross of the Leicester ram with the South-Down, or some +other short-woolled ewe; retaining the fattening property and the early +maturity of the Leicester, or of both; and the wool deriving length and +straightness of fibre from the one, and fineness and feltiness from the +other. The average length of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> staple is about five inches. There is no +description of the finer stuff-goods in which this wool is not most +extensively and advantageously employed; and the nails, or portions +which are broken off by the comb, and left in, whether belonging to this +description of wool or to the long wool, are used in the manufacture of +several species of cloth of no inferior quality or value.</p> + +<p>Under the breed of middle wools must be classed those which, when there +were but two divisions, were known by the name of short wools; and if +English productions were alone treated of, would still retain the same +distinctive appellation. To this class belong the South-Down and +Cheviot; together with the fleece of several other breeds, not so +numerous, nor occupying so great an extent of country. From the change, +however, which insensibly took place in them all—the lengthening, and +the increased thickness of the fibre, and, more especially, from the +gradual introduction of other wools possessing delicacy of fibre, +pliability, and felting qualities beyond what these could claim, and at +the same time, being cheaper in the market—they lost ground in the +manufacture of the finer cloths, and have for some time ceased to be +used in the production of them. On the other hand, the changes which +have taken place in the construction of machinery have multiplied the +purposes to which they may be devoted, and very considerably enhanced +their value.</p> + +<p>These wools, of late, rank among the combing wools; they are prepared as +much by the comb as by the card, and in some places more. On this +account they meet with a readier sale, at fair, remunerating prices, +considering the increased weight of each individual fleece, and the +increased weight and earlier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> maturity of the carcass. The South-Downs +yield about seven-tenths of the pure short wools grown in the British +kingdoms; but the half-bred sheep has, as has been remarked, encroached +on the pure short-woolled one. The average staple of middle-woolled +sheep is three and a half inches.</p> + +<p>These wools are employed in the manufacture of flannels, army and navy +cloths, coatings, heavy cloths for calico printers and paper +manufacturers, woollen cords, coarse woollens, and blankets; besides +being partially used in cassinettes, baizes, bockings, carpets, +druggets, etc.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SHORT WOOL.</h3> + +<p>From this division every wool of English production is excluded. These +wools, yielded by the Merinos, are employed, unmixed, in the manufacture +of the finer cloths, and, combined with a small proportion of wool from +the English breeds, in others of an inferior value. The average length +of staple is about two and a half inches.</p> + +<p>These wools even may be submitted to the action of the comb. There may +be fibres only one inch in length; but if there are others from two and +a half to three inches, so that the average of the staple shall be two +inches, a thread sufficiently tenacious may, from the improved state of +machinery, be spun, and many delicate and beautiful fabrics readily +woven, which were unknown not many years ago.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo081.png" alt="Crossing and Breeding" width="350" height="283" /></div> + +<p>No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those +points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable for +the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, +while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool; and another, which +is valuable for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some +varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of food and +climate; while others are much less affected by those conditions, and +will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the +most opposite qualities of verdure.</p> + +<p>In selecting a breed for any given locality, reference should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> be had, +<i>first</i>, to the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural +circumstances; and, <i>second</i>, to the market facilities and demand. +Choice should then be made of that breed which, with the advantages +possessed, and under all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net +value of the marketable product.</p> + +<p>Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green +during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of +large carcasses. If convenient to a market where mutton finds a prompt +sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which calls +for a mutton-producing, as contradistinguished from a wool-yielding, +sheep. Under such circumstances, the choice should undoubtedly be made +from the improved English varieties—the South-Down, the New Leicester, +and the improved Cotswolds or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding between +these, minor and more specific circumstances must be taken into account. +If large numbers are to be kept, the Downs will herd—remain thriving +and healthy when kept together in large numbers—much better than the +two larger breeds; if the feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to +be somewhat short during the droughts of summer, and there is not a +certain supply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Downs will better +endure occasional short keep; if the market demands a choice and +high-flavored mutton, the Downs possess a decided superiority. If, on +the other hand, but few are to be kept in the same enclosure, the large +breeds will be as healthy as the Downs; if the pastures are somewhat wet +or marshy, the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which +usually grows in such situations; if they do not afford so fine a +quality of mutton, they—particularly<span class="pagenum"> +<a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> the Leicester—possess an earlier +maturity, and give more meat for the amount of food consumed, as well as +yield more tallow.</p> + +<p>The next point of comparison between the long and the middle woolled +families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal +object aimed at in the cultivation of any of these breeds, it is, in +this country, an important item of incident in determining their +relative profitableness. The American Leicester yields about six pounds +of long, coarse, combing wool; the Cotswold, somewhat more; but this +perhaps counterbalanced by these considerations; the Downs grow three to +four pounds of a low quality of carding wool. None of these wools are +very salable, at remunerating prices, in the American markets. Both, +however, will appreciate in proportion to the increase of manufactures +of worsted, flannels, baizes, and the like. The difference in the weight +of the fleeces between the breeds is, of itself, a less important +consideration than it would at first appear, for reasons which will be +given when the connection between the amount of wool produced and the +food consumed by the sheep is noticed.</p> + +<p>The Cheviots are unquestionably inferior to the breeds above named, +except in a capacity to endure a vigorous winter and to subsist on +healthy herbage. Used in the natural and artificial circumstances which +surround sheep-husbandry in many parts of England—where the fattest and +finest quality of mutton is consumed, as almost the only animal food of +the laboring classes—the heavy, early-maturing New Leicester, and the +still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep seem exactly adapted to the wants of +producers and consumers, and are of unrivalled value. To depasture +poorer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> soils, sustain a folding system, and furnish the mutton which +supplies the tables of the wealthy, the South-Down meets an equal +requirement.</p> + +<p>Sufficient attention is by no means paid in many portions of the country +to the profit which could be made to result from the cultivation of the +sheep. One of the most serious defects in the prevalent husbandry of New +England, for example, is the neglect of sheep. Ten times the present +number might be easily fed, and they would give in meat, wool, and +progeny, more direct profit than any other domestic animal, while the +food which they consume would do more towards fertilizing the farms than +an equal amount consumed by any other animal. It is notorious that the +pastures of that section of the country have seriously deteriorated in +fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds and bushes to the +exclusion of nutritious grasses.</p> + +<p>With sheep—as well as with all other animals—much or prolonged +exercise in pursuit of food, or otherwise, is unfavorable to taking on +fat. Some seem to forget, in their earnest advocacy of the merits of the +different breeds, that the general physical laws which control the +development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. +Better organs will, doubtless, make a better appropriation of animal +food; and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in +particular directions: in one breed, more especially to the production +of fat; in another, of muck, or lean meat; in yet another, of wool. But, +these things being equal, large animals will always require more food +than small ones. Animals which are to be carried to a high state of +fatness must have plentiful and nutritious food, and they must <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +exercise but little, in order to prevent the unnecessary combustion in the lungs +of that carbon which forms nearly four-fifths of their fat. No art of +breeding can counteract these established laws of Nature.</p> + +<p>In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for <i>wool-growing</i> +purposes, it is undeniable that the question is not, what variety will +shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleece, irrespective of the +cost of production. Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must +be deducted, in order to fairly test the profits of an animal. If a +large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give but once +and a-half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable—other things +being equal—to keep two of the smaller sheep. The next question, then, +is,—<i>from what breed</i>—with the same expense in other +particulars—<i>will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest +value of wool</i>?</p> + +<p>And, first, as to the comparative amount of food consumed by the several +breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments which show that <i>breed</i>, +in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of +food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the consumption is +in proportion to the live weight of the grown animal. Of course, this +rule is not invariable in its individual application; but its general +soundness has been satisfactorily established. Grown sheep take up +between two and a half and three and a third per cent. of their weight, +in what is equivalent to dry hay, to keep themselves in store condition.</p> + +<p>The consumption of food, then, being proportioned to the weight, it +follows that, if one acre is capable of sustaining three Merinos, +weighing one hundred pounds each, it will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> sustain two Leicesters, +weighing one hundred and fifty each, and two and two-fifth South-Downs, +weighing one hundred and twenty-five each. Merinos of this weight often +shear five pounds per fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an +acre, then, would give fifteen pounds of Merino wool, twelve of +Leicester, and but nine and three-fifths of South-Down—estimating the +latter as high as four pounds to the fleece. Even the finest and +lightest-fleeced sheep known as Merinos average about four pounds to the +fleece; so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest +quality of wool sold under the name of Merino as it would of New +Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down, while the former would +be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent. more per pound than either +of the latter.</p> + +<p>Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as in the foregoing +estimate the live weight of the English breeds is placed low, and that +of the Merinos high. The live weight of the five-pound fine-fleeced +Merino does not exceed ninety pounds; it ranges, in fact, from eighty to +ninety; so that three hundred pounds of live weight—it being understood +that all of these live weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what +is called store, condition—would give a still greater product of wool +to the acre. It is perfectly safe, therefore, to say that the herbage of +an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino that it +will of any of the English long or middle wools.</p> + +<p>What are the other relative expenses of these breeds? The full-blooded +Leicester is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino, though some +of its crosses are much hardier than the pure-bred sheep: indeed, it is +less hardy, under the most<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> favorable circumstances. It is more subject +to colds; its constitution more readily gives way under disease; the +lambs are more liable to perish from exposure to cold, when newly +dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances—herded in large flocks, +famished for feed, or subjected to long journeys—its capacity to +endure, and its ability to rally from sad drawbacks, do not compare, +with those of the Merino. The high-bred South-Down, though considerably +less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to +the appellation of a hardy animal; it is, in fact, about on a pace with +the Merino, though it will not bear as hard stocking, without a rapid +diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are +to be considered in determining the expenses, as they surely should be, +the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as +well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The ewe not only frequently +produces twin lambs—as do both the Merino and Leicester—but, unlike +the latter, she possesses nursing properties to do justice to them. This +advantage, however, is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity +of the Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly +deteriorate in amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and general vigor, at +about five years old; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in +an animal kept for wool-growing purposes. This early decay requires +earlier and more rapid slaughter than is always economically convenient, +or even possible.</p> + +<p>It is well, on properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the +Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding +stock; but he will not particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay +the way with his fleece for several years<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> longer. Breeding ewes are +rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until ten years +old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the +Downs and Leicester at five or six. Instances are known of Merino ewes +breeding uniformly until fifteen years old. The improved Cotswold is +said to be hardier than the Leicester; but this variety, from their +great size, and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, together +with the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of such +large animals, is incapacitated from being generally introduced as a +wool-growing sheep. All the coarse races have one advantage over the +Merino: they are less subject to the visitation of the hoof-ail, and +when untreated, this disease spreads with less violence and malignity +among them. This has been explained by the fact that their hoofs do not +grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Merino, and +thus retain dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot.</p> + +<p>Taking into account all the circumstances connected with the peculiar +management of each race, together with all the incidents, exigencies, +and risks of the husbandry of each, it may be confidently asserted that +the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller per head, or +even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the English +breeds above referred to, than in the Merino. Indeed, it may well be +doubted whether any of those English breeds, except the South-Down, is +on an equality, even, with the Merino, in these respects. For +wool-growing purposes, the Merino, then, possesses a marked and decided +superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-woolled sheep. +As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds; although not +so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> much as is popularly supposed. Many persons, who have never tasted +Merino mutton, and who have, consequently, an unfavorable impression of +it, would, if required to consume the fat and lean together, find it +more palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton +of the cross between the Merino and the Native would certainly be +preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer, +accustomed to the latter, since it is short-grained, tender, and of good +flavor. The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties, +which will hereafter be treated of more particularly. Grade Merino +wethers, half-bloods, for example, are favorites with the drover and +butcher, being of good size, extraordinarily heavy for their apparent +bulk, by reason of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse +breeds, making good mutton, tallowing well, and their pelts, from the +greater weight of wool on them, commanding an extra price. In speaking +of the Merino in this connection, no reference is made to the Saxons, +though they are, as is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the +former.</p> + +<p>Assuming it, then, as settled, that it is to the Merino race that the +wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, a few +considerations are subjoined as to the adaptability of the widely +diverse sub-varieties of the race to the wants and circumstances of +different portions of the country.</p> + +<p>Upon the first introduction of the Saxons, they were sought with avidity +by the holders of the fine-woolled flocks of the country, consisting at +that time of pure or grade Merinos. Under the decisive encouragement +offered both to the wool-grower and the manufacturer by the tariff of +1828, a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> the Saxon everywhere superseded, or bred out by crossing, the +Spanish Merinos. In New York and New England, the latter almost entirely +disappeared. In the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, +constitution, and every thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of +the wool. Then came the tariff of 1832, which, as well as that of 1828, +gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer, into +whose pursuits agricultural and mercantile speculators madly rushed. +Skill without capital, capital without skill, and in some cases, +probably, thirst for gain without either, laid hold of these favored +avocations. The natural and inevitable result followed. In the financial +crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary enterprises which +had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not +based on an adequate and vast capital, were involved in a common +destruction; and even the most solid and best conducted institutions of +the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly fell +almost fifty per cent. The grower began to be discouraged. The breeder +of the delicate Saxons—and they comprised the flocks of nearly all the +large wool-growers in the country, at that time—could not obtain for +his wool its actual first cost per pound.</p> + +<p>When the Saxon growers found that the tariff of 1842 brought them no +relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. +The example once set, it became contagious; and then was a period when +it seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed +to this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy +sacrifice of their fixtures for rearing sheep; others crossed with +coarse-woolled breeds; and, rushing from one extreme to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> other, some +even crossed with the English mutton breeds; or some, with more +judgment, went back to the parent Merino stock, but usually selected the +heaviest and coarsest-woolled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated +the character of their wool. This period became distinguished by a mania +for heavy fleeces. The English crosses were, however, speedily +abandoned. The Merino regained his supremacy, lost for nearly a quarter +of a century, and again became the popular favorite. It was generally +adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new Western States, +and gives its type to the sheep of those regions.</p> + +<p>The supply of fine wool, then, proportionably decreased, and that of +medium and coarse increased. Wools, for convenience, may be classified +as follows: <i>superfine</i>, the choicest quality grown in the United +States, and never grown here excepting in comparatively small +quantities; <i>fine</i>, good ordinary Saxon; <i>good medium</i>, the highest +quality of wool usually known in the market as Merino; <i>medium</i>, +ordinary Merino; <i>ordinary</i>, grade Merino and selected South-Down +fleeces; and, <i>coarse</i>, the English long-wools, etc. This subdivision +is, perhaps, minute enough for all practical purposes here.</p> + +<p>It soon became apparent that, to sustain our manufacturing +interest—that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths—the diminution +of fine wools should not only be at once arrested, but that the growth +of them should be immediately and largely increased. An increased +attention was accordingly bestowed upon this branch of industry, and +sections of the country which had previously held aloof from +wool-growing, embarked in that calling with commendable enterprise.</p> + +<p>The climate north of forty-one degrees, or, beyond all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +dispute, north +of forty-two degrees, is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly +known, which bear either superfine or fine wools. In fact, the only such +variety in any thing like general use is the Saxon; and this, as has +been remarked, is a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely +withstanding our northern winters, without good shelter, good and +regularly-administered food, and careful and skilful management in all +other particulars. When the season is a little more than usually +back-hand, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, it +is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes; the young ewes will, +in many instances, disown their lambs, or, if they own them, not have a +drop of milk for them; and if, under such circumstances, as often +happens, a northeast or a northwest storm comes driving down, bearing +snow or sleet in its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the +temperature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from +perishing. If the time of having the lambs dropped is deferred, for the +purpose of escaping these evils, they will not attain size and strength +sufficient to enable them to pass safely through their first winter. +North of the latitude last named, it is necessary, as a general rule, +that they be dropped in the first half of May, to give them this +requisite size and strength; and occasional cold storms come, nearly +every season, up to that period, and, not unfrequently, up to the first +of June.</p> + +<p>These considerations have had their weight even with the few large +sheep-holders in that section, whose farms and buildings have been +arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing of these sheep; many of +whom have adopted a Merino cross. With the ordinary farmers—the small +sheep-owners, who, in the aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +northern wools—the Saxon sheep is, for these reasons, in marked +disrepute. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter +protection, and are unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on +them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with +this class, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. Above all, +they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care than their +cattle. The strong, compact, medium-woolled Merino, or, more generally, +its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the wool classed as +ordinary, is the common favorite. In the Northwest, this is especially +the case, where the climate is still worse for delicate sheep.</p> + +<p>At the South, on the contrary—where these disadvantages do not exist to +so great an extent, certainly—wool varying from good medium upward are +more profitable staples for cultivation than the lower classes; and in +that section a high degree of fineness in fleece has been sought in +breeding the Merino—the four-pound fine-fleeced Merino having received +marked attention. This is a far more profitable animal than the Saxon, +other things being equal—which is not the case, since the former is +every way a hardier animal and a better nurse; and, although about +twenty pounds heavier, and therefore consuming more feed, this +additional expense is more than counterbalanced by the additional care +and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>POINTS OF THE MERINO.</h3> + +<p>For breeding purposes, the shape and general appearance of the Merino +should be as follows:—The head should be well carried up, and in the +ewe hornless. It would be better,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> on many accounts, to have the ram +also hornless, but, as horns are usually characteristic of the Merino +ram, many prefer to see them. The face should be rather short, broad +between the eyes, the nose pointed, and, in the ewe, fine and free from +wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately prominent, and gentle in +its expression. The neck should be straight—not curving +downward—short, round, and stout—particularly so at its junction with +the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink +below the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise +to any perceptible extent above the level of the back. The back, to the +hips, should be straight; the crops—that portion of the body +immediately back of the shoulder-blades—full; the ribs well arched; the +body large and capacious; the flank well let down; the hind-quarters +full and round—the flesh meeting well down between the thighs, or in +the “twists.” The bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well +apart, and perpendicular—that is, not drawn under the body toward each +other when the sheep is standing. Viewed as a whole, the Merino should +present the appearance of a low, stout, plump, and—though differing +essentially from the English mutton-sheep model—a highly symmetrical +sheep.</p> + +<p>The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow, +and of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, +approaching to a butternut, hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject +of wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. As they are rather +characteristic of the Merino—like the black color in a Berkshire hog, +or the absence of all color in Durham cattle—these wrinkles have been +more regarded, by novices, than those points which give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> actual value to +the animal; and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this +hint. Many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled +skin; and this view of the case has led both the Spanish and French +breeders to cultivate them largely—the latter, to a monstrosity. An +exceedingly wrinkled neck, however, adds but little to the weight of the +fleece—not enough, in fact, to compensate for the deformity, and the +great impediment thus placed in the way of the shearer. A smoothly drawn +skin, and the absence of all dead lap, would not, on the other hand, +perhaps be desirable.</p> + +<p>The wool should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly +grow—from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on +the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, particularly in +young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks; but long +wool covering the legs, and on the nose, below the eyes, is unsightly, +without value; while on the face it frequently impedes the sight of the +animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm, and +disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool the +slightest indication of a heavy fleece—contrary to what seems to be +thought by some. It is very often seen in Saxons shearing scarcely two +pounds of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos.</p> + +<p>The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit is another mooted point. +Merino wool should be yolky, or oily, prior to washing—though not to +the extreme extent, occasionally witnessed, of giving it the appearance +of being saturated with grease. The extreme tips may exhibit a +sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> particularly +in the ram; but a black, pitchy gum, resembling half-hardened tar, +extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which +cannot be removed by ordinary washing, is decidedly objectionable. There +is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, +which appears in the interior of some fleeces, and is equally +objectionable.</p> + +<p>The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with +compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, since it constitutes a +better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the +animal from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and +fall. The wool should be, as nearly as possible, of even length and +thickness over the entire body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or +thickness on the belly, are serious defects.</p> + +<p>Evenness of fleece is a point of the first importance. Many sheep +exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and +even hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc. Rams of this stamp should not be +bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-woolled flock; +and all such ewes should gradually be excluded from those selected for +breeding.</p> + +<p>The style of the wool is a point of as much importance as mere fineness. +Some very fine wool is stiff, and the fibres almost straight, like hair. +It has a dry, cottony look; and is a poor, unsalable article, however +fine the fibre. Softness of wool—a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel +between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to be regarded. +This is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good +qualities; so much so, indeed, that an experienced judge can decide, +with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> in the +dark. Wool should be finely serrated, or crimped from one extremity to +the other: that is, it should present a regular series of minute curves; +and, generally, the greater the number of these curves in a given +length, the higher the quality of the wool in all other particulars. The +wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead +of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a +pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is +pressed open each way with the hands, it should be close enough to +conceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of +the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and +liveliness of appearance not surpassed in the best silk.</p> + +<p>The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon +particularly to avoid are, a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes; a +thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders; narrow loins; +flat ribs; steep, narrow hind-quarters; long legs; thighs scarcely +meeting at all; and legs drawn far under the body at the least approach +of cold. All these points were, separately or conjointly, illustrated in +many of the Saxon flocks which have been swept from the country. +Sufficient attention has already been paid to the points to be avoided +in the fleece.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>BREEDING MERINOS.</h3> + +<p>The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is, that “like +will beget like.” If the sire and ewe are perfect in any given points, +the offspring will generally be; if either is defective, the +offspring—subject to a law which will possibly be noticed—will be +half-way between the two; if both are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> defective in the same points, the +progeny will be more so than either of its parents—it will inherit the +amount of defect in both parents added together. There are exceedingly +few perfect animals. Breeding, therefore, is a system of +counterbalancing—breeding out—in the offspring, the defects of one +parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, in the same +points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the +greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny; but, +blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater +degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from +ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impropriety, +provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose; but, where a high +standard of quality is aimed at, all ewes possessing even considerable +defects should gradually be thrown out from breeding. Every year should +add to the vigor of the selection.</p> + +<p>But, from the beginning—and at the beginning, more than at any other +time—the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. +If he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future +flock; if it is a material one—as, for example, a hollow back, bad +cross, or thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece—the flock will be one +of low quality and little value. If, on the other hand, he is perfect, +the defects in the female will be lessened, and gradually bred out. It +being, however, difficult to find perfect rams, those should be taken +which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of these material, +like those just enumerated. These defects are to be met and +counterbalanced by the decided excellence—sometimes, indeed, running +into a fault—of the ewe, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> same points. If the ram, then, is a +little too long-legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for +him; if gummy, the dryest-woolled; if his fleece is a trifle below the +proper standard of fineness—but he has been retained, as often happens, +for weight of fleece and general excellence—he is to be put to the +finest and lightest-fleeced ewes, and so on. With a selection of rams, +this system of counterbalancing would require but little skill, if each +parent possessed only a single fault. If the ewe be a trifle too +thin-fleeced, and good in all other particulars, it would require no +nice judgment to decide that she should be bred to an uncommonly +thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to a greater or less +degree, several defects. To select so that every one of these in the dam +shall meet its opposite in the male, and the contrary, requires not only +plentiful materials from which to select, but the keenest +discrimination.</p> + +<p>After the breeder has successfully established his flock, and given them +an excellent character, he soon encounters a serious evil. He must +“breed in-and-in,” as it is called—that is, interbreed between animals +more or less nearly related in blood—or he must seek rams from other +flocks, at the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of +his flock, hitherto so carefully sought, and built up with so much +painstaking. The opponents of in-and-in breeding contend that it renders +diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease +of size, debility, and a general breaking up of the constitution. Its +defenders, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly +healthy, this mode does not, of itself, tend to any diminution of +healthfulness in the offspring; and they likewise claim—which must be +conceded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>—that +it enables the skilful breeder much more rapidly to +bring his flock to a particular standard or model, and to keep it there +much more easily—unless it be true that, in course of time, they will +dwindle and grow feeble.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="background-image: url('images/illo100.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; width: 355px; height: 385px;"> +<p class="caption" style="padding-left: 210px; padding-top: 300px;">THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG, OR COLLEY.</p></div> + +<p>So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, both positions +may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, difficult always +to decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease, +but from all tendency or predisposition towards it. A brother or sister +may be apparently healthy—may be actually so—but may still possess a +peculiarity of individual conformation which, under certain +circumstances, will manifest itself. If these circumstances do not +chance to occur, they may live until old age, apparently possessing a +robust constitution. If tried together, their offspring—by a rule +already laid down—will possess this individual tendency in a double +degree. If the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, +granddaughters, etc., for several generations, the predisposition toward +a particular disease—in the first place slight, now strong, and +constantly growing stronger—will pervade, and become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> radically +incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time +the requisite exciting causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks +out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and +malignancy. If it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept +away; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring +intervals. The same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the +outward form which do not at first, from their slightness, attract the +notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased until, almost +before thought of by the owner, they destroy the value of the sheep. +That such are the common effects of in-and-in breeding, with such skill +as it is commonly conducted, all know who have given attention to the +subject; and for these reasons the system is regarded with decided +disapprobation and repugnance by nine out of ten of the best practical +farmers.</p> + +<p>The sheep-breeder can, however, avoid the effects of in-and-in breeding, +and at the same time preserve the character of his flock, by seeking +rams of the same breed, possessing, as nearly as possible, <i>the +characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock</i>. If this +rule is neglected—if he draws indiscriminately from all the different +varieties or families of a breed—some large, and some small—some +long-woolled, and some short-woolled—some medium, and some superfine in +quality—some tall, and some squatty—some crusted over with black gum, +and some entirely free from it—breeding will become a mere matter of +hap-hazard, and no certain or uniform results can be expected. So many +varieties cannot be fused into one for a number of generations—as is +evidenced by the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +which was commenced by a promiscuous admixture of all the Spanish families; and it +not merely happens, as between certain classes of Saxons, that +particular families can never be successfully amalgamated.</p> + +<p>If, however, the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard—if his +sheep are deficient in the requisites which he desires—he is still to +adhere to the breed—<i>provided the desired requisites are characteristic +of the breed he possesses</i>—and select better animals to improve his own +inferior ones. If he has, for instance, an inferior flock of +South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best Down dams, +he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes to +obtain qualities <i>not characteristic of the breed he possesses</i>, he must +cross with a breed which does possess them. If the possessor of +South-Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-woolled sheep similar to +the Merino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino +rams—constantly increasing the amount of Merino, and diminishing the +amount of South-Down blood. To effect the same result, he would take the +same course with the common sheep of the country, or with any other +coarse race.</p> + +<p>There are those, who, forgetting that some of the finest varieties now +in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of +crosses—bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any +and all circumstances. It is, it must be admitted, an unqualified +absurdity, as frequently conducted—as, for example, an attempt to unite +the fleece of a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses +between those breeds; but, under the limitations already laid down, and +with the objects specified as legitimate ones, this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> objection to +crossing savors of the most profound prejudice, or the most unblushing +quackery. It is neither convenient, nor within the means of every man +wishing to start a flock of sheep, to commence exclusively with +full-bloods. With a few to breed rams from, and to begin a full-blood +stock, the breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best +common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with Merino +rams. In selecting the ewes, good shape, fair size, and a robust +constitution, are the main points—the little difference in the quality +of the common sheep’s wool being of no consequence. For their wool, they +are to look to the Merino; but good form and constitution they can and +ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely +unnecessary evils on their progeny.</p> + +<p>Satisfactory results have followed crossing a Down ram—small, compact, +exceedingly beautiful, fine and even fleeced—with large-sized Merino +ewes. The half-blood ewes were then bred to a Merino ram, and also their +female progeny, and so on. The South-Downs, from a disposition to take +on fat, manifested themselves, to a perceptible extent, in every +generation, and the wool of many of the sheep in the third +generation—seven-eighths blood Merino, and one-eighth blood Down—was +very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium Merino. +Their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood Merinos, but increased in +weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter. The mutton of +the first, and even of the second cross was of a beautiful flavor, and +retained, to the last, some of the superiority of South-Down mutton.</p> + +<p>Results are also noted of breeding Leicester ewes—taking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +one cross of the blood, as in the preceding case—toward the Merino. The mongrels, to +the second generation—beyond which they were not bred—were about +midway between the parent stock in size—with wool shorter, but far more +fine and compact than the Leicester—their fleeces about the same +weight, five pounds—and, altogether, they were a showy and profitable +sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces, +however, lacked evenness, their thighs remaining disproportionately +coarser and heavy.</p> + +<p>A difference of opinion exists in relation to the number of crosses +necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram. Some high +authorities assert that it does not admit of the slightest doubt that a +Merino, in the fourth generation, from even the worst-woolled ones, is +in every respect equal to the stock of the sire—that no difference need +to be made in the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood, or a +fifteen-sixteenths—and that, however coarse the fleece of the parent +ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show +it.</p> + +<p>Others, however—while admitting that the only value of blood or +pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the +properties of the parent to the offspring, and that, as soon as a +mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on the +progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally +valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal—contend +that this cannot be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the +fourth Merino cross. They assert that the offspring of such crosses +invariably lack the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. The +sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> and the last, +perhaps, almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams; yet pure blood +is a fixed standard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty +to depart from it in his rams, each one more or less, according to his +judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become +adulterated. No man, assuredly, can be authorized to sell a ram of any +cross, whether the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood.</p> + +<p>It is of the utmost importance for those <i>commencing</i> flocks, either of +full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram +may, by methods which will hereafter be described, be made to serve from +one hundred to one hundred and fifty ewes in a season. A good Merino ram +will, moderately speaking, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece +of the dam, or every lamb got by it, from a common-woolled ewe—that is, +if the ewe at three years old sheared three pounds of wool, the lamb at +the same age will shear four. This would give one hundred or one hundred +and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season; and +every lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount. Many a +ram gets, during his life, eight hundred or one thousand lambs. Nor is +the extra amount of wool all. He gets from eight hundred to one thousand +half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the +basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is +as important and, it may be, quite as valuable an animal as a good +farm-horse stallion. When the number of a ram’s progeny are taken into +consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in +his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be +perpetuated, the folly of that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +economy which would select an inferior animal is sufficiently obvious.</p> + +<p>It will be found the best economy in starting a flock, where the proper +flocks from which to draw rams are not convenient, to purchase several +of the same breed, of course, but <i>of different strains of blood</i>. Thus +ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and the reverse; No. 3 +can be put on the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. +3. The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, +without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any +considerable danger, are innumerable.</p> + +<p>The brother and sister, it will be born in mind, are of the same blood; +the father and daughter, half; the father and granddaughter, one-fourth; +the father and great-granddaughter, one-eighth; and so on. Breeding +between animals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be +considered very close breeding; and it is not unusual, in rugged, +well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of +the same blood.</p> + +<p>If, however, these rams of different strains are brought promiscuously, +without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and +probably will, be difference between them; and it might require time and +skill to give a flock descended from them a proper uniformity of +character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish +different strains of blood, with the necessary individual and family +uniformity.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.</h3> + +<p>Some few suggestions upon the general principles to be observed in +breeding may not be superfluous here, referring<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> the reader, who is +disposed to investigate this subject in detail, to its full discussion +in the author’s treatise upon “Cattle and their Diseases.”</p> + +<p>As illustrative of the importance of <i>breeding only from the best</i>, +taking care to avoid structural defects, and especially to secure +freedom from <i>hereditary diseases</i>, since both defects and diseases +appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities, it may +be remarked that scrofula is not uncommon among sheep, and presents +itself in various forms. Sometimes it is connected with consumption; +sometimes it affects the viscera of the abdomen, and particularly the +mesenteric glands, in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs. The +scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to affect the +fœtus, and lambs have occasionally been dropped with it; but much +oftener they show it at an early age, and any affected in this way are +liable to fall an easy prey to any ordinary or prevalent disease, which +develops in such with unusual severity. Sheep are also liable to several +diseases of the brain, and of the respiratory and digestive organs. +Epilepsy, or “fits,” and rheumatism sometimes occur.</p> + +<p>The breeder’s aim should be to grasp and <i>render permanent</i>, and +increase so far as practicable, <i>every variation for the better</i>, and to +reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward tendency. A +remarkable instance of the success which has often attended the +well-directed efforts of intelligent breeders, is furnished in the new +Mauchamp-Merino sheep, which originated in a single animal—a product of +the law of variation—and which, by skilful breeding and selection, has +become an established breed of a peculiar type, and possessing valuable +properties. Samples of the wool of these sheep were shown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +at the great exhibition in London, in 1851, as well as at the subsequent great +agricultural exhibition at Paris, and attracted much attention.</p> + +<p>This breed was originated by Mons. J. L. Graux. In 1828, a Merino ewe +produced a peculiar ram lamb, having a different shape from the ordinary +Merino, and possessing wool singularly long, straight, and silky. Two +years afterward, Mr. Graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe, +having the silky character of wool. Among the produce of the ensuing +year were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces; and in 1833, there +were rams enough of the new sort to serve the whole flock of ewes. In +each subsequent year, the lambs were of two kinds; one possessing the +curled, elastic wool of the old Merinos, only a little longer and finer, +and the other like the new breed. At last, the skilful breeder obtained +a flock containing the fine, silky fleece with a smaller breed, broader +flanks, and more capacious chest; and several flocks being crossed with +the Mauchamp variety, the Mauchamp-Merino breed is the result.</p> + +<p>The pure Mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as a +combing-wool, owing to the strength, as well as the length and fineness +of the fibre. It is found of great value by the manufacturers of +Cashmere shawls, and similar goods, being second only to the true +Cashmere fleece, in the fine, flexible delicacy of the fibre; and when +in combination with Cashmere wool, imparting strength and consistency. +The quantity of this wool has since become as great as that from +ordinary Merinos, or greater, while its quality commands twenty-five per +cent. higher price in the French market. Breeders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> certainly, cannot +watch too closely any accidental peculiarity of conformation or +characteristic in their flocks.</p> + +<p><i>The apparent influence of the male</i> first having fruitful intercourse +with a female, <i>upon her subsequent offspring by other males</i>, has been +noticed by various writers. The following well-authenticated instances +are in point:</p> + +<p>A small flock of ewes, belonging to Dr. W. Wells, in the island of +Granada, was served by a ram procured for the purpose. The ewes were all +white and woolly; the ram was quite different, being of a chocolate +color, and hairy like a goat. The progeny were, of course, crosses, but +bore a strong resemblance to the male parent. The next season, Dr. Wells +obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes; but the progeny +showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram, in color and +covering. The same thing occurred on neighboring estates, under like +circumstances.</p> + +<p>Six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes, belonging to Mr. H. +Shaw, of Leochel, Cushnie, were served by a white-faced hornless +Leicester ram. The lambs were crosses. The next year they were served by +a ram of exactly the same breed as the ewes themselves, and their lambs +were, without an exception, hornless and brownish in the face, instead +of being black and horned. The third year they were again served by a +superior ram of their own breed; and again the lambs were mongrels, but +showed less of the Leicester characteristics than before; and Mr. Shaw +at last parted from these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred +lamb.</p> + +<p>To account for this result—seemingly regarded by most physiologists as +inexplicable—Mr. James McGillivray, V. S., of Huntley, has offered an +explanation, which has received the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +sanction of a number of competent +writers. His theory is, that when a pure animal of any breed has been +pregnant by an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal <i>is a +cross ever after</i>, the purity of her blood being lost, in consequence of +her connection with the foreign animal, and herself becoming a cross +forever, incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed.</p> + +<p>To cross, <i>merely for the sake of crossing</i>, to do so without that care +and vigilance which are highly essential, is a practice which cannot be +too much condemned, being, in fact, a national evil, if pushed to such +an extent as to do away with a useful breed of animals, and establish a +generation of mongrels in their place—a result which has followed in +numerous instances amongst every breed of animals.</p> + +<p>The principal use of crossing is to raise animals for the butcher. The +male, being generally an animal of a superior breed, and of a vigorous +nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size, and muscular +development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to +him; while their internal nature, derived from the dam, well adapts them +to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have +been accustomed.</p> + +<p>With sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil, as regards the goodness +of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent +the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and +superior ram is often very considerable; and the weight of mutton is +thereby materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while +earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, +more systematic attention than most farmers usually like to bestow, for +it is necessary to employ a different ram for each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +purpose; that is, a native ram, for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the +breed, and a foreign ram, to raise the improved cross-bred animals for +felting, either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders +of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South-Down rams to improve the +quality of the mutton.</p> + +<p>One inconvenience attending this plan is the necessity of fattening the +maiden ewes as well as the wethers. They may, however, be disposed of as +fat lambs, or the practice of spaying (fully explained in “Cattle and +their Diseases”) might be adopted, so as to increase the felting +disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with +the greatest caution and skill, where the object is to improve the breed +of animals. It should never be practised carelessly or capriciously, but +it may be advantageously pursued, with a view to raising superior and +profitable animals for the butcher. For the latter purpose, it is +generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they +possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance +that the <i>pelvis</i> of the female should be wide and capacious, so that no +injury may arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the +heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram’s head should be studied for +the same reason.</p> + +<p>In crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new breed, the +size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; +although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed +which is sought to be improved. Thus, the South-Downs have vastly +improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester, the huge Lincolns and +the Cotswolds.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></p> +<h3>USE OF RAMS.</h3> + +<p>Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and +even longer. The lambs of very old rams are commonly supposed not to be +as those of middle-aged ones; though where rams have not been +overtasked, and have been properly fed, little if any difference is +discoverable in their progeny by reason of their sire’s age. A ram lamb +should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, in +many instances, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling +may run with thirty ewes, a two-year-old with from forty to fifty, and a +three-year-old with from fifty to sixty; while some very powerful, +mature rams will serve seventy or eighty. Fifty, however, is enough, +where they <i>run with</i> the ewes. It is well settled that an impoverished +and overtasked animal does not transmit his individual properties so +decidedly to his offspring as does one in full vigor.</p> + +<p>Rams, of course, are not to be selected for ewes by mere chance, but +according as their qualities may improve those of the ewes. It may not +be superfluous, though seemingly a repetition, to state that a good ewe +flock should exhibit these characteristics: <i>strong bone</i>, supporting a +roomy frame, affording space for a large development of flesh; +<i>abundance of wool of a good quality</i>, keeping the ewes warm in +inclement weather, and insuring profit to the breeder; <i>a disposition to +fatten early</i>, enabling the breeder readily to get rid of his sheep +selected for the butcher; and <i>a prolific tendency</i>, increasing the +flock rapidly, and being also a source of profit. Every one of these +properties is advantageous in itself; but when all are combined in the +same individuals of a flock, that flock is in a high state<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> of +perfection. In selecting rams, it should be observed whether or not they +possess one or more of those qualities in which the ewes may be +deficient, in which case their union with the ewes will produce in the +progeny a higher degree of perfection than is to be found in the ewes +themselves, and such a result will improve the state of the future +ewe-flock; but, on the contrary, if the ewes are superior in all points +to the rams, then, of course, the use of such will only serve to +deteriorate the future ewe-flock.</p> + +<p>Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnatural +and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant blows. +It is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be avoided, +and, as customarily managed, is destructive to every thing like careful +and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should +possess to the female is out of the question where half a dozen or more +rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes.</p> + +<p>Before the rams are let out, the breeding ewes should all be brought +together in one yard; the form of each noted, together with the length, +thickness, quality and style of her wool—ascertained by opening the +wool on the shoulder, thigh, and belly. When every point is thus +determined, that ram should be selected which, on the whole, is best +calculated to perpetuate the excellencies of each, both of fleece and +carcass, and to best counterbalance defects in the mutual offspring. +Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a distinct mark, +which will continue visible until the next shearing. For this purpose, +nothing is better than Venetian red and hog’s lard, well incorporated, +and marked on with a cob. The ewes for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +each ram require a differently +shaped mark, and the mark should also be made on the ram, as noted in +the sheep-book. Thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the +ewe was tapped, any time before the next shearing. The ewes selected for +each ram are placed in different enclosures, and the chosen ram placed +with them. Rams require but little preparation on being put among ewes. +If their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they +are ready for the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. Most +of the ewes will be served during the second week the ram is among them, +and in the third, all. It is better, however, not to withdraw the rams +until the expiration of four weeks, when the flocks can be doubled, or +otherwise re-arranged for winter, as may be necessary. The trouble thus +taken is, in reality, slight—nothing, indeed, when the beneficial +results are considered. With two assistants, several hundred ewes may be +properly classified and divided in a single day.</p> + +<p>Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is desirable to make the +services of one go a great way, or where it is impossible to have +separate enclosures—as on farms where there are a great number of +breeding ewes, or where the shepherd system is adopted, to the exclusion +of fences—resort may be had to another method. A hut should be built, +containing as many apartments as the ram is desired to be used, with an +alley between them, each apartment to be furnished with a feeding-box +and trough in one corner, and gates or bars opening from each into the +alley, and at each end of the alley. Adjoining these apartments, a yard +should be inclosed, of size just sufficient to hold the flock of +breeding ewes.</p> + +<p>A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +hundred ewes, are then aproned, their briskets rubbed with Venetian red and hog’s +lard, and let loose among the ewes. <i>Aproning</i> is performed by sewing a +belt of coarse sacking, broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind +legs, loosely but strongly around the body. To prevent its slipping +forward or back, straps are carried round the breast and back of the +breech. It should be made <i>perfectly secure</i>, or all the labor of this +method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on +the brisket should be renewed every two or three days; and it will be +necessary to change the “teasers”—as these aproned rams are +called—about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage +under such unnatural circumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought +into the yard in front of the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the +teasers are taken into the alley. Each is admitted <i>once</i> to the ram for +which she is marked, and then goes out <i>at the opposite end of the +alley</i> from which they entered, into a field separate from that +containing the flock from which she was taken. A powerful and vigorous +ram, from three to seven years old, and properly fed, can thus be made +to serve from one hundred and fifty to even two hundred ewes, with no +greater injury than from running loose with fifty or sixty. The labor +here required is likewise more apparent than real, when the operation is +conducted in a systematic manner.</p> + +<p>Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years +longer, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is better to +continue it. In all cases, they should, after serving, be put on good +pasture, as they will have lost a good deal of condition, being +indisposed to settle during the tapping season.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> A ram should receive +the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats daily, when worked +hard. They are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered +to run at large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat +from a measure held by the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their +stock-rams, from the time they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, +to have them halter-broke, so that they can be led about without +dragging or lifting them. An iron ring attached to one of the horns, +near the point, to which a cord can be fastened for leading, confining, +etc., is very useful and convenient. If rams are wild, it is a matter of +considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be +effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some breeders, in +addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks each night, +shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. To this practice +there is no objection, and it greatly saves their strength.</p> + +<p>Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at least +in the Northern States. It is much better that a ewe go dry than that +she have a lamb later than the first of June. Besides, after the rutting +season is over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant +ewes dangerous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs.</p> + +<p>It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation and the first +period of gestation take place in cold weather, the fœtus will be +fitted for the climate which rules during the early stages of its +existence. If this be so—and it is certainly in accordance with the +laws of Nature—fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their +excellence by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement +of cold weather;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> and, in the Northern States, this is done about the +first of December, thus bringing the yeaning time in the last of April, +or the first of May, when the early grass affords a large supply and +good quality of food.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>LAMBING.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter" style="background-image: url('images/illo117.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; width: 355px; height: 365px;"> +<p class="caption" style="padding-top: 300px;">EWE AND LAMBS.</p></div> + +<p>The ewe goes with young about five months, varying from one hundred and +forty-five to one hundred and sixty-two days. Pregnant ewes require the +same food as at all other times. Until two or three weeks preceding +lambing, it is only necessary that they, like other store-sheep, be kept +in good, plump, ordinary condition; nor are any separate arrangements +necessary for them after that period, in a climate where they obtain +sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of milk. In +backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start prior to +the lambing-time, careful farmers feed their ewes on chopped roots, or +roots mixed with oat and pea-meal, which is excellent economy. Caution +is, however, necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> prevent injury or abortion, which is often +the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The first may be +remedied by blood-letting and spare diet; and both the last by restored +health and generous food. Sudden frights, as from dogs or strange +objects; long or severe journeys, great exertions, unwholesome food, +blows in the region of the fœtus, and some other causes, produce +abortion.</p> + +<p>Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to the fifteenth +of May; in the South, they can safely come earlier. It is not expedient +to have them dropped when the weather is cold or boisterous, as they +require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the weather has +become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes +that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of +milk. It is customary, in the North, to have fields of clover, or the +earliest grasses, reserved for the early spring-feed of the +breeding-ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their stables, it is a +great convenience—for the ewes should be confined in the latter, on +cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season.</p> + +<p>If the weather be warm and pleasant, and the nights moderately warm, it +is better to have the lambing take place in the pasture; since sheep are +then more disposed to own their lambs, and take kindly to them, than in +the confusion of a small inclosure. In the latter, sheep, unless +particularly docile, crowd from one side to another when any one enters, +running over young lambs, pressing them severely, etc.; ewes become +separated from their lambs, and then run violently round from one to +another, jostling and knocking them about; young and timid ewes, when so +separated, will frequently<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> neglect their lambs for an hour or more +before they will again approach them, while, if the weather is severely +cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, is in danger of perishing. +Lambs, too, when first dropped in a <i>dirty</i> inclosure, tumble about, in +their first efforts to rise, and the membrane which adheres to them +becomes smeared with dirt and dung; and the ewe’s refusing to lick them +dry much increases the hazard of freezing.</p> + +<p>In cold storms, however, and in sudden and severe weather, all this must +be encountered; and, therefore, every shepherd should teach his sheep +docility. It requires but a very moderately cold night to destroy the +new-born Saxon lamb, which—the pure blood—is dropped nearly as naked +as a child. During a severely cold period, of several days continuance, +it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. The +Merino, South-Down, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree +of cold with impunity. Where inclosures are used for yeaning, they +should be kept clean by frequent litterings of straw—not enough, +however, to be thrown on at any one time, to embarrass the lamb about +rising.</p> + +<p>The predisposing symptoms of lambing are, enlargement and reddening of +the parts under the tail, and drooping of the flanks. The more immediate +are, when the ewe stretches herself frequently; separating herself from +her companions; exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place +for any length of time; lying down and rising up again, as if +dissatisfied with the place; pawing the ground with a forefoot; +bleating, as if in quest of a lamb; and appearing fond of the lambs of +other ewes. In a very few hours, or even shorter time after the +exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +symptom of lambing is the expulsion of the bag of water from the <i>vagina</i>. When this is observed, +the ewe should be narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may be +expected to come on immediately. When these are felt by her, the ewe +presses or forces with earnestness, changing one place or position for +another, as if desirous of relief.</p> + +<p>The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition. Her +labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud +moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go about +several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and nose +of the lamb protruding at the mouth of the <i>vagina</i>. If let alone, +however, Nature will generally relieve her. In case of a false +parturition of the fœtus—which is comparatively rare—the shepherd +may apply his thumb and finger, after oiling, to push back the lamb, and +assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear. Where +feebleness in expelling the fœtus exists, only the slightest aid +should be rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. The +objection to interfering—except as a last resort—is, that the ewe is +frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease. When +aided, in any case, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in +conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. The clearing, or <i>placenta</i>, +generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very short time—in many +cases, within a few minutes—after lambing. It should be carried away, +and not allowed to lie upon the lambing-pound.</p> + +<p>Common kale, or curly-greens, is excellent food for ewes that have +lambed, as its nutritive matter, being mucilaginous, is wholly soluble +in water, and beneficial in encouraging the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +necessary discharges of the ewe at the time of lambing. In these respects, it is a better food than +Swedish turnips—upon which sheep are sometimes fed—which become rather +too fibrous and astringent, in spring, for the secretion of milk. In the +absence of kale or cabbage, a little oil-cake will aid the discharges +and purify the body. New grass also operates medicinally upon the +system.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS.</h3> + +<p>While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise—the ewe, +meanwhile, licking it dry—it is well to be in no haste to interfere. A +lamb that gets at the teat without help, and procures even a small +quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely +perishes. If helped, it sometimes continues to expect it, and will do +little for itself for two or three days. The same is true where lambs +are fed from a spoon or bottle.</p> + +<p>But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise—especially if the ewe +has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly—it is time to render +assistance. It is not advisable to throw the ewe down—as is frequently +practised—in order to suckle the lamb; because instinct teaches the +latter to point its nose <i>upward</i> in search of the teats. It is, +therefore, doubly difficult to teach it to suck from the bag of the +prostrate ewe; and when it is taught to do this, by being so suckled +several times, it is awkward about finding the teat in the natural +position, when it begins to stand and help itself. Carefully disengaging +the ewe from her companions, with his crook—which useful article will +be hereafter described—the assistant should place one hand before the +neck and the other behind the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +buttocks of the ewe, and then, pressing +her against his knees, he should hold her firmly and still, so that she +will not be constantly crowding away from the shepherd, who should set +the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible; if not, +supporting it <i>on its feet</i> by placing one hand under its body; put its +mouth to the teat, and encourage it to suck by tickling it about the +roots of the tail, flanks, etc., with a finger. The lamb, mistaking this +last for the caresses of its dam, will redouble its efforts to suck. +Sometimes it will manifest great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, +in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding +backward, etc.; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink +himself to the level of brute, by resenting the stupidity of a brute, +will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking a +little into the lamb’s mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will +induce it to take hold.</p> + +<p>If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed, until the natural supply +commences, with small quantities of the milk of a <i>new-milch</i> cow. This +should be mixed, say half and half, with water, with enough molasses to +give it the purgative effect of the first milk, gently warmed to the +natural heat—not scalded and suffered to cool—and then fed through a +bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should <i>suck</i>, +if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a +spoon or bottle, it is frequently difficult, as before stated, to induce +it to suck. Moreover, unless milk is poured into the mouth slowly and +with care—no faster than the lamb can swallow—a speedy wheezing, the +infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid +has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> been forced into the lungs. Lambs have been frequently killed in +this way.</p> + +<p>If a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped in a woollen blanket, +placed in a warm room, and given a little milk as soon as it will +swallow. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and with +good effect, for the purpose of rousing the cold and torpid stomach into +action. In New England, under such circumstances, the lamb is sometimes +“baked,” as it is called—that is, put in a blanket in a +moderately-heated oven, until warmth and animation are restored; others +immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry, which is said to +be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen. A good blanket +however, a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction +will generally suffice.</p> + +<p>If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chance to lose her lamb, she +should be required to bring up one of some other ewe’s twins, or the +lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of milk. +Her own lamb should be skinned as soon as possible after death, and the +skin sewed over the lamb which she is to foster. She will sometimes be a +little suspicious for a day or two; and if so, she should be kept in a +small pen with the lamb, and occasionally looked to. After she has taken +well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If no +lamb is placed on a ewe which lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of +milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may +ensue; even if this is not the result, permanent indurations, or other +results of inflammatory action, will take place, injuring the subsequent +nursing properties of the animal.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +When milked, it is well to wash the +bag for some time in cold water, since it checks the subsequent +secretions of milk, as well as allays inflammation.</p> + +<p>Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her +lamb, will not stand for it to suck; and in this case, if the lamb is +not very strong and persevering, and particularly if the weather is +cold, it soon grows weak, and perishes. The conduct of the dam, in such +instances, is occasioned by inflammatory action about the bag or teats, +and perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position. In this case, the +sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted her bag, +and there will not often be any trouble afterward; though it may be well +enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined.</p> + +<p>Such pens—necessary in a variety of cases other than those +mentioned—need not exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built +of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so that they +can be readily moved by one man, or, at the most, two, from place to +place, where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted, +when sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles +laid up like a fence, and each nailed and pegged to the lower ones at +the corners, or laid on, are quite serviceable. Two or three sides of a +few of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered, +in order to shield feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, and the +like.</p> + +<p>Young lambs are subject to what is commonly known as “pinning”—that is, +their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of +the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering +matter, in such cases,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed +with a little dry clay, to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will +frequently perish from this cause, if not looked to for the first few +days.</p> + +<p>The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks, and have +a frequent change of pasture. Some careful shepherds adopt the plan of +confining their lambs, allowing them to suck two or three times a day. +By this method they suffer no fatigue, and thrive much faster. It is, +however, troublesome as well as injurious, since the exercise is +essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for +rearing. It is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market; +and with those who rear them for this purpose it is a common practice.</p> + +<p>Where there are orphans or supernumeraries in the flock, the deserted +lambs must be brought up by hand. Such animals, called pet lambs, are +supported on cow’s milk, which they receive warm from the cows each time +they are milked, and as much as they can drink. In the intervals of +meals, in bad weather, they are kept under cover; in good weather they +are put into a grass enclosure during the day, and sheltered at night +until the nights become warm. They are fed by hand out of a small +vessel, which should contain as much milk as it is known each can drink. +They are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the fingers, like +a calf, and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in the mouth, a +small tin tube, about three inches in length, and of the thickness of a +goose-quill, should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed +tightly on, to use as a substitute for a teat, by means of which they +will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> quickness. A +goose-quill would answer the same purpose, were it not easily squeezed +together by the mouth. When the same person feeds the lambs—and this +should be the dairy-maid—they soon become attached to her, and desire +to follow her everywhere; but to prevent their bleating, and to make +them contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a stake or bush in +the inclosure, will keep them together.</p> + +<p>It is much better for the lambs and for their dams that they be <i>weaned</i> +from three and a half to four months old. When taken away, they should +be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that they may +not hear each other’s bleatings, as the lambs, when in hearing of their +dams, continue restless much longer, and make constant and, frequently, +successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. One +or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, to teach them +to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat out of +troughs when winter approaches.</p> + +<p>When weaned, the lambs should be put on the freshest and tenderest +grass—rich, sweet food, but not too luxuriant. The grass and clover, +sown the preceding spring, on grain-fields seeded down, is often +reserved for them. The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a +fortnight on short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be +looked to after a day or two, and if the bags of any are found much +distended, the milk should be drawn away, and the bags washed for a +little time in cold water. On short feed, they rarely give much trouble +in this respect. When thoroughly dried off, they should have the best +fare, to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and +wintering. The fall is a critical period in which to lose flesh, either +for sheep or lambs; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> if any are found deficient, they should at once +be provided with extra feed and attention. If cold weather overtake +them, poor or in ill health, they will scarcely outlive it; or if by +chance they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired constitution, and +scant fleece will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CASTRATION AND DOCKING.</h3> + +<p>Some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after birth, while +others will not allow the operation to be performed until the lamb is a +month old. The weight of authority, however, is in favor of any time +between two and six weeks after birth, when the creature has attained +some strength, and the parts have not become too rigid. In such +circumstances, the best English breeders recommend from ten to fifteen +days old as the proper time. A lamb of a day old cannot be confirmed in +all the functions of its body, and, indeed, in many instances, the +testicles can then scarcely be found. At a month old, on the other hand, +the lamb may be so fat, and the weather so warm, that the operation may +be attended with febrile action. Dry, pleasant weather should be +selected for this: a cool day, if possible; if warm, it should be done +early in the morning.</p> + +<p>Castration is a simple and safe process. Let a man hold a lamb with its +back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach, and all four legs +gathered in front in his hands. Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free +the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and then draw it steadily out, +or clip the cord with a knife if it does not snap off at a proper +distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles at once +with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> their teeth. It is usual to drop a little salt into the pouch. +Where the weather is very warm, some touch the end of the pouch with an +ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. As a general thing, +however, the animal will do as well without any application.</p> + +<p>The object of <i>docking</i> is to keep the sheep behind clean from filth and +vermin; since the tail, if left on, is apt to collect filth, and, if the +animal purges, becomes an intolerable nuisance. The tail, however, +should not be docked too short, since it is a protection against cold in +winter. This operation is by many deferred till a late period, from +apprehension of too much loss of blood; but, if the weather be favorable +and the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at the same time as +castration with the least trouble and without injury.</p> + +<p>The tail should be laid upon a plank, the animal being held in the same +position as before. With one hand the skin is drawn toward the body, +while another person, with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off +at a blow, between the bone-joints, leaving it from one and a half to +two inches long. The skin immediately slips back over the wound, which +is soon healed. Should bleeding continue—as, however, rarely +happens—so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord should be tied +firmly round the end of the tail; but this must not be allowed to remain +on above twenty-four hours, as the points of the tail would slough off. +Ewe lambs should be docked closer than rams. To prevent flies and +maggots, and assist in healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed +of lard and tar, in the proportion of four pounds of the former to one +quart of the latter. The lambs should be carefully protected from cold +and wet till they are perfectly well.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo129.png" alt="Feeding and Management" width="350" height="419" /></div> + +<h3>FEEDING.</h3> + + +<p>As soon as the warm weather approaches and the grass appears, sheep +become restive and impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be +repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the grass has +acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for the change +of food by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. The +tendency to excessive purging which is induced by the first +spring-feed,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +may be checked by housing them at night and feeding them +for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. They must be +provided with pure water and salt; for, though they may do tolerably +well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply +secured by this slight attention.</p> + +<p>As to <i>water</i>, it may be said that it is not indispensable in the summer +pastures, since the dews and the succulence of the feed answer as a +substitute; but a wide experience having demonstrated that free access +to it is advantageous, particularly to those having lambs, it should be +considered a matter of importance on a sheep-farm so to arrange the +pastures, if possible, as to bring water into each of them.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><img src="images/illo130.png" alt="A Covered Salting Box" width="250" height="117" /> +<p class="caption">A COVERED SALTING BOX.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Salt</span> is indispensable to the health, especially in the summer. It is +common to give it once a week, while they are at grass. It is still +better to give them free access to it, at all times, by keeping it in a +covered box, open on one side, as in the engraving annexed. A large +hollow log, with holes cut along the side for the insertion of the heads +of the animals, answers very well. A sheep having free access to salt at +all times will never eat too much of it; and it will take its supply at +such times and in such quantities as Nature demands, instead of eating +of it voraciously at stated periods, as intermediate abstinence will +stimulate it to do. When salt is fed but once a week, it is better to +have a stated day, so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +that it will not be forgotten; and it is well to +lay the salt on flat stones—though if laid in little handfuls on the +grass, very little of it will be lost.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tar.</span> This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for +sheep, and they smear the nose with it, which is licked and swallowed as +the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it to +trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to +get unusually salt-hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, +and then scatter salt upon it so that both may be consumed together. +Applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, it may be +advantageous in catarrhs; and in the same place, at the proper periods, +its odor may, perhaps, repel the fly, the eggs of which produce the +“gout in the head,” as it is termed. However valuable it may be as a +medicine, and even as a debergent in the case specified, there is but +slight ground for confidence in it merely as a condiment.</p> + +<p><i>Dry</i>, <i>sweet pastures</i>, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter +plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, with the exception +of the goat, crops so great a variety of plants. They eat many which are +rejected by the horse and the ox, which are even essential to their own +wants. In this respect they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, +as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdock, thistles, marsh-mallows, +milk-weed, and various other offending plants; and the Merino exceeds +the more recent breeds in the range of his selections.</p> + +<p>In pastures, however, where the dry stalks of the burdock, or the +hound’s-tongue, or tory-weed have remained standing over the winter, the +burs are caught in the now long wool,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> and, if they are numerous, the +wool is rendered entirely unmarketable and almost valueless. Even the +dry prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very +numerous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads +under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the northern +spring; and, independently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult +to wash and otherwise handle the sheep. Indeed, it is a matter of the +soundest policy to keep sheep on the cleanest pastures, those free from +these and similar plants; and in a region where they are pastured the +year round, they should be kept from contact with them for some months +prior to shearing.</p> + +<p>Many prepare <i>artificial pastures</i> for their flocks, which may be done +with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, +may be fed off in the fall, without injury to the crop; and, in the +following spring, the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and +begin to form a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn +may be sown broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the +fields or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard is +also a valuable crop for this purpose.</p> + +<p>To give sheep sufficient variety, it is better <i>to divide their range</i> +into several smaller ones, and change them as often, at least, as once a +week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on a dry, elevated part of the +field, which soon becomes soiled. By removing them from this for a few +days, rain will cleanse or the sun dry it, so as to make it again +suitable for them. More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, +where this practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same +pasture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Shade.</span> No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in +hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is +pouring down upon their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a +matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot +summer-months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common +rail-fence. Forest trees are the most natural and the best shades, and +it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them +entirely from the sheep-walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board +fence on the south and west sides of the pasture, forms a tolerable +substitute for trees. But in the absence of all these and of buildings +of any kind, a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in +the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, +which will be hereafter described.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fences.</span> Poor <i>fences</i> will teach ewes and wethers, as well as rams, to +jump; and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high +fences, or extirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole +flock; and if one by chance is brought in, it should be immediately +hoppled or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hoppling</span> is done by sewing the ends of a leather strap, broad at the +extremities, so that it will not cut into the flesh, to a fore and hind +leg, just above the pastern joints, leaving the legs at about the +natural distance apart. <i>Clogging</i> is fastening a billet of wood to the +fore leg by a leather strap. <i>Yoking</i> is fastening two rams two or three +feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of +timber, some two or three inches in size. <i>Poking</i> is done by inserting +a bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit—worn on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> under +side of the neck—a rod is inserted, which projects a couple of feet in +front of the sheep.</p> + +<p>These and similar devices, to prevent rams from scaling fences, may be +employed as a last resort by those improvident farmers who prefer, by +such troublesome, injurious, and, at best, insecure means, to guard +against that viciousness which they might so much more easily have +prevented from being acquired.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dangerous rams</span>. From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted and +played with when young, and sometimes without any other stimulant than a +naturally vicious temper, rams occasionally become very troublesome by +their propensity to attack men or cattle. Some will allow no man to +enter the field where they are without making an immediate onset upon +him; while others will knock down the ox or horse which presumes to +dispute a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known to have acquired +this propensity should at once be <i>hooded</i>, and, if not valuable, at the +proper season converted into a wether. But the courage thus manifested +is usually the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution, +and of a powerfully developed frame. If good in other particulars, it is +a pity to lose the services of so valuable an animal. In such cases, +they may be hooded, by covering their faces with leather in such a +manner that they can only see a little backward and forward. They must +then, however, be kept apart from the flock of rams, or they will soon +be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape.</p> + +<p>It sometimes happens that a usually quiet-tempered ram will suddenly +exhibit some pugnacity when one is salting or feeding the flock. If such +a person turns to run, he is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> immediately knocked down, and the ram +learns, from that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the +propensity to exercise it. As the ram gives his blow from the summit of +the parietal and the posterior portion of the frontal bones on <i>the top</i> +of his head, and not from the forehead, he is obliged to crouch his head +so low when he makes his onset that he does not see forward well enough +to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a few quick motions to the +right and left enable one to escape him. Run in upon him, as he dashes +by, with pitch-fork, club, or boot-heel, and punish him severely by +blows about the head, if the club is used, giving him no time to rally +until he is thoroughly cowed. This may be deemed harsh treatment, and +likely to increase the viciousness of the animal. Repeated instances +have, however, proved the contrary; and if the animal once is forced to +acknowledge that he is overcome, he never forgets the lesson.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prairie feeding.</span> Sheep, when destined for the prairies, ought to +commence their journey as early after the shearing as possible, since +they are then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and retain +as much dust as when driven later; feed is also generally better, and +the roads are dry and hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, +with early lambs; or, if the latter are too young, and the distance +great, they should be left, and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought +to accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or they +may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With good care, a +hardy flock may be driven at the rate of twelve or fourteen miles a day. +Constant watchfulness is requisite, in order to keep them healthy and in +good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> plight. +One-half the expense of driving may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd-dogs.</p> + +<p>When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly washed, to +free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to any diseases which +they may have contracted, that these may be promptly removed. A variety +of suitable food and good shelter must be provided for the autumn, +winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given to them. +This would be necessary if they were indigenous to the country; but it +is much more so when they have just undergone a campaign to which +neither they nor their race have been accustomed.</p> + +<p>Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, artificial food, +and proper attention; and losses have often occurred, by reason of a +false system of economy attempted by many, from disease and mortality in +the flocks, amply sufficient to have made a generous provision for the +comfort and security of twice the number lost. More especially do they +require proper food and attention after the first severe frosts set in, +which wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the bog—the +frostbitten, dead grass—they are inevitably subject to constipation, +which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, etc., is alone sufficient to +remove.</p> + +<p>Roots, grain, good hay, straw, corn-stalks, and pea or bean-vines are +essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the +winter, everywhere north of thirty-nine degrees. In summer, the natural +herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they shall +have acquired a denser population of animals, when it will be found +necessary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial grasses.</p> + +<p>The prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced +into the United States; and of such are the flocks made up, according to +the taste or judgment of the owners. Shepherd dogs are invaluable to the +owners of flocks, in these unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a +defence against the small prairie wolves, which prowl around the sheep, +but have been rapidly thinned off by the settlers, and also as +assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the +open ground.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fall feeding.</span> In the North, the grass often gets very short by the tenth +or fifteenth of November, and it has lost most of its nutritiousness +from repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, although no snow may +have fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light, daily foddering of +bright hay, and a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or +twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder +pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. It is well +to feed oats in the bundle, or threshed oats, about a gill to the head, +in the feeding-troughs, carried to the field for that purpose.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Winter feeding.</span> The time for taking sheep from the pastures must depend +on the state of the weather and food. Severe frosts destroy much of the +nutriment in the grasses, and they soon after cease to afford adequate +nourishment. Long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain +them, will rapidly reduce the condition of these animals. The only safe +rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they +cease to thrive abroad.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +There is no better food for sheep than well-ripened, sound Timothy hay; +though the clovers and nearly all the cultivated grasses may be +advantageously fed. Hundreds and thousands of northern flocks receive, +during the entire winter, nothing but ordinary hay, consisting mainly of +Timothy, some red and white clover, and frequently a sprinkling of gum, +or spear grass. Bean and pea straw are valuable, especially the former, +which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is well +adapted to the production of wool. Where hay is the principal feed, it +may be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks every fifth or +sixth feed, or even once a day; or the daily feed, not of hay, might +alternate between stalks, pea-straw, straws of the cereal grains, etc. +It is mainly a question of convenience with the farmer, provided a +proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass is given. +It would not, however, be entirely safe to confine any kind of sheep to +the straw of the cereal grains, unless it were some of those little +hardy varieties of animals which would be of no use in this country.</p> + +<p>The expediency of feeding <i>grain</i> to store-sheep in winter depends much +on circumstances. If in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply +of grass or other green esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary; +nor is it a matter of necessity where the ground is frozen or covered +with snow for weeks or months, provided the sheep be plentifully +supplied with good dry fodder. Near markets where the coarser grains +find a quick sale at fair prices, it is not usual, in the North, to feed +grain. Remote from markets it is generally fed by the holders of large +flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a +gill a head per day. Some feed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> half the same amount of yellow corn. +Fewer sheep, particularly lambs and yearlings, get thin and perish where +they receive a daily feed of grain; they consume less hay, and their +fleeces are increased in weight. On the whole, therefore, it is +considered good economy. Where no grain is fed, three daily feeds of hay +are given. The smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two +pounds of hay; but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to +four or even five pounds per day. Sheep, in common with all other +animals, when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if well +protected, or during a warmer season.</p> + +<p>It is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats in the +bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay, one at morning and one +at night. Some feed greenish cut peas in the same way. In warm, thawing +weather, when sheep get to the ground and refuse dry hay, a little grain +assists materially in keeping up their strength and condition. When the +feed is shortest in winter, in the South, there are many localities +where sheep can get enough grass to take off their appetite for dry hay, +but not quite enough to keep them in prime order. A moderate daily feed +of oats or pease, placed in the depository racks, would keep them strong +and in good plight for the lambing season, and increase their weight of +wool.</p> + +<p>Few Northern farmers feed <i>Indian corn</i> to store-sheep, as it is +considered too hot and stimulating, and sheep are thought to become more +liable to become “cloyed” on it than on oats, pease, etc. Yellow corn is +not generally judged a very safe feed for lambs and yearlings. +Store-sheep should be kept in good, fair, plump condition. Lambs and +yearlings may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> be as fat as they will become on proper feeding. It is +stated that sheep will eat <i>cotton-seed</i>, and thrive on it.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that sheep are not to be allowed to get thin +during the winter, with the idea that their condition can at any time be +readily raised by better feed, as with the horse or ox. It is always +difficult, and, unless properly managed, expensive and hazardous, to +attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock in the winter, especially +if they have reached that point where they manifest weakness. If the +feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced, fatal +diarrhœa will often supervene. All extra feeding, therefore, must be +begun very gradually; and it does not appear, in any case, to produce +proportionable results.</p> + +<p><i>Roots</i>, such as ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes, and the like, make a good +substitute for grain, or as extra feed for grown sheep. The ruta-baga is +preferable to the potato in its equivalents of nutriment. No root, +however, is as good for lambs and yearlings as an equivalent of grain. +Sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cultivated roots. This is done +by withholding salt from them, and then feeding the chopped roots a few +times, rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root +to obtain it; but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt before +they have acquired a taste for the roots.</p> + +<p>It is customary with some farmers to cut down, from time to time in the +winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the <i>hemlock</i>, +whose foliage is greedily eaten by the sheep, after being confined for +some time to dry feed. This browse is commonly used, like tar, for some +supposed medicinal virtues. It is pronounced “healthy” for sheep. Much +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> same remarks might be made about this as have been already made +concerning tar. No tonics and stimulants are needed for a healthy +animal. If the foliage of the hemlock were constantly accessible to +them, there would be no possible objection to their eating it, since +their instincts, in that case, would teach them whether, and in what +quantities, to devour it; but when entirely confined to dry feed for a +protracted period, sheep will consume injurious and even poisonous +succulents, and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful quantities. As a +mere <i>laxative</i>, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial; +though, in this point of view, a day’s run at grass, in a thaw, or a +feed of roots, would produce the same result. In a climate where grass +is procurable most of the time, browse for medicinal purposes is +entirely unnecessary.</p> + +<p>Sheep undoubtedly require <i>salt</i> in winter. Some salt their hay when it +is stored in the barn or stack. This is objectionable, since the +appetite of the sheep is much the safest guide in the premises. It may +be left accessible to them in the salt-box, as in summer; or an +occasional feed of grined hay or straw may be given them in warm, +thawing weather, when their appetite is poor. This last is an excellent +plan, and serves a double purpose. With a wisp of straw, sprinkle a thin +layer of straw with brine, then another layer of straw, and another +sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until the next day, for the brine to +be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to all the grazing animals on +the farm which need salting.</p> + +<p><i>Water</i> is indispensable, unless sheep have access to succulent food, or +clean snow. Constant access to a brook or spring is best; but, in +default of this, they should be watered at least <i>once a day</i> in some +other way.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Feeding with other stock.</span> Sheep should not run, or be fed, <i>in yards</i>, +with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often mortally; and colts tease +and frequently injure them. It is often said that “colts will pick up +what sheep leave.” But well-managed sheep rarely leave any thing; and, +if they chance so to do, it is better to rake it up and throw it into +the colts’ yard, than to feed them together. If sheep are not required +to eat their food pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large +quantities. If, however, they are over-fed with either hay or grain, it +is not proper to compel them, by starvation, to come back and eat it. +This they will not do, unless sorely pinched. Clean out the troughs, or +rake up the hay, and the next time feed less.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Division of flocks.</span> If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during +winter, according to the northern custom, it is necessary to divide them +into flocks of about one hundred each, consisting of sheep of about the +same size and strength; otherwise, the stronger rob the weaker, and the +latter rapidly decline. This is not so important where the sheep roam at +large; but, even in that case, some division and classification are +best. It is best, indeed, even in summer. The poorer and feebler can by +this means receive better pasture, or a little more grain and better +shelter in winter.</p> + +<p>By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and wethers, +are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter; and it is best to keep +yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, +and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but +which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding ewes.</p> + +<p>Old and feeble or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> should be +placed by themselves, even if the number be small, as they require +better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. Unless the sheep are of +a peculiarly valuable variety, however, it is better to sell them off in +the fall at any price, or to give them to some poor neighbor who has +time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Regularity in feeding.</span> If any one principle in sheep husbandry deserves +careful attention more than others, it is, that <i>the utmost regularity +must be preserved in feeding</i>.</p> + +<p>First, there should be regularity as to <i>the times</i> of feeding. However +abundantly provided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour +and sometimes at another—sometimes three times a day, and sometimes +twice—some days grain, and some days none—they cannot be made to +thrive. They will do far better on inferior keep, if fed with strict +regularity. In a climate where they require hay three times a day, the +best times for feeding are about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an +hour before dark at night. Unlike cattle and horses, sheep do not feed +well in the dark; and, therefore, they should have time to consume their +food before night sets in. Noon is the common time for feeding grain or +roots, and is the best time, if but two fodderings of hay are given. If +the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a matter of much +consequence with which feeding grain is given, only that the practice be +uniform.</p> + +<p>Secondly, it is highly essential that there should be regularity in <i>the +amount</i> fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon +the weather; the keener the cold, the more the sheep will eat. In the +South, much depends upon the amount of grass obtained. In many places, a +light, daily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +foddering supplies; in others, a light foddering placed in +the depository racks once in two days, answers the purpose. In the +steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns to +determine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering +time. And this amount should, as near as may be, be regularly fed. In +feeding grain or roots, there is no difficulty in preserving entire +regularity; and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. Of the +latter, a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself; of the former, it +will. Even if it be not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, it will +expect a like amount, however over-plenteous, at the next feeding; +failing to receive which, it will pine for it, and manifest uneasiness. +The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of any animal +is bad; and the sheep suffers more from it than any other animal. It is +much better that the flock receive no grain at all, than that they +receive it without regard to regularity in the amount. The shepherd +should <i>measure</i> out the grain to the sheep in all instances, instead of +<i>guessing</i> it out, and measure it to each separate flock.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Effect of food.</span> Well-fed sheep, as has been previously remarked, produce +more wool than poorly fed ones. No doctrine is more clearly recognized +in agricultural chemistry than that animal tissues derive their chemical +components from the same components existing in their food. Various +analyses show that the chemical composition of wool, hair, hoofs, nails, +horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, nerves, etc., are +nearly identical.</p> + +<p>The organic part of wool, according to standard authorities, consists of +carbon, 50.65; hydrogen, 7.03; nitrogen, 17.71; oxygen and sulphur, +24.61. The inorganic constituents are small. When burned, it leaves but +a trifling per cent. of ash.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +The large quantity of nitrogen contained in wool shows that its +production is increased by highly azotized food; and from various +experiments made, a striking correspondence has been found to exist +between the amount of wool and the amount of nitrogen in food. <i>Pease</i> +rank first in increasing the wool, and very high in the average +comparative increase which they produce in all the tissues.</p> + +<p>The increase of fat and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of +the food. It is not very common, in the North, for wool-growers to +fatten their wethers for market by extra winter feeding. Some give them +a little more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off, +and then salt them when they have obtained their maximum fatness the +succeeding fall.</p> + +<p>Stall-feeding is lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty animal. The perfection +of form and health, and the uniform good condition which characterizes +the thrifty one, indicate, too plainly to be misunderstood, those which +will best repay the care of their owner. The selection of any +indifferent animal for stall-fattening will inevitably be attended with +loss. Such ought to be got rid of, when first brought from the pasture, +for the wool they will bring.</p> + +<p>When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shelters, +and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice +a day in troughs—or meal once and chopped roots once. The equivalent of +from half a pint to a pint of yellow corn meal per head each day is +about as much as ordinary stocks of Merino wethers will profitably +consume; though in selected flocks, consisting of large animals, this +amount is frequently exceeded.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></p> +<h3>YARDS.</h3> + +<p>Experience has amply demonstrated that—in the climate of the Northern +and Eastern States, where no grass grows from four to four and a half +months in the winter, and where, therefore, all that can be obtained +from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, unnutritious herbage left in +the fall—it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where +the ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at +other times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry +hay, but not enough to sustain them; they fall away, and toward spring +they become weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. +Flocks of some size are here, of course, alluded to, and on properly +stocked farms. A few sheep would do better with a boundless range.</p> + +<p>Some let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, during a thaw; +others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the +spring. The former course is preferable where the sheep ordinarily get +nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and a single +day’s grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one +succeeding dry feed. It is necessary, in the North, to keep sheep in the +yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they will +get off from their feed—particularly the breeding ewes—and get weak at +the most critical time for them in the year.</p> + +<p>Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, and, in the northern climate, kept +well littered with straw. The yarding system is not practised to any +great extent in the South; nor should it be, where sheep can get their +living from the fields.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></p> +<h3>FEEDING-RACKS.</h3> + +<p>When the ground is frozen, and especially when covered with snow, the +sheep eats hay well on the ground; but when the land is soft, muddy, or +foul with manure, they will scarcely touch hay placed on it—or, if they +do, will tread much of it into the mud, in their restlessness while +feeding. It should then be fed in racks, which are more economical, even +in the first-named case; since, when the hay is fed on the ground, the +leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are almost +wholly lost.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo147.png" alt="A Convenient Box-Rack" width="350" height="115" /> +<p class="caption">A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK.</p></div> + +<p>To make an economical <i>box-rack</i>—the one in most general use in the +North—take six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one +for each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of pine or +hemlock, twelve or fifteen feet long, and twelve or fourteen inches +wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, +which are separated by similar boards at the ends, two and a half feet +long. Boards twelve inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space +of from nine to twelve inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, which +completes the rack. The edges of the opening should be made perfectly +smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool. The largest +dimensions given are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for +the Saxon; and still smaller are proper for the lambs. These should be +set on dry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +ground, or under the sheds; and they can be easily removed +wherever necessary. Unless over-fed, sheep waste very little hay in +them.</p> + +<p>Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the +form of the common horse-rack. This kind should always be accompanied by +a broad trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls +in feeding. These racks may be attached to the side of a building, or +used double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a large +sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding; and this amount of room, +at least, should be provided around the racks for every sheep.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo148.png" alt="A Hole-Rack" width="350" height="100" /> +<p class="caption">A HOLE-RACK.</p></div> + +<p>With what is termed a <i>hole-rack</i>, sheep do not crowd and take advantage +of each other so much as with log-racks; but they are too heavy and +unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. This rack is +box-shaped, with the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, or, +more commonly, by nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the +sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. The holes +should be at least eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen +inches from centre to centre.</p> + +<p>In the South, racks are not so necessary for that constant use to which +they are put in colder sections, as they are for depositories of dry +food, for the occasional visitation of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> sheep. In soft, warm +weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is +to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder; though the little +they will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden +freeze, or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the +racks, and fill themselves with dry food. They anticipate the coming +storm by instinct, and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the +animal heat during the succeeding depression of temperature. They should +always have racks of dry fodder for resort in such emergencies.</p> + +<p>These racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from +rain, as otherwise the feed would often be spoiled before but a small +portion of it would be consumed. Hay or straw, saturated with water, or +soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of absolute +necessity. The common box-rack would answer the purpose very well by +placing on the top a triangular cover or roof, formed of a couple of +boards, one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hinges, so that +it could be lifted up like a lid; making the ends tight; drawing in the +lower edges of the sides, so that it should not be more than a foot wide +on the bottom; inserting a flow; and then mounting it on, and making it +fast to, two cross-sills, four or five inches square, to keep the floor +off from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily +overturned. The lower side-board should be narrow, on account of the +increased height given its upper edge by the sills.</p> + +<p>A rack of the same construction, with the sides like those described for +the hole-rack, would be still better, though somewhat more expensive; or +the sides might consist of rundles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +the top being nailed down in either +case, and the fodder inserted by little doors in the ends.</p> + +<div class="figright"><img src="images/illo150.png" alt="The Hopper-Rack" width="250" height="183" /> +<p class="caption">THE HOPPER-RACK.</p></div> + +<p>What is termed the <i>hopper-rack</i>, serving both for a rack and a +feeding-trough, is a favorite with many sheep-owners. The accompanying +cut represents a section of such a rack. A piece of durable wood, about +four and a half feet long, six or eight inches deep, and four inches +thick, having two notches, <i>a a</i>, cut into it, and two troughs, made of +inch boards, <i>b b b b</i>, placed in these notches, and nailed fast, +constitute the formation. If the rack is to be fourteen feet long, three +sills are required. The ends of the rack are made by nailing against the +side of the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have +the rack; and nails driven through these end-boards into the ends of the +side-boards, <i>f f</i>, secure them. The sides may be further strengthened +by pieces of board on the outside of them, fitted into the trough. A +roof may be put over all, if desired, by means of which the fodder is +kept entirely from the weather, and no seeds or chaff can get into the +wool.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>TROUGHS.</h3> + +<p>Threshed grain, chopped roots, etc., when fed to sheep, should be placed +in troughs. With either of the racks which have been described, except +the last, a separate trough would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +be required. The most economical are +made of two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve inches wide. +Nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other, fastening both +into a two or three-inch plank, fifteen inches long, and a foot wide, +notched in its upper edge in the form required. In snowy sections they +are turned over after feeding, and when falls of snow are anticipated +one end is laid on the yard-fence.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo151.png" alt="An Economical Sheep-Trough" width="350" height="79" /> +<p class="caption">AN ECONOMICAL SHEEP-TROUGH.</p></div> + +<p>Various contrivances have been brought to notice for keeping grain where +sheep can feed on it at will, a description of which is omitted, since +it is not thought best, by the most successful stock-raisers, in feeding +or fattening any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will, stated feeds +being preferred by them; and the same is true of fodder. If this system +is departed from in using depository racks, as recommended, it is +because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A +Merino store-sheep, allowed as much grain as it chose to consume, would +be likely to inflict injury on itself; and grain so fed would, generally +speaking, be productive of more damage than benefit.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>BARNS AND SHEDS.</h3> + +<p>Shelters, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable +sheep-raising; and in every latitude north of the Gulf of Mexico, they +would probably be found advantageous. An animal eats much less when thus +protected; he is more thrifty,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +less liable to disease, and his manure +is richer and more abundant. The feeding may be done in the open yard in +clear weather, and under cover in severe storms: for, even in the +vigorous climate of the North, none but the breeders of Saxons make a +regular practice of feeding under cover.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo152.png" alt="Sheep-Barn with Sheds" width="350" height="175" /> +<p class="caption">SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS.</p></div> + +<p>Humanity and economy alike dictate that, in the North, sheep should be +provided with shelters under which to lie nights, and to which they can +resort at will. It is not an uncommon circumstance in New York and New +England for snow to fall to the depth of from twenty to thirty inches +within twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and then to be succeeded by a +strong and intensely cold west or northwest wind of several days +continuance, which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling +huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, etc.</p> + +<p>A flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning their +backs to the storm, constantly stepping, and thus treading down the snow +as it rises about them. Strong, close-coated sheep do not seem to suffer +as much from the cold, for a period, as would be expected. It is, +however, almost impossible to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +feed them enough, or half enough, under +such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay—entirely +impossible, indeed, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an instant +by the wind; and, even if racks are used, the sheep, leaving their +huddle, where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting snow in +their wool, soon get chilled, and are disposed to return to their +huddle. Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is +lowered, and, at the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones +sink down hopelessly, the yearlings, and those somewhat old, receive a +shock from which nothing but the most careful nursing will enable them +to rally, and even the strongest suffer an injurious loss in condition.</p> + +<p>Few persons, therefore, who own as many as forty or fifty sheep, attempt +to get along without some kind of shelters, which are variously +constructed, to suit their tastes or circumstances. A sheep-barn, built +upon a side-hill, will afford two floors: one underneath, surrounded by +three sides of wall, should open to the south, with sliding or swinging +doors to guard against storms; and another may be provided above, if the +floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off the urine; +and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds +overhead. They may also be constructed with twelve or fifteen-feet posts +on level ground, allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the +fodder stored above.</p> + +<p>In all cases, however, <i>thorough ventilation should be provided</i>; for of +the two evils, of exposure to cold or of too great privation of air, the +former is to be preferred. Sheep cannot long endure close confinement +without injury. In all ordinary weather, a shed, closely boarded on +three sides, with a light<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +roof, is sufficient protection; especially if +the open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a +well-inclosed yard. If the floors above are used for storage, they +should be made tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the +fleece. The sheds attached to the barn are not usually framed or silled, +but are supported by some posts of durable timber set in the ground. The +roofs are formed of boards battened with slats. The barn has generally +no partitions within, and is entirely filled with hay.</p> + +<p>There are many situations in which open sheds are very liable to have +snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all +severe gales to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large +drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and +are very inconvenient, particularly when they thaw. For these reasons, +many prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a +wide doorway for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for the +necessary ventilation. They are convenient for yarding sheep, and the +various processes for which this is required; as for shearing, marking, +sorting, etc., and especially so for lambing-places, or the confinement +of newly-shorn sheep in cold storms. They should have so much space +that, in addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily +through the middle when required.</p> + +<p>The facts must not be overlooked—as bearing upon the question of +shelter, even in the warmer regions of the country—that cold rains, or +rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing +weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even +snow-storms; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +that, consequently, sheep must be adequately guarded +against them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo155.png" alt="A Shed of Rails" width="400" height="166" /> +<p class="caption">A SHED OF RAILS.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sheds.</span> The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles or +rails, the upper end resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by +crotched posts set in the ground. It may be rendered rain-proof by +pea-vines, straw, or pine boughs. In a region where timber is very +cheap, planks or boards, of a sufficient thickness not to spring +downward, and thus open the roof, battened with slats, may take the +place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more +durable roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a +couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed +will shelter more sheep.</p> + +<p>These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns—“hay-barracks”—or +they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle. In the +latter case, the yard should be square, on account of the divergence in +the lower ends of the boards or poles, which a round form would render +necessary.</p> + +<p>Sheds of this description are frequently made between two stacks. The +end of the horizontal supporting-pole is placed on the stack-pens when +the stacks are built, and the middle is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +propped by crotched posts. The +supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two +hay-barracks; or two such sheds, at angles with each other, might form +wings to this structure.</p> + +<p>On all large sheep-farms, convenience requires that there be one barn of +considerable size, to contain the shearing-floor, and the necessary +conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, etc. This should also, for +the sake of economy, be a hay-barn, where hay is used. It may be +constructed in the corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can +be fed from it, without racking flocks of improper size. At this barn it +would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all +the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number does not exceed four +hundred. The shepherd would thus be saved much travel at all times, and +particularly at the lambing-time, and each flock would be under his +almost constant supervision.</p> + +<p>The size of this barn is a question to be determined entirely by the +climate. For large flocks of sheep, the storage of some hay or other +fodder for winter is an indispensable precautionary measure, at least in +any part of the United States; and, other things being equal, the +farther north, or the more elevated the land, the greater would be the +amount necessary to be stored.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hay-holder.</span> Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper door of +a barn into the sheep-yard—as it always must necessarily be in any mere +hay-barn—or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep +immediately rush on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding +forkfuls fall on their backs, filling their wool with dust, seed, and +chaff.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +This is obviated by hay-holders—yards ten feet square—either +portable, by being made of posts and boards, or simply a pen of rails, +placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each stack or +barrack. The hay is pitched into this holder in fair weather, enough for +a day’s foddering at a time, and is taken from it by the fork and placed +in the racks.</p> + +<p>The poles or rails for stack-pens or hay-holders should be so small as +to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads in them after +hay. A sheep will often insert his head where the opening is wide enough +for that purpose, shove it along, or get crowded, to where the opening +is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until +observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as often happens, it is +thus caught when its foreparts are elevated by climbing up the side of +the pen, it will continue to lose its footing in its struggles, and will +soon choke to death.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>TAGGING.</h3> + +<p>Tagging, or clatting, is the removal from the sheep of such wool as is +liable to get fouled when the animal is turned on to the fresh pastures. +If sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually +purge, more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The wool +around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into +hard pellets, if the purging ceases. Whether this take place or not, the +adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of +washing; and it forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and +straining the shears to cut through it, when in a dry state, and it is +often impracticable so to do. Besides, it is difficult to force the +shears between it and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> skin, without frequently and severely +wounding the latter. Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under +this mass of filth prior to shearing; and the ensuing swarm of maggots, +unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a +miserable death.</p> + +<p>Before the animals are let out to grass, each one should have the wool +sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs; it +should likewise be sheared from off the entire bag of the ewe, that the +newly-dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, +and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram as is usually +kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration +sometimes ensue from the constant maceration of the urine.</p> + +<p>An assistant should catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. +The latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off +closely and smoothly, or the object is but half accomplished, and the +sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance when the +remainder of their fleeces is taken off; while, on the other hand, it is +not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is +peculiarly so to cut that or the bag of a ewe when near lambing. The +wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the expenses of the +operation. It answers well for stockings and other domestic purposes, or +it will sell for nearly half the price of fleece-wool.</p> + +<p>Care should be exercised at all times in handling sheep, especially ewes +heavy with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about +and handle them roughly; for, even if abortion, the worst consequence of +such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +rendering it difficult to catch them or render them assistance at the +lambing period, and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes, in +which it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time, without +having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, etc. If a +sheep is suddenly caught by the wool on her running, or is lifted by the +wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the +points where it is thus seized; and, if killed a day or two afterward, +blood will be found settled about those parts.</p> + +<p>When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just +large enough to hold them without their being crowded, so that they +shall have no chance to run and dash about. The catcher should stop them +by seizing them by the hind-leg just above the hock, or by clapping one +hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not +waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw its +right arm over and about immediately back of the shoulders, place his +hand on the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. If the sheep is +very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under +the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. He +should then set it carefully on its rump upon the tagging-table, which +should be eighteen or twenty inches high, support its back with his +legs, and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed +his duty. Two men should not be allowed to lift the same sheep together, +as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good +shearer and assistant will tag two hundred sheep per day.</p> + +<p>When sheep receive green feed all the year round—as they do in many +parts of the South—and no purging ensues from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> eating the +newly-starting grasses in the spring, tagging is unnecessary.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>WASHING.</h3> + +<p>Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, on account of its +tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which this animal +is particularly subject; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the +wool is always rendered more salable; and if the operation is carefully +done, it need not be attended with injury.</p> + +<p>Mr. Randall, the extensive sheep-breeder of Texas, states that he does +not wash his sheep at all, for what he deems good reasons. About the +middle of April, or at the time when one-half of the ewes have young +lambs at their sides, and the balance about to drop, would be the only +time in that region when he could wash them. At this period he would not +race or worry his ewes at all, on any account; as they should be +troubled as little as possible, and no advantage to the fleece from +washing could compensate for the injury to the animal. In his high +mountain-region, lambing-time could not prudently come before the latter +part of March or April—the very period when washing and shearing must +be commenced—since in February, and even up to the fifteenth or +twentieth of March, there is much bad weather, and a single cold, rainy +or sleety norther would carry off one-half of the lambs dropped during +its continuance.</p> + +<p>In most of that portion of the United States lying north of forty +degrees, the washing is performed from the middle of May till the first +of June, according to the season and climate. When the streams are hard, +which is frequently the case in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> limestone regions, it is better to +attend to it immediately after an abundant rain, which proportionately +lessens the lime derived from the springs. The climate of the Southern +States would admit of an earlier time. The rule should be to wait until +the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold +rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be expected.</p> + +<p>The practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their sheep to +the watering-ground early in the morning, on a warm day, leaving the +lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a +temporary enclosure, from which they are taken, and, if not too heavy, +carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. +They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, +after which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as +possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the +wool frequently staggers and throws them down.</p> + +<p>By the best flock-masters, sheep are usually washed in vats. A small +stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct, formed +by nailing boards together, and carried till a sufficient fall is +obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The +body of water, to do the work fast and well, should be some twenty-four +inches wide, and five or six deep; and the swifter the current the +better. The vat should be some three and a half feet deep, and large +enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the vat, from +the gate of which a platform extends to and incloses the vat on three +sides. This keeps the washer from standing in the water, and makes it +much easier to lift the sheep in and out. The yard is built opposite the +corners of two fields—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>to +take advantage of the angle of one of them to +drive the sheep more readily into the yard, which should be large enough +to contain the entire flock, if it does not exceed two hundred; and the +bottom of it, as well as the smaller yard, unless well sodded over, +should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid becoming muddy. If the +same establishment is used by a number of flock-masters, gravelling will +always be necessary.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo162.png" alt="Washing Apparatus" width="400" height="222" /> +<p class="caption">WASHING APPARATUS.</p></div> + +<p>As soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard, the lambs are all +immediately caught out from among them, and set over the fence into the +yard to the left, to prevent their being trampled down, as often +happens, by the old sheep, or straying off, if let loose. As many sheep +are then driven out of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the +right, as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to +the vat, to open and shut it, or the gate is drawn together with a chain +and weight, and two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head +of “tagging,” commence placing them in the water +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> for the preparatory +process of “wetting.” As soon as the water strikes through the wool, +which occupies but an instant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose. +Where there are conveniences for so doing, this process may be more +readily performed by driving them through a stream deep enough to compel +the sheep to swim; but <i>swimming</i> the compact-fleeced, fine-woolled +sheep for any length of time—as is practised with the long-wools in +England—will not properly cleanse the wool for steaming. The vat +should, of course, be in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The +whole flock should thus be passed over, and again driven round through +the field into the middle yard, where they should stand for about an +hour before washing commences.</p> + +<p>There is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil, which acts upon +the dirt independent of the favorable effect which would result from +thus soaking it with water alone for some time. If washed soon after a +good shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with; and it is not, +perhaps, absolutely necessary in any case. If the water is warm enough +to allow the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period, they may be +got clean by washing without any previous wetting; though the snowy +whiteness of fleece, which has such an influence on the purchaser, is +not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way. But little +time is saved by dispensing with “wetting,” as it takes proportionably +longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept so long +in the water at once.</p> + +<p>When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are plunged in +the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are washed. This +should not, however, be done, unless the water is very warm, and the +washers are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> uncommonly quick and expert; and it is, upon the whole, +rather an objectionable practice, since few animals suffer so much from +the effects of a chill as the sheep; and, if they have been previously +wetted, it is wholly unnecessary. When the sheep are in the water, the +two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the +dirtier parts—the breech, belly, etc.—and they continue to turn the +sheep so that the descending current of water can strike into all parts +of the fleece.</p> + +<p>As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running +entirely clear, each washer seizes his own animal by the foreparts, +plunges it deep in the vats, and, taking advantage of the rebound, lifts +it out, setting it gently down on its breech upon the platform. He +then—if the sheep is old and weak, and it is well in all cases—presses +out some of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to a +process presently to be mentioned, lets it go.</p> + +<p>There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not covered with sod, +being gravelled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures, from washing to +shearing—not where they can come in contact with the ground, burnt +logs, and the like—and they should not be driven over dusty roads. The +washers should be strong and capable men, and, protected as they are +from any thing but the water running over the sides of the vat, they can +labor several hours without inconvenience. Two hundred sheep will employ +two experienced men not over half a day, and this rate is at times much +exceeded.</p> + +<p>It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but +even as an item of profit, to get the wool clean, and of a snowy +whiteness, in which condition it will always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +sell for more than enough +extra to offset the increased labor and the diminution in weight. The +average loss in American Saxon wool in scouring, after being washed on +the back, is estimated at thirty-six per cent.; and in American Merino +forty-two and a half per cent.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CUTTING THE HOOFS.</h3> + +<p>As the hoofs of fine-woolled sheep grow rapidly, turning up in front and +under at the sides, they must be clipped as often as once a year, or +they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the animal, and +the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung +in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from being +readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural +movement of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the +hoof in its proper place. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and +renders the curing of it more difficult; and it is thought by many to be +the exciting cause of the disease.</p> + +<p>It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the +time of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs; +but the animal must afterward be turned upon its back, to pare off the +crust which projects and turns under. If the weather be dry, or the +sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, as at shearing, the hoofs +are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty; and this is +increased by the grit and dirt adhering to the sole, which immediately +takes the edge off from the knife. These periods are ill-chosen, and the +method slow and bungling. It is particularly improper to submit +heavily-pregnant ewes to all this unnecessary handling at the time of +tagging.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo166.png" alt="Toe-Nippers" width="350" height="79" /> +<p class="caption">TOE-NIPPERS.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its +rump upon the platform, the gate-keeper should advance with a pair of +toe-nippers, and the washer present each foot separately, pressing the +toes together so that they can be severed at a single clip. The +nippers—which can be made by any blacksmith who can temper an axe or a +chisel—must be made strong, with handles a little more than a foot +long, the rivet being of half-inch iron, and confined with a nut, so +that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting-edge should +descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from +being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are +severed by a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened +knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then +grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to +each foot, the side-crust, being free from dirt, and soaked almost as +soft as a cucumber, is reduced to the level of the sole. Two expert men +will go through these processes in a very short space of time. The +closer the paring and clipping the better, if blood be not drawn. An +occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SHEARING.</h3> + +<p>The time which should elapse between washing and shearing depends +altogether on circumstances. From four to six days of bright, warm +weather is sufficient; if cold, or rainy, or cloudy, more time must +intervene. Sometimes the wool remains in a condition unfit for shearing +for a fortnight after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> washing. The rule to be observed is, that the +water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool +should so far exude as to give the wool an unctious feeling, and a +lively, glittering look. If it is sheared when dry, like cotton, and +before the oil has exuded, it is very difficult to thrust the shears +through, the umer is checked, and the wool will not keep so well for +long periods. If it is left until it gets too oily, either the +manufacturer is cheated, or, what more frequently happens, the owner +loses on the price.</p> + +<div class="figright"><img src="images/illo167.png" alt="Fleece" width="150" height="166" /> +<p class="caption">FLEECE.</p></div> + +<p>Shearing, in this country, is always done on the threshing-floors of the +barns—sometimes upon low platforms, some eighteen or twenty inches +high, but more commonly on the floor itself. The place where the sheep +remain should be well littered down with straw, and fresh straw thrown +on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. No chaff or +other substance which will stick in the wool should be used for this +purpose. The shearing should not commence until the dew, if any, has +dried off from the sheep. All loose straws sticking to the wool should +be picked off, and whatever dung may adhere to any of the feet brushed +off. The floor or tables used should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, +so that they will not hold dirt, or catch the wool. They should all be +thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to the +process. If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging, or other +causes, they should first be caught out, to prevent them from +contaminating others.</p> + +<p>The manner of shearing varies with almost every district; and it is +difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical +instructions, which would guide an entire novice in skilfully +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>shearing +a sheep. Practice is requisite. The following directions are as plain, +perhaps, as can be made:</p> + +<p>The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to +him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture with his right knee +on a cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left thigh. +He grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow, resting +his thumb along the blades, which gives him better command of the +points. He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, +proceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of +the ribs, the external sides of both sides to the edges of the flanks; +then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from the +breast, front, and both sides of the neck, but not yet the back of it, +and also the poll, or forepart, and top of the head. Then “the jacket is +opened” of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the shearer, +is changed by the animal’s being turned flat upon its side, one knee of +the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the +fore-quarter of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then resumes +cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onward to the head. Thus one +side is complete. The sheep is then turned on the other side—in doing +which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn—and the +shearer proceeds as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take +the sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly +trim the legs, leaving not a solitary lock anywhere as a lodging-place +for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand +to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled +with the fleece-wool. In the use of the shears, the blades should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +laid as flat to the skin as possible, the points not lowered too much, +nor should more than from one to two inches be cut at a clip, and +frequently not so much, depending on the part, and the compactness of +the wool.</p> + +<p>The wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and +even. It may, indeed, be cut too close, so that the sheep can scarcely +avoid sun-scald; but this is very unusual. If the wool is left in +ridges, and uneven, it betrays a want of workmanship very distasteful to +the really good farmer. Great care should be taken not to cut the wool +twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do, since it is a +great damage to the wool. This results from cutting too far from the +points of the shears, and suffering them to get too elevated. In such +cases, every time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before, cut +off by the points, say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the +hide, is again severed. To keep the fleece entire, which is of great +importance to its good appearance when done up, and, therefore, to its +salableness, it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for +itself, so that it will not struggle violently. No man can hold it still +by main strength, and shear it well. The posture of the shearer should +be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that it +is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece; but it should not be +confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be continually +kicking and struggling. Clumsy, careless men, therefore, always complain +of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, may be +confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg +on which the shearer kneels; but the lazy or brutal shearer who suffers +his leg to rest directly on the neck,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +soon provokes that struggle which +the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even, +perhaps, to draw its breath.</p> + +<p>Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day; +but a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to +one-half of that number. It is the last process in the world which +should be hurried, as the shearer will, in that case, soon leave more +than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day’s wages. Wool ought not +to be sheared, and must not be done up with any water in it. If wounds +are made, as sometimes happens with unskilful operators, a mixture of +tar and grease ought to be applied.</p> + +<p>Shearing lambs is, in the Northern climate, at least, an unprofitable +practice; since the lamb, at a year old, will give the same amount of +wool, and it is thus stripped of its natural protection from cold when +it is young and tender, for the mere pittance of the interest on a +pound, or a pound and a half of wool for six months, not more than two +or three cents, and this all consumed by the expense of shearing. Much +the same may be said of the custom, which obtains in some places, of +shearing from sheep twice a year. There may be a reason for it, where +they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear +every half year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder +by bushes, thorns, etc., if left for a long period; but when sheep are +inclosed, and treated as domestic animals, although there may be less +barbarity in shearing them in the fall also, than in the case of the +tender lambs, there is no ground for it on the score of utility; since +any gain accruing from it cannot pay the additional expense which it +occasions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Cold storms</span> occurring soon after shearing sometimes destroy sheep, in +the northern portions of the country, especially the delicate Saxons; +forty or fifty of which have, at times, perished out of a single flock, +from one night’s exposure. Sheep, in such cases, should be housed; or, +where this is impracticable, driven into dense forests.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sun-scald.</span> When they are sheared close in very hot weather, have no +shade in their pastures, and especially where they are driven +immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over burning and dusty +roads, their backs are sometimes so scorched by the sun that their wool +comes off. If let alone, the matter is not a serious one; but the +application of refuse lard to the back will hasten the cure, and the +starting of the wool.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ticks.</span> These vermin, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble the +sheep in winter, and should be kept entirely out of the flock. After +shearing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep, soon +drive off the tick, and it takes refuge in the wool of the lamb. Let a +fortnight elapse after shearing, to allow all to make this change of +residence. Then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong +enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure, which may be ascertained by +experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent +in stems, and the like, may be made to answer for a hundred lambs.</p> + +<p>This decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for the purpose, +which has an inclined shelf on one side, covered with a wooden grate. +One man holds the lamb by its hind legs, while another clasps the fore +legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the +liquid from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +entering them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. It +is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, and the +water squeezed out of its wool, when it is turned over and squeezed on +the other side. The grate conducts the fluid back into the box. If the +lambs are regularly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>MARKING OR BRANDING.</h3> + +<p>The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or mistakes may occur. +Every sheep-owner should be provided with a marking instrument, which +will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a small +circle, an oval, a triangle, or a square, at a single stroke, and with +uniformity, on the sheep. It is customary to have the mark cut out of a +plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminating in wood; but one +made by cutting a type, or raised letter, or character, on the end of a +stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be better. If +the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a little too +deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the wood, as +it does from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and +spoil the appearance of the mark; and, if the pigment be applied hot, +the former will not get heated, like the latter, and increase the danger +of burning the hide.</p> + +<p>Various pigments are used for marking. Many boil tar until it assumes a +glazed, hard consistency when cold, and give it a brilliant, black color +by stirring in a little lampblack during the boiling. This is applied +when just cold enough not to burn the sheep’s hide, and it forms a +bright, conspicuous mark all the year round. The manufacturer, however, +prefers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter +is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. It should be boiled in +an iron vessel, with high sides, to prevent it from taking fire, on a +small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is to be used. When cool +enough, forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It +is then warmed from time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. +Paint, made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is +first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil, is also used. +The rump is a better place to mark than the side, since it is there +about as conspicuous under any circumstances, and more so when the sheep +are huddled in a pen, or running away from one. Besides, should any wool +be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on +the side. Ewes are commonly distinguished from wethers by marking them +on different sides of the rump.</p> + +<p>Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer; +but it consumes much less time to do it at a single job, after the +shearing is completed; and it is necessary to take the latter course if +a hot pigment is used.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Maggots.</span> Rams with horns growing closely to their heads are very liable +to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on the +surrounding parts becomes broken by fighting; and these, unless removed, +soon destroy the animal. Boiled tar, or the marking substance first +described, is both remedy and preventive. If it is put under the horns +at the time of marking, no trouble will ever arise from this cause.</p> + +<p>Sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres +about the anus, maggots are generated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +under it, and the sheep perishes +miserably. As a preventive, the dung should be removed; as a remedy, the +dung and maggots should be removed—the latter by touching them with a +little turpentine—and sulphur and grease afterward applied to the +excoriated surface.</p> + +<p>Maggot-flies sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of the long, +open-woolled English sheep, and the maggots, during the few days before +they assume the <i>pupa</i> state, so tease and irritate the animal, that +fever and death ensue. Tar and turpentine, or butter and sulphur, +smeared over the parts, are admirable preventives. The Merino and Saxon +are exempt from these attacks.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shortening the horns.</span> A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so +presses in upon the side of the head or neck that it is necessary to +shave or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal +effects. The point of the horn of both ram and ewe both frequently turn +in so that they will grow into the flesh, and sometimes into the eye, +unless shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin +extremity of a horn; if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking-time +affords the best opportunity for attending to this operation.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SELECTION AND DIVISION.</h3> + +<p>The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding all its +members falling below a certain standard of quality, and the points +which should be regarded in fixing that standard, have already been +brought to notice in connection with the principles of breeding.</p> + +<p>The time of shearing is by far the most favorable period for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> the +flock-master to make his selection. He should be present on the +shearing-floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually +taken off; since, if there are faults about it, he will then discover it +better than at any other time. A glance will likewise reveal to him +every defect in form, previously concealed, wholly, or in part, by the +wool, as soon as the newly-shorn sheep is permitted to stand up on its +feet. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently retained until she dies of +old age; a rather poor nurse or breeder is excluded for the slightest +fault, and so on. Whatever animals are to be excluded, may be marked on +the shoulder with Venetian red and hog’s lard, conveniently applied with +a brush or cob. Such of the wethers as have attained their prime, and +those ewes that have passed it, should be provided with the best feed, +and fitted for the butcher. If they have been properly pushed on grass, +they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it; and, if +not intended for stall-feeding, the sooner they are then disposed of the +better.</p> + +<p>Those <i>divisions</i>, also, in large flocks, which utility demands, are +generally made at or soon after shearing. Not more than two hundred +sheep should be allowed to run together in the pastures; although the +number might, perhaps, be safely increased to three hundred, if the +range is extensive.</p> + +<p>Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off should be kept separate from the +nursing-ewes; and if the flock is large enough to require a third +division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year-old ewes and +wethers, and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better, in all cases, +to separate the rams from all the other sheep at the time of shearing, +and to inclose them in a field which is particularly well-fenced. If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +they are put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome; and when cool +nights arrive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant +efforts to ride the wethers.</p> + +<p>The Merino ram, although a quiet animal compared with the common-woolled +one, will be tempted to jump, by poor fences, or fences half the time +down; and if he is once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome +as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or +poking is resorted to, either of which causes him to waste his strength, +besides being the occasion of frequent accidents.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE CROOK.</h3> + +<div class="figleft"><img src="images/illo176.png" alt="Shepherd’s Crook" width="100" height="271" /> +<p class="caption">SHEPHERD’S CROOK.</p></div> + +<p>This convenient implement for catching sheep is of the form represented +in the cut accompanying, of three-eighths inch round iron, drawn smaller +toward the point, which is made safe by a knot. The other end is +furnished with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet long.</p> + +<p>In using it, the hind leg is hooked in from behind the sheep, and it +fills up the narrow part beyond that point, while passing along it until +it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the hook, and when +secured, its foot easily slips through the loop. Some caution is +required in its use; for, should the animal give a sudden start forward +to get away, the moment it feels the crook, the leg will be drawn +forcibly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with such violence +against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, +and even occasion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +lameness for some days. On first embracing the leg, +the crook should be drawn quickly toward the shepherd, so as to bring +the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before the +sheep has time even to break off; and being secure, its struggles will +cease the moment the hand seizes the leg.</p> + +<p>No shepherd should be without this implement, as it saves much yarding +and running, and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or +suspicious appearance, and a seasonable application of remedy or +preventive, which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be +driven to a distant yard to effect the catching of a single sheep.</p> + +<p>Dexterity in its use is speedily acquired by any one; and if a flock are +properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught by it at +salting-time, or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom the +flock are familiar. It is, however, at the lambing-time, when sheep and +lambs require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more +particularly serviceable. For this purpose, at that time alone, it will +pay for itself ten times over in a single season, in saving time, to say +nothing of the advantage of the sheep.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING.</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Driving.</span> Mutton can be grown cheaper than any other kind of meat. It is +fast becoming better appreciated; and, strange as it may seem, good +mutton brings a higher price in our best markets than the same quality +does in England. Its substitution in a large measure for pork would +contribute materially to the health of the community.</p> + +<p>Winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> and +deserves greater attention, especially where manure is an object; and +the instances are few, indeed, where it is not. In England, it is +considered good policy to fatten sheep, if the increase of weight will +pay for the oil-cake or grain consumed; the manure being deemed a fair +equivalent for the other food—that is, as much straw and turnips as +they will eat. Lean sheep there usually command as high a price per +pound in the fall as fatted ones in the spring; while, in this country, +the latter usually bear a much higher price, which gives the feeder a +great advantage.</p> + +<p>The difference may be best illustrated by a simple calculation. Suppose +a wether of a good mutton breed, weighing eighty pounds in the fall, to +cost six cents per pound, amounting to four dollars and eighty cents, +and to require twenty pounds of hay per week, or its equivalent in other +food, and to gain a pound and a half each week; the gain in weight in +four months would be about twenty-five pounds, which, at six cents per +pound, would be one dollar and fifty cents, or less than ten dollars per +ton for the hay consumed; but if the same sheep could be bought in the +fall for three cents per pound, and sold in the spring for six cents, +the gain would amount to three dollars and ninety cents, or upwards of +twenty dollars per ton for the hay—the manure being the same in either +case.</p> + +<p>For fattening, it is well to purchase animals as large and thrifty, and +in as good condition as can be had at fair prices; and to feed +liberally, so as to secure the most rapid increase that can be had +without waste of food. The fattening of sheep by the aid of oil-cake, or +grain purchased for the purpose, may often be made a cheaper mode of +obtaining manure than by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> the purchase of artificial fertilizers, as +guano, super-phosphate of lime, and the like; and it is altogether +preferable. It is practised extensively and advantageously abroad, and +deserves at least a fair trial among us.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo179.png" alt="The Shepherd and his Flock" width="275" height="347" /> +<p class="caption">THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK.</p></div> + +<p>Sheep which are to be driven to market should not begin their journey +either when too full or too hungry; in the former state, they are apt to +purge while on the road, and in the latter, they will lose strength at +once. The sheep selected for market should be those in the best +condition at the time; and to ascertain this, it is necessary to examine +the whole lot, and separate the fattest from the rest, which is best +done at about mid-day, before the sheep feed again in the afternoon. The +selected ones are placed in a field by themselves, where they remain +until the time for starting. If there be rough pasture to give them, +they should be allowed to use it, in order to rid themselves of some of +the food which might be productive of inconvenience on the journey. If +there is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> such pasture, a few cut turnips will answer. All their +hoofs should be carefully examined, and every unnecessary appendage +removed, though the firm portion of the horn should not be touched. +Every clotted piece of wool should also be removed with the shears, and +the animals properly marked.</p> + +<p>Being thus prepared, they should have feed early in the morning, and be +started, in the cold season, about mid-day. Let them walk quietly away; +and as the road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to +prevent which, the drover should go before them, and let his dog bring +up the rear. In a short time they will assume the proper speed—about +one mile an hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, they will +proceed nibbling their way onward at the grass along both sides; but if +it is a narrow turnpike, the drover will require all his attention in +meeting and being passed by various vehicles, to avoid injury to his +charge. In this part of their business, drovers generally make too much +ado; and the consequence is, that the sheep are driven more from side to +side of the road than is requisite. Upon meeting a carriage, it would be +much better for the sheep, were the drover to go forward, instead of +sending his dog, and point off with his stick the leading sheep to the +nearest side of the road; and the rest will follow, as a matter of +course, while the dog walks behind the flock and brings up the +stragglers. Open gates to fields are sources of great annoyance to +drovers, the stock invariably making an endeavor to go through them. On +observing an open gate ahead, the drover should send his dog behind him +over the fence, to be ready to meet the sheep at the gate. When the +sheep incline to rest, they should be allowed to lie down.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +When the animals are lodged for the night, a few turnips or a little hay +should be furnished to them, if the road-sides are bare. If these are +placed near the gate of the field which they occupy, they will be ready +to take the road again in the morning. As a precaution against worrying +dogs, the drover should go frequently through the flock with a light, +retire to rest late, and rise up early in the morning. These precautions +are necessary; since, when sheep have once been disturbed by dogs, they +will not settle again upon the road. The first day’s journey should be a +short one, not exceeding four or five miles. The whole journey should be +so marked out as that, allowance being made for unforeseen delays, the +animals may have one day’s rest near the market.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Points of fat sheep.</span> The formation of fat, in a sheep destined to be +fattened, commences in the inside, the web of fat which envelopes the +intestines being first formed, and a little deposited around the +kidneys. After that, fat is seen on the outside; and first upon the end +of the rump at the tail-head, continuing to move on along the back, on +both sides of the spine, or back-bone, to the bend of the ribs to the +neck. Then it is deposited between the muscles, parallel with the +cellular tissue. Meanwhile, it is covering the lower round of the ribs +descending to the flanks, until the two sides meet under the belly, +whence it proceeds to the brisket, or breast, in front, and the sham or +cod behind, filling up the inside of the arm-pits and thighs. While all +these depositions are proceeding on the outside, the progress in the +inside is not checked, but rather increased, by the fattening +disposition encouraged by the acquired condition; and, hence, +simultaneously, the kidneys become entirely covered, and the space<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +between the intestines and the lumbar region, or loin, gradually filled +up by the web and kidney fat.</p> + +<p>By this time the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle are +receiving their share; and when fat is deposited there in quantity, it +gives to the meat the term <i>marbled</i>. These inter-fibrous spaces are the +last to receive a deposition of fat; but after this has begun, every +other part at the same time receives its due share, the back and kidneys +securing the most, so much so that the former literally becomes +<i>nicked</i>, as it is termed—that is, the fat is felt through the skin to +be divided into two portions, from the tail-head along the back to the +top of the shoulder; and the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of +the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck toward the +breasts full, and the hollows between the breast-bone and the inside of +the fore legs, and between the cod and the inside of the hind thighs, +filled up. When all this has been accomplished, the sheep is said to be +<i>fat</i>, or <i>ripe</i>.</p> + +<p>When the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat, it is in the +most valuable state as mutton. Few sheep, however, lay on fat entirely +over their body; one laying the largest proportion on the rump, another +on the back; one on the parts adjoining the fore-quarter, another on +those of the hind-quarter; and one more on the inside, and another more +on the outside. Taking so many parts, and combining any two or more of +them together, a considerable variety of condition will be found in any +lot of fat sheep, while any one is as ripe in its way as any other.</p> + +<p>With these data for guides, the state of a sheep in its progress toward +ripeness may be readily detected by handling. A fat sheep, however, is +easily known by the eye, from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> fullness exhibited by all the +external parts of the particular animal. It may exhibit want in some +parts when compared with others; but those parts, it may easily be seen, +would never become so ripe as the others; and this arises from some +constitutional defect in the animal itself; since, if this were so, +there is no reason why all the parts should not be alike ripe. The state +of a sheep that is obviously not ripe cannot altogether be ascertained +by the eye. It must be handled, or subjected to the scrutiny of the +hand. Even in so palpable an act as handling, discretion is requisite. A +full-looking sheep needs hardly to be handled on the rump; for he would +not seem so full, unless fat had first been deposited there. A +thin-looking sheep, on the other hand, should be handled on the rump; +and if there be no fat there, it is useless to handle the rest of the +body, for certainly there will not be so much as to deserve the name of +fat. Between these two extremes of condition, every variety exists; and +on that account examination by the hand is the rule, and by the eye +alone the exception. The hand is, however, much assisted by the eye, +whose acuteness detects deficiencies and redundancies at once.</p> + +<p>In handling sheep, the points of the fingers are chiefly employed; and +the accurate knowledge conveyed by them, through practice, of the exact +state of the condition, is truly surprising, and establishes a +conviction in the mind that some intimate relation exists between the +external and internal state of an animal. Hence originates this +practical maxim in judging stock of all kinds—that no animal will +appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat had previously been acquired +in the inside as constitutional habit will allow.</p> + +<p>The application of this rule is easy. When the rump is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> found nicked, on +handling, fat is to be found on the back; when the back is found nicked, +fat is to be expected on the top of the shoulder and over the ribs; and +when the top of the shoulder proves to be nicked, fat may be anticipated +on the under side of the belly, To ascertain its existence below, the +animal must be <i>turned up</i>, as it is termed; that is, the sheep is set +upon his rump, with his back down, and his hind feet pointing upward and +outward. In this position, it can be seen whether the breast and thighs +are filled up. Still, all these alone would not disclose the state of +the inside of the sheep, which should, moreover, be looked for in the +thickness of the flank; in the fullness of the breast, that is, the +space in front from shoulder to shoulder toward the neck; in the +stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail; and in the breadth of +the back of the neck. All these latter parts, especially with the +fullness of the inside of the thighs, indicate a fullness of fat in the +inside; that is, largeness of the mass of fat on the kidneys, thickness +of net, and thickness of layers between the abdominal muscles. Hence, +the whole object of feeding sheep on turnips and the like seems to be to +lay fat upon all the bundles of fleshy fibres, called muscles, that are +capable of acquiring that substance; for, as to bone and muscle, these +increase in weight and extent independently of fat, and fat only +increases in their magnitude.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Slaughtering.</span> Sheep are easily slaughtered, and the operation is +unattended with cruelty. They require some preparation before being +deprived of life, which consists in food being withheld from them for +not less than twenty-four hours, according to the season. The reason for +fasting sheep before slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and +intestines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +to empty themselves entirely of food, as it is found that, +when an animal is killed with a full stomach, the meat is more liable to +putrefy, and it not so well flavored; and, as ruminating animals always +retain a large quantity of food in their intestines, it is reasonable +that they should fast somewhat longer to get rid of it, than animals +with single stomachs.</p> + +<p>Sheep are placed on their side—sometimes upon a stool, called a +killing-stool—to be slaughtered, and, requiring no fastening with +cords, are deprived of life by the use of a straight knife through the +neck, between its bone and the windpipe, severing the carotid artery and +the jugular vein of both sides, from which the blood flows freely out, +and the animal soon dies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo185.png" alt="Drover’s or Butcher’s Dog" width="350" height="352" /> +<p class="caption">DROVER’S OR BUTCHER’S DOG.</p></div> + +<p>The skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken off, leaving that +on the legs and head, which are covered with hair, the legs being +disjointed by the knee. The entrails are removed by an incision along +the belly, after the carcass has been hung up by the tendons of the +boughs. The net is carefully separated from the viscera, and rolled up +by itself; but the kidney fat is not then extracted. The intestines are +placed on the inner side of the skin until divided into the <i>pluck</i>, +containing the heart, lungs, and liver; the bag, containing the stomach; +and the <i>puddings</i>, consisting of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +viscera, or guts. The latter are +usually thrown away; though the Scotch, however, clean them and work +them up into their favorite <i>haggis</i>. The skin is hung over a rope or +pole under cover, with the skin-side uppermost, to dry in an airy place.</p> + +<p>The carcass should hang twenty-four hours in a clean, cool, airy, dry +apartment before it is cut down. It should be cool and dry; for, if +warm, the meat will not become firm; and, if damp, a clamminess will +cover it, and it will never feel dry, and present a fresh, clean +appearance. The carcass is divided in two, by being sawed right down the +back-bone. The kidney-fat is then taken out, being only attached to the +peritoneum by the cellular membrane, and the kidney is extracted from +the <i>suet</i>, the name given to sheep-tallow in an independent state.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cutting up.</span> Of the two modes of cutting up a carcass of mutton, the +English and the Scotch—of the former, the practice in London being +taken as the standard, and of the latter, that of Edinburgh, since more +care is exercised in this respect in these two cities—the English is, +perhaps, preferable; although the Scotch accomplish the task in a +cleanly and workmanlike manner.</p> + +<p>The <i>jigot</i> is the most handsome and valuable part of the carcass, +bringing the highest price, and is either a roasting or a boiling piece. +A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot, or South-Down mutton makes a beautiful +boiled leg of mutton, which is prized the more the fatter it is—this +part of the carcass being never overloaded with fat. The <i>loin</i> is +almost always roasted, the flap of the flank being skewered up, and it +is a juicy piece. Many consider this piece of Leicester mutton, roasted, +as too rich; and when warm this is, probably, the case; but a cold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +roast loin is an excellent summer dish. The <i>back-rib</i> is divided into +two, and used for very different purposes. The forepart—the neck—is +boiled, and makes sweet barley-broth; and the meat, when boiled, or +rather the whole simmered for a considerable time beside the fire, eats +tenderly. The back-ribs make an excellent roast; indeed, there is not a +sweeter or more varied one in the whole carcass, having both ribs and +shoulder. The shoulder-blade eats best cold, and the ribs, warm. The +ribs make excellent chops, the Leicester and South-Down affording the +best. The <i>breast</i> is mostly a roasting-piece, consisting of rib and +shoulder, and is particularly good when cold. When the piece is large, +as of the South-Down or Cheviot, the gristly parts of the ribs may be +divided from the true ribs, and helped separately. This piece also boils +well; or, when corned for eight days, and served with onion sauce, with +mashed turnips in it, there are few more savory dishes at a farmer’s +table. The <i>shoulder</i> is separated before being dressed, and makes an +excellent roast for family use, being eaten warm or cold, or carved and +dressed as the breast mentioned above. The shoulder is best from a large +carcass of South-Down, Cheviot, or Leicester. The <i>neck-piece</i> is partly +laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the forepart being fitted for +boiling and making into broth, and the best part for roasting or +broiling into chops. On this account, it is a good family piece, and +generally preferred to any part of the hind-quarter. Heavy sheep, such +as the Leicester, South-Down, and Cheviot, supply the most thrifty +neck-piece.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Relative qualities.</span> The different sorts of mutton in common use differ +as well in quality as in quantity. The flesh of the <i>Leicester</i> is +large, though not coarse-grained, of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> lively red color, and the +cellular tissue between the fibres contains a considerable quantity of +fat. When cooked, it is tender and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and +having a sweet, rich taste; but the fat is rather too much and too rich +for some people’s tastes, and can be put aside. It must be allowed that +the lean of fat meat is far better than lean meat that has never been +fat. <i>Cheviot</i> mutton is smaller in the grain, not so bright of color, +with less fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet; but the flavor is +higher, and the fat not so luscious. The mutton of <i>South-Downs</i> is of +medium fineness in grain, color pleasant red, fat well intermixed with +the meat, juicy, and tenderer than Cheviot. The mutton of rams of any +breed is always hard, of disagreeable flavor, and, in autumn, not +eatable; that of old ewes is dry, hard, and tasteless; of young ones, +well enough flavored, but still rather dry; while wether-mutton is the +meat in perfection, according to its kind.</p> + +<p>The want of relish, perhaps the distaste, for mutton has served as an +obstacle to the extension of sheep husbandry in the United States. The +common mistake in the management of mutton among us is, that it is +eaten, as a general thing, at exactly the wrong time after it is killed. +It should be eaten immediately after being killed, and, if possible, +before the meat has time to get cold; or, if not, then it should be kept +a week or more—in the ice-house, if the weather require—until the time +is just at hand when the fibre passes the state of toughness which it +takes on at first, and reaches that incipient or preliminary point in +its process toward putrefaction when the fibres begin to give way, and +the meat becomes tender.</p> + +<p>An opinion likewise generally prevails that mutton does not attain +perfection in juiciness and flavor much under five years.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +If this be so, that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable which takes +five years to attain its full state; and there is no breed of sheep in +this country which requires five years to bring it to perfection. This +being the case, it must be folly to restrain sheep from coming to +perfection until they have reached that age. Lovers of five-year-old +mutton do not pretend that this course bestows profit on the farmer, but +only insist on its being best at that age. Were this the fact, one of +two absurd conditions must exist in this department of agriculture: +namely, the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot, or that should not be +allowed to, attain to perfection before it is five years old; either of +which conditions makes it obvious that mutton cannot be in its <i>best</i> +state at five years.</p> + +<p>The truth is, the idea of mutton of this age being especially excellent, +is founded on a prejudice, arising, probably, from this circumstance: +before winter food was discovered, which could maintain the condition of +stock which had been acquired in summer, sheep lost much of their summer +condition in winter, and, of course, an oscillation of condition +occurred, year after year, until they attained the age of five years; +when their teeth beginning to fail, would cause them to lose their +condition the more rapidly. Hence, it was expedient to slaughter them at +not exceeding five years of age; and, no doubt, mutton would be +high-flavored at that age, that had been exclusively fed on natural +pasture and natural hay. Such treatment of sheep cannot, however, be +justified on the principles of modern practice; because both reason and +taste concur in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their +perfect state of growth and condition, not their largest and heaviest; +and as one breed attains its perfect state at an earlier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> age than +another, its mutton attains its best before another breed attains what +is its best state, although its sheep may be older; but taste alone +prefers one kind of mutton to another, even when both are in their best +state, from some peculiar property. The cry for five-year-old mutton is +thus based on very untenable grounds; the truth being that well-fed and +fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth in its +second year; and the farmer cannot afford to keep it longer, unless the +wool would pay for the keep, since we have not the epicures and men of +wealth who would pay the butcher the extra price, which he must have, to +enable him to pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his +sheep two or three years over.</p> + +<p>All writers on diet agree in describing mutton as the most valuable of +the articles of human food. Pork may be more stimulating, beef perhaps +more nutritious, when the digestive powers are strong; but, while there +is in mutton sufficient nutriment, there is also that degree of +consistency and readiness of assimilation which renders it most +congenial to the human stomach, most easy of digestion, and most +promotive of human health. Of it, almost alone, can it be said that it +is our food in sickness, as well as in health; its broth is the first +thing, generally, that an invalid is permitted to taste, the first thing +that he relishes, and is a natural preparation for his return to his +natural aliment. In the same circumstances, it appears that fresh +mutton, broiled or boiled, requires three hours for digestion; fresh +mutton, roasted, three and one-fourth hours; and mutton-suet, boiled, +four and one-half hours.</p> + +<p>Good <i>ham</i> may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton, though the +leg is preferable; and for this purpose it is cut in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> the English +fashion. It should be rubbed all over with good salt, and a little +saltpetre, for ten minutes, and then laid in a dish and covered with a +cloth for eight or ten days. After that, it should be slightly rubbed +again, for about five minutes, and then hung up in a dry place, say the +roof of the kitchen, until used. Wether mutton is used for hams, because +it is fat, and it may be cured any time from November to May; but +ram-mutton makes the largest and highest-flavored ham, provided it be +cured in spring, because it is out of season in autumn.</p> + +<p>There is an infallible rule for ascertaining the <i>age</i> of mutton by +certain marks on the carcass. Observe the color of the breast-bone, when +a sheep is dressed—that is, where the breast-bone is separated—which, +in a lamb, or before it is one year old, will be quite red; from one to +two years old, the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a +small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, +and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue red; at three +years old, a very small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the +four middle bones, and the others will be white; and at four years, all +the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly color.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Contributions to manufactures.</span> The products of sheep are not merely +useful to man; they provide his luxuries as well. The skin of sheep is +made into <i>leather</i>, and, when so manufactured with the fleece on, makes +comfortable mats for the doors of rooms, and rugs for carriages. For +this purpose, the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with +the longest and most beautiful fleece. <i>Tanned sheep-skin</i> is used in +coarse book-binding. <i>White sheep-skin</i>, which is not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> tanned, but so +manufactured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by many classes of +workmen, and, in agriculture, as gloves in the harvest; and, when cut +into strips, as twine for sewing together the leather coverings and +stuffings of horse-collars. <i>Morocco leather</i> is made of sheep-skins, as +well as of goat-skins, and the bright red color is given to it by +cochineal. <i>Russia leather</i> is also made of sheep-skins, the peculiar +odor of which repels insects from its vicinity, and resists the mould +arising from damp, the odor being imparted to it in currying, by the +empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch-tree. Besides soft leather, +sheep-skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known by the +name of <i>parchment</i>; and, though the skins of all animals might be +converted into writing materials, only those of the sheep and the +she-goat are used for parchment. The finer quality of the substance, +called <i>vellum</i>, is made of the skins of kids and dead-born lambs; and +for its manufacture the town of Strasburgh has long been celebrated.</p> + +<p>Mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common <i>candles</i>, with a +proportion of ox-tallow. Minced suet, subjected to the action of +high-pressure steam in a digester, at two hundred and fifty or two +hundred and sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, becomes so hard as to be +sonorous when struck, whiter, and capable, when made into candles, of +giving very superior light. <i>Stearic candles</i>, the invention of the +celebrated Guy Lussac, are manufactured solely from mutton-suet.</p> + +<p>Besides the fat, the intestines of sheep are manufactured into various +articles of luxury and utility, which pass under the absurd name of +<i>catgut</i>. All the intestines of sheep are composed of four layers, as in +the horse and cattle. The outer, or <i>peritoneal</i> one, is formed of that +membrane, by which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> every portion of the belly and its contents is +invested, and confined in its natural and proper situation. It is highly +smooth and polished, and secretes a watery fluid which contributes to +preserve that smoothness, and to prevent all friction and concussion +during the different motions of the animal. The second is the <i>muscular</i> +coat, by means of which the contents of the intestines are gradually +propelled from the stomach to the rectum, thence to be expelled when all +the useful nutriment is extracted. The muscles, as in all the other +intestines, are disposed in two layers, the fibres of the outer coat +taking a longitudinal direction, and the inner layer being circular—an +arrangement different from that of the muscles of the œsophagus, and +in both beautifully adapted to the respective functions of the tube. The +<i>submucous</i> coat comes next. It is composed of numerous glands, +surrounded by cellular tissue, and by which the inner coat is +lubricated, so that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the +food. The <i>mucous</i> coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal +cavity. In its healthy state, it is always covered with mucus; and when +the glands beneath are stimulated, as under the action of physic, the +quantity of mucus is increased; it becomes of a more watery character; +the contents of the intestines are softened and dissolved by it; and by +means of the increased action of the muscular coat, which, as well as +the mucous one, feels the stimulus of the physic, the fæces are +hurried on more rapidly and discharged.</p> + +<p>In the manufacture of some sorts of <i>cords</i> from the intestines of +sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a +thread to sew intestines, and make the cords of rackets and battledores. +Future washings cleanse the guts, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> are then twisted into +different-sized cords for various purposes; some of the best known of +which are whip-cords, hatter’s cords for bow-strings, clock-maker’s +cords, bands for spinning-wheels, now almost obsolete, and fiddle and +harp-strings. Of the last class, the cords manufactured in Italy are +superior in goodness and strength; and the reason assigned is, that the +sheep of that country are both smaller and leaner than the breeds most +in vogue in England and in this country. The difficulty in manufacturing +from other breeds of sheep lies, it seems, in making the treble strings +from the fine peritoneal coat, their chief fault being weakness; by +reason of which the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch +required for the higher notes in concert-pitch, maintaining, at the same +time, in their form and construction, that tenuity or smallness of +diameter which is required in order to produce a brilliant and clear +tone.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo195.png" alt="Diseases and their Remedies" width="350" height="312" /></div> + +<p>The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and +varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, insure +perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, unless +they are peculiarly exposed to disease. No country is better suited to +sheep than most of the Northern and some of the Southern portions of our +own. In Europe, and especially in England, where the system of +management is, necessarily, in the highest degree artificial, +consisting, frequently, in an early and continued forcing of the system, +folding on wet, ploughed ground, and the excessive use of that watery +food, the Swedish turnip, there are numerous and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> fatal diseases, a long +list of which invariably cumbers the pages of foreign writers on this +animal.</p> + +<p>The diseases incident to our flocks, on the contrary, may generally be +considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising +from the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely +asserted that, with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and +nutritious grasses; a clear, running stream; sufficient shade and +protection against severe storms; a constant supply of salt, tar, and +sulphur in summer; good hay, and sometimes roots, with ample shelters in +winter—young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or never +become diseased on American soil.</p> + +<p>The comparatively few diseases, which it may be necessary here to +mention, are arranged in alphabetical order—as in the author’s “Cattle +and their Diseases”—for convenience of reference, and treated in the +simplest manner. Remedies of general application, to be administered +often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor +complicated; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly +purchased by their application.</p> + +<p>A sheep, which has been reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is +the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its +owner. The wool and felt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while +the carcass of other animals will be worthless, except for manure. The +loss of sheep, from occasional disease, will leave the farmer’s pocket +in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses +or cattle. Humanity, however, alike with interest, dictates the use of +such simple remedies, for the removal of suffering and disease, as may +be within reach.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></p> +<h3>ADMINISTERING MEDICINE.</h3> + +<p>The stomach into which medicines are to be administered is the fourth, +or digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen, +or paunch, are but slightly acted upon, except by doses of very improper +magnitude. Medicine, to reach the fourth stomach, should be given in a +state as nearly approaching fluidity as may be. Even then it may be +given in such a manner as to defeat the object in view.</p> + +<p>If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily +and bodily, they will follow the caul at the base of the gullet with +considerable momentum, force asunder the pillars, and enter the rumen; +if they are drunk more slowly, or administered gently, they will trickle +down the throat, glide over these pillars, and pass on through the +maniplus to the true stomach.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>BLEEDING.</h3> + +<p>Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, rarely +extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is +indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a knife is usually +inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed +down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face.</p> + +<p>Bleeding from the angular or cheek-vein is recommended, in the lower +part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is +placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the +external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, +sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin +of the cheek is touched. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> tubercle is a certain index to the +angular vein, which is placed below. The shepherd takes the sheep +between his legs; his left hand more advanced than his right, which he +places under the head, and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder +extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in that +place, for the purpose of making it swell; he touches the right cheek at +the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and mouth, and there finds the +tubercle which is to guide him, and also feels the angular vein swelled +below this tubercle; he then makes the incision from below upward, half +a finger’s breadth below the middle of the tubercle. When the vein is no +longer pressed upon, the bleeding will commonly cease; if not, a pin may +be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a lock of wool tied round +them.</p> + +<p>For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred. +The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the +body confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of +the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular +vein, and a ligature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the +wool, is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein +will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as before +described.</p> + +<p>The good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the <i>rapidity</i> +with which the blood is abstracted, as the <i>amount</i> taken. This is +especially true in acute diseases. <i>Either bleed rapidly or do not bleed +at all.</i> The orifice in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, +and made lengthwise with the vein. A lancet is by far the best +implement; and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the +bungling gleam.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +Bleeding, moreover, should always be resorted to, when +it is indicated at all, as nearly as possible to the <i>commencement</i> of +the malady.</p> + +<p>The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasurement, +but by constitutional effect—the lowering of the pulse, and indications +of weakness. In urgent cases—apoplexy, or cerebral inflammation, for +example—it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. +The quantity of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in +the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth +part of his weight; and that of the ox at least one-twentieth; while +that of the sheep, in ordinary condition, is one-twenty-second. For this +reason, more caution should be exercised in bleeding the latter, +especially in frequently resorting to it; otherwise, the vital powers +will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. Many a sheep has been destroyed +by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which +did require it at the commencement, but of which the inflammatory stage +had passed.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FEELING THE PULSE.</h3> + +<p>The number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on +the left side. The femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across +the inside of the thigh, and about the middle of the thigh its +pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted. The +pulsations per minute, in a healthy adult sheep, are sixty-five in +number; though they have been stated at seventy, and even seventy-five.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></p> +<h3>APOPLEXY.</h3> + +<p>Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of the +best-conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead. +The symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted. The +sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself +on the ground, and suddenly rises, and dies in a few minutes.</p> + +<p>Where animals in somewhat poor condition are rather forced forward for +the purpose of raising their condition, it sometimes happens that they +become suddenly blind and motionless; they will not follow their +companions; when approached, they run about, knocking their heads +against fences, etc.; the head is drawn round toward one side; they +fall, grind their teeth, and their mouths are covered with a frothy +mucus. Such cases are, unquestionably, referable to a determination of +blood to the brain.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> If the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the +mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the +respiration labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the +pulse strong and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial +or entire loss of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of +apoplexy which require immediate and energetic treatment. Recourse +should at once be had to the jugular vein, and the animal bled until an +obvious constitutional effect is produced—the pulse lowered, and the +rigidity of the muscles relaxed. An aperient should at once follow +bleeding; and if the animal is strong and plathoric, a sheep of the size +of the Merino would require at least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one +of the large mutton<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> sheep, more. If this should fail to open the +bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be given, say twice a day.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>BRAXY.</h3> + +<p>This is manifested by uneasiness; loathing of food; frequent drinking; +carrying the head down; drawing the back up; swollen belly; feverish +symptoms; and avoidance of the flock. It appears mostly in late autumn +and spring, and may be induced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in +water when hot, and especially by constipation, brought on by feeding on +frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. Many sheep die on the +prairies from this disease, induced by exposure and miserable forage. +Entire prevention is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, dry +food.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Remedies, to be successful, must be promptly applied. Bleed +freely; and to effect this, immersion in a tub of hot water may be +necessary, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood. Then give +two ounces of Epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of +common salt. If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a +pipeful of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. +Administer half; and if this is not effectual, follow with the +remainder. Then bed the animal in dry straw, and cover with blankets; +assisting the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative +provender till well.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>BRONCHITIS.</h3> + +<p>Where sheep are subject to pneumonia, they are liable to bronchitis as +well, which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the +bronchial tubes, or the air-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>passages +of the lungs. The <i>symptoms</i> are +those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever, and a +tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Administer salt in doses of from one and a half to two +ounces, with six or eight ounces of lime-water, given in some other part +of the day.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CATARRH.</h3> + +<p>This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the nasal +passages, and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pharynx. In the +first instance—where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not +very violently affected—it is merely accompanied by an increased +discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In this +form, it is usually termed <i>snuffles</i>; and high-bred English +mutton-sheep, in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, +after every sudden change of weather. When the inflammation extends to +the mucous lining of the larynx and the pharynx, some degree of fever +usually supervenes, accompanied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At +this point, bleeding and purging are serviceable.</p> + +<p>Catarrh rarely attacks the American fine-woolled sheep with sufficient +violence in summer to require the application of remedies. Depletion, in +catarrh, in our severe winter months, however, rapidly produces that +fatal prostration, from which it is almost impossible to bring the sheep +back, without bestowing an amount of time and care upon it, costing far +more than the worth of an ordinary animal.</p> + +<p>The best course is to <i>prevent</i> the disease by judicious precaution. +With that amount of attention which every prudent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> farmer should bestow +on his sheep, the American Merino is but little subject to it. Good, +comfortable, and well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the +sheep in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, are +usually a sufficient safeguard.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>MALIGNANT EPIZOÖTIC CATARRH.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo203.png" alt="An English Rack for Feeding Sheep" width="350" height="185" /> +<p class="caption">AN ENGLISH RACK FOR FEEDING SHEEP.</p></div> + +<p>Essentially differing, in type and virulence, from the preceding, is an +epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizoötic malady, which, as +often as once in every eight or ten years, sweeps over extended sections +of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than all other diseases +combined. It commonly makes its appearance in winters characterized by +rapid and violent changes of temperature, which are spoken of by the +farmers as “bad winters” for sheep. The disease is sometimes termed the +“distemper,” and also, but erroneously, “grub in the head.” The winter +of 1846-7 proved peculiarly destructive to sheep in New York, and some +of the adjoining States; some owners losing one-half, others +three-quarters, and a few seven-eighths, of their flocks. One person +lost five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +hundred out of eight hundred; another, nine hundred out of a +thousand. These severe losses, however, mainly fell on the holders of +the delicate Saxons, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the +best accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill.</p> + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i> The primary and main disease, in such instances, is a +species of catarrh; differing, however, from ordinary catarrh in its +diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the +primary and the symptomatic diseases. The animals affected do not, +necessarily, at first show any signs of violent colds, as coughing, +sneezing, or labored respiration; the only indications of catarrh +noticed, oftentimes, being a nasal discharge. Animals having this +discharge appear dull and drooping; their eyes run a little, and are +partially closed; the caruncle and lids look pale; their movements are +languid, and there is an indisposition to eat; the pulse is nearly +natural, though at times somewhat too languid. In a few days these +symptoms are evidently aggravated; there is rapid emaciation, +accompanied with debility; the countenance is exceedingly dull and +drooping; the eye is kept more than half closed; the caruncle, lids, +etc., are almost bloodless; a gummy, yellow secretion about the eye; +thick, glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils; appetite +feeble; pulse languid; and muscular energy greatly prostrated. They +rapidly grow weaker, stumble, and fall as they walk, and soon become +unable to rise; the appetite grows feebler; the mucus at the nose is, in +some instances, tinged with dark, grumous blood; the respiration becomes +oppressed; and the animals die within a day or two after they become +unable to rise. Upon a <i>post-mortem</i> examination, the mucous membrane +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +lining the whole nasal cavity is found highly congested and thickened +throughout its entire extent, accompanied with the most intense +inflammation; slight ulcers are found on the membranous lining, at the +junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribriform plate, in the +ethmoidal cells; and the inflammation extends to the mucous membrane of +the pharynx, and some inches, from two to four, of the upper portion of +the œsophagus.</p> + +<p>No sheep, affected with this disease, recovers after emaciation and +debility have proceeded to any great extent. In the generality of +instances, the time, from the first observed symptoms until death, +varies from ten to fifteen days; although death, in some cases, results +more speedily.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Nothing has been found so serviceable as mercury, which, +from its action on the entire secretory system, powerfully tends to +relieve the congested membranes of the head. Dissolve one grain of +bi-chloride of mercury—corrosive sublimate—in two ounces of water; and +give one-half ounce of the water, or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive +sublimate, daily, in two doses. To stimulate and open the bowels, give, +also, rhubarb in a decoction, the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at +a dose, accompanied with the ordinary carminative and stomachic +adjuvants, ginger and gentian in infusion.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>COLIC.</h3> + +<p>Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying down and +rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore and +hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. They +appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, +unless relieved.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +This disease, popularly known as the “stretches,” is +erroneously attributed to an involution of the part of the intestine +within another; it being, in reality, a species of flatulent colic, +induced by costiveness.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Half an ounce of Epsom salts, a drachm of Jamaica ginger, +and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will +effect the cure; as will, also, an equivalent dose of linseed oil, or +even hog’s lard.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>COSTIVENESS.</h3> + +<p>This difficulty is removed by giving two table-spoonfuls of castor oil +every twelve hours, till the trouble ceases; or give one ounce of Epsom +salts. This may be assisted by an injection of warm weak suds and +molasses.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>DIARRHŒA.</h3> + +<p>Common diarrhœa—purging, or scours—manifests itself simply by the +copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is generally +owing to improper food, as bad hay, or noxious weeds; to a sudden +change, as from dry food to fresh grass; to an excess, as from +overloading the stomach; and sometimes to cold and wet. It is important +to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. In diarrhœa, +there is no apparent general fever; the appetite remains good; the +stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime, or mucus, and +blood; odor of the fæces is far less offensive than in dysentery; and +the general condition of the animal is but little changed. When it is +light, and not of long continuance, no remedy is called for, since it is +a healthful provision of Nature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> for the more rapid expulsion of some +offending matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to +disease.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual +return to it, often suffices, in the case of grown sheep. With lambs, +especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the +purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the +fæces, the feculent matter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle +cathartic; half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed oil, or half +an ounce of Epsom salts to a lamb. This should be followed by an +astringent; and, in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the +first instance. Give one quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk in half a +pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days; at the end of +which, and frequently after the first dose, the purging will have +ordinarily abated, or entirely ceased.</p> + +<p>“Sheep’s cordial” is also a safe and excellent remedy—in severe cases, +better than simple chalk and milk. Take of prepared chalk, one ounce; +powdered catechu, half an ounce; powdered Jamaica ginger, two drachms; +and powdered opium, half a drachm; mix with half a pint of peppermint +water; give two or three table-spoonfuls morning and night to a grown +sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>DISEASE OF THE BIFLEX CANAL.</h3> + +<p>From the introduction of foreign bodies into the biflex canal, or from +other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. This +canal is a small orifice, opening externally on the point of each +pastern, immediately above the cleft between the toes. It bifurcates +within, a tube passing down<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> on each side of the inner face of the +pastern, winding round and ending in a <i>cul de sac</i>. Inflammation of +this canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, +particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are +thrown wide apart by the tumor. It rarely attacks more than one foot, +and should not be allowed to proceed to the point of ulceration which it +will do, if neglected. There is none of that soreness and +disorganization between the back part of the toes, and none of that +peculiar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail, with which disease it +is sometimes confounded.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Scarify the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in +the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal; and cover the foot +with tar.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>DYSENTERY.</h3> + +<p>This is occasioned by an inflammation of the mucous or inner coat of the +larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their secretions, +and a morbid alteration in their character. It is frequently consequent +on that form of diarrhœa, which is caused by an inflammation of the +mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflammation extends +throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in virulence, and +becomes dysentery, a disease frequently dangerous and obstinate in its +character, but, fortunately, not common among sheep, generally, in the +United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of diarrhœa, in +several readily observed particulars. There is evident fever; the +appetite is capricious, commonly very feeble; the stools are as thin as +in diarrhœa, or even thinner, but much more adhesive, in consequence +of the presence of large quantities of mucus. As the erosion of the +intestines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +advances, the fæces are tinged with blood; their odor is +intolerably offensive; and the animal rapidly wastes away, the course of +the disease extending from a few days to several weeks.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Moderate bleeding should be resorted to, in the first or +inflammatory shape, or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be +present. Two doses of physic having been administered, astringents are +serviceable. The “sheep’s cordial,” already described, is as good as +any; and to this, tonics may soon begin to be added; an additional +quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial, and +gentian powder will be an useful auxiliary. With this, as an excellent +stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the +mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels opening on the +inner surface of the intestines, a half grain of strychnine may be +combined. Smaller doses should be given for three or four days.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FLIES.</h3> + +<p>The proper treatment, upon the appearance of flies or maggots, has +already been detailed under the head of “<a href="#Page_129"><span class="smcap">Feeding and Management</span></a>,” to +which the reader is referred.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FOULS.</h3> + +<p>Sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle are; but +encounter it, if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground. +It is an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly +resembling incipient hoof-ail, and producing lameness. It occasions, +however, no serious structural disorganization, disappears without +treatment, is not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +contagious, and appears in the wet weather of spring +and fall, instead of in the dry, hot period of summer, when the hoof-ail +rages most. A little solution of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of +turpentine—either followed by a coating of warm tar—promptly cures it.</p> + +<p>For foul noses, dip a small swab in tar, then roll it in salt; put some +on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FRACTURES.</h3> + +<p>If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone simply being broken, +the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking +care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes. When the swelling is +considerable, and fever present, the best course is to open a vein of +the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned +to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the +symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. Epsom +salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be +found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, +the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of +reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should +the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone +protrude, recovery is very uncertain; and it will become a question +whether it would not be better to convert the animal at once into +mutton.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></p> +<h3>GARGET.</h3> + +<p>This is an inflammation of the udder, sometimes known as “caked bag,” +with or without general inflammation. Where it is simply an inflammation +of the udder, it is usually caused by too great an accumulation of milk +in the latter prior to lambing, or in consequence of the death of the +lamb.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Drawing the milk partly from the bag, so that the hungry +lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, +and bathing it a few times in <i>cold</i> water, usually suffices. If the +lamb is dead, the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing +intervals, washing the udder for some time in cold water at each +milking. In cases of obdurate induration, the udder should be anointed +with iodine ointment. If there is general fever in the system, an ounce +of Epsom salts may be given. If suppuration forms, the part affected +should be opened with the lancet.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>GOITRE.</h3> + +<p>The “swelled neck” in lambs is, like the goitre, or bronchocele, an +enlargement of the thyroid glands, and is strikingly analogous to that +disease, if not identical with it. It is congenital. The glands at birth +are from the size of a pigeon’s egg to that of a hen’s <i>egg</i>, though +more elongated and flattened than an egg in their form. The lamb is +exceedingly feeble, and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. +Many even make no effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. +It is rare, indeed, that one lives.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of lambs annually perish from this disease, which +does not appear to be an epizoötic, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +it is more prevalent in some +seasons than in others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, or +any other natural circumstances of a region, as goitre is generally +supposed to, since it may not prevail in the same flock, or on the same +farm, once in ten years; nor can it be readily traced to any particular +kind of food. When it does appear, however, its attacks are rarely +isolated; from which circumstance some have inferred that it is induced +by some local or elimentary cause. Losses from this disease have ranged +from ten per cent. to twenty, thirty, and even fifty per cent. of the +whole number of lambs. Possibly, high condition in the ewes may be one +of the inducing causes.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> None is known which will reach the case. Should one having +the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be worth while to attempt +reducing the entanglement of the glands. Perhaps keeping the +breeding-ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not <i>high</i> condition, would +be as effectual a preventive as any.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>GRUB IN THE HEAD.</h3> + +<p>What is popularly known as the “grub” is the larva of the <i>œstrus +oris</i>, or gad-fly of the sheep. It is composed of five rings; is +tiger-colored on the back and belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of +brown; its wings are striped.</p> + +<p>The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the +nostrils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this—most common in July, +August, and September—are always indicated by the sheep, which collect +in close clumps, with their heads inward, and their noses thrust close +to the ground, and into it, if any loose dirt or sand is within reach. +If the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> fly succeeds in depositing its egg, the latter is immediately +hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or +larvæ, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, +where, by means of their tentaculæ, or feelers, they attach themselves +to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During the ascent of the +larvæ, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and often dashes +away from its companions wildly over the field. The larvæ remain on the +sinuses, feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and apparently +creating no further annoyance, until ready to assume their <i>pupa</i> form +in the succeeding spring.</p> + +<p>Having remained in the sinuses during the fall and winter, they abandon +them as the warm weather approaches in the latter part of spring. They +crawl down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement +than when they originally ascended, drop on the ground, and rapidly +burrow into it. In a few hours, the skin of the larvæ has contracted, +become of a dark-brown color, and it has assumed the form of chrysalis. +This fly never eats; the male, after impregnating two or three females, +dies; and the latter, having deposited their <i>ova</i> in the nostrils of +the sheep, also soon perish.</p> + +<p>The larvæ in the heads of sheep may, and probably do, add to the +irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which attack +the membranous lining of the nasal cavities; and they are a powerful +source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to, +and descending from, their lodging-place in the head. But in the +interval between these events, extending over a period of several +months, not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoyance at +their presence. They are, moreover, found in the heads of nearly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> all +sheep, the healthy as well as the diseased, at the proper season.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, +some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. One +simple way of effecting this is, by turning up with a plough a furrow of +earth in the sheep-pasture, into which the sheep will thrust their noses +on the approach of the <i>œstrus</i>, and thus many of them escape its +attacks. Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep occasionally With +tar, the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Another plan, +deemed efficacious in dislodging the larvæ from the sinuses, is as +follows: Take half a pound of good Scotch snuff, and two quarts of +boiling water; stir, and let it stand till cold. Inject about a +table-spoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril, with a +syringe; repeat this three or four times, at intervals, from the middle +of October till January. The efficacy of the snuff will be increased by +adding half an ounce of asafœtida, pounded in a little water. The +effects on the sheep are immediate prostration and apparent death; but +they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco affords a substitute for +snuff; and some recommend blowing tobacco smoke through the tail of a +pipe into each nostril.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>HOOF-AIL.</h3> + +<p>The first symptom of this troublesome malady, known, likewise, as +foot-ail, which is ordinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of +the fore-feet. On daily examining, however, the feet of a flock which +have the disease among them, it will readily be seen that the lesions +manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with +lameness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +The horny covering of the sheep’s foot extends up, gradually thinning +out, some way between the toes and divisions of the hoof, and above +these horny walls the cleft is lined with skin. When the points of the +toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered with short, +soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the heels, can be separated +only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is +naked. In a healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as +firm, dry, and uneroded as on any other part of the animal.</p> + +<p>The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with +inflammation and heat of the naked skin in the <i>back parts</i> of the +clefts, immediately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated +appearance, and is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge +from the ulcerated surface. As the inflammation extends, the friction of +the parts causes pain, and the sheep limps. At this stage, the foot, +<i>externally</i>, in a great majority of cases, exhibits not the least trace +of disease, with the exception of a slight redness, and sometimes the +appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, when viewed +from behind.</p> + +<p>The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges of +the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is +established between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid +matter is discharged from the cavity. The extent of the separation +increases daily, and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy +sole. The bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, +and the outer walls, entirely separated from the flesh, hang only by +their attachments at the coronet. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely +disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> black, putrid +ulceration; or, as more commonly happens, the fly has struck it, and a +dense mass of writhing maggots cover the surface, and burrow in every +cavity.</p> + +<p>The fore-feet are generally first attacked; and, most usually but one of +them. The animal at first manifests but little constitutional +disturbance, and eats as usual. By the time that any considerable +disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot, and +sometimes sooner, the other forefoot is attacked. That becoming as lame +as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its knees; and, if +forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony +occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There is a +bare spot under the brisket, of the size of a man’s hand, which looks +red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever, and the appetite +is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition. The appearance of the +maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in +contact with the side, in lying down, the filthy, ulcerous matter +adheres to, and saturates the short wool—it being but a month and a +half, or two months, after shearing—and maggots are either carried +there by the foot, or they are soon generated there. A black crust is +speedily formed round the spot, which is the decomposition of the +surrounding structures; and innumerable maggots are at work below, +burrowing into the integuments and muscles, and eating up the wretched +animal alive. The black, festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor +sufferer perishes, apparently in tortures the most excruciating.</p> + +<p>Sometimes but one forefoot is attacked, and subsequently one or both +hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular; and it is a +singular fact that, when two or even three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +of the feet are dreadfully +diseased, the fourth may be entirely sound. So, also, one foot may be +cured, while every other one is laboring under the malady. The highly +offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly +characteristic of the disease, and would reveal its character, to one +familiar with it, in the darkest night.</p> + +<p>Hoof-ail is probably propagated in this country exclusively by +inoculation—the contact of the matter of a diseased foot with the +integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. That it is +propagated in some of the ways classed under the ordinary designation of +<i>contagion</i>, is certain. That it may be propagated by inoculation, has +been established by experiment. The matter of diseased feet has been +placed on the skin lining the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of +circumstances—sometimes when that skin is in its ordinary and natural +state, sometimes after a very slight scorification, sometimes when +macerated by moisture; and under each of these circumstances the disease +has been communicated. The same inference may be drawn, also, from the +manner in which the disease attacks flocks. The whole, or any +considerable number, though sometimes rapidly, are never +<i>simultaneously</i> attacked, as would be expected, among animals so +gregarious, if the disease could be transmitted by simple contact, +inhaling the breath, or other effluvium.</p> + +<p>The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other +substances, and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of +healthy feet. Sheep, therefore, contract the disease from being driven +over the pastures, yarded on the straw, etc., where diseased sheep have +been, perhaps even days, before. The matter would probably continue to +inoculate, until dried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> up by the air and heat, or washed away by the +rains. The stiff, upright stems of closely mown grass, as on meadows, +are almost as well calculated to receive the matter of diseased feet, +and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones, as any means which could +be artificially devised. It is not entirely safe to drive healthy sheep +over roads, and especially into washing-yards, or sheep-houses, where +diseased sheep have been, until rain has fallen, or sufficient time has +elapsed for the matter to dry up. On the moist bottom of a washing-yard, +and particularly in houses or sheds, kept from sun and wind and rain, +this matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to +inoculate.</p> + +<p>When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its +attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely +disappear as cold weather approaches, and it does not manifest itself +until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a +mitigated form; the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked; +there seems to be less inflammatory action constitutionally, and in the +diseased parts; the course of the disease is less malignant and more +tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. If well kept under the +second summer, it is still milder the third. A sheep will occasionally +be seen to limp; but its condition will scarcely be affected, and +dangerous symptoms will rarely supervene. One or two applications made +during the summer, in a manner presently to be described, will suffice +to keep the disease under. At this point, a little vigor in the +treatment will rapidly extinguish the disease.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual +treatment is resolved upon, is always necessary, at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> least in bad cases. +Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if +practicable, as the hoofs can then be readily cut. In a dry time, and +after a night which left no dew upon the grass, their hoofs are almost +as tough as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on +their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their +feet. The yard should be small, so that they can be easily caught, and +it must be kept well littered down, to prevent their filling their feet +with their own excrement. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not, +of course, dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. If the yard could +be built over a shallow, gravelly-bottomed brook, it would be an +admirable arrangement; for this purpose, a portion of any little brook +might be prepared, by planking the bottom, and widening it, if +desirable. By such means the hoofs would be kept so soft that the +greatest and most unpleasant part of the labor, as ordinarily performed, +would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that +dung which, by any other arrangement, will, more or less, get into their +clefts.</p> + +<p>The principal operator seats himself on a chair, having within his reach +a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers already +described, a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, together +with such medicines as may be deemed necessary. The assistant catches a +sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the +foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then +kneels on some straw, or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder +extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are long, and especially if they +are dry and tough, the assistant presents each foot to the operator who +shortens the hoof with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +the toe-nippers. If there is any filth between +the toes, each man takes his rag from the bucket of water, and draws it +between the toes, and rinses it, until the filth is removed. Each then +takes a knife, and the process of paring away the horn commences, <i>upon +the effectual performance of which</i> all else depends. A glance at the +foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. The least +experience cannot fail in properly settling this question. An +experienced finger, even, placed upon the back of the pastern close +above the heel, will at once detect the local inflammation, in the dark, +<i>by its heat</i>.</p> + +<p>If the disease is in the first stage—that is, if there are merely +erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft <i>above</i> the +walls of the hoof—no paring is necessary. But if ulceration has +established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, <i>the ulcerated +parts</i>, however extensive, <i>must be entirely stripped of their horny +covering</i>, no matter what amount of time and care it may require. It is +better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the +running blood will wash off the subsequent application; but no fear of +wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule laid down +above. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, +during which time no application needs to be made to the foot.</p> + +<p>If the foot is in the third stage—a mass of rottenness, and filled with +maggots—pour, in the first place, a little spirits of turpentine—a +bottle of which, with a quill through the cork, should be always +ready—on the maggots, and most of them will immediately decamp, and the +others can be removed with a probe or small stick. Then <i>remove every +particle of loose</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span><i>horn</i>, though it should take the entire hoof, as it +generally will in such cases. The foot should next be cleansed with a +solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride +to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot +repeatedly in hot water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every +purpose. The great object is <i>to clean the foot thoroughly</i>. If there is +any considerable “proud flesh,” it should be removed with a pair of +scissors, or by the actual cautery—hot iron.</p> + +<p>The following are some of the most popular remedies: Take two ounces of +blue vitriol and two ounces of verdigris, to a junk-bottle of wine; or +spirits of turpentine, tar, and verdigris in equal parts; or three +quarts of alcohol, one pint of spirits of turpentine, one pint of strong +vinegar, one pound of blue vitriol, one pound of copperas, one and a +half pounds of verdigris, one pound of alum, and one pound of saltpetre, +pounded fine; mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand +six or eight days before using; also mix two pounds of honey and two +quarts of tar, which must be applied after the preceding compound. Or +apply diluted aquafortis—nitric acid—with a feather to the ulcerated +surface; or diluted oil of vitriol—sulphuric acid—in the same way; or +the same of muriatic acid; or dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling +point.</p> + +<p>In the first and second stages of the disease, before the ulcers have +formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its +structure, the best application is a saturated solution of blue +vitriol—sulphate of copper. In the third stage, when the foot is a +festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already +directed, it requires some strong<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> caustic to remove the unhealthy +granulations—the dead muscular structures—and to restore healthy +action. Lunar caustic, which is preferable to any other application, is +too expensive; chloride of antimony is excellent, but frequently +unattainable in the country drug-stores; and muriatic acid, or even +nitric or sulphuric acids, may be used instead. The diseased surface is +touched with the caustic, applied with a swab, formed by fastening a +little tow on the end of a stick, until the objects above pointed out +are attained. The foot is then treated with the solution of blue +vitriol, and subsequently coated over with tar which has been boiled, +and is properly cooled, for the purpose of protecting the raw wound from +dirt, flies, etc. Sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be +separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three +days. With this degree of attention, their cure will be rapid, and the +obliterated structures of the foot will be restored with astonishing +rapidity.</p> + +<p>The common method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it +from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal +lies on its back between the operators, as already described. In this +way a few cents’ worth of vitriol will answer for a large number of +sheep. The method is, however, imperfect; since, without extraordinary +care, there will almost always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered +by the knife, which the solution will not reach, the passages to them +being devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed. The disease will thus +be only temporarily suppressed, not cured.</p> + +<p>A flock of sheep which were in the second season of the disease, had +been but little looked to during the summer, and as cold weather set in, +many of them became considerably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +lame, and some of them quite so. Their +feet were thoroughly pared; and into a large washing-tub, in which two +sheep could conveniently stand, a saturated solution of blue vitriol and +water, <i>as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment</i>, was +poured. The liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, +and was kept at that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. As +soon as a sheep’s feet were pared, it was placed in the tub, and held +there by the neck. A second one was then prepared, and placed beside it; +when the third was ready, the first was taken out; and so on. Two sheep +were thus constantly in the tub, each remaining some five minutes. The +cure was perfect; there was not a lame sheep in the flock during the +winter or the next summer. The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of +the foot; and doubtless had a far more decisive effect, even on the +uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them. +The expense attending the operation was about <i>four cents</i> per sheep. +Three such applications, at intervals of a week, would effectually cure +the disease, since every new case would thus be arrested and cured +before it would have time to inoculate others. It would, undoubtedly, +accomplish this at any time of year, and even during the first and most +malignant prevalence of the contagion, <i>provided the paring was +sufficiently thorough</i>. The second and third parings would be a mere +trifle; and the liquid left at the first and second applications could +again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head, +which is much cheaper, in the long run, than any ordinary temporizing +method, where the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol is counted, but +not the time consumed; and the disease is thus kept lingering in the +flock for years.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy for +this disease; and in cases of ordinary virulence, especially where the +disease is chronic, it seems to dry up the ulcers, and keep the malady +under. Sheep are also sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface, +and driving them over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered with +quick-lime. It may sometimes, and under peculiar circumstances, be cured +by dryness, and repeated washing with soap-suds.</p> + +<p>Many farmers select rainy weather as the time for doctoring their sheep. +Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good +economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, +<i>provided</i> they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any +kind, until the rain is over, and the grass again dry. If immediately +let out in wet grass of any length, the vitriol or other application is +measurably washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in +more tar—an admirable plan under such circumstances.</p> + +<p>A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, is considered +more valuable than one which has never had it. They are far less liable +to contract the disease from any casual exposure; and its ravages are +far less violent and general among them.</p> + +<p>This ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness, or +inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, +rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the +cause; or, if it continues, white paint or tar may be applied, after a +thorough washing.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></p> +<h3>HOOVE.</h3> + +<p>This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep; but, if turned +upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will sometimes ensue.</p> + +<p>Hoove is a distension of the paunch by gas extricated from the +fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in +larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline +secretions of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is +prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is +determined to the head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from +making its ordinary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes +difficult and imperfect. Death, in such cases, soon supervenes.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driving will effect +a cure. When the animal appears swelled almost to bursting, and is +disinclined to move, it is better to open the paunch at once. At the +most protruberant point of the swelling, on the left side, a little +below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point and +dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, +carrying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. +If no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well +as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the +abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of +the former will escape into the cavity of the latter.</p> + +<p>However perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the belly will +ultimately produce fatal irritation. To prevent this, a canula, or +little tube, should be inserted through both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> orifices as soon as the +puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent, alkalies have +sometimes been successfully administered, which combine with the +carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexible +probang, or in default of it, a rattan, or grape-vine, with a knot on +the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and the gas thus +permitted to escape.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>HYDATID ON THE BRAIN.</h3> + +<p>The symptoms of this disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, staggers, water +in the head, etc., are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating +from the flock, a wandering and blue appearance of the eye, and +sometimes partial or total blindness; the sheep appears unsteady in its +walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop +across the field, and, after the disease has existed for some time, will +almost constantly move round in a circle—there seems, indeed, to be an +aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely +all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent +any mistake as to the nature of the disease.</p> + +<p>On examining the brain of sheep thus affected, what appears to be a +watery bladder, called a hydatid, is found, which may be either small or +of the size of a hen’s egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozoöns, +has been termed by naturalists the <i>hydatis polycephalus cerebralis</i>, or +many-headed hydatid of the brain; these heads being irregularly +distributed on the surface of the bladder, and on the front part of each +head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of +sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> by forming +a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus, by +the aid of the hooks, the parasite is nourished. The coats of the +hydatid are disposed in several layers, one of which appears to possess +a muscular power. These facts are developed by the microscope, which +also discloses numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. +The fluid in the bladder is usually clear but occasionally turbid, and +then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> This is deemed an almost incurable disorder. Where the +hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly +enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the +part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield +under the pressure of the finger.</p> + +<p>When such a spot is discovered, the English veterinarians usually +dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, +carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if +possible, remove the hydatid whole; or, failing to do this, remove its +fluid contents. The membranes and integuments are then restored to their +position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French +veterinarians usually simply puncture the cranium and the cyst with a +trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, allow the fluid to run out +through the orifice thus made. A common awl would answer every purpose +for such a puncture; and the puncture is the preferable method for the +unskilled practitioner. An instance is, indeed, recorded of a cure +having been effected, where the animal had been given up, by boring with +a gimlet into the soft place on the head, when the water +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> rushed out, +and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture.</p> + +<p>When, however, the hazard and cruelty attending the operation, under the +most favorable circumstances, are considered, as well as the conceded +liability of a return of the malady—the growth of new hydatids—it is +evident that in this country, it would not be worth while, except in the +case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to adopt any other remedy than +depriving the miserable animal of life.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo228.png" alt="A Barrack for Storing Fodder" width="350" height="291" /> +<p class="caption">A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP-FODDER.</p></div> + +<p>After pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing substance +which occasions the “choking,” can frequently be removed up or down by +external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down with the +flexible probang, described in “Cattle and their Diseases,” or a +flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knot, or a little bag of +flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or +two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through +the cloth, and protects the œsophagus, or gullet, from laceration. +But little force must be used, and the whole operation conducted with +the utmost care and gentleness; or the œsophagus will be so far +lacerated as to produce death, although the obstruction is removed.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></p> +<h3>OPHTHALMIA.</h3> + +<p>Ophthalmia, or inflammation of the eyes, is not uncommon in this +country; but it is little noticed, as, in most cases, it disappears in a +few days, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract, which, being +usually confined to one eye, does not appreciably effect the value of +the animal, and therefore has no influence on its market price.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Some recommend blowing pulverized red chalk in the inflamed +eye; others squirt into it tobacco juice. As a matter of humanity, blood +may be drawn from under the eye, and the eye bathed in tepid water, and +occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with +tincture of opium. These latter applications diminish the pain, and +hasten the cure.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>PALSY.</h3> + +<p>Paralysis, or palsy, is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of +motion in some parts of the body. In the winter, poor lambs, or poor +pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the +spring, occasionally lose the power of walking or standing rather too +suddenly to have it referable to increasing debility. The animal seems +to have lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are +powerless; it makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand if +placed upon its feet.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing may raise the +patient; but, in the vast majority of cases, it is more economical and +equally humane, to deprive it of life at once.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></p> +<h3>PELT-ROT.</h3> + +<p>This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is, in fact, a different and +less dangerous disease. The wool falls off, and leaves the sheep nearly +naked; but it is attended with no soreness, though a reddish crust will +cover the skin, from the wool which has dropped. It generally arises +from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet; and, in fact, the +animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers on account +of the loss of its coat.</p> + +<p>The <i>remedy</i> is full feeding, a warm stall, and anointing the hard part +of the skin with tar, oil, and butter. Some, however, do nothing for it, +scarcely considering it a disease. Such say that if the condition of a +poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the +winter, the wool is very apt to drop off; and, if yet cold, the sheep +will require warm shelter.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>PNEUMONIA.</h3> + +<p>Pneumonia—or inflammation of the lungs—is not a common disease in the +Northern States; but undoubted cases of it sometimes occur, after sheep +have been exposed to sudden cold, particularly when recently shorn. The +adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of +slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this disease in the +animal—though, in many instances, it was so slight as to be mistaken, +at the time, for a hard cold.</p> + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i> The animal is dull, ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, +drinks frequently and largely, and its breathing is rapid and laborious; +the eye is clouded; the nose discharges +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> a tenacious, fetid matter; the +teeth are ground frequently, so that the sound is audible at some +distance; the pulse is at first hard and rapid, sometimes intermits, but +before death it becomes weak. During the height of the fever, the flanks +heave violently; there is a hard, painful cough during the first stages, +which becomes weaker, and seems to be accompanied with more pain as +death approaches.</p> + +<p>After death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized—that is, +permanently condensed and engorged with blood, so that their structure +resembles that of the <i>hepar</i>, or liver—and they have so far lost their +integrity that they are torn asunder by the slightest force. It may here +be remarked that when sheep die from any cause, <i>with their blood in +them</i>, the lungs have a dark, hepatized appearance. Whether they are +actually hepatized or not, can readily be decided by compressing the +windpipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then between such +compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting orifice, +inserting a goose-quill, or other tube, and continuing to blow until the +lungs are inflated as far as they can be. As they inflate, they will +become of a lighter color, and plainly manifest their cellular +structure. If any portions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their +dark, liver-like consistence, and color, they exhibit hepatization—the +result of high inflammatory action—and a state utterly incompatible, in +the living animal, with the discharge of the natural functions of the +viscus.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> In the first, or inflammatory stages, bleeding and +aperients are clearly called for. Some recommend early and copious +bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours; this followed by +aperient medicines, such as two ounces of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> Epsom salts, which may be +repeated in smaller doses, if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. +The following sedative may also be given with gruel, twice a day: +nitrate of potash, one drachm; powdered digitalis, one scruple; and +tartarized antimony, one scruple.</p> + +<p>While depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance—the +short continuance—of the febrile state, yet excitation like this will +soon be followed by corresponding exhaustion, when the bleeding and +purging would be murderous expedients; and gentian, ginger, and the +spirits of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>POISON.</h3> + +<p>Sheep will often, in the winter or spring, eat greedily of the low +laurel. The animal appears afterward to be dull and stupid, swells a +little, and is constantly gulping up a feverish fluid, which it swallows +again; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its +lips. The plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stomach, and +nature endeavors to throw off the poisonous herb by retching or +vomiting.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be allowed to +escape from the stomach, the animal generally recovers. To effect this, +gag the sheep, which may be done in this manner: Take a stick of the +size of the wrist, six inches long—place it in the animal’s mouth—tie +a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other +end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as +fast as thrown up from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted +onions and sweetened milk freely. A better plan, however, is to force a +gill of melted lard down the throat; or, boil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +for an hour the twigs of +the white ash, and give one-half to one gill of the strong liquor +immediately; to be repeated, if not successful. Drenchers of milk and +castor-oil are also recommended.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>ROT.</h3> + +<p>This disease, which sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep, in +England, in a single year, is comparatively unknown in this country. It +prevails somewhat in the Western States, from allowing sheep to pasture +on land that is overflowed with water. Even a crop of green oats, early +in the fall, before a frost comes; has been known to rot young sheep.</p> + +<p><i>Symptoms.</i> The first are by no means strongly marked; there is no loss +of condition, but rather the contrary, to all appearance. A paleness and +want of liveliness of the membranes, generally, may be considered as the +first symptoms, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at +the corner of the eye. When in warm, sultry, or rainy weather, sheep +that are grazing on low and moist lands, feed rapidly, and some of them +die suddenly, there is ground for fearing that they have contracted the +rot. This suspicion will be farther increased if, a few days afterward, +the sheep begin to shrink and grow flaccid about the loins. By pressure +about the hips at this time, a crackling is perceptible now or soon +afterward, the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece, the +skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, and the +wool is easily separated from the felt; and as the disorder advances, +the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots. To these symptoms +succeed increased dullness, loss of condition, and greater paleness of +the mucous <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +membranes, the eye-lids becoming almost white, and afterward +yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a watery +fluid appears under the skin, the latter becoming loose and flabby, and +the wool coming off readily. The symptoms of dropsy often extend over +the body, and sometimes the sheep becomes <i>chockered</i>, as it is termed; +a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearance of the +fluid which it contains, is sometimes called the <i>watery poke</i>. The +duration of the disease is uncertain; the animal occasionally dies +shortly after becoming affected, but more frequently it extends to from +three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away, +particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging +supervenes.</p> + +<p><i>Post-mortem.</i> The whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and +a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft +and flabby, having the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are +pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands are enlarged, and +engorged with yellow serous fluid. The belly is frequently filled with +water, or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and +the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is +enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The +principal alterations of structure are in the liver, which is pale, +livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure; and on being boiled, +it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often +curiously spotted; in some cases it is speckled, like the back of a +toad; some parts of it, however, are hard and schirrous; others are +ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. The malady is, +unquestionably, inflammation of the liver.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> This fluke is from +three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, and from +one-third to one-half an inch in its greatest breadth. These fluke-worms +undoubtedly aggravate the disease, and perpetuate a state of +irritability and disorganization, which must necessarily undermine the +strength of any animal.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> This must, to a considerable extent, be very +unsatisfactory. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the +best <i>preventives</i> is the abundant use of pure salt. In violent attacks, +take eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood, according to the +circumstances of the case; to this, let a dose of physic succeed—two or +three ounces of Epsom salts; and to these means add a change of diet, +good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff in the yard. After the +operation of the physic—an additional dose having been administered, +oftentimes, in order to quicken the action of the first—two or three +grains of calomel may be given daily, mixed with half the quantity of +opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious +effects on the ruminant. To this should be added common salt, which acts +as a purgative and a tonic. A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is +plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. The doses should +be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When the +inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to +the salt, and there are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots; +from one to two drachms of each, finely pounded, may be added to each +dose of the salt. The sheep having a little recovered from the disease, +should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +should always have salt within their reach. The rot is not infectious.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SCAB.</h3> + +<p>This is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in horses and the +itch in man, and is caused and propagated by a minute insect, the +<i>acarus</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo236.png" alt="The Broad-Tailed Sheep" width="350" height="227" /> +<p class="caption">THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP.</p></div> + +<p>If one or more female <i>acari</i> are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, +they quickly travel to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, +the place at which they penetrate being scarcely visible, or only +distinguishable by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelfth day, a +little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes +its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly +formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, when the mothers again +appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by a +portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These +little ones immediately set to work, penetrate the neighboring skin, +bury themselves beneath it, find their proper nourishment, and grow and +propagate, until the poor creature has myriads of them preying upon him. +It is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, he should speedily +sink. The male <i>acari</i>, when placed on the sound skin of a sheep, will +likewise burrow their way and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +disappear for a while, the pustule rising +in due time; but the itching and the scab soon disappear without the +employment of any remedy. The female brings forth from eight to fifteen +young at a time.</p> + +<p>In the United States, this disease is comparatively little known, and +never originates spontaneously. The fact, that short-woolled sheep—like +the Merino—are much less subject to its attacks, is probably one reason +for this slight comparative prevalence. The disease spreads from +individual to individual, and from flock to flock, not only by means of +direct contact, but by the <i>acari</i> left on posts, stones, and other +substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy +sheep are, therefore, liable to contract the malady, if turned on +pastures previously occupied by scabby sheep, although some considerable +time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter.</p> + +<p>The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs +itself with violence against trees, stones, fences, etc.; scratches +itself with its feet, bites its sores, and tears off its wool with its +teeth; as the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms +scabs, causing red, inflamed sores, which constantly extend, increasing +the misery of the tortured animal; if unrelieved, he pines away, and +soon perishes.</p> + +<p>The <i>post-mortem</i> appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There +is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence +of a great number of worms. The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the +spleen enlarged; and there are frequently serous effusions in the belly, +and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy between the +digestive and the cutaneous systems.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +<i>Treatment.</i> First, separate the sheep; then cut off the wool as far as +the skin feels hard to the finger; the scab is then washed with +soap-suds, and rubbed hard With a shoe-brush, so that it may be cleansed +and broken. For this use take a decoction of tobacco, to which add +one-third, by measure, of the lye of wood-ashes, as much hog’s lard as +will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from a tar-bucket, +which contains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole, by measure, of +spirits of turpentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and +spread to a little distance around it, in three washings, with an +interval of three days each. This will invariably effect a cure, when +the disorder is only partial.</p> + +<p>Or, the following: Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the +proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The +sheep should be previously washed in soap and water. The infusion must +not be permitted to enter the mouth or nostrils.</p> + +<p>Or, take common mercurial ointment; for bad cases, rub it down with +three times its weight of lard—for ordinary cases, five times its +weight. Rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part +the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, +and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. +Make a similar furrow and application on each side, four inches from the +first; and so on, over the whole body. The quantity of ointment after +composition with the lard, should not exceed two ounces; and, generally, +less will suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown +sheep. This will generally cure; but, if the animal should continue to +rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten +days.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +Or, take two pounds of lard or palm oil; half a pound of oil of tar; and +one pound of sulphur; gradually mix the last two, then rub down the +compound with the first. Apply as before. Or, take of corrosive +sublimate, one half a pound; white hellabore, powdered, three-fourths of +a pound; whale or other oil, six gallons; rosin, two pounds; and tallow, +two pounds. The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the +rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed. This is a +powerful preparation, and must not be applied too freely.</p> + +<p>An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable +itching, sometimes troubles sheep. This is a febrile disease, and is +treated with a cooling purgative, bleeding, and oil or lard applied to +the sores.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SMALL-POX.</h3> + +<p>The author acknowledges himself indebted for what follows under this +head to R. McClure, V. S., of Philadelphia, author of a Prize Essay on +Diseases of Sheep, read before the U. S. Agricultural Society, in 1860, +for which a medal and diploma were awarded.</p> + +<p>Although the small-pox in domestic animals has, fortunately, been as yet +confined to the European Continent—where it has been chiefly limited to +England—no good reason can ever be assigned why it should not at some +future time make its appearance among us, especially when we remember +how long a period elapsed, during which we escaped the cattle plague, +although the Continent had long been suffering from it.</p> + +<p>The small-pox in sheep—<i>variola overia</i>—is, at times, epizoötic in the +flocks of France and Italy, but was unknown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +in England until 1847, when +it was communicated to a flock at Datchett and another at Pinnier by +some Merinos from Spain. It soon found its way into Hampshire and +Norfolk, but was shortly afterward supposed to be eradicated. In 1862, +however, it suddenly reappeared in a severe form among the flocks of +Wiltshire; for which reappearance neither any traceable infection nor +contagion could be assigned. With the present light upon the subject, it +would seem to be an instance of the origination <i>anew</i> of a malignant +type of varioloid disease. Such an origin is, in fact, assigned to this +disease in Africa, it being well established that certain devitalizing +atmospheric influences produce skin diseases, and facilitate the +appearance of pustular eruptions.</p> + +<p>The disease once rooted soon becomes epizoötic, and causes a greater +mortality than any other malady affecting this animal. Out of a flock +numbering 1720, 920 were attacked in a natural way, of which 50 per +cent. died. Of 800 inoculated cases, but 36 per cent. died.</p> + +<p>Numerous experiments have proved beyond all doubt that this disease in +sheep is both infectious and contagious; its period of incubation varies +from seven to fourteen days. The mortality is never less than 25 per +cent., and not unfrequently whole flocks have been swept away, death +taking place in the early stages of the eruption, or in the stages of +suppuration and ulceration.</p> + +<p>The <i>symptoms</i> may be mapped out as follows: The animal is seized with a +shivering fit, succeeded by a dull stupidity, which remains until death +or recovery results; on the second or third day, pimples are seen on the +thighs and arm-pits, accompanied with extreme redness of the eyes, complete +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>loss of appetite, etc., etc. It is needless to enumerate other +symptoms which exist in common with those of other disorders.</p> + +<p><i>Prevention.</i> At present, but two modes are resorted to, for the purpose +of preventing the spread of the disease, which promise any degree of +certainty of success. The first is by <i>inoculation</i>, which was +recommended by Professor Simonds, of London. This distinguished +pathologist appears to have overlooked the fact that he was thereby only +enlarging the sphere of mischief, by imparting the disease to animals +that, in all probability, would otherwise have escaped it. By +inoculation, moreover, a form of the disease is given, not of a modified +character, but with all the virulence of the original affection which is +to be arrested, and equally as potent for further destruction of others. +By such teaching, inoculation and vaccination would be made one and the +same thing, notwithstanding their dissimilarity. Even vaccination will +not protect the animal, as has been already shown by the experiments of +Hurbrel D’Arboval.</p> + +<p>The second and best plan of prevention is <i>isolation and destruction</i>, +as recommended by Professor Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College. +This proved a great protection to the sheep-farmers of Wiltshire, in +1862. In all epizoötic diseases, individual cases occur, which, when +pointed out and recognized as soon as the fever sets in and the early +eruptions appear, should be slaughtered at once and buried, and the rest +of the flock isolated. By this means the disease has been confined to +but two or three in a large flock.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> In treating this disease, resort has of late been had to a +plant, known as <i>Sarracenia purpura</i>—Indian cup, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> or pitcher +plant—used for this purpose by the Micmacs, a tribe of Indians in +British North America. This plant is indigenous, perennial, and is found +from the coast of Labrador to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, growing +in great abundance on wet, marshy ground. The use of this plant is +becoming quite general, and good results have almost uniformly attended +it.</p> + +<p>Take from one to two ounces of the dried root, and slice in thin pieces; +place in an earthen pot; add a quart of cold water, and allow the liquid +to simmer gently over a steady fire for two or three hours, so as to +lose one-fourth of the quantity. Give of this decoction three +wine-glassfuls at once, and the same quantity from four to six hours +afterwards, when a cure will generally be affected. Weaker and smaller +doses are certain preventives of the disease. The public are indebted to +Dr. Morris, physician to the Halifax (Nova Scotia) Dispensary, for the +manner of preparing this eminently useful article.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SORE FACE.</h3> + +<p>Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John’s wort, frequently exhibit +an irritation of skin about the nose and face, which causes the hair to +drop off from the parts. The irritation sometimes extends over the +entire body. If this plant is eaten in too large quantities, it produces +violent inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, +and sometimes to adults.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If +there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> this should be put +into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick. Abundance of salt is +deemed a <i>preventive</i>.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SORE MOUTH.</h3> + +<p>The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter, and +swell to the thickness of a man’s hand. The malady occasionally attacks +whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. It is usually attributed to +noxious weeds cut with the hay.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Daub the lips and mouth plentifully with tar.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>TICKS.</h3> + +<p>The treatment necessary as a preventive against these insects, and a +remedy for them, has already been indicated under the head of “<a href="#Page_129"><span class="smcap">Feeding +and Management</span></a>,” to which the reader is referred.</p> + +<hr class="c65" style="margin-top: 5em;" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244"></a></p> +<h2>SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES.</h2> + +<hr class="c65" style="margin-bottom: 5em;" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245 (7)]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo245.png" alt="The Wild Boar" width="350" height="349" /></div> + +<p>The hog is a cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every climate; +though its natural haunts—like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, +the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals—are in warm +countries. They are most abundant in China, the East Indies, and the +immense range of islands extending throughout the whole Southern and +Pacific oceans; but they are also numerous throughout<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246 (8)]</a></span> +Europe, from its Southern coast to the Russian dominions within the Arctic.</p> + +<p>As far back as the records of history extend, this animal appears to +have been known, and his flesh made use of as food. Nearly fifteen +hundred years before Christ, Moses gave those laws to the Israelites +which have given rise to so much discussion; and it is evident that, had +not pork been the prevailing food of that nation at the time, such +stringent commandments and prohibitions would not have been necessary. +The various allusions to this kind of meat, which repeatedly occur in +the writings of the old Greek authors, show the esteem in which it was +held among that nation; and it appears that the Romans made the art of +breeding, rearing, and fattening pigs a study. In fact, the hog was very +highly prized among the early nations of Europe; and some of the +ancients even paid it divine honors.</p> + +<p>The Jews, the Egyptians, and the Mohammedans alone appear to have +abstained from the flesh of swine. The former were expressly denied its +use by the laws of Moses. “And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and +be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean unto you.” +Lev. xi. 7. Upon this prohibition, Mohammed, probably, founded his own. +For the Mosaic prohibition, various reasons have been assigned: the +alleged extreme filthiness of the animal; it being afflicted with a +leprosy; the great indigestibility of its flesh in hot climates; the +intent to make the Jews “a peculiar people;” a preventive of gluttony; +and an admonition of abstinence from sensual and disgusting habits.</p> + +<p>At what period the animal was reclaimed from his wild State, and by what +nation, cannot be stated. From the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247 (9)]</a></span> +earliest times, in England, the hog +has been regarded as a very important animal, and vast herds were tended +by swineherds, who watched over their safety in the woods, and collected +them under shelter at night. Its flesh was the staple article of +consumption in every household, and much of the wealth of the rich and +free portion of the community consisted in these animals. Hence bequests +of swine, with land for their support, were often made; rights and +privileges connected with their feeding, and the extent of woodland to +be occupied by a given number, were granted according to established +rules. Long after the end of the Saxon dynasty, the practice of feeding +swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was continued till the +forests were cut down, and the land laid open for the plough.</p> + +<p>Nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions in a forest +country. By his burrowing after roots and the like, he turns up and +destroys the larvæ of innumerable insects, which would otherwise injure +the trees as well as their fruit. He destroys the slug-snail and adder, +and thus not only rids the forests of these injurious and unpleasant +inhabitants, but also makes them subservient to his own nourishment, and +therefore to the benefit of mankind. The fruits which he eats are such +as would otherwise rot on the ground and be wasted, or yield nutriment +to vermin; and his diggings for earth-nuts and the like, loosens the +soil, and benefits the roots of the trees. Hogs in forest land may, +therefore, be regarded as eminently beneficial; and it is only the abuse +which is to be feared.</p> + +<p>The hog is popularly regarded as a stupid, brutal, rapacious, and filthy +animal, grovelling and disgusting in all his habits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248 (10)]</a></span> +intractable and obstinate in temper. The most offensive epithets among men are borrowed +from him, or his peculiarities. In their native state, however, swine +seem by no means destitute of natural affections; they are gregarious, +assemble together in defence of each other, herd together for warmth, +and appear to have feelings in common; no mother is more tender to her +young than the sow, or more resolute in their defence. Neglected as this +animal has ever been by authors, recorded instances are not wanting of +their sagacity, tractability, and susceptibility of affection. Among the +European peasantry, where the hog is, so to speak, one of the family, he +may often be seen following his master from place to place, and grunting +his recognition of his protectors.</p> + +<p>The hog, in point of actual fact, is also a much more cleanly animal +than he has the credit of being. He is fond of a good, cleanly bed; and +when this is not provided for him, it is oftentimes interesting to note +the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for himself. It is, +however, so much the vogue to believe that he may be kept in any state +of neglect, that the terms “pig,” and “pig-sty” are usually regarded as +synonymous with all that is dirty and disgusting. His rolling in the mud +is cited as a proof of his filthy habits. This practice, which he shares +in common with all the pachydermatous animals, is undoubtedly the +teaching of instinct, and for the purpose of cooling himself and keeping +off flies.</p> + +<p>Pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will nestle +together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle vehemently to +secure the warmest berth. They are likewise peculiarly sensitive of +approaching changes in the weather, and may often be observed suddenly +leaving the places in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249 (11)]</a></span> +which they had been quietly feeding, and running +off to their styes at full speed, making loud outcries. When storms are +overhanging, they collect straw in their mouths, and run about as if +inviting their companions to do the same; and if there is a shed or +shelter near at hand, they will carry it there and deposit it, as if for +the purpose of preparing a bed.</p> + +<p>In their domesticated state, they are, undeniably, very greedy animals; +eating is the business of their lives; nor do they appear to be very +delicate as to the kind or quality of food which is placed before them. +Although naturally herbivorous animals, they have been known to devour +carrion with all the voracity of beasts of prey, to eat and mangle +infants, and even gorge their appetites with their own young. It is not, +however, unreasonable to believe that the last revolting act—rarely if +ever happening in a state of nature—arises more from the pain and +irritation produced by the state of confinement, and often filth, in +which the animal is kept, and the disturbances to which it is subjected, +than from any actual ferocity; for it is well known that a sow is always +unusually irritable at this period, snapping at all animals that +approach her. If she is gently treated, properly supplied with +sustenance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there is little danger +of this practice ever happening.</p> + +<p>All the offences which swine commit are attributed to a disposition +innately bad; whereas they too often arise from bad management, or total +neglect. They are legitimate objects for the sport of idle boys, hunted +with curs, pelted with stones, often neglected and obliged to find a +meal for themselves, or wander about half-starved. Made thus the +Ishmaelites of our domestic animals, is it a matter of wonder that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250 (12)]</a></span> they +should, under such circumstances, incline to display Ishmaelitish +traits? In any well-regulated farm-yard, the swine are as tractable and +as little disposed to wander or trespass as any of the animals that it +contains.</p> + +<p>The <span class="smcap">wild boar</span> is generally admitted to be the parent of the stock from +which all our domesticated breeds and varieties have sprung. This animal +is generally of a dusky brown or iron-gray color, inclining to black, +and diversified with black spots or streaks. The body is covered with +coarse hairs, intermixed with a downy wool; these hairs become bristles +as they approach the neck and shoulders, and are in those places so long +as to form a mane, which the animal erects when irritated. The head is +short, the forehead broad and flat, the ears short, rounded at the tips, +and inclined toward the neck, the jaw armed with sharp, crooked tusks, +which curve slightly upward, and are capable of inflicting fearful +wounds, the eye full, neck thick and muscular, the shoulders high, the +loins broad, the tail stiff, and finished off with a tuft of bristles at +the tip, the haunch well turned, and the leg strong. A full-grown wild +boar in India averages from thirty to forty inches in height at the +shoulder; the African wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty inches +high.</p> + +<p>The wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and becomes fiercer +as he grows older. When existing in a state of nature, he is generally +found in moist, shady, and well-wooded situations, not far remote from +streams or water. In India, they are found in the thick jungles, in +plantations of sugar-cane or rice, or in the thick patches of high, long +grass. In England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, their resorts have +been in the woods and forests. This animal is naturally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251 (13)]</a></span> herbivorous, +and appears to feed by choice upon plants, fruits, and roots. He will, +however, eat the worms and larvæ which he finds in the ground, also +snakes and other such reptiles, and the eggs of birds. They seldom quit +their coverts during the day, but prowl about in search of food during +twilight and the night. Their acute sense of smell enables them to +detect the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil, and +they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground in search +of them, particularly as they do not, like the common hog, root up a +little spot here and there, but plough long, continuous, furrows.</p> + +<p>The wild boar, properly so called, is neither a solitary nor a +gregarious animal. For the first two or three years, the whole herd +follows the sow, and all unite in defence against any enemies, calling +upon each other with loud cries in case of emergency, and forming in +regular line of battle, the weakest occupying the rear. When arrived at +maturity, the animals wander alone, as if in perfect consciousness of +their strength, and appear as if they neither sought nor avoided any +living creature. They are reputed to live about thirty years; as they +grow old, the hair becomes gray, and the tusks begin to show symptoms of +decay. Old boars rarely associate with a herd, but seem to keep apart +from the rest, and from each other.</p> + +<p>The female produces but one litter in the year, much smaller in number +than those of the domestic pig; she carries her young sixteen or twenty +weeks, and generally is only seen with the male during the rutting +season. She suckles her young for several months, and continues to +protect them for some time afterward; if attacked at that time, she will +defend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252 (14)]</a></span> +herself and them with exceeding courage and fierceness. Many +sows will often be found herding together, each followed by her litter +of young; and in such parties they are exceedingly formidable to man and +beast. Neither they nor the boar, however, seem desirous of attacking +any thing; and only when roused by aggression, or disturbed in their +retreat, do they turn upon their enemies and manifest the mighty +strength with which Nature has endowed them. When attacked by dogs, the +wild boar at first sullenly retreats, turning upon them from time to +time and menacing them with his tusks; but gradually his anger rises, +and at length he stands at bay, fights furiously for his life, and tears +and rends his persecutors. He has even been observed to single out the +most tormenting of them, and rush savagely upon him. Hunting this animal +has been a favorite sport, in almost all countries in which it has been +found, from the earliest ages.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo252.png" alt="The Wild Boar at Bay" width="350" height="241" /> +<p class="caption">THE WILD BOAR AT BAY.</p></div> + +<p>Wild boars lingered in the forests of England and Scotland for several +centuries after the Norman conquest, and many tracts of land in those +countries derived their name from this circumstance; while instances of +valor in their destruction are recorded in the heraldic devices of many +of their noble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253 (15)]</a></span> +families. The precise period at which the animal became +exterminated there cannot be precisely ascertained. They had, however, +evidently been long extinct in the time of Charles I., since he +endeavored to re-introduce them, and was at considerable expense to +procure a wild boar and his mate from Germany. They still exist in Upper +Austria, on the Syrian Alps, in many parts of Hungary, and in the +forests of Poland, Spain, Russia, and Sweden; and the inhabitants of +those countries hunt them with hounds, or attack them with fire-arms, or +with the proper boar-spear.</p> + +<p>All the varieties of the domestic hog will breed with the wild boar; the +period of gestation is the same in the wild and the tame sow; their +anatomical structure is identical; their general form bears the same +characters; and their habits, so far as they are not changed by +domestication, remain the same. Where individuals of the pure wild race +have been caught young and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic +pig, their fierceness has disappeared, they have become more social and +less nocturnal in their habits, lost their activity, and lived more to +eat. In the course of one or two generations, even the form undergoes +certain modifications; the body becomes larger and heavier; the legs +shorter, and less adapted for exercise; the formidable tusks of the +boar, being no longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear; the shape +of the head and neck alters; and in character as well as in form, the +animal adapts itself to its situation. Nor does it appear that a return +to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance; for, +in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man, and bred +in the wilderness and woods, not a single instance is on record in which +they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254 (16)]</a></span> +have resumed the habits and form of the wild boar. They, indeed, +become fierce, wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon roots and fruits; +but they are, notwithstanding, merely degenerated swine, and they still +associate together in herds, and do not walk solitary and alone, like +their grim ancestors.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>AMERICAN SWINE.</h3> + +<p>In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its +earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market has been found for +pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. +Swine are not, however, indigenous to this country, but were doubtless +originally brought hither by the early English settlers; and the breed +thus introduced may still be distinguished by the traces they retain of +their parent stock. France, also, as well as Spain, and, during the +existence of the slave-trade, Africa, have also combined to furnish +varieties of this animal, so much esteemed throughout the whole of the +country, as furnishing a valuable article of food. For nearly twenty +years following the commencement of the general European wars, soon +after the organization of our national government, pork was a +comparatively large article of commerce; but exports for a time +diminished, and it was not until within a more recent period that this +staple has been brought up to its former standard as an article of +exportation to that country. The recent use which has been made of its +carcass in converting it into lard oil, has tended to still further +increase its consumption. By the census of 1860, there were upward of +thirty-two and a half millions of these animals in the United States.</p> + +<p>They are reared in every part of the Union, and, when +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255 (17)]</a></span> properly managed, +always at a fair profit. At the extreme North, in the neighborhood of +large markets, and on such of the Southern plantations as are +particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond +the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food +produced. Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or +orchard; since, with little additional food besides what is thus +afforded, they can be put in good condition for the butcher.</p> + +<p>On the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, however, where Indian +corn is raised in profusion and at small expense, they can be reared in +the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The Scioto, Miami, +Wabash, Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, +Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining States, have for many years +taken the lead in the production of Swine; and it is probable that the +climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as +well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them to hold their +position as the leading pork-producers of the North American Continent.</p> + +<p>The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous; and, like our native +cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst, to be +found among the species. Great attention has been paid, for many years, +to their improvement in the Eastern States; and nowhere are there better +specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended +West and South; and among most of the intelligent farmers, who make them +a leading object of attention, on their rich corn-grounds, swine have +attained a high degree of excellence. This does not consist in the +introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the +breeding up to a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256 (18)]</a></span> +desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such +meritorious individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within +their reach.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BYEFIELD.</h3> + +<p>This breed was formerly in high repute in the Eastern States, and did +much good among the species generally. They are white, with fine curly +hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad +backs, and at fifteen months attaining some three hundred to three +hundred and fifty pounds net.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BEDFORD.</h3> + +<p>The Bedford or Woburn is a breed originating with the Duke of Bedford, +on his estate at Woburn, and brought to their perfection, probably, by +judicious crosses of the Chinese hog on some of the best English swine. +A pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present to General +Washington; but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger, in +Maryland, in which State, and in Pennsylvania, they were productive of +much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through +different States. Several other importations of this breed have been +made at various times, and especially by the enterprising masters of the +Liverpool packets, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a large, +spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and +fattening. This is an exceedingly valuable hog, but nearly extinct, both +in England and in this country, as a breed.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257 (19)]</a></p> +<h3>THE LEICESTER.</h3> + +<p>The old Leicestershire breed, in England, was a perfect type of the +original hogs of the midland counties; large, ungainly, slab-sided +animals, of a light color, and spotted with brown or black. The only +good parts about them were their heads and ears, which showed greater +traces of breeding than any other portions. These have been materially +improved by various crosses, and the original breed has nearly lost all +its peculiarities and defects. They may now be characterized as a large, +white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow +in maturing. Some varieties differ essentially in these particulars, and +mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses with small +compact breeds are generally thrifty, desirable animals.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE YORKSHIRE.</h3> + +<p>The old Yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, and one of +the most unprofitable for a farmer, being greedy feeders, difficult to +fatten, and unsound in constitution. They were of a dirty white or +yellow color, spotted with black, had long legs, flat sides, narrow +backs, weak loins, and large bones. Their hair was short and wirey, and +intermingled with numerous bristles about the head and neck, and their +ears long. When full grown and fat, they seldom weighed more than from +three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds.</p> + +<p>These have been crossed with pigs of the improved Leicester breed; and +where the crossings have been judiciously managed, and not carried too +far, a fine race of deep-sided, short-legged, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258 (20)]</a></span> thin-haired animals has +been obtained, fattening kindly, and rising to a weight of from two +hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds, when killed between one and +two years old; and when kept over two years, reaching even from five +hundred to seven hundred pounds.</p> + +<p>They have also been crossed with the Chinese, Neapolitan, and Berkshire +breeds, and hardy, profitable, well-proportioned animals thereby +obtained. The original breed, in its purity, size, and defectiveness, is +now hardly to be met with, having shared the fate of the other large old +breeds, and given place to smaller and more symmetrical animals. The +<i>Yorkshire white</i> is among the large breeds deserving commendation among +us. To the same class belong also the large <i>Miami white</i>, and the +<i>Kenilworth</i>; each frequently attaining, when dressed, a weight of from +six hundred to eight hundred pounds.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE CHINESE.</h3> + +<p>This hog is to be found in the south-eastern countries of Asia, as Siam, +Cochin China, the Burman Empire, Cambodia, Malacca, Sumatra, and in +Batavia, and other Eastern islands; and is, without doubt, the parent +stock of the best European and American swine.</p> + +<p>There are two distinct varieties, the <i>white</i> and the <i>black</i>; both +fatten readily, but from their diminutive size attain no great weight. +They are small in limb, round in body, short in the head, wide in the +cheek, and high in the chime; covered with very fine bristles growing +from an exceedingly thin skin; and not peculiarly symmetrical, since, +when fat, the head is so buried in the neck that little more than the +tip of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259 (21)]</a></span> +the snout is visible. The pure Chinese is too delicate and +susceptible to cold ever to become a really profitable animal in this +country; it is difficult to rear, and the sows are not good nurses; but +one or two judicious crosses have, in a manner, naturalized it. This +breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quantity of +food; the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does not make good bacon, +and is often too fat and oily to be generally esteemed as pork. They are +chiefly kept by those who rear sucking-pigs for the market, as they make +excellent roasters at three weeks or a month old. Five, and even seven, +varieties of this breed are distinguished, but these are doubtless the +results of different crosses with our native kinds; among these are +black, white, black and white, spotted, blue and white, and sandy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo259.png" alt="The Chinese Hog" width="350" height="225" /> +<p class="caption">THE CHINESE HOG.</p></div> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE SUFFOLK.</h3> + +<p>Many valuable crosses have been made with these animals; for the +prevalent fault of the old English breeds having been coarseness of +flesh, unwieldiness of form, and want of aptitude to fatten, an +admixture of the Chinese breed has materially corrected these defects. +Most of our smaller breeds are more or less indebted to the Asiatic +swine for their present compactness of form, the readiness with which +they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their early maturity; but +these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260 (22)]</a></span> +advantages are not considered, in the judgment of some, as +sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size, the +increased delicacy of the animals, and the decrease of number in the +litters. The best cross is between the Berkshire and Chinese.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="background-image: url('images/illo260.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; width: 355px; height: 230px;"> +<p class="caption" style="padding-top: 200px;">THE SUFFOLK PIG.</p></div> + +<p>The old Suffolks are white in color, long-legged, long-bodied, with +narrow backs, broad foreheads, short hams, and an abundance of bristles. +They are by no means profitable animals. A cross between the Suffolk and +Lincoln has produced a hardy animal, which fattens kindly, and attains +the weight of from four hundred to five hundred and fifty, and even +seven hundred pounds. Another cross, much approved by farmers, is that +of the Suffolk and Berkshire.</p> + +<p>There are few better breeds, perhaps, than the improved Suffolk—that +is, the Suffolk crossed with the Chinese. The greater part of the pigs +on the late Prince Albert’s farm, near Windsor, were of this breed. They +are well-formed, compact, of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, +short legs, small heads, and fat cheeks. Many, at a year or fifteen +months old,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261 (23)]</a></span> +weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds; +at which age they make fine bacon hogs. The sucking-pigs are also very +delicate and delicious.</p> + +<p>Those arising from Berkshire and Suffolk are not so well shaped as the +latter, being coarser, longer-legged, and more prominent about the hips. +They are mostly white, with thin, fine hair; some few are spotted, and +are easily kept in fine condition; they have a decided aptitude to +fatten early, and are likewise valuable as store-pigs.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BERKSHIRE.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo261.png" alt="A Berkshire Boar" width="350" height="264" /> +<p class="caption">A BERKSHIRE BOAR.</p></div> + +<p>The Berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are distinguished by +their color, which is a sandy or whitish brown, spotted regularly with +dark brown or black spots, and by their having no bristles. The hair is +long, thin, somewhat curly, and looks rough; the ears are fringed with +long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a ragged or feathery +appearance; the body is thick, compact, and well formed; the legs short, +the sides broad, the head well set on, the snout short, the jowl thick, +the ears erect,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262 (24)]</a></span> +skin exceedingly thin in texture, the flesh firm and +well flavored, and the bacon very superior. This breed has generally +been considered one of the best in England, on account of its smallness +of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood, +and the females being good breeders. Hogs of the pure original breed +have been known to weigh from eight hundred to nine hundred and fifty +pounds.</p> + +<p>Numerous crosses have been made from this breed; the principal foreign +ones are those with the Chinese and Neapolitan swine, made with the view +of decreasing the size of the animal, improving the flavor of the flesh, +and rendering it more delicate; and the animals thus attained are +superior to almost any others in their aptitude to fatten; but are very +susceptible to cold, from being almost entirely without hair. A cross +with the Suffolk and Norfolk also is much improved, which produces a +hardy kind, yielding well when sent to the butcher; although, under most +circumstances, the pure Berkshire is the best.</p> + +<p>No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, +within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, and they have +produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. They weigh +variously, from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net, at +sixteen months, according to their food and style of breeding; and some +full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred pounds. They +particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and heavy, and +contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best +flavor.</p> + +<p>None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it +is a gratifying evidence of our decided<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263 (25)]</a></span> + improvement in this department +of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are obliged to import most of +what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This improvement is +manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow +to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing +face, delicate muzzle, and wild eye; and in the short legs, low flanks, +deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo263.png" alt="Skeleton of the Hog" width="500" height="280" /> +<p class="caption">SKELETON OF THE HOG AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES.</p></div> + +<p class="ind05 fsize80">1. The lower jaw. 2. The teeth. 3. The nasal bones. 4. The upper jaw. +5. The frontal bone. 6. The orbit or socket of the eye. 7. The occipital +bone. 8. The first vertebræ of the neck. 9. The vertebræ of the neck. +10. The vertebræ of the back. 11. The vertebræ of the loins. 12. The +bones of the tail. 13, 14. The true and false ribs. 15. The +shoulder-blade. 16. The round shoulder-bone. 17. The breast-bone. 18. The +elbow. 19. The bone of the fore-arm. 20. The navicular bone. 21. The +first and second bones of the foot. 22. The bones of the hoof. 23. The +haunch bones. 24. The thigh bone. 25. The stifle bone. 26. The upper +bone of the leg. 27. The hock bones. 28. The navicular bone. 29. The +first digits of the foot. 30. The second digits of the foot.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Division.</span> <i>Vertebrata</i>—possessing a back-bone.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Class.</span> <i>Mammalia</i>—such as give suck.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264 (26)]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Order.</span> <i>Pachydermata</i>—thick-skinned.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Family.</span> <i>Suidæ</i>—the swine kind.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Genus.</span> <i>Sus</i>—the hog. Of this genus there are five varieties.<br /> +<span class="ind02"><i>Sus Scropa</i>, or Domestic Hog.</span><br /> +<span class="ind02"><i>Sus Papuensis</i>, or Bene.</span><br /> +<span class="ind02"><i>Sus Guineensis</i>, or Guinea Hog.</span><br /> +<span class="ind02"><i>Sus Africanus</i>, or Masked Boar.</span><br /> +<span class="ind02"><i>Sus Babirussa</i>, or Babirussa.</span></p> + +<p>A very slight comparison of the face of this animal with that of any +other will prove that strength is the object in view—strength toward +the inferior part of the bone. In point of fact, the snout of the hog is +his spade, with which, in his natural state, he digs and ruts in the +ground for roots, earth-nuts, worms, etc. To render this implement more +nearly perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone, being +connected with it by strong ligaments, cartilages, and muscles, and +termed the snout-bone, or spade-bone, or ploughshare. By it and its +cartilaginous attachment, the snout is rendered strong as well as +flexible, and far more efficient than it otherwise could be; and the hog +often continues to give both farmers and gardeners very unpleasant +proofs of its efficiency, by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-sown +fields, and grubbing up the soil in all directions in quest of living +and dead food.</p> + +<p>As roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food of the +hog, his face terminates in this strong, muscular snout, insensible at +the extremity, and perfectly adapted for turning up the soil. There is a +large plexus or fold of nerves proceeding down each side of the nose; +and in these, doubtless, resides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265 (27)]</a></span> +that peculiar power which enables the +hog to select his food, though buried some inches below the surface of +the ground. The olfactory nerve is likewise large, and occupies a middle +rank between that of the herbivorous and carnivorous animals; it is +comparatively larger than that of the ox; indeed, few animals—with the +exception of the dog, none—are gifted with a more acute sense of smell +than the hog. To it epicures are indebted for the truffles which form +such a delicious sauce, for they are the actual finders. A pig is turned +into a field, allowed to pursue his own course, and watched. He stops, +and begins to grub up the earth; the man hurries up, drives him away, +and secures the truffle, which is invariably growing under that spot; +and the poor pig goes off to sniff out another, and another, only now +and then being permitted, by way of encouragement, to reap the fruits of +his research.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FORMATION OF THE TEETH.</h3> + +<p>The hog has fourteen <i>molar</i> teeth in each jaw, six <i>incisors</i>, and two +<i>canines</i>; these latter are curved upward, and commonly denominated +<i>tushes</i>. The molar teeth are all slightly different in structure, and +increase in size from first to last; they bear no slight resemblance to +those of the human being. The incisors are so fantastic in form that +they cannot well be described, and their destined functions are by no +means clear. Those in the lower jaw are long, round, and nearly +straight; of those in the upper jaw, four closely resemble the +corresponding teeth in the horse; while the two corner incisors bear +something of the shape of those of the dog. These latter are placed so +near the tushes as often to obstruct their growth, and it is sometimes +necessary to draw them, in order to relieve the animal and enable him to +feed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266 (28)]</a></span> +The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw; by the time he +is three or four months old, he is provided with his incisive milk-teeth +and the tushes; the supernumerary molars protrude between the fifth and +seventh month, as does the first back molar; the second back molar is +cut at about the age of ten months; and the third, generally, not until +the animal is three years old. The upper corner teeth are shed at about +the age of six or eight months; and the lower ones at about seven, nine, +or ten months old, and replaced by the permanent ones. The milk tushes +are also shed and replaced between six and ten months old. The age of +twenty months, and from that to two years, is denoted by the shedding +and replacement of the middle incisors, or <i>pincers</i>, in both jaws, and +the formation of a black circle at the base of each of the tushes. At +about two years and a half or three years of age, the adult middle teeth +in both jaws protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded at +the ends.</p> + +<p>After three years, the age may be computed by the growth of the tushes; +at about four years, or rather before, the upper tushes begin to raise +the lip; at five, they protrude through the lips; and at six years, the +tushes of the lower jaw begin to show themselves out of the mouth, and +assume a spiral form. These acquire a prodigious length in old animals, +and particularly in uncastrated boars; and as they increase in size, +they become curved backward and outward, and at length are so crooked as +to interfere with the motion of the jaws to such a degree that it is +necessary to cut off those projecting teeth, which is done with the +file, or with nippers.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267 (29)]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo267.png" alt="Breeding and Management" width="350" height="332" /></div> + +<h3>BREEDING</h3> + +<p>In the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, much more attention and +consideration are requisite than is generally imagined. It is as easy, +with a very little judgment and management, to procure a good as an +inferior breed; and the former is much more remunerative, in proportion +to the outlay, than the latter can possibly ever be.</p> + +<p>The object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such an +animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268 (30)]</a></span> in view, whether +that is the consumption of certain things which could not otherwise be +so well disposed of, the converting into hams, bacon, and pork, or the +raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market. Almost all farmers +keep one or more pigs to devour the offal and refuse, which would +otherwise be wasted. This is, however, a matter totally distinct from +breeding swine. In the former case, the animal or animals are purchased +young for a small price, each person buying as many as he considers he +shall have food enough for, and then sold to the butcher, or killed, +when in proper condition; and thus a certain degree of profit is +realized. In the latter, many contingencies must be taken into account: +the available means of feeding them; whether or not the food may be more +profitably disposed of; the facilities afforded by railroads, the +vicinity of towns, or large markets, etc., for disposing of them.</p> + +<p>In the breeding of swine, as much as that of any other livestock, it is +important to pay great attention, not only to the breed, but also to the +choice of individuals. The sow should produce a great number of young +ones, and she must be well fed to enable her to support them. Some sows +bring forth ten, twelve, or even fifteen pigs at a birth; but eight or +nine is the usual number; and sows which produce fewer than this must be +rejected. It is, however, probable that fecundity depends also on the +boar; he should, therefore, be chosen from a race which multiplies +quickly.</p> + +<p>If a bacon and a late market be objects, the large and heavy varieties +should be selected, care being taken that the breed has the character of +possessing those qualities most likely to insure a heavy return—growth, +and facility of taking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269 (31)]</a></span> +fat. Good one-year bacon-hogs being in great +demand, they may be known by their long bodies, low bellies, and short +legs. With these qualities are usually coupled long, pendulous ears, +which attract purchasers. If, however, hogs are to be sold at all +seasons to the butchers, the animals must attain their full growth and +be ready for killing before they are a year old. This quality is +particularly prominent in the Chinese breed; but among our ordinary +varieties, hogs are often met with better adapted for this purpose than +for producing large quantities of bacon and lard. The Berkshire crossed +with Chinese is an excellent porker.</p> + +<p>The sow should be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape, sound +and free from blemishes and defects. In every case—whether the object +be pork or bacon—the <i>points</i> to be looked for in the <i>sow</i> are a +small, lively head; a broad and deep chest; round ribs; capacious +barrel; a haunch falling almost to the hough; deep and broad loin; ample +hips; and considerable length of body, in proportion to its height. One +qualification should ever be kept in view, and, perhaps, should be the +first point to which the attention should be directed—that is, +smallness of bone. She should have at least twelve teats; for it is +observed that each pig selects a teat for himself and keeps to it, so +that a pig not having one belonging to him would be starved. A good sow +should produce a great number of pigs, all of equal vigor. She must be +very careful of them, and not crush them by her weight; above all, she +must not be addicted to eating the after-birth, and, what may often +follow, her own young. If a sow is tainted with those bad habits, or if +she has difficult labors, or brings forth dead pigs, she must be spayed +forthwith. It is, therefore, well to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270 (32)]</a></span> +bring up several young sows at +once, so as to keep those only which are free from defects. Breeding +sows and boars should never be raised from defective animals. Sows that +have very low bellies, almost touching the ground, seldom produce large +or fine litters. A good-sized sow is generally considered more likely to +prove a good breeder and nurse, and to farrow more easily and safely +than a small, delicate animal.</p> + +<p>The ancients considered the distinguishing marks of a good <i>boar</i> to be +a small head, short legs, a long body, large thighs and neck, and this +latter part thickly covered with strong, erect bristles. The most +experienced modern breeders prefer an animal with a long, cylindrical +body; small bones; well-developed muscles; a wide chest, which denotes +strength of constitution; a broad, straight back; short head and fine +snout; brilliant eyes; a short, thick neck; broad, well-developed +shoulders; a loose, mellow skin; fine, bright, long hair, and few +bristles; and small legs and hips. Some give the preference to long, +flapping ears; but experience seems to demonstrate that those animals +are best which have short, erect, fine ears. The boar should always be +vigorous and masculine in appearance.</p> + +<p>Few domesticated animals suffer so much from in-and-in breeding as +swine. Where this system is pursued, the number of young ones is +decreased at every litter, until the sows become, in a manner, barren. +This practice also undoubtedly contributes to their liability to +hereditary diseases, such as scrofula, epilepsy, and rheumatism; and +when those possessing any such diseases are coupled, the ruin of the +flock is easily and speedily effected, since they are propagated by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271 (33)]</a></span> +either parent, and always most certainly and in most aggravated form, +when occurring in both. As soon as the slightest degeneracy is observed, +the breed should be crossed from time to time, keeping sight, however, +while so doing, of the end in view. The Chinese will generally be found +the best which can be used for this purpose; since a single cross, and +even two, with one of these animals, will seldom do harm, but often +effect considerable improvements. The best formed of the progeny +resulting from this cross must be selected as breeders, and with them +the old original stock crossed back again. Selection, with judicious and +cautious admixture, is the true secret of forming and improving the +breed. Repeated and indiscriminate crosses are as injurious as an +obstinate adherence to one particular breed, and as much to be avoided.</p> + +<p>The following rules for the selection of the best stock of hogs will +apply to all breeds:</p> + +<p><i>Fertility.</i> In a breeding sow, this quality is essential, and it is one +which is inherited. Besides this, she should be a careful mother. A +young, untried sow will generally display in her tendencies those which +have predominated in the race from which she has descended. Both boar +and sow should be sound, healthy, and in fair, but not over fat, +condition.</p> + +<p><i>Form.</i> Where a farmer has an excellent breed, but with certain defects, +or too long in the limb, or too heavy in the bone, the sire to be +chosen, whether of a pure or of a cross breed, should exhibit the +opposite qualities, even to an extreme; and be, moreover, one of a +strain noted for early and rapid fattening. If in perfect health, young +stock selected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272 (34)]</a></span> +for breeding will be lively, animated, hold up the head, +and move freely and nimbly.</p> + +<p><i>Bristles.</i> These should be fine and scanty, so as to show the skin +smooth and glossy; coarse, wirey, rough bristles usually accompany heavy +bones, large, spreading hoofs, and flapping ears, and thus become one of +the indications of a thick-skinned and low breed.</p> + +<p><i>Color.</i> Different breeds of high excellence have their own colors; +white, black, parti-colored, black and white, sandy, mottled with large +marks of black, are the most prevalent. A black skin, with short, scanty +bristles, and small stature, demonstrate the prevalence of the +Neapolitan strain, or the black Chinese, or, perhaps, an admixture of +both. Many prefer white; and in sucking-pigs, destined for the table, +and for porkers, this color has its advantages, and the skin looks more +attractive; it is, however, generally thought that the skin of black +hogs is thinner than that of white, and less subject to eruptive +diseases.</p> + +<p>The influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent progeny by other +males is at times curiously illustrated. This has been noticed in +respect of the sow. A sow of the black and white breed, in one instance, +became pregnant by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color. +The pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar being very +predominant in some. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same +breed as herself, some of the produce were still stained or marked with +the chestnut color which prevailed in the first litter; and the same +occurred after a third impregnation, the boar being then of the same +kind as herself. What adds to the force of this case is, that in the +course of many years’ <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273 (35)]</a></span> +observation, the breed in question was never +known to produce progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color.</p> + +<p>A sow is capable of conceiving at the age of six or seven months; but it +is always better not to let her commence breeding too early, as it tends +to weaken her. From ten to twelve months—and the latter is +preferable—is about the best age. The boar should be, at least, a +twelvemonth old—some even recommend eighteen months, at least—before +he is employed for the purpose of propagating his species. If, however, +the sow has attained her second year, and the boar his third, a vigorous +and numerous offspring is more likely to result. The boar and sow retain +their ability to breed for almost five years; that is, until the former +is upward of eight years old, and the latter seven. It is not advisable, +however, to use a boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow +after her fourth, unless she has proved a peculiarly valuable +breeder—in which case she might produce two or three more litters.</p> + +<p>A boar left on the pasture, at liberty with the sows, might suffice for +thirty or forty of them; but as he is commonly shut up, and allowed +access at stated times only, so that the young ones may be born at +nearly the same time, it is usual to allow him to serve from six to +ten—on no account should he serve more. The best plan is, to shut up +the boar and sow in a sty together; for, when turned in among several +females, he is apt to ride them so often that he exhausts himself +without effect. The breeding boar should be fed well and kept in high +condition, but not fat. Full grown boars being often savage and +difficult to tame, and prone to attack men and animals, should be +deprived of their tusks.</p> + +<p>Whenever it is practicable, it should always be so arranged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274 (36)]</a></span> +that the animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the latter end of +summer, or quite the beginning of autumn. In the former case, the young +pigs will have the run of the early pastures, which will be a benefit to +them, and a saving to their owners; and there will also be more whey, +milk, and other dairy produce which can be spared for them by the time +they are ready to be weaned. In the second case, there will be +sufficient time for the young to have grown and acquired strength before +the cold weather comes on, which is always very injurious to +sucking-pigs.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>POINTS OF A GOOD HOG.</h3> + +<p>It may be not amiss to group together what is deemed desirable under +this head. No one should be led away by mere name in his selection of a +hog. It may be called a Berkshire, or a Suffolk, or any other breed most +in estimation, and yet, in reality, may possess none of this valuable +blood. The only sure way to avoid imposition is, to make <i>name</i> always +secondary to <i>points</i>. If a hog is found possessing such points of form +as are calculated to insure early maturity and faculty of taking on +flesh, one needs to care but little by what name he is called; since no +mere name can bestow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities +already indicated.</p> + +<p>The true Berkshire—that possessing a dash of the Chinese and Neapolitan +varieties—comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired standard than any +other.</p> + +<p>The chief points which characterize such a hog are the following:—In +the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, and such an elongation of +body as will insure a sufficient lateral expansion. The loin and breast +should be broad. The breadth of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275 (37)]</a></span> +the former denotes good room for the +play of the lungs, and, as a consequence, a free and healthy +circulation, essential to the thriving or fattening of any animal. The +bone should be small, and the joints fine—nothing is more indicative of +high breeding than this; and the legs should be no longer than, when +fully fat, would just prevent the animal’s belly from trailing upon the +ground. The leg is the least profitable portion of the hog, and no more +of it is required than is absolutely necessary for the support of the +rest. The feet should be firm and sound; the toes should lie well +together, and press straightly upon the ground; the claws, also, should +be even, upright and healthy.</p> + +<p>The form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or no consequence, it +being generally, perhaps, supposed that a good hog may have an ugly +head; but the head of all animals is one of the very principal points in +which pure or impure breeding will be most obviously indicated. A +high-bred animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at +maturity, to take flesh more easily, and at an earlier period, and, +altogether, to turn out more profitably than one of questionable or +impure stock. Such being the case, the head of the hog is a point by no +means to be overlooked. The description of head most likely to +promise—or, rather to be the accompaniment of—high breeding, is one +not carrying heavy bones, not too flat on the forehead, or possessing a +snout too elongated; the snout should be short, and the forehead rather +convex, curving upward; and the ear, while pendulous, should incline +somewhat forward, and at the same time be light and thin. The carriage +of the pig should also be noticed. If this be dull, heavy, and dejected, +one may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276 (38)]</a></span> +reasonably suspect ill health, if not some concealed disorder +actually existing, or just about to break forth; and there cannot be a +more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down, slouching head. Of course, a +fat hog for slaughter and a sow heavy with young, have not much +sprightliness of deportment.</p> + +<p>Color is, likewise, not to be disregarded. Those colors are preferable +which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds. If the hair is +scant, black is desirable, as denoting connection with the Neapolitan; +if too bare of hair, a too intimate alliance with that variety may be +apprehended, and a consequent want of hardihood, which—however +unimportant, if pork be the object—renders such animals a hazardous +speculation for store purposes, on account of their extreme +susceptibility of cold, and consequent liability to disease. If white, +and not too small, they are valuable as exhibiting connection with the +Chinese. If light, or sandy, or red with black marks, the favorite +Berkshire is detected; and so on, with reference to every possible +variety of hue.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>TREATMENT DURING PREGNANCY.</h3> + +<p>Sows with pigs should be well and judiciously fed; that is to say, they +should have a sufficiency of wholesome, nutritious food to maintain +their strength and keep them in good condition, but should by no means +be allowed to get fat; as when they are in high condition, the dangers +of parturition are enhanced, the animal is more awkward and liable to +smother and crush her young, and, moreover, never has as much or as good +milk as a leaner sow. She should also have a separate sty; for swine are +prone to lie so close together that, if she is even among others, her +young would be in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277 (39)]</a></span> +great danger; and this sty should be perfectly clean +and comfortably littered, but not so thickly as to admit of the young +being able to bury themselves in the straw.</p> + +<p>As the time of her farrowing approaches, she should be well supplied +with food, especially if she be a young sow, and this her first litter, +and also carefully watched, in order to prevent her devouring the +after-birth, and thus engendering a morbid appetite which will next +induce her to fall upon her own young. A sow that has once done this can +never afterward be depended upon. Hunger, thirst, or irritation of any +kind, will often induce this unnatural conduct, which is another reason +why a sow about to farrow should have a sty to herself, and be carefully +attended to, and have all her wants supplied.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>ABORTION.</h3> + +<p>This is by no means of so common occurrence in the case of the sow as in +many other of the domesticated animals. Various causes tend to produce +it: insufficiency of food, eating too much succulent vegetable food, or +unwholesome, unsubstantial diet; blows and falls; and the animal’s habit +of rubbing itself against hard bodies, for the purpose of allaying the +irritation produced by the vermin or cutaneous eruptions to which it is +subject. Reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in +the sow; at least to the extent it does in other animals.</p> + +<p>The symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are similar to those of +parturition, but more intense. There are, generally, restlessness, +irritation, and shivering; and the cries of the animal evince the +presence of severe labor-pains.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278 (40)]</a></span> +Sometimes the rectum, vagina, or +uterus, becomes relaxed, and one or the other protrudes, and often +becomes inverted at the moment of the expulsion of the fœtus, +preceded by the placenta, which presents itself foremost.</p> + +<p>Nothing can be done, at the last hour, to prevent abortion; but, from +the first, every predisposing cause should be removed. The treatment +will depend upon circumstances. Where the animal is young, vigorous, and +in high condition, bleeding will be beneficial—not a copious +blood-letting, but small quantities taken at different times; purgatives +may also be administered. If, when abortion has taken place, the whole +of the litter was not born, emollient injections may be resorted to with +considerable benefit; otherwise, the after treatment should be made the +same as in parturition, and the animal should be kept warm, quiet, and +clean, and allowed a certain degree of liberty. Whenever one sow has +aborted, the causes likely to have produced this accident should be +sought, and an endeavor made, by removing them, to secure the rest of +the inmates of the piggery from a similar mishap.</p> + +<p>In cases of abortion, the fœtus is seldom born alive, and often has +been dead for some days; where this is the case—which may be readily +detected by a peculiarly unpleasant putrid exhalation, and the discharge +of a fetid liquid from the vagina—the parts should be washed with a +diluted solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one part of +chloride to three parts of water, and a portion of this lotion gently +injected into the uterus, if the animal will submit to it. Mild doses of +Epsom salts, tincture of gentian, and Jamaica ginger, will also act +beneficially in such cases, and, with attention to diet, soon restores +the animal.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279 (41)]</a></p> +<h3>PARTURITION.</h3> + +<p>The period of gestation varies according to age, constitution, food, and +the peculiarities of the individual breed. The most usual period during +which the sow carries her young is, according to some, three months, +three weeks, and three days, or one hundred and eight days; according to +others, four lunar months, or sixteen weeks, or about one hundred and +thirteen days. It may safely be said to range from one hundred and nine +to one hundred and forty-three days.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="background-image: url('images/illo279.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; width: 350px; height: 278px;"> +<p class="caption bot" style="padding-top: 255px;">WILD HOGS.</p></div> + +<p>The sow produces from eight to thirteen young at a litter, and sometimes +even more. Young and weakly sows not only produce fewer pigs, but farrow +earlier than those of maturer age and sounder condition; and besides, as +might be expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor, oftentimes, +indeed, puny and feeble. Extraordinary fecundity is not however, +desirable, for nourishment cannot be afforded to more than twelve, the +sow’s number of teats. The supernumerary pigs must therefore suffer; if +but one, it is, of course,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280 (42)]</a></span> +the smallest and weakest; a too numerous +litter are all, indeed, generally undersized and weakly, and seldom or +never prove profitable; a litter not exceeding ten will usually be found +to turn out most advantageously. On account of the discrepancy between +the number farrowed by different sows, it is a good plan, if it can be +managed, to have more than one breeding at the same time, in order that +the number to be suckled by each may be equalized. The sow seldom +recognizes the presence of a strange little one, if it has been +introduced among the others during her absence, and has lain for half an +hour or so among her own offspring in their sty.</p> + +<p>The approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the immense size of +the belly, by a depression of the back, and by the distention of the +teats. The animal manifests symptoms of acute suffering, and wanders +restlessly about, collecting straw, and carrying it to her sty, grunting +piteously meanwhile. As soon as this is observed, she should be +persuaded into a separate sty, and carefully watched. On no account +should several sows be permitted to farrow in the same place at the same +time, as they will inevitably irritate each other, or devour their own +or one another’s young.</p> + +<p>The young ones should be taken away as soon as they are born, and +deposited in a warm spot; for the sow being a clumsy animal, is not +unlikely in her struggles to overlie them; nor should they be returned +to her, until all is over, and the after-birth has been removed, which +should always be done the moment it passes from her; for young sows, +especially, will invariably devour it, if permitted, and then, as the +young are wet with a similar fluid, and smell the same they will eat +them also, one after another. Some advise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281 (43)]</a></span> +washing the backs of young +pigs with a decoction of aloes, colocynth, or some other nauseous +substance, as a remedy for this; but the simplest and easiest one is to +remove the little ones until all is over, and the mother begins to +recover herself and seek about for them, when they should be put near +her. Some also recommend strapping up the sow’s mouth for the first +three or four days, only releasing it to admit of her taking her meals.</p> + +<p>Some sows are apt to lie upon and crush their young. This may best be +avoided by not keeping her too fat or heavy, and by not leaving too many +young upon her. The straw forming the bed should likewise be short, and +not in too great quantity, lest the pigs get huddled up under it, and +the sow unconsciously overlie them in that condition.</p> + +<p>It does not always happen that the parturition is effected with ease. +Cases of false presentation, of enlarged fœtus, and of debility in +the mother, often render it difficult and dangerous. The womb will +occasionally become protruded and inverted, in consequence of the +forcing pains of difficult parturition, and even the bladder has been +known to come away. These parts must be returned as soon as may be; and +if the womb has come in contact with the dung or litter, and acquired +any dirt, it must first be washed in lukewarm water, and then returned, +and confined in its place by means of a suture passed through the lips +of the orifice. The easiest and perhaps the best way, however, is not to +return the protruded parts at all, but merely tie a ligature round them +and leave them to slough off, which they will do in the course of a few +days, without effusion of blood, or farther injury to the animal. No +sow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282 (44)]</a></span> +that has once suffered from protrusion of the womb should be +allowed to breed again.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>TREATMENT WHILE SUCKLING.</h3> + +<p>Much depends upon this; as many a fine sow and promising litter have +been ruined for want of proper and judicious care at this period. +Immediately after farrowing, many sows incline to be feverish; where +this is the case, a light and sparing diet only should be given them for +the first day or two, as gruel, oatmeal porridge, whey, and the like. +Others, again, are very much debilitated, and require strengthening; for +them, strong soup, bread steeped in wine, or in a mixture of brandy and +sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small quantities, will often +prove highly beneficial.</p> + +<p>The rations must gradually be increased and given more frequently; and +they must be composed of wholesome, nutritious, and succulent +substances. All kinds of roots—carrots, turnips, potatoes, and +beet-roots—well steamed or boiled, but never raw, may be given; bran, +barley, and oatmeal, bran-flour, Indian corn, whey, sour, skim, and +butter-milk, are all well adapted for this period; and, should the +animal appear to require it, grain well bruised and macerated may be +added. Whenever it is possible, the sow should be turned out for an hour +each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the fresh air, +exercise, and herbage, will do her immense good. The young pigs must be +shut up for the first ten days or fortnight, after which they will be +able to follow her, and take their share of the benefit.</p> + +<p>The food should be given regularly at certain hours; small and +often-repeated meals are far preferable to large ones, since<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283 (45)]</a></span> +indigestion, or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach +vitiates the milk, and produces diarrhœa and other similar affections +in the young. The mother should always be well fed, but not over-fed; +the better and more carefully she is fed, the more abundant and +nutritious will her milk be, the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, +and the less will she be reduced by suckling them.</p> + +<p>When a sow is weakly, and has not a sufficiency of milk, the young pigs +must be taught to feed as early as possible. A kind of gruel, made of +skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, is a good thing for this purpose, or +potatoes, boiled and then mashed in milk or whey, with or without the +addition of a little bran or oatmeal. Toward the period when the pigs +are to be weaned, the sow must be less plentifully fed, otherwise the +secretion of milk will be as great as ever; it will, besides, +accumulate, and there will be hardness, and perhaps inflammation of the +teats. If necessary, a dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying +off the milk; but, in general, a little judicious management in the +feeding and weaning will be all that is required.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>TREATMENT OF YOUNG PIGS.</h3> + +<p>For the first ten days, or a fortnight, the mother will generally be +able to support her litter without assistance, unless, as has been +already observed, she is weakly, or her young are too numerous; in +either of which cases they must be fed from the first. When the young +pigs are about a fortnight old, warm milk should be given to them. In +another week, this may be thickened with some species of farina; and +afterward, as they gain strength and increase in size, boiled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284 (46)]</a></span> +roots and vegetables may be added. As soon as they begin to eat, an open frame or +railing should be placed in the sty under which the little pigs can run, +and on the other side of this should be the small troughs containing +their food; for it never answers to let them eat out of the same trough +with their mother, because the food set before her is generally too +strong and stimulating for them, even if they should secure any of it, +which is, to say the least, extremely doubtful. Those intended to be +killed for sucking-pigs should not be above four weeks old; most kill +them for this purpose on the twenty-first or twenty-second day. The +others, excepting those kept for breeding, should be castrated at the +same time.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CASTRATION AND SPAYING.</h3> + +<p>Pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them; and, +doubtless, this operation has the desired effect—for at the same time +that it increases the quiescent qualities of the animal, it diminishes +also his courage, spirits, and nobler attributes, and even affects his +form. The tusks of a castrated boar never grow like those of the natural +animal, but always have a dwarfed, stunted appearance. The operation, if +possible, should be performed in the spring or autumn, as the +temperature is the more uniform, and care should be taken that the +animal is in perfect health. Those which are fat and plethoric should be +prepared by bleeding, cooling diet and quiet. Pigs are castrated at all +ages, from a fortnight to three, six and eight weeks, and even four +months old.</p> + +<p>There are various modes of performing this operation. If the pig is not +more than six weeks old, an incision is made at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285 (47)]</a></span> +the bottom of the +scrotum, the testicle pushed out, and the cord cut, without any +precautionary means whatever. When the animal is older, there is reason +to fear that hemorrhage, to a greater or less extent, will supervene; +consequently, it will be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a +little above the spot where the division is to take place.</p> + +<p>By another mode—to be practised only on very young animals—a portion +of the base of the scrotum is cut off, the testicles forced out, and the +cord sawn through with a somewhat serrated but blunt instrument. If +there is any hemorrhage, it is arrested by putting ashes in the wound. +The animal is then dismissed and nothing further done with him.</p> + +<p>On animals two and three years old, the operation is some times +performed in the following manner: An assistant holds the pig, pressing +the back of the animal against his chest and belly, keeping the head +elevated, and grasping all the four legs together; or, which is the +preferable way, one assistant holds the animal against his chest, while +another kneels down and secures the four legs. The operator then grasps +the scrotum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision across its +base, opening both divisions of the bag at the same time. The testicles +are then pressed out with his finger and thumb, and removed with a blunt +knife, which lacerates the part without bruising it and rendering it +painful. Laceration only is requisite in order to prevent the subsequent +hemorrhage which would occur, if the cord were simply severed by a sharp +instrument. The wound is then closed by pushing the edges gently +together with the fingers, and it speedily heals. Some break the +spermatic cord without tearing it; they twist it, and then pull it +gently and finally until it gives way.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286 (48)]</a></span> +In other cases, a waxed cord is passed as tightly as possible round the +scrotum, above the epididymus, which completely stops the circulation, +and in a few days the scrotum and testicles will drop off. This +operation should never be performed on pigs of more than six weeks of +age, and the spermatic should always, first of all, be measured. It, +moreover requires great nicety and skill; otherwise, accidents will +occur, and considerable pain and inflammation be caused. Too thick a +cord, a knot not tied sufficiently tight, or a portion of the testicle +included in the ligature, will prevent its success.</p> + +<p>The most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, or lockjaw, induced +by the shock communicated to the nervous system by the torture of the +operation.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SPAYING.</h3> + +<p>This operation consists in removing the ovaries, and sometimes a portion +of the uterus, more or less considerable, of the female. The animal is +laid upon its left side, and firmly held by one or two assistants; an +incision is then made into the flank, the forefinger of the right hand +introduced into it, and gently moved about until it encounters and hooks +hold of the right ovary, which it draws through the opening; a ligature +is then passed round this one, and the left ovary felt for in like +manner. The operator then severs these two ovaries, either by cutting or +tearing, and returns the womb and its appurtenances to their proper +position. This being done, he closes the wound with two or three +stitches, sometimes rubs a little oil over it, and releases the animal. +All goes on well, for the healing power of the pig is very great.</p> + +<p>The after-treatment is very simple. The animals should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287 (49)]</a></span> +well littered +with clean straw, in styes weather-tight and thoroughly ventilated; +their diet should be cared for; some milk or whey, with barley-meal is +an excellent article; it is well to confine them for a few days, as they +should be prevented from getting into cold water or mud until the wound +is perfectly healed, and also from creeping through fences.</p> + +<p>The best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks; indeed, as a general +rule, the younger the animal is when either operation is performed the +quicker it recovers. Some persons, however, have two or three litters +from their sows before they operate upon them; where this is the case, +the result is more to be feared, as the parts have become more +susceptible, and are, consequently, more liable to take on inflammation.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>WEANING.</h3> + +<p>Some farmers wean the pigs a few hours after birth, and turn the sow at +once to the boar. The best mode, however, is to turn the boar into the +hog-yard about a week after parturition, at which time the sow should be +removed a few hours daily from her young. It does not injure either the +sow or her pigs if she takes the boar while suckling; but some sows will +not do so until the drying of their milk.</p> + +<p>The age at which pigs may be weaned to the greatest advantage is when +they are about eight or ten weeks old; many, however, wean them as early +as six weeks, but they seldom turn out as well. They should not be taken +from the sow at once, but gradually weaned. At first they should be +removed from her for a certain number of hours each day, and accustomed +to be impelled by hunger to eat from the trough; then they may be turned +out for an hour without her, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288 (50)]</a></span> +afterwards shut up while she also is +turned out by herself. Subsequently, they must only be allowed to suck a +certain number of times in twenty-four hours; perhaps six times at +first, then four, then three, and, at last, only once; and meanwhile +they must be proportionably better and more plentifully fed, and the +mother’s diet in a like manner diminished. Some advise that the whole +litter should be weaned at once; this is not best, unless one or two of +the pigs are much weaker and smaller than the others; in such case, if +the sow remain in tolerable condition, they might be suffered to suck +for a week longer; but this should be the exception, and not a general +rule.</p> + +<p>Pigs are more easily weaned than almost any other animals, because they +learn to feed sooner; but attention must, nevertheless, be paid to them, +if they are to grow up strong, healthy animals. Their styes must be +warm, dry, clean, well-ventilated, and weather-tight. They should have +the run of a grass meadow or enclosure for an hour or two every fine +day, in spring and summer, or be turned into the farm-yard among the +cattle in the winter, as fresh air and exercise tend to prevent them +from becoming rickety or crooked in the legs.</p> + +<p>The most nutritious and succulent food that circumstances will permit +should be furnished them. Newly-weaned pigs require five or six meals in +the twenty-four hours. In about ten days, one may be omitted; in another +week, a second; and then they should do with three <i>regular</i> meals each +day. A little sulphur mingled with the food, or a small quantity of +Epsom or Glauber salts dissolved in the water, will frequently prove +beneficial. A plentiful supply of clear, cold water should always be +within their reach; the food left in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289 (51)]</a></span> +trough after the animals have +finished eating should be removed, and the trough thoroughly rinsed out +before any more is put into it. Strict attention should also be paid to +cleanliness. The boars and sows should be kept apart from the period of +weaning.</p> + +<p>The question, which is more profitable, to breed swine, or to buy young +pigs and fatten them, can best be determined by those interested; since +they know best what resources they can command, and what chance of +profits each of these separate branches offers.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>RINGING.</h3> + +<p>This operation is performed to counteract the propensity which swine +have of digging and furrowing up the earth. The ring is passed through +what appears to be a prolongation of the septum, between the +supplemental, or snout-bone, and the nasal. The animal is thus unable to +obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout with any effect, without +causing the ring to press so painfully upon the part that he is forced +to desist. The ring, however, is apt to break, or it wears out in +process of time, and has to be replaced.</p> + +<p>The snout should be perforated at weaning-time, after the animal has +recovered from castration or spaying; and it will be necessary to renew +the operation as it becomes of large growth. It is too generally +neglected at first; but no pigs, young or old, should be suffered to run +at large without this precaution. The sow’s ring should be ascertained +to be of sufficient strength previously to her taking the boar, on +account of the risk of abortion, if the operation is renewed while she +is with pig. Care must be taken by the operator<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290 (52)]</a></span> +not to go too close to +the bone, and that the ring turn easily.</p> + +<p>A far better mode of proceeding is, when the pig is young, to cut +through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations, by which the +supplementary bone is united to the proper nasals. The divided edges of +the cartilage will never re-unite, and the snout always remains +powerless.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FEEDING AND FATTENING.</h3> + +<p>Roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as well as +in a domesticated state; and it is evident that, however omnivorous it +may occasionally appear, its palate is by no means insensible to the +difference in eatables, since, whenever it finds variety, it will select +the best with as much cleverness as other quadrupeds. Indeed, the hog is +more nice in the selection of his vegetable diet than any of the other +domesticated herbivorous animals. To a certain extent he is omnivorous, +and may be reared on the refuse of slaughter-houses; but such food is +not wholesome, nor is it natural; for, though he is omnivorous, he is +not essentially carnivorous. The refuse of the dairy-farm is more +congenial to his health, to say nothing of the quality of its flesh.</p> + +<p>Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months old; +and for bacon, at from a year to two years. Eighteen months is generally +considered the proper age for a good bacon hog. The feeding will always, +in a great measure, depend upon the circumstances of the owner—upon the +kind of food which he has at his disposal, and can best spare—and the +purpose for which the animal is intended. It will also, in some degree, +be regulated by the season; it being possible to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291 (53)]</a></span> feed pigs very +differently in the summer from what they are fed in the winter.</p> + +<p>The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries and +distilleries, may be given to swine with advantage, and seem to induce a +tendency to lay on flesh. They should not, however, be given in too +large quantities, nor unmixed with other and more substantial food; +since, although they give flesh rapidly when fed on it, the meat is not +firm, and never makes good bacon. Hogs eat acorns and beech-mast +greedily, and so far thrive on this food that it is an easy matter to +fatten them afterwards. Apples and pumpkins are likewise valuable for +this purpose.</p> + +<p>There is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in every way adapted +for the purpose of fattening, as are the various kinds of grain—nothing +that tends more to create firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh. +Indian corn is equal, if not superior, to any kind of grain for +fattening purposes, and can be given in its natural state, as pigs are +so fond of it that they will eat up every kernel. The pork and bacon of +animals that have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid. Animal +food tends to make swine savage and feverish, and often lays the +foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines. Weekly washing +with soap and a brush adds wonderfully to the thriving condition of a +hog.</p> + +<p>In the rich corn regions of our States, upon that grain beginning to +ripen, as it does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable +lots, and large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the +grain at their leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, which in +that land of plenty are considered of little value, and they are still +useful as manure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292 (54)]</a></span> +for succeeding crops; and whatever grain is left by +them, leaner droves which follow will readily glean. Peas, early +buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way.</p> + +<p>There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months’ +keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and the +cost of storage. If fattened early in the season, hogs will consume less +food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will +require less attention; and, generally, early pork will command the +highest price in market.</p> + +<p>It is most economical to provide swine with a fine clover pasture, to +run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have access +to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that +falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to +which add meal, and let it sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than +one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to hogs, is saved by +grinding and cooking, or souring. Care must, however, be taken that the +souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A +mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of +a former fermentation as adhere to the sides or bottom of the vessel, +and exposure to a temperature between sixty-eight and seventy-seven +degrees Fahrenheit, will produce immediate fermentation.</p> + +<p>In this process there are five stages: the <i>saccharine</i>, by which the +starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are +converted into sugar; the <i>vinous</i>, which changes the sugar into +alcohol; the <i>mucilaginous</i>, sometimes taking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293 (55)]</a></span> +the place of the vinous, +and occurring where the sugar solution, or fermenting principle, is +weak, producing a slimy, glutinous product; the <i>acetic</i>, forming +vinegar, from the vinous or alcoholic stage; and the <i>putrefactive</i>, +which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a +poison. The precise points in fermentation, when the food becomes most +profitable for feeding, has not as yet been satisfactorily determined; +but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full +maturity of the acetic, is certain.</p> + +<p>The roots for fattening ought to be washed, and steamed or boiled; and +when not intended to be fermented, the meal may be scalded with the +roots. A small quantity of salt should be added. Potatoes are the best +roots for swine; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian; +sugar-beets; mangel-wurtzels; ruta-bagas; and then white turnips, in the +order mentioned. The nutritive properties of turnips are diffused +through so large a bulk that it is doubtful if they can ever be fed to +fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain life when +fed to them uncooked.</p> + +<p>There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without +cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, +to prevent imperfect mastication, and consequent loss of the food. It is +better, indeed, to have it always before them. The animal machine is an +expensive one to keep in motion; and it should be the object of the +farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate +conversion into fat and muscle.</p> + +<p>The following injunctions should be rigidly observed, if one would +secure the greatest results:</p> + +<p>1. Avoid <i>foul feeding</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294 (56)]</a></span> +2. Do not omit adding <i>salt</i> in moderate quantities to the mess given.</p> + +<p>3. Feed at <i>regular intervals</i>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Cleanse</i> the troughs previous to feeding.</p> + +<p>5. Do not <i>over-feed</i>; give only as much as will be consumed at the +meal.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Vary</i> the food. Variety will create, or, at all events, increase +appetite, and it is most conducive to health. Let the variations be +governed by the condition of the <i>dung</i> cast, which should be of a +medium consistence, and of a grayish-brown color; if <i>hard</i>, increase +the quantity of bran and succulent roots; if too <i>liquid</i>, diminish, or +dispense with bran, and make the mess firmer; add a portion of corn.</p> + +<p>7. Feed the stock <i>separately</i>, in classes, according to their relative +conditions. Keep sows with young by themselves; store-hogs by +themselves; and bacon-hogs and porkers by themselves. It is not +advisable to keep the store-hogs too high in flesh, since high feeding +is calculated to retard development of form and bulk. It is better to +feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon <i>loosely</i> and not too +abundantly, until they have attained their full stature; they can then +be brought into the highest possible condition in a surprisingly short +space of time.</p> + +<p>8. Keep the swine <i>clean</i>, dry, and warm. Cleanliness, dryness, and +warmth are <i>essential</i>, and as imperative as feeding; for an inferior +description of food will, by their aid, succeed far better than the +highest feeding will without them.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295 (57)]</a></p> +<h3>PIGGERIES.</h3> + +<p>Few items conduce more to the thriving and well-being of swine than +airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and above all, cleanliness. They +were formerly too often housed in damp, dirty, close, and +imperfectly-built sheds, which was a fruitful source of disease and of +unthrifty animals. Any place was once thought good enough to keep a pig +in.</p> + +<p>In large establishments, where numerous pigs are kept, there should be +divisions appropriated to all the different kinds; the boars, the +breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the fattening pigs should all be +kept separate; and in the divisions assigned to the second and last of +these classes, it is best to have a distinct apartment for each animal, +all opening into a yard or inclosure of limited extent. As pigs require +warmth, these buildings should face the south, and be kept weather-tight +and well drained. Good ventilation is also important; for it is idle to +expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health, unless they +have a sufficiency of pure air. The blood requires this to give it +vitality and free it from impurities, as much as the stomach requires +wholesome and strengthening food; and when it does not have it, it +becomes vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions. Bad smells and +exhalations, moreover, injure the flavor of the meat.</p> + +<p>Damp and cold floors should be guarded against, as they tend to induce +cramp and diarrhœa; and the roof should be so contrived as to carry +off the wet from the pigs. The walls of a well-constructed sty should be +of solid masonry; the roof sloping, and furnished with spouts to carry +off the rain; the floors either slightly inclined toward a gutter made +to carry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296 (58)]</a></span> +off the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or +joists, and perforated so that all urine and moisture shall drain off. +Bricks and tiles, sometimes used for flooring, are objectionable, +because, however well covered with straw, they still strike cold. Wood +is far superior in this respect, as well as because it admits of those +clefts or perforations being made, which serve not only to drain off all +moisture, but also to admit fresh air.</p> + +<p>The manure proceeding from the pig-sty has often been much undervalued, +and for this reason, that the litter is supposed to form the principal +portion of it; whereas it constitutes the least valuable part, and, +indeed, it can scarcely be regarded as manure at all—at least by +itself—where the requisite attention is paid to the cleanliness of the +animals and of their dwellings. The urine and the dung are valuable, +being, from the very nature of the food of the animals, exceedingly rich +and oleaginous, and materially beneficial to cold soils and grass-lands. +The manure from the sty should always be collected as carefully as that +from the stable or cow-house, and husbanded in the same way.</p> + +<p>The door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inward or +outward, so as to give the animals free ingress and egress. For this +purpose, it should be hung across from side to side, and the animal can +push it up to effect its entry or exit; for, if it were hung in the +ordinary way, it would derange the litter every time it opened inward, +and be very liable to hitch. If it is not intended that the pigs shall +leave their sty, there should be an upper and lower door; the former of +which should always be left open when the weather is warm and dry, while +the latter will serve to confine the animal.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297 (59)]</a></span> +There should likewise be +windows or slides, which can be opened or closed at will, to give +admission to the fresh air, or exclude rain or cold.</p> + +<p>Wherever it can be managed, the troughs—which should be of stone or +cast metal, since wooden ones will soon be gnawed to pieces—should be +so situated that they can be filled and cleaned from the outside, +without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all; and for this +purpose it is well to have a flap, or door, with swinging hinges, made +to hang horizontally on the trough, so that it can be moved to and fro, +and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of the +manger. When the hogs have fed sufficiently, the door is swung inward +and fastened, and so remains until feeding-time, when the trough is +cleansed and refilled without any trouble, and then the flap drawn back, +and the animals admitted to their food. Some cover the trough with a lid +having as many holes in it as there are pigs to eat from it, which gives +each pig an opportunity of selecting his own hole, and eating away +without interfering with or incommoding his neighbor.</p> + +<p>A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and +evacuations; of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the +highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried +into the first two as possible. The piggery should always be built as +near as possible to that portion of the establishment from which the +chief part of the provision is to come, since much labor will thus be +saved. Washings, and combings, and brushings, as has been previously +suggested, are valuable adjuncts in the treatment of swine; the energies +of the skin are thus roused, the pores<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298 (60)]</a></span> +opened, the healthful functions +aided, and that inertness, so likely to be engendered by the lazy life +of a fattening pig, counteracted.</p> + +<p>A supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of swine, and +should be freely furnished. If a stream can be brought through the +piggery, it answers better than any thing else. Swine are dirty feeders +and dirty drinkers, usually plunging their fore-feet into the trough or +pail, and thus polluting with mud or dirt whatever may be given to them. +One of the advantages, therefore, to be derived from the stream of +running water is, its being kept constantly clean and wholesome by its +running. If this advantage cannot be procured, it is desirable to +present water in vessels of a size to receive but one head at a time, +and of such height as to render it impossible, or difficult, for the +drinker to get his feet into it. The water should be renewed twice +daily. If swine are closely confined in pens, they should have as much +charcoal twice a week as they will eat, for the purpose of correcting +any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an imperfect +substitute for charcoal.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SLAUGHTERING.</h3> + +<p>A pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for from twelve +to sixteen hours previous to slaughtering; a little water must, however, +be within his reach. He should, in the first place, be stunned by a blow +on the head. Some advise that the knife should be thrust into the neck +so as to sever the artery leading from the heart; while others prefer +that the animal should be stuck through the brisket in the direction of +the heart—care being exercised not to touch the first rib. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299 (61)]</a></span> blood +should then be allowed to drain from the carcass into vessels placed for +the purpose; and the more completely it does so, the better will be the +meat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo299.png" alt="The Old English Hog" width="350" height="274" /> +<p class="caption">THE OLD ENGLISH HOG.</p></div> + +<p>A large tub, or other vessel, has been previously got ready, which is +now filled with boiling water. The carcass of the hog is plunged into +this, and the hair is then removed with the edge of a knife. The hair is +more easily removed if the hog is scalded before he stiffens, or becomes +quite cold. It is not, however, necessary, but simply brutal and +barbarous, to scald him while there is yet some life in him. Bacon-hogs +may be singed, by enveloping the body in straw, and setting the straw on +fire, and then scraping it all over. When this is done, care must be +observed not to burn or parch the cuticle. The entrails should then be +removed, and the interior of the body well washed with lukewarm water, +so as to remove all blood and impurities, and afterward wiped dry with a +clean cloth; the carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for +eighteen or twenty hours, to become set and firm.</p> + +<p>For cutting up, the carcass should be laid on the back, upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300 (62)]</a></span> +a strong table. The head should then be cut off close by the ears, and the hinder +feet so far below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams, and leave +room sufficient for hanging them up; after which the carcass is divided +into equal halves, up the middle of the back bone, with a +cleaving-knife, and, if necessary, a hand-mallet. Then cut the ham from +the side by the second joint of the back-bone, which will appear on +dividing the carcass, and dress the ham by paring a little off the +flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half round point, +clearing off any top fat which may appear. Next cut off the sharp edge +along the back bone with a knife and mallet, and slice off the first rib +next the shoulder, where there is a bloody vein, which must be taken +out, since, if it is left in, that part is apt to spoil. The corners +should be squared off when the ham is cut. The ordinary practice is to +cut out the spine, or back bone. Some take out the chine and upper parts +of the ribs in the first place; indeed, almost every locality has its +peculiar mode of proceeding.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>PICKLING AND CURING.</h3> + +<p>The usual method of curing is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding +brine to the barrel when filled. But it may be dry-salted, by rubbing it +in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber +firmly secured to the palm of the right hand. The pieces are then thrown +into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured; +or it may at once be packed in dry casks, which are rolled at times to +bring the salt into contact with every part.</p> + +<p>Hams and shoulders may be cured in the same manner either dry or in +pickle, but with differently arranged materials.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301 (63)]</a></span> +The following is a good pickle for two hundred pounds: Take fourteen pounds of Turk’s +Island salt; one-half pound of saltpetre; two quarts of molasses, or +four pounds of brown sugar; with water enough to dissolve them. Bring +the liquor to the scalding-point, and skim off all the impurities which +rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be +perfectly cool, but not frozen, and closely packed; if not sufficient to +cover it, add pure water for this purpose. Some extensive packers of +choice hams add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves.</p> + +<p>The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then should be +hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from ten +to twenty days, according to the quantity of smoke. The fire should not +be near enough to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is +made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry +chamber. This is, undoubtedly, the best mode of smoking. The hams should +at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green +sugar-maple chips are best for smoke; next to them are hickory, sweet +birch, corn-cobs, white ash, or beech.</p> + +<p>The smoke-house is the best place in which to keep hams until they are +wanted. If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. +A canvas cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a +whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be +kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, +without injury. A common method is to pack in dry oats, baked saw-dust, +etc.</p> + +<p>The following is the method in most general use in several +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302 (64)]</a></span> of the +Western States. The chine is taken out, as also the spare-ribs from the +shoulders, and the mouse-pieces and short-ribs, or griskins, from the +middlings. No acute angles should be left to shoulders or hams. In +salting up, all the meat, except the heads, joints, and chines, and +smaller pieces, is put into powdering-tubs—water-tight +half-hogsheads—or into large troughs, ten feet long and three or four +feet wide at the top, made of the poplar tree. The latter are much more +convenient for packing the meat in, and are easily caulked, if they +should crack so as to leak. The salting-tray—or box in which the meat +is to be salted, piece by piece, and from which each piece, as it is +salted, is to be transferred to the powdering-tub, or trough—must be +placed just so near the trough that the man standing between can +transfer the pieces from one to the other easily, and without wasting +the salt as they are lifted from the salting-box into the trough. The +salter stands on the off-side of the salting-box. The hams should be +salted first, the shoulders next, and the middlings last, which may be +piled up two feet above the top of the trough or tub. The joints will +thus in a short time be immersed in brine.</p> + +<p>Measure into the salting-tray four measures of salt—a peck measure will +be found most convenient—and one measure of clean, dry, sifted ashes; +mix, and incorporate them well. The salter takes a ham into the tray, +rubs the skin, and the raw end with his composition, turns it over, and +packs the composition of salt and ashes on the fleshy side till it is at +least three-quarters of an inch deep all over it; and on the interior +lower part of the ham, which is covered with the skin, as much as will +lie on it. The man standing ready to transfer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303 (65)]</a></span> +the pieces, deposits it +carefully, without disturbing the composition, with the skin-side down, +in the bottom of the trough. Each succeeding ham is then deposited, side +by side, so as to leave the least possible space unoccupied.</p> + +<p>When the bottom is wholly covered, see that every visible part of this +layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes. Then +begin another layer, every piece being covered on the upper or fleshy +side three-quarters of an inch thick with the composition. When the +trough is filled, even full, in this way, with the joints, salt the +middlings with salt only, without the ashes, and pile them up on the +joints so that the liquified salt may pass from them into the trough. +Heads, joints, back bones, etc., receive salt only, and should not be +put in the trough with the large pieces.</p> + +<p>Much slighter salting will preserve them, if they are salted upon loose +boards, so that the bloody brine from them can pass off. The joints and +middlings are to remain in and above the trough without being +re-handled, re-salted, or disturbed in any way, till they are to be hung +up to be smoked.</p> + +<p>If the hogs do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds, the +joints need not remain longer than five weeks in the pickle; if they +weigh two hundred, or upward, six or seven weeks are not too long. It is +better that they should stay in too long, rather than too short a time.</p> + +<p>In three weeks, the joints, etc., may be hung up. Taking out of pickle, +and preparing for hanging up to smoke, are thus performed: Scrape off +the undissolved salt; if the directions have been followed, there will +be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not immersed in the brine; +this salt and the brine are all saved; the brine is boiled down, and the +dry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304 (66)]</a></span> +composition given to stock, especially to hogs. Wash every piece in +lukewarm water, and with a rough towel clean off the salt and ashes. +Next, put the strings in to hang up. Set the pieces up edgewise, that +they may drain and dry. Every piece is then to be dipped into the +meat-paint, as it is termed, composed of warm—not hot—water and very +fine ashes, stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick +paint, and hang up to smoke. By being thus dipped, they receive a +coating which protects them from the fly, prevents dripping, and tends +to lessen all external injurious influences. Hang up the pieces while +yet moist with the paint, and smoke them well.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>VALUE OF THE CARCASS.</h3> + +<p>No part of the hog is valueless, excepting, perhaps, the bristles of the +fine-bred races. The very intestines are cleansed, and knotted into +chittarlings, very much relished by some; the blood, mixed with fat and +rice, is made into black puddings; and the tender muscle under the +lumbar vertebræ is worked up into sausages, sweet, high-flavored, and +delicious; the skin, roasted, is a rare and toothsome morsel; and a +roast sucking-pig is a general delight; salt pork and bacon are in +incessant demand, and form important articles of commerce.</p> + +<p>One great value arises from the peculiarity of its fat, which, in +contradistinction to that of the ox or of the sheep, is termed <i>lard</i>, +and differs from either in the proportion of its constituent principles, +which are essentially oleine and stearine. It is rendered, or fried out, +in the same manner as mutton-suet. It melts completely at ninety-nine +degrees Fahrenheit, and then has the appearance of a transparent and +nearly colorless fixed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305 (67)]</a></span> +oil. Eighty degrees is the melting-point. It +consists of sixty-two parts oleine, and thirty-eight of stearine, out of +one hundred. When subjected to pressure between folds of blotting-paper, +the oleine is absorbed, while the stearine remains. For domestic +purposes, lard is much used: it is much better than butter for frying +fish; and is much used in pastry, on the score of economy.</p> + +<p>The stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids, which, when +separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or +spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, +and in American commerce is known as <i>lard-oil</i>, which is very pure, and +extensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for +which olive or spermaceti oils are valued. It has given to pork a new +and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly +increased. A large amount of pork has thus been withdrawn from the +market, and the depression, which must otherwise have occurred, has been +thereby prevented.</p> + +<p>Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams +and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bottoms, the upper one +perforated with holes. The pork is laid on the latter, and then tightly +covered. Steam, at a high temperature, is then admitted into the tub, +and in a short time all the fat is extracted, and falls upon the lower +bottom. The remaining mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs, +poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are +either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, valuable +for various purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a +fine quality, the animal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306 (68)]</a></span> +is first skinned, and the adhering fat then +carefully scraped off; thus avoiding the oily, viscid matter of the +skin.</p> + +<p>The <i>bristles</i> of the coarse breeds are long, strong, firm, and elastic. +These are formed into brushes for painters and artists, as well as for +numerous domestic uses. The <i>skin</i>, when tanned, is of a peculiar +texture, and very tough. It is used for making pocket-books, and for +some ornamental purposes; but chiefly for the seats of riding-saddles. +The numerous little variegations on it, which constitute its beauty, are +the orifices whence the bristles have been removed.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307 (69)]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo307.png" alt="Diseases and their Remedies" width="350" height="364" /></div> + +<p>By reason of being generally considered a subordinate species of stock, +swine do not, in many cases, share in the benefits which an improved +system of agriculture and the present advanced state of veterinary +science, have conferred upon other domesticated animals. Since they are +by no means the most tractable of patients, it is any thing but an easy +matter to compel them to swallow any thing to which their appetite does +not incite them; and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308 (70)]</a></span> +hence, prevention will be found better than cure. +<i>Cleanliness</i> is the great point to be insisted upon in the management +of these animals. If this, and warmth, be only attended to, ailments +among them are comparatively rare.</p> + +<p>As, however, disappointment may occasionally occur, even under the best +system of management, a brief view of the principal complaints with +which they are liable to be attacked is presented, together with the +best mode of treatment to be adopted in such cases.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CATCHING THE PIG.</h3> + +<p>Swine are very difficult animals to obtain any mastery over, or to +operate on, or examine. Seldom tame, or easily handled, they are at such +periods most unmanageable—kicking, screaming, and even biting fiercely. +The following method of getting hold of them has been recommended: +Fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let +there be a running noose in the cord; tie a piece of bread to the cord, +and present it to the animal; and when he opens his mouth to seize the +bait, catch the upper jaw in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is +fast.</p> + +<p>Another method is, to catch one foot in a running noose suspended from +some place, so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground; or, to +envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack.</p> + +<p>All coercive measures, however, should, as far as possible, be avoided; +for the pig is naturally so averse to being handled that in his +struggles he will often do himself far more mischief than the disease +which is to be investigated or remedied would effect.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309 (71)]</a></p> +<h3>BLEEDING.</h3> + +<p>The common mode of drawing blood from the pig is by cutting off portions +of the ears or tail; this should only be resorted to when local and +instant blood-letting is requisite. The jugular veins of swine lie too +deep, and are too much imbedded in fat to admit of their being raised by +any ligature about the neck; it is, therefore, useless to attempt to +puncture them, as it would only be striking at random.</p> + +<p>Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface of the ear, +and especially toward its outer edge, may be opened without much +difficulty; if the ear is turned back on the poll, one or more of them +may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit of its being +punctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear, near to the +conch. When the necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the +finger may be raised, and it will cease to flow.</p> + +<p>The palate veins, running on either side of the roof of the mouth, are +also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each side of the +palate, about half way between the centre of the roof of the mouth and +the teeth. The flow of blood may be readily stopped by means of a +pledget of tow and a string, as in bleeding the horse.</p> + +<p>The brachial vein of the fore-leg—commonly called the +plate-vein—running along the inner side under the skin affords a good +opportunity. The best place for puncturing it is about an inch above the +knee, and scarcely half an inch backward from the radius, or the bone of +the fore-arm. No danger need to be apprehended from cutting two or three +times, if sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once. This vein will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310 (72)]</a></span> +become easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly around the leg, +just below the shoulder.</p> + +<p>This operation should always be performed with the lancet, if possible. +In cases of urgent haste, where no lancet is at hand, a small penknife +may be used; but the fleam is a dangerous and objectionable instrument.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>DRENCHING.</h3> + +<p>Whenever it is possible, the medicine to be administered should be +mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus cheated or coaxed +into taking it; since many instances are on record, in which the pig has +ruptured some vessel in his struggles, and died on the spot, or so +injured himself as to bring on inflammation and subsequent death.</p> + +<p>Where this cannot be done, the following is the best method: Let a man +get the head of the animal firmly between his knees—without, however, +pinching it—while another secures the hinder parts. Then let the first +take hold of the head from below, raise it a little, and incline it +slightly toward the right, at the same time separating the lips on the +left side so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually +poured—no more being introduced into the mouth at a time than can be +swallowed at once. Should the animal snort or choke, the head must be +released for a few moments, or he will be in danger of being strangled.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CATARRH.</h3> + +<p>This ailment—an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, +etc.—is, if taken in time, easily cured by opening medicines, followed +up by warm bran-wash—a warm, dry sty—and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311 (73)]</a></span> +abstinence from rich grains, +or stimulating, farinaceous diet. The cause, in most cases, is exposure +to drafts of air, which should be guarded against.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CHOLERA.</h3> + +<p>For what is presented concerning this disease, the author is indebted to +his friend, G. W. Bowler, V. S., of Cincinnati, Ohio, whose familiarity +with the various diseases of our domestic animals and the best modes of +treating them, entitles his opinions to great weight.</p> + +<p>The term “cholera” is employed to designate a disease which has been +very fatal among swine in different parts of the United States; and for +the reason, that its symptoms, as well as the indications accompanying +its termination, are very nearly allied to what is manifested in the +disease of that name which visits man.</p> + +<p>Epidemic cholera has, for several years past, committed fearful ravages +among the swine of, particularly, Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. Indeed, +many farmers who, until recently, have been accustomed to raise large +numbers of these animals, are, in a great measure, disinclined to invest +again in such stock, on account of the severe losses—in some instances +to the extent of the entire drove upon particular places.</p> + +<p>Various remedies have, of course, been prescribed; but the most have +failed in nearly every case where the disease has secured a firm +foothold. Preventives are, therefore, the most that can at present be +expected; and in this direction something may be done. Although some +peculiar change in the atmosphere is, probably, an impelling cause of +cholera, its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312 (74)]</a></span> ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other +predisposing associate causes.</p> + +<p>Granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting among +filth, it is by no means necessary to persist, for that reason, in +surrounding him with all the nastiness possible; for even a hog, when +penned up in a filthy place, in company with a large number of other +hogs—particularly when that place is improperly ventilated—is not as +healthy as when the animals are kept together in smaller numbers in a +clean and well ventilated barn or pen. Look, for a moment, at a drove of +hogs coming along the street, the animals all fat and ready for the +knife. They have been driven several miles, and are scarcely able to +crawl along, many of them having to be carried on drays, while others +have died on the road. At last they are driven into a pen, perhaps, +several inches deep with the manure and filth deposited there by +hundreds of predecessors; every hole in the ground has become a puddle; +and in such a place some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled +together, exhausted from the drive which they have had. They lie down in +the mud; and in a short time one can see the steam beginning to rise +from their bodies in volumes, increasing their already prostrate +condition by the consequent inhalation of the noxious gas thus thrown +off from the system; the blood becomes impregnated with poison; the +various functions of the body are thereby impaired; and disease will +inevitably be developed in one form or another. Should the disease, +known as the hog cholera, prevail in the neighborhood, the chances are +very greatly in favor of their being attacked by it, and consequently +perishing.</p> + +<p>The <i>symptoms</i> of cholera are as follows: The animal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313 (75)]</a></span> appears to be +instantaneously deprived of energy; loss of appetite; lying down by +himself; occasionally moving about slowly, as though experiencing some +slight uneasiness internally; the eyes have a very dull and sunken +appearance, which increases with the disease; the evacuations are almost +continuous, of a dark color, having a fetid odor, and containing a large +quantity of bile; the extremities are cold, and soreness is evinced when +the abdomen is pressed; the pulse is quickened, and sometimes hardly +perceptible, while the buccal membrane—that belonging to the +cheek—presents a slight purple hue; the tongue has a furred appearance. +The evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires, which may be in +twelve hours from the first attack, or the disease may run on for +several days.</p> + +<p>In a very short time after death, the abdomen becomes of a dark purple +color, and upon examination, the stomach is found to contain but a +little fluid; the intestines are almost entirely empty, retaining a +slight quantity of the dark colored matter before mentioned; the mucous +membrane of the alimentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation, +which sometimes appears only in patches, while the other parts are +filled with dark venous blood—indicating a breaking up of the capillary +vessels in such places.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> As a preventive, the following will be found valuable: +Flour of sulphur, six pounds; animal charcoal, one pound; sulphate of +iron, six ounces; cinchona pulverized, one pound. Mix well together in a +large mortar; afterwards give a table-spoonful to each animal, mixed +with a few potato-peelings and corn meal, three times a day. Continue +this for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314 (76)]</a></span> +one week, keeping the animal at the same time in a clean, dry +place, and not allowing too many together.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CRACKINGS.</h3> + +<p>These will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog, especially about the +root of the ears and of the tail, and at the flanks. They are not at all +to be confounded with mange, as they never result from any thing but +exposure to extremes of temperature, while the animal is unable to avail +himself of such protection as, in a state of nature, instinct would have +induced him to adopt. They are peculiarly troublesome in the heat of +summer, if he does not have access to water, in which to lave his +parched limbs and half-scorched carcass.</p> + +<p>Anoint the cracked parts twice or three times a day with tar and lard, +well melted up together.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>DIARRHŒA.</h3> + +<p>Before attempting to stop the discharge in this disease—which, if +permitted to continue unchecked, will rapidly prostrate the animal, and +probably terminate fatally—ascertain the quality of food which the +animal has recently had.</p> + +<p>In a majority of instances, this will be found to be the cause. If taken +in its incipient stage, a mere change to a more binding diet, as corn, +flour, etc., will suffice for a cure. If acidity is present—produced, +probably, by the hog’s having fed upon coarse, rank grasses in swampy +places—give some chalk in the food, or powdered egg-shells, with about +half a drachm of powdered rhubarb; the dose, of course, should vary with +the size of the animal. In the acorn season, they alone will be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315 (77)]</a></span> found +sufficiently curative, where facilities for obtaining them exist. Dry +lodging is indispensable; and diligence is requisite to keep it dry and +clean.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FEVER.</h3> + +<p>The <i>symptoms</i> of this disease are, redness of the eyes, dryness and +heat of the nostrils, the lips, and the skin generally; appetite gone, +or very defective; and, generally, a very violent thirst.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo315.png" alt="Hunting the Wild Boar" width="350" height="201" /> +<p class="caption">HUNTING THE WILD BOAR.</p></div> + +<p>Bleed as soon as possible; after which house the animal well, taking +care, at the same time, to have the sty well and thoroughly ventilated. +The bleeding will usually be followed, in an hour or two, by such a +return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient quantity +of food to be made the vehicle for administering external remedies. The +best is bread, steeped in broth. The hog, however, sinks so rapidly when +his appetite is near gone, that no depletive medicines are, in general, +necessary or proper; the fever will ordinarily yield to the bleeding, +and the only object needs to be the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316 (78)]</a></span> support of his strength, small +portions of nourishing food, administered frequently.</p> + +<p>Do not let the animal eat as much as his inclination might prompt; when +he appears to be no longer ravenous, remove the mess, and do not offer +it again until after a lapse of three or four hours. If the bowels are +confined, castor and linseed oil, in equal quantities, should be added +to the bread and broth, in the proportion of two to six ounces.</p> + +<p>A species of fever frequently occurs as an <i>epizoötic</i>, oftentimes +attacking the male pigs, and generally the most vigorous and best +looking, without any distinction of age, and with a force and rapidity +absolutely astonishing. At other times, its progress is much slower; the +symptoms are less intense and alarming; and the veterinary surgeon, +employed at the outset, may meet with some success.</p> + +<p>The <i>causes</i> are, in the majority of instances, the bad styes in which +the pigs are lodged, and the noisome food which they often contain. In +addition to these is the constant lying on the dung-heap, whence is +exhaled a vast quantity of deleterious gas; also, the remaining far too +long on the muddy or parched ground, or too protracted exposure to the +rigor of the season.</p> + +<p>When an animal is attacked with this disease, he should be separated +from the others, placed in a warm situation, some stimulating ointment +applied to the chest, and a decoction of sorrel administered. Frictions +of vinegar should also be applied to the dorsal and lumbar region. The +drinks should be emolient, slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar, and +with aromatic fumigation about the belly.</p> + +<p>If the fever then appears to be losing ground, which may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317 (79)]</a></span> ascertained +by the regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the plaintive cries +before heard, by a less laborious respiration, by the absence of +convulsions, and by the non-appearance of blotches on the skin, there is +a fair chance of recovery. Then administer, every second hour, as before +directed, and give a proper allowance of white water, with ground barley +and rye.</p> + +<p>When the symptoms redouble in intensity, it is best to destroy the +animal; for it is rare that, after a certain period, much chance of +recovery exists. Bleeding is seldom of much avail, but produces, +occasionally, considerable loss of vital power, and augments the putrid +diathesis.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FOUL SKIN.</h3> + +<p>A simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to +cleanliness, and a washing with a solution of chloride of lime; but, if +it is neglected for any length of time, it assumes a malignant +character—scabs and blotches, or red and fiery eruptions appear—and +the disease rapidly passes into mange, which will be hereafter noticed.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.</h3> + +<p>This disease, popularly known as heavings, is scarcely to be regarded as +curable. Were it observed in its first stage, when indicated by loss of +appetite and a short, hard cough, it might, possibly, be got under by +copious bleeding, and friction with stimulating ointment on the region +of the lungs; minute and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be +given in butter—all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided—and +the animal kept dry and warm. If once the heavings set in, it may be +calculated with confidence that the formation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318 (80)]</a></span> +tubercles in the substance of the lungs has begun; and when these are formed, they are +very rarely absorbed.</p> + +<p>The <i>causes</i> of the disease are damp lodging, foul air, want of +ventilation, and unwholesome food. When tubercular formation becomes +established, the disease may be communicated through the medium of the +atmosphere, the infectious influence depending upon the noxious +particles respired from the lungs of the diseased animal.</p> + +<p>The following may be tried, though the knife is probably the best +resort, if for no other reason, at least to provide against the danger +of infection: Shave the hair away from the chest, and beneath each +fore-leg; wet the part with spirits of turpentine, and set fire to it, +having previously had the animal well secured, with his head well +raised, and a flannel cloth at hand with which to extinguish the flame +after it has, burned a sufficient time to produce slight blisters; if +carried too far, a sore is formed, productive of no good effects, and +causing unnecessary suffering. Calomel may also be used, with a view to +promote the absorption of the tubercles; but the success is +questionable.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>JAUNDICE.</h3> + +<p>The <i>symptoms</i> of this disease are, yellowness of the white of the eye; +a similar hue extending to the lips; and sometimes, but not invariably, +swelling of the under part of the jaw.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Bleed freely; diminish the quantity of food; and give an +active aperient every second day. Aloes are, perhaps, the best, combined +with colocynth; the dose will vary with the size of the animal.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319 (81)]</a></p> +<h3>LEPROSY.</h3> + +<p>This complaint commonly commences with the formation of a small tumor in +the eye, followed by a general prostration of spirits; the head is held +down; the whole frame inclines toward the ground; universal languor +succeeds; the animal refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls away in +flesh; blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue, then upon +the throat, the jaws, the head, and the entire body.</p> + +<p>The <i>Causes</i> of this disease are want of cleanliness, absence of fresh +air, want of due attention to ventilation, and foul feeding. The obvious +<i>treatment</i>, therefore, is, first, bleed; clean out the sty daily; wash +the affected animal thoroughly with soap and water, to which soda or +potash has been added; supply him with a clean bed; keep him dry and +comfortable; let him have gentle exercise, and plenty of fresh air; +limit the quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness; give bran +with wash, in which add, for an average-sized hog—say one of one +hundred and sixty pounds weight—a table-spoonful of the flour of +sulphur, with as much nitre as will cover a dime, daily. A few grains of +powdered antimony may also be given with effect.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>LETHARGY.</h3> + +<p><i>Symptoms</i>: torpor; desire to sleep; hanging of the head; and, +frequently, redness of the eyes. The origin of this disease is, +apparently, the same as that of indigestion, or surfeit, except that, in +this instance, it acts upon a hog having a natural tendency to a +redundancy of blood.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320 (82)]</a></span><i>Treatment.</i> +Bleed copiously; then administer an emetic. A decoction of +camomile flowers will be safest; though a sufficient dose of tartar +emetic will be far more certain. After this, reduce for a few days the +amount of the animal’s food, and administer a small portion of nitre and +sulphur in each morning’s meal.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>MANGE.</h3> + +<p>This cutaneous affection owes its existence to the presence of a minute +insect, called <i>acarus scabiei</i>, or mange-fly, which burrows beneath the +cuticle, and occasions much irritation and annoyance in its progress +through the skin.</p> + +<p>Its <i>symptoms</i> are sufficiently well known, consisting of scabs, +blotches, and sometimes multitudes of minute pustules on different parts +of the body. If neglected, these symptoms become aggravated; the disease +spreads rapidly over the entire surface of the skin, and if allowed to +proceed on its course unchecked, will before long produce deep-seated +ulcers and malignant sores, until the whole carcass of the affected +animal becomes a mass of corruption.</p> + +<p>The <i>cause</i> is to be looked for in dirt, accompanied by hot-feeding. +Hogs, however well and properly kept, will occasionally become affected +with this disease from contagion. Few diseases are more easily +propagated by contact than mange. The introduction of a single affected +pig into an establishment may, in one night, cause the seizure of scores +of others. No foul-skinned pigs, therefore, should be introduced into +the piggery; indeed, it would be an excellent precaution to wash every +animal newly purchased with a strong solution of chloride of lime.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321 (83)]</a></span> +<i>Treatment.</i> If the mange is but of moderate violence, and not of very +long standing, the best mode is to wash the animal, from snout to tail, +leaving no portion of the body uncleansed, with soft soap and water. +Place him in a dry and clean sty, which is so situated as to command a +constant supply of fresh air, without, at the same time, an exposure to +cold or draught; furnish a bed of clean, fresh straw. Reduce his food, +both in quality and quantity; let boiled or steamed roots, with +butter-milk, or dairy-wash take the place of any food of a heating or +inflammatory character. Keep him without food for five or six hours, and +then give to a hog of average size two ounces of Epsom salts in a warm +bran mash—to be increased or diminished, of course, as the animal’s +size may require. This should be previously mixed with a pint of warm +water, and added to about half a gallon of warm bran mash, and it will +act as a gentle purgative. Give in every meal afterward one +table-spoonful of flour of sulphur, and as much nitre as will cover a +dime, for from three days to a week, according to the state of the +disease. When the scabs begin to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the +fiery sores to fade, a cure may be anticipated.</p> + +<p>When the above treatment has been practised for fourteen days, without +effecting a cure, prepare the following: train oil, one pint; oil of +tar, two drachms; spirits of turpentine, two drachms; naphtha, one +drachm; with as much flour of sulphur as will form the foregoing into a +thick paste. Rub the animal previously washed with this mixture; let no +portion of the hide escape. Keep the hog dry and warm after this +application, and allow it to remain on his skin for three days. On the +fourth day wash him again with soft soap,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322 (84)]</a></span> +adding a small quantity of +soda to the water. Dry him well afterward, and let him remain as he is, +having again changed his bedding, for a day or so; continue the sulphur +and nitre as before. Almost all cases of mange, however obstinate, will, +sooner or later, yield to this treatment. After he is convalescent, +whitewash the sty, and fumigate it by placing a little chloride of lime +in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a little vitriol upon it. In the +absence of vitriol, boiling water will answer nearly as well.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>MEASLES.</h3> + +<p>This is one of the most common diseases to which hogs are liable. The +<i>symptoms</i> are, redness of the eyes, foulness of the skin, and +depression of spirits; decline, or total departure of the appetite; +small pustules about the throat, and red and purple eruptions on the +skin. The last are more plainly visible after death, when they impart a +peculiar appearance to the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, +and distention of the fibre, giving an appearance similar to that which +might be produced by puncturing the flesh.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Allow the animal to fast, in the first instance, for +twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, containing a drachm +of carbonate of soda, and an ounce of bole armenian; wash the animal, +cleanse the sty, and change the bedding; give at every feeding, or +thrice a day, thirty grains of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre.</p> + +<p>This malady is attributable to dirt, combined with the giving of steamed +food or wash to hogs at too high a temperature. It is troublesome to +eradicate, but usually yields to treatment, and is rarely fatal.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323 (85)]</a></p> +<h3>MURRAIN.</h3> + +<p>This resembles leprosy in its <i>symptoms</i>, with the addition of +staggering, shortness of breath, and discharge of viscid matter from the +eyes and mouth.</p> + +<p>The <i>treatment</i> should consist of cleanliness, coolness, bleeding, +purging, and limitation of food. Cloves of garlic are recommended; and +as in all febrile diseases there exists a greater or less disposition to +putrefaction, it is probable that garlic, from its antiseptic +properties, may be useful.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>QUINSY.</h3> + +<p>This is an inflammatory affection of the glands of the throat.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Shave away the hair, and rub with tartar-emetic ointment. +Fomenting with very warm water is also useful. When external suppuration +takes place, it is to be regarded as a favorable symptom. In this case, +wait until the swellings are thoroughly ripe; then with a sharp knife +make an incision through the entire length, press out the matter, wash +with warm water, and afterward dress the wound with any resinous +ointment, or yellow soap with coarse brown sugar.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>STAGGERS.</h3> + +<p>This disease is caused by an excessive determination of blood to the +head.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Bleed freely and purge.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SWELLING OF THE SPLEEN.</h3> + +<p>The <i>symptom</i> most positively indicative of this disease is the +circumstance of the affected animal leaning toward one +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324 (86)]</a></span> side, cringing, +as it were, from internal pain, and bending toward the ground.</p> + +<p>The <i>cause</i> of the obstruction on which the disease depends, is +over-feeding—permitting the animal to indulge its appetite to the +utmost extent that gluttony may prompt, and the capacity of its stomach +admits. A very short perseverance in this mode of management—or, +rather, mismanagement—will produce this, as well as other maladies, +deriving their origin from a depraved condition of the secretions and +the obstruction of the excretory ducts.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Clean out the alimentary canal by means of a powerful +aperient. Allow the animal to fast for four or five hours, when he will +take a little sweet wash or broth, in which may be mingled a dose of +Epsom salts proportioned to his size. This will generally effect the +desired end—a copious evacuation—and the action of the medicine on the +watery secretions will also relieve the existing diseased condition of +the spleen.</p> + +<p>If the affection has continued for any length, the animal should be +bled. A decoction of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liverwort, +produced by boiling them in soft water for six hours, may be given in +doses of from half a pint to a pint and a half, according to the size, +age, etc., of the animal. Scammony and rhubarb, mixed in a bran wash, or +with Indian meal, may be given with advantage on the following day; or, +equal portions of blue-pill mass and compound colocynth pill, formed +into a bolus with butter. The animal having been kept fasting the +previous night, will probably swallow it; if not, let his fast continue +a couple of hours longer. Lower his diet, and keep him on reduced fare, +with exercise, and, if it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325 (87)]</a></span> +can be managed, grazing, until the malady has +passed away. If he is then to be fattened, it should be done gradually; +be cautious of at once restoring him to full diet.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SURFEIT.</h3> + +<p>This is another name for indigestion. The <i>symptoms</i> are, panting; loss +of appetite; swelling of the region about the stomach, etc.; and +frequently throwing up the contents of the stomach.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> In general, this affection will pass away, provided only it +is allowed to cure itself, and all food carefully kept from the animal +for a few hours; a small quantity of sweet grains, with a little bran +mash, may then be given, but not nearly as much as the animal would wish +to take. For a few days, the food should be limited in quantity, and of +a washy, liquid nature. The ordinary food may then be resumed, only +observing to feed regularly, and remove the fragments remaining after +each meal.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>TUMORS.</h3> + +<p>These are hard swellings, which make their appearance on different parts +of the body. They are not formidable, and require only to be suffered to +progress until they soften; then make a free incision, and press out the +matter. Sulphur and nitre should be given in the food, as the appearance +of these swellings, whatever be their cause, indicates the necessity of +alterative medicines.</p> + +<hr class="c65" style="margin-top: 5em;" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326"></a></p> +<h2>POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES.</h2> +<hr class="c65" style="margin-bottom: 5em;" /> + +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327 (7)]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo327.png" alt="Poultry History and Varieties" width="350" height="294" /></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The domestic fowl.</span> The cock tribe is used as a generic term, to include +the whole family of domestic fowls; the name of the male, in this +instance, furnishing an appellation sufficiently comprehensive and well +recognized.</p> + +<p>The domestic cock appears to have been known to man from a very early +period. Of his real origin there is little definitely known; and even +the time and manner of his introduction into Greece, or Southern Europe, +are enveloped in obscurity. In the palmiest days of Greece and Rome, +however, he occupied a conspicuous place in those public shows +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328 (8)]</a></span> which +amused the masses of the people. He was dedicated to the service of the +pagan deities, and was connected with the worship of Apollo, Mercury, +Mars, and particularly Esculapius. The flesh of this bird was highly +esteemed as a delicacy, and occupied a prominent place at the Roman +banquets. Great pains were taken in the rearing and fattening of poultry +for this purpose.</p> + +<p>The practice of cock-fighting, barbarous as it is, originated in classic +times, and among the most polished and civilized people of antiquity. To +its introduction into Britain by the Cæsars we owe our acquaintance with +the domestic fowl.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to state positively to what species of the wild cock, +known at present, we are to look for the primitive type, so remote is +the date of the original domestication of the fowl. Many writers have +endeavored to show that all the varieties of the domestic fowl, of which +we now have knowledge, are derived from a single primitive stock. It +has, also, been confidently asserted that the domestic cock owes his +origin to the jungle fowl of India. The most probable supposition, +however, is, that the varieties known to us may be referred to a few of +the more remarkable fowls, as the progenitors of the several species. +The great fowl of St. Jago and Sumatra may, perhaps, safely be +recognized as the type of some of the larger varieties, such as the +Spanish and the Padua fowls, and those resembling them; while to the +Bankiva cock, probably, the smaller varieties belong, such as Bantams, +the Turkish fowl, and the like.</p> + +<p>The reasons assigned for supposing these kinds to be the true originals +of our domestic poultry, are, <i>first</i>, the close resemblance subsisting +between their females and our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329 (9)]</a></span> +domestic hens; <i>second</i>, the size of our +domestic cock being intermediate between the two, and alternating in +degree, sometimes inclining toward the one, and sometimes toward the +other; <i>third</i>, from the nature of their feathers and their general +aspect—the form and distribution of their tails being the same as our +domestic fowls; and, <i>fourth</i>, in these two birds alone are the females +provided with a crest and small wattles, characteristics not to be met +with in any other wild species.</p> + +<p>The wild cock, or the St. Jago fowl, is frequently so tall as to be able +to peck crumbs without difficulty from an ordinary dinner-table. The +weight is usually from ten to thirteen or fourteen pounds. The comb of +both cock and hen is large, crown-shaped, often double, and sometimes, +but not invariably, with a tufted crest of feathers, which occurs with +the greatest frequency, and grows to the largest size, in the hen. The +voice is strong and very harsh; and the young do not arrive to full +plumage until more than half grown.</p> + +<p>The Bankiva fowl is a native of Java, and is characterized by a red +indented comb, red wattles, and ashy-gray legs and feet. The comb of the +cock is scolloped, and the tail elevated a little above the rump, the +feathers being disposed in the form of tiles or slates; the +neck-feathers are of a gold color, long, dependent, and rounded at the +tips; the head and neck are of a fawn color; the wing coverts a dusky +brown and black; the tail and belly, black. The color of the hen is a +dusky ash-gray and yellow; her comb and wattles much smaller than those +of the cock, and—with the exception of the long hackles—she has no +feathers on her neck. These fowl are exceedingly wild, and inhabit the +skirts of woods, forests,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330 (10)]</a></span> +and other savage and unfrequented places. +These Bankivas resemble our Bantams very much; and, like them, are also +occasionally to be seen feathered to the feet and toes.</p> + +<p>Independent of all considerations of profitableness, domestic fowls are +gifted with two qualifications, which—whether in man, beast, or +bird—are sure to be popular: a courageous temper and an affectionate +disposition. When we add to these beauty of appearance and hardiness of +constitution, it is no wonder that they are held in such universal +esteem.</p> + +<p>The courage of the cock is emblematic, his gallantry admirable, and his +sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary. The hen is +deservedly the acknowledged pattern of maternal love. When her passion +of philoprogenitiveness is disappointed by the failure or subtraction of +her own brood, she will either continue incubating till her natural +powers fail, or will violently kidnap the young of other fowls, and +insist upon adopting them.</p> + +<p>It would be idle to attempt an enumeration here of the numerous breeds +and varieties of the domestic fowl. Those only, therefore, will be +described which are generally accepted as the best varieties; and these +arranged, not in the order of their merits necessarily, but +alphabetically, for convenience of reference.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BANTAM.</h3> + +<p>The original of the Bantam is, as has been already remarked, the Bankiva +fowl. The small white, and also the colored Bantams, whose legs are +heavily feathered, are sufficiently well-known to render a particular +description unnecessary. Bantam-fanciers generally prefer those which +have clean,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331 (11)]</a></span> bright legs, without any vestige of feathers. A +thorough-bred cock, in their judgment, should have a rose comb; a +well-feathered tail, but without the sickle feathers; full hackles; a +proud, lively carriage; and ought not to exceed a pound in weight. The +nankeen-colored, and the black are the general favorites.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo331.png" alt="The Bantam" width="250" height="278" /> +<p class="caption">THE BANTAM.</p></div> + +<p>These little creatures exhibit some peculiar habits and traits of +disposition. Amongst others, the cocks are so fond of sucking the eggs +laid by the hen that they will often drive her from the nest in order to +obtain them; they have even been known to attack her, tear open the +ovarium, and devour its shell-less contents. To prevent this, first a +hard-boiled, and then a marble egg may be given them to fight with, +taking care, at the same time, to prevent their access either to the hen +or to any real eggs. Another strange propensity is a passion for sucking +each other’s blood, which is chiefly exhibited when they are moulting, +when they have been known to peck each other naked, by pulling out the +new feathers as they appear, and squeezing with their beaks the blood +from the bulbs at the base. These fowls being subject to a great heat of +the skin, its surface occasionally becomes hard and tightened; in which +cases the hard roots of the feathers are drawn into a position more +nearly at right angles with the body than at ordinary times, and the +skin and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332 (12)]</a></span> +superficial muscles are thus subjected to an unusual degree of +painful irritation. The disagreeable habit is, therefore, simply a +provision of Nature for their relief, which may be successfully +accomplished by washing with warm water, and the subsequent application +of pomatum to the skin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo332.png" alt="Bantam" width="250" height="268" /> +<p class="caption">BANTAM.</p></div> + +<p>Bantams, in general, are greedy devourers of some of the most +destructive of our insects; the grub of the cock-chafer and the +crane-fly being especial favorites with them. Their chickens can hardly +be raised so well, as by allowing them free access to minute insect +dainties; hence, the suitableness of a worn-out hotbed for them during +the first month or six weeks. They are thus positively serviceable +creatures to the farmer, as far as their limited range extends; and +still more so to the gardener and the nurseryman, as they will save +various garden crops from injuries to which they would otherwise be +exposed.</p> + +<p>The fowl commonly known as the Bantam is a small, elegantly-formed, and +handsomely tinted variety, evidently but remotely allied to the game +breed, and furnished with feathers to the toes.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The African Bantam.</span> The cock of this variety is red upon the neck, back, +and hackles; tail, black and erect, studded with glossy green feathers +upon the sides; breast, black ground spotted with yellow, like the +Golden Pheasant; comb, single; cheeks, white or silvery; the pullet is +entirely black, except the inside of the wing-tips, which is perfectly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333 (13)]</a></span> +white. In size, they compare with the common pigeon, being very small; +their wings are about two inches longer than their bodies; and their +legs dark and destitute of feathers. They are very quiet, and of decided +benefit in gardens, in destroying bugs.</p> + +<p>These symmetrically-formed birds are highly prized, both by the fancier +and the practical man, and the pure-bloods are very rare. They weigh +from eight to twelve ounces each for the hens; and the cocks, from +sixteen to twenty ounces.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BOLTON GRAY.</h3> + +<p>These fowls—called, also, Dutch Every-day Layers, Pencilled Dutch Fowl, +Chittaprats, and, in Pennsylvania, Creole Fowl—were originally imported +from Holland to Bolton, a town in Lancashire, England, whence they were +named.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo333.png" alt="The Bolton Gray" width="300" height="304" /> +<p class="caption">BOLTON GRAYS OR CREOLE FOWL.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334 (14)]</a></span> +They are small sized, short in the leg, and plump in the make; color of +the genuine kind, invariably pure white in the whole cappel of the neck; +the body white, thickly spotted with black, sometimes running into a +grizzle, with one or more black bars at the extremity of the tail. A +good cock of this breed may weigh from four to four and a half pounds; +and a hen from three to three and a half pounds.</p> + +<p>The superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so much in rapid +as in continued laying. She may not produce as many eggs in a month as +some other kinds, but she will, it is claimed, lay more months in the +year than probably any other variety. They are said to be very hardy; +but their eggs, in the judgment of some, are rather watery and +innutritious.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BLUE DUN.</h3> + +<p>The variety known under this name originated in Dorsetshire, England. +They are under the average size, rather slenderly made, of a soft and +pleasing bluish-dun color, the neck being darker, with high, single +combs, deeply serrated. The cock is of the same color as the hen, but +has, in addition, some handsome dark stripes in the long feathers of the +tail, and sometimes a few golden, or even scarlet marks, on the wings. +They are exceedingly impudent, familiar, and pugnacious.</p> + +<p>The hens are good layers, wanting to sit after laying a moderate number +of eggs, and proving attentive and careful rearers of their own +chickens, but rather savage to those of other hens. The eggs are small +and short, tapering slightly at one end, and perfectly white. The +chickens, on first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335 (15)]</a></span> +coming from the egg, sometimes bear a resemblance to +the gray and yellow catkin of the willow, being of a soft bluish gray, +mixed with a little yellow here and there.</p> + +<p>Some class these birds among the game fowls, not recognizing them as a +distinct race, upon the ground that, as there are Blue Dun families +belonging to several breeds—the Spanish, the Polish, the Game, and the +Hamburghs, for example—it is more correct to refer each Blue Dun to its +own proper ancestry.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE CHITTAGONG.</h3> + +<p>The Chittagong is a very superior bird, showy in plumage, exceedingly +hardy, and of various colors. In some, the gray predominates, +interspersed with lightish yellow and white feathers upon the pullets. +The legs are of a reddish flesh-color; the meat is delicately white, the +comb large and single, wattles very full, wings good size. The legs are +more or less feathered; the model is graceful, carriage proud and easy, +and action prompt and determined.</p> + +<p>This breed is the largest in the world; the pullets usually weighing +from eight to nine pounds when they begin to lay, and the cocks from +nine to ten pounds at the same age. They do not lay as many eggs in a +year as smaller hens; but they lay as many pounds of eggs as the best +breeds. This breed has been, by some, confounded with the great Malay; +but the points of difference are very noticeable. There is less offal; +the flesh is finer, although the size is greatly increased; their +fecundity is greater; and the offspring arrive earlier at maturity than +in the common Malay variety.</p> + +<p>There is also a <i>red</i> variety of the Chittagong, which is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336 (16)]</a></span> rather +smaller than the gray. These have legs sometimes yellow and sometimes +blue; the latter color, perhaps, from some mixture with the dark +variety; the wings and tail are short. Sometimes there is a rose-colored +comb, and a top-knot, through crossing. This variety may weigh sixteen +or eighteen pounds a pair, as ordinarily bred. The eggs are large and +rich, but not very abundant, and they do not hatch remarkably well.</p> + +<p>There is, besides, a <i>dark-red</i> variety; the hens yellow or brown, with +single serrated comb, and no top-knot; legs heavily feathered, the +feathers black and the legs yellow. The cock is black on the breast and +thighs.</p> + +<p>The Chittagongs are generally quite leggy, standing some twenty-six +inches high; and the hens twenty-two inches. A first cross with the +Shanghae makes a very large and valuable bird for the table, but not for +breeding purposes.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE COCHIN CHINA.</h3> + +<p>The Cochin China fowl are said to have been presented to Queen Victoria +from the East Indies. In order to promote their propagation, her majesty +made presents of them occasionally to such persons as she supposed +likely to appreciate them. They differ very little in their qualities, +habits, and general appearance from the Shanghaes, to which they are +undoubtedly nearly related. The egg is nearly the same size, shape, and +color; both have an equal development of comb and wattles—the Cochins +slightly differing from the Shanghaes, chiefly in being somewhat fuller +and deeper in the breast, not quite so deep in the quarter, and being +usually smooth-legged, while the Shanghaes, generally, are more or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337 (17)]</a></span> less +heavily feathered. The plumage is much the same in both cases; and the +crow in both is equally sonorous and prolonged, differing considerably +from that of the Great Malay.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo337.png" alt="Cochin Chinas" width="300" height="335" /> +<p class="caption">COCHIN CHINAS.</p></div> + +<p>The cock has a large, upright, single, deeply-indented comb, very much +resembling that of the Black Spanish, and, when in high condition, of +quite as brilliant a scarlet; like him, also, he has sometimes a very +large white ear-hole on each cheek, which, if not an indispensable or +even a required qualification, is, however, to be preferred, for beauty +at least. The wattles are large, wide, and pendent. The legs are of a +pale flesh-color; some specimens have them yellow, which is +objectionable. The feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338 (18)]</a></span> +chestnut-brown, large and well-defined, giving a scaly or imbricated +appearance to those parts. The hackle of the neck is of a light +yellowish brown; the lower feathers being tipped with dark brown, so as +to give a spotted appearance to the neck. The tail-feathers are black, +and darkly iridescent; back, scarlet-orange; back-hackle, yellow-orange. +It is, in short, altogether a flame-colored bird. Both sexes are lower +in the leg than either the Black Spanish or the Malay.</p> + +<p>The hen approaches in her build more nearly to the Dorking than to any +other breed, except that the tail is very small and proportionately +depressed; it is smaller and more horizontal than in any other fowl. Her +comb is of moderate size, almost small; she has, also, a small, white +ear-hole. Her coloring is flat, being composed of various shades of very +light brown, with light yellow on the neck. Her appearance is quiet, and +only attracts attention by its extreme neatness, cleanliness, and +compactness.</p> + +<p>The eggs average about two ounces each. They are smooth, of an oval +shape, equally rounded at each end, and of a rich buff color, nearly +resembling those of the Silver Pheasant. The newly-hatched chickens +appear very large in proportion to the size of the egg. They have light, +flesh-colored bills, feet, and legs, and are thickly covered with down, +of the hue commonly called “carroty.” They are not less thrifty than any +other chickens, and feather somewhat more uniformly than either the +Black Spanish or the Malay. It is, however, most desirable to hatch +these—as well as other large-growing varieties—as early in the spring +as possible; even so soon as the end of February. A peculiarity in the +cockerels is, that they do not show even the rudiments of their +tail-feathers till<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339 (19)]</a></span> +they are nearly full-grown. They increase so rapidly +in other directions, that there is no material to spare for the +production of these decorative appendages.</p> + +<p>The merits of this breed are such that it may safely be recommended to +people residing in the country. For the inhabitants of towns it is less +desirable, as the light tone of its plumage would show every mark of +dirt and defilement; and the readiness with which they sit would be an +inconvenience, rather than otherwise, in families with whom perpetual +layers are most in requisition. Expense apart, they are equal or +superior to any other fowl for the table; their flesh is delicate, +white, tender, and well flavored.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE CUCKOO.</h3> + +<p>The fowl so termed in Norfolk, England, is, very probably, an old and +distinct variety; although they are generally regarded as mere Barn-door +fowls—that is, the merely accidental result of promiscuous crossing.</p> + +<p>The name probably originated from its barred, plumage, which resembles +that on the breast of the Cuckoo. The prevailing color is a slaty blue, +undulated, and softly shaded with white all over the body, forming bands +of various widths. The comb is very small; irides, bright orange; feet +and legs, light flesh-color. The hens are of a good size; the cocks are +large, approaching the heaviest breeds in weight. The chickens, at two +or three months old, exhibits the barred plumage even more perfectly +than the full-grown birds. The eggs average about two ounces each, are +white, and of porcelain smoothness. The newly-hatched chickens are +gray,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340 (20)]</a></span> +much resembling those of the Silver Polands, except in the color +of the feet and legs.</p> + +<p>This breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers, good sitters, +good mothers and good feeders; and is well worth promotion in the +poultry-yard.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE DOMINIQUE.</h3> + +<p>This seems to be a tolerably distinct and permanent variety, about the +size of the common Dunghill Fowl. Their combs are generally double—or +rose, as it is sometimes called—and the wattles small. Their plumage +presents, all over, a sort of greenish appearance, from a peculiar +arrangement of blue and white feathers, which is the chief +characteristic of the variety; although, in some specimens, the plumage +is inevitably gray in both cock and hen. They are very hardy, healthy, +excellent layers, and capital incubators. No fowl have better stood the +tests of mixing without deteriorating than the pure Dominique.</p> + +<p>Their name is taken from the island of Dominica, from which they are +reported to have been imported. Take all in all, they are one of the +very best breeds of fowl which we have; and although they do not come in +to laying so young as the Spanish, they are far better sitters and +nursers.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE DORKING.</h3> + +<p>This has been termed the Capon Fowl of England. It forms the chief +supply for the London market, and is distinguished by a white or +flesh-colored smooth leg, armed with five, instead of four toes, on each +foot. Its flesh is extremely delicate, especially after caponization; +and it has the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341 (21)]</a></span> +advantage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly, and +growing to a very respectable size when properly managed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo341.png" alt="White Dorkings" width="300" height="243" /> +<p class="caption">WHITE DORKINGS.</p></div> + +<p>For those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls of the most +desirable shape and size, clothed in rich and varigated plumage, and, +not expecting perfection, are willing to overlook one or two other +points, the Speckled Dorkings—so called from the town of Surrey, +England, which brought them into modern repute—should be selected. The +hens, in addition to their gay colors, have a large, vertically flat +comb, which, when they are in high health, adds very much to their +brilliant appearance, particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The cocks +are magnificent. The most gorgeous hues are lavished upon them, which +their great size and peculiarly square-built form display to the +greatest advantage. Their legs are short; their breast broad; there is +but a small proportion of offal; and the good, profitable flesh is +abundant. The cocks may be brought to considerable weight, and the +flavor and appearance of their meat are inferior to none. The eggs are +produced in reasonable abundance; and, though not equal in size to those +of Spanish hens, may fairly be called large.</p> + +<p>They are not everlasting layers, but at due or convenient +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342 (22)]</a></span> intervals +manifest the desire of sitting. In this respect, they are steady and +good mothers when the little ones appear. They are better adapted than +any other fowl, except the Malay, to hatch superabundant turkeys’ eggs; +as their size and bulk enable them to afford warmth and shelter to the +young for a long period. For the same reason, spare goose eggs may be +entrusted to them.</p> + +<p>With all these merits, however, they are not found to be a profitable +breed, if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. Their powers seem to fail at +an early age. They are also apt to pine away and die just at the point +of reaching maturity. They appear at a certain epoch to be seized with +consumption—in the Speckled Dorkings, the lungs seeming to be the seat +of the disease. The White Dorkings are, however, hardy and active birds, +and are not subject to consumption or any other disease.</p> + +<p>As mothers, an objection to the Dorkings is, that they are too heavy and +clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and more delicate bird than +themselves. Pheasants, partridges, bantams, and Guinea fowl are trampled +under foot and crushed, if in the least weakly. The hen, in her +affectionate industry in scratching for grub, kicks her smallest +nurslings right and left, and leaves them sprawling on their backs; and +before they are a month old, half of them will be muddled to death with +this rough kindness.</p> + +<p>In spite of these drawbacks, the Dorkings are still in high favor; but a +cross is found to be more profitable than the true breed. A glossy, +energetic game-cock, with Dorking hens, produces chickens in size and +beauty little inferior to their maternal parentage, and much more +robust. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343 (23)]</a></span> +supernumerary toe on each foot almost always disappears +with the first cross; but it is a point which can very well be spared +without much disadvantage. In other respects, the appearance of the +newly-hatched chickens is scarcely altered. The eggs of the Dorkings are +large, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each +end. The chickens are brownish-yellow, with a broad brown stripe down +the middle of the back, and a narrower one on each side; feet and legs +yellow.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">THe Fawn-colored Dorking.</span> The fowl bearing this name is a cross between +the white Dorking and the fawn-colored Turkish fowl. They are, of lofty +carriage, handsome, and healthy. The males of this breed weigh from +eight to nine pounds, and the females from six to seven; and they come +to maturity early for so large a fowl. Their tails are shorter and their +eggs darker than those of other Dorkings; their flesh is fine and their +eggs rich. It is one of the best varieties of fowl known, as the size is +readily increased without diminishing the fineness of the flesh.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Black Dorking.</span> The bodies of this variety are of a large size, with +the usual proportions of the race, and of a jet-black color. The +neck-feathers of some of the cocks are tinged with a bright gold color, +and those of some of the hens bear a silvery complexion. Their combs are +usually double, and very short, though sometimes cupped, rose, or +single, with wattles small; and they are usually very red about the +head. Their tails are rather shorter and broader than most of the race, +and they feather rather slowly. Their legs are short and black, with +five toes on each foot, the bottom of which is sometimes yellow. The two +back toes are very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344 (24)]</a></span> +distinct, starting from the foot separately; and +there is frequently a part of an extra toe between the two.</p> + +<p>This breed commence laying when very young, and are very thrifty layers +during winter. Their eggs are of a large size, and hatch well; they are +perfectly hardy, as their color indicates, and for the product are +considered among the most valuable of the Dorking breed.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE DUNGHILL FOWL.</h3> + +<p>This is sometimes called the Barn-door fowl, and is characterized by a +thin, serrated, upright comb, and wattles hanging from each side of the +lower mandible; the tail rises in an arch, above the level of the rump; +the feathers of the rump are long and line-like; and the color is finely +variegated. The female’s comb and wattles are smaller than those of the +cock; she is less in size, and her colors are more dull and sombre.</p> + +<p>In the best specimens of this variety, the legs should be white and +smooth, like those of the Dorking, and their bodies round and plump. +Being mongrels, they breed all colors, and are usually from five to +seven or eight pounds per pair.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE FRIZZLED FOWL.</h3> + +<p>This fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of Japan, and, by an +equally common error, is frequently called the “Friesland,” under the +apprehension that it is derived from that place. Its name, however, +originates from its peculiar appearance. It is difficult to say whether +this is an aboriginal variety, or merely a peculiar instance of the +morphology of feathers; the circumstance that there are also frizzled +Bantams, would seem to make in favor of the latter position.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345 (25)]</a></span> +The feathers are ruffled or frizzled, and the reversion makes them +peculiarly susceptible of cold and wet, since their plumage is of little +use as clothing. They have thus the demerit of being tender as well as +ugly. In good specimens, every feather looks as if it had been curled +the wrong way with a pair of hot curling-irons. The plumage is +variegated in its colors; and there are two varieties, called the Black +and White Frizzled. The stock, which is rather curious than valuable, is +retained in this country more by importation than by rearing.</p> + +<p>Some writers say that this variety is a native of Asia, and that it +exists in a domestic state throughout Java, Sumatra, and all the +Philippine islands, where it succeeds well. It is, according to such, +uncertain in what country it is still found wild.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE GAME FOWL.</h3> + +<p>It is probable that these fowl, like other choice varieties, are natives +of India. It is certain that in that country an original race of some +fowl exists, at the present day, bearing in full perfection all the +peculiar characteristics of the species. In India, as is well known, the +natives are infected with a passion for cock-fighting. These fowls are +carefully bred for this barbarous amusement, and the finest birds become +articles of great value. In Sumatra, the inhabitants are so much +addicted to the cruel sports to which these fowls are devoted, that +instances are recorded of men staking not only their property upon the +issue of a fight, but even their wives and children. The Chinese are +likewise passionately fond of this pastime; as, indeed, are all the +inhabitants of the Indian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346 (26)]</a></span> countries professing the Mussulman creed. The +Romans introduced the practice into Britain, in which country the +earliest recorded cock-fight dates back to about the year 1100. In +Mexico and the South American countries it is still a national +amusement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo346.png" alt="Gray Game Fowls" width="300" height="273" /> +<p class="caption">GRAY GAME FOWLS.</p></div> + +<p>The game fowl is one of the most gracefully formed and beautifully +colored of our domestic breeds of poultry; and in its form, aspect, and +that extraordinary courage which characterizes its natural disposition, +exhibits all that either the naturalist or the sportsman would at once +recognize as the purest type of high blood, embodying, in short, all the +most indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat inferior in size to other breeds, and in its shape +approximates more closely to the elegance and lightness of form usually +characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated race. Amongst poultry, he is +what the Arabian is amongst horses, the high-bred Short-horn amongst +cattle, and the fleet greyhound amongst the canine race.</p> + +<p>The flesh is beautifully white, as well as tender and delicate. The hens +are excellent layers, and although the eggs are under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347 (27)]</a></span> +the average size, they are not to be surpassed in excellence of flavor. Such being the +character of this variety of fowl, it would doubtless be much more +extensively cultivated than it is, were it not for the difficulty +attending the rearing of the young; their pugnacity being such, that a +brood is scarcely feathered before at least one-half are killed or +blinded by fighting.</p> + +<p>With proper care, however, most of the difficulties to be apprehended +may be avoided. It is exceedingly desirable to perpetuate the race, for +uses the most important and valuable. As a cross with other breeds, they +are invaluable in improving the flavor of the flesh, which is an +invariable consequence. The plumage of all fowl related to them is +increased in brilliancy; and they are, moreover, very prolific, and the +eggs are always enriched.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">THe Mexican Hen-cock.</span> This unique breed is a favorite variety with the +Mexicans, who term them Hen-cocks from the fact that the male birds have +short, broad tails, and, in color and plumage, the appearance of the +hens of the same variety, differing only in the comb, which is very +large and erect in the cock, and small in the hen. They are generally +pheasant-colored, with occasional changes in plumage from a light yellow +to a dark gray; and, in some instances, there is a tendency to black +tail-feathers and breast, as well as an inclination to gray and light +yellow, and with a slight approximation to red hackles in some rare +instances.</p> + +<p>This variety has a strong frame, and very large and muscular thighs. The +cocks are distinguished by large, upright combs, strong bills, and very +large, lustrous eyes. The legs vary from a dirty to a dark-green color. +The hen does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348 (28)]</a></span> +materially differ in appearance from the cock. They +are as good layers and sitters as any other game breed, and are good +nurses.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">THe Wild Indian Game.</span> This variety was originally imported into this +country from Calcutta. The hen has a long neck, like a wild goose; +neither comb nor wattles; of a dark, glossy green color; very short fan +tail; lofty in carriage, trim built, and wild in general appearance; +legs very large and long, spotted with blue; ordinary weight from four +and a half to six pounds. As a layer, she is equal to other fowls of the +game variety.</p> + +<p>The cock stands as high as a large turkey, and weighs nine pounds and +upward; the plumage is of a reddish cast, interspersed with spots of +glossy green; comb very small; no wattles; and bill unlike every other +fowl, except the hen.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Spanish Game.</span> This variety is called the English fowl by some +writers. It is more slender in the body, the neck, the bill, and the +legs, than the other varieties, and the colors, particularly of the +cock, are very bright and showy. The flesh is white, tender, and +delicate, and on this account marketable; the eggs are small, and +extremely delicate. The plumage is very beautiful—a clear, dark red, +very bright, extending from the back to the extremities, while the +breast is beautifully black. The upper convex side of the wing is +equally red and black, and the whole of the tail-feathers white. The +beak and legs are black; the eyes resemble jet beads, very full and +brilliant; and the whole contour of the head gives a most ferocious +expression.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE GUELDERLAND.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo349.png" alt="Guelderlands" width="300" height="226" /> +<p class="caption">GUELDERLANDS.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349 (29)]</a></span> +The Guelderland fowl were originally imported into this country from the +north of Holland, where they are supposed to have originated. They are +very symmetrical in form, and graceful in their motions. They have one +noticeable peculiarity, which consists in the absence of a comb in +either sex. This is replaced by an indentation on the top of the head; +and from the extreme end of this, at the back, a small spike of feathers +rises. This adds greatly to the beauty of the fowl. The presence of the +male is especially dignified, and the female is little inferior in +carriage.</p> + +<p>The plumage is of a beautiful black, tinged with blue, of very rich +appearance, and bearing a brilliant gloss. The legs are black, and, in +some few instances, slightly feathered. Crosses with the Shanghae have +heavily feathered legs. The wattles are of good size in the cock, while +those of the hen are slightly less. The flesh is fine, of white color, +and of excellent flavor. The eggs are large and delicate—the shell +being thicker than in those of most other fowls—and are much prized for +their good qualities. The hens are great layers, seldom inclining to +sit. Their weight is from five pounds for the pullets, to seven pounds +for the cocks.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350 (30)]</a></span> +The Guelderlands, in short, possess all the characteristics of a perfect +breed; and in breeding them, this is demonstrated by the uniform aspect +which is observable in their descendants. They are light and active +birds, and are not surpassed, in point of beauty and utility, by any +breed known in this country. The only objection, indeed, which has been +raised against them is the tenderness of the chickens. With a degree of +care, however, equal to their value, this difficulty can be surmounted, +and the breed must be highly appreciated by all who have a taste for +beauty, and who desire fine flesh and luscious eggs.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE SPANGLED HAMBURGH.</h3> + +<p>The Spangled Hamburgh fowl are divided into two varieties, the +distinctive characteristics being slight, and almost dependent upon +color; these varieties are termed the Golden and Silver Spangled.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo350.png" alt="Hamburgh Fowls" width="300" height="304" /> +<p class="caption">HAMBURGH FOWLS.</p></div> + +<p><i>The Golden Spangled</i> is one of no ordinary beauty; it is well and very +neatly made, has a good body, and no very great offal. On the crest, +immediately above the beak, are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351 (31)]</a></span> +two small, fleshy horns, resembling, to +some extent, an abortive comb. Above this crest, and occupying the place +of a comb, is a very large brown or yellow tuft, the feathers composing +it darkening toward their extremities. Under the insertion of the lower +mandible—or that portion of the neck corresponding to the chin in +man—is a full, dark-colored tuft, somewhat resembling a beard. The +wattles are very small; the comb, as in other high-crested fowls, is +very diminutive; and the skin and flesh white. The hackles on the neck +are of a brilliant orange, or golden yellow; and the general +ground-color of the body is of the same hue, but somewhat darker. The +thighs are of a dark-brown or blackish shade, and the legs and feet are +of a bluish gray.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Silver Spangled</i> variety, the only perceptible difference is, +that the ground color is a silvery white. The extremity and a portion of +the extreme margin of each feather are black, presenting, when in a +state of rest, the appearance of regular semicircular marks, or +spangles—and hence the name, “Spangled Hamburgh;” the varieties being +termed <i>gold</i> or <i>silver</i>, according to the prevailing color being +bright yellow, or silvery white.</p> + +<p>The eggs are of moderate size, but abundant; chickens easily reared. In +mere excellence of flesh and as layers, they are inferior to the Dorking +or the Spanish. They weigh from four and a half to five and a half +pounds for the male, and three and a half for the female. The former +stands some twenty inches in height, and the latter about eighteen +inches.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352 (32)]</a></p> +<h3>THE JAVA.</h3> + +<p>The Great Java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its purity. They +are of a black or dark auburn color, with very large, thick legs, single +comb and wattles. They are good layers, and their eggs are very large +and well-flavored; their gait is slow and majestic. They are, in fact, +amongst the most valuable fowls in the country, and are frequently +described as Spanish fowls, than which nothing is more erroneous.</p> + +<p>They are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded Great +Malay, and possess about the same qualities as to excellence, but fall +rather short of them in beauty. Some, however, consider the pure Java +superior to all other large fowls, so far as beauty is concerned. Their +plumage is decidedly rich.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE JERSEY-BLUE.</h3> + +<p>The color of this variety is light-blue, sometimes approaching to dun; +the tail and wings rather shorter than those of the common fowl; its +legs are of various colors, generally black, sometimes lightly +feathered. Of superior specimens, the cocks weigh from seven to nine +pounds, and the hens from six to eight.</p> + +<p>They are evidently mongrels; and though once much esteemed, they have +been quite neglected, so far as breeding from them is concerned, since +the introduction of the purer breeds, as the Shanghaes and the +Cochin-Chinas.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE LARK-CRESTED FOWL.</h3> + +<p>This breed is sometimes confounded with the Polish fowl; but the shape +of the crest, as well as the proportions of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353 (33)]</a></span> +bird, is different. +This variety, of whatever color it may be, is of a peculiar taper-form, +inclining forward, with a moderately depressed, backward-directed crest, +and deficient in the neatness of the legs and feet so conspicuous in the +Polands; the latter are of more upright carriage and of a more +squarely-built frame. Perhaps a good distinction between the two +varieties is, that the Lark-crested have an occipital crest, and the +Poland more of a frontal one.</p> + +<p>They are of various colors: pure snow white, brown with yellow hackles, +and black. The white is, perhaps, more brilliant than is seen in any +other domesticated gallinaceous bird, being much more dazzling than that +of the White Guinea Fowl, or the White Pea Fowl. This white variety is +in great esteem, having a remarkably neat and lively appearance when +rambling about a homestead. They look very clean and attractive when +dressed for market; an old bird, cleverly trussed, will be, apparently, +as delicate and transparent in skin and flesh as an ordinary chicken. +Their feathers are also more salable than those from darker colored +fowls. They are but little, if, indeed, any, more tender than other +kinds raised near the barn-door; they are in every way preferable to the +White Dorkings.</p> + +<p>In the cocks, a single, upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the +place of the crest; the hens, too, vary in this respect, some having not +more than half a dozen feathers in their head-dress.</p> + +<p>If they were not of average merit, as to their laying and sitting +qualifications, they would not retain the favor they do with the thrifty +house-wives by whom they are chiefly cultivated.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354 (34)]</a></p> +<h3>THE MALAY.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo354.png" alt="Malays" width="300" height="314" /> +<p class="caption">MALAYS.</p></div> + +<p>This majestic bird is found on the peninsula from which it derives its +name, and, in the opinion of many, forms a connecting link between the +wild and domesticated races of fowls. Something very like them is, +indeed, still to be found in the East. This native Indian bird—the +<i>Gigantic Cock</i>, the <i>Kulm Cock</i> of Europeans—often stands considerably +more than two feet from the crown of the head to the ground. The comb +extends backward in a line with the eyes; it is thick, a little +elevated, rounded upon the top, and has almost the appearance of having +been cut off. The wattles of the under<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355 (35)]</a></span> +mandibles are comparatively small, and the throat is bare. Pale, golden-reddish hackles ornament the +head, neck, and upper part of the back, and some of these spring before +the bare part of the throat. The middle of the back and smaller +wing-coverts are deep chestnut, the webs of the feathers disunited; pale +reddish-yellow, long, drooping hackles cover the rump and base of the +tail, which last is very ample, and entirely of a glossy green, of which +color are the wing-coverts; the secondaries and quills are pale +reddish-yellow on their outer webs. All the under parts are deep glossy +blackish-green, with high reflections; the deep chestnut of the base of +the feathers appears occasionally, and gives a mottled and interrupted +appearance to those parts.</p> + +<p>The weight of the Malay, in general, exceeds that of the Cochin-China; +the male weighing, when full-grown, from eleven to twelve, and even +thirteen pounds, and the female from eight to ten pounds; height, from +twenty-six to twenty-eight inches. They present no striking uniformity +of plumage, being of all shades, from black to white; the more common +color of the female is a light reddish-yellow, with sometimes a faint +tinge of dunnish-blue, especially in the tail.</p> + +<p>The cock is frequently of a yellowish-red color, with black intermingled +in the breast, thighs, and tail. He has a small, but thick comb, +generally inclined to one side; he should be snake-headed, and free from +the slightest trace of top-knot; the wattles should be extremely small, +even in an old bird; the legs are not feathered, as in the case of the +Shanghaes, but, like them and the Cochin-Chinas, his tail is small, +compared with his size. In the female, there is scarcely any show of +comb or wattles. Their legs are long and stout; their flesh is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356 (36)]</a></span> very +well flavored, when they have been properly fattened; and their eggs are +so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of our +ordinary fowls.</p> + +<p>The Malay cock, in his perfection, is a remarkably courageous and strong +bird. His beak is very thick, and he is a formidable antagonist when +offended. His crow is loud, harsh, and prolonged, as in the case of the +Cochin-China, but broken off abruptly at the termination; this is quite +characteristic of the bird.</p> + +<p>The chickens are at first very strong, with yellow legs, and are thickly +covered with light brown down; but, by the time they are one-third +grown, the increase of their bodies has so far outstripped that of their +feathers, that they are half naked about the back and shoulders, and +extremely susceptible of cold and wet. The great secret of rearing them +is, to have them hatched very early indeed, so that they may have safely +passed through this period of unclothed adolescence during the dry, +sunny part of May and June, and reached nearly their full stature before +the midsummer rains descend.</p> + +<p>Malay hens are much used by some for hatching the eggs of turkeys—a +task for which they are well adapted in every respect but one, which is, +that they will follow their natural instinct in turning off their +chickens at the usual time, instead of retaining charge of them as long +as the mother turkey would have done. Goslings would suffer less from +such untimely desertion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Pheasant Malay.</span> This variety is highly valued by many, not on +account of its intrinsic merits, which are considerable, but because it +is believed to be a cross between the pheasant and the common fowl. This +is, however, an erroneous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357 (37)]</a></span> +opinion. Hybrids between the pheasant and the +fowl are, for the most part, absolutely sterile; when they do breed, it +is not with each other, but with the stock of one of their progenitors; +and the offspring of these either fail or assimilate to one or the other +original type. No half-bred family is perpetuated, no new breed created, +by human or volucrine agency.</p> + +<p>The Pheasant Malays are large, well-flavored, good sitters, good layers, +good mothers, and, in many points, an ornamental and desirable stock. +Some object to them as being a trifle too long in their make; but they +have a healthy look of not being over-bred, which is a recommendation to +those who rear for profit as well as pleasure. The eggs vary in size; +some are very large in summer, smooth, but not polished, sometimes +tinged with light buff, balloon-shaped, and without the zone of +irregularity. The chickens, when first hatched, are all very much alike; +yellow, with a black mark all down the back. The cock has a black tail, +with black on the neck and wings.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE PLYMOUTH ROCK.</h3> + +<p>This name has been given to a very good breed of fowls, produced by +crossing a China cock with a hen, a cross between the Fawn-colored +Dorking, the Great Malay, and the Wild Indian.</p> + +<p>At a little over a year old, the cocks stand from thirty-two to +thirty-five inches high, and weigh about ten pounds; and the pullets +from six and a half to seven pounds each. The latter commence laying +when five months old, and prove themselves very superior layers. Their +eggs are of a medium size, rich, and reddish-yellow in color. Their +plumage is rich<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358 (38)]</a></span> +and variegated; the cocks usually red or speckled, and +the pullets darkish brown. They have very fine flesh, and are fit for +the table at an early age. The legs are very large, and usually blue or +green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally having five toes upon +each foot. Some have their legs feathered, but this is not usual. They +have large and single combs and wattles, large cheeks, rather short +tails, and small wings in proportion to their bodies.</p> + +<p>They are domestic, and not so destructive to gardens as smaller fowls. +There is the same uniformity in size and general appearance, at the same +age of the chickens, as in those of the pure bloods of primary races.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE POLAND.</h3> + +<p>The Poland, or Polish fowl, is quite unknown in the country which would +seem to have suggested the name, which originated from some fancied +resemblance between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of +the feathered caps worn by the Polish soldiers.</p> + +<p>The breed of crested fowls is much esteemed by the curious, and is bred +with great care. Those desirous of propagating any singular varieties, +separate and confine the individuals, and do not suffer them to mingle +with such as have the colors different. The varieties are more esteemed +in proportion to the variety of the colors, or the contrast of the tuft +with the rest of the plumage. Although the differences of plumage are +thus preserved pretty constant, they seem to owe their origin to the +same breed, and cannot be reproduced pure without careful +superintendence. The cocks are much esteemed in Egypt, in consequence of +the excellence of their flesh, and are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359 (39)]</a></span> +so common that they are sold at +a remarkably cheap rate. They are equally abundant at the Cape of Good +Hope, where their legs are feathered.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo359.png" alt="Poland Fowls" width="300" height="295" /> +<p class="caption">POLAND FOWLS.</p></div> + +<p>The Polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way, and in a clean +and grassy place. They are certainly not so fit for the farm-yard, as +they become blinded and miserable with dirt. Care should be exercised to +procure them genuine, since there is no breed of fowls more disfigured +by mongrelism than this. They will, without any cross-breeding, +occasionally produce white stock that are very pretty, and equally good +for laying. If, however, an attempt is made to establish a separate +breed of them, they become puny and weak. It is, therefore, better for +those who wish for them to depend upon chance; every brood almost of the +black produces one white chicken, as strong and lively as the rest.</p> + +<p>These fowls are excellent for the table, the flesh being white, tender, +and juicy; but they are quite unsuitable for being reared in any +numbers, or for general purposes, since they are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360 (40)]</a></span> so capricious in their +growth, frequently remaining stationary in this respect for a whole +month, getting no larger; and this, too, when they are about a quarter +or half grown—the time of their life when they are most liable to +disease. As aviary birds, they are unrivalled among fowls. Their plumage +often requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate beauty; +the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to their health; and +their plumage improves in attractiveness with almost every month.</p> + +<p>The great merit, however, of all the Polish fowls is, that for three or +four years they continue to grow and gain in size, hardiness, and +beauty—the male birds especially. This fact certainly points out a very +wide deviation in constitution from those fowls which attain their full +stature and perfect plumage in twelve or fifteen months. The similarity +of coloring in the two sexes—almost a specific distinction of Polish +and perhaps Spanish fowls—also separates them from those breeds, like +the Game, in which the cocks and hens are remarkably dissimilar. Their +edible qualities are as superior, compared with other fowls, as their +outward apparel surpasses in elegance. They have also the reputation of +being everlasting layers, which further fits them for keeping in small +enclosures; but, in this respect, individual exceptions are often +encountered—as in the case of the Hamburghs—however truly the habit +may be ascribed to the race.</p> + +<p>There are four known varieties of the Polish fowl, one of which appears +to be lost to this country.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Black Polish.</span> This variety is of a uniform black—both cock and +hen—glossed with metallic green. The head is ornamented with a handsome +crest of white feathers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361 (41)]</a></span> +springing from a fleshy protuberance, and +fronted more or less deeply with black. The comb is merely two or three +spikes, and the wattles are rather small. Both male and female are the +same in color, except that the former has frequently narrow stripes of +white in the waving feathers of the tail, a sign, it is said, of true +breeding. The hens, also, have two or three feathers on each side of the +tail, tinged in the tip with white. They do not lay quite so early in +the spring as some varieties, especially after a hard winter; but they +are exceedingly good layers, continuing a long time without wanting to +sit, and laying rather large, very white, sub-ovate eggs. They will, +however, sit at length, and prove of very diverse dispositions; some +being excellent sitters and nurses, others heedless and spiteful.</p> + +<p>The chickens, when first hatched, are dull black, with white breasts, +and white down on the front of the head. They do not always grow and get +out of harm’s way so quickly as some other sorts, but are not +particularly tender. In rearing a brood of these fowls, some of the hens +may be observed with crests round and symmetrical as a ball, and others +in which the feathers turn all ways, and fall loosely over the eyes; and +in the cocks, also, some have the crest falling gracefully over the back +of the head, and others have the feathers turning about and standing on +end. These should be rejected, the chief beauty of the kind depending +upon such little particulars. One hen of this variety laid just a +hundred eggs, many of them on consecutive days, before wanting to +incubate; and after rearing a brood successfully, she laid twenty-five +eggs before moulting in autumn.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Golden Polands.</span> These are sometimes called Gold +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362 (42)]</a></span> Spangled, as their +plumage approaches to that of the Gold Spangled Hamburghs; but many of +the finest specimens have the feathers merely fringed with a darker +color, and the cocks, more frequently than the hens, exhibit a spotted +or spangled appearance. Many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard; +as to which the question has been raised whether it is an original +appendage to these birds or not. A distinct race, of which the muff is +one permanent characteristic, is not at present known. This appendage, +whenever introduced into the poultry-yard, is not easily got rid of; +which has caused some to suspect either that the original Polish were +beardless, or that there were two ancient races.</p> + +<p>The Golden Polands, when well-bred, are exceedingly handsome; the cock +has golden hackles, and gold and brown feathers on the back; breast and +wings richly spotted with ochre and dark brown; tail darker; large +golden and brown crest, falling back over the neck; but little comb and +wattles. The hen is richly laced with dark-brown or black on an ochre +ground; dark-spotted crest; legs light-blue, very cleanly made, and +displaying a small web between the toes, almost as proportionately large +as that in some of the waders.</p> + +<p>They are good layers, and produce fair-sized eggs. Many of them make +excellent mothers, although they cannot be induced to sit early in the +season. The chickens are rather clumsy-looking little creatures, of a +dingy-brown, with some dashes of ochre about the head, breast and wings. +They are sometimes inclined to disease in the first week of their +existence; but, if they pass this successfully, they become tolerably +hardy, though liable to come to a pause when about half-grown. It may be +noted as a peculiarity in the temper of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363 (43)]</a></span> this breed, that, if one is +caught, or attacked by any animal, the rest, whether cocks or hens, will +instantly make a furious attack upon the aggressor, and endeavor to +effect the rescue of their companion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Silver Polands.</span> These are similar to the preceding in shape and +markings, except that white, black, and gray are exchanged for ochre or +yellow, and various shades of brown. They are even more delicate in +their constitution, more liable to remain stationary at a certain point +of their adolescence, and, still more than the other varieties, require +and will repay extra care and accommodation. Their top-knots are, +perhaps, not so large, as a general thing; but they retain the same neat +bluish legs and slightly-webbed feet. The hens are much more ornamental +than the cocks; though the latter are sure to attract notice. They may, +unquestionably, be ranked among the choicest of fowls, whether their +beauty or their rarity is considered. They lay, in tolerable abundance, +eggs of moderate size, French-white, much pointed at one end; and when +they sit, acquit themselves respectably.</p> + +<p>The newly-hatched chickens are very pretty; gray, with black eyes, light +lead-colored legs, and a swelling of down on the crown of the head, +indicative of the future top-knot, which is exactly the color of a +powdered wig, and, indeed, gives the chicken the appearance of wearing +one. There is no difficulty in rearing them for the first six weeks or +two months; the critical time being the interval between that age and +their reaching the fifth or sixth month. They acquire their peculiar +distinctive features at a very early age, and are then the most elegant +little miniature fowls which can possibly be imagined. The distinction +of sex is not very manifest till they are nearly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364 (44)]</a></span> full-grown; the first +observable indication being in the tail. That of the pullet is carried +uprightly, as it ought to be; but in the cockerel, it remains depressed, +awaiting the growth of the sickle-feathers. The top-knot of the cockerel +inclines to hang more backward than that of the pullets. It is +remarkable that the Golden Polish cock produces as true Silver chickens, +and those stronger, with the Silver Polish hen, as the Silver Polish +cock would bring.</p> + +<p>The Silver Polands have all the habits of their golden companions, the +main difference being the silvery ground instead of the golden. This +variety will sometimes make its appearance even if merely its Golden +kind is bred, precisely as the Black Polish now and then produce some +pure White chickens that make very elegant birds.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Black-topped White.</span> This variety does not at present exist among us; +and some have even questioned whether it ever did. Buffon mentions them +as if extant in France in his time. An attempt has been made to obtain +them from the preceding, by acting on the imagination of the parents. +The experiment failed, though similar schemes are said to have succeeded +with animals; it proved, however, that it will not do to breed from the +White Polish as a separate breed. Being Albinos, the chickens come very +weakly, and few survive.</p> + +<p>This breed is now recoverable, probably, only by importation from Asia.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE SHANGHAE.</h3> + +<p>For all the purposes of a really good fowl—for beauty of model, good +size, and laying qualities—the thorough-bred +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365 (45)]</a></span> Shanghae is among the +best, and generally the most profitable of domestic birds. The cock, +when full-grown, stands about twenty-eight inches high, if he is a good +specimen; the female, about twenty-two or twenty-three inches. A large +comb or heavy wattles are rarely seen on the hen at any age; but the +comb of the male is high, deeply indented, and his wattles double and +large. The comb and wattles are not, however, to be regarded as the +chief characteristics of this variety, nor even its reddish-yellow +feathered leg; but the abundant, soft, and downy covering of the thighs, +hips, and region of the vent, together with the remarkably short tail, +and large mound of feathers piled over the upper part of its root, +giving rise to a considerable elevation on that part of the rump. It +should be remarked, also, that the wings are quite short and small in +proportion to the size of the fowl, and carried very high up the body, +thus exposing the whole of the thighs, and a considerable portion of the +side.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo365.png" alt="Shanghaes" width="350" height="231" /> +<p class="caption">SHANGHAES.</p></div> + +<p>These characteristics are not found, in the same degree, in any other +fowl. The peculiar arrangement of feathers gives the Shanghae in +appearance, what it has in reality—a greater depth of quarter, in +proportion to the brisket, than any other fowl.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366 (46)]</a></span> +As to the legs, they are not very peculiar. The color is usually +reddish-white, or flesh-color, or reddish-yellow, mostly covered down +the outside, even to the end of the toes, with feathers. This last, +however, is not always the case. The plumage of the thorough-bred is +remarkably soft and silky, or rather downy; and is, in the opinion of +many, equally as good for domestic purposes as that of the goose. The +feathers are certainly quite as fine and soft, if not as abundant.</p> + +<p>In laying qualities, the pure Shanghae equals, if it does not excel, any +other fowl. The Black Poland, or the Bolton Gray, may, perhaps, lay a +few more eggs in the course of a year, in consequence of not so +frequently inclining to sit; but their eggs are not so rich and +nutritious. A pullet of this breed laid one hundred and twenty eggs in +one hundred and twenty-five days, then stopped six days, then laid +sixteen eggs more, stopped four days, and again continued her laying. +The eggs are generally of a pale yellow, or nankeen color, not +remarkably large, compared with the size of the fowl, and generally +blunt at the ends. The comb is commonly single, though, in some +specimens, there is a slight tendency to rose.</p> + +<p>The flesh of this fowl is tender, juicy, and unexceptionable in every +respect. Taking into consideration the goodly size of the +Shanghae—weighing, as the males do, at maturity, from ten to twelve +pounds, and the females from seven and a half to eight and a half, and +the males and females of six months, eight and six pounds +respectively—the economical uses to which its soft, downy feathers may +be applied, its productiveness, hardiness, and its quiet and docile +temper, this variety must occupy, and deservedly so, a high rank among +our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367 (47)]</a></span> +domestic fowls; and the more it is known, the better will it be +appreciated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo367.png" alt="White Shanghaes" width="300" height="322" /> +<p class="caption">WHITE SHANGHAES.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">The White Shanghae.</span> This variety is entirely white, with the legs +usually feathered, and differ in no material respect from the red, +yellow, and Dominique, except in color. The legs are yellowish, or +reddish-yellow, and sometimes of flesh-color. Many prefer them to all +others. The eggs are of a nankeen, or dull yellow color, and blunt at +both ends.</p> + +<p>It is claimed by the friends of this variety that they are larger and +more quiet than other varieties, that their flesh is much superior, +their eggs larger, and the hens more profitable. Being more quiet in +their habits, and less inclined to ramble,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368 (48)]</a></span> +the hens are invaluable as +incubators and nurses; and the mildness of their disposition makes them +excellent foster-mothers, as they never injure the chickens belonging to +other hens.</p> + +<p>These fowls will rank among the largest coming from China, and are very +thrifty in our climate. A cock of this variety attained a weight of +eight pounds, at about the age of eight months, and the pullets of the +same brood were proportionably large. They are broad on the back and +breast, with a body well rounded up; the plumage white, with a downy +softness—in the latter respect much like the feathering of the Bremen +goose; the tail-feathers short and full; the head small, surmounted by a +small, single, serrated comb; wattles long and wide, overlaying the +cheek-piece, which is also large, and extends back on the neck; and the +legs of a yellow hue, approaching a flesh-color, and feathered to the +ends of the toes.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE SILVER PHEASANT.</h3> + +<p>This variety of fowls is remarkable for great brilliancy of plumage and +diversity of colors. On a white ground, which is usually termed silvery, +there is an abundance of black spots. The feathers on the upper part of +the head are much longer than the rest, and unite together in a tuft. +They have a small, double comb, and their wattles are also comparatively +small. A remarkable peculiarity of the cock is, that there is a spot of +a blue color on the cheeks, and a range of feathers under the throat, +which has the appearance of a collar.</p> + +<p>The hen is a smaller bird, with plumage similar to that of the cock, and +at a little distance seems to be covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369 (49)]</a></span> +scales. On the head is a +top-knot of very large size, which droops over it on every side. The +Silver Pheasants are beautiful and showy birds, and chiefly valuable as +ornamental appendages to the poultry-yard.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE SPANISH.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo369.png" alt="Spanish Fowls" width="300" height="300" /> +<p class="caption">SPANISH FOWLS.</p></div> + +<p>This name is said to be a misnomer, as the breed in question was +originally brought by the Spaniards from the West Indies; and, although +subsequently propagated in Spain, it has for some time been very +difficult to procure good specimens from that country. From Spain, they +were taken in considerable numbers into Holland, where they have been +carefully bred, for many years; and it is from that quarter that our +best fowls of this variety come.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370 (50)]</a></span> +The Spanish is a noble race of fowls, possessing many merits; of +spirited and animated appearance; of considerable size; excellent for +the table, both in whiteness of flesh and skin, and also in flavor; and +laying exceedingly large eggs in considerable numbers. Among birds of +its own breed it is not deficient in courage; though it yields, without +showing much fight, to those which have a dash of game blood in their +veins. It is a general favorite in all large cities, for the additional +advantage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its plumage.</p> + +<p>The thorough-bred birds should be entirely black, as far as feathers are +concerned; and when in high condition, display a greenish, metallic +lustre. The combs of both cock and hen are exceedingly large, of a vivid +and most brilliant scarlet; that of the hen droops over upon one side. +Their most singular feature is a large, white patch, or ear-hole, on the +cheek—in some specimens extending over a great part of the face—of a +fleshy substance, similar to the wattle; it is small in the female, but +large and very conspicuous in the male. This marked contrast of black, +bright red, and white, makes the breed of the Spanish cock as handsome +as that of any variety which we have; in the genuine breed, the whole +form is equally good.</p> + +<p>Spanish hens are celebrated as good layers, and produce very large, +quite white eggs, of a peculiar shape, being very thick at both ends, +and yet tapering off a little at each. They are, by no means, good +mothers of families, even when they do sit—which they will not often +condescend to do—proving very careless, and frequently trampling half +their brood under foot. The inconveniences of this habit are, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371 (51)]</a></span> +easily obviated by causing the eggs to be hatched by some more motherly +hen.</p> + +<p>This variety of fowl has frequently been known to lose nearly all the +feathers in its body, besides the usual quantity on the neck, wings, and +tail; and, if they moult late, and the weather is severe, they feel it +much. This must often happen in the case of an “everlasting layer;” for +if the system of a bird is exhausted by the unremitting production of +eggs, it cannot contain within itself the material for supplying the +growth of feathers. They have not, even yet, become acclimated in this +country, since continued frost at any time is productive of much injury +to their combs; frequently causing mortification in the end, which at +times terminates in death. A warm poultry-house, high feeding, and care +that they do not remain too long exposed to severe weather, are the best +means of preventing this disfigurement. Some birds are occasionally +produced, handsomely streaked with red on the hackle and back. This is +no proof of bad breeding, if other points are right.</p> + +<p>The chickens are large, as would be expected from such eggs, entirely +shining black, except a pinafore of white on the breast—in which +respect they are precisely like the Black Polish chickens—and a slight +sprinkling under the chin, with sometimes also a little white round the +back and eyes; their legs and feet are black. Many of them do not get +perfectly feathered till they are three-fourths grown; and, therefore, +to have this variety come to perfection in a country where the summers +are much shorter than in their native climate, they must be hatched +early in spring, so that they may be well covered with plumage before +the cold rains of autumn. There is,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372 (52)]</a></span> +however, a great lack of uniformity +in the time when they get their plumage; the pullets are always earlier +and better feathered than the cockerels—the latter being generally half +naked for a considerable time after being hatched, though some feather +tolerably well at an early age.</p> + +<p>The <i>Black</i> is not the only valuable race of Spanish fowl; there is, +also, the <i>Gray</i>, or <i>Speckled</i>, of a slaty gray color, with white legs. +Their growth is so rapid, and their size, eventually, so large, that +they are remarkably slow in obtaining their feathers. Although well +covered with down when first hatched, they look almost naked when +half-grown, and should, therefore, be hatched as early in spring as +possible. The cross between the Pheasant-Malay and the Spanish produces +a particularly handsome fowl.</p> + +<p>As early pullets, for laying purposes in the autumn and winter after +they are hatched, no fowls can surpass the Spanish. They are believed, +also, to be more precocious in their constitution; and consequently to +lay at an earlier age than the pullets of other breeds.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS.</h3> + +<p>Fowls are classed by modern naturalists as follows:</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Division.</span> <i>Vertebrata</i>—possessing a back bone.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Class.</span> <i>Aves</i>—birds.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Order.</span> <i>Rasores</i>—scrapers.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Family.</span> <i>Phasianidæ</i>—Pheasants.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Genus.</span> <i>Gallus</i>—the cock.</p> + +<p>Birds, as well as quadrupeds, may be divided into two great classes, +according to their food: the Carnivorous and the Graminivorous. Fowls +belong, strictly speaking, to the latter.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373 (53)]</a></span> +In the structure of the <i>digestive organs</i>, birds exhibit a great +uniformity. The œsophagus, which is often very muscular, is dilated +into a large sac—called the <i>crop</i>—at its entrance into the breast; +this is abundantly supplied with glands, and serves as a species of +first stomach, in which the food receives a certain amount of +preparation before being submitted to the action of the proper digestive +organs. A little below the crop, the narrow œsophagus is again +slightly dilated, forming what is called the <i>ventriculus +succenturiatus</i>, the walls of which are very thick, and contain a great +number of glands, which secrete the gastric juice. Below this, the +intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the <i>gizzard</i>, in +which the process of digestion is carried still farther. In the +graminivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and +muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny <i>epithelium</i>, +serving for the trituration of the food. The intestine is rather short, +but usually exhibits several convolutions; the large intestine is always +furnished with two <i>corea</i>. It opens by a semicircular orifice into the +<i>cloaca</i>, which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative +organs. The liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a +gall-bladder. The pancreas is lodged in a kind of loop, formed by the +small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. There are also +large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, which pour their +secretion into that cavity.</p> + +<p>The <i>organs of circulation and respiration</i> in birds are adapted to +their peculiar mode of life; but are not separated from the abdominal +cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mammalia. The heart consists of four +cavities distinctly separated—two auricles and two ventricles—so that +the venous and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374 (54)]</a></span> +arterial blood can never mix in that organ; and the +whole of the blood returned from the different parts of the body passes +through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries. +The blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle, +from which it passes through a tabular opening into the right ventricle, +and is thence driven into the lungs. From these organs it returns +through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, and passes thence +into the ventricles of the same side, by the contraction of which it is +driven into the aorta. This soon divides into two branches, which, by +their subdivision, give rise to the arteries of the body.</p> + +<p><i>The jaws</i>, or mandibles, are sheathed in a horny case, usually of a +conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. In most birds, the +sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp; but in some they are +denticulated along the margins. The two anterior members of the body are +extended into wings. The beak is used instead of hands; and such is the +flexibility of the vertebral column, that the bird is able to touch with +its beak every part of its body. This curious and important result is +obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebræ of the neck, which, in the +swan, consists of twenty-three bones, and in the domestic cock, +thirteen. The vertebræ of the back are seven to eleven; the ribs never +exceed ten on each side.</p> + +<p>The clothing of the skin consists of <i>feathers</i>, which in their nature +and development resemble hair, but are of a more complicated structure. +A perfect feather consists of the <i>shaft</i>, a central stem, which is +tubular at the base, where it is inserted into the skin, and the +<i>barbs</i>, or fibres, which form the <i>webs</i> on each side of the shaft. The +two principal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375 (55)]</a></span> +modifications of feathers are <i>quills</i> and <i>plumes</i>; the +former confined to the wings and tail, the latter constituting the +general clothing of the body. Besides the common feathers, the skin of +many birds is covered with a thick coating of down, which consists of a +multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction; each of these down +feathers is composed of a very small, soft tube imbedded in the skin, +from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments, +without any central shaft. These filaments are very slender, and bear on +each side a series of still more delicate filaments, which may be +regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers. This +downy coat fulfils the same office as the soft, woolly fur of many +quadrupeds; the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long, smooth +hair by which the fur of these animals is concealed. The skin also bears +many hair-like appendages, which are usually scattered sparingly over +its surface; they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and +usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence +of a few minute barbs toward the apex.</p> + +<p>Once or twice in the course of a year the whole plumage of the bird is +renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called <i>moulting</i>. The +base of the quills is covered by a series of large feathers, called the +<i>wing coverts</i>; and the feathers of the tail are furnished with numerous +muscles, by which they can be spread out and folded up like a fan. In +the aquatic birds—like the goose, the duck, and the swan—the feathers +are constantly lubricated by an oily secretion, which completely +excludes the water.</p> + +<p>In their reproduction, birds are strictly oviparous. The <i>eggs</i> are +always enclosed in a hard shell, consisting of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376 (56)]</a></span> +calcareous matter, and +birds almost invariably devote their whole attention, during the +breeding season, to the hatching of their eggs and the development of +their offspring; sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them +the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and +attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter +are in a condition to shift for themselves.</p> + +<p>In the structure and development of the egg there is a great uniformity; +but there is a remarkable difference in the condition of the young bird +at the moment of hatching. In the class under consideration, the young +are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell; +and the only care of the parents is devoted to protecting their +offspring from danger, and leading them into those places where they are +likely to meet with food.</p> + +<p>The <i>longevity</i> of birds is various, and, unlike the case of men and +quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they +acquire maturity. A few months, or even a few weeks, suffice to bring +them to their perfection of stature, instincts, and powers. Domestic +fowls live to the age of twenty years; geese, fifty; while swans exceed +a century.</p> + +<p>The order <i>Rasores</i> includes the numerous species of <i>gallinaceous +birds</i>, and the term is applied to them from their habit of scratching +in the ground in search of food. They are generally marked by a small +head, stout legs, plumage fine, the males usually adorned with +magnificent colors, and the tails often developed in a manner to render +the appearance extremely elegant. The wings are usually short and weak, +and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377 (57)]</a></span> prolonged. The +<i>corla</i> of this order are larger than in any other birds.</p> + +<p>The species are found in almost all parts of the world, from the tropics +to the frozen regions of the north; but the finest and most typical +kinds are inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of Asia. They +feed principally on seeds, fruit, and herbage, but also, to a +considerable extent, on insects, worms, and other small animals. Their +general habitation is on the ground, where they run with great celerity, +but many of them roost on trees. They are mostly polygamous in their +habits, the males being usually surrounded by a considerable troop of +females; and to these, with a few exceptions, the whole business of +incubation is generally left. The nest is always placed on the ground in +some sheltered situation, and very little art is exhibited in its +construction; indeed, an elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the +young are able to run about and feed almost as soon as they have left +the egg; and at night or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath +the wings of their mother. Most of these species are esteemed for the +table, and many of them are among the most celebrated of game birds.</p> + +<p>The <i>pheasant family</i>, of this order, includes the most beautiful of the +rasorial birds; indeed, some of them may, perhaps, be justly regarded as +pre-eminent in this respect over all the rest of their class. In these, +the bill is of moderate size and compressed, with the upper mandible +arched to the tip, where it overhangs the lower one; the <i>tarsi</i> are of +moderate length and thickness, usually armed with one or two spurs; the +toes are moderate, and the hinder one short and elevated; the wings are +rather short and rounded, and the tail more or less +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378 (58)]</a></span> elongated and +broad, but frequently wedge-shaped and pointed. The head is rarely +feathered all over; the naked skin is sometimes confined to a space +about the eye, but generally occupies a greater portion of the surface, +occasionally covering the whole head, and even a part of the neck, and +frequently forming combs and wattles of very remarkable forms. In some +species, the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers.</p> + +<p>The birds of this family are, for the most part, indigenous to the +Asiatic continent and islands, from which, however, several species have +been introduced into other parts of the globe. The Guinea Fowl of +Africa, and the Turkeys of America, are almost the only instances of +wild Phasianidous birds out of Asia. Some species, such as the Domestic +Fowl, the Peacock, the Turkey, and the Guinea Fowl, have been reduced to +a state of complete domestication, and are distributed pretty generally +over the world.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE GUINEA FOWL.</h3> + +<p>This bird belongs to the same division, class, order, and family as the +Domestic Fowl; but is assigned by naturalists to the genus Numida, or +Numidian. It is indigenous to the tropical parts of Africa, and in a +wild state, Guinea Fowls live in flocks, in woods, preferring marshy +places, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds; they roost on trees; the +nest is made on the ground, and usually contains as many as twenty eggs. +They have been propagated in the Island of Jamaica to such an extent as +to have become wild, and are shot like other game. They do much damage +to the crops, and are therefore destroyed by various means; one of which +is, to get them tipsy by strewing corn steeped in rum, and mixed with +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379 (59)]</a></span> +intoxicating juice of the cassava, upon the ground; the birds +devour this, and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo379.png" alt="The Guinea Fowl" width="300" height="271" /> +<p class="caption">THE GUINEA FOWL.</p></div> + +<p>The Guinea Fowl, to a certain degree, unites the characteristics of the +pheasant and the turkey; having the delicate shape of the one, and the +bare head of the other. There are several varieties: the White, the +Spotted, the Madagascar, and the Crested. The latter is not so large as +the common species; the head and neck are bare, of a dull blue, shaded +with red, and, instead of the casque, it has an ample crest of +hair-like, disunited feathers, of a bluish black, reaching as far +forward as the nostrils, but, in general, turned backward. The whole +plumage, except the quills, is of a bluish black, covered with small +grayish spots, sometimes four, sometimes six on each feather.</p> + +<p>This fowl is not a great favorite among many keepers of poultry, being +so unfortunate as to have gained a much worse reputation than it really +deserves, from having been occasionally guilty of a few trifling faults. +It is, however, useful, ornamental, and interesting during its life; +and, when dead, a desirable addition to the table, at a time when all +other poultry is scarce.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380 (60)]</a></span> +The best way to commence keeping Guineas is to procure a sitting of eggs +which can be depended upon for freshness, and if possible, from a place +where but a single pair is kept. A Bantam hen is the best mother; she is +lighter, and less likely to injure them by treading on them than a +full-sized fowl. She will cover nine eggs, and incubation will last a +month. The young are excessively pretty. When first hatched, they are so +strong and active as to appear not to require the attention which is +really necessary to rear them. Almost as soon as they are dry from the +moisture of the egg, they will peck each other’s toes, as if supposing +them to be worms, scramble with each other for a crumb of bread, and +domineer over any little Bantam or chicken that may chance to have been +hatched at the same time with themselves. No one, ignorant of the fact, +would guess, from their appearance, to what species of bird they +belonged; their orange-red bills and legs, and the dark, zebra-like +stripes with which they are regularly marked from head to tail, bear no +traces of the speckled plumage of their parents.</p> + +<p>Of all known birds, the Guinea fowl is, perhaps, the most prolific of +eggs. Week after week, and month after month, there are very few +intermissions, if any, of the daily deposit. Even the process of +moulting is sometimes insufficient to draw off the nutriment which it +takes to make feathers instead of eggs; and the poor thing will +sometimes go about half-naked in the chilly autumn months, unable to +refrain from its diurnal visit to the nest, and consequently unable to +furnish itself with a new outer garment. The body of the Guinea hen may +be regarded, in fact, as a most admirable machine for producing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381 (61)]</a></span> eggs +out of insects, grain, and vegetables, garbage, or whatever material an +omnivorous creature can appropriate.</p> + +<p>Its normal plumage is singularly beautiful, being spangled over with an +infinity of white spots on a black ground, shaded with gray and brown. +The spots vary from the size of a pea to extreme minuteness. The black +and white occasionally change places, causing the bird to appear covered +with a net of lace.</p> + +<p>The white variety is not uncommon, and is said to be equally hardy and +profitable with the usual kind; but the peculiar beauty of the original +plumage is, certainly, all exchanged for a dress of not the purest +white. It is doubtful how long either this or the former variety would +remain permanent; though, probably, but for a few generations. Pied +birds blotched with patches of white, are frequent, but are not +comparable, in point of beauty, with those of the original wild color.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE PEA FOWL.</h3> + +<p>This bird is assigned to the genus <i>paro</i>, or peacock—the division, +class, or sex, and family, being the same as the preceding. The male of +this species is noted for its long, lustrous tail, which it occasionally +spreads, glittering with hundreds of jewel-like eye-spots, producing an +unrivalled effect of grace and beauty. The form of the bird is also +exceedingly elegant, and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich +metallic tints; that of the neck, particularly, being of a fine deep +blue, tinged with golden green. The female, however, is of a much more +sober hue, her whole plumage being usually of a brownish color. The +voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382 (62)]</a></span> +the beauty of its external appearance, consisting of a harsh, disagreeable cry, not unlike +the word <i>paon</i>, which is the French name of the bird.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo382.png" alt="The Pea Fowl" width="300" height="306" /> +<p class="caption">THE PEA FOWL.</p></div> + +<p>Although naturalized as a domestic bird in Europe and America, the pea +fowl is a native of India, where it is still found abundantly in a wild +state; and the wild specimens are said to be more brilliant than those +bred in captivity. The date of its introduction into England is not +known; but the first peacocks appear to have been brought into Europe by +Alexander the Great, although these birds were among the articles +imported into Judea by the fleets of Solomon. They reached Rome toward +the end of the republic, and their costliness soon caused them to be +regarded as one of the greatest luxuries of the table, though the +moderns find them dry and leathery. This, perhaps, as much as the desire +of ostentation, may have induced the extravagance of Vitellius and +Heliogabulus, who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and +tongues of peacocks at their feasts. In Europe, during the middle ages, +the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill of fare of grand +entertainments, at which it was served with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383 (63)]</a></span> +the greatest pomp and magnificence. And during the period of chivalry, it was usual for +knights to make vows of enterprise on these occasions, “before the +peacock and the ladies.” At present, however, the bird is kept entirely +on account of the beauty of its appearance.</p> + +<p>In a state of nature, pea fowl frequent jungles and wooded localities, +feeding upon grain, fruits, and insects. They are polygamous, and the +females make their nests upon the ground among bushes; the nest is +composed of grass, and the number of eggs laid is said to be five or +six. They roost in high trees, and, even in captivity, their inclination +to get into an elevated position frequently manifests itself; and they +may often be seen perched upon high walls, or upon the ridges of +buildings.</p> + +<p>The latter characteristic is, indirectly, one reason why many are +disinclined to keep pea fowl in a domestic state. Their decided +determination so to roost prevents such a control being exercised over +them as would restrain them from mischief, until an eye could be kept on +their movements; and, consequently, they commit many depredations upon +gardens, stealing off to their work of plunder at the first dawn, or at +the most unexpected moments. Their cunning indeed is such that, if +frequently driven away from the garden at any particular hour of the day +or evening, they will never be found there, after a certain time, at +that special hour, but will invariably make their inroads at day-break. +Many have tried, as a last resort, to eject them with every mark of +scorn and insult, such as harsh words, the cracking of whips, and the +throwing of harmless brooms; but they remain incorrigible +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384 (64)]</a></span> marauders, +indifferent to this disrespectful usage, and careless of severe rebuke.</p> + +<p>A mansion, therefore, where the fruit and vegetable garden is at a +distance, is almost the only place where they can be kept without daily +vexation. The injury they do to flowers is comparatively trifling; +though, like the Guinea-fowl, they are great eaters of buds, cutting +them out cleanly from the <i>axillae</i> of leaves. They must likewise have a +dusting-hole, which is large and unsightly; but this can be provided for +them in some nook out of the way; and by feeding and encouragement, they +will soon be taught to dispose themselves into a pleasing spectacle, at +whatever point of view may be deemed desirable. No one with a very +limited range should attempt to keep them at all, unless confined in an +aviary. Where they can be kept at large, they should be collected in +considerable numbers, that their dazzling effects may be as impressive +as possible.</p> + +<p>A wanton destructiveness toward the young of other poultry is also +charged upon them. Relative to this, however, statements differ; some +contending that such instances of cruelty constitute the exceptions, and +not the rule.</p> + +<p>The hen does not lay till her third summer; but she then seems to have +an instinctive fear of her mate, manifested by the secrecy with which +she selects the place for her nest; nor, if the eggs are disturbed, will +she go there again. She lays from four or five to seven. If these are +taken, she will frequently lay a second time during the summer; and the +plan is recommended to those who are anxious to increase their stock. +She sits from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. A common hen will hatch +and rear the young; but the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385 (65)]</a></span> +objection lies against her performing +that office, except in very fine, long summers, for the pea fowl as for +turkeys—that the young require to be brooded longer than the hen is +conveniently able to do. A turkey will prove a much better foster-mother +in every respect. The peahen should, of course, be permitted to take +charge of one set of eggs. Even without such assistance, she will be +tolerably successful.</p> + +<p>The same wise provision of Nature noticed in the case of the Guinea fowl +is evinced in a still greater degree in the little pea chickens. Their +native jungle—tall, dense, sometimes impervious, swarming with reptile, +quadruped, and even insect, enemies—would be a most dangerous +habitation for a little tender thing that could merely run and squall. +Accordingly, they escape from the egg with their quill-feathers very +highly developed. In three days, they will fly up, and perch upon any +thing three feet high; in a fortnight, they will roost on trees, or the +tops of sheds; and in a month or six weeks, they will reach the ridge of +a barn, if there are any intermediate low stables or other buildings to +help them to mount from one to the other.</p> + +<p>There are two varieties of the common pea fowl: the <i>pied</i> and the +<i>white</i>. The first has irregular patches of white about it, like the +pied Guinea fowl, and the remainder of the plumage resembling the +original sorts; the white have the ocellated spots on the tail faintly +visible in certain lights. These last are tender, and much prized by +those who prefer variety to real beauty. They are occasionally produced +by birds of the common kind, in cases where no intercourse with other +white birds can have taken place. In one instance, in the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386 (66)]</a></span> brood, +whose parents were both of the usual colors, there were two of the +common sort, and one white cock, and one white hen.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE TURKEY.</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The Wild Turkey.</span> The turkey belongs to the genus <i>meleagris</i>, and, +though now known as a domestic fowl in most civilized countries, was +confined to America until after the discovery of that country by +Columbus. It was probably introduced into Europe by the Spaniards about +the year 1530. It was found in the forests of North America, when the +country was first settled, from the Isthmus of Darien to Canada, being +then abundant even in New England; at present, a few are found in the +mountains of Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey; in the Western and +the Southwestern States they are still numerous, though constantly +diminishing before the extending and increasing settlements.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo386.png" alt="The Wild Turkey" width="300" height="359" /> +<p class="caption">THE WILD TURKEY.</p></div> + +<p>The wild male bird measures about three feet and a half, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387 (67)]</a></span> nearly four +feet, in length, and almost six in expanse of the wings, and weighs from +fifteen to forty pounds. The skin of the head is of a bluish color, as +is also the upper part of the neck, and is marked with numerous reddish, +warty elevations, with a few black hairs scattered here and there. On +the under part of the neck, the skin hangs down loosely, and forms a +sort of wattle; and from the point where the bill commences, and the +forehead terminates, arises a fleshy protuberance, with a small tuft of +hair at the extremity, which becomes greatly elongated when the bird is +excited; and at the lower part of the neck is a tuft of black hair, +eight or nine inches in length.</p> + +<p>The feathers are, at the base, of a bright dusky tinge, succeeded by a +brilliant metallic band, which changes, according to the point whence +the light falls upon it, to bronze, copper, violet, or purple; and the +tip is formed by a narrow, black, velvety band. This last marking is +absent from the neck and breast. The color of the tail is brown, mottled +with black, and crossed with numerous lines of the latter color; near +the tip is a broad, black band, then a short mottled portion, and then a +broad band of dingy yellow. The wings are white, banded closely with +black, and shaded with brownish yellow, which deepens in tint toward the +back. The head is very small, in proportion to the size of the body; the +legs and feet are strongly made, and furnished with blunt spurs, about +an inch long, and of a dusky reddish color; the bill is reddish, and +brown-colored at the tip.</p> + +<p>The female is less in size; her legs are destitute of spurs; her neck +and head are less naked, being furnished with short, dirty, gray +feathers; the feathers on the back of the neck have brownish tips, +producing on that part a brown, longitudinal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388 (68)]</a></span> band. She also, +frequently, but not invariably, wants the tuft of feathers on the +breast. Her prevailing color is a dusky gray, each feather having a +metallic band, less brilliant than that of the cock, then a blackish +band, and a grayish fringe. Her whole color is, as usual among birds, +duller than that of the cock; the wing-feathers display the white, and +have no bands; the tail is similarly colored to that of the cock. When +young, the sexes are so much alike that it is not easy to discern the +difference between them; and the cock acquires his beauty only by +degrees, his plumage not arriving at perfection until the fourth or +fifth year.</p> + +<p>The habits of these birds in their native wilds are exceedingly curious. +The males, called <i>Gobblers</i>, associate in parties of from ten to a +hundred, and seek their food apart from the females, which either go +about singly with their young, at that time about two-thirds grown, or +form troops with other females and their families, sometimes to the +number of seventy or eighty. These all avoid the old males, who attack +and destroy the young, whenever they can, by reiterated blows upon the +skull. But all parties travel in the same direction, and on foot, unless +the dog or the hunter or a river on their line of march compels them to +take wing. When about to cross a river, they select the highest +eminences, that their flight may be more sure, and in such positions +they sometimes stay for a day or more, as if in consultation. The males +upon such occasions gobble obstreperously, strutting with extraordinary +importance, as if to animate their companions; and the females and the +young assume much of the same pompous manner, and spread their tails as +they move silently around. Having mounted, at length, to the tops of the +highest trees,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389 (69)]</a></span> +the assembled multitude, at the signal note of their +leader, wing their way to the opposite shore. The old and fat birds, +contrary to what might be expected, cross without difficulty, even when +the river is a mile in width; but the wings of the young and the meagre, +and, of course, those of the weak, frequently fail them before they have +completed their passage, when they drop in, and are forced to swim for +their lives, which they do cleverly enough, spreading their tails for a +support, closing their wings, stretching out their necks, and striking +out quickly and strongly with their feet. All, however, do not succeed +in such attempts, and the weaker often perish.</p> + +<p>The wild turkeys feed on maize, all sorts of berries, fruits, grasses, +and beetles; tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards, are occasionally found +in their crops. The pecan nut is a favorite food, and so is the acorn, +on which last they fatten rapidly. About the beginning of October, while +the mast still hangs on the trees, they gather together in flocks, +directing their course to the rich bottom-lands, and are then seen in +great numbers on the Ohio and Mississippi. This is the <i>turkey-month</i> of +the Indians. When they have arrived at the land of abundance, they +disperse in small, promiscuous flocks of both sexes and every age, +devouring all the mast as they advance. Thus they pass the autumn and +winter, becoming comparatively familiar after their journeys, when they +venture near plantations and farm-houses. They have even been known, on +such occasions, to enter stables and corn-cribs in quest of food. +Numbers are killed in the winter, and preserved in a frozen state for +distant markets.</p> + +<p>The beginning of March is the pairing season, for a short time previous +to which the females separate from their mates,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390 (70)]</a></span> +and shun them, though the latter pertinaciously follow them, gobbling loudly. The sexes roost +apart, but at no great distance, so that when the female utters a call, +every male within hearing responds, rolling note after note in the most +rapid succession; not as when spreading the tail and strutting near the +hen, but in a voice resembling that of the tame turkey when he hears any +unusual or frequently-repeated noise.</p> + +<p>Where the turkeys are numerous, the woods, from one end to the other, +sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with this remarkable voice of +their wooing, uttered responsively from their roosting-places. This is +continued for about an hour; and, on the rising of the sun, they +silently descend from their perches, and the males begin to strut for +the purpose of winning the admiration of their mates.</p> + +<p>If the call of a female be given from the ground, the males in the +vicinity fly toward the individual, and, whether they perceive her or +not, erect and spread their tails, throw the head backward, and distend +the comb and wattles, shout pompously, and rustle their wings and +body-feathers, at the same moment ejecting a puff of air from the lungs. +While thus occupied, they occasionally halt to look out for the female, +and then resume their strutting and puffing, moving with as much +rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit. During this ceremonious +approach, the males often encounter each other, and desperate battles +ensue, when the conflict is only terminated by the flight or death of +the vanquished. The usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the +conqueror, who is followed by one or more females, that roost near him, +if not upon the same tree, until they begin to lay, when their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391 (71)]</a></span> habits +are altered, with the view of saving their eggs, which the male breaks, +if he can get at them. These are usually from nine to fifteen in number, +sometimes twenty, whitish and spotted with brown, like those of the +domestic bird. The nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the +ground, sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes on the fallen top of a dead +leafy tree, under a thicket of sumach or briers, or by the side of a +log. Whenever the female leaves the nest, she covers it with leaves, so +as to screen it from observation. She is a very close sitter, and when +she has chosen a spot will seldom leave it, on account of its being +discovered by a human intruder. Should she find one of her eggs, +however, sucked by a snake, or other enemy, she abandons the nest +forever. When the eggs are near hatching, she will not forsake her nest +while life remains.</p> + +<p>The females are particularly attentive to their young, which are very +sensitive to the effects of damp; and consequently wild turkeys are +always scarce after a rainy season. The flesh of the wild turkey is much +superior to that of the domestic bird; yet the flesh of such of the +latter as have been suffered to roam at large in the woods and in the +plains is, in no respect, improved by this partially wild mode of life.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.</h3> + +<p>The origin of the popular name, turkey, appears to be the confusion at +first unaccountably subsisting relative to the identity of the bird with +the Guinea fowl, which was still scarce at the time of the introduction +of the turkey. Some, however, say that the name arose from the proud and +<i>Turkish</i> strut of the cock. There is a question whether the domestic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392 (72)]</a></span> +turkey is actually a second and distinct species, or merely a variety of +the wild bird, owing its diversity of aspect to circumstances dependent +on locality, and consequent change of habit, combined with difference of +climate and other important causes, which are known in the case of other +animals to produce such remarkable effects.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo392.png" alt="The Domestic Turkey" width="300" height="254" /> +<p class="caption">THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.</p></div> + +<p>The <i>varieties</i> of the domesticated turkey are not very distinct; and as +to their relative value, it is, perhaps, difficult to give any decisive +opinion. Some suppose that the <i>white</i> turkey is the most robust, and +most easily fattened. Experience has, however, shown to the contrary. +The pure white are very elegant creatures; and though very tender to +rear, are not so much so as the white pea fowl. Most birds, wild as well +as tame, occasionally produce perfectly white individuals, of more +delicate constitution than their parents. The selection and pairing of +such have probably been the means of establishing and keeping up this +breed. With all care, they will now and then produce speckled birds and +so show a tendency to return to the normal plumage. It is remarkable +that in specimens which are, in other respects, snow-white, the tuft on +the breast remains coal-black, appearing, in the hens, like a tail of +ermine, and so showing us a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393 (73)]</a></span> +great ornament. The head and caruncles on +the neck of the male are, when excited, of the same blue and scarlet +hues. The bird is truly beautiful, with its snowy and trembling flakes +of plumage thus relieved with small portions of black, blue, and +scarlet. They have one merit—they dress most temptingly white for +market; but they are unsuited for mirey, smokey, or clayey situations, +and show and thrive best where they have a range of clean, short +pasture, on a light or chalky subsoil.</p> + +<p>The <i>bronze</i> and <i>copper-colored</i> varieties are generally undersized, +and are among the most difficult of all to rear; but their flesh is, +certainly, very delicate, and, perhaps, more so than that of other +kinds—a circumstance, however, that may partly result from their far +greater delicacy of constitution, and the consequent extra trouble +devoted to their management.</p> + +<p>The <i>brown</i> and <i>ashy-gray</i> are not particularly remarkable; but the +<i>black</i> are decidedly superior, in every respect, not only as regards +greater hardiness, and a consequent greater facility of rearing, but as +acquiring flesh more readily, and that, too, of the very best and +primest quality. Those of this color appear also to be far less removed +than the others from the original wild stock. Fortunately, the black +seems to be the favorite color of Nature; and black turkeys are produced +far more abundantly than those of any other hue.</p> + +<p>The turkey is a most profitable bird, since it can almost wholly provide +for itself about the roads; snails, slugs, and worms are among the +number of its dainties, and the nearest stream serves to slake its +thirst. To the farmer, however, it is often a perfect nuisance, from its +love of grain; and should,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394 (74)]</a></span> +therefore, be kept in the yard until all +corn is too strong in the root to present any temptation.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding the separation which, with the exception of certain +seasons, subsists between the cock and hen turkey in a wild state, they +have been taught to feed and live amiably together in a state of +domesticity. The former, however, retains sufficient of his hereditary +propensities to give an occasional sly blow to a froward chicken, but +that very seldom of a serious or malicious character.</p> + +<p>One reason why the turkeys seen in poultry-yards do not vie in splendor +of plumage with their untamed brethren is, that they are not allowed to +live long enough. For the same cause, the thorough development of their +temper and disposition is seldom witnessed. It does not attain its full +growth till its fifth or sixth year, yet it is killed at latest in the +second, to the evident deterioration of the stock. If some of the best +breeds were retained to their really adult state, and well fed +meanwhile, they would quite recompense their keeper by their beauty in +full plumage, their glancing hues of gilded green and purple, their +lovely shades of bronze, brown, and black, and the pearly lustre that +radiates from their polished feathers.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE DUCK.</h3> + +<p>This bird is of the order of <i>natatores</i>, or swimmers; family, +<i>anatidæ</i>, of the duck kind; genus, <i>anas</i>, or duck. The most striking +character of the swimming bird is derived from the structure of the +<i>feet</i>, which are always palmate—that is, furnished with webs between +the toes. There are always three toes directed forward, and these are +usually united by a membrane to their extremities; but, in some cases, +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395 (75)]</a></span> membrane +is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, +and furnished with a distinct web on each side. The fourth toe is +generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; when +present, it is usually directed backward, and the membrane is sometimes +continued to it along the side of the feet. These webbed feet are the +principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water, +upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their +time. The feet are generally placed very far back, a position which is +exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming, but which renders +their progression on the land somewhat awkward.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo395.png" alt="The Eider Duck" width="300" height="199" /> +<p class="caption">THE EIDER DUCK.</p></div> + +<p>The <i>body</i> is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very thick, +close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the +greasy secretions of the caudal gland, so that it is completely +water-proof. The <i>wings</i> exhibit a great variety in their development; +in some species being merely rudimentary, destitute of quills, and +covered with a scaly skin—in others, being of vast size and power, and +the birds passing a great part of their lives in the air. The form of +the <i>bill</i> is also very remarkable; in some, broad and flat; in others, +deep and compressed; and in others, long and slender.</p> + +<p>Most of these birds live in societies, which are often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396 (76)]</a></span> +exceedingly numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes.</p> + +<p>The distinguishing characteristic of the family of the <i>anatidæ</i> is the +<i>bill</i>, which is usually of a flattened form, covered with a soft skin, +and furnished at the edges with a series of <i>lamellæ</i>, which serve to +sift or strain the mud in which they generally seek their food. The feet +are furnished with four toes, three of which are directed forward, and +united by a web; the fourth is directed backward, usually of small size, +and quite free. They are admirable swimmers, and live and move on the +water with the utmost security, ease, and grace. Such is their +adaptation to this element that the young, immediately after being +hatched, will run to it, and fearlessly launch themselves upon its +bosom, rowing themselves along with their webbed feet, without a single +lesson, and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman. They are +generally inhabitants of the fresh waters, and for the most part, prefer +ponds and shallow lakes, in which they can investigate the bottom with +their peculiar bills, without actually diving beneath the surface; yet +at some seasons they are found along the borders of the sea. Their food +generally consists of worms, mollusca, and aquatic insects, which they +separate from the mud by the agency of the lamellæ at the margin of the +bill; but most of them also feed upon seeds, fruits, and other vegetable +substances.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE WILD DUCK.</h3> + +<p>This bird, known also by the name of <i>mallard</i>, is the original of all +the domestic varieties. It is twenty-four inches long, and marked with +green, chestnut and white. Wild<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397 (77)]</a></span> +ducks are gregarious in their habits, +and generally migrate in large flocks. The males are larger than the +females, and the latter are also usually of a more uniform and sober +tint.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo397.png" alt="Wild Duck" width="300" height="203" /> +<p class="caption">WILD DUCK.</p></div> + +<p>It is an inhabitant of all the countries of Europe, especially toward +the north, and is also abundant in North America, where it is migratory, +passing to the North in Spring, and returning to the South in autumn. It +frequents the lakes of the interior, as well as the sea-coasts. It is +plentiful in Great Britain at all seasons, merely quitting the more +exposed situations at the approach of winter, and taking shelter in the +valleys; or, in case of a severe winter, visiting the estuaries.</p> + +<p>They moult twice in the year, in June and November; in June, the males +acquire the female plumage to a certain extent, but regain their proper +dress at the second moult, and retain it during the breeding season. In +a wild state, the mallard always pairs, and, during the period of +incubation, the male, although taking no part in the process, always +keeps in the neighborhood of the female; and it is singular that +half-bred birds between the wild and tame varieties always exhibit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398 (78)]</a></span> the +same habits, although the ordinary domestic drakes are polygamous, +always endeavoring to get as many wives as they can. The nest is usually +placed upon the ground among reeds and ledges near the water; sometimes +in holes or hollow trees, but rarely among the branches. The eggs vary +from about eight to fourteen in number, and the young are active from +the moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the water, where they +are as much at home as the old birds.</p> + +<p>As the flesh of wild ducks is greatly valued, immense numbers are shot, +or taken in other ways. In England, large numbers are captured by +decoys, consisting of a piece of water situated in the midst of a quiet +plantation, from which six semicircular canals are cut, which are roofed +over with hoops, and covered in with netting. Into this vast trap the +ducks are enticed by young ducks trained for the purpose.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE DOMESTIC DUCK.</h3> + +<p>The duck should always find a place in the poultry-yard, provided that +it can have access to water, even a small supply of which will suffice. +They have been kept with success, and the ordinary duck fattened to the +weight of eight pounds, with no further supply of water than that +afforded by a large pool sunk in the ground. In a garden, ducks will do +good service, voraciously consuming slops, frogs, and insects—nothing, +indeed, coming amiss to them; not being scratchers, they do not, like +other poultry, commit such a degree of mischief, in return, as to +partially counterbalance their usefulness. A drake and two or three +ducks cost little to maintain; and the only trouble they will give is, +that if there is much extent of water or shrubbery about their home, +they will lay<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399 (79)]</a></span> +and sit abroad, unless they are brought up every night, +which should be done. They will otherwise drop their eggs carelessly +here and there, or incubate in places where their eggs will be sucked by +crows, and half their progeny destroyed by rats.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo399.png" alt="Rouen Duck" width="300" height="227" /> +<p class="caption">ROUEN DUCK.</p></div> + +<p>The duck is very prolific, and its egg is very much relished by some, +having a rich piquancy of flavor, which gives it a decided superiority +over the egg of the domestic fowl; and these qualities render it much in +request with the pastry-cook and confectioner—three duck’s eggs being +equal in culinary value to six hen’s eggs. The duck does not lay during +the day, but generally in the night; exceptions, regulated by +circumstances, will, of course, occasionally occur. While laying, it +requires, as has been intimated, more attention than does the hen, until +it is accustomed to resort to a regular nest for depositing its eggs; +when, however, this is once effected, little care is needed beyond what +has been indicated.</p> + +<p>The duck is a bad hatcher, being too fond of the water, and, +consequently, too apt to allow her eggs to get cold; she will also, no +matter what kind of weather it may be, bring the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400 (80)]</a></span> +ducklings to the water +the moment they break the shell—a practice always injurious, and +frequently fatal; hence the very common practice of setting duck’s eggs +under hens.</p> + +<p>There are several <i>varieties</i> of tame ducks; but their merits are more +diverse in an ornamental than in a profitable point of view. Of <i>white</i> +ducks, the best is the <i>Aylesbury</i>, with its unspotted, snowy plumage, +and yellow legs and feet. It is large and excellent for the table, but +not larger or better than several others. They are assiduous mothers and +nurses, especially after the experience of two or three seasons. A much +smaller race of white ducks is imported from Holland, useful only to the +proprietors of extensive or secluded waters, as enticers of passing wild +birds to alight and join their society. This variety has a yellow-orange +bill; that of the Aylesbury should be flesh-colored. There is, also, the +<i>white hook-billed</i> duck, with a bill monstrously curved downward—a +Roman-nosed duck, in fact—with Jewish features, of a most grotesque and +ludicrous appearance; the bill has some resemblance in its curvature to +that of the Flamingo. White ducks, of course, make but a sorry figure in +towns or dirty suburbs, or in any place where the means of washing +themselves are scanty.</p> + +<p>There are one or two pretty varieties, not very common; one of a +<i>slate-gray</i>, or bluish dun, another of a <i>sandy-yellow</i>; there are also +some with top-knots as compact and spherical as those of any Polish +fowl, which rival the hook-billed in oddity. What are termed the <i>white</i> +Poland and the <i>black</i> Poland are crested; they breed early, and are +excellent layers; the former are deemed the most desirable though the +black are the larger.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401 (81)]</a></span> +Of <i>mottled</i> and <i>pied</i> sorts, there exists a great variety; black and +white, bronze and white, lightly speckled, and many other mixtures. To +this class belongs the <i>Rouen</i>—or Rhone, or Rohan, since each +designation has been used—duck, which has been needlessly overpraised +by interested dealers. This variety is highly esteemed by epicures; it +is a prolific bird, and lays large eggs; its size is the criterion of +its value. There is also a pied variety of the <i>Poland</i> ducks, a hybrid +between the white and the black, the Beaver.</p> + +<p>Another variety, known as the <i>Labrador</i>, the Buenos Ayres, or the black +East Indian duck, is somewhat rare and highly esteemed by dealers. They +are very beautiful birds. The feet, legs, and entire plumage should be +black; a few white feathers will occasionally appear. The bill also is +black, with a slight under-tinge of green. Not only the neck and back, +but the larger feathers of the tail and wings are gilt with metallic +green; the female also exhibits slight traces of the same decoration. On +a sunshiny spring day, the effect of these glittering black ducks +sporting in the blue water is very pleasing.</p> + +<p>A peculiarity of this variety is, that they occasionally—that is, at +the commencement of the season—lay black eggs; the color of those +subsequently laid gradually fades to that of the common kinds. This +singular appearance is not caused by any internal strain penetrating the +whole thickness of the shell, but by an oily pigment, which may be +scraped off with the nail. They lay, perhaps, a little later than other +ducks, but are not more difficult to rear. Their voice, likewise, is +said to differ slightly from that of other varieties; but they are far +superior in having a high, wild-duck flavor and, if well +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402 (82)]</a></span> kept, are in +deserved repute as being excellent food when killed immediately from the +pond, without any fattening.</p> + +<p>Still another breed, known as the <i>Muscovy</i> duck, is a distinct species +from the common duck; and the hybrid race will not, therefore, breed +again between themselves, although they are capable of doing so with +either of the species from the commixture of which they spring. This +duck does not derive its name from having been brought from the country +indicated, but from the flavor of its flesh, and should more properly be +termed the <i>musk</i> duck, of which this name is but a corruption. It is +easily distinguished by a red membrane surrounding the eyes, and +covering the cheeks. Not being in esteem, on account of their peculiar +odor, and the unpleasant flavor of their flesh, they are not worth +breeding, unless to cross with the common varieties; in which case, the +musk drake must be put to the common duck. This will produce a very +large cross, while the opposite course will beget a very inferior one.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE GOOSE.</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">The wild goose.</span> The goose belongs to the same family as the duck, but is +classed with the genus <i>anser</i>. The <i>gray-leg</i> goose—a common wild +goose of England—is by some regarded as the original of the domestic +bird. It is thirty-five inches long; upper parts ash-brown and ash-gray; +under parts white. This variety is migratory, proceeding to the Northern +parts of Europe and Asia in summer, and to the South in winter.</p> + +<p>The <i>Canada</i>, or Cravat goose, the wild goose of this country, is a fine +species, forty inches long, often seen in spring +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403 (83)]</a></span> and autumn in large, +triangular flocks, high in air, and led by an old, experienced gander, +who frequently utters a loud <i>honk</i>, equivalent, doubtless, to “All’s +well!” This sound often comes upon the ear at night, when the flock are +invisible; and it is frequently heard even in the daytime, seeming to +come from the sky, the birds being beyond the reach of vision. Immense +numbers of these noble birds are killed in Canada, as well as along our +coasts, where they assemble in the autumn in large flocks, and remain +till driven to more Southern climates by the season.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo403.png" alt="Wild or Canada Goose" width="250" height="306" /> +<p class="caption">WILD OR CANADA GOOSE.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404 (84)]</a></span> +The Canada goose is capable of domestication, and, in spite of its +original migratory habits—which it appears, in almost every instance, +to forget in England—shows much more disposition for a truly domestic +life than the swan; and it may be maintained in perfect health with very +limited opportunities for bathing. They eat worms and soft insects, as +well as grass and aquatic plants; with us, they do not breed until they +are at least two years old, and so far approach the swan; like which +bird, also, the male appears to be fit for reproduction at an earlier +period than the female. Many writers speak highly of the half-bred +Canada. They are, certainly, very large, and may merit approbation on +the table; but with whatever other species the cross is made, they are +hideously disgusting.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE DOMESTIC GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>The goose is not mentioned in the Bible, but it was known to the ancient +Egyptians, and is represented in numerous instances on their monuments, +showing that it was anciently used for food, as in our own times. It was +held sacred by the Romans, because it was said to have alarmed, by its +cackling at night, the sentinels of the capitol, at the invasion of the +Gauls, and thus to have saved the city. This was attributed by one of +the Roman writers to its fine sense of smell, which enables them to +perceive at a great distance the odor of the human race. The liver of +this bird seems to have been a favorite morsel with epicures in all +ages; and invention appears to have been active in exercising the means +of increasing the volume of that organ. It is generally esteemed a +foolish bird; yet it displays courage in defending its young, and +instances<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405 (85)]</a></span> +of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not +deficient in sentiment. The value and usefulness of geese are scarcely +calculable. The only damage which they do lies in the quantity of food +which they consume; the only care they require is to be saved from +starvation. All the fears and anxieties requisite to educate the turkey +and prepare it for making a proper appearance at the table are with them +unnecessary; grass by day, a dry bed at night, and a tolerably attentive +mother, are all that is required. Roast goose, fatted to the point of +repletion, is almost the only luxury that is not deemed an extravagance +in an economical farm-house; for there are the feathers, to swell the +stock of beds; there is the dripping, to enrich the dumpling or pudding; +there are the giblets, for market or a pie; and there is the wholesome, +solid, savory flesh for all parties interested.</p> + +<p>They are accused by some of rendering the spots where they feed +offensive to other stock; but the explanation is simple. A horse bites +closer than an ox; a sheep goes nearer to the ground than a horse; but, +after the sharpest shearing by sheep, the goose will polish up the tuft, +and grow fat upon the remnants of others. Consequently, where geese are +kept in great numbers on a small area, little will be left to maintain +any other grass-eating creature. If, however, the pastures are not +short, it will not be found that other grazing animals object to feeding +either together with, or immediately after, a flock of geese.</p> + +<p>The goose has the merit of being the earliest of poultry. In three +months, or, about four, from leaving the egg, the birds ought to be fit +for the feather-bed, the spit, and the fire. It is not only very early +in its laying, but also very late. It often +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406 (86)]</a></span> anticipates the spring in +November, and, afterward, when spring really comes in March, it cannot +resist its general influence. The autumnal eggs afford useful employment +to turkeys and hens that choose to sit at unseasonable times; and the +period of incubation is less tedious than that required for the eggs of +some other birds.</p> + +<p>The flight of the domestic goose is quite powerful enough, especially in +young birds, to allow them to escape in that way, where they are so +inclined. In the autumn, whole broods may be seen by early risers taking +their morning flight, and circling in the air for matutinal exercise, +just like pigeons, when first let out of their locker. The bird lives to +a very great age, sometimes seventy years or more.</p> + +<p>As to the origin of our domestic species, opinions differ. By some, as +already remarked, the gray-leg is regarded as the parent stock; others +consider it a mongrel, like the dunghill fowl, made up of several +varieties, to each of which it occasionally shows more or less affinity; +and yet others contend that it is not to be referred to any existing +species. The latter assert that there is really but one variety of the +domestic goose, individuals of which are found from entirely white +plumage, through different degrees of patchedness with gray, to entirely +gray coloring, except on the abdomen.</p> + +<p>The domestic gander is polygamous, but he is not an indiscriminate +libertine; he will rarely couple with females of any other species. +Hybrid common geese are almost always produced by the union of a wild +gander with a domestic goose, and not by the opposite. The ganders are +generally, though not invariably, white, and are sometimes called Embden +geese, from a town of Hanover. High feeding, care, and moderate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407 (87)]</a></span> warmth +will induce a prolific habit, which becomes, in some measure, +hereditary. The season of the year at which the young are hatched—and +they may be reared at any season—influences their future size and +development. After allowing for these causes of diversity, it is claimed +that the domestic goose constitutes only one species or permanent +variety.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BERNACLE GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>This bird is sometimes called the Barnacle goose; its name originates +from the fact that it was formerly supposed to be bred from the shells +so termed, which cling to wood in the sea. It is about twenty-five +inches long, and is found wild in Europe, abundantly in the Baltic; and, +occasionally, as it is said, in Hudson’s Bay, on this continent.</p> + +<p>This bird is one of those species in which the impulse of reproduction +has at length overcome the sullenness of captivity, and instances of +their breeding when in confinement have increased in frequency to such +an extent that hopes are entertained of the continuance of that +increase. The young so reared should be pinioned at the wrist as a +precaution. They would probably stay at home contentedly, if unpinioned, +until the approach of inclement weather, when they would be tempted to +leave their usual haunts in search of marshes, unfrozen springs, +mud-banks left by the tide, and the open sea; or they might be induced +to join a flock of wild birds, instead of returning to their former +quarters.</p> + +<p>Broods of five, six, and seven have been reared; but they are generally +valued as embellishments to ponds merely, their small size rendering +them suitable even for a very limited pleasure-ground, and the variety +being perhaps the prettiest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408 (88)]</a></span> +geese that are thus employed. The lively +combination of black, white, gray, and lavender, gives them the +appearance of being in agreeable half-mourning. The female differs +little from the male, being distinguished by voice and deportment more +than by plumage. Their short bill, the moderate-sized webs of their +feet, and their rounded proportions, indicate an affinity with the +curious Cereopsis goose, which is found in considerable numbers on the +seashore of Sucky Bay and Goose Island, at the south-eastern point of +Australia.</p> + +<p>The number of eggs laid is six or seven, and the time of incubation is +about a month; it being difficult to name the exact period, from the +uncertainty respecting the precise hour when the process commences. They +are steady sitters. The young are lively and active little creatures, +running hither and thither, and tugging at the blades of grass. Their +ground color is of a dirty white; their legs, feet, eyes, and short +stump of a bill, are black; they have a gray spot on the crown of the +head, gray patches on the back and wings, and a yellowish tinge about +the forepart of the head. The old birds are very gentle in their +disposition and habits, and are less noisy than most geese.</p> + +<p>The service they may render as weed-eaters is important, though their +size alone precludes any comparison of them, in this respect, with the +swan. Their favorite feeding-grounds are extensive flats, partially +inundated by the higher tides; and their breeding may perhaps best be +promoted by their being furnished with a little sea-weed during winter +and early spring; a few shrimps, or small mussels, would probably not be +unacceptable. A single pair is more likely to breed than if they are +congregated in larger numbers.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409 (89)]</a></p> +<h3>THE BREMEN GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>The Bremen geese—so called from the place whence they were originally +imported, though some term them Embden geese—have been bred in this +country, pure, and to a feather, since 1821; no single instance having +occurred in which the slightest deterioration of character could be +observed. The produce has invariably been of the purest white; the bill, +legs, and feet being of a beautiful yellow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo409.png" alt="Bremen goose" width="250" height="302" /> +<p class="caption">A BREMEN GOOSE.</p></div> + +<p>The flesh of this goose does not partake of that dry character which +belongs to other and more common kinds, but is as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410 (90)]</a></span> tender and juicy as +the flesh of a wild fowl; it shrinks less in cooking than that of any +other fowl. Some pronounce its flesh equal if not superior to that of +the canvas-back duck.</p> + +<p>They likewise sit and hatch with more certainty than common barn-yard +geese; will weigh nearly, and in some instances quite, twice the +weight—the full-blood weighing twenty pounds and upward; they have +double the quantity of feathers; and never fly.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE BRENT GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>This is a small species, twenty-one inches long, common in a wild state, +in both Europe and America. On our coast, it is a favorite game-bird, +and known by the name of <i>Brant</i>. It is easily tamed, and is said to +have produced young in captivity, though no details have been furnished.</p> + +<p>This and the Sandwich Island goose are the smallest of their tribe yet +introduced to our aquatic aviaries. Their almost uniform color of leaden +black, and their compactness of form, make them a striking feature in +the scene, though they cannot be compared in beauty with many other +waterfowl. There is so little difference in the sexes that it is not +easy to distinguish them. Their chief merit rests in their fondness for +water-weeds, in which respect they appear to be second only to the swan. +They are quiet, gentle and harmless in captivity. Some praise their +flesh, while others pronounce it fishy, strong, and oily; they may, +however, be converted into tolerable meat by being skinned and baked in +a pie.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411 (91)]</a></p> +<h3>THE CHINA GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>This bird figures under a variety of <i>aliases</i>: Knob goose, Hong Kong +goose, Asiatic goose, Swan goose, Chinese Swan Guinea goose, Polish +goose, Muscovy goose, and, probably, others.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo411.png" alt="China or Hong Kong Goose" width="250" height="299" /> +<p class="caption">CHINA OR HONG KONG GOOSE.</p></div> + +<p>There is something in the aspect of this creature—in the dark-brown +stripe down its neck, its small, bright eye, its harsh voice, its +ceremonious strut, and its affectation of seldom being in a hurry—which +seems to say that it came from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412 (92)]</a></span> +China. If so, it has no doubt been +domesticated for many hundred years, perhaps as long as the pea fowl or +the common fowl. They may be made to lay a large number of eggs by an +increased supply of nourishing food. If liberally furnished with oats, +boiled rice, etc., the China goose will, in the spring, lay from twenty +to thirty eggs before she begins to sit, and again in the autumn, after +her moult, from ten to fifteen more. Another peculiarity is their +deficient power of flight, compared with other geese, owing to the +larger proportionate size of their bodies. Indeed, of all geese, this is +the worst flyer; there is no occasion to pinion them; the common +domestic goose flies much more strongly.</p> + +<p>The prevailing color of their plumage is brown, comparable to the color +of wheat. The different shades are very harmoniously blended, and are +well relieved by the black tuberculated bill, and the pure white of the +abdomen. Their movements on the water are graceful and swan-like. Slight +variations occur in the color of the feet and legs, some having them of +a dull orange, others black; a delicate fringe of minute white feathers +is occasionally seen at the base of the bill. These peculiarities are +hereditarily transmitted.</p> + +<p>The male is almost as much disproportionately larger than the female as +the Musk drake is in comparison with his mate. He is much inclined to +libertine wanderings, without, however, neglecting proper attention at +home. If there is any other gander on the premises, a disagreement is +sure to result. Both male and female are, perhaps, the noisiest of all +geese; at night, the least footfall or motion in their neighborhood is +sufficient to call forth their clangor and resonant trumpetings.</p> + +<p>The eggs are somewhat less than those of the domestic kind, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413 (93)]</a></span> of a short +oval, with a smooth, thick shell, white, but slightly tinged with yellow +at the smaller end. The goslings, when first hatched, are usually very +strong. They are of a dirty green, like the color produced by mixing +India-ink and yellow ochre, with darker patches here and there. The legs +and feet are lead-color, but afterward change to a dull red. With good +pasturage, they require no farther attention than that bestowed by their +parents. After a time, a little grain will strengthen and forward them. +If well fed, they come to maturity very rapidly; in between three and +four months from the time of leaving the shell, they will be full-grown +and ready for food. They do not bear being shut up to fatten so well as +common geese, and, therefore, those destined for the table are the +better for profuse hand-feeding. Their flesh is well-flavored, short, +and tender; their eggs, excellent for cooking purposes.</p> + +<p>They are said to be a short-lived species; the ganders, at least, not +lasting more than ten or a dozen years. Hybrids between them and the +common goose are prolific with the latter; the second and third cross is +much prized by some farmers, particularly for their ganders; and in many +flocks the blood of the China goose may be traced oftentimes by the more +erect gait of the birds, accompanied by a faint stripe down the back of +the neck. With the White-fronted goose they also breed freely.</p> + + +<p><i>The White-China.</i> These are larger than the preceding, and apparently +more terrestrial in their habits; the knob on the head is not only of +greater proportion, but of a different shape. It is of a spotless, pure +white—though a very few gray feathers occasionally appear—more +swan-like than the brown, with a bright orange-colored bill, and a large +knot of the same color<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414 (94)]</a></span> +at its base. It is particularly beautiful, +either in or out of the water, its neck being long, slender, and +gracefully arched when swimming. It breeds three or four times in the +season; the egg is quite small for the size of the bird, being not more +than half the size of that of the common goose.</p> + +<p>In many instances, efforts to obtain young from their eggs have been +unsuccessful; but if the female is supplied with the eggs of the common +goose, she invariably hatches and rears the goslings. They sit +remarkably well, never showing themselves out of the nest by day; but, +possibly, they may leave the nest too long in the cold of the night. +Some think that a quiet lake is more to their taste than a rapid running +stream, and more conducive to the fecundity of their eggs. It is also +believed by many that, under favorable circumstances, they would be very +prolific.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE EGYPTIAN GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>This species is bred to a certain extent in this country. It is a most +stately and rich bird, reminding one of the solemn antiquity of the +Nile, with its gorgeous mantle of golden hues and its long history.</p> + +<p>It is dark red round the eyes; red ring round the neck; white bill; neck +and breast light fawn-gray; a maroon star on the breast; belly red and +gray; half of the wing-feathers rich black, the other part of them pure +white; black bar running across the centre, back light-red, growing +dark-red toward the tail; the tail a deep black.</p> + +<p>They are very prolific, bringing off three broods a year, from eight to +twelve each time; their weight is about eight pounds each.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415 (95)]</a></p> +<h3>THE JAVA GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>The gander of this species is white, with head and half the neck +light-fawn; red tubercle at the root of the bill; larger than the common +goose, and longer in the body; walks erect, standing as high as the +China goose, the female appearing to carry two pouches, or egg-bags, +under the belly.</p> + +<p>It is very prolific; and the meat is of fine flavor.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE TOULOUSE GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>This bird is said to have been originally imported from the +Mediterranean; and is known also by the names Mediterranean goose, and +Pyrenean goose. It is chiefly remarkable for its vast size, in which +respect it surpasses all others.</p> + +<p>Its prevailing color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and +occasionally relieved with black; the head, neck, as far as the +beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck, as far as the +shoulders, of a dark-brown; the breast slaty-blue; the belly is white, +in common with the under surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, +and the feet flesh-color.</p> + +<p>In habit, the Toulouse goose resembles his congeners, but seems to +possess a milder and more tractable disposition, which greatly conduces +to the chance of his early fattening, and that, too, at a little cost. +The curl of the plumage on the neck comes closer to the head than that +on common geese, and the abdominal pouch, which, in other varieties, is +an accompaniment of age, exists from the shell. The flesh is said to be +tender and well-flavored.</p> + +<p>Some pronounce this bird the unmixed and immediate descendant of the +Gray-leg; while others assert that it is only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416 (96)]</a></span> the common domestic, +enlarged by early hatching, very liberal feeding during youth, fine +climate, and, perhaps, by age, and style them grenadier individuals of +the domestic goose—nothing more.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE.</h3> + +<p>In its wild state, the White-fronted or Laughing goose is twenty-seven +inches long, and found in great numbers in Europe and in the North +American Fur countries, but rare along our coasts.</p> + +<p>When domesticated, it belongs to the class of birds which are restrained +from resuming their original wild habits more by the influence of local +and personal attachment than from any love which they seem to have for +the comforts of domestication; which may be trusted with their entire +liberty, or nearly so, but require an eye to be kept on them from time +to time, lest they stray away and assume an independent condition. The +white-fronted goose well deserves the patronage of those who have even a +small piece of grass.</p> + +<p>The first impression of every one, upon seeing this species in +confinement, would be that it could not be trusted with liberty; and the +sight of it exercising its wings at its first escape would make its +owner despair of recovering it. This is not, however, the case. By no +great amount of care and attention, they will manifest such a degree of +confidence and attachment as to remove all hesitation as to the future; +and they may be regarded as patterns of all that is valuable in anserine +nature—gentle, affectionate, cheerful, hardy, useful, and +self-dependent. The gander is an attentive parent, but not a faithful +spouse.</p> + +<p>The eggs are smaller than those of the common goose, pure +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417 (97)]</a></span> white, and of +a very long oval; the shell is also thinner than in, most others; the +flesh is excellent.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> + +<p>Having completed the enumeration and description of the varieties of +poultry, it will, perhaps, be appropriate to give some account, before +proceeding to the next general division of the subject, of the +structure, or anatomy, so to speak, of</p> + +<h3>THE EGG.</h3> + +<p>In a laying hen may be found, upon opening the body, what is called the +<i>ovarium</i>—a cluster of rudimental eggs, of different sizes, from very +minute points up to shapes of easily-distinguished forms. These +rudimental eggs have as yet no shell or white, these being exhibited in +a different stage of development; but consist wholly of <i>yolk</i>, on the +surface of which the germ of the future chicken lies. The yolk and the +germ are enveloped by a very thin membrane.</p> + +<p>When the rudimental egg, still attached to the ovarium, becomes longer +and larger, and arrives at a certain size, either its own weight, or +some other efficient cause, detaches it from the cluster, and makes it +fall into a sort of funnel, leading to a pipe, which is termed the +<i>oviduct</i>.</p> + +<p>Here the yolk of the rudimental egg, hitherto imperfectly formed, puts +on its mature appearance of a thick yellow fluid; while the rudimental +chick or embryo, lying on the surface opposite to that by which it had +been attached to the ovarium, is white, and somewhat like paste.</p> + +<p>The white, or <i>albumen</i>, of the egg now becomes diffused around the +yolk, being secreted from the blood vessels of the egg-pipe, or oviduct, +in the form of a thin, glassy fluid; and it is prevented from mixing +with the yolk and the embryo chicken by the thin membrane which +surrounded them before<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418 (98)]</a></span> +they were detached from the egg-cluster, while +it is strengthened by a second and stronger membrane, formed around the +first, immediately after falling into the oviduct. This second membrane, +enveloping the yolk of the germ of the chicken, is thickest at the two +ends, having what may be termed bulgings, termed <i>chalazes</i> by +anatomists; these bulgings of the second membrane pass quite through the +white at the ends, and being thus, as it were, embedded in the white, +they keep the inclosed yolk and germ somewhat in a fixed position, +preventing them from rolling about within the egg when it is moved.</p> + +<p>The white of the egg being thus formed, a third membrane, or, rather, a +double membrane, much stronger than either of the first two, is formed +around it, becoming attached to the chalazes of the second membrane, and +tending still more to keep all the parts in their relative positions.</p> + +<p>During the progress of these several formations, the egg gradually +advances about half way along the oviduct. It is still, however, +destitute of the shell, which begins to be formed by a process similar +to the formation of the shell of a snail, as soon as the outer layer of +the third membrane has been completed. When the shell is fully formed, +the egg continues to advance along the oviduct, till the hen goes to her +nest and lays it.</p> + +<p>From ill health, or accidents, eggs are sometimes excluded from the +oviducts before the shell has begun to be formed, and in this state they +are popularly called <i>wind-eggs</i>.</p> + +<p>Reckoning, then, from the shell inward, there are <i>six</i> different +envelopes, of which one only could be detected before the descent of the +egg into the oviduct: the shell; the external layer of the membrane +lining the shell; the internal layer of same lining; the white, composed +of a thinner liquid on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419 (99)]</a></span> +outside, and a thicker and more yellowish +liquid on the inside; the bulgings, or chalaziferous membrane; and the +proper membrane.</p> + +<p>One important part of the egg is the <i>air-bag</i>, placed at the larger +end, between the shell and its lining membrane. This is about the size +of the eye of a small bird in new-laid eggs, but is increased as much as +ten times in the process of hatching. The air bag is of such great +importance to the development of the chicken—probably by supplying it +with a limited atmosphere of oxygen—that, if the blunt end of an egg be +pierced with the point of the smallest needle, the egg cannot be +hatched.</p> + +<p>Instead of one rudimental egg falling from the ovarium, two may be +detected, and will, of course, be inclosed in the same shell, when the +egg will be double-yolked. The eggs of a goose have, in some instances, +contained even three yolks. If the double-yolked eggs be hatched, they +will rarely produce two separate chickens, but, more commonly, +monstrosities—chickens with two heads, and the like.</p> + +<p>The <i>shell</i> of an egg, chemically speaking, consists chiefly of +carbonate of lime, similar to chalk, with a small quantity of phosphate +of lime, and animal mucus. When burnt, the animal matter and the +carbonic acid gas of the carbonate of lime are separated; the first +being reduced to ashes, or animal charcoal, while the second is +dissipated, leaving the decarbonized lime mixed with a little phosphate +of lime.</p> + +<p>The <i>white</i> of the egg is without taste or smell, of a viscid, glairy +consistence, readily dissolving in water, coagulable by acids, by +spirits of wine, and by a temperature of one hundred and sixty-five +degrees, Fahrenheit. If it has once been coagulated, it is no longer +soluble in either cold or hot water,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420 (100)]</a></span> +and acquires a slight insipid +taste. It is composed of eighty parts of water, fifteen and a half parts +of albumen, and four and a half parts of mucus; besides giving traces of +soda, benzoic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The latter, on an egg +being eaten on a silver spoon, stains the spoon of a blackish purple, by +combining with the silver, and forming sulphuret of silver.</p> + +<p>The white of the egg is a very feeble conductor of heat, retarding its +escape; and preventing its entrance to the yolk; a providential +contrivance, not merely to prevent speedy fermentation and corruption, +but to arrest the fatal chills, which might occur in hatching, when the +mother hen leaves her eggs, from time to time, in search of food. Eels +and other fish which can live long out of water, secrete a similar +viscid substance on the surface of their bodies, furnished to them, +doubtless, for a similar purpose.</p> + +<p>The <i>yolk</i> has an insipid, bland, oily taste; and, when agitated with +water, forms a milky emulsion. If it is long boiled it becomes a +granular, friable solid, yielding upon expression, a yellow, insipid, +fixed oil. It consists, chemically, of water, oil, albumen, and +gelatine. In proportion to the quantity of albumen, the egg boils hard.</p> + +<p>The weight of the eggs of the domestic fowl varies materially; in some +breeds, averaging thirty-three ounces per dozen, in others, but fourteen +and a half ounces. A fair average weight for a dozen is twenty-two and a +half ounces. Yellow, mahogany, and salmon-colored eggs are generally +richer than white ones, containing, as they do, a larger quantity of +yolk. These are generally preferred for culinary purposes; while the +latter, containing an excess of albumen, are preferred for boiling, +etc., for the table.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421 (101)]</a></p> +<p class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo421.png" alt="Breeding and Management" width="350" height="273" /></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Breeding.</span> Good fowls are very profitable in the keeping of intelligent +breeders. It is stated, by those most competent to express the opinion, +that four acres of land, devoted to the rearing of the best varieties of +poultry, will, at ordinary prices, be quite as productive as a farm of +one hundred and fifty acres cultivated in the usual way. The eggs of the +common and cheaper kinds which might be used for incubators and nurses, +would pay—or could be made to pay, if properly preserved, and sold at +the right time—all expenses of feed, etc.; while good capons of the +larger breeds will bring, in any of our larger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422 (102)]</a></span> +markets, from three to +five dollars per pair, and early spring chickens from twenty to +twenty-five cents per pound.</p> + +<p>To make poultry profitable, then, it is only necessary that the better +kinds be bred from, that suitable places be provided for them, that they +be properly fed, and carefully and intelligently managed. These +requirements are too rarely complied with, in every respect, to enable a +correct opinion to be formed as to what may be made out of poultry under +the most favorable circumstances.</p> + +<p>A few general principles, well-understood and faithfully applied, will +prove of great value. By “in-and-in breeding” is meant commerce between +individuals of the same brood, or brother and sister, so to speak; by +“close breeding,” commerce between the parent and his offspring, in +whatever degree.</p> + +<p><i>Crossing the breed.</i> To insure successful and beneficial crossing of +distinct breeds, in order to produce a new and valuable variety, the +breeder must have an accurate knowledge of the laws of procreation, and +the varied influences of parents upon their offspring. All the breeds in +this country are crosses, produced either by accident or design. +Crossing does not necessarily produce a breed; but it always produces a +variety, and that variety becomes a breed only where there is a +sufficiency of stamina to make a distinctive race, and continue a +progeny with the uniform or leading characteristics of its progenitors.</p> + +<p><i>High breeding.</i> When uniformity of plumage can be effected in mixed +breeds or varieties without a resort to in-and-in, or close breeding, +and without sacrificing the health and vigor of the race, it is +desirable; and, in many instances, it can be accomplished in a +satisfactory manner. What are called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423 (103)]</a></span> +highly-bred fowls are, however, +too often the deteriorated offspring of progenitors far below the +original stock. Genuine high breeding consists in the selection of +parent stock of the same race, perfect in all the general +characteristics, and <i>of remote consanguinity</i>. This should be resorted +to periodically, in order to secure the best results.</p> + +<p>If a race is <i>pure</i>—that is, if the species or variety is absolutely +distinct and unsophisticated—the progeny resembles the progenitors in +almost every respect. The mixture of races, where the consanguinity is +remote, is productive of decided benefits.</p> + +<p>To illustrate, in the case of fowls: when the blood is <i>unmixed</i>—as +with the Guelderlands, and some others—the offspring, <i>in all +respects</i>, resemble their parents; in plumage, general habits, form, +outline, etc. In this case, they look almost identically the same. But +when the blood is <i>mixed</i>—as with the Cochin Chinas, and many +others—the plumage will vary widely, or slightly, according to +circumstances, though many or most of the general characteristics may +remain the same. The close breeding, to which many resort for the +purpose of procuring uniformity, generally results in an absolute +deterioration of the race in important respects.</p> + +<p>In some cases, close breeding—and, occasionally, in-and-in—seems to be +in accordance with the laws of Nature; as with the wild turkey, which, +in its natural state, resorts to these modes of breeding; and yet the +race does not change in appearance or degenerate. The reason is that the +breed is pure. In comparing any number of these birds, not the least +dissimilarity is discoverable; they all look alike, as they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424 (104)]</a></span> always +have, and always will. They are changed, or deteriorated, only by +crossing or confinement.</p> + +<p>Most breeds of the hen kind degenerate rapidly from close, or in-and-in +breeding, because they are not perfect of their kind; that is, the breed +is not pure, but of mixed blood; and in such objectionable breeding, the +race degenerates just in proportion as the breed is imperfect, or +impure. The perfect Guelderland will admit of these modes of breeding, +for a great length of time, without deterioration; but the impure or +mixed will rapidly degenerate. This is also true of all breeds, wherein +the characteristic marks are uniform and confirmed, showing perfection +in the race.</p> + +<p>As a general rule, however, close and in-and-in breeding should be +carefully avoided where the race is not absolutely perfect, if it is +desired to improve the breed; and as all the breeds of this kind of +fowls are of mixed blood, the danger of such breeding is greater or +less, in exact proportion as the distinctive characteristics are variant +or fixed; and the danger still increases if the breed is composed of +strains of blood greatly dissimilar, or of races widely differing in the +conformation or general habits.</p> + +<p><i>Preserving the distinctive breeds.</i> As to the time when the different +breeds of hens should be separated in the spring, in order to preserve +the breed pure, the most ample experience indicates that if the eggs be +preserved and set after a separation of <i>two days</i>, the breed will be +perfect, the offspring having all the characteristics or distinctive +marks.</p> + +<p>When a valuable breed is produced, either by accident or design, it +should be preserved, and the subsequent breeding should continue from +that stock; otherwise, there is no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425 (105)]</a></span> +certainty of the purity of the blood +of the new breed, for it does not follow that a different parentage, +though of the same name or original breed precisely, will produce the +same new breed, or any thing resembling it. The Dorking fowl, for +instance, was originally produced by crossing the Great Malay with the +English Game, as an accident; but it by no means follows that Dorkings +are the uniform, or even the common result of such a cross, for hundreds +of similar experiments have proved unsuccessful. The breeding, +therefore, to be pure-blooded, must continue from the stock originally +produced by accident; and as such breeding produces the leading +characteristics of the race with great uniformity, the genuineness of +the breed cannot be doubted.</p> + +<p>In order to produce a good cross, the parentage should be healthy, and +from healthy races, not materially dissimilar in their general habits. +The <i>size of the leg</i> should always be looked to, in order to judge +accurately as to purity of blood. If the leg is large for the +breed—that is, if larger than the generality of the same breed—the +purity of the blood, the fineness of the flesh, and most of the other +valuable qualities, can be relied on; but, if the legs are smaller than +most others of the same breed, the fowl is spurious, and of deteriorated +blood. The fifth toe and feathered legs of some breeds were originally +the result of accident; but by long and careful breeding, they have +become incorporated into the nature of certain races of general, though +not universal or essential, requisites. When a fowl exhibits any special +marks indicative of all the races or breeds from which the cross +originated, it is a sure evidence of extraordinary purity of blood, and +of the superior excellence of the race. The best fowls of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426 (106)]</a></span> race +should always be selected for crossing or general breeding; otherwise +the breeds will degenerate.</p> + +<p>The <i>quality</i>—that is, the fineness, juiciness, and richness of +flavor—of the flesh of domestic fowls is of much more importance than +their size. All coarse-meated fowls should, therefore, be rejected, no +matter how large they may be. There is no difficulty in discriminating +between coarse and fine fowls at any time. In the case of chickens, if +the down is straight and stands out, and the body and limbs are loosely +joined, the meat is coarse; but if the down is glossy, and lies close to +the body, and the body and limbs are compactly formed, the meat is fine; +and when grown, if the fowl is light in weight, in proportion to its +size, the flesh is coarse; but if heavy, the flesh is fine.</p> + +<p>There is also a <i>fitness</i> in the quality of the flesh; for, if the meat +is fine, the bones are fine, and the feathers are fine; and the converse +holds true. If the flesh is fine, it is juicy and richly flavored; if +coarse, it is dry, fibrous, and insipid.</p> + +<p>The <i>color of the legs</i>, too, is quite material in judging of the +quality of fowls. All other things being equal, dark-legged fowls have +the finest flesh, and are most hardy. Turkeys, which have the finest +flesh of any fowl of their size, have black legs; the game-cock, +likewise, which is universally acknowledged to be the finest-fleshed of +any of the domestic fowls, except the Wild Indian fowl of Calcutta, has +dark legs. It does not, however, of necessity follow that all +dark-legged fowls are fine, or that all yellow or white-legged ones are +coarse, since much depends upon the breed; but it is true that the +darkest leg which pertains to the breed indicates the finest fowl.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427 (107)]</a></span> +The <i>color of the feathers</i>, also, has more or less to do with the +quality of the fowl. Some breeds have a much more brilliant plumage than +others; but when brilliancy of plumage is here spoken of, it is to be +understood in comparison with others of the same breed. If, therefore, a +fowl is selected of rich and glossy plumage, when compared with others +of the same breed, the legs will be dark of the kind, and the quality of +the bird will excel.</p> + +<p>The <i>best</i> breeding is to cross or mix the races; this process improves +the breeds, in all respects. When the object in view is to perpetuate +distinct varieties of uncontaminated blood, the first requisite is to +procure fowls known to be of pure blood, and possessing all the +necessary characteristics of their kind. Labor is lost, unless the fowl +selected is a perfect specimen of the variety; for whatever imperfection +exists is likely to be perpetuated in the progeny. Regard should be had +to plumage, size, and form, in making a selection either of a cock or a +pullet; and those are preferable which are hatched earliest in the year. +The <i>age</i> of the fowls is a matter of considerable importance; and, +though it is true that a pullet will lay the greatest number of eggs in +her first year, yet it is believed that the chickens which are hatched +from the second year’s eggs are more vigorous and hardy. Old hens are +generally preferred to pullets as sitters, on account of their more +sedate and matronly character. A young cock, though more active in his +earliest days, and likely to bestow his attention on the hens with less +reserve, is not, however, best for use in keeping up a breed. The eggs +impregnated by him after his first season are likely to produce the +strongest chickens. It is an error to suppose—as is often +represented—<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428 (108)]</a></span> +that his procreative power is decayed or vitiated after +three or four years. On the contrary, a healthy, vigorous cock, if not +allowed to walk with too many hens, may be valuable and useful in the +poultry-yard for a longer time.</p> + +<p>An error is often committed by assigning too many hens to one cock; and +the result is a weakly and otherwise deteriorated progeny. Not more than +<i>five</i> hens should be allowed to associate with a single cock, when the +quality of the breed is a matter of interest. <i>Three</i>, indeed, would be +the better number for restriction; but five is the farthest limit which +can be safely assigned.</p> + +<p>Most persons, in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen of a desirable +variety, find their anticipations more than realized in the production +of a fine progeny. The plumage is brilliant, and the chickens are of +increased size, and remarkably strong and healthy. This desirable state +of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number +of hens; but as soon as his harem is enlarged, different effects are +manifested, and a deterioration in the stock is clearly +observable—attributable, not to close-breeding, but to the increased +disproportion of the females to the male, and the consequent overtasking +of his powers.</p> + +<p>In breeding-time, great cleanliness should be preserved in the lodgings +of the fowls, and the quantity and quality of food should be attended +to. They should not be suffered to feed to repletion, and such kinds of +food as are most nutritious should be carefully provided. Variety of +food is essential; and a proper proportion of animal and green food +should be given with their usual fare. Suitable arrangements should, of +course, be made to prevent any intermixture of breeds. A constant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429 (109)]</a></span> +vigilance in this respect is the price of success; and when all proper +precautions are taken, the breeder may be perfectly secure that his +anticipations will be realized.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>SELECTION OF STOCK.</h3> + +<p>The habits of the domestic fowl, in a wild state, are too little known +to ascertain whether the cocks always associate with the hens, or only +occasionally. Though hens will lay some eggs without pairing, as this is +not natural, the number will, for the most part, be less, and the laying +uncertain; it is, therefore, indispensable to attend to the laws of +Nature in this respect.</p> + +<p>The number of hens to be allowed to one cock should vary with the object +in view. The limit for valuable breeding purposes has already been +indicated. If profit is sought for, in the production of eggs alone, one +cock—if a stout, young, and lively bird—may have as many as +twenty-four hens.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo429.png" alt="Fighting Cocks" width="350" height="262" /> +<p class="caption">FIGHTING COCKS.</p></div> + +<p><i>The choice of a cock</i> is a very important thing. He is considered to +have every requisite quality when he is of a good middling size; carries +his head high; has a quick, animated look; a strong and shrill voice; a +fine red comb, shining as if varnished; wattles of a large size, and of +the same color as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430 (110)]</a></span> +comb; the breast broad; the wings strong; the +plumage black or of an obscure red; the thighs very muscular; the legs +thick, and furnished with strong spurs; and the claws rather bent and +sharply pointed. He ought, also, to be free in his motions, to crow +frequently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so +much for himself as to treat his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, +spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens; quick in defending +them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and +in assembling them at night.</p> + +<p>In breeding <i>game cocks</i>, the qualities required are every mark of +perfect health, such as a ruddy complexion; the feathers close, short, +and not feeling cold or dry; the flesh firm and compact; and a full +breast, betokening good lungs; a tapering and thinness behind. He should +be full in the girth, well coupled, lofty and aspiring, with a good +thigh, the beam of his leg very strong, the eye large and vivid, and the +beak strong, crooked, and thick at the base.</p> + +<p>A cock is in his prime at two years old; though cocks are sometimes so +precocious as to show every mark of full vigor at four months, while +others of the same brood do not appear in that state for several months +afterward. When marks of declining vigor are perceived, the cock must be +displaced, to make way for a successor, which should be chosen from +among the finest and bravest of the supernumerary young cocks, that +ought to be reared for this special purpose.</p> + +<p>The change of cocks is of much importance, and is frequently very +troublesome to manage; for peace does not long subsist between them when +they hold a divided dominion in the poultry-yard, since they are all +actuated by a restless, jealous,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431 (111)]</a></span> +hasty, fiery, ardent disposition; and +hence their quarrels become no less frequent than sanguinary. A battle +soon succeeds to provocation or affront. The two opponents face each +other, their feathers bristling up, their necks stretched out, their +heads low, and their beaks ready for the onslaught. They observe each +other in silence, with fixed and sparkling eyes. On the least motion of +either, they stand stiffly up, and rush furiously forward, dashing at +each other with beak and spur in repeated sallies, till the more +powerful or the more adroit has grievously torn the comb and wattles of +his adversary, has thrown him down by the heavy stroke of his wings, or +has stabbed him with his spurs.</p> + +<p>In <i>the choice of a hen</i> for sitting, a large bird should be selected, +with large, wide-spreading wings. Though large, she must not, however, +be heavy nor leggy. No one of judgment would sit a Malay; as, in such +case, not only would many eggs remain uncovered, but many, also, would +be trampled upon and broken. Elderly hens will be more willing to sit +than young and giddy pullets.</p> + +<p>After the common hen, which, on account of her fecundity, is deservedly +esteemed, the tufted hens may be justly ranked; particularly from being +more delicate eating, because she fattens more readily, on account of +laying less. The large breed, though less prolific, is preferable in +rearing chickens for the market, or for making capons. With regard to +these three kinds, the general opinion of breeders is, that the first is +more prolific in the number of eggs, while the others produce larger +chickens, which bring good prices.</p> + +<p>The Spanish fowl are not generally good sitters, but are excellent +layers; the Dorkings reverse the order, being better +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432 (112)]</a></span> sitters than +layers. These qualities will be found to extend pretty generally to hens +partaking of the prevailing colors of these two varieties; the black +being usually the best layers, and but careless or indifferent sitters, +while gray or checkered hens are the best that can be produced.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FEEDING.</h3> + +<p>Experiments have demonstrated that what may be called the gastric juice +in fowls has not sufficient power to dissolve their food, without the +aid of the grinding action of the gizzard. Before the food is prepared +for digestion, therefore, the grains must be subjected to a triturating +process; and such as are not sufficiently bruised in this manner, before +passing into the gizzard, are there reduced to the proper state, by its +natural action. The action of the gizzard is, in this respect, +mechanical; this organ serving as a mill to grind the food to pieces, +and then, by means of its powerful muscles, pressing it gradually into +the intestines, in the form of pulp. The power of this organ is said to +be sufficient to pulverize hollow globules of glass in a very short +time, and solid masses of the same substance in a few weeks. The +rapidity of this process seems to be proportionate, generally, to the +size of the bird. A chicken, for example, breaks up such substances as +are received into its stomach less readily than the capon; while a goose +performs the same operation sooner than either. Needles, and even +lancets, given to turkeys, have been broken in pieces and voided, +without any apparent injury to the stomach. The reason, undoubtedly, is, +that the larger species of birds have thicker and more powerful organs +of digestion.</p> + +<p>It has long been the general opinion that, from some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433 (113)]</a></span> deficiency in the +digestive apparatus, fowls are obliged to resort to the use of stones +and gravel, in order to enable them to dispose of the food which they +consume. Some have supposed that the use of these stones is to sheath +the gizzard, in order to fit it to break into smaller fragments the +hard, angular substances which might be swallowed; they have also been +considered to have a medicinal effect; others have imagined that they +acted as absorbents for undue quantities of acids in the stomach, or as +stimulants to digestion; while it has even been gravely asserted that +they contribute directly to nutrition.</p> + +<p>Repeated experiments, however, have established that pebbles are not at +all necessary to the trituration of the hardest kinds of substances +which can be introduced into their stomachs; and, of course, the usual +food of fowls can be bruised without their aid. They do, however, serve +a useful auxiliary purpose. When put in motion by the muscles, they are +capable of producing some effects upon the contents of the stomach; thus +assisting to grind down the grain, and separating its parts, the +digestive fluid, or gastric juice, comes more readily in contact with +it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Varieties of food.</span> Fowls about a poultry-yard can usually pick up a +portion of their subsistence, and, under favorable circumstances, the +largest portion. When so situated, the keeping of poultry pays decidedly +the best. The support even of poultry not designed for fattening should +not, however, be made to depend entirely upon such precarious resources. +Fowls should be fed with punctuality, faithfulness, and discretion.</p> + +<p>They are fond of all sorts of grain—such as Indian corn, wheat, oats, +rye, buckwheat, barley, millet, etc.; but their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434 (114)]</a></span> +particular preferences +are not so likely to guide in the selection of their food, as the +consideration of what is most economical, and easiest to be procured on +the part of their owner. They will readily eat most kinds of vegetables +in their green state, both cooked and raw. They likewise manifest an +inclination for animal food—such as blood, fish, and flesh—whether raw +or otherwise; and seem by no means averse to feeding on their own +species. Insects, worms, and snails they will take with avidity.</p> + +<p>It is usual to give to domestic fowls a quantity of grain once, at +least, daily; but, commonly, in less quantity than they would consume, +if unrestricted. They feed with great voracity; but their apparent +greediness is not the criterion by which the possibility of satisfying +them is to be judged. Moderate quantities of food will suffice; and the +amount consumed will usually be proportioned to the size of the +individuals. Whatever is cheapest, at any given time, may be given, +without regard to any other considerations. Different circumstances and +different seasons may occasion a variation in their appetite; but a gill +of grain is, generally speaking, about the usual daily portion. Some +very voracious fowls, of the largest size, will need the allowance of a +third of a pint each day.</p> + +<p><i>Wheat</i> is the most nutritive of cereal grains—with, perhaps, the +exception of rice—as an article of human food. It is, therefore, +natural to suppose that it is the best for fowls; and the avidity with +which they eat it would induce the conclusion that they would eat more +of this than of any other grain. Yet it appears that when fowls have as +much wheat as they can consume, they will eat about a fourth part less +than of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435 (115)]</a></span> +oats, barley, or buckwheat; the largest quantity of wheat eaten +by a fowl in one day being, according to several experiments, about +three-sixteenths of a pint. The difference in bulk is, however, +compensated by the difference in weight, these three-sixteenths of wheat +weighing more than one-fourth of a pint of oats. The difference in +weight is not, in every instance, the reason why a fowl is satisfied +with a larger or smaller measure of one sort than another. <i>Rye</i> weighs +less than wheat; but still a fowl will be satisfied with half the +quantity of this grain. <i>Indian corn</i> ranks intermediately between wheat +and rye; five-fourths of a pint of Indian corn with fowls being found, +by experiment, equal to six-fourths of wheat, and three-fourths of rye.</p> + +<p>In estimating the quantity of grain daily consumed by the common fowl, +it is wise to use data a little above than below the average. It may, +therefore, safely be said that a fowl of the common size, having free +access to as much as can be eaten through the day, will consume, day by +day, of oats, buckwheat, or barley, one-fourth of a pint; of wheat, +three-sixteenths; of Indian corn, five thirty-seconds; and of rye, three +thirty-seconds.</p> + +<p>It has been conclusively settled, by experiments instituted to that end, +that there is the best economy in feeding poultry with <i>boiled</i> grain +rather than with dry, in every case where Indian corn, barley, and wheat +can be procured. The expense of fuel, and the additional trouble +incident to the process of cooking, are inconsiderable in comparison +with the advantages derived. Where oats, buckwheat, or rye are used, +boiling is useless, when profit is concerned.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bran.</span> It is an erroneous notion that money can be saved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436 (116)]</a></span> by feeding bran +to fowls; since, then, so little of the farina of the grain remains in +it, that the nourishment derived from its use is hardly worth +mentioning. When boiled, as it always must be, its bulk is but slightly +increased. Two measures of dry bran, mixed with water, are equal to but +three-fifths of a measure of dry barley.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Millet.</span> This is recommended as excellent food for young chickens. Fowls +always prefer it raw; though, as its bulk is increased one-half by +boiling, it is doubtless more economical to feed it cooked.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rice.</span> Fowls are especially fond of this food, although they soon lose +their relish for it when allowed to have it at their discretion. It +should always be boiled; but its expense puts it out of the question as +a daily diet. When used continuously, it should always be mixed with +some substance containing less nutritive matter, in order that the +appetite may not be cloyed by it.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Potatoes.</span> These are very nutritious, and are usually acceptable to +fowls, when properly prepared. When raw, or in a cold state, they appear +to dislike them; they should, therefore, be boiled and given when +moderately hot; when very hot, it is said that fowls will injure +themselves by eating them, and burning their mouths. They should also be +broken into pieces of convenient size; otherwise, they will be avoided. +Occasionally raw pieces of potato will be devoured; but fowls cannot be +said to be fond of the root in this state. The same remark applies to +most other roots, especially to <i>carrots</i> and <i>parsnips</i>; these should +always be prepared, in order to be wholesome and palatable. Fowls should +never be confined to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437 (117)]</a></span> +a root diet, in any case; but such food should be +mingled or alternated with a sufficient quantity of grain.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Green food.</span> Indulgence in this kind of diet is absolutely necessary to +the health of fowls, and is also advantageous in an economical point of +view. The more delicate kinds of green vegetables are eaten with the +utmost avidity; all succulent weeds, grass, and the leaves of trees and +shrubs will also be consumed. If hens have green plots to graze in +during the day, the expense of their keeping will be reduced one-half. +All the refuse of the kitchen, of a vegetable nature, should be freely +thrown into the poultry-yard.</p> + +<p>Green food, however, will not answer for an exclusive diet. Experiment +has shown that fowls fed with this food alone for a few days together +exhibit severe symptoms of relaxation of the bowels; and, after the +lapse of eight or nine days, their combs become pale and livid, which is +the same indication of disease in them that paleness of the lips is in +the human species.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Earth-worms.</span> These are regarded as delicacies by the inhabitants of the +poultry-yard; and the individual who is fortunate enough to capture one +is often forced to undergo a severe ordeal in order to retain his +captive. Earth-worms are more plentiful in moist land, such as pastures, +etc., than in that which is cultivated; in gardens, also, they exist in +vast numbers. When it is desirable to take worms in quantities, it is +only necessary to thrust a stake or three-pronged fork into the ground, +to the depth of about a foot, and to move it suddenly backward and +forward, in order to shake the soil all around; the worms are +instinctively terrified by any motion in the ground, and, when +disturbed, hasten to the surface.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438 (118)]</a></span> +It is advisable to store worms, on account of the trouble and difficulty +of making frequent collections. They may be placed in casks, filled +one-third full with earth, in quantities at least equal in bulk to the +earth. The earth should be sprinkled occasionally, to prevent it from +becoming too dry. Care should, however, be exercised that the earth does +not become too moist; since, in such an event, the worms will perish. In +rainy weather, the casks should be protected with a covering.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Animal food.</span> Fowls readily eat both fish and flesh meat, and have no +reluctance to feeding even on their own kind, picking much more +faithfully than quadrupeds. Blood of any kind is esteemed by them a +delicacy; and fish, even when salted, is devoured with a relish. They +seem to be indifferent whether animal food is given to them in a cooked +or raw state; though, if any preference can be detected, it is for the +latter. They are sometimes so greedy that they will attack each other in +order to taste the blood which flows from the wounds so inflicted; and +it is quite common for them, in the moulting season, to gratify +themselves by picking at the sprouting feathers on their own bodies and +those of their companions. They appear to be partial to suet and fat; +but they should not be allowed to devour these substances in large +quantities, on account of their tendency to render them inconveniently +fat.</p> + +<p>It is highly advantageous to fowls to allow them a reasonable quantity +of animal food for their diet, which should be fed to them in small +pieces, both for safety and convenience. Bones and meat may be boiled; +and the liquor, when mixed with bran or meal, is healthy, and not +expensive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439 (119)]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Insects.</span> Fowls have a decided liking to flies, beetles, grasshoppers, +and crickets; and grubs, caterpillars, and maggots are held by them in +equal esteem. It is difficult, however, to supply the poultry-yard with +this species of food in sufficient quantity; but enough may be provided, +probably, to serve as luxuries. Some recommend that pailfuls of blood +should be thrown on dunghills, where fowls are allowed to run, for the +purpose of enticing flies to deposit their eggs; which, when hatched, +produce swarms of maggots for the fowls. With the same view, any sort of +garbage or offal may be thrown out, if the dunghill is so situated—as +it always should be—that its exhalations will not prove an annoyance.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>LAYING.</h3> + +<p>The ordinary productiveness of a single individual of the family of +domestic fowls is astonishing. While few hens are capable of hatching +more than fifteen eggs, and are incapable usually of sitting more than +twice in the year, frequent instances have occurred of hens laying three +hundred eggs annually, while two hundred is the average number. Some +hens are accustomed to lay at longer intervals than others. The habit of +one variety is to lay once in three days only; others will lay every +other day; and some produce an egg daily. The productiveness of hens +depends, undoubtedly, upon circumstances, to a great degree. Climate has +a great influence in this respect; and their lodging and food, as well +as the care bestowed upon them, have more or less effect in promoting or +obstructing their fecundity.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo440.png" alt="On the Watch" width="350" height="274" /> +<p class="caption">ON THE WATCH.</p></div> + +<p>There seems to be, naturally, two periods of the year in which fowls +lay—early in the spring, and in the summer; and this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440 (120)]</a></span> fact would seem +to indicate that, if they were left to themselves, like wild birds, they +would bring forth two broods in a year. The laying continues, with few +interruptions, till the close of summer, when the natural process of +moulting causes them to cease. This annual process commences about +August, and continues through the three following months. The +constitutional effect attending the beginning, continuance, and +consequences of this period—a very critical one in the case of all +feathered animals—prevents them from laying, until its very close, when +the entire coat of new feathers replaces the old, the washing of the +nutritive juices, yielded by the blood for the express purpose of +promoting this growth, is a great drain upon the system; and the +constitutional forces, which would otherwise assist in forming the egg, +are rendered inoperative. The approach of cold weather, also, at the +close of the moulting period, contributes to the same result. As the +season of moulting is every year later, the older the hen is, the later +in the spring she will begin to lay. As pullets, on the contrary, do not +moult the first year, they commence laying sooner than the elder hens; +and it is possible, by judicious and careful management, so to arrange, +in a collection of poultry tolerably numerous, as to have eggs +throughout the year. It is a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441 (121)]</a></span> +singular fact that pullets hatched very +late in autumn, and therefore of stunted growth, will lay nearly as +early as those hatched in spring. The checking of their growth seems to +have a tendency to produce eggs; of course, very tiny ones at first.</p> + +<p>When a hen is near to the time of laying, her comb and wattles change +from their previous dull hue to a bright red, while the eye becomes more +bright, the gait more spirited, and she occasionally cackles for three +or four days. These signs rarely prove false; and when the time comes +that she desires to lay, she appears very restless, going backward and +forward, visiting every nook and corner, cackling meanwhile, as if +displeased because she cannot suit herself with a convenient nest. Not +having looked out for one previously, she rarely succeeds in pleasing +herself till the moment comes when she can no longer tarry, when she is +compelled to choose one of the boxes or baskets provided for this +purpose in the poultry-house, where she settles herself in silence and +lays.</p> + +<p>In some instances, a hen will make choice of a particular nest in which +to lay, and when she finds, upon desiring to lay, that this is +pre-occupied by another hen, she will wait till it is vacated; but, in +other cases, hens will go into any nest which they find, preferring, for +the most part, those having the greatest number of eggs. The process of +laying is, most probably, rather painful, though the hen does not +indicate this by her cries; but the instant she has done she leaves the +nest, and utters her joy by peculiarly loud notes, which are re-echoed +by the cock, as well as by some of the other hens. Some hens, however, +leave the nest in silence, after laying.</p> + +<p>It seems ever to have been an object of great importance, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442 (122)]</a></span> an +economical point of view, to secure the laying of hens during those +parts of the year when, if left to themselves, they are indisposed to +deposit their eggs. For this purpose many methods have been devised, the +most of which embrace an increase of rich and stimulating food. Some +recommend shutting hens up in a warm place during winter, and giving +them boiled potatoes, turnips, carrots, and parsnips. Others assign as +the reason for their not laying in winter, in some climates, that the +earth is covered with snow, so that they can find no ground, or other +calcareous matter, to form the shells; and advise, therefore, that bones +of meat or poultry should be pounded and given to them, either mixed +with their food, or by itself, which they will greedily eat. Upon the +whole, it would seem that the most feasible means of obtaining fresh +eggs during the winter is to have young hens—pullets hatched only the +previous spring being the best—to use extreme liberality in feeding, +and to cautiously abstain from over-stocking the poultry-yard.</p> + +<p>As serviceable <i>food</i> to increase laying, scraps of animal food, given +two or three times a week, answer admirably; the best mode of doing so +is throwing down a bullock’s liver, leaving it with them, and permitting +them to pick it at will; this is better raw than boiled. Lights, or +guts, or any other animal refuse, will be found to answer the same +purpose; but these substances require, or, at all events, are better +for, boiling. Cayenne pepper—in fact all descriptions of pepper, but +especially cayenne pepper in pods—is a favorite food with fowls; and, +being a powerful stimulant, it promotes laying.</p> + +<p>An abundant supply of lime, in some form, should not be omitted; either +chopped bones, old mortar, or a lump of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443 (123)]</a></span> +chalky marl. The shell of every +egg used in the house should be roughly crushed and thrown down to the +hens, which will greedily eat them. A green, living turf will be of +service, both for its grass and the insects it may contain. A +dusting-place, wherein to get rid of vermin, is indispensable. A daily +hot meal of potatoes, boiled as carefully as for the family table, then +chopped, and sprinkled or mixed with bran, will be comfortable and +stimulating. After every meal of the household, the bones and other +scraps should be collected and thrown out.</p> + +<p>As to <i>the number of eggs</i>, the varieties which possess the greatest +fecundity are the Shanghaes, Guelderlands, Dorkings, Polish, and +Spanish. The Poland and Spanish lay the largest eggs; the Dorkings, eggs +of good size; while the Game and the smaller kinds produce only small +eggs. Those eggs which have the brightest yolks are the finest flavored; +and this is usually the case with the smaller kinds. The large eggs of +the larger varieties often have yolks of a pale color, and are inferior +in flavor.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>PRESERVATION OF EGGS.</h3> + +<p>Eggs, after being laid, lose daily, by transpiration, a portion of the +matter which they contain, notwithstanding the compact texture of their +shell, and of the close tissue of the flexible membranes lining the +shell, and enveloping the white. When an egg is fresh, it is full, +without any vacancy; and this is a matter of common observation, whether +it be broken raw, or when it is either soft or hard-boiled. In all stale +eggs, on the contrary, there is uniformly more or less vacancy, +proportioned to the loss they have sustained by transpiration; hence, +in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444 (124)]</a></span> +order to judge of the freshness of an egg, it is usual to hold it up +to the light, when the transparency of the shell makes it appear whether +or not there is any vacancy in the upper portion, as well as whether the +yolk and white are mingled and muddy, by the rotting and bursting of +their enveloping membranes.</p> + +<p>The transpiration of eggs, besides, is proportional to the temperature +in which they are placed, cold retarding and heat promoting the process; +hence, by keeping fresh-lain eggs in a cool cellar, or, better still, in +an ice-house, they will transpire less, and be preserved for a longer +period sound, than if they are kept in a warm place, or exposed to the +sun’s light, which has also a good effect in promoting the exhalation of +moisture. As, therefore, fermentation and putridity can only take place +by communication with the air at a moderate temperature, such connection +must be excluded by closing the pores of the shell.</p> + +<p>It is an indispensable condition of the material used for this purpose, +that it shall be incapable of being dissolved by the moisture transpired +from the interior. Spirits of wine varnish, made with lac, answers the +requirement; this is not very expensive, but is rather an uncommon +article in country places, where eggs are most abundantly produced.</p> + +<p>A better material is a mixture of mutton and beef suet, which should be +melted together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth +into an earthen pan. The chief advantage in the use of this is, that the +eggs rubbed over with it will boil as quickly as if nothing had been +done to them, the fat melting off as soon as they touch the water. The +transpiration is as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445 (125)]</a></span> +by a thick coating, provided that no sensible vestige be left on the +surface of the shell. All sorts of fat, grease, or oil are well adapted +to this purpose; by means of butter, hog’s lard, olive oil, and similar +substances, eggs maybe preserved for nine months as fresh as the day +upon which they were laid.</p> + +<p>Another method is, to dip each egg into melted pork-lard, rubbing it +into the shell with the finger, and pack them in old fig-drums, or +butter firkins, setting every egg upright, with the small end downward. +Or, the eggs may be packed in the same way in an upright earthen pan; +then cut some rough sheep’s tallow, procured the same day that the +animal is killed, into small pieces, and melt it down; strain it from +the scraps, and pour it while warm, not hot, over the eggs in the jar +till they are completely covered. When all is cold and firm, set the +vessel in a cool, dry place till the contents are wanted.</p> + +<p>Eggs will also keep well when preserved in salt, by arranging them in a +barrel, first a layer of salt, then a layer of eggs, alternately. This +can, however, also act mechanically, like bran or saw-dust, so long as +the salt continues dry; for, in that case, the chlorine, which is the +antiseptic principle of the salt, is not evolved. When the salt, +however, becomes damp, its preservative principle will be brought into +action, and may penetrate through the pores of the shell.</p> + +<p>Immersing eggs in vitriol, or sulphuric acid, is likewise a very +effectual means of preserving them; the sulphuric acid acts chemically +upon the carbonate of lime in the shell, by setting free the carbonic +acid gas, while it unites with the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, or +plaster of Paris. Another method is, to mix together a bushel of +quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, +adding a sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446 (126)]</a></span> +quantity of water, so that eggs may be plunged into +the paint. When a paste is made of this consistence, the eggs are put +into it, and may be kept fresh, it is said, for two years.</p> + +<p>Another method of preserving eggs a long while fresh, depends upon a +very different principle. Eggs that have not been rendered reproductive +by the cock have been found to continue very uncorrupted. In order, +therefore, to have eggs keep fresh from spring to the middle or even to +the end of Winter, it is only necessary to deprive the hens of all +communication with the cocks, for at least a month before the eggs are +put away.</p> + +<p>It ought not to be overlooked, in this connection, that eggs not only +spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation +of their contents, in consequence of air penetrating through the pores +of the shell, but also by being moved about and jostled, when carried to +a distance by sea or land. Any kind of rough motion, indeed, ruptures +the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the +chicken in their appropriate places; and, upon these being mixed, +putrefaction is promoted.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CHOICE OF EGGS FOR SETTING.</h3> + +<p>Eggs for hatching should be as fresh as possible; if laid the very same +day, so much the better. This is not always possible when a particular +stock is required; but, if a numerous and healthy brood is all that is +wanted, the most recent eggs should be selected. Eggs may be kept for +this purpose in either of the ways first mentioned; or they may be +placed on their points in a box, in a cool, dry place; the temperature +about sixty or sixty-five, Fahrenheit; the bottom of the box +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447 (127)]</a></span> should be +covered with a layer of wheat bran, then a layer of eggs put in, and +covered with bran; and so on, alternating. In this mode, evaporation is +prevented, and the eggs are almost as certain to hatch out, at the end +of six weeks, or even two months, as when they were laid.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to fix the exact term during which the vitality of an +egg remains unextinguished; as it, unquestionably, varies from the very +first, according to the vigor of the parents of the inclosed germ, and +fades away gradually till the final moment of non-existence. The +chickens in stale eggs have not sufficient strength to extricate +themselves from the shell; if assisted, the yolk is found to be +partially absorbed into the abdomen, or not at all; they are too faint +to stand; the muscles of the neck are unable to lift their heads, much +less to peck; and although they may sometimes be saved by extreme care, +their usual fate is to be trampled to death by the mother, if they do +not expire almost as soon as they begin to draw their breath. +Thick-shelled eggs, like those of geese, Guinea fowls, etc., will retain +life longer than thin-shelled ones, as those of hens and ducks. When +choice eggs are expected to be laid, it is more prudent to have the hen +which is to sit upon them wait for them, than to keep other eggs waiting +for her. A good sitter may be amused for two or three weeks with a few +addle-eggs, and so be ready to take charge of those of value immediately +upon their arrival.</p> + +<p>As to the choice of eggs for hatching, such should be taken, of course, +as are believed to have been rendered productive. Those of medium +size—the average size that the hen lays—are most apt to fulfil this +requirement. A very fair judgment may be formed of eggs from their +specific gravity; such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448 (128)]</a></span> +as do not sink to the bottom in a bowl of tepid +water should be rejected.</p> + +<p>The old-time notion, that small, round eggs produce females, and long, +pointed ones males—originally applied, by the ancients, to eating +rather than hatching purposes—may be considered exploded. The hen that +lays one round egg, continues to lay all her eggs round; and the hen +that lays one oblong, lays all oblong. According to this theory, then, +one hen would be the perpetual mother of cocks, and another the +perpetual producer of pullets; which is absurd, as daily experience +proves.</p> + +<p>The same fate has been meted out to that other venerable test of sex, +the position of the air-bag at the blunt end of the shell. “If the +vacancy is a little on one side, it will produce a hen; if it is exactly +in the centre, a cock.” Upon this assumption, the cock should be a very +rare bird; since there are very few eggs indeed in which the air bottle +is exactly concentric with the axis of the egg. In many breeds, on the +contrary, the cockerels bear a proportion of at least one-third, and +sometimes two-thirds, especially in those hatched during winter, or in +unfavorable seasons; the immediate cause, doubtless, being that the eggs +producing a more robust sex possess a stronger vitality.</p> + +<p>Nor are these two alleged tests—the shape of the egg, and the position +of the air-tube—consistent with each other; for, if the round egg +produces a pullet, and an egg with the air-bag a little on one side does +the same, then all round eggs should have the air bag in that position, +or one test contradicts the other; and the same argument applies to the +long or oval egg. The examination of a few eggs by the light of a candle +will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449 (129)]</a></span> +satisfy any one that the position of the air-bag differs as much +in a long egg as it does in a round.</p> + +<p>There are, indeed, no known means of determining beforehand the sex of +fowl; except, perhaps, that cocks may be more likely to issue from large +eggs, and hens from small ones. As, however, the egg of each hen may be +recognized, the means are accessible of propagating from those parents +whose race it is judged most desirable to continue.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>INCUBATION.</h3> + +<p>The hen manifests the desire of incubation in a manner different from +that of any other known bird. Nature having been sufficiently tasked in +one direction, she becomes feverish, and loses flesh; her comb is livid; +her eyes are dull; she bristles her feathers to intimidate an imaginary +enemy; and, as if her chickens were already around her, utters the +maternal “cluck.”</p> + +<p>When the determination to sit becomes fixed—it is not necessary to +immediately gratify the first faint inclinations—the nest which she has +selected should be well cleaned, and filled with fresh straw. The number +of eggs to be allowed will depend upon the season, and upon the size of +egg and hen. The wisest plan is not to be too greedy; the number of +chickens hatched is often in inverse proportion to the number of eggs +set—five have only been obtained from sixteen. An odd number is, +however, to be preferred, as being better adapted to covering in the +nest. Hens will, in general, well cover from eleven to thirteen eggs +laid by themselves. A bantam may be trusted with about half a dozen eggs +of a large breed, such as the Spanish. A hen of the largest size +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450 (130)]</a></span> as a +Dorking, will successfully hatch, at the most, five goose-eggs.</p> + +<p>When hens are determined to sit at seasons of the year at which there is +little chance of bringing up chickens, the eggs of ducks or geese may be +furnished her; the young may be reared, with a little painstaking, at +any time of the year. The autumnal laying of the China and of the common +goose is very valuable for this purpose. Turkey-hens frequently have +this fit of unseasonable incubation.</p> + +<p>Where, however, it is inconvenient to gratify the desire, one or two +doses of jalap will often entirely remove it; and fowls often lay in +three weeks afterward. Some place the would-be sitter in an aviary, for +four or five days at most, and feed her but sparingly; from the +commencement of her confinement, she will gradually leave off clucking, +and when this has ceased, she may be again set free, without manifesting +the least desire to take to the nest again, and in a short time the hen +will commence laying with renewed vigor. The barbarous measures +sometimes resorted to should be frowned upon by every person with humane +feelings.</p> + +<p>Three weeks is the period of incubation; though chickens are sometimes +excluded on the eighteenth day. When the hen does not sit close for the +first day or two, or in early spring, it will occasionally be some hours +longer; when the hen is assiduous, and the weather hot, the time will be +a trifle shorter. Chickens have been known to come out as late as the +twenty-seventh day.</p> + +<p>It may not be uninteresting to note the changes which the egg passes +through in hatching. In <i>twelve hours</i>, traces of the head and body of +the chicken may be discerned; at the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451 (131)]</a></span> +end of the <i>second day</i>, it +assumes the form of a horse-shoe, but no red blood as yet is seen; at +the <i>fiftieth hour</i>, two vesicles of blood, the rudiments of the heart, +may be distinguished, one resembling a noose folded down on itself, and +pulsating distinctly; at the end of <i>seventy hours</i>, the wings may be +seen, and, in the head, the brain and the bill, in the form of bubbles; +toward the end of the <i>fourth day</i>, the heart is more completely formed; +and on the <i>fifth day</i>, the liver is discernible; at the end of <i>one +hundred and thirty hours</i>, the first voluntary motions may be observed; +in <i>seven hours</i> more, the lungs and stomach appear; and, <i>in four +hours</i> after this, the intestines, the loins, and the upper jaw. At the +end of the one <i>hundred and forty-fourth hour</i>, two drops of blood are +observable in the heart, which is also further developed; and, on the +<i>seventh day</i>, the brain exhibits some consistence. At the <i>one hundred +and ninetieth hour</i>, the bill opens, and the muscular flesh appears on +the breast; in <i>four hours</i> more, the breast bone is seen; and, in <i>six +hours</i> afterward, the ribs may be observed forming from the back. At the +expiration of <i>two hundred and thirty-six hours</i>, the bill assumes a +green color, and, if the chicken be taken out of the egg, it will +visibly move. At <i>two hundred and sixty-four hours</i>, the eyes appear; at +<i>two hundred and eighty-eight hours</i>, the ribs are perfect; and <i>at +three hundred and thirty-one hours</i>, the spleen approaches near to the +stomach, and the lungs to the chest; at the end of <i>three hundred and +fifty-five hours</i>, the bill frequently opens and shuts. At the end of +the <i>eighteenth day</i>, the first cry of the chicken is heard; and it +gradually acquires more strength, till it is enabled to release itself +from confinement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452 (132)]</a></span> +After the hen has set a week, the fertility of the eggs may be +satisfactorily ascertained by taking a thin board with a small orifice +in it, placing a candle at the back, and holding up each egg to the +points of light. The barren eggs may then be removed, and used, +hard-boiled, for young chickens. Some reserve this for the eleventh or +twelfth day.</p> + +<p>About the <i>twenty-first day</i>, the chicken is excluded from the <i>egg</i>; +for the purpose of breaking the shell of which it is furnished with a +horny-pointed scale, greatly harder than the bill itself, at the upper +tip of the bill—a scale which falls off, or becomes absorbed, after the +chicken is two or three days old. The chicken is rolled up in the egg in +the form of a ball, with its forepart toward the highest end, and its +beak uppermost, the hard scale nearly touching the shell.</p> + +<p>The first few strokes of the chicken’s beak produce a small crack, +rather nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg, and the egg is +said to be <i>chipped</i>. From the first crack, the chicken turns gradually +round, from left to right, chipping the shell as it turns, in a circular +manner, never obliquely. All do not succeed in producing the result in +the same time; some being able to complete the work within an hour, and +others taking two or three hours, while half a day is most usually +employed, and some require twenty-four hours or more, but rarely two +days. Some have greater obstacles to overcome than others, all shells +not being alike in thickness and hardness.</p> + +<p>When chickens do not effect their escape easily, some little assistance +is needed; but the difficulty is to know when to give it, as a rash +attempt to help them, by breaking the shell, particularly in a downward +direction toward the smaller end,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453 (133)]</a></span> +is often followed by a loss of blood, +which can ill be spared. It is better not to interfere, until it is +apparent that a part of the brood have been hatched for some time, say +twelve hours, and that the rest cannot succeed in making their +appearance. It will then generally be found that the whole fluid +contents of the egg, yolk and all, are taken up into the body of the +chicken, and that weakness alone has prevented its forcing itself out. +The causes of such weakness are various; sometimes, insufficient warmth, +from the hen having set on too many eggs; sometimes the original +feebleness of the vital spark; but, most frequently, the staleness of +the eggs employed for incubation.</p> + +<p>The chances of rearing such chickens are small; but, if they survive the +first twenty-four hours, they may be considered as safe. The only thing +to be done is to take them from the hen till she is settled at night, +keeping them in the meanwhile as snug and warm as possible. If a gentle +hand can persuade a crust of bread down their throats, it will do no +harm; but all rough and clumsy manipulation will utterly defeat the end +in view. Animal heat will be their greatest restorative. At night, they +should be quietly slipped under their mother; the next morning will +disclose the sequel.</p> + +<p>The period of incubation in the <i>Guinea fowl</i> is twenty-eight days, or +one month; in the <i>pea fowl</i>, from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days; in +<i>turkeys</i>, a month; in <i>ducks</i>, thirty or thirty-one days; and in +<i>geese</i>, from twenty-seven to thirty days.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incubation of turkeys.</span> When the turkey hen has once selected a spot for +her nest, she will continue to lay there till the time for incubation; +so that the egg may be brought home<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454 (134)]</a></span> +from day to day, there being no +need of a nest-egg, as with the domestic fowl. She will lay from fifteen +to twenty eggs, more or less. If there are any dead leaves or dry grass +at hand, she will cover her eggs with these; but if not, she will take +no trouble to collect them from a distance.</p> + +<p>Her determination to sit will be known by her constantly remaining on +the nest, though it is empty; and, as it is seldom in a position +sufficiently secure against the weather or pilferers, a nest should be +prepared for her, by placing some straw, with her eggs, on the floor of +a convenient out-building. She should then be brought home, and gently +and kindly placed upon it. With the smallest varieties, thirteen eggs +will suffice; a large hen might cover more. At the end of a week, it is +usual to add some fowls’ eggs; the activity of the chickens excites some +emulation in the larger brethren, and the eggs take up but little room +in the nest.</p> + +<p>Some believe it necessary to turn the eggs once a day; but the hen +herself does that many times daily. If the eggs are marked, and their +position noticed when she leaves the nest, they will never be found in +the same order. In about four weeks, the young will be hatched.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Incubation of geese.</span> Geese breed in general only once a year; but, if +well kept, they sometimes hatch twice a season. During the sitting, in +sections where the most attention is paid to breeding them, each bird +has a space allotted to it, in rows of wicker-pens, placed one above +another, and the person in charge of them drives the whole flock to +water three times a day, and, bringing them back to their habitations, +places each bird in its own nest.</p> + +<p>The most successful breeders of <i>Bremen geese</i> adopt the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455 (135)]</a></span> following +method: The birds are, in the first place, carefully and properly fed; +the eggs are removed every day in the gentlest manner from the nest, and +placed in a basket of cotton kept in a moderate temperature, and free +from damp. When all the geese begin to sit steadily, each is furnished +with a nest composed of chopped straw; and care is taken that it is +sufficiently capacious.</p> + +<p>Not more than one of the geese is allowed to leave the eggs at a time. +As soon as one leaves, she makes a cackling noise, which is the signal +for the attendant to shut up the boxes in which the others are sitting. +These are made somewhat like a dog-kennel, with a roof pitched both +ways; and are thirty inches long, by twenty-four wide, and twenty-four +high; the door is in the end, and is covered by a sliding panel, which +moves upward, when egress or ingress is sought, and may be shut down at +pleasure. The goose, upon returning, finds only her own box open. When +she re-enters her box, the whole of the doors are again opened, and the +same rule observed throughout the period of hatching. In this way, each +goose is kept to its own nest.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>REARING OF THE YOUNG.</h3> + +<p>For about twenty-four hours after birth, the chickens can not only do +well enough without any extraneous nourishment, but will be far more +likely to thrive subsequently, if let alone, than if crammed or incited +to eat prematurely. More chickens are destroyed by over-feeding than are +lost by the want of it. It is, however, well to turn them in among other +chickens that already feed themselves; they will, in such cases, +generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456 (136)]</a></span> +follow the example of the rest, and pick away at whatever is +around.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo456.png" alt="Marquee or Tent-Shaded Coops" width="350" height="121" /> +<p class="caption">MARQUEE OR TENT-SHADED COOPS.</p></div> + +<p>A roomy, boarded coop, in a dry, sunny spot, is the best position for +them during the first month; after which it may be left open during the +day, for the hen to retire to when she pleases. In quiet grassy places, +it is scarcely necessary to coop the hen at all. As to food, they may +have every thing which is not absolutely poisonous; though if wet food +is given, the chicken is thus obliged to take water, whether it requires +it or not, in order to get a sufficient supply of solid food, and +diseased bowels will be likely to follow; whereas, if the food is dry, +they can supply themselves with food and water according to their +pleasure. If Indian meal is well boiled, and fed not too moist, it will +answer a very good purpose, particularly after they are eight or ten +days old. Pure water must be placed near them in such a manner as to +enable them to drink without getting into the water, which, by wetting +their feathers, benumbs and injures them. Meat and insect diet are +almost necessary; but, whatever the food, the meals must be given at +short intervals; as much as they can swallow, and as often as they can +eat. With all their industry, they are only half-clad till flesh and +bone stop growing for a while, and allow down and feathers to overtake +them.</p> + +<p>Chickens should not be let out of their coops too early in the morning, +or whilst the dew is on the ground; still less should they be suffered +to range over the wet grass, which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457 (137)]</a></span> +a common cause of disease and +death. They should also be guarded against sudden unfavorable changes of +the weather, more particularly if attended with rain. Nearly all the +diseases of gallinaceous fowls arise from cold moisture.</p> + +<p>The period at which they are left to shift for themselves depends upon +the disposition of the hen. Some will continue their attentions to their +chickens till they are nearly full-grown, while others will cast them +off much earlier. In the latter case, an eye should be kept upon them +for a few days; for chickens in this half-grown state are much more +liable to disease than when they were apparently tender little +weaklings, crowded under their mother’s wings. They should be kept in a +dry, warm, place; dryness is especially necessary.</p> + +<p>If the chickens feather rapidly when very young—as is the case with the +Golden Pheasant, Black Poland, Guelderland, and some others—they are +always weakly, however healthy in other respects, from the fact that +their food goes to sustain their feathers rather than their bodies; and +they frequently languish and die, from this circumstance alone. If, on +the other hand, they feather slowly, as do the Cochin Chinas, Shanghaes, +and others, the food in early life goes to nourish and sustain their +bodies until they become more vigorous, and old enough to sustain the +shock of feathering without detriment. Pure tan-colored Dorkings are +more easily raised than others of the race, because they feather more +slowly.</p> + +<p>Chickens which feather rapidly must be kept perfectly dry and warm, or +they will die; while naked chickens, as they are termed, or those which +feather at a more advanced age, and very slowly, seldom suffer from the +cold, from the fact that their down is very warm, and their blood is +hotter, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458 (138)]</a></span> +circulates more rapidly; since their food principally goes +to blood, and flesh, and bones, and not to feathers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rearing of Guinea fowls.</span> For the young of these, ants’ eggs, so called, +hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, small worms, maggots, bread-crumbs, +chopped meat, or suet—whatever, in short, is most nutritious, is the +most appropriate food. This need not be offered to them in large +quantities, as it would only be devoured by the mother Bantam as soon as +she saw that they had for the time satisfied their appetites, or it +would be stolen by other birds; but it should frequently be administered +to them in small supplies. Feeding them three, four, or five times a +day, is not often enough; every half hour during daylight they should be +tempted to fill their craws, which are soon emptied again by an +extraordinary power and quickness of digestion.</p> + +<p>The newly-hatched Guinea fowl is a tiny creature, and its growth is, +consequently, very rapid, requiring incessant supplies. A check once +received can never be recovered. They do not, in such cases, mope and +pine for a day or two; like young turkeys under similar circumstances, +and then die; but, in half an hour after being in apparent health, they +fall on their backs, give a convulsive kick or two, and fall victims, in +fact, to starvation. The demands of Nature for the growth of bone, +muscle, and particularly of feathers, are so great, that no subsequent +abundant supply of food can compensate for a fast of a couple of hours. +The feathers still go on growing in geometrical progression, and drawing +the sources of vitality still faster than they can be supplied, till the +bird faints and expires from inanition.</p> + +<p>A dry, sunny corner in the garden will be the best place to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459 (139)]</a></span> coop them +with their bantam hen. As they increase in strength, they will do no +harm, but much good, by devouring worms, grubs, caterpillars, maggots, +and all sorts of insects. By the time their bodies are little longer +than those of sparrows, they will be able to fly with some degree of +strength; other additions to their complete stature are successively and +less immediately developed, the spurs, comb, and ornamental plumage not +appearing till a subsequent period.</p> + +<p>When they are about the size of thrushes, or a little larger, unless the +summer be very fine, the bantam may be allowed to range loose in the +orchard and shrubbery, and no longer permitted to enter the garden. The +young must, however, still receive a bountiful and frequent supply of +food; they are not to be considered safe till the horn on their head is +fairly grown. Oatmeal is a great treat; cooked potatoes, boiled rice, or +any thing, in short, that is eatable, may be thrown to them; they will +pick the bones left after dinner with evident satisfaction. The tamer +they can be made, the less troublesome will they be when grown; the more +kindly they are treated, the fatter will they be for food, and the +better price will they bring in market.</p> + +<p>For rearing the young of the <i>pea fowl</i>, the same directions will be +found useful, and should be carried out in practice.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rearing of turkeys.</span> Much quackery has been recommended in the treatment +of young turkeys. Nothing, however, should be given to them, nothing +done for them; they should remain in the nest, under the shelter of +their mother’s wings, for at least eight or ten hours; if hatched in the +afternoon, till the following morning. The hen should then be placed on +the grass, in the sun, under a roomy coop. If the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460 (140)]</a></span> +weather is fine, she +may be stationed at any point desired, by a long piece of flannel-list +tied round one leg, and fastened to a stump or stone.</p> + +<p>At first, a few crumbs of bread should be offered; for some hours, the +little ones will be in no hurry to eat; but, when they do commence, they +should be supplied constantly and abundantly with chopped egg, shreds of +meat and fat, curd, boiled rice mixed with cress, lettuce, and the green +of onions; melted mutton-suet poured over barley-meal, and cut up when +cold, as also bullock’s liver boiled and minced, are excellent things. +Young turkeys do not like to have their food minced much smaller than +they can swallow it, preferring to make a meal at three or four +mouthfuls, rather than to trouble themselves with the incessant pecking +and scratching in which chickens so much delight. Pepper will be found +particularly useful in feeding them; as, indeed, all stimulating +vegetables, such as horse-radish, and the like.</p> + +<p>Young turkeys are sometimes attacked by <i>fasciolæ</i>, or worms in the +trachea; but not so often as chickens. Cramp is the most fatal to them, +particularly in bad weather. A few pieces of board laid under and about +the coop are useful; sometimes rubbing the leg with spirit will bring +back the circulation.</p> + +<p>The time when the hen may be allowed full liberty with her brood depends +most upon the season, the situation, etc. Some think that if the young +are thriving, the sooner the old ones are out with them the better, +after the first ten days or so. A safer rule may be fixed at the season, +called “shooting the red,” when young turkeys approach the size of a +partridge, or before the granular, fleshy excrescences on the head and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461 (131)]</a></span> +neck begin to appear; soon after, the whole plumage, particularly the +tail-feathers, shoot into rapid growth, and liberal nourishment is +imperatively required. If let loose at this time, they will obtain much +foraging, and still be thankful for all that is given to them. +Caraway-seeds, as a tonic, are beneficial, if added to plenty of barley, +boiled potatoes, chopped vegetables, and refuse meat. At this time the +turkeys, naturally enough, begin to be troublesome and voracious; they +have to grow from the size of a lark to twelve or fourteen pounds, in +eight or nine months. One great merit in old birds is, that in +situations where nuts, acorns, and mast are to be had, they will lead +off their brood to these, and all of them will abstain, comparatively, +from ravaging other crops.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo461.png" alt="Duck-Pond and Houses" width="400" height="201" /> +<p class="caption">DUCK-POND AND HOUSES.</p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rearing of ducklings.</span> The best mode of rearing the young of ducks +depends very much upon the situation in which they are hatched. It is +customary to dip their feet in water as soon as they are hatched, and +then to clip the down on their tails close with a pair of scissors, to +prevent their becoming drabbled and water-logged; and before their +introduction to the pond, which should not be until a day or two after +hatching, it is thought advisable by many to let them have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462 (142)]</a></span> a private +swim or two in a small pan of water, that they may try their strength +and practice their webbed feet before venturing upon a larger space.</p> + +<p>For the first month, the confinement of the mother under a coop is +better than too much liberty. Their first food may be boiled eggs, +nettles, and a little barley; all kinds of sapped food, cornmeal and +water mixed thin, worms, etc., suit them; they will also greedily eat +cabbages or other greens, mixed with boiled bran; and this mess, with +the addition of pepper, forms a valuable dietetic. In a few days, they +require no care, being perfectly able to shift for themselves; but at +any age they are the most helpless of the inhabitants of the +poultry-yard, having no weapons with which to defend themselves from +vermin, or animals of prey, and their awkward, waddling gait precluding +their seeking safety in flight. The old duck is not so brave in defence +of her brood as the hen; but she will, nevertheless, display at times +much spirit. The young seldom die of any disease, and with proper +precaution there will be no trouble in raising almost as many ducklings +as are hatched. They come early to maturity, being nearly full-grown and +in fine eating order at three months old; far excelling, in this +respect, all other poultry, except geese.</p> + +<p>None are more successful in rearing ducklings than those who keep them, +for the first period of their existence, in pens two or three yards +square, and cram them night and morning with long, dried pellets of +flour and water, or egg and flour, until they are judged old enough to +be turned out with their mother to forage for themselves. They are +cheerful, harmless, good-natured, cleanly creatures, carefully washing +themselves, and arranging their dress, before commencing their meals; +and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463 (143)]</a></span> +the healthy heartiness of their appetite is amusing, rather than +disgusting.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rearing of goslings.</span> For the first three or four days, goslings must be +kept warm and dry, and fed on barley-meal, or oatmeal, mixed with milk, +if easily procurable; if not, with water. They will begin to grow in +about a week. For a week or two, they should not be turned out until +late in the morning, and should always be taken in early in the evening. +Their great enemy is the cramp, which can be kept off by making them +sleep on dry straw. A little boiled rice, daily, assists their growth; +with corn, of course, as soon as they can eat it. When goslings are +first allowed to go at large with their mother, every plant of hemlock +which grows within their range should be pulled up, as they are very apt +to eat it, and it generally proves fatal. Nightshade is equally +pernicious to them; and they have been known to be poisoned by eating +sprigs of yew-tree.</p> + +<p>The young of <i>Bremen geese</i>, when first hatched, are of a very delicate +and tender constitution. It is best to let them remain in the +breeding-box in which they are hatched for twenty-four hours after they +leave the shell. This should, however, be regulated by the weather; +since, if it is fair and warm, they may be let out an hour or two in the +middle of the day, when they will wet their little bills and nibble at +the grass. They ought not to be out in the rain at any time during the +first month; and both geese and goslings should be shut up in the boxes +at night, during the same period, as a protection against rats and +vermin. A very shallow pool, dug in the yard, with a bucket or two of +water thrown into it, to suit the temporary purpose of bathing, is +sufficient during that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464 (144)]</a></span> +period. If well fed on grain from the time they +are hatched, twenty-five pounds weight can be secured, at seven or eight +months old. By feeding them till four days old, and then literally +turning them out to grass, an average weight of from seventeen to +eighteen pounds each has been attained, at that age after the feathers +are cleanly picked off.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>CAPONIZING.</h3> + +<p>Capons have ever been esteemed among the greatest delicacies of the +table; and are made by the extirpation of the reproductive organs in +male fowls. If a cock, when young, is emasculated, a remarkable change +takes place in him. His natural fierceness is calmed; he becomes placid +and peaceful; his pugnacity has deserted him; he no longer seeks the +company of the hens; he loses his previous strong, shrill voice; he +grows to a far larger size than he would otherwise have done, having +nothing to interfere with the main business of his life—to eat, drink, +sleep, and get fat as speedily as possible; his flesh is peculiarly +white, firm and succulent; and even the fat is perfectly destitute of +rankness. The capon may, also, by a little management be converted into +an admirable nurse. Some assert that caponized cocks are never afterward +subject to the natural process of moulting; but this is denied by +others.</p> + +<p>The art has been practised from the earliest antiquity, in Greece, +India, and China, for the purpose of improving the flesh of birds for +the table, in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. It is extensively +performed in the great poultry-breeding districts of England; but in +this country it is by no means so generally practised as would naturally +be expected.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465 (145)]</a></span> +The instruments most approved by skilful operators consist of two five +or seven-pound weights for confining the fowl; a scalpel, for cutting +open the thin skin enveloping the testicles; a silver retractor, for +stretching open the wound sufficiently wide for operating within; a pair +of spring forceps—with a sharp, cutting edge, resembling that of a +chisel, having a level half an inch in its greatest width—for making +the incision, and securing the thin membrane; a spoon-shaped instrument, +with a sharp hook at one end, for pushing and removing the testicles, +adjusting the loop, and assisting in tearing open the tender covering; +and a double silver canula, for containing the two ends of horse-hair, +or fibre, constituting the loop. The expense of these instruments is in +the neighborhood of six dollars. A cheap penknife may be used instead of +the scalpel; and the other instruments may be obtained of a cheaper +construction—the whole not costing more than half the above-named +amount.</p> + +<p>The cockerel intended for capons should be of the largest breeds, as the +Dorking, Cochin China, or the Great Malay. They may be operated upon at +any time after they are a month old; the age of from two to three months +is considered preferable. If possible, it should be done before July; as +capons made later never prove so fine.</p> + +<p>The fowl should be confined to a table or board, by laying him with the +left side downward, the wings drawn behind the rump, the legs extended +backward, with the upper one farthest drawn out, and the head and neck +left perfectly free. The feathers are next to be plucked from the right +side, near the hip-joint, on a line with, and between the joint of the +shoulder. The space uncovered may be from an inch to an inch and a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466 (146)]</a></span> half +in diameter, according to the size of the bird. After drawing off the +skin from the part, backward—so that, when left to itself after the +operation is completed, it will cover the wound in the flesh—make an +incision with the bevel-edged knife, at the end of the forceps, between +the last two ribs, commencing about an inch from the back-bone, and +extending it obliquely downward, from an inch to an inch and a half, +cutting just deep enough to separate the ribs, taking due care not to +wound the intestines.</p> + +<p>Next, adjust and apply the retractor by means of the small thumb-screw, +and stretch the wound sufficiently wide apart to afford room for an +examination of the organs to be removed. Then, with the scalpel, or a +sharp penknife, carefully cut open the skin, or membrane, covering the +intestines, which, if not sufficiently drawn up, in consequence of the +previous confinement, may be pushed forward toward the breast-bone, by +means of the bowl of the spoon-shaped instrument, or—what would answer +equally well—with the handle of a tea-spoon.</p> + +<p>As the testicles are exposed to view, they will be found connected with +the back and sides by a thin membrane, or skin, passing over them. This +covering must then be seized with the forceps, and torn open with the +sharp-pointed hook at the small end of the spoon-shaped instrument; +after which the bowl of the spoon must be introduced, with the left +hand, under the lower or left testicle, which is, generally, a little +nearer to the rump than the right one. Then take the double canula, +adjust the hair-loop, and, with the right hand, pass the loop over the +small hooked end of the spoon, running it down under the bowl of the +spoon containing the testicle, so as to bring the loop to act upon the +parts which connect the testicle to the back. By drawing the ends of the +hair-loop backward and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467 (147)]</a></span> +forward, and at the same time pushing the lower +end of the tube, or canula, toward the rump of the fowl, the cord or +fastening of the testicle is severed.</p> + +<p>A similar process is then to be repeated with the uppermost or right +testicle; after which, any remains of the testicles, together with the +blood at or around the bottom of the wound, must be scooped out with the +bowl of the spoon. The left testicle is first cut out, in order to +prevent the blood which may issue from covering the one remaining, and +so rendering it more difficult to be seen. The operation, if skilfully +done, occupies but a few moments; when the skin of the fowl should be +drawn over the wound with the retractor, and the wound covered with the +feathers that were plucked off at the commencement.</p> + +<p>In some fowls, the fore part of the thigh covers the two hindmost ribs; +in which case, care must be taken to draw the fleshy part of the thigh +well back, to prevent it from being cut; since, otherwise, the operation +might lame the fowl, or even cause its death.</p> + +<p>For loops, nothing answers better than the fibre of a cocoa-nut husk, +which is rough, and readily separates the testicles by sawing. The next +best substance is the hair of a horse’s mane or tail.</p> + +<p>After the operation, the bird may be placed in a warm house, where there +are no perches; since if such appliances are present, the newly-made +capon will very probably injure himself in his attempts to perch. For +about a week, the food should be soft, meal porridge, and that in small +quantities, alternated with bread steeped in milk; he may be given as +much pure water as he will drink, it being best to use it in a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468 (148)]</a></span> tepid +state, or at least with the chill taken off. At the end of a week, or +ten days, at most, the fowl, if previously of a sound, vigorous +constitution, will be all right, and may be turned out with the others.</p> + +<p>The usual method, in France, of making <i>poulardes</i>, or hen-capons, as +they are sometimes improperly designated, is to extirpate the +egg-cluster, or <i>ovarium</i>, in the same manner as the testicles are +extracted from the cockerel; but it is quite sufficient merely to cut +across the oviduct, or egg-tube, with a sharp knife. Otherwise, they may +be treated in the same manner as the capons. Capons are fattened in +precisely the same manner as other fowls.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FATTENING AND SLAUGHTERING.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo468.png" alt="Fox stealing fowl for its young" width="350" height="223" /> +<p class="caption">A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING.</p></div> + +<p>Fat is not a necessary part of any animal body, being the form which +superabundant nourishment assumes, which would, if needed, be converted +into muscles and other solids. It is contained in certain membranous +receptacles provided for it, distributed over the body, and it is turned +to use whenever<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469 (149)]</a></span> +the supply of nourishment is defective, which should be +provided by the stomach, and other great organs. In such emergencies it +is taken up, in the animal economy, by the absorbents; if the latter, +from any cause, act feebly, the health suffers. When, however, +nourishment is taken into the system in greater quantities than is +necessary for ordinary purposes, the absorbent vessels take it up; and +the fat thus made is generally healthy, provided there is a good +digestion.</p> + +<p>A common method of fattening fowl is to give them the run of a +farm-yard, where they thrive upon the offal of the stable and other +refuse, with perhaps some small regular daily feeds; but at +threshing-time, they become fat, and are styled <i>barn-door fowls</i>, +probably the most delicate and high-flavored of all, both from their +full allowance of the finest grain, and the constant health in which +they are kept, by living in the natural state, and having the full +enjoyment of air and exercise; or, they are confined in coops during a +certain number of weeks, those fowls which are soonest ready being taken +as wanted.</p> + +<p>Fowls may also be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved in a +healthy state—their flesh being equal in quality to that of the +barn-door fowl—when confined in feeding-houses. These should be at once +warm and airy, with earth floors, well-raised, and sufficiently +capacious to accommodate well the number desired. The floor may be +slightly littered down, the litter being often changed; and the greatest +cleanliness should be observed. Sandy gravel should be placed in several +different layers, and often changed. A sufficient number of troughs, for +both water and food, should be placed around, that the fowls may feed +with as little interruption as possible from each other; and perches in +the same proportion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470 (150)]</a></span> +should be furnished for those which are inclined to +avail themselves of them; though the number will be few, after they have +begun to fatten. This arrangement, however, assists in keeping them +quiet and contented until that period. Insects and animal food forming a +part of the natural diet of poultry, they are medicinal to them in a +weakly state, and the want of such food may sometimes impede their +thriving.</p> + +<p>The least nutritious articles of food, so far as it can be done +conveniently, should be fed out first; afterward, those that are more +nutritive. Fattening fowls should be kept quiet, and suffered to take no +more exercise than is necessary for their health; since more exercise +than this calls for an expenditure of food which does not avail any +thing in the process of fattening. They should be fed regularly with +suitable food, and that properly prepared; and as much should be given +them as they are able to convert into flesh and fat, without waste. The +larger the quantity of food which a fattening animal can be made to +consume daily, with a good appetite, or which it can digest thoroughly, +the greater will be the amount of flesh and fat gained, in proportion to +the whole quantity of food consumed.</p> + +<p>Substances in which the nutriment is much concentrated should be fed +with care. There is danger, especially when the bird is first put to +feed, that more may be eaten at once than the digestive organs can +manage. Meal of Indian corn is highly nutritive; and, when properly fed, +causes fowls to fatten faster than almost any other food. They will not, +however, bear to be kept exclusively on this article for a great length +of time. Meal made from the heaviest varieties of corn, especially that +made from the hard, flinty kinds grown in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471 (151)]</a></span> Northern and Eastern +States, is quite too strong for fowls to be full-fed upon. Attention +should also be paid to the bulk of the food given; since sufficient bulk +is necessary to effect a proper distending of the stomach, as a +necessary condition of healthy digestion.</p> + +<p>One simple mode of fattening, which is adopted by many, is the +following: Shut the fowls up where they can get no gravel; keep corn by +them all the time, and also give them dough enough once a day; for +drink, give them skimmed milk; with this feed, they will fatten in ten +days; if kept longer, they should have some gravel, or they will fall +away.</p> + +<p>Oats ground into meal, and mixed with a little molasses and water, +barley-meal with sweet milk, and boiled oats, mixed with meat, are all +excellent for fattening poultry—reference being had to time, expense, +and quality of flesh.</p> + +<p>In <i>fattening ducks</i>, it must be remembered that their flesh will be +found to partake, to a great extent, of the flavor of the food on which +they have been fattened; and as they are naturally quite indiscriminate +feeders, care should be taken, for at least a week or so before killing, +to confine them to select food. Boiled potatoes are very good feeding, +and are still better if a little grain is mixed with them; Indian meal +is both economical and nutritive, but should be used sparingly at first. +Some recommend butcher’s offal; but, although ducks may be fattened on +such food to an unusual weight, and thus be profitable for the market, +their flesh will be rendered rank and gross, and not at all fit for the +table.</p> + +<p>To <i>fatten geese</i>, it is necessary to give them a little corn daily, +with the addition of some raw Swedish turnips, carrots, mangel-wurtzel +leaves, lucerne, tares, cabbage leaves, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472 (152)]</a></span> +lettuces. Barley-meal and +water is recommended by some; but full-grown geese that have never been +habituated to the mixture when young, will occasionally refuse to eat +it. Cooked potatoes, in small quantities, do no harm; and, apart from +the consideration of expense, steeped wheat would produce a first-rate +delicacy.</p> + +<p>Those who can only afford to bring up one or two, should confine them in +a crib or some such place, about the beginning of July, and feed them as +directed, giving them a daily supply of clean water for drink. If from a +dozen to twenty are kept, a large pen of from fifteen to twenty feet +square should be made, well covered with straw on the bottom, and a +covered house in a corner for protection against the sun and rain, when +required; since exposure to either of these is not good. It will be +observed that, about noon, if geese are at liberty, they will seek some +shady spot, to avoid the influence of the sun; and when confined in +small places, they have not sufficient space for flapping their wings, +and drying themselves after being wet, nor have they room for moving +about so as to keep themselves warm. There should be three troughs in +the crib: one for dry oats; another for vegetables, which ought always +to be cut down; and a third for clean water, of which they must always +have a plentiful supply. The riper the cabbages and lettuces are with +which they are supplied the better.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Slaughtering and Dressing.</span> Both ducks and geese should be led out to the +pond a few hours before being slaughtered, where they will neatly purify +and arrange their feathers. The common mode of slaughtering the +latter—bleeding them from the internal parts of the throat—is +needlessly slow and cruel.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473 (153)]</a></span> +Fowls for cooking, that are to be sent to a distance, or to be kept any +time before being served, should be plucked, drawn, and dressed +immediately after being killed. The feathers strip off much more easily +and cleanly while the bird is yet warm. When large numbers are to be +slaughtered and prepared in a short time, the process is expedited by +scalding the bird in boiling water, when the feathers drop off almost at +once. Fowls thus treated are, however, generally thought inferior in +flavor, and are more likely to acquire a taint in close, warm weather, +than such as are plucked and dressed dry.</p> + +<p>In dressing, all bruises or rupturing of the skin should be avoided. A +coarse, half-worn cloth, that is pervious to the air, like a wire sieve, +and perfectly dry and clean, forms the best wrapper. The color of +yellow-skinned turkeys—equally well-flavored, by the way—is improved +for appearance at market by wrapping them for twelve or twenty-four +hours in cloths soaked in cold salt and water, frequently changed. For +the same purpose, the loose fat is first laid in warm salt and water, +and afterward in milk and water for two or three hours. Some dust with +flour, inside and out, any fowls that are to be carried far or to hang +many days before being cooked.</p> + +<p>The oldest and toughest fowls, which are often pronounced unfit for +eating, thrown away, and wasted, may be made into a savory and +nutritious dish by jointing, after the bird is plucked and drawn, as for +a pie; it should not be skinned. Stew it five hours in a close saucepan, +with salt, mace, onions, or any other flavoring ingredients desired. +When tender, turn it out into a deep dish, so that the meat may be +entirely covered with the liquor. Let it stand thus in its own jelly +for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474 (154)]</a></span> +a day or two; it may then be served in the shape of a curry, a +hash, or a pie, and will be found to furnish an agreeable repast.</p> + +<p>Old geese, killed in the autumn, after they have recovered from +moulting, and before they have begun to think about the breeding time, +make excellent meat, if cut into small portions, stewed slowly five or +six hours with savory condiments, and made into pie the next day. By +roasting and broiling, the large quantity of nutriment contained in the +bones and cartilages is lost, and what might easily be made tender has +to be swallowed tough. Young geese, as well as the old, are, also, often +salted and boiled.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>POULTRY-HOUSES.</h3> + +<p>The three grand requisites in a poultry house are <i>cleanliness</i>, +<i>dryness</i>, and <i>warmth</i>. A simple arrangement for this purpose is a shed +built against the gable of the house, opposite to the part warmed by the +kitchen fire, in which are placed cross-bars for roosting, with boxes +for laying in, or quantities of fresh straw. This should always have an +opening, to allow the poultry-house to be cleansed out, at least once a +week. Fowls will never thrive long amidst uncleanliness; and even with +the utmost care a place where they have been long kept becomes tainted, +as it is called; the surface of the ground becomes saturated with their +<i>exuriæ</i>, and is therefore no longer conducive to health.</p> + +<p>To avoid this effect, some persons in the country frequently change the +sites of their poultry-houses, to obtain fresh ground; while others, who +cannot thus change, purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch, +by washing with hot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475 (155)]</a></span> +lime water, and by strewing large quantities of +pure sand both within and without. Washing the floor every week is a +necessity; for which purpose it is advantageous to have the house paved +either with stones, bricks, or tiles. A good flooring, however, and +cheaper than either of these, may be formed by using a composition of +lime and smithy ashes, together with the riddlings of common kitchen +ashes; these, having been all finely broken, must be mixed together with +water, put on the floor with a mason’s trowel, and nicely smoothed on +the surface. If this is put on a floor which is in a tolerably dry +situation, and allowed to harden before being used, it will become +nearly as solid and compact as stone, and is almost as durable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo475.png" alt="Rustic Poultry-House" width="350" height="269" /> +<p class="caption">RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE.</p></div> + +<p>The inside of the laying-boxes should be frequently washed with hot lime +water, to free them from vermin, which greatly torment the sitting hens. +For the same purpose, poultry should always have a heap of dry sand, or +fine ashes, laid under some covered place or thick tree near their yard, +in which they may dust themselves; this being their means of ridding +themselves of the vermin with which they are annoyed.</p> + +<p>In every establishment for poultry-rearing, there ought to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476 (156)]</a></span> be some +separate crib or cribs, into which to remove fowl when laboring under +disease; for, not only are many of the diseases to which poultry are +liable highly contagious, but the sick birds are also regarded with +dislike by such as are in health; and the latter will, generally, attack +and maltreat them, aggravating, at least, their sufferings, if not +actually depriving them of life. The moment, therefore, that a bird is +perceived to droop, or appears pining, it should be removed to one of +these infirmaries.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><img src="images/illo476.png" alt="A Fancy Coop in Chinese or Gorthic Style" width="200" height="185" /> +<p class="caption">A FANCY COOP IN CHINESE<br />OR GOTHIC STYLE.</p></div> + +<p>Separate pens are also necessary, to avoid quarrelling among some of the +highly-blooded birds, more particularly the game fowl. They are also +necessary when different varieties are kept, in order to avoid improper +or undesirable commixture from accidental crossing. These lodgings may +be most readily constructed in rows, parallel to each other; the +partitions may be formed of lattice-work, being thus rather ornamental, +and the cost of erection but trifling. Each of these lodgings should be +divided into two compartments, one somewhat larger than the other; one +to be close and warm, for the sleeping-room; and the other, a large one, +airy and open, that the birds may enjoy themselves in the daytime. Both +must be kept particularly dry and clean, and be well protected from the +weather.</p> + +<p>A <i>hen-ladder</i> is an indispensable piece of furniture, though frequently +absent. This is a sort of ascending scale of perches, one a little +higher than the other; not exactly above its predecessor, but somewhat +in advance. By neglecting the use of this very simple contrivance, many +valuable fowls may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477 (157)]</a></span> +lost or severely injured, by attempting to fly +down from their roost—an attempt from succeeding in which the birds are +incapacitated, in consequence of the bulk of their body preponderating +over the power of their wings.</p> + +<p>Some people allow their fowl to roost abroad all night, in all weathers, +in trees, or upon fences near the poultry-house. This is a slovenly mode +of keeping even the humblest live stock; it offers a temptation to +thieves, and the health of the fowls cannot be improved by their being +soaked all night long in drenching rain, or having their feet frozen to +the branches or rails. There is no difficulty in accustoming any sort of +poultry, except the pea fowl, to regular housing at night.</p> + +<p>It is better that turkeys should not roost in the same house with the +domestic fowl, as they are apt to be cross to sitting and laying hens.</p> + +<p>No poultry-house is what it ought to be, it may be suggested, in +conclusion, unless it is in such a state as to afford a lady, without +offending her sense of decent propriety, a respectable shelter on a +showery day.</p> + +<hr class="c25" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478 (158)]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo478.png" alt="Diseases and Their Remedies" width="350" height="281" /></div> + +<p>In our climate, the disorders to which poultry are liable are, +comparatively, few in number, and they usually yield to judicious +treatment. The little attention that has too generally been bestowed +upon this subject may be accounted for from the circumstance that, in an +economical point of view, the value of an individual fowl is relatively +insignificant; and while the ailments of other domesticated animals +generally claim a prompt and efficient care, the unhappy inhabitants of +the poultry-yard are too often relieved of their sufferings in the most +summary manner. There are reasons, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479 (159)]</a></span> +which will justify a more +careful regard in this matter, besides the humanity of adding to the +comfort of these useful creatures; and the attempt to cure, in cases of +disease, will often be rewarded by their flesh being rendered more +palatable, and their eggs more wholesome.</p> + +<p>Most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the result of errors +in diet or management, and should have been prevented, or may be removed +by a change, and the adoption of a suitable regimen. When an individual +is attacked, it should be forthwith removed, to prevent the +contamination of the rest of the flock. Nature, who proves a guardian to +fowls in health, will nurse them in their weakness, and act as a most +efficient physician to the sick; and the aim of all medical treatment +should be to follow the indications which Nature holds out, and assist +in the effort which she constantly makes for the restoration of health.</p> + +<p>The more common diseases which afflict poultry will be so described that +they need not be misapprehended, and such remedies suggested as +experience has proved to be salutary; and, taken alphabetically, the +first on the list is</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>ASTHMA.</h3> + +<p>This common disease seems to differ sufficiently in its characteristics +to warrant a distinction into two species. In one it appears to be +caused by an obstruction of the air-cells, by an accumulation of phlegm, +which interferes with the exercise of their functions. The fowl labors +for breath, in consequence of not being able to take in the usual +quantity of air at an inspiration. The capacity of the lungs is thereby +diminished, the lining membrane of the windpipe becomes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480 (160)]</a></span> thickened, and +its minute branches are more or less affected. These effects may, +perhaps, be attributed to the fact that, as our poultry are originally +natives of tropical climates, they require a more equal temperature than +is afforded, except by artificial means, however well they may appear +acclimated.</p> + +<p>Another variety of asthma is induced by fright, or undue excitement. It +is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to catch them, by seizing them +suddenly, or by their fighting with each other. In these cases, a +blood-vessel is often ruptured, and sometimes one or more of the +air-cells. The symptoms are, short breathing; opening of the beak often, +and for quite a time; heaving and panting of the chest; and, in case of +a rupture of a blood-vessel, a drop of blood appearing on the beak.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Confirmed asthma is difficult to cure. For the disease in +its incipient state, the fowl should be kept warm, and treated with +repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter, with the +addition of a small quantity of Cayenne pepper.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>COSTIVENESS.</h3> + +<p>The existence of this disorder will become apparent by observing the +unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to relieve itself. It frequently +results from continued feeding on dry diet, without access to green +vegetables. Indeed, without the use of these, or some substitute—such +as mashed potatoes—costiveness is certain to ensue. The want of a +sufficient supply of good water will also occasion the disease, on +account of that peculiar structure of the fowl, which renders +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481 (161)]</a></span> them +unable to void their urine, except in connection with the <i>fæces</i> of +solid food, and through the same channel.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Soaked bread, with warm skimmed-milk, is a mild remedial +agent, and will usually suffice. Boiled carrots or cabbage are more +efficient. A meal of earth-worms is sometimes advisable; and hot +potatoes, mixed with bacon-fat, are said to be excellent. Castor-oil and +burned butter will remove the most obstinate cases; though a clyster of +oil, in addition, may sometimes be required, in order to effect a cure.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>DIARRHŒA.</h3> + +<p>There are times when fowls dung more loosely than at others, especially +when they have been fed on green or soft food; but this, may occur +without the presence of disease. Should this state, however, deteriorate +into a confirmed and continued laxity, immediate attention is required +to guard against fatal effects. The causes of diarrhœa are dampness, +undue acidity in the bowels, or the presence of irritating matter there.</p> + +<p>The <i>symptoms</i> are lassitude and emaciation; and, in very severe cases, +the voiding of calcareous matter, white, streaked with yellow. This +resembles the yolk of a stale egg, and clings to the feathers near the +vent. It becomes acrid, from the presence of ammonia, and causes +inflammation, which speedily extends throughout the intestines.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> This, of course, depends upon the cause. If the disease is +brought on by a diet of green or soft food, the food must be changed, +and water sparingly given; if it arises from undue acidity, chalk mixed +with meal is advantageous, but rice-flour boluses are most reliable. +Alum-water, of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482 (162)]</a></span> +moderate strength, is also beneficial. In cases of +<i>bloody flux</i>, boiled rice and milk, given warm, with a little magnesia, +or chalk, may be successfully used.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>FEVER.</h3> + +<p>The most decided species of fever to which fowls are subject occurs at +the period of hatching, when the animal heat is often so increased as to +be perceptible to the touch. A state of fever may also be observed when +they are about to lay. This is, generally, of small consequence, when +the birds are otherwise healthy; but it is of moment, if any other +disorder is present, since, in such case, the original malady will be +aggravated. Fighting also frequently occasions fever, which sometimes +proves fatal.</p> + +<p>The <i>symptoms</i> are an increased circulation of the blood; excessive +heat; and restlessness.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Light food and change of air; and, if necessary, aperient +medicine, such as castor oil, with a little burned butter.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>INDIGESTION.</h3> + +<p>Cases of indigestion among fowls are common, and deserve attention +according to the causes from which they proceed. A change of food will +often produce <i>crop-sickness</i>, as it is called, when the fowl takes but +little food, and suddenly loses flesh. Such disease is of little +consequence, and shortly disappears. When it requires attention at all, +all the symptoms will be removed by giving their diet in a warm state.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, however, a fit of indigestion threatens severe consequences, +especially if long continued. Every effort<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483 (163)]</a></span> +should be made to ascertain +the cause, and the remedy must be governed by the circumstances of the +case.</p> + +<p>The <i>symptoms</i> are heaviness, moping, keeping away from the nest, and +want of appetite.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo483.png" alt="Prairie Hens" width="300" height="249" /> +<p class="caption">PRAIRIE HENS.</p></div> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Lessen the quantity of food, and oblige the fowl to +exercise in an open walk. Give some powdered cayenne and gentian, mixed +with the usual food. Iron-rust, mixed with soft food, or diffused in +water, is an excellent tonic, and is indicated when there is atrophy, or +diminution of the flesh. It may be combined with oats or grain. +Milk-warm ale has also a good effect, when added to the diet of diseased +fowls.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>LICE.</h3> + +<p>The whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly liable to be infested +with lice; and there have been instances when fowls have been so covered +in this loathsome manner that the natural color of the feathers has been +undistinguishable. The presence of vermin is not only annoying to +poultry, but materially interferes with their growth, and prevents their +fattening. They are, indeed, the greatest drawback to the success and +pleasure of the poultry fanciers; and nothing but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484 (164)]</a></span> unremitting vigilance +will exterminate them, and keep them exterminated.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> To attain this, whitewash frequently all the parts adjacent +to the roosting-pole, take the poles down and run them slowly through a +fire made of wood shavings, dry weeds, or other light waste +combustibles. Flour of sulphur, placed in a vessel, and set on fire in a +close poultry-house, will penetrate every crevice, and effectually +exterminate the vermin. When a hen comes off with her brood, the old +nest should be cleaned out, and a new one placed; and dry +tobacco-leaves, rubbed to a powder between the hands, and mixed with the +hay of the nest, will add much to the health of the poultry.</p> + +<p>Flour of sulphur may also be mixed with Indian-meal and water, and fed +in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to two dozen fowls, in two +parcels, two days apart. Almost any kind of grease, or unctuous matter, +is also certain death to the vermin of domestic poultry. In the case of +very young chickens, it should only be used in a warm, sunny day, When +they should be put into a coop with their mother, the coop darkened for +an hour or two, and every thing made quiet, that they may secure a good +rest and nap after the fatigue occasioned by greasing them. They should +be handled with great care, and greased thoroughly; the hen, also. After +resting, they may be permitted to come out and bask in the sun; and in a +few days they will look sprightly enough.</p> + +<p>To guard against vermin, however, it should not be forgotten that +<i>cleanliness</i> is of vital importance; and there must always be plenty of +slacked lime, dry ashes, and sand, easy of access to the fowls, in which +they can roll and dust themselves.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485 (165)]</a></p> +<h3>LOSS OF FEATHERS.</h3> + +<p>This disease, common to confined fowls, should not be confounded with +the natural process of moulting. In this diseased state, no new feathers +come to replace the old, but the fowl is left bald and naked; a sort of +roughness also appears on the skin; there is a falling off in appetite, +as well as moping and inactivity.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> As this affection is, in all probability, constitutional +rather than local, external remedies may not always prove sufficient. +Stimulants, however, applied externally, will serve to assist the +operation of whatever medicine may be given. Sulphur may be thus +applied, mixed with lard. Sulphur and cayenne, in the proportion of one +quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, is good to be given internally, +and will act as a powerful alterative. The diet should be changed; and +cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable.</p> + +<p>In <i>diseased moulting</i>, where the feathers stare and fall off, till the +naked skin appears, sugar should be added to the water which the fowls +drink, and corn and hemp-seed be given. They should be kept warm, and +occasionally be treated to doses of cayenne pepper.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /> +<h3>PIP.</h3> + +<p>This disorder, known also as the <i>gapes</i>, is the most common ailment of +poultry and all domestic birds. It is especially the disease of young +fowls, and is most prevalent in the hottest months, being not only +troublesome but frequently fatal.</p> + +<p>As to its <i>cause</i> and nature, there has been some diversity +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486 (166)]</a></span> of opinion. +Some consider it a catarrhal inflammation, which produces a thickening +of the membrane lining the nostrils and mouth, and particularly the +tongue; others assert that it is caused by want of water, or by bad +water; while others describe it as commencing in the form of a vesicle +on the tip of the tongue, which occasions a thickened state of the skin, +by the absorption of its contents. The better opinion, however, is, that +the disease is occasioned by the presence of worms, or <i>fasciolæ</i>, in +the windpipe. On the dissection of chickens dying with this disorder, +the windpipe will be found to contain numerous small, red worms, about +the size of a cambric needle, which, at the first glance, might be +mistaken for blood-vessels. It is supposed by some that these worms +continue to grow, until, by their enlargement, the windpipe is so filled +up that the chicken is suffocated.</p> + +<p>The common <i>symptoms</i> of this malady are the thickened state of the +membrane of the tongue, particularly toward the tip; the breathing is +impeded, and the beak is frequently held open, as if the creature were +gasping for breath; the beak becomes yellow at its base; and the +feathers on the head appear ruffled and disordered; the tongue is very +dry; the appetite is not always impaired; but yet the fowl cannot eat, +probably on account of the difficulty which the act involves, and sits +in a corner, pining in solitude.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> Most recommend the immediate removal of the thickened +membrane, which can be effected by anointing the part with butter or +fresh cream. If necessary, the scab may be pricked with a needle. It +will also be found beneficial to use a pill, composed of equal parts of +scraped garlic and horse-radish, with as much cayenne pepper as will +outweigh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487 (167)]</a></span> +a grain of wheat; to be mixed with fresh butter, and given +every morning; the fowl to be kept warm.</p> + +<p>If the disease is in an advanced state, shown by the chicken’s holding +up its head and gaping for want of breath, the fowl should be thrown on +its back, and while the neck is held straight, the bill should be +opened, and a quill inserted into the windpipe, with a little +turpentine. This being round, will loosen and destroy a number of small, +red worms, some of which will be drawn up by the feather, and others +will be coughed up by the chicken. The operation should be repeated the +following day, if the gaping continues. If it ceases, the cure is +effected.</p> + +<p>It is stated, also, that the disease has been entirely prevented by +mixing a small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the food of fowls; +from five to ten drops, to a pint of meal, to be made into a dough. +Another specific recommended is to keep iron standing in vinegar, and +put a little of the liquid in the food every few days.</p> + +<p>Some assert that it is promoted by simply scanting fowls in their food; +and this upon the ground that chickens which are not confined with the +hen, but both suffered to run at large and collect their own food, are +not troubled with this disease. There can be little doubt that it is +caused by inattention to cleanliness in the habits and lodgings of +fowls; and some, therefore, think that if the chicken-houses and coops +are kept clean, and frequently washed with thin whitewash, having plenty +of salt and brine mixed with it, that it would be eradicated.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488 (168)]</a></p> +<h3>ROUP.</h3> + +<p>This disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture; but it is often +ascribed to improper feeding and want of cleanliness and exercise. It +affects fowls of all ages, and is either acute or chronic; sometimes +commencing suddenly, on exposure; at others gradually, as the +consequence of neglected colds, or damp weather or lodging. Chronic roup +has been known to extend through two years.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo488.png" alt="Swans" width="350" height="188" /> +<p class="caption">SWANS.</p></div> + +<p>The most prominent <i>symptoms</i> are difficult and noisy breathing and +gaping, terminating in a rattling in the throat; the head swells, and is +feverish; the eyes are swollen, and the eye-lidsappear livid; the sight +decays, and sometimes total blindness ensues; there are discharges from +the nostrils and mouth, at first thin and limpid, afterward thick, +purulent, and fetid. In this stage, which resembles the glanders in +horses, the disease becomes infectious.</p> + +<p>As <i>secondary</i> symptoms, it may be noticed that the appetite fails, +except for drink; the crop feels hard; the feathers are staring, +ruffled, and without the gloss that appears in health; the fowl mopes by +itself and seems to suffer much pain.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i> The fowls should be kept warm, and have plenty of water and +scalded bran, or other light food. When<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489 (169)]</a></span> +chronic, change of food and air +is advisable. The ordinary remedies—such as salt dissolved in +water—are inefficacious. A solution of sulphate of zinc, as an +eye-water, is a valuable cleansing application. Rue-pills, and a +decoction of rue, as a tonic, have been administered with apparent +benefit.</p> + +<p>The following is recommended: of powdered gentian and Jamaica ginger, +each one part; Epsom salts, one and a half parts; and flour of sulphur, +one part; to be made up with butter, and given every morning.</p> + +<p>The following method of treatment is practised by some of the most +successful poulterers in the country. As soon as discovered, if in warm +weather, remove the infected fowls to some well-ventilated apartment, or +yard; if in winter, to some warm place; then give a dessert-spoonful of +castor-oil; wash their heads with warm Castile-soap suds, and let them +remain till next morning fasting. Scald for them Indian-meal, adding two +and a half ounces of Epsom salts for ten hens, or in proportion for a +less or larger number; give it warm, and repeat the dose in a day or +two, if they do not recover.</p> + +<p>Perhaps, however, the best mode of dealing with roup and all putrid +affections is as follows: Take of finely pulverized, fresh-burnt +charcoal, and of new yeast, each three parts; of pulverized sulphur, two +parts; of flour, one part; of water, a sufficient quantity; mix well, +and make into two doses, of the size of a hazel-nut, and give one three +times a day. <i>Cleanliness</i> is no less necessary than warmth; and it will +sometimes be desirable to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk and +water, or suds, as convenient.</p> + +<hr class="c05" /><p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490 (170)]</a></p> +<h3>WOUNDS AND SORES.</h3> + +<p>Fowls are exposed to wounds from many sources. In their frequent +encounters with each other, they often result; the poultry-house is +besieged by enemies at night, and, in spite of all precaution, rats, +weasels, and other animals will assault the occupants of the roost, or +nest, to their damage. These wounds, if neglected, often degenerate into +painful and dangerous ulcers.</p> + +<p>When such injuries occur, <i>cleanliness</i> is the first step toward a cure. +The wound should be cleared from all foreign matter, washed with tepid +milk and water, and excluded as far as possible from the air. The fowl +should be removed from its companions, which, in such cases, seldom or +never show any sympathy, but, on the contrary, are always ready to +assault the invalid, and aggravate the injury. Should the wound not +readily heal, but ulcerate, it may be bathed with alum-water. The +ointment of creosote is said to be effectual, even when the ulcer +exhibits a fungous character, or <i>proud flesh</i> is present. Ulcers may +also be kept clean, if dressed with a little lard, or washed with a weak +solution of sugar of lead; if they are indolent, they may be touched +with blue-stone.</p> + +<p>When severe <i>fractures</i> occur to the limbs of fowls, the best course, +undoubtedly, to pursue—unless they are very valuable—is to kill them +at once, as an act of humanity. When, however, it is deemed worth while +to preserve them, splints may be used, when practicable. Great +cleanliness must be observed; the diet should be reduced; and every +precaution taken against the inflammation, which is sure to supervene. +When it is established, cooling lotions—such as warm milk and +water—may be applied.</p> + +<hr class="c65" /> +<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491"></a></p> +<div class="ind30"> +<h2>LIST OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.</h2> + +<hr class="c05" /> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mailing Notice.</span>—Single copies of any of these Books will be sent to any +address, post-paid, on receipt of price. This very convenient mode may +be adopted where your neighboring bookseller is not supplied with the +work. Address,</p> + +<p class="right"><span class="fsize125 sstype">JOHN E. POTTER & CO., Publishers,</span><br /><b><i>No. 617 Sansom Street, +Philadelphia.</i></b></p> + +<hr class="c05" /> + +<p class="bookname">LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Containing his early +History and Political Career. By Frank Crosby, of the Philadelphia Bar. +With Portrait on steel. 12mo., cloth. Price $1 75.</p> + +<p class="bookname">THE SAME TRANSLATED INTO THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. By Professor Carl Theodor +Eben. 12mo., cloth. Price $1 75.</p> + +<p class="bookname">LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. To which are added his +Speeches and Reports. By H. M. Flint. With Portrait on steel. 12mo., +cloth. Price $1 75.</p> + +<p class="bookname">LIFE OF DANIEL BOONE, +the Great Western Hunter and Pioneer. By Cecil B. +Hartley. With illustrations. 12mo., cloth. Price $1 75.</p> + +<p class="bookname">LIFE OF KIT CARSON, the Great Western Hunter and Guide. By Charles +Burdett. With illustrations. 12mo., cloth. Price $1 75.</p> + +<p class="bookname">LIFE OF DAVID CROCKETT, the Original Humorist and Irrepressible +Backwoodsman. With illustrations. 12mo., cloth. Price $1 75.</p> + +<p class="bookname">LIFE AND ADVENTURES OF MISS MAJOR PAULINE CUSHMAN, the Celebrated Union +Spy and Scout. By F. 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D., +author of “William Carey, a Biography,” and editor of the “Complete +Works of Andrew Fuller,” “Works of Robert Hall,” etc. With nearly 200 +engravings. Crown 8vo., library style. Price $4 50.</p> + +<p class="bookname">THE GOOD CHILD’S ILLUSTRATED INSTRUCTION BOOK. With more than sixty +illustrations. Quarto, bound in cloth. Plain pictures, $1. Illuminated, +$1 25.</p> + +<p class="bookname">THE LITTLE FOLKS’ OWN BOOK. With sixty illustrations. Quarto, cloth. +Plain pictures, $1. Illuminated, $1 25.</p> + +<p class="bookname">UNCLE JOHN’S OWN BOOK OF MORAL AND INSTRUCTIVE STORIES. With more than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496"></a></span> +fifty illustrations. Crown quarto, cloth. Plain pictures, $1 50. +Illuminated, $2.</p> + +<p class="bookname">GRANDFATHER’S STORIES. With sixty illustrations. Crown quarto. Plain +pictures, $1 50. Illuminated, $2.</p> + +<p class="bookname">NATIONAL NURSERY TALES. With sixty illustrations. 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Embracing 150 varieties, beautifully illustrated +and adapted to the tastes of the little ones everywhere; at prices +ranging from 10 cents to $2.</p> + +<p class="bookname">PHOTOGRAPH ALBUMS in every size and variety, holding from twelve to two +hundred pictures, and ranging in price from 75 cents to $20.</p> + +<p>Persons wishing a full catalogue of all our Books, Albums, and Bibles, +will please send two red stamps to pay return postage.</p> + +<p>The trade everywhere supplied on favorable terms.</p> + +<p class="right">Address, <b>JOHN E. POTTER & CO., Publishers,<br /><span class="sstype">617 Sansom Street, +Philadelphia.</span></b></p> + +</div> + +<hr class="c65" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;" /> + +<div class="tnbox"> +<h3>Transcriber’s notes:</h3> +<ul> + <li>Several minor typographical and punctuation errors have been fixed. Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in + the original book.</li> + <li>More important changes made: + <ul> + <li><i>inter-fibrous</i> changed to <i>inter-fibrous spaces</i> (page 182);</li> + <li>illegible text in original taken as reading <i>the other side of</i> (page 284) and <i>omnivorous</i> (page 290);</li> + <li>part of sentence missing in original, completed to <i>meet with some success.</i> (page 316);</li> + <li><i>muscles</i> on page 408 changed to <i>mussels</i>;</li> + <li><i>white-grented</i> changed to <i>white-fronted</i> (page 413);</li> + </ul></li> + <li>The parts on swine and poultry have two page numbers in the original work: one for that particular part, one for the complete + book. The latter has been used in this e-book, with the former being given between brackets where appropriate.</li> + <li>In the original book, the transition from one animal to the next is indicated by a blank page. For the sake of clarity, the title + of the next part is included here.</li> + <li>The book <span class="smcap">Cattle and their Diseases</span> referred to in this book is available + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22771">here</a> on Project Gutenberg.</li> +</ul> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Sheep, Swine, and Poultry, by Robert Jennings + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 39205-h.htm or 39205-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/2/0/39205/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Harry Lamé and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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100644 index 0000000..9b9075d --- /dev/null +++ b/39205-h/images/tocline.png diff --git a/39205.txt b/39205.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..990a845 --- /dev/null +++ b/39205.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14313 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sheep, Swine, and Poultry, by Robert Jennings + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license + + +Title: Sheep, Swine, and Poultry + Embracing the History and Varieties of Each; The Best Modes + of Breeding; Their Feeding and Management; Together with + etc. + +Author: Robert Jennings + +Release Date: March 19, 2012 [EBook #39205] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Harry Lame and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + + + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | + | | + | [OE] and [oe] represent the oe ligature. Text printed in italics | + | and boldface in the original are represented here between under- | + | scores (as in _italics_) and equal signs (as in =boldface=), res- | + | pectively. Text printed in small capitals in the original have been| + | transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. | + | | + | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text. | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + +SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY; + +EMBRACING + +THE HISTORY AND VARIETIES OF EACH; THE BEST MODES OF BREEDING; THEIR +FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; TOGETHER WITH THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE +RESPECTIVELY SUBJECT, AND THE APPROPRIATE REMEDIES FOR EACH. + +BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S., + +PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE +OF PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE +AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY +ASSOCIATION OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES," +"CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES," ETC., ETC. + +[Illustration] + +With Numerous Illustrations. + +PHILADELPHIA: + +JOHN E. POTTER AND COMPANY. 617 SANSOM STREET + +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by + +JOHN E. POTTER, + +In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and +for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Encouraged by the favorable reception of his former works, the author +presents in the following pages what is intended by him as a popular +compendium relative to Sheep, Swine, and Poultry. + +It would not have been a difficult matter to collect material bearing +upon each distinct class sufficient for an entire volume of the present +size. Indeed, the main trouble experienced has been the selecting of +such facts and suggestions only as seemed to him of paramount practical +importance. He has not deemed it advisable to cumber his work with items +of information which could be of service to particular sections and +localities only; but has rather endeavored to present, in a concise, yet +comprehensible shape, whatever is essential to be understood concerning +the animals in question. + +The amateur stock-raiser and the wealthy farmer will, of course, call to +their aid all the works, no matter how expensive or voluminous, which +are to be found bearing upon the subject in which they are for the time +interested. The present volume can scarcely be expected to fill the +niche which such might desire to see occupied. + +The author's experience as a veterinary surgeon among the great body of +our farmers convinces him that what is needed by them in the premises is +a treatise, of convenient size, containing the essential features of the +treatment and management of each, couched in language free from +technicality or rarely scientific expressions, and fortified by the +results of actual experience upon the farm. + +Such a place the author trusts this work may occupy. He hopes that, +while it shall not be entirely destitute of interest for any, it will +prove acceptable, in a peculiar degree, to that numerous and thrifty +class of citizens to which allusion has already been made. + +The importance of such a work cannot be overrated. Take the subject of +sheep for example: the steadily growing demand for woollen goods of +every description is producing a great and lucrative development of the +wool trade. Even light fabrics of wool are now extensively preferred +throughout the country to those of cotton. Our imports of wool from +England during the past six years have increased at an almost incredible +rate, while our productions of the article during the past few years +greatly exceed that of the same period in any portion of our history. + +Relative to swine, moreover, it may be said that they form so +considerable an item of our commerce that a thorough information as to +the best mode of raising and caring for them is highly desirable; while +our domestic poultry contribute so much, directly and indirectly, to the +comfort and partial subsistence of hundreds of thousands, that sensible +views touching that division will be of service in almost every +household. + +To those who are familiar with the author's previous works upon the +Horse and Cattle, it is needless to say any thing as to the method +adopted by him in discussing the subject of Diseases. To others he would +say, that only such diseases are described as are likely to be actually +encountered, and such curatives recommended as his own personal +experience, or that of others upon whose judgment he relies, has +satisfied him are rational and valuable. + +The following works, among others, have been consulted: Randall's Sheep +Husbandry; Youatt on Sheep; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; +Allen's Domestic Animals; Stephens's Book of the Farm; Youatt on the +Hog; Richardson on the Hog; Dixon and Kerr's Ornamental and Domestic +Poultry; Bennett's Poultry Book; and Browne's American Poultry Yard. + +To those professional brethren who have so courteously furnished him +with valuable information, growing out of their own observation and +practice, he acknowledges himself especially indebted; and were he +certain that they would not take offence, he would be pleased to mention +them here by name. + +Should the work prove of service to our intelligent American farmers and +stock-breeders as a body, the author's end will have been attained. + + + + + CONTENTS. + + SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. + PAGE + HISTORY AND VARIETIES 15 + AMERICAN SHEEP 21 + Native Sheep 22 + The Spanish Merino 25 + The Saxon Merino 36 + The New Leicester 41 + The South-Down 47 + The Cotswold 52 + The Cheviot 54 + The Lincoln 56 + NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP 57 + Formation of the Teeth 59 + Structure of the Skin 63 + Anatomy of the Wool 64 + Long Wool 76 + Middle Wool 78 + Short Wool 80 + + CROSSING AND BREEDING 81 + BREEDING 81 + Points of the Merino 93 + Breeding Merinos 97 + General Principles of Breeding 106 + Use of Rams 112 + Lambing 117 + Management of Lambs 121 + Castration and Docking 127 + + FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 129 + FEEDING 129 + Shade 133 + Fences 133 + Hoppling 133 + Dangerous Rams 134 + Prairie Feeding 135 + Fall Feeding 137 + Winter Feeding 137 + Feeding with other Stock 142 + Division of Flocks 142 + Regularity in Feeding 143 + Effect of Food 144 + Yards 146 + Feeding-Racks 147 + Troughs 150 + Barns and Sheds 151 + Sheds 155 + Hay-Holder 156 + Tagging 157 + Washing 160 + Cutting the Hoofs 165 + Shearing 166 + Cold Storms 171 + Sun-Scald 171 + Ticks 171 + Marking or Branding 172 + Maggots 173 + Shortening the Horns 174 + Selection and Division 174 + The Crook 176 + Driving and Slaughtering 177 + Driving 177 + Points of Fat Sheep 181 + Slaughtering 184 + Cutting Up 186 + Relative qualities 187 + Contributions to Manufactures 191 + + DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 195 + ADMINISTERING MEDICINE 197 + BLEEDING 197 + FEELING THE PULSE 199 + Apoplexy 200 + Braxy 201 + Bronchitis 201 + Catarrh 202 + Malignant Epizooetic Catarrh 203 + Colic 205 + Costiveness 206 + Diarrh[oe]a 206 + Disease of the Biflex Canal 207 + Dysentery 208 + Flies 209 + Fouls 209 + Fractures 210 + Garget 211 + Goitre 211 + Grub in the Head 212 + Hoof-Ail 214 + Hoove 225 + Hydatid on the Brain 226 + Obstruction of the Gullet 228 + Ophthalmia 229 + Palsy 229 + Pelt-Rot 230 + Pneumonia 230 + Poison 233 + Rot 233 + Scab 236 + Small-Pox 239 + Sore Face 242 + Sore Mouth 243 + Ticks 243 + + ILLUSTRATIONS. + A LEICESTER RAM 15 + ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP 19 + A MERINO RAM 25 + A SPANISH SHEEP-DOG 28 + OUT AT PASTURE 35 + A COUNTRY SCENE 41 + A SOUTH-DOWN RAM 47 + THE COTSWOLD 52 + A CHEVIOT EWE 54 + SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE + MUSCLES 57 + THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP 64 + THE HAPPY TRIO 81 + THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG OR COLLEY 100 + EWE AND LAMBS 117 + FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 129 + A COVERED SALTING-BOX 130 + A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK 147 + A HOLE-RACK 148 + THE HOPPER-RACK 150 + AN ECONOMICAL SHEEP-TROUGH 151 + SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS 152 + A SHED OF RAILS 155 + WASHING APPARATUS 162 + TOE-NIPPERS 166 + FLEECE 167 + SHEPHERD'S CROOK 176 + THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK 179 + DROVER'S OR BUTCHER'S DOG 185 + QUIET ENJOYMENT 195 + AN ENGLISH RACK FOR FEEDING SHEEP 203 + A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP FODDER 228 + THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP 236 + + SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. + + CONTENTS. + + HISTORY AND BREEDS 245 (7) + AMERICAN SWINE 254 (16) + The Byefield 256 (18) + The Bedford 256 (18) + The Leicester 257 (19) + The Yorkshire 257 (19) + The Chinese 258 (20) + The Suffolk 260 (22) + The Berkshire 261 (23) + NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG 263 (25) + Formation of the Teeth 265 (27) + + BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 267 (29) + BREEDING 267 (29) + Points of a Good Hog 274 (36) + Treatment during Pregnancy 276 (38) + Abortion 277 (39) + Parturition 279 (41) + Treatment while Suckling 282 (44) + Treatment of Young Pigs 283 (45) + Castration 284 (46) + Spaying 286 (48) + Weaning 287 (49) + Ringing 289 (51) + Feeding and Fattening 290 (52) + Piggeries 295 (57) + Slaughtering 298 (60) + Pickling and Curing 300 (62) + Value of the Carcass 304 (66) + + DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 307 (69) + Catching the Pig 308 (70) + Bleeding 309 (71) + Drenching 310 (72) + Catarrh 310 (72) + Cholera 311 (73) + Crackings 314 (76) + Diarrh[oe]a 314 (76) + Fever 315 (77) + Foul Skin 317 (79) + Inflammation of the Lungs 317 (79) + Jaundice 318 (80) + Leprosy 319 (81) + Lethargy 319 (81) + Mange 320 (82) + Measles 322 (84) + Murrain 323 (85) + Quinsy 323 (85) + Staggers 323 (85) + Swelling of the Spleen 323 (85) + Surfeit 325 (87) + Tumors 325 (87) + + ILLUSTRATIONS. + THE WILD BOAR 245 (7) + THE WILD BOAR AT BAY 252 (14) + THE CHINESE HOG 259 (21) + THE SUFFOLK 260 (22) + A BERKSHIRE BOAR 261 (23) + SKELETON OF THE HOG AS COVERED BY THE + MUSCLES 263 (25) + THE OLD COUNTRY WELL 267 (29) + WILD HOGS 279 (41) + THE OLD ENGLISH HOG 299 (61) + A WICKED-LOOKING SPECIMEN 307 (69) + HUNTING THE WILD BOAR 315 (77) + + POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. + + CONTENTS. + + HISTORY AND VARIETIES 327 (7) + THE DOMESTIC FOWL 327 (7) + The Bantam 330 (10) + The African Bantam 331 (11) + The Bolton Gray 333 (13) + The Blue Dun 334 (14) + The Chittagong 335 (15) + The Cochin China 336 (16) + The Cuckoo 339 (19) + The Dominique 340 (20) + The Dorking 340 (20) + The Fawn-colored Dorking 343 (23) + The Black Dorking 343 (23) + The Dunghill Fowl 344 (24) + The Frizzled Fowl 344 (24) + The Game Fowl 345 (25) + The Mexican Hen-Cock 347 (27) + The Wild Indian Game 348 (28) + The Spanish Game 348 (28) + The Guelderland 349 (29) + The Spangled Hamburgh 350 (30) + The Golden Spangled 350 (30) + The Silver Spangled 351 (31) + The Java 352 (32) + The Jersey-Blue 352 (32) + The Lark-Crested Fowl 352 (32) + The Malay 354 (34) + The Pheasant-Malay 356 (36) + The Plymouth Rock 357 (37) + The Poland 358 (38) + The Black Polish 360 (40) + The Golden Polands 361 (41) + The Silver Polands 363 (43) + The Black-topped White 364 (44) + The Shanghae 364 (44) + The White Shanghae 367 (47) + The Silver Pheasant 368 (48) + The Spanish 369 (49) + NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS 372 (52) + The Guinea Fowl 378 (58) + The Pea Fowl 381 (61) + The Turkey 386 (66) + The Wild Turkey 386 (66) + The Domestic Turkey 391 (71) + The Duck 394 (74) + The Wild Duck 396 (76) + The Domestic Duck 398 (78) + The Goose 402 (82) + The Wild Goose 402 (82) + The Domestic Goose 404 (84) + The Bernacle Goose 407 (87) + The Bremen Goose 409 (89) + The Brent Goose 410 (90) + The China Goose 411 (91) + The White China 413 (93) + The Egyptian Goose 414 (94) + The Java Goose 415 (95) + The Toulouse Goose 415 (95) + The White-fronted Goose 416 (96) + The Anatomy of the Egg 417 (97) + + BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 421 (101) + BREEDING 421 (101) + High Breeding 422 (102) + Selection of Stock 429 (109) + Feeding 432 (112) + Bran 435 (115) + Millet 436 (116) + Rice 436 (116) + Potatoes 436 (116) + Green Food 437 (117) + Earth-Worms 437 (117) + Animal Food 438 (118) + Insects 439 (119) + Laying 439 (119) + Preservation of Eggs 443 (123) + Choice of Eggs for Setting 446 (126) + Incubation 449 (129) + Incubation of Turkeys 453 (133) + Incubation of Geese 454 (134) + Rearing of the Young 455 (135) + Rearing of Guinea Fowls 458 (138) + Rearing of Turkeys 459 (139) + Rearing of Ducklings 461 (141) + Rearing of Goslings 463 (143) + Caponizing 464 (144) + Fattening and Slaughtering 468 (148) + Slaughtering and Dressing 472 (152) + Poultry-Houses 474 (154) + + DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 478 (158) + Asthma 479 (159) + Costiveness 480 (160) + Diarrh[oe]a 481 (161) + Fever 482 (162) + Indigestion 482 (162) + Lice 483 (163) + Loss of Feathers 485 (165) + Pip 485 (165) + Roup 488 (168) + Wounds and Sores 490 (170) + + ILLUSTRATIONS. + VARIETIES OF FOWL 327 (7) + THE BANTAM 331 (11) + BANTAM 332 (12) + BOLTON GRAYS OR CREOLE FOWL 333 (13) + COCHIN CHINAS 337 (17) + WHITE DORKINGS 341 (21) + GRAY GAME FOWLS 346 (26) + GUELDERLANDS 349 (29) + HAMBURGH FOWLS 350 (30) + MALAYS 354 (34) + POLAND FOWLS 359 (39) + SHANGHAES 365 (45) + WHITE SHANGHAES 367 (47) + SPANISH FOWLS 369 (49) + THE GUINEA FOWL 379 (59) + THE PEA FOWL 382 (62) + THE WILD TURKEY 386 (66) + THE DOMESTIC TURKEY 392 (72) + THE EIDER DUCK 395 (75) + WILD DUCK 397 (77) + ROUEN DUCK 399 (79) + WILD OR CANADA GOOSE 403 (83) + A BREMEN GOOSE 409 (89) + CHINA OR HONG KONG GOOSE 411 (91) + BARNYARD SCENE 421 (101) + FIGHTING COCKS 429 (109) + ON THE WATCH 440 (120) + MARQUEE OR TENT-SHAPED COOPS 456 (136) + DUCK-POND AND HOUSES 461 (141) + A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING 468 (148) + RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE 475 (155) + A FANCY COOP IN CHINESE OR GOTHIC STYLE 476 (156) + AMONG THE STRAW 478 (158) + PRAIRIE HENS 483 (163) + SWANS 488 (168) + + + + +[Illustration: A LEICESTER RAM.] + +HISTORY AND VARIETIES + + +With a single exception--that of the dog--there is no member of the +beast family which presents so great a diversity of size, color, form, +covering, and general appearance, as characterizes the sheep; and none +occupy a wider range of climate, or subsist on a greater variety of +food. This animal is found in every latitude between the Equator and the +Arctic circle, ranging over barren mountains and through fertile +valleys, feeding upon almost every species of edible forage--the +cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals, and roots--browsing on aromatic +and bitter herbs alike, cropping the leaves and barks from stunted +forest shrubs and the pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of +Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or +flesh during the long, rigorous winter, and, if reduced to necessity, +even devours his own wool. + +In size, he is diminutive or massive; he has many horns, or but two +large or small spiral horns, or is polled or hornless. His tail may be +broad, or long, or a mere button, discoverable only by the touch. His +covering is long and coarse, or short and hairy, or soft and furry, or +fine and spiral. His color varies from white or black to every shade of +brown, dun, buff, blue, and gray. This wide diversity results from long +domestication under almost every conceivable variety of condition. + +Among the antediluvians, sheep were used for sacrificial offerings, and +their fleeces, in all probability, furnished them with clothing. Since +the deluge their flesh has been a favorite food among many nations. Many +of the rude, wandering tribes of the East employ them as beasts of +burden. The uncivilized--and, to some extent, the refined--inhabitants +of Europe use their milk, not only as a beverage, but for making into +cheese, butter, and curds--an appropriation of it which is also noticed +by Job, Isaiah, and other Old Testament writers, as well as most of the +Greek and Roman authors. The ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance +from that of the cow, though it is generally thicker, and yields a pale, +yellowish butter, which is always soft and soon becomes rancid. In dairy +regions the animal is likewise frequently employed at the tread-mill or +horizontal wheel, to pump water, churn milk, or perform other light +domestic work. + +The calling of the shepherd has, from time immemorial, been conspicuous, +and not wanting in dignity and importance. Abel was a keeper of sheep; +as were Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient +patriarchs. Job possessed fourteen thousand sheep. Rachel, the favored +mother of the Jewish race, "came with her father's sheep, for she kept +them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian "came and drew water +for their father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, "learned +in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," busied himself in tending "the +flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law." David, too, that sweet singer of +Israel and its destined monarch--the Jewish hero, poet, and divine--was +a keeper of sheep. To shepherds, "abiding in the field, keeping watch +over their flocks by night," came the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. +The Hebrew term for sheep signifies, in its etymology, fruitfulness, +abundance, plenty--indicative of the blessings which they were destined +to confer upon the human family. In the Holy Scriptures, this animal is +the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues, the victim of +propitiatory sacrifices, and the type of redemption to fallen man. + +Among profane writers, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, +introduce them in their pastoral themes; while their heroes and +demi-gods--Hercules and Ulysses, Eneas and Numa--carefully perpetuate +them in their domains. + +In modern times, they have engaged the attention of the most enlightened +nations, whose prosperity has been intimately linked with them, wherever +wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain +and Portugal, during the two centuries in which they figured as the +most enterprising European countries, excelled in the production and +manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a time, took precedence of England in +the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life; and the latter +country then sent what little wool she raised to the former to be +manufactured. This being soon found highly impolitic, large bounties +were offered by England for the importation of artists and machinery; +and by a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to +the utmost protection and increase of wool and woollens, she gradually +carried their production beyond any thing the world had ever seen. + +Of the original breed of this invaluable animal, nothing certain is +known; four varieties having been deemed by naturalists entitled to that +distinction. + +These are, 1. The _Musimon_, inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, and other +islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts of Spain and Greece, +and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea. These have been +frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds. + +2. The _Argali_ ranges over the steppes, or inland plains of Central +Asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. They are larger and hardier +than the Musimon and not so easily tamed. + +3. The _Rocky Mountain Sheep_--frequently called the _Bighorn_ by our +western hunters--is found on the prairies west of the Mississippi, and +throughout the wild, mountainous regions extending through California +and Oregon to the Pacific. They are larger than the Argali--which in +other respects they resemble--and are probably descended from them, +since they could easily cross upon the ice at Behring's Straits, from +the north-eastern coast of Asia. Like the Argali, when caught young +they are readily tamed; but it is not known that they have ever been +bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country was overrun by the +white ram, they probably inhabited the region bordering on the +Mississippi. Father Hennepin--a French Jesuit, who wrote some two +hundred years ago--often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels +through the territory which is now embraced by Illinois, Wisconsin, and +a portion of Minnesota. The wild, clambering propensities of these +animals--occupying, as they do, the giddy heights far beyond the reach +of the traveller--and their outer coating of hair--supplied underneath, +however, with a thick coating of soft wool--give them much the +appearance of goats. In summer they are generally found single; but when +they descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they are +gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders. + +[Illustration: ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP.] + +4. The _Bearded Sheep of Africa_ inhabit the mountains of Barbary and +Egypt. They are covered with a soft, reddish hair, and have a mane +hanging below the neck, and large, locks of hair at the ankle. + +Many varieties of the domesticated sheep--that is, all the subjugated +species--apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each +other. + +The _fat-rumped_ and the _broad-tailed sheep_ are much more extensively +diffused than any other, and occupy nearly all the south-eastern part of +Europe, Western and Central Asia, and Northern Africa. They are +supposed, from various passages in the Pentateuch in which "the fat and +the rump" are spoken of in connection with offerings, to be the +varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants, +the Jewish race. They certainly give indisputable evidence of remote and +continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly +artificial posterior developments, are characteristic of no wild or +recently domesticated race. + +This breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in all their +characteristics of size, fleece, color, etc., with quite as many and +marked shades of distinction as the modern European varieties. In +Madagascar, they are covered with hair; in the south of Africa, with +coarse wool; in the Levant, and along the Mediterranean, the wool is +comparatively fine; and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the +exquisite Cashmere shawls of commerce are manufactured. Both rams and +ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they +exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of scarcely +thirty pounds, while others have weighed two hundred pounds dressed. The +tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of +breeding; some are less than one-eighth, while others exceed one-third +of the entire dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is esteemed a +great delicacy; in hot climates resembling oil, and in colder, suet. + +It is doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to Great Britain; but they +are mentioned as existing there at very early periods. + + +AMERICAN SHEEP. + +In North America, there are none, strictly speaking, except the Rocky +Mountain breed, already mentioned. The broad-tailed sheep of Asia and +Africa were brought into the United States about seventy years ago, +under the name of the Tunisian Mountain sheep, and bred with the native +flocks. Some of them were subsequently distributed among the farmers of +Pennsylvania, and their mixed descendants were highly prized as +prolific, and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attaining large +weight, of a superior quality of carcass, and yielding a heavy fleece of +excellent wool. The principal objection made to them was the difficulty +of propagation, which always required the assistance of the shepherd. +The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black; but all, +excepting the black, grew white as they approached maturity, retaining +some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes +having the entire head tawny or black. The few which descended from the +original importations have become blended with American flocks, and have +long ceased to be distinguishable from them. The common sheep of Holland +were early imported by the Dutch emigrants, who originally colonized New +York; but they, in like manner, have long since ceased to exist as a +distinct variety. + +Improved European breeds have been so largely introduced during the +present century, that the United States at present possesses every known +breed which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. By the +census of 1860, there were nearly twenty-three and a half millions of +sheep in this country, yielding upwards of sixty and a half million +pounds of wool. An almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place +between the Spanish, English, and "native" families; carried, indeed, to +such an extent that there are, comparatively speaking, few flocks in the +United States that preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of +any one breed, or that can lay claim to unmixed purity of blood. + +The principal breeds in the United States are the so-called "Natives;" +the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from the countries whose names +they bear: the New Leicester, or Bakewell; the South-Down; the Cotswold; +the Cheviot; and the Lincoln--all from England. + + +NATIVE SHEEP. + +This name is popularly applied to the common coarse-woolled sheep of the +country, which existed here previously to the importation of the +improved breeds. These were of foreign and mostly of English origin, and +could probably claim a common descent from no one stock. The early +settlers, emigrating from different sections of the British Empire, and +a portion of them from other parts of Europe, brought with them, in all +probability, each the favorite breed of his own immediate neighborhood, +and the admixture of these formed the mongrel family now under +consideration. Amid the perils of war and the incursions of beasts of +prey, they were carefully preserved. As early as 1676, New England was +spoken of as "abounding with sheep." + +These common sheep yielded a wool suitable only for the coarsest +fabrics, averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from three to three +and a half pounds of wool to the fleece. They were slow in arriving at +maturity, compared with the improved English breeds, and yielded, when +fully grown, from ten to fourteen pounds of a middling quality of mutton +to the quarter. They were usually long-legged, light in the +fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back; although some rare +instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, and some +approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. They were +excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely destitute of care, +and without shelter, one hundred per cent. of lambs; and in small +flocks, a still larger proportion. These, too, were usually dropped in +March, or the earlier part of April. Restless in their disposition, +their impatience of restraint almost equalled that of the untamed +Argali, from which they were descended; and in many sections of the +country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with +little regard to enclosures, over the possessions of their owner and his +neighbors, leaving a large portion of their wool adhering to bushes and +thorns, and the remainder placed nearly beyond the possibility of +carding, by the tory-weed and burdock, so common on new lands. + +To this general character of the native flocks, there was but one +exception--a considerably numerous and probably accidental variety, +known as the _Otter breed_, or _Creepers_. These were excessively +duck-legged, with well-formed bodies, full chests, broad backs, yielding +a close, heavy fleece, of medium quality of wool. They were deserved +favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed, since their +power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if +protected by a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their +mutton equalled, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior +to, their longer-legged contemporaries. The race is now quite extinct. + +An excellent variety, called the Arlington sheep, was produced by +General Washington, from a cross of a Persian ram upon the Bakewell, +which bore wool fourteen inches in length, soft, silky, and admirably +suited to combing. These, likewise, have long since become incorporated +with the other flocks of the country. + +The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly or +quite disappeared, owing to universal crossing, to a greater or less +extent, with the foreign breeds of later introduction. The first and +second cross with the Merino resulted in a decided improvement, and +produced a variety exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool +solely for domestic purposes. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being +hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc.; but the general quality is much +improved, the quantity is considerably augmented, the carcass is more +compact and nearer the ground, and they have lost their unquiet and +roving propensities. The cross with the Saxon, for reasons hereafter to +be given, has not generally been so successful. With the Leicester and +Downs, the improvement, so far as form size, and a propensity to take on +fat are concerned, is manifest. + + +THE SPANISH MERINO. + +[Illustration: A MERINO RAM.] + +The Spanish sheep, in different countries, has, either directly or +indirectly, effected a complete revolution in the character of the +fleece. The race is unquestionably one of the most ancient extant. The +early writers on agriculture and the veterinary art describe various +breeds of sheep as existing in Spain, of different colors--black, red, +and tawny. The black sheep yielded a fine fleece, the finest of that +color which was then known; but the red fleece of Baetica--a considerable +part of the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, comprising the modern +Spanish provinces of Gaen, Cordova, Seville, Andalusia, and Granada, +which was early colonized by the enterprising Greeks--was, according to +Pliny, of still superior quality, and "had no fellow." + +These sheep were probably imported from Italy, and of the Tarentine +breed, which had gradually spread from the coast of Syria, and of the +Black Sea, and had then reached the western extremity of Europe. Many of +them mingled with and improved the native breeds of Spain, while others +continued to exist as a distinct race, and, meeting with a climate and +an herbage suited to them, retained their original character and value, +and were the progenitors of the Merinos of the present day. Columella, a +colonist from Italy, and uncle of the writer of an excellent work on +agriculture, introduced more of the Tarentine sheep into Baetica, where +he resided in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, in the year 41, and +otherwise improved on the native breed; for, struck with the beauty of +some African rams which had been brought to Rome to be exhibited at the +public games, he purchased them, and conveyed them to his farm in Spain, +whence, probably, originated the better varieties of the long-woolled +breeds of that country. + +Before his time, however, Spain possessed a valuable breed; since +Strabo, who flourished under Tiberius, speaking of the beautiful woollen +cloths that were worn by the Romans, says that the wool was brought from +Truditania, in Spain. + +The limited region of Italy--overrun, as it repeatedly was, by hordes of +barbarians during and after the times of the latest emperors--soon lost +her pampered flocks; while the extended regions of Spain--intersected in +every direction by almost impassable mountains--could maintain their +more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change. + +To what extent the improvements which have been noticed were carried is +unknown; but as Spain was at that time highly civilized, and as +agriculture was the favorite pursuit of the greater part of the +colonists that spread over the vast territory, which then acknowledged +the Roman power, it is highly probable that Columella's experiments laid +the foundation for a general improvement in the Spanish sheep--an +improvement, moreover, which was not lost, nor even materially impaired, +during the darker ages that succeeded. + +The Merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent surpassed by no +others. They have been improved in the general weight and evenness of +their fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet; in the +uniformity and excessive fineness of the fibre, as in the Saxons; and in +their form and feeding qualities, in various countries; but there has +never yet been deterioration, either in quantity or quality of fleece or +carcass, wherever they have been transported, if supplied with suitable +food and attention. Most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped; +while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for five years, when +allowed to remain unshorn. + +Conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding among +themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs +beneath the skin have become permanently established; and this property +is transmitted to a great extent, even among the crosses, thus marking +the Merino as an ancient and peculiar race. + +The remains of the ancient varieties of color, also, as noticed by +Pliny, Solinus, and Columella, may still be discovered in the modern +Merino. The plain and indeed the only reason that can be assigned for +the union of black and gray faces with white bodies, in the same breed, +is the frequent intermixture of black and white sheep, until the white +prevails in the fleece, and the black is confined to the face and legs. +It is still apt to break out occasionally in the individual, unless it +is fixed and concentrated in the face and legs, by repeated crosses and +a careful selection; and, on the contrary, in the Merino South-Down the +black may be reduced by a few crosses to small spots about the legs, +while the Merino hue overspreads the countenance. This hue--variously +described as a velvet, a buff, a fawn, or a satin-colored countenance, +but in which a red tinge not infrequently predominates, still indicates +the original colors of the indigenous breeds of Spain; and the black +wool, for which Spain was formerly so much distinguished, is still +inclined to break out occasionally in the legs and ears of the Merino. +In some flocks half the ear is invariably brown, and a coarse black hair +is often discernible in the finest pile. + +[Illustration: A SPANISH SHEEP DOG.] + +The conquest, in the eighth century, by the Moors of those fine +provinces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served rather to +encourage the production of fine wool. The conquerors were not only +enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, and carried on +extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, which they exported to +different countries. The luxury of the Moorish sovereigns has been the +theme of many writers; and in the thirteenth century, when the woollen +manufacture flourished in but few places, there were found in Seville no +less than sixteen thousand looms. A century later, Barcelona, Perpignan, +and Tortosa were celebrated for the fineness of their cloths, which +became staple articles of trade throughout the greater part of Europe, +as well as on the coast of Africa. + +After the expulsion of the Moors, in the fifteenth century, by +Ferdinand and Isabella, the woollen manufacture languished, and was, in +a great degree, lost to Spain, owing to the rigorous banishment of +nearly one million industrious Moors, most of whom were weavers. As a +consequence, the sixteen thousand looms of Seville dwindled down to +sixty. The Spanish government perceived its fatal mistake too late, and +subsequent efforts to gain its lost vantage-ground in respect to this +manufacture proved fruitless. During all that time, however, the Spanish +sheep appear to have withstood the baneful influence of almost total +neglect; and although the Merino flocks and Merino wool have improved +under the more careful management of other countries, the world is +originally indebted to Spain for the most valuable material in the +manufacture of cloth. + +The perpetuation of the Merino sheep in all its purity, amid the +convulsions which changed the entire political framework of Spain and +destroyed every other national improvement, strikingly illustrates the +primary determining power of blood or breeding, as well as the agency of +soil and climate--possibly too much underrated in modern times. + +These Spanish sheep are divided into two classes: the _stationary_, or +those that remain during the whole of the year on a certain farm, or in +a certain district, there being a sufficient provision for them in +winter and in summer; and the _migratory_, or those which wander some +hundreds of miles twice in the year, in quest of pasturage. The +principal breed of stationary sheep consists of true Merinos; but the +breeds most sought for, and with which so many countries have been +enriched, are the Merinos of the migratory description, which pass the +summer in the mountains of the north, and the winter on the plains +toward the south of Spain. + +The first impression made by the Merino sheep on one unacquainted with +its value would be unfavorable. The wool lying closer and thicker over +the body than in most other breeds, and being abundant in yolk--or a +peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, which nourishes the wool +and causes it to mat closely together--is covered with a dirty crust, +often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet small in the bone; the +breast and the back are narrow, and the sides somewhat flat; the +fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is +carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively +large, curved, and with more or less of a spiral form; the head is +large, but the forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned; +but, generally speaking, they are without horns. Both male and female +have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and +cheeks, which the careful shepherd cuts away before the shearing-time; +the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet +appearance. Under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin, +which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness +in the neck. The pile or hair, when pressed upon, is hard and +unyielding, owing to the thickness into which it grows on the pelf, and +the abundance of the yolk, retaining all the dirt and gravel which falls +upon it; but, upon examination, the fibre exceeds, in fineness and in +the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the +world produces. The average weight of the fleece in Spain is eight +pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. The staple differs in length +in different provinces. When fatted, these sheep will weigh from twelve +to sixteen pounds per quarter. + +The excellence of the Merinos consist in the unexampled fineness and +felting property of their wool, and in the weight of it yielded by each +individual sheep; the closeness of that wool, and the luxuriance of the +yolk, which enable them to support extremes of cold and wet quite as +well as any other breed; the readiness with which they adapt themselves +to every change of climate, retaining, with common care, all their +fineness of wool, and thriving under a burning tropical sun, and in the +frozen regions of the north; an appetite which renders them apparently +satisfied with the coarsest food; a quietness and patience into whatever +pasture they are turned; and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled +in any other breed. + +Their defects--partly attributable to the breed, but more to +the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally +subjected--are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form; a tendency to +abortion, or barrenness; a difficulty of yeaning, or giving birth to +their young; a paucity of milk; and a too frequent neglect of their +lambs. They are likewise said, notwithstanding the fineness of their +wool, and the beautiful red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, +to be more subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds. Man, +however, is far more responsible for this than Nature. Every thing was +sacrificed in Spain to fineness and quantity of wool. These were +supposed to be connected with equality of temperature, or, at least, +with freedom from exposure to cold; and, therefore, twice in the year, a +journey of four hundred miles was undertaken, at the rate of eighty or a +hundred miles per week--the spring journey commencing when the lambs +were scarcely four months old. It is difficult to say in what way the +wool of the migratory sheep was, or could be, benefited by these +periodical journeys. Although among them is found the finest and most +valuable wool in Spain, yet the stationary sheep, in certain +provinces--Segovia, Leon, and Estremadura--are more valuable than the +migratory flocks of others. Moreover, the fleece of some of the German +Merinos--which do not travel at all, and are housed all the +winter--greatly exceeds that obtained from the best migratory breed--the +Leonese--in fineness and felting property; and the wool of the migratory +sheep has been, comparatively speaking, driven out of the market by that +from sheep which never travel. With respect to the carcass, these +harassing journeys, occupying one-quarter of the year, tend to destroy +all possibility of fattening, or any tendency toward it, and the form +and the constitution of the flock are deteriorated, and the lives of +many sacrificed. + +The first importation of Merinos into the United States took place in +1801; a banker of Paris, Mr. Delessert, having shipped four, of which +but one arrived in safety at his farm near Kingston, in New York; the +others perished on the passage. The same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of +Massachusetts, imported a pair from France. In 1802, Chancellor +Livingston, then American Minister at the court of Versailles, sent two +choice pairs from the Rambouillet flock--which was started, in 1786, by +placing four hundred ewes and rams, selected from the choicest Spanish +flocks, on the royal farm of that name, in France--to Claremont, his +country-seat, on the Hudson river. In the latter part of the same year, +Colonel Humphreys, American Minister to Spain, shipped two hundred, on +his departure from that country. The largest importations, however, were +made through Hon. William Jarvis, of Vermont, then American Consul at +Lisbon, Portugal, in 1809, 1810, and 1811, who succeeded in obtaining +the choicest sheep of that country. Various subsequent importations took +place, which need not be particularized. + +The cessation of all commercial intercourse with England, in 1808 and +1809, growing out of difficulties with that country, directed attention, +in an especial manner, toward manufacturing and wool-growing. The +Merino, consequently, rose into importance, and so great was the +interest aroused, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a +head was paid for them. Some of the later importations, unfortunately, +arrived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the +sheep family, the scab and the foot-rot; which evils, together with +increased supply, soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part +of their former price. When, however, it was established, by actual +experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate in this country, as had +been feared by many, and that they became readily acclimated, they again +rose into favor. The prostration of the manufacturing interests of the +country, which ensued soon afterwards, rendered the Merino of +comparatively little value, and ruined many who had purchased them at +their previous high prices. Since that period, the valuation of the +sheep which bear the particular wool has, as a matter of course, kept +pace with the fluctuations in the price of the wool. + +The term Merino, it must be remembered, is but the general appellation +of a breed, comprising several varieties, presenting essential points of +difference in size, form, quality and quantity of wool. These families +have generally been merged, by interbreeding, in the United States and +other countries which have received the race from Spain. Purity of +_Merino_ blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its +ancestors, form the only standard in selecting sheep of this breed. +Families have, indeed, sprung up in this country, exhibiting wider +points of difference than did those of Spain. This is owing, in some +cases, doubtless, to particular causes of breeding; but more often, +probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. The +question, which has been at times raised, whether there are any Merinos +in the United States, descendants of the early importations, of +unquestionable purity of blood, has been conclusively settled in the +affirmative. + +The minor distinctions among the various families into which, as has +already been intimated, the American Merino has diverged, are numerous, +but may all, perhaps, be classed under three general heads. + +The _first_ is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, +carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine, free from hair in +properly bred flocks; somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much +so as the Rambouillets; bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some +flocks, but not commonly so; their wool rather long on back and belly, +and exceedingly dense; wool whiter within than the Rambouillets; skin +the same rich rose-color. Sheep of this class are larger and stronger +than those originally imported, carry much heavier fleeces, and in +well-selected flocks, or individuals, the fleece is of a decidedly +better quality. + +The _second_ class embraces smaller animals than the preceding; less +hardy; wool, as a general thing, finer, and covered with a black, pitchy +gum on its extremities; fleece about one-fourth lighter than in the +former class. + +The _third_ class, bred at the South, mostly, includes animals still +smaller and less hardy, and carrying still finer and lighter fleeces. +The fleece is destitute of external gum. The sheep and wool have a close +resemblance to the Saxon; and, if not actually mixed with that blood, +they have been formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of +breeding. + +[Illustration: OUT AT PASTURE.] + +The mutton of the Merino, notwithstanding the prejudices existing on the +subject, is short-grained, and of good flavor, when killed at a proper +age, and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to the quarter. It is +remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth, and continuing to +breed two or three years longer than the common sheep, and at least half +a dozen years longer than the improved English breeds. It should, +however, be remarked, in this connection, that it is correspondingly +slow in arriving at maturity, as it does not attain its full growth +before three years of age; and the ewes, in the best managed flocks, are +rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age. + +The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-woolled sheep, +and its lambs, when newly dropped, are claimed to be hardier than the +Bakewell, and equally so with the high-bred South-Down. The ewe, as has +been intimated, is not so good a nurse, and will not usually do full +justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent. is about the +ordinary number of lambs reared, though it often reaches one hundred per +cent., in carefully managed or small flocks. + +Allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between the Merino and +the native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the +Merinos, they were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the +cross was continued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out. When +the admixture took place with judiciously selected Saxons, the results +were not unfavorable for certain purposes. These instances of judicious +crossing were, unfortunately, rare. Fineness of wool was made the only +tests of excellence, no matter how scanty its quantity, or how +diminutive or miserable the carcass. The consequence was, as might be +supposed, the ruin of most of the Merino flocks. + + +THE SAXON MERINO. + +The indigenous breed of sheep in Saxony resembled that of the +neighboring states, and consisted of two distinct Varieties--one bearing +a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece applicable only to +the coarsest manufactures. + +At the close of the seven years war, Augustus Frederic, the Elector of +Saxony, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes from the most +improved Spanish flocks, and placed a part of them on one of his own +farms, in the neighborhood of Dresden, which he kept unmixed, as he +desired to ascertain how far the pure Spanish breed could be naturalized +in that country The other part of the flock was distributed on other +farms, and devoted to the improvement of the Saxon sheep. + +It was soon sufficiently apparent that the Merinos did not degenerate in +Saxony. Many parcels of their wool were not inferior to the choicest +Leonese fleeces. The best breed of the native Saxons was also materially +improved: The majority of the shepherds were, however, obstinately +prejudiced against the innovation; but the elector, resolutely bent upon +accomplishing his object, imported an additional number, and compelled +the crown-tenants, then occupying lands under him, to purchase a certain +number of the sheep. + +Compulsion was not long necessary; the true interest of the shepherds +was discovered; pure Merinos rapidly increased in Saxony, and became +perfectly naturalized. Indeed, after a considerable lapse of years, the +fleece of the Saxon sheep began, not only to equal the Spanish, but to +exceed it in fineness and manufacturing value. To this result the +government very materially contributed, by the establishment of an +agricultural school, and other minor schools for shepherds, and by +distributing various publications, which plainly and intelligibly showed +the value and proper management of the Merino. The breeders were +selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece. +Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year, and they +were housed on every slight emergency. By this course of breeding and +treatment the size and weight of the fleece were reduced, and that +hardiness and vigor of constitution, which had universally +characterized the migratory Spanish breed, were partially impaired. In +numerous instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the +character of the flocks. + +The first importation of Saxons into this country was made in 1823, by +Samuel Heustan, a merchant of Boston, Massachusetts, and consisted of +four good rams, of which two went to Boston, and the others to +Philadelphia. The following year, seventy-seven--about two-thirds of +which number only were pure-blooded--were brought to Boston, sold at +public auction at Brooklyn, N.Y., as "pure-blooded electoral Saxons," +and thus scattered over the country. Another lot, composed of grade +sheep and pure-bloods, was disposed of, not long afterwards, by public +sale, at Brighton, near Boston, and brought increased prices, some of +them realizing from four hundred to five hundred and fifty dollars. + +These prices gave rise to speculation, and many animals, of a decidedly +inferior grade, were imported, which were thrown upon the market for the +most they could command. The sales in many instances not half covering +the cost of importation, the speculation was soon abandoned. In 1827, +Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, N.Y., a native of Germany, and a highly +intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd, who had accompanied some of +the early importations, imported one hundred and fifteen choice animals +for his own breeding, and, in the following year, eighty more. These +formed the flock from which Mr. Grove bred, to the time of his decease, +in 1844. The average weight of fleece from his entire flock, nearly all +of which were ewes and lambs, was ten pounds and fourteen ounces, +thoroughly washed on the sheep's back. This was realized after a short +summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its equivalent +fed to the sheep did not exceed one and a half pounds, by actual weight, +per day, except to the ewes, which received an additional quantity just +before and after lambing. This treatment was attended with no disease or +loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, equalling one for every +ewe. + +The Saxon Merino differs materially in frame from the Spanish; there is +more roundness of carcass and fineness of bone, together with a general +form and appearance indicative of a disposition to fatten. Two distinct +breeds are noticed. One variety has stouter legs, stouter bodies, head +and neck comparatively short and broad, and body round; the wool grows +most on the face and legs; the grease in the wool is almost pitchy. The +other breed, called Escurial, has longer legs, with a long, spare neck +and head; very little wool on the latter; and a finer, shorter, and +softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity. + +From what has just been stated it will be seen that there are few Saxon +flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality of +grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure +which were imported together; all of them being sold to our breeders as +pure stock. Besides, there are very few flocks which have not been again +crossed with the Native or the Merino sheep of our country, or with +both. Those who early purchased the Merino crossed them with the Native; +and when the Saxons arrived those mongrels were bred to Saxon rams. This +is the history of three-quarters, probably, of the Saxon flocks of the +United States. + +As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the Saxon that their +wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it may well be questioned whether +they are any worse for the admixture; when crossed only with the Merino, +it is, undoubtedly, to their advantage. The American Saxon, with these +early crosses in its pedigree, is, by general admission, a hardier and +more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. +Climate, feed, and other causes have, doubtless, conspired, as in the +case of the Merino, to add to their size and vigor; but, after every +necessary allowance has been made, they generally owe these qualities to +those early crosses. + +The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from two or +two and a quarter to three pounds. They are, comparatively speaking, a +tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in +winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds; but +they are evidently hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and +patience under confinement, in late maturity and longevity, they +resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended; though they do not +mature so early as the Merino, nor do they ordinarily live so long. They +are poorer nurses; their lambs are smaller, fatter, and far more likely +to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched; they do not fatten so +well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food +considerably less. + +Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the +American Merinos; though this is not always the case, and many breeders +of Saxons cross with the Merino, for the purpose of increasing the +weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality. Our Saxon +wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of Germany; though +individual specimens from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio compare well +with the highest German grades. This inferiority is not attributable to +climate or other natural causes, or to a want of skill on the part of +our breeders; but to the fact that but a very few of our manufacturers +have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would +render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which +produce this exquisite quality of wool. + + +THE NEW LEICESTER. + +The unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy, coarse-woolled breed of +sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It was a slow feeder, +its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor. The breeders of that +period regarded only size and weight of fleece. + +[Illustration: A COUNTRY SCENE.] + +About the middle of the last century, Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, in +Leicestershire, first applied himself to the improvement of the sheep in +that country. Before his improvements, aptitude to fatten and symmetry +of shape--that is, such shape as should increase as much as possible the +most valuable parts of the animal, and diminish the offal in the same +proportion--were entirely disregarded. Perceiving that smaller animals +increased in weight more rapidly than the very large ones, that they +consumed less food, that the same quantity of herbage, applied to +feeding a large number of small sheep, would produce more meat than when +applied to feeding the smaller number of large sheep, which alone it +would support, and that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool possessed +less propensity to fatten than those which carried one of a more +moderate weight, he selected from the different flocks in his +neighborhood, without regard to size, the sheep which appeared to him to +have the greatest propensity to fatten, and whose shape possessed the +peculiarities which, in his judgment, would produce the largest +proportion of valuable meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and +offal. + +He was also of opinion that the first object to be attended to in +breeding sheep is the value of the carcass, and that the fleece ought +always to be a secondary consideration; and this for the obvious reason +that, while the addition of two or three pounds of wool to the weight of +a sheep's fleece is a difference of great amount, yet if this increase +is obtained at the expense of the animal's propensity to fatten, the +farmer may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton. + +The sort of sheep, therefore, which he selected were those possessed of +the most perfect symmetry, with the greatest aptitude to fatten, and +rather smaller in size than the sheep generally bred at that time. +Having formed his stock from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to +the peculiarities of the individuals from which he bred, and, so far as +can be ascertained--for all of Mr. Bakewell's measures were kept +secret, even from his most intimate friends, and he died without +throwing, voluntarily, the least light on the subject--did not object to +breeding from near relations, when, by so doing, he brought together +animals likely to produce a progeny possessing the characteristics which +he wished to obtain. + +Having thus established his flock, he adopted the practice--which has +since been constantly followed by the most eminent breeders of sheep--of +letting rams for the season, instead of selling them to those who wished +for their use. By this means the ram-breeder is enabled to keep a much +larger number of rams in his possession; and, consequently, his power of +selecting those most suitable to his flock, or which may be required to +correct any faults in shape or quality which may occur in it, is greatly +increased. By cautiously using a ram for one season, or by observing the +produce of a ram let to some other breeder, he can ascertain the +probable qualities of the lambs which such ram will get, and thus avoid +the danger of making mistakes which would deteriorate the value of his +stock. The farmers, likewise, who hire the rams, have an opportunity of +varying the rams from which they breed much more than they otherwise +could do; and they are also enabled to select from sheep of the best +quality, and from those best calculated to effect the greatest +improvement in their flocks. + +The idea, when first introduced by him, was so novel that he had great +difficulty in inducing the farmers to act upon it; and his first ram was +let for sixteen shillings. So eminent, however, was his success, that, +in 1787, he let three rams, for a single season, for twelve hundred and +fifty pounds (about six thousand two hundred dollars), and was offered +ten hundred and fifty pounds (about five thousand two hundred dollars) +for twenty ewes. Soon afterwards he received the enormous price of eight +hundred guineas (or four thousand dollars) for two-thirds of the +services of a ram for a single season, reserving the other third for +himself. + +The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the +original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser +varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, etc. Where there is a sufficiency of +feed, the New Leicester is unrivalled for its fattening propensities; +but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel +far in search of its food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a +lowland sheep. In its appropriate situation--on the luxuriant herbage of +the highly cultivated lands of England--it possesses unequalled +earliness of maturity; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good +quality, but is usually coarse, and comparatively deficient in flavor, +owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, +and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. The +wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the +succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty to +thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is +long, averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches; and the +fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse +quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloth, on account of its +length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater +or less extent, to all English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it +stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, and +the like textures. + +The high-bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell's stock became shy breeders +and poor nurses; but crosses subsequently adopted have, to some extent, +obviated these defects. The lambs are not, however, generally regarded +as very hardy, and they require considerable attention at the time of +yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moderately cold or stormy. +The grown sheep, too, are much affected by sudden changes in the +weather; an abrupt change to cold being pretty certain to be registered +on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or "snuffles." + +In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the +meat of this variety is in very great demand; and the consequent return +which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make +renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are recorded +of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these animals. +They have spread into all parts of the British dominions, and been +imported into the other countries of Europe and into the United States. + +They were first introduced into our own country, some forty years since, +by Christopher Dunn, of Albany, N.Y. Subsequent importations have been +made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen. The +breed, however, has never proved a favorite with any large class of +American farmers. Our long, cold winters--but, more especially, our dry, +scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, +tender feed in which the Leicester delights--together with the general +deprivation of green feed in the winter, rob it of its early maturity, +and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is +too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed to suit +American taste. Its wool is not very salable, owing to the dearth of +worsted manufactures in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool +constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so +difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, +notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the +vicinity of considerable markets, it will always in all probability make +a profitable return. + +The head of the New Leicester should be hornless, long, small, tapering +towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forward; the eyes +prominent, but with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long, and +directed backward; the neck full and broad at its base, where it +proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible +deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll; the +breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven +or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the +back--particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the +situation of these bones; the arm fleshy throughout its whole extent, +and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small, standing wide +apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively void of wool; +the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs forming a +considerable arch from the spine, so as, in some cases--and especially +when the animal is in good condition--to make the apparent width of the +chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed well home; no +irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the carcass +very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump; the quarters long +and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the muscles extending down to the +hock; the thighs also wide and full; the legs of a moderate length; and +the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a +good quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but +considerably finer. + + +THE SOUTH-DOWN. + +[Illustration: A SOUTH-DOWN RAM.] + +A long range of chalky hills, diverging from the chalky stratum which +intersects England from Norfolk to Dorchester, is termed the +South-Downs. They enter the county of Sussex on the west side, and are +continued almost in a direct line, as far as East Bourne, where they +reach the sea. They may be regarded as occupying a space of more than +sixty miles in length, and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a +succession of open downs, with few enclosures, and distinguished by +their situation and name from a more northern tract of similar elevation +and soil, passing through Surrey and Kent, and terminating in the cliffs +of Dover, and of the Forelands. On these downs a certain breed of sheep +has been produced for many centuries, in greater perfection than +elsewhere; and hence have sprung those successive colonies which have +found their way abroad and materially benefited the breed of +short-woolled sheep wherever they have gone. + +It is only, however, within a comparatively recent period that they have +been brought to their present perfection. As recently as 1776 they were +small in size, and of a form not superior to the common woolled sheep of +the United States; they were far from possessing a good shape, being +long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on +the loins, down on the rump, the tail set on very low, perpendicular +from the hip-bones, sharp on the back; the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow +in the fore-quarters, but good in the leg, although having big bones. +Since that period a course of judicious breeding, pursued by Mr. John +Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex, has mainly contributed to raise this +variety to its present value; and that, too, without the admixture of +the slightest degree of foreign blood. + +This pure, improved family, it will be borne in mind, is spoken of in +the present connection; inasmuch as the original stock, presenting, with +trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited +seventy-five years ago, are yet to be found in England; and the +intermediate space between these two classes is occupied by a variety of +grades, rising or falling in value, as they approximate to or recede +from the improved blood. + +The South-Down sheep are polled, but it is probable that the original +breed was horned, as it is not unusual to find among the male South-Down +lambs some with small horns. The dusky, or at times, black hue of the +head and legs fully establishes the original color of the sheep, and, +perhaps of all sheep; while the later period at which it was seriously +attempted to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful, only +confirms this view. Many of the lambs have been dropped entirely black. + +It is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool--which in point of +length belongs to the middle class, and differs essentially from Merino +wool of any grade, though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces maybe +of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood Merino--is +deficient in felting properties, making a fuzzy, hairy cloth, and is no +longer used in England, unless largely mixed with foreign wool, even for +the lowest class of cloths. As it has deteriorated, however, it has +increased in length of staple, in that country, to such an extent that +improved machinery enables it to be used as a combing-wool, for the +manufacture of worsteds. Where this has taken place it is quite as +profitable as when it was finer and shorter. In the United States, where +the demand for combing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a +better article, the same result would not probably follow. Indeed, it +may well be doubted whether the proper combing length will be easily +reached, or at least maintained in this country, in the absence of that +high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased +length in England. The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is +three pounds; on rich lowlands, a little more. + +The South-Down, however, is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, +which for quality takes precedence of all other--from sheep of good +size--in the English markets. Its early maturity and extreme aptitude to +lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. It is +turned off at the age of two years, and its weight at that age is, in +England, from eighty to one hundred pounds. High-fed wethers have +reached from thirty-two to even forty pounds a quarter. Notwithstanding +its weight, it has a patience of occasional short keep, and an +endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives it a +decided advantage over the bulkier Leicesters and Lincolns, as a mutton +sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage. +It is hardy and healthy, though, in common with the other English +varieties, much subject to catarrh, and no sheep better withstands our +American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and good nurses. + +The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and, though an industrious +feeder, exhibits but little disposition to rove. Like the Leicester, it +is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to +decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with +short and middle-woolled breeds than the Leicester. A sheep possessing +such qualities, must, of necessity, be valuable in upland districts in +the vicinity of markets. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellman three +hundred guineas (fifteen hundred dollars) for two rams; and, in 1800, a +ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford was let for one season at eighty +guineas (four hundred dollars), two others at forty guineas (two hundred +dollars) each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas (one hundred and +forty dollars) each. The first importation into the United States was +made by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia. A subsequent importation, in +1834, cost sixty dollars a head. + +The desirable characteristics of the South-Down may be thus summed up: +The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray, and neither too +long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and +the eyes narrow; the under-jaw or chap fine and thin; the ears tolerably +wide and well-covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole +space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the +fly; the eye full and bright, but not prominent; the orbits of the eye, +the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal +obstacle in lambing; the neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, +but enlarging toward the shoulders, where it should be broad and high +and straight in its whole course above and below. + +The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the +fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a disposition to thrive; +corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the +back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from the top to +the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it; +the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far +backward, and the last rib projecting more than others; the back flat +from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and +flat; the rump broad, and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level +with the spine. + +The hips should be wide; the space between them and the last rib on each +side as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular +form like a barrel; the belly as straight as the back; the legs neither +too long nor too short; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the +foot, not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart, both +before and behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and they +twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full; the +bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or +dark color; the belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down +before and behind to the knee and to the hock; the wool short, close, +curled and fine, and free from spiny projecting fibres. + + +THE COTSWOLD. + +[Illustration: THE COTSWOLD.] + +The Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, +coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter, and +shearing a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were formerly bred +only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the Severn and the +Thames; but with the enclosures of the Cotswold hills, and the +improvement of their cultivation, they have been reared and fatted in +the same district. They were hardy, prolific breeders, and capital +nurses; deficient in early maturity, and not possessing feeding +properties equalling those of the South-Down or New Leicester. + +They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep--producing +thus the modern or improved Cotswold--by which their size and fleece +have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses have been materially +improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are sometimes +fattened at fourteen months old, when they weigh from fifteen to +twenty-four pounds to a quarter; and at two years old, increase to +twenty or thirty pounds. + +The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, six +to eight inches in length, and from seven to eight pounds per fleece. +The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and +their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature +of the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many +places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late +years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under +which management still farther improvement has been made. They have also +been used in crossing other breeds, and have been mixed with the +Hampshire Downs. Indeed, the improved Cotswold, under the name of new, +or improved Oxfordshire sheep, have frequently been the successful +candidates for prizes offered for the best long-woolled sheep at some of +the principal agricultural meetings or shows in England. The quality of +their mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester; the tallow +being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh. + +The degree to which the cross between the Cotswold and Leicester may be +carried, must depend upon the nature of the old stock, and on the +situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat +scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. On a more +sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater +use may be made of the Leicester. Another circumstance that should guide +the farmer is the object which he has principally in view. If he expects +to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the +primitive Cotswolds; if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will +use the Leicester ram more freely. + +Sheep of this breed, now of established reputation, have been imported +into the United States by Messrs. Corning and Gotham, of Albany, and +bred by the latter. + + +THE CHEVIOT. + +[Illustration: A CHEVIOT EWE.] + +On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot hills, in the extreme north of +England, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in +resisting cold, and for feeding on coarse, heathery herbage. A cross +with the Leicester, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the +improved variety. + +The Cheviot readily amalgamates with the Leicester--the rams employed in +the system of breeding, which has been extensively introduced for +producing the first cross of this descent, being of the pure Leicester +breed--and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tendency +to fatten, to the native Cheviot. The benefit, however, may be said to +end with the first cross; and the progeny of this mixed descent is +greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form and fattening +properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. + +The improved Cheviot has greatly extended itself throughout the +mountains of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the black-faced +breed; but the change, though often advantageous, has in some cases been +otherwise--the latter being somewhat hardier, and more capable of +subsisting on heathy pasturage. They are a hardy race, however, well +suited for their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, +the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. The purest +specimens are to be found on the Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and +on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and +the sources of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, +provided the pasture resembles those hills, in containing a good +proportion of rich herbage. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep +of Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making +more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making it more quickly. + +They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, and are +without horns; the ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is +much space between the ears and eyes; the carcass is long; the back +straight; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular; and the +quarters good. The legs are small in the bone, and covered with wool, as +well as the body, with the exception of the face. The wether is fit for +the butcher at three years old, and averages from twelve to eighteen +pounds a quarter; the mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to +the South-Down, and of less flavor than the black-faced. The Cheviot, +though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and easily managed. + +The wool is about the quality of Leicester, coarse and long, suitable +only for the manufacture of low coatings and flushings. It closely +covers the body, assisting much in preserving it from the effects of wet +and cold. The fleece averages about three and a half pounds. Formerly, +the wool was extensively employed in making cloths; but having given +place to the finer Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined +to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether a secondary +consideration. + +The Cheviots have become an American sheep by their repeated +importations into this country. The wool on several choice sheep, +imported by Mr. Carmichael, of New York, was from five to seven inches +long, coarse, but well suited to combing. + + +THE LINCOLN. + +The old breed of Lincolnshire sheep was hornless, had white faces, and +long, thin, and weak carcasses; the ewes weighed from fourteen to twenty +pounds a quarter; the three-year old wethers from twenty to thirty +pounds; legs thick, rough and white; pelts thick; wool long--from ten to +eighteen inches--and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained carcass of +mutton. + +A judicious system of breeding, which avoided Bakewell's errors, has +wrought a decided improvement in this breed. The improved Lincolns +possess a rather more desirable robustness, approaching, in some few +specimens, almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters; +but they are more hardy, and less liable to disease. They attain as +large a size, and yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same +value. This breed, indeed, scarcely differs more from the Cotswold than +do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred for +several generations, from each other. They are prolific, and when +well-fed, the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for +which they provide liberally from their udders till the time for +weaning. The weight of the fleece varies from four to eight pounds per +head. + +Having alluded to the principal points of interest connected with the +various breeds of sheep in the United States, our next business is with + + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. + +[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. + +1. The intermaxillary bone. 2. The nasal bones. 3. The upper jaw. 4. The +union of the nasal and upper jaw-bones. 5. The union of the molar and +lachrymal bones. 6. The orbits of the eye. 7. The frontal bone. 8. The +lower jaw. 9. The incisor teeth, or nippers. 10. The molars or grinders. +11. The ligament of the neck supporting the head. 12. The seven +vertebrae, or the bones of the neck. 13. The thirteen vertebrae, or bones +of the back. 14. The six vertebrae of the loins. 15. The sacral bone. +16. The bones of the tail, varying in different breeds from twelve to +twenty-one. 17. The haunch and pelvis. 18. The eight true ribs, with +their cartilages. 19. The five false ribs, or those that are not +attached to the breast-bone. 20. The breast-bone. 21. The scapula, or +shoulder-blade. 22. The humerus, bone of the arm, or lower part of the +shoulder. 23. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 24. The ulna or +elbow. 25. The knee with its different bones. 26. The metacarpal or +shank-bones--the larger bones of the leg. 27. A rudiment of the smaller +metacarpal. 28. One of the sessamoid bones. 29. The first two bones of +the foot--the pasterns. 30. The proper bones of the foot. 31. The +thigh-bone. 32. The stifle-joint and its bone--the patella. 33. The +tibia, or bone of the upper part of the leg. 34. The point of the hock. +35. The other bones of the hock. 36. The metatarsal bones, or bone of +the hind-leg. 37. Rudiment of the small metatarsal. 38. A sessamoid +bone. 39. The first two bones of the foot--the pasterns. 40. The proper +bones of the foot.] + + DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. + CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. + ORDER. _Ruminantia_--chewing the cud. + FAMILY. _Capridae_--the goat kind. + GENUS. _Oris_--the sheep family. + Of this _Genus_ there are three varieties: + ORIS, AMMON, or ARGALI. + _Oris Musmon._ + _Oris Aries_, or Domestic Sheep. + +Of the latter--with which alone this treatise is concerned--there are +about forty well known varieties. Between the _oris_, or sheep, and the +_capra_, or goat, another _genus_ of the same family, the distinctions +are well marked, although considerable resemblance exists between them. +The horns of the sheep have a spiral direction, while those of the goat +have a direction upward and backward; the sheep, except in a single wild +variety, has no beard, while the goat is bearded; the goat, in his +highest state of improvement, when he is made to produce wool of a +fineness unequalled by the sheep--as in the Cashmere breed--is mainly, +and always, externally covered with hair, while the hair on the sheep +may, by domestication, be reduced to a few coarse hairs, or got rid of +altogether; and, finally, the pelt or skin of the goat has thickness +very far exceeding that of the sheep. + +The age of sheep is usually reckoned, not from the time that they are +dropped, but from the first shearing; although the first year may thus +include fifteen or sixteen months, and sometimes more. When doubt exists +relative to the age, recourse is had to the teeth, since there is more +uncertainty about the horn in this animal than in cattle; ewes that have +been early bred, appearing always, according to the rings on the horn, a +year older than others that have been longer kept from the ram. + + +FORMATION OF THE TEETH. + +Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or ridges of the +palate thicken as they approach the forepart of the mouth; there also +the dense, fibrous, elastic matter, of which they are constituted, +becomes condensed, and forms a cushion or bed, which covers the converse +extremity of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor, +or cutting teeth, and partially discharge their functions. The herbage +is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad, +and thus partly bitten and partly torn asunder. Of this, the rolling +motion of the head is sufficient proof. + +The teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox. There are +eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the forepart of the lower jaw, and +six molars in each jaw above and below, and on either side. The incisors +are more admirably formed for grazing than in the ox. The sheep lives +closer, and is destined to follow the ox, and gather nourishment where +that animal would be unable to crop a single blade. This close life not +only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, but by +cutting off the short suckers and sproutings--a wise provision of +nature--causes the plants to throw out fresh, and more numerous, and +stronger ones, and thus is instrumental in improving and increasing the +value of the crop. Nothing will more expeditiously and more effectually +make a thick, permanent pasture than its being occasionally and closely +eaten down by sheep. + +In order to enable the sheep to bite this close, the upper lip is deeply +divided, and free from hair about the centre of it. The part of the +tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered with +enamel, to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the +enamel on the upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a +quarter of an inch, and presenting a convex surface outward, and a +concave within, forms a little scoop or gorge of wonderful execution. + +The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without incisor teeth or +it has two. The teeth rapidly succeed to each other, and before the +animal is a month old he has the whole of the eight. They continue to +grow with his growth until he is about fourteen or sixteen months old. +Then, with the same previous process of diminution as in cattle, or +carried to a still greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and +attain their full growth when the sheep is two years old. + +In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be very +considerable difference in the teeth of those that have not been +sheared, or those that have been once sheared; in some measure to be +accounted for by a difference in the time of lambing, and likewise by +the general health and vigor of the animal. There will also be a +material difference in different animals, attributable to the good or +bad keep which they have had. Those fed on good land, or otherwise well +kept, will generally take the start of others that have been half +starved, and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. There are +also irregularities in the times of renewing the teeth, not to be +accounted for by either of these circumstances; in fact, not to be +explained by any known circumstance relating to the breed or the keep of +the sheep. The want of improvement in sheep, which is occasionally +observed, and which cannot be accounted for by any deficiency or change +of food, may sometimes be justly attributed to the tenderness of the +mouth when the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums. + +Between two and three years old the next two incisors are shed; and when +the sheep is actually three years old, the four central teeth are fully +grown; at four years old, he has six teeth fully grown; and at five +years old--one year before the horse or the ox can be said to be +full-mouthed--all the teeth are perfectly developed. The sheep is a much +shorter-lived animal than the horse, and does not often attain the usual +age of the ox. Their natural age is about ten years, to which age they +will breed and thrive well; though there are recorded instances of their +breeding at the age of fifteen, and of living twenty years. + +The careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with regard to the +four-year-old mouth. He will see the teeth perfectly developed, no +diminutive ones at the sides, and the mouth apparently full; and then, +without giving himself the trouble of counting the teeth, he will +conclude that the animal is five years old. A process of displacement, +as well as of diminution, has taken place here; the remaining outside +milk-teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their +original size, but the four-year-old teeth have grown before them and +perfectly conceal them, unless the mouth is completely opened. + +After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully grown, +there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. In most cases, the +teeth remain sound for one or two years, and then, at uncertain +intervals--either on account of the hard work in which they have been +employed, or from the natural effect of age--they begin to loosen and +fall out; or, by reason of their natural slenderness, they are broken +off. When favorite ewes, that have been kept for breeding, begin to lose +condition, at six or seven years old, their mouths should be carefully +examined. If any of the teeth are loose, they should be extracted, and a +chance given to the animal to show how far, by browsing early and late, +she may be able to make up for the diminished number of her incisors. It +frequently happens that ewes with broken teeth, and some with all the +incisors gone, will keep pace in condition with the best in the flock; +but they must be well taken care of in the winter, and, indeed, nursed +to an extent that would scarcely answer the farmer's purpose to adopt as +a general rule, in order to prevent them from declining to such a degree +as would make it very difficult afterward to fatten them for the +butcher. It may certainly be taken as a general rule, that when sheep +become broken-mouthed they begin to decline. + +Causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which he has no +control, will sometimes hasten the loss of the teeth. One thing, +however, is certain--that close feeding, causing additional exercise, +does wear them down; and that the sheep of farmers who stock unusually +and unseasonably hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do. + + +THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. + +The skin of the sheep, in common with that of most animals, is composed +of three textures. Externally is the cuticle, or scarf-skin, which is +thin, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable minute holes, +through which pass the fibres of the wool and the insensible +perspiration. It seems to be of a scaly texture; although is not so +evident as in many other animals, on account of a peculiar +substance--the yolk--which is placed on it, to protect and nourish the +roots of the wool. It is, however, sufficiently evident in the scab and +other cutaneous eruptions to which this animal is liable. + +Below this cuticle is the _rete mucosum_, a soft structure; its fibres +having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, and being with great +difficulty separated from the skin beneath. This appears to be placed as +a defence to the terminations of the blood-vessels and nerves of the +skin, which latter are, in a manner, enveloped and covered by it. The +color of the skin, and probably that of the hair or wool also, is +determined by the _rete mucosum_; or, at least, the hair and wool are of +the same color as this substance. + +Beneath the _rete mucosum_ is the _cutis_, or true skin, composed of +numberless minute fibres crossing each other in every direction; highly +elastic, in order to fit closely to the parts beneath, and to yield to +the various motions of the body; and dense and firm in its structure, +that it may resist external injury. Blood-vessels and nerves innumerable +pierce it, and appear on its surface in the form of _papillae_, or +minute eminences; while, through thousands of little orifices, the +exhalent absorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid. The +true skin is composed, principally or almost entirely, of gelatine; so +that, although it may be dissolved by long-continued boiling, it is +insoluble in water at the common temperature. This organization seems to +have been given to it, not only for the sake of its preservation while +on the living animal, but that it may afterwards become useful to man. +The substance of the hide readily combining with the tanning principle, +is converted into leather. + + +THE ANATOMY OF THE WOOL. + +[Illustration: THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP.] + +On the skin of most animals is placed a covering of feathers, fur, hair, +or wool. These are all essentially the same in composition, being +composed of an animal substance resembling coagulated albumen, together +with sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate of lime, and oxides of +iron and manganese. + +Wool is not confined to the sheep. The under-hair of some goats is not +only finer than the fleece of any sheep, but it occasionally has the +crisped appearance of wool; being, in fact, wool of different qualities +in different breeds--in some, rivalling or excelling that of the sheep, +but in others very coarse. A portion of wool is also found on many other +animals; as the deer, elk, the oxen of Tartary and Hudson's Bay, the +gnu, the camel, many of the fur-clad animals, the sable, the polecat, +and several species of the dog. + +Judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of most animals, +and the relative situation of these materials, it is not improbable that +such was the character of the fleece of the primitive sheep. It has, +indeed, been asserted that the primitive sheep was entirely covered with +hair; but this is, doubtless, incorrect. There exists, at the present +day, varieties of the sheep occupying extensive districts, that are +clothed outwardly with hair of different degrees of fineness and +sleekness; and underneath the external coat is a softer, shorter, and +closer one, that answers to the description of fur--according to most +travellers--but which really possesses all the characteristics of wool. +It is, therefore, highly improbable that the sheep--which has now +become, by cultivation, the wool-bearing animal in a pre-eminent +degree--should, in any country, at any time, have ever been entirely +destitute of wool. Sheep of almost every variety have at times been in +the gardens of the London (Eng.) Zooelogical Society; but there has not +been one on which a portion of crisped wool, although exceedingly small, +has not been discovered beneath the hair. In all the regions over which +the patriarchs wandered, and extending northward through the greater +part of Europe and Asia, the sheep is externally covered with hair; but +underneath is a fine, short, downy wool, from which the hair is easily +separated. This is the case with the sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, +and also in South America. + +The change from hair to wool, though much influenced by temperature, has +been chiefly effected by cultivation. Wherever hairy sheep are now found +the management of the animal is in a most disgraceful state; and among +the cultivated sheep the remains of this ancient hairy covering only +exists, to any great extent, among those that are comparatively +neglected or abandoned. + +The filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pore of +the skin, when it has to penetrate through another and singular +substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, is called _the yolk_. +This is found in greatest quantity about the breast and shoulders--the +very parts that produce the best, and healthiest, and most abundant +wool--and in proportion as it extends, in any considerable degree, over +other parts, the wool is then improved. It differs in quantity in +different breeds. It is very abundant on the Merinos; it is sufficiently +plentiful on most of the southern breeds, either to assist in the +production of the wool, or to defend the sheep from the inclemency of +the weather; but in the northern districts, where the cold is more +intense and the yolk of wool is deficient, a substitute for it is +sometimes sought by smearing the sheep with a mixture of tar, oil, or +butter. Where there is a deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is +dry, harsh, and weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy; where +the natural quantity of it is found, the wool is soft, oily, plentiful +and strong. + +This yolk is not the inspissated or thickened perspiration of the +animal; it is not composed of matter which has been accidentally picked +up, and which has lodged in the wool; but it is a peculiar secretion +from the glands of the skin, destined to be one of the agents in the +nourishment of the wool, and at the same time, by its adhesiveness, to +mat the wool together, and form a secure defence from the wet and cold. + +Chemical experiments have established its composition, as follows: +first, of a soapy matter with a basis of potash, which forms the greater +part of it; second, a small quantity of carbonate of potash; third, a +perceptible quantity of acetate of potash; fourth, lime, in a peculiar +and unknown state of combination; fifth, an atom of muriate of potash; +sixth, an animal oil, to which its peculiar odor is attributable. All +these materials are believed to be essential to the yolk, and not found +in it by mere accident, since the yolk of a great number of +samples--Spanish, French, English, and American--has been subjected to +repeated analyses, with the same result. + +The yolk being a true soap, soluble in water, it is not difficult to +account for the comparative ease with which sheep that have the natural +proportion of it are washed in a running stream. There is, however, a +small quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is not in +combination with the alkali, and which, remaining attached to the wool, +keeps it a little glutinous, notwithstanding the most careful washing. + +The fibre of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped from +the yolk, is of a circular form, generally larger toward the extremity, +and also toward the root, and in some instances very considerably +so. The filaments of white wool, when cleansed from grease, are +semi-transparent; their surface in some places is beautifully polished, +in others curiously incrusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a +very pleasing manner. When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic +microscope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering +appearance. Minute filaments, placed very regularly, are sometimes seen +branching from the main trunk, like boughs from the principal stem. This +exterior polish varies much in different wools, and in wools from the +same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal is in good +condition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is really +brilliant; but when the state of the constitution is bad, the fibre has +a dull appearance, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes scarcely +any, is reflected. As a general rule, the filament is most transparent +in the best and most useful wools, whether long or short. It increases +with the improvement of the breed, and the fineness and healthiness of +the fleece; yet it must be admitted that some wools have different +degrees of the transparency and opacity, which do not appear to affect +their value and utility. It is, however, the difference of transparency +in the same fleece, or in the same filament, that is chiefly to be +noticed as improving the value of the wool. + +As to the size of the fibre, the terms "fine" and "coarse," as commonly +used, are but vague and general descriptions of wool. All fine fleeces +have some coarse wool, and all coarse fleeces some fine. The most +accurate classification is to distinguish the various qualities of wool +in the order in which they are esteemed and preferred by the +manufacturer--as the following: first, fineness with close ground, that +is, thick-matted ground; second, pureness; third, straight-haired, when +broken by drawing; fourth, elasticity, rising after compression in the +hand; fifth, staple not too long; sixth, color; seventh, what coarse +exists to be very coarse; eighth, tenacity; and ninth, not much +pitch-mark, though this is no disadvantage, except the loss of weight in +scouring. The bad or disagreeable properties are--thin, grounded, tossy, +curly-haired, and, if in a sorted state, little in it that is very fine; +a tender staple, as elasticity, many dead white hairs, very yolky. Those +who buy wool for combing and other light goods that do not need milling, +wish to find length of staple, fineness of hair, whiteness, tenacity, +pureness, elasticity, and not too many pitch-marks. + +The property first attracting attention, and being of greater importance +than any other, is _the fineness_ of the pile--the quantity of fine wool +which a fleece yields, and the degree of that fineness. Of the absolute +fineness, little can be said, varying, as it does, in different parts of +the same fleece to a very considerable degree, and the diameter of the +same fibre often being exceedingly different at the extremity and the +centre. The micrometer has sometimes indicated that the diameter of the +former is five times as much as that of the latter; and, consequently, +that a given length of yield taken from the extremity would weigh +twenty-five times as much as the same length taken from the centre and +cleansed from all yolk and grease. That fibre may be considered as +coarse whose diameter is more than the five-hundredth part of an inch; +in some of the most valuable samples of Saxony wool it has not exceeded +the nine-hundredth part; yet in some animals, whose wool has not been +used for manufacturing purposes, it is less than one twelve-hundredth +part. + +The extremities of the wool, and frequently those portions which are +near to the root, are larger than the intermediate parts. The extremity +of the fibre has, generally, the greatest bulk of all. It is the +product of summer, soon after shearing-time, when the secretion of the +matter of the wool is increased, and when the pores of the skin are +relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre to protrude. The portion +near the root is the growth of spring, when the weather is getting warm; +and the intermediate part is the offspring of winter, when under the +influence of the cold the pores of the skin contract, and permit only a +finer hair to escape. If, however, the animal is well fed, the +diminution of the bulk of the fibre will not be followed by weakness or +decay, but, in proportion as the pile becomes fine, the value of the +fleece will be increased; whereas, if cold and starvation should go +hand-in-hand, the woolly fibre will not only diminish in bulk, but in +health, strength, and worth. + +The variations in the diameter of the wool in different parts of the +fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of heat at the time +the respective portions were produced. The fibre of the wool and the +record of the meteorologist will singularly agree, if the variations in +temperature are sufficiently distinct from each other for any +appreciable part of the fibre to form. It follows from this, that--the +natural tendency to produce wool of a certain fibre being the +same--sheep in a hot climate will yield a comparatively coarse wool, and +those in a cold climate will carry a finer, but at the same time a +closer and a warmer fleece. In proportion to the coarseness of a fleece +will generally be its openness, and its inability to resist either cold +or wet; while the coat of softer, smaller, more pliable wool will admit +of no interstices between its fibres, and will bid defiance to frost and +storms. + +The natural instinct of the sheep would seem to teach the wool-grower +the advantage of attending to the influence of temperature upon the +animal. He is evidently impatient of heat. In the open districts, and +where no shelter is near, he climbs to the highest parts of his walk, +that, if the rays of the sun must still fall on him, he may nevertheless +be cooled by the breeze; but, if shelter is near, of whatever kind, +every shaded spot is crowded with sheep. The wool of the Merinos after +shearing-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it very +difficult to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in +quality, compared with that which had been clipped from it in the course +of the same season. As the cold weather advances, the fleeces recover +their soft quality. + +Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. The +staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in +length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment; +and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease +like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. When +little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has +scarcely been checked, the sheep yields an abundant crop of wool, but +the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as heavier. When the frost has +been severe, and the ground long covered with snow, if the flock has +been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a +little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness, +and a proportional increase of value. Should, however, the sheep have +been neglected and starved during this continued cold weather, the +fleece as well as the carcass is thinner, and although it may have +preserved its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and +strength, and usefulness. + +Connected with fineness is _trueness of staple_--as equal in growth as +possible over the animals--a freedom from those shaggy portions, here +and there, which are occasionally observed on poor and neglected sheep. +These portions are always coarse and comparatively worthless, and they +indicate an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, +which will also probably weaken or render the fibre diseased in other +parts. Included in trueness of fibre is another circumstance to which +allusion has already been made--a freedom from coarse hairs which +project above the general level of the wool in various parts, or, if +they are not externally seen, mingle with the wool and debase its +qualities. + +_Soundness_ is closely associated with trueness. It means, generally +speaking, strength of the fibre, and also a freedom from those breaches +or withered portions of which something has previously been said. The +eye will readily detect the breaches; but the hair generally may not +possess a degree of strength proportioned to its bulk. This is +ascertained by drawing a few hairs out of the staple, and grasping each +of them singly by both ends, and pulling them until they break. The wool +often becomes injured by felting while it is on the sheep's back. This +is principally seen in the heavy breeds, especially those that are +neglected and half-starved, and generally begins in the winter season, +when the coat has been completely saturated with water, and it increases +until shearing-time, unless the cob separates from the wool beneath, and +drops off. + +Wool is generally injured by keeping. It will probably increase a +little in weight for a few months, especially if kept in a damp place; +but after that it will somewhat rapidly become lighter, until a very +considerable loss will often be sustained. This, however, is not the +moral of the case; for, except very great care is taken, the moth will +get into the bundles and injure and destroy the staple; and that which +remains untouched by them will become considerably harsh and less +pliable. If to this the loss of the interest of money is added, it will +be seen that he seldom acts wisely who hoards his wool, when he can +obtain what approaches to a fair remunerating price for it. + +_Softness_ of the wool is evidently connected with the presence and +quality of the yolk. This substance is undoubtedly designed not only to +nourish the hair, but to give it richness and pliability. The growth of +the yolk ought to be promoted, and agriculturists ought to pay more +attention to the quantity and quality of yolk possessed by the animals +selected for the purpose of breeding. + +Bad management impairs the pliability of the wool, by arresting the +secretion of the yolk. The softness of the wool is also much influenced +by the chemical elements of the soil. A chalky soil notoriously +deteriorates it; minute particles of the chalk being necessarily brought +into contact with the fleece and mixing with it, have a corrosive effect +on the fibre, and harden it and render it less pliable. The particles of +chalk come in contact with the yolk--there being a chemical affinity +between the alkali and the oily matter of the yolk--immediately unite, +and a true soap is formed. The first storm washes a portion of it; and +the wool, deprived of its natural pabulum and unguent, loses some of its +vital properties--its pliability among the rest. The slight degree of +harshness which has been attributed to the English South-Down has been +explained in this way. + +_The felting property_ of wool is a tendency of the fibres to entangle +themselves together, and to form a mass more or less difficult to +unravel. By moisture and pressure, the fibres of the wool may become +matted or felted together into a species of cloth. The manufacture of +felt was the first mode in which wool was applied to clothing, and felt +has long been in universal use for hats. The fulling of flannels and +broadcloths is effected by the felting principle. By the joint influence +of the moisture and the pressure, certain of the fibres are brought into +more intimate contact with each other; they adhere--not only the fibres, +but; in a manner, the threads--and the cloth is taken from the mill +shortened in all its dimensions; it has become a kind of felt, for the +threads have disappeared, and it can be cut in every direction with very +little or no unravelling; it is altogether a thicker, warmer, softer +fibre. This felting property is one of the most valuable qualities +possessed by wool, and on this property are the finer kinds of wool +especially valued by the manufacturer for the finest broadcloths. This +naturally suggests a consideration of the various forms in the structure +on which it depends. + +The most evident distinction between the qualities of hair and wool is +the comparative straightness of the former, and _the crisped or +spirally-curling form_ which the latter assumes. If a little lock of +wool is held up to the light, every fibre of it is twisted into numerous +minute corkscrew-like ringlets. This is especially seen in the fleece of +the short-woolled sheeps; but, although less striking, it is obvious +even in wool of the largest staple. + +The spirally-curving form of wool used, erroneously, to be considered as +the chief distinction between the covering of the goat and the sheep; +but the under-coat of some of the former is finer than that of any +sheep, and it is now acknowledged frequently to have the crisped and +curled appearance of wool. In some breeds of cattle, particularly in one +variety of the Devons, the hair assumes a curled and wavy appearance, +and a few of the minute spiral ringlets have been occasionally seen. It +is the same with many of the Highlands; but there is no determination to +take on the true crisped character, and throughout its whole extent, and +it is still nothing but hair. On some foreign breeds, however, as the +yak of Tartary, and the ox of Hudson's Bay, some fine and valuable wool +is produced. + +There is an intimate connection between the fineness of the wool and the +number of the curves, at least in sheep yielding wool of nearly the same +length; so that, whether the wool of different sheep is examined, or +that from different parts of the same sheep, it is enough for the +observer to take advice of the number of curves in a given space, in +order to ascertain with sufficient accuracy the fineness of the fibre. + +To this curled form of the wool not enough attention is, as a general +thing, paid by the breeder. It is, however, that on which its most +valuable uses depend. It is that which is essential to it in the +manufactory of cloths. The object of the carder is to break the wool in +pieces at the curves--the principle of the thread is the adhesion of the +particles together by their curves; and the fineness of the thread, and +consequent fineness of the cloth, will depend on the minuteness of +these curves, or the number of them found in a given length of fibre. + +It will readily be seen that this curling form has much to do with the +felting property of wool; it materially contributes to that disposition +in the fibres which enables them to attach and intwine themselves +together; it multiplies the opportunities for this interlacing, and it +increases the difficulty of unravelling the felt. + +The felting property of wool is the most important, as well as the +distinguishing one; but it varies essentially in different breeds, and +the usefulness and the consequent value of the fleece, for clothing +purposes, at least, depend on the degree to which it is pursued. + +_The serrated_--notched, like the teeth of a saw--_edge_ of wool, which +has been discovered by means of the microscope, is also, as well as the +spiral curl, deemed an important quality in the felting property. +Repeated microscopic observations have removed all doubts as to the +general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a central stem or +stalk, probably hollow, or, at least, porous, possessing a +semi-transparency, not found in the fibre of hair. From this central +stalk there springs, at different distances, on different breeds of +sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections. + + +LONG WOOL. + +The most valuable of the long-woolled fleeces are of British origin. A +considerable quantity is produced in France and Belgium; but the +manufacturers in those countries acknowledge the superiority of the +British wool. Long wool is distinguished, as its name would import, by +the length of its staple, the average of which is about eight inches. +It was much improved, of late years, both in England and in other +countries. Its staple has, without detriment to its manufacturing +qualities, become shorter; but it has also become finer, truer, and +sounder. The long-woolled sheep has been improved more than any other +breed; and the principal error which Bakewell committed having been +repaired since his death, the long wool has progressively risen in +value, at least for curling purposes. Some of the breeds have staples of +double the length that has been mentioned as the average one. Pasture +and breeding are the powerful agents here. + +Probably because the Leicester blood prevails in, or, at least, mingles +with, every other long-woolled breed, a great similarity in the +appearance and quality of this fleece has become apparent, of late +years, in every district of England. The short-woolled fleeces are, to a +very considerable degree, unlike in fineness, elasticity, and felting +property; the sheep themselves are still more unlike; but the long-wools +have, in a great degree, lost their distinctive points--the Lincoln, for +example, has not all of his former gaunt carcass, and coarse, entangled +wool--the Cotswold has become a variety of the Leicester--in fact, all +the long-woolled sheep, both in appearance and fleece, have almost +become of one variety; and rarely, except from culpable neglect in the +breeder, has the fleece been injuriously weakened, or too much +shortened, for the most valuable purposes to which it is devoted. + +In addition to its length, this wool is characterized by its strength, +its transparency, its comparative stoutness, and the slight degree in +which it possesses the felting property. Since the extension of the +process of combing to wools of a shorter staple, the application of +this wool to manufacturing purposes has undergone considerable change. +In some respects, the range of its use has been limited; but its demand +has, on the whole, increased, and its value is more highly appreciated. +Indeed, there are certain important branches of the woollen manufacture, +such as worsted stuffs, bombazines, muslin-delaines, etc., in which it +can never be superseded; and its rapid extension in the United States, +within the past few years, clearly shows that a large and increasing +demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. + +This long wool is classed under two divisions, distinguished both by +length and the fineness of the fibre. The first--_the long-combing +wool_--is used for the manufacture of hard yarn, and the worsted goods +for which that thread is adapted, and requires the staple to be long, +firm, and little disposed to felt. _The short-combing wool_ has, as its +name implies, a shorter staple, and is finer and more felty; the felt is +also closer and softer, and is chiefly used for hosiery goods. + + +MIDDLE WOOL. + +This article is of more recent origin than the former, but has rapidly +increased in quantity and value. It can never supersede, but will only +stand next in estimation to, the native English long fleece. It is +yielded by the half-bred sheep--a race that becomes more numerous every +year--being a cross of the Leicester ram with the South-Down, or some +other short-woolled ewe; retaining the fattening property and the early +maturity of the Leicester, or of both; and the wool deriving length and +straightness of fibre from the one, and fineness and feltiness from the +other. The average length of staple is about five inches. There is no +description of the finer stuff-goods in which this wool is not most +extensively and advantageously employed; and the nails, or portions +which are broken off by the comb, and left in, whether belonging to this +description of wool or to the long wool, are used in the manufacture of +several species of cloth of no inferior quality or value. + +Under the breed of middle wools must be classed those which, when there +were but two divisions, were known by the name of short wools; and if +English productions were alone treated of, would still retain the same +distinctive appellation. To this class belong the South-Down and +Cheviot; together with the fleece of several other breeds, not so +numerous, nor occupying so great an extent of country. From the change, +however, which insensibly took place in them all--the lengthening, and +the increased thickness of the fibre, and, more especially, from the +gradual introduction of other wools possessing delicacy of fibre, +pliability, and felting qualities beyond what these could claim, and at +the same time, being cheaper in the market--they lost ground in the +manufacture of the finer cloths, and have for some time ceased to be +used in the production of them. On the other hand, the changes which +have taken place in the construction of machinery have multiplied the +purposes to which they may be devoted, and very considerably enhanced +their value. + +These wools, of late, rank among the combing wools; they are prepared as +much by the comb as by the card, and in some places more. On this +account they meet with a readier sale, at fair, remunerating prices, +considering the increased weight of each individual fleece, and the +increased weight and earlier maturity of the carcass. The South-Downs +yield about seven-tenths of the pure short wools grown in the British +kingdoms; but the half-bred sheep has, as has been remarked, encroached +on the pure short-woolled one. The average staple of middle-woolled +sheep is three and a half inches. + +These wools are employed in the manufacture of flannels, army and navy +cloths, coatings, heavy cloths for calico printers and paper +manufacturers, woollen cords, coarse woollens, and blankets; besides +being partially used in cassinettes, baizes, bockings, carpets, +druggets, etc. + + +SHORT WOOL. + +From this division every wool of English production is excluded. These +wools, yielded by the Merinos, are employed, unmixed, in the manufacture +of the finer cloths, and, combined with a small proportion of wool from +the English breeds, in others of an inferior value. The average length +of staple is about two and a half inches. + +These wools even may be submitted to the action of the comb. There may +be fibres only one inch in length; but if there are others from two and +a half to three inches, so that the average of the staple shall be two +inches, a thread sufficiently tenacious may, from the improved state of +machinery, be spun, and many delicate and beautiful fabrics readily +woven, which were unknown not many years ago. + + + + +[Illustration] + +CROSSING AND BREEDING + + +No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those +points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable for +the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, +while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool; and another, which +is valuable for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some +varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of food and +climate; while others are much less affected by those conditions, and +will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the +most opposite qualities of verdure. + +In selecting a breed for any given locality, reference should be had, +_first_, to the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural +circumstances; and, _second_, to the market facilities and demand. +Choice should then be made of that breed which, with the advantages +possessed, and under all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net +value of the marketable product. + +Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green +during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of +large carcasses. If convenient to a market where mutton finds a prompt +sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which calls +for a mutton-producing, as contradistinguished from a wool-yielding, +sheep. Under such circumstances, the choice should undoubtedly be made +from the improved English varieties--the South-Down, the New Leicester, +and the improved Cotswolds or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding between +these, minor and more specific circumstances must be taken into account. +If large numbers are to be kept, the Downs will herd--remain thriving +and healthy when kept together in large numbers--much better than the +two larger breeds; if the feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to +be somewhat short during the droughts of summer, and there is not a +certain supply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Downs will better +endure occasional short keep; if the market demands a choice and +high-flavored mutton, the Downs possess a decided superiority. If, on +the other hand, but few are to be kept in the same enclosure, the large +breeds will be as healthy as the Downs; if the pastures are somewhat wet +or marshy, the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which +usually grows in such situations; if they do not afford so fine a +quality of mutton, they--particularly the Leicester--possess an earlier +maturity, and give more meat for the amount of food consumed, as well as +yield more tallow. + +The next point of comparison between the long and the middle woolled +families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal +object aimed at in the cultivation of any of these breeds, it is, in +this country, an important item of incident in determining their +relative profitableness. The American Leicester yields about six pounds +of long, coarse, combing wool; the Cotswold, somewhat more; but this +perhaps counterbalanced by these considerations; the Downs grow three to +four pounds of a low quality of carding wool. None of these wools are +very salable, at remunerating prices, in the American markets. Both, +however, will appreciate in proportion to the increase of manufactures +of worsted, flannels, baizes, and the like. The difference in the weight +of the fleeces between the breeds is, of itself, a less important +consideration than it would at first appear, for reasons which will be +given when the connection between the amount of wool produced and the +food consumed by the sheep is noticed. + +The Cheviots are unquestionably inferior to the breeds above named, +except in a capacity to endure a vigorous winter and to subsist on +healthy herbage. Used in the natural and artificial circumstances which +surround sheep-husbandry in many parts of England--where the fattest and +finest quality of mutton is consumed, as almost the only animal food of +the laboring classes--the heavy, early-maturing New Leicester, and the +still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep seem exactly adapted to the wants of +producers and consumers, and are of unrivalled value. To depasture +poorer soils, sustain a folding system, and furnish the mutton which +supplies the tables of the wealthy, the South-Down meets an equal +requirement. + +Sufficient attention is by no means paid in many portions of the country +to the profit which could be made to result from the cultivation of the +sheep. One of the most serious defects in the prevalent husbandry of New +England, for example, is the neglect of sheep. Ten times the present +number might be easily fed, and they would give in meat, wool, and +progeny, more direct profit than any other domestic animal, while the +food which they consume would do more towards fertilizing the farms than +an equal amount consumed by any other animal. It is notorious that the +pastures of that section of the country have seriously deteriorated in +fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds and bushes to the +exclusion of nutritious grasses. + +With sheep--as well as with all other animals--much or prolonged +exercise in pursuit of food, or otherwise, is unfavorable to taking on +fat. Some seem to forget, in their earnest advocacy of the merits of the +different breeds, that the general physical laws which control the +development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. +Better organs will, doubtless, make a better appropriation of animal +food; and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in +particular directions: in one breed, more especially to the production +of fat; in another, of muck, or lean meat; in yet another, of wool. But, +these things being equal, large animals will always require more food +than small ones. Animals which are to be carried to a high state of +fatness must have plentiful and nutritious food, and they must exercise +but little, in order to prevent the unnecessary combustion in the lungs +of that carbon which forms nearly four-fifths of their fat. No art of +breeding can counteract these established laws of Nature. + +In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for _wool-growing_ +purposes, it is undeniable that the question is not, what variety will +shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleece, irrespective of +the cost of production. Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, +must be deducted, in order to fairly test the profits of an animal. +If a large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give +but once and a-half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable--other +things being equal--to keep two of the smaller sheep. The next question, +then, is,--_from what breed_--with the same expense in other +particulars--_will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest +value of wool_? + +And, first, as to the comparative amount of food consumed by the several +breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments which show that _breed_, +in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of +food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the consumption is +in proportion to the live weight of the grown animal. Of course, this +rule is not invariable in its individual application; but its general +soundness has been satisfactorily established. Grown sheep take up +between two and a half and three and a third per cent. of their weight, +in what is equivalent to dry hay, to keep themselves in store condition. + +The consumption of food, then, being proportioned to the weight, it +follows that, if one acre is capable of sustaining three Merinos, +weighing one hundred pounds each, it will sustain two Leicesters, +weighing one hundred and fifty each, and two and two-fifth South-Downs, +weighing one hundred and twenty-five each. Merinos of this weight often +shear five pounds per fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an +acre, then, would give fifteen pounds of Merino wool, twelve of +Leicester, and but nine and three-fifths of South-Down--estimating the +latter as high as four pounds to the fleece. Even the finest and +lightest-fleeced sheep known as Merinos average about four pounds to the +fleece; so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest +quality of wool sold under the name of Merino as it would of New +Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down, while the former would +be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent. more per pound than either +of the latter. + +Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as in the foregoing +estimate the live weight of the English breeds is placed low, and that +of the Merinos high. The live weight of the five-pound fine-fleeced +Merino does not exceed ninety pounds; it ranges, in fact, from eighty to +ninety; so that three hundred pounds of live weight--it being understood +that all of these live weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what +is called store, condition--would give a still greater product of wool +to the acre. It is perfectly safe, therefore, to say that the herbage of +an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino that it +will of any of the English long or middle wools. + +What are the other relative expenses of these breeds? The full-blooded +Leicester is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino, though some +of its crosses are much hardier than the pure-bred sheep: indeed, it is +less hardy, under the most favorable circumstances. It is more subject +to colds; its constitution more readily gives way under disease; the +lambs are more liable to perish from exposure to cold, when newly +dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances--herded in large flocks, +famished for feed, or subjected to long journeys--its capacity to +endure, and its ability to rally from sad drawbacks, do not compare, +with those of the Merino. The high-bred South-Down, though considerably +less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to +the appellation of a hardy animal; it is, in fact, about on a pace with +the Merino, though it will not bear as hard stocking, without a rapid +diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are +to be considered in determining the expenses, as they surely should be, +the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as +well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The ewe not only frequently +produces twin lambs--as do both the Merino and Leicester--but, unlike +the latter, she possesses nursing properties to do justice to them. This +advantage, however, is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity +of the Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly +deteriorate in amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and general vigor, at +about five years old; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in +an animal kept for wool-growing purposes. This early decay requires +earlier and more rapid slaughter than is always economically convenient, +or even possible. + +It is well, on properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the +Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding +stock; but he will not particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay +the way with his fleece for several years longer. Breeding ewes are +rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until ten years +old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the +Downs and Leicester at five or six. Instances are known of Merino ewes +breeding uniformly until fifteen years old. The improved Cotswold is +said to be hardier than the Leicester; but this variety, from their +great size, and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, together +with the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of such +large animals, is incapacitated from being generally introduced as a +wool-growing sheep. All the coarse races have one advantage over the +Merino: they are less subject to the visitation of the hoof-ail, and +when untreated, this disease spreads with less violence and malignity +among them. This has been explained by the fact that their hoofs do not +grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Merino, and +thus retain dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot. + +Taking into account all the circumstances connected with the peculiar +management of each race, together with all the incidents, exigencies, +and risks of the husbandry of each, it may be confidently asserted that +the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller per head, or +even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the English +breeds above referred to, than in the Merino. Indeed, it may well be +doubted whether any of those English breeds, except the South-Down, is +on an equality, even, with the Merino, in these respects. For +wool-growing purposes, the Merino, then, possesses a marked and decided +superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-woolled sheep. +As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds; although not +so much as is popularly supposed. Many persons, who have never tasted +Merino mutton, and who have, consequently, an unfavorable impression of +it, would, if required to consume the fat and lean together, find it +more palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton +of the cross between the Merino and the Native would certainly be +preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer, +accustomed to the latter, since it is short-grained, tender, and of good +flavor. The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties, +which will hereafter be treated of more particularly. Grade Merino +wethers, half-bloods, for example, are favorites with the drover and +butcher, being of good size, extraordinarily heavy for their apparent +bulk, by reason of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse +breeds, making good mutton, tallowing well, and their pelts, from the +greater weight of wool on them, commanding an extra price. In speaking +of the Merino in this connection, no reference is made to the Saxons, +though they are, as is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the +former. + +Assuming it, then, as settled, that it is to the Merino race that the +wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, a few +considerations are subjoined as to the adaptability of the widely +diverse sub-varieties of the race to the wants and circumstances of +different portions of the country. + +Upon the first introduction of the Saxons, they were sought with avidity +by the holders of the fine-woolled flocks of the country, consisting at +that time of pure or grade Merinos. Under the decisive encouragement +offered both to the wool-grower and the manufacturer by the tariff of +1828, a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, +and the Saxon everywhere superseded, or bred out by crossing, the +Spanish Merinos. In New York and New England, the latter almost entirely +disappeared. In the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, +constitution, and every thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of +the wool. Then came the tariff of 1832, which, as well as that of 1828, +gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer, into +whose pursuits agricultural and mercantile speculators madly rushed. +Skill without capital, capital without skill, and in some cases, +probably, thirst for gain without either, laid hold of these favored +avocations. The natural and inevitable result followed. In the financial +crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary enterprises which +had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not +based on an adequate and vast capital, were involved in a common +destruction; and even the most solid and best conducted institutions of +the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly fell +almost fifty per cent. The grower began to be discouraged. The breeder +of the delicate Saxons--and they comprised the flocks of nearly all the +large wool-growers in the country, at that time--could not obtain for +his wool its actual first cost per pound. + +When the Saxon growers found that the tariff of 1842 brought them no +relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. +The example once set, it became contagious; and then was a period when +it seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed +to this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy +sacrifice of their fixtures for rearing sheep; others crossed with +coarse-woolled breeds; and, rushing from one extreme to the other, some +even crossed with the English mutton breeds; or some, with more +judgment, went back to the parent Merino stock, but usually selected the +heaviest and coarsest-woolled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated +the character of their wool. This period became distinguished by a mania +for heavy fleeces. The English crosses were, however, speedily +abandoned. The Merino regained his supremacy, lost for nearly a quarter +of a century, and again became the popular favorite. It was generally +adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new Western States, +and gives its type to the sheep of those regions. + +The supply of fine wool, then, proportionably decreased, and that of +medium and coarse increased. Wools, for convenience, may be classified +as follows: _superfine_, the choicest quality grown in the United +States, and never grown here excepting in comparatively small +quantities; _fine_, good ordinary Saxon; _good medium_, the highest +quality of wool usually known in the market as Merino; _medium_, +ordinary Merino; _ordinary_, grade Merino and selected South-Down +fleeces; and, _coarse_, the English long-wools, etc. This subdivision +is, perhaps, minute enough for all practical purposes here. + +It soon became apparent that, to sustain our manufacturing +interest--that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths--the diminution +of fine wools should not only be at once arrested, but that the growth +of them should be immediately and largely increased. An increased +attention was accordingly bestowed upon this branch of industry, and +sections of the country which had previously held aloof from +wool-growing, embarked in that calling with commendable enterprise. + +The climate north of forty-one degrees, or, beyond all dispute, north +of forty-two degrees, is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly +known, which bear either superfine or fine wools. In fact, the only such +variety in any thing like general use is the Saxon; and this, as has +been remarked, is a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely +withstanding our northern winters, without good shelter, good and +regularly-administered food, and careful and skilful management in all +other particulars. When the season is a little more than usually +back-hand, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, it +is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes; the young ewes will, +in many instances, disown their lambs, or, if they own them, not have a +drop of milk for them; and if, under such circumstances, as often +happens, a northeast or a northwest storm comes driving down, bearing +snow or sleet in its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the +temperature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from +perishing. If the time of having the lambs dropped is deferred, for the +purpose of escaping these evils, they will not attain size and strength +sufficient to enable them to pass safely through their first winter. +North of the latitude last named, it is necessary, as a general rule, +that they be dropped in the first half of May, to give them this +requisite size and strength; and occasional cold storms come, nearly +every season, up to that period, and, not unfrequently, up to the first +of June. + +These considerations have had their weight even with the few large +sheep-holders in that section, whose farms and buildings have been +arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing of these sheep; many of +whom have adopted a Merino cross. With the ordinary farmers--the small +sheep-owners, who, in the aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of +the northern wools--the Saxon sheep is, for these reasons, in marked +disrepute. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter +protection, and are unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on +them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with +this class, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. Above all, +they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care than their +cattle. The strong, compact, medium-woolled Merino, or, more generally, +its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the wool classed as +ordinary, is the common favorite. In the Northwest, this is especially +the case, where the climate is still worse for delicate sheep. + +At the South, on the contrary--where these disadvantages do not exist to +so great an extent, certainly--wool varying from good medium upward are +more profitable staples for cultivation than the lower classes; and in +that section a high degree of fineness in fleece has been sought in +breeding the Merino--the four-pound fine-fleeced Merino having received +marked attention. This is a far more profitable animal than the Saxon, +other things being equal--which is not the case, since the former is +every way a hardier animal and a better nurse; and, although about +twenty pounds heavier, and therefore consuming more feed, this +additional expense is more than counterbalanced by the additional care +and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon. + + +POINTS OF THE MERINO. + +For breeding purposes, the shape and general appearance of the Merino +should be as follows:--The head should be well carried up, and in the +ewe hornless. It would be better, on many accounts, to have the ram +also hornless, but, as horns are usually characteristic of the Merino +ram, many prefer to see them. The face should be rather short, broad +between the eyes, the nose pointed, and, in the ewe, fine and free +from wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately prominent, and +gentle in its expression. The neck should be straight--not curving +downward--short, round, and stout--particularly so at its junction with +the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink +below the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise +to any perceptible extent above the level of the back. The back, to +the hips, should be straight; the crops--that portion of the body +immediately back of the shoulder-blades--full; the ribs well arched; the +body large and capacious; the flank well let down; the hind-quarters +full and round--the flesh meeting well down between the thighs, or in +the "twists." The bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well +apart, and perpendicular--that is, not drawn under the body toward each +other when the sheep is standing. Viewed as a whole, the Merino should +present the appearance of a low, stout, plump, and--though differing +essentially from the English mutton-sheep model--a highly symmetrical +sheep. + +The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow, +and of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, +approaching to a butternut, hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject +of wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. As they are rather +characteristic of the Merino--like the black color in a Berkshire hog, +or the absence of all color in Durham cattle--these wrinkles have been +more regarded, by novices, than those points which give actual value to +the animal; and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this +hint. Many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled +skin; and this view of the case has led both the Spanish and French +breeders to cultivate them largely--the latter, to a monstrosity. An +exceedingly wrinkled neck, however, adds but little to the weight of the +fleece--not enough, in fact, to compensate for the deformity, and the +great impediment thus placed in the way of the shearer. A smoothly drawn +skin, and the absence of all dead lap, would not, on the other hand, +perhaps be desirable. + +The wool should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly +grow--from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on +the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, particularly in +young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks; but long +wool covering the legs, and on the nose, below the eyes, is unsightly, +without value; while on the face it frequently impedes the sight of the +animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm, and +disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool the +slightest indication of a heavy fleece--contrary to what seems to be +thought by some. It is very often seen in Saxons shearing scarcely two +pounds of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos. + +The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit is another mooted point. +Merino wool should be yolky, or oily, prior to washing--though not to +the extreme extent, occasionally witnessed, of giving it the appearance +of being saturated with grease. The extreme tips may exhibit a +sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast, particularly +in the ram; but a black, pitchy gum, resembling half-hardened tar, +extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which +cannot be removed by ordinary washing, is decidedly objectionable. There +is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, +which appears in the interior of some fleeces, and is equally +objectionable. + +The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with +compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, since it constitutes a +better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the +animal from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and +fall. The wool should be, as nearly as possible, of even length and +thickness over the entire body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or +thickness on the belly, are serious defects. + +Evenness of fleece is a point of the first importance. Many sheep +exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and +even hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc. Rams of this stamp should not be +bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-woolled flock; +and all such ewes should gradually be excluded from those selected for +breeding. + +The style of the wool is a point of as much importance as mere fineness. +Some very fine wool is stiff, and the fibres almost straight, like hair. +It has a dry, cottony look; and is a poor, unsalable article, however +fine the fibre. Softness of wool--a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel +between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to be regarded. +This is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good +qualities; so much so, indeed, that an experienced judge can decide, +with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces, in the +dark. Wool should be finely serrated, or crimped from one extremity to +the other: that is, it should present a regular series of minute curves; +and, generally, the greater the number of these curves in a given +length, the higher the quality of the wool in all other particulars. The +wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead +of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a +pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is +pressed open each way with the hands, it should be close enough to +conceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of +the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and +liveliness of appearance not surpassed in the best silk. + +The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon +particularly to avoid are, a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes; a +thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders; narrow loins; +flat ribs; steep, narrow hind-quarters; long legs; thighs scarcely +meeting at all; and legs drawn far under the body at the least approach +of cold. All these points were, separately or conjointly, illustrated in +many of the Saxon flocks which have been swept from the country. +Sufficient attention has already been paid to the points to be avoided +in the fleece. + + +BREEDING MERINOS. + +The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is, that "like +will beget like." If the sire and ewe are perfect in any given points, +the offspring will generally be; if either is defective, the +offspring--subject to a law which will possibly be noticed--will be +half-way between the two; if both are defective in the same points, +the progeny will be more so than either of its parents--it will +inherit the amount of defect in both parents added together. There are +exceedingly few perfect animals. Breeding, therefore, is a system of +counterbalancing--breeding out--in the offspring, the defects of one +parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, in the same +points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the +greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny; but, +blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater +degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from +ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impropriety, +provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose; but, where a high +standard of quality is aimed at, all ewes possessing even considerable +defects should gradually be thrown out from breeding. Every year should +add to the vigor of the selection. + +But, from the beginning--and at the beginning, more than at any other +time--the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. +If he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future +flock; if it is a material one--as, for example, a hollow back, bad +cross, or thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece--the flock will be one +of low quality and little value. If, on the other hand, he is perfect, +the defects in the female will be lessened, and gradually bred out. It +being, however, difficult to find perfect rams, those should be taken +which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of these material, +like those just enumerated. These defects are to be met and +counterbalanced by the decided excellence--sometimes, indeed, running +into a fault--of the ewe, in the same points. If the ram, then, is a +little too long-legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for +him; if gummy, the dryest-woolled; if his fleece is a trifle below the +proper standard of fineness--but he has been retained, as often happens, +for weight of fleece and general excellence--he is to be put to the +finest and lightest-fleeced ewes, and so on. With a selection of rams, +this system of counterbalancing would require but little skill, if each +parent possessed only a single fault. If the ewe be a trifle too +thin-fleeced, and good in all other particulars, it would require no +nice judgment to decide that she should be bred to an uncommonly +thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to a greater or less +degree, several defects. To select so that every one of these in the +dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and the contrary, requires not +only plentiful materials from which to select, but the keenest +discrimination. + +After the breeder has successfully established his flock, and given them +an excellent character, he soon encounters a serious evil. He must +"breed in-and-in," as it is called--that is, interbreed between animals +more or less nearly related in blood--or he must seek rams from other +flocks, at the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of +his flock, hitherto so carefully sought, and built up with so much +painstaking. The opponents of in-and-in breeding contend that it renders +diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease +of size, debility, and a general breaking up of the constitution. Its +defenders, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly +healthy, this mode does not, of itself, tend to any diminution of +healthfulness in the offspring; and they likewise claim--which must be +conceded--that it enables the skilful breeder much more rapidly to +bring his flock to a particular standard or model, and to keep it there +much more easily--unless it be true that, in course of time, they will +dwindle and grow feeble. + +[Illustration: THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG, OR COLLEY.] + +So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, both positions +may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, difficult always +to decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease, +but from all tendency or predisposition towards it. A brother or sister +may be apparently healthy--may be actually so--but may still possess a +peculiarity of individual conformation which, under certain +circumstances, will manifest itself. If these circumstances do not +chance to occur, they may live until old age, apparently possessing a +robust constitution. If tried together, their offspring--by a rule +already laid down--will possess this individual tendency in a double +degree. If the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, +granddaughters, etc., for several generations, the predisposition toward +a particular disease--in the first place slight, now strong, and +constantly growing stronger--will pervade, and become radically +incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time +the requisite exciting causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks +out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and +malignancy. If it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept +away; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring +intervals. The same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the +outward form which do not at first, from their slightness, attract the +notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased until, almost +before thought of by the owner, they destroy the value of the sheep. +That such are the common effects of in-and-in breeding, with such skill +as it is commonly conducted, all know who have given attention to the +subject; and for these reasons the system is regarded with decided +disapprobation and repugnance by nine out of ten of the best practical +farmers. + +The sheep-breeder can, however, avoid the effects of in-and-in breeding, +and at the same time preserve the character of his flock, by seeking +rams of the same breed, possessing, as nearly as possible, _the +characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock_. If this +rule is neglected--if he draws indiscriminately from all the different +varieties or families of a breed--some large, and some small--some +long-woolled, and some short-woolled--some medium, and some superfine in +quality--some tall, and some squatty--some crusted over with black gum, +and some entirely free from it--breeding will become a mere matter of +hap-hazard, and no certain or uniform results can be expected. So many +varieties cannot be fused into one for a number of generations--as is +evidenced by the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock, which was +commenced by a promiscuous admixture of all the Spanish families; and it +not merely happens, as between certain classes of Saxons, that +particular families can never be successfully amalgamated. + +If, however, the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard--if his +sheep are deficient in the requisites which he desires--he is still to +adhere to the breed--_provided the desired requisites are characteristic +of the breed he possesses_--and select better animals to improve his own +inferior ones. If he has, for instance, an inferior flock of +South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best Down dams, +he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes to +obtain qualities _not characteristic of the breed he possesses_, he must +cross with a breed which does possess them. If the possessor of +South-Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-woolled sheep similar to +the Merino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino +rams--constantly increasing the amount of Merino, and diminishing the +amount of South-Down blood. To effect the same result, he would take the +same course with the common sheep of the country, or with any other +coarse race. + +There are those, who, forgetting that some of the finest varieties now +in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of +crosses--bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any +and all circumstances. It is, it must be admitted, an unqualified +absurdity, as frequently conducted--as, for example, an attempt to unite +the fleece of a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses +between those breeds; but, under the limitations already laid down, and +with the objects specified as legitimate ones, this objection to +crossing savors of the most profound prejudice, or the most unblushing +quackery. It is neither convenient, nor within the means of every man +wishing to start a flock of sheep, to commence exclusively with +full-bloods. With a few to breed rams from, and to begin a full-blood +stock, the breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best +common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with Merino +rams. In selecting the ewes, good shape, fair size, and a robust +constitution, are the main points--the little difference in the quality +of the common sheep's wool being of no consequence. For their wool, they +are to look to the Merino; but good form and constitution they can and +ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely +unnecessary evils on their progeny. + +Satisfactory results have followed crossing a Down ram--small, compact, +exceedingly beautiful, fine and even fleeced--with large-sized Merino +ewes. The half-blood ewes were then bred to a Merino ram, and also their +female progeny, and so on. The South-Downs, from a disposition to take +on fat, manifested themselves, to a perceptible extent, in every +generation, and the wool of many of the sheep in the third +generation--seven-eighths blood Merino, and one-eighth blood Down--was +very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium Merino. +Their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood Merinos, but increased in +weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter. The mutton of +the first, and even of the second cross was of a beautiful flavor, and +retained, to the last, some of the superiority of South-Down mutton. + +Results are also noted of breeding Leicester ewes--taking one cross of +the blood, as in the preceding case--toward the Merino. The mongrels, to +the second generation--beyond which they were not bred--were about +midway between the parent stock in size--with wool shorter, but far more +fine and compact than the Leicester--their fleeces about the same +weight, five pounds--and, altogether, they were a showy and profitable +sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces, +however, lacked evenness, their thighs remaining disproportionately +coarser and heavy. + +A difference of opinion exists in relation to the number of crosses +necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram. Some high +authorities assert that it does not admit of the slightest doubt that a +Merino, in the fourth generation, from even the worst-woolled ones, is +in every respect equal to the stock of the sire--that no difference need +to be made in the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood, or a +fifteen-sixteenths--and that, however coarse the fleece of the parent +ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show +it. + +Others, however--while admitting that the only value of blood or +pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the +properties of the parent to the offspring, and that, as soon as a +mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on the +progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally +valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal--contend +that this cannot be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the +fourth Merino cross. They assert that the offspring of such crosses +invariably lack the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. The +sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the last, +perhaps, almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams; yet pure blood +is a fixed standard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty +to depart from it in his rams, each one more or less, according to his +judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become +adulterated. No man, assuredly, can be authorized to sell a ram of any +cross, whether the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood. + +It is of the utmost importance for those _commencing_ flocks, either of +full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram +may, by methods which will hereafter be described, be made to serve from +one hundred to one hundred and fifty ewes in a season. A good Merino ram +will, moderately speaking, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece +of the dam, or every lamb got by it, from a common-woolled ewe--that is, +if the ewe at three years old sheared three pounds of wool, the lamb at +the same age will shear four. This would give one hundred or one hundred +and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season; and +every lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount. Many a +ram gets, during his life, eight hundred or one thousand lambs. Nor is +the extra amount of wool all. He gets from eight hundred to one thousand +half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the +basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is +as important and, it may be, quite as valuable an animal as a good +farm-horse stallion. When the number of a ram's progeny are taken into +consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in +his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be +perpetuated, the folly of that economy which would select an inferior +animal is sufficiently obvious. + +It will be found the best economy in starting a flock, where the proper +flocks from which to draw rams are not convenient, to purchase several +of the same breed, of course, but _of different strains of blood_. Thus +ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and the reverse; No. 3 +can be put on the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. +3. The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, +without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any +considerable danger, are innumerable. + +The brother and sister, it will be born in mind, are of the same blood; +the father and daughter, half; the father and granddaughter, one-fourth; +the father and great-granddaughter, one-eighth; and so on. Breeding +between animals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be +considered very close breeding; and it is not unusual, in rugged, +well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of +the same blood. + +If, however, these rams of different strains are brought promiscuously, +without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and +probably will, be difference between them; and it might require time and +skill to give a flock descended from them a proper uniformity of +character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish +different strains of blood, with the necessary individual and family +uniformity. + + +GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. + +Some few suggestions upon the general principles to be observed in +breeding may not be superfluous here, referring the reader, who is +disposed to investigate this subject in detail, to its full discussion +in the author's treatise upon "Cattle and their Diseases." + +As illustrative of the importance of _breeding only from the best_, +taking care to avoid structural defects, and especially to secure +freedom from _hereditary diseases_, since both defects and diseases +appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities, it may +be remarked that scrofula is not uncommon among sheep, and presents +itself in various forms. Sometimes it is connected with consumption; +sometimes it affects the viscera of the abdomen, and particularly the +mesenteric glands, in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs. The +scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to affect the +f[oe]tus, and lambs have occasionally been dropped with it; but much +oftener they show it at an early age, and any affected in this way are +liable to fall an easy prey to any ordinary or prevalent disease, which +develops in such with unusual severity. Sheep are also liable to several +diseases of the brain, and of the respiratory and digestive organs. +Epilepsy, or "fits," and rheumatism sometimes occur. + +The breeder's aim should be to grasp and _render permanent_, and +increase so far as practicable, _every variation for the better_, and to +reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward tendency. A +remarkable instance of the success which has often attended the +well-directed efforts of intelligent breeders, is furnished in the new +Mauchamp-Merino sheep, which originated in a single animal--a product of +the law of variation--and which, by skilful breeding and selection, has +become an established breed of a peculiar type, and possessing valuable +properties. Samples of the wool of these sheep were shown at the great +exhibition in London, in 1851, as well as at the subsequent great +agricultural exhibition at Paris, and attracted much attention. + +This breed was originated by Mons. J. L. Graux. In 1828, a Merino ewe +produced a peculiar ram lamb, having a different shape from the ordinary +Merino, and possessing wool singularly long, straight, and silky. Two +years afterward, Mr. Graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe, +having the silky character of wool. Among the produce of the ensuing +year were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces; and in 1833, there +were rams enough of the new sort to serve the whole flock of ewes. In +each subsequent year, the lambs were of two kinds; one possessing the +curled, elastic wool of the old Merinos, only a little longer and finer, +and the other like the new breed. At last, the skilful breeder obtained +a flock containing the fine, silky fleece with a smaller breed, broader +flanks, and more capacious chest; and several flocks being crossed with +the Mauchamp variety, the Mauchamp-Merino breed is the result. + +The pure Mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as a +combing-wool, owing to the strength, as well as the length and fineness +of the fibre. It is found of great value by the manufacturers of +Cashmere shawls, and similar goods, being second only to the true +Cashmere fleece, in the fine, flexible delicacy of the fibre; and when +in combination with Cashmere wool, imparting strength and consistency. +The quantity of this wool has since become as great as that from +ordinary Merinos, or greater, while its quality commands twenty-five per +cent. higher price in the French market. Breeders, certainly, cannot +watch too closely any accidental peculiarity of conformation or +characteristic in their flocks. + +_The apparent influence of the male_ first having fruitful intercourse +with a female, _upon her subsequent offspring by other males_, has been +noticed by various writers. The following well-authenticated instances +are in point: + +A small flock of ewes, belonging to Dr. W. Wells, in the island of +Granada, was served by a ram procured for the purpose. The ewes were all +white and woolly; the ram was quite different, being of a chocolate +color, and hairy like a goat. The progeny were, of course, crosses, but +bore a strong resemblance to the male parent. The next season, Dr. Wells +obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes; but the progeny +showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram, in color and +covering. The same thing occurred on neighboring estates, under like +circumstances. + +Six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes, belonging to Mr. H. +Shaw, of Leochel, Cushnie, were served by a white-faced hornless +Leicester ram. The lambs were crosses. The next year they were served by +a ram of exactly the same breed as the ewes themselves, and their lambs +were, without an exception, hornless and brownish in the face, instead +of being black and horned. The third year they were again served by a +superior ram of their own breed; and again the lambs were mongrels, but +showed less of the Leicester characteristics than before; and Mr. Shaw +at last parted from these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred +lamb. + +To account for this result--seemingly regarded by most physiologists as +inexplicable--Mr. James McGillivray, V. S., of Huntley, has offered an +explanation, which has received the sanction of a number of competent +writers. His theory is, that when a pure animal of any breed has been +pregnant by an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal _is a +cross ever after_, the purity of her blood being lost, in consequence of +her connection with the foreign animal, and herself becoming a cross +forever, incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed. + +To cross, _merely for the sake of crossing_, to do so without that care +and vigilance which are highly essential, is a practice which cannot be +too much condemned, being, in fact, a national evil, if pushed to such +an extent as to do away with a useful breed of animals, and establish a +generation of mongrels in their place--a result which has followed in +numerous instances amongst every breed of animals. + +The principal use of crossing is to raise animals for the butcher. The +male, being generally an animal of a superior breed, and of a vigorous +nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size, and muscular +development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to +him; while their internal nature, derived from the dam, well adapts them +to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have +been accustomed. + +With sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil, as regards the goodness +of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent +the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and +superior ram is often very considerable; and the weight of mutton is +thereby materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while +earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, +more systematic attention than most farmers usually like to bestow, for +it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a +native ram, for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the +breed, and a foreign ram, to raise the improved cross-bred animals for +felting, either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders +of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South-Down rams to improve the +quality of the mutton. + +One inconvenience attending this plan is the necessity of fattening the +maiden ewes as well as the wethers. They may, however, be disposed of as +fat lambs, or the practice of spaying (fully explained in "Cattle and +their Diseases") might be adopted, so as to increase the felting +disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with +the greatest caution and skill, where the object is to improve the breed +of animals. It should never be practised carelessly or capriciously, but +it may be advantageously pursued, with a view to raising superior and +profitable animals for the butcher. For the latter purpose, it is +generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they +possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance +that the _pelvis_ of the female should be wide and capacious, so that no +injury may arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the +heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied for +the same reason. + +In crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new breed, the +size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; +although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed +which is sought to be improved. Thus, the South-Downs have vastly +improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester, the huge Lincolns and +the Cotswolds. + + +USE OF RAMS. + +Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and +even longer. The lambs of very old rams are commonly supposed not to be +as those of middle-aged ones; though where rams have not been +overtasked, and have been properly fed, little if any difference is +discoverable in their progeny by reason of their sire's age. A ram lamb +should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, in +many instances, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling +may run with thirty ewes, a two-year-old with from forty to fifty, and a +three-year-old with from fifty to sixty; while some very powerful, +mature rams will serve seventy or eighty. Fifty, however, is enough, +where they _run with_ the ewes. It is well settled that an impoverished +and overtasked animal does not transmit his individual properties so +decidedly to his offspring as does one in full vigor. + +Rams, of course, are not to be selected for ewes by mere chance, but +according as their qualities may improve those of the ewes. It may not +be superfluous, though seemingly a repetition, to state that a good ewe +flock should exhibit these characteristics: _strong bone_, supporting a +roomy frame, affording space for a large development of flesh; +_abundance of wool of a good quality_, keeping the ewes warm in +inclement weather, and insuring profit to the breeder; _a disposition to +fatten early_, enabling the breeder readily to get rid of his sheep +selected for the butcher; and _a prolific tendency_, increasing the +flock rapidly, and being also a source of profit. Every one of these +properties is advantageous in itself; but when all are combined in the +same individuals of a flock, that flock is in a high state of +perfection. In selecting rams, it should be observed whether or not they +possess one or more of those qualities in which the ewes may be +deficient, in which case their union with the ewes will produce in the +progeny a higher degree of perfection than is to be found in the ewes +themselves, and such a result will improve the state of the future +ewe-flock; but, on the contrary, if the ewes are superior in all points +to the rams, then, of course, the use of such will only serve to +deteriorate the future ewe-flock. + +Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnatural +and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant blows. +It is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be avoided, +and, as customarily managed, is destructive to every thing like careful +and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should +possess to the female is out of the question where half a dozen or more +rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes. + +Before the rams are let out, the breeding ewes should all be brought +together in one yard; the form of each noted, together with the length, +thickness, quality and style of her wool--ascertained by opening the +wool on the shoulder, thigh, and belly. When every point is thus +determined, that ram should be selected which, on the whole, is best +calculated to perpetuate the excellencies of each, both of fleece and +carcass, and to best counterbalance defects in the mutual offspring. +Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a distinct mark, +which will continue visible until the next shearing. For this purpose, +nothing is better than Venetian red and hog's lard, well incorporated, +and marked on with a cob. The ewes for each ram require a differently +shaped mark, and the mark should also be made on the ram, as noted in +the sheep-book. Thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the +ewe was tapped, any time before the next shearing. The ewes selected for +each ram are placed in different enclosures, and the chosen ram placed +with them. Rams require but little preparation on being put among ewes. +If their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they +are ready for the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. Most +of the ewes will be served during the second week the ram is among them, +and in the third, all. It is better, however, not to withdraw the rams +until the expiration of four weeks, when the flocks can be doubled, or +otherwise re-arranged for winter, as may be necessary. The trouble thus +taken is, in reality, slight--nothing, indeed, when the beneficial +results are considered. With two assistants, several hundred ewes may be +properly classified and divided in a single day. + +Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is desirable to make the +services of one go a great way, or where it is impossible to have +separate enclosures--as on farms where there are a great number of +breeding ewes, or where the shepherd system is adopted, to the exclusion +of fences--resort may be had to another method. A hut should be built, +containing as many apartments as the ram is desired to be used, with an +alley between them, each apartment to be furnished with a feeding-box +and trough in one corner, and gates or bars opening from each into the +alley, and at each end of the alley. Adjoining these apartments, a yard +should be inclosed, of size just sufficient to hold the flock of +breeding ewes. + +A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every hundred ewes, +are then aproned, their briskets rubbed with Venetian red and hog's +lard, and let loose among the ewes. _Aproning_ is performed by sewing a +belt of coarse sacking, broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind +legs, loosely but strongly around the body. To prevent its slipping +forward or back, straps are carried round the breast and back of the +breech. It should be made _perfectly secure_, or all the labor of this +method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on +the brisket should be renewed every two or three days; and it will be +necessary to change the "teasers"--as these aproned rams are +called--about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage +under such unnatural circumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought +into the yard in front of the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the +teasers are taken into the alley. Each is admitted _once_ to the ram for +which she is marked, and then goes out _at the opposite end of the +alley_ from which they entered, into a field separate from that +containing the flock from which she was taken. A powerful and vigorous +ram, from three to seven years old, and properly fed, can thus be made +to serve from one hundred and fifty to even two hundred ewes, with no +greater injury than from running loose with fifty or sixty. The labor +here required is likewise more apparent than real, when the operation is +conducted in a systematic manner. + +Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years +longer, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is better to +continue it. In all cases, they should, after serving, be put on good +pasture, as they will have lost a good deal of condition, being +indisposed to settle during the tapping season. A ram should receive +the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats daily, when worked +hard. They are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered +to run at large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat +from a measure held by the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their +stock-rams, from the time they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, +to have them halter-broke, so that they can be led about without +dragging or lifting them. An iron ring attached to one of the horns, +near the point, to which a cord can be fastened for leading, confining, +etc., is very useful and convenient. If rams are wild, it is a matter of +considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be +effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some breeders, in +addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks each night, +shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. To this practice +there is no objection, and it greatly saves their strength. + +Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at least +in the Northern States. It is much better that a ewe go dry than that +she have a lamb later than the first of June. Besides, after the rutting +season is over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant +ewes dangerous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. + +It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation and the first +period of gestation take place in cold weather, the f[oe]tus will be +fitted for the climate which rules during the early stages of its +existence. If this be so--and it is certainly in accordance with the +laws of Nature--fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their +excellence by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement +of cold weather; and, in the Northern States, this is done about the +first of December, thus bringing the yeaning time in the last of April, +or the first of May, when the early grass affords a large supply and +good quality of food. + + +LAMBING. + +[Illustration: EWE AND LAMBS.] + +The ewe goes with young about five months, varying from one hundred and +forty-five to one hundred and sixty-two days. Pregnant ewes require the +same food as at all other times. Until two or three weeks preceding +lambing, it is only necessary that they, like other store-sheep, be kept +in good, plump, ordinary condition; nor are any separate arrangements +necessary for them after that period, in a climate where they obtain +sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of milk. In +backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start prior to +the lambing-time, careful farmers feed their ewes on chopped roots, or +roots mixed with oat and pea-meal, which is excellent economy. Caution +is, however, necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is often +the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The first may be +remedied by blood-letting and spare diet; and both the last by restored +health and generous food. Sudden frights, as from dogs or strange +objects; long or severe journeys, great exertions, unwholesome food, +blows in the region of the f[oe]tus, and some other causes, produce +abortion. + +Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to the fifteenth +of May; in the South, they can safely come earlier. It is not expedient +to have them dropped when the weather is cold or boisterous, as they +require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the weather has +become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes +that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of +milk. It is customary, in the North, to have fields of clover, or the +earliest grasses, reserved for the early spring-feed of the +breeding-ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their stables, it is a +great convenience--for the ewes should be confined in the latter, on +cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season. + +If the weather be warm and pleasant, and the nights moderately warm, it +is better to have the lambing take place in the pasture; since sheep are +then more disposed to own their lambs, and take kindly to them, than in +the confusion of a small inclosure. In the latter, sheep, unless +particularly docile, crowd from one side to another when any one enters, +running over young lambs, pressing them severely, etc.; ewes become +separated from their lambs, and then run violently round from one to +another, jostling and knocking them about; young and timid ewes, when so +separated, will frequently neglect their lambs for an hour or more +before they will again approach them, while, if the weather is severely +cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, is in danger of perishing. +Lambs, too, when first dropped in a _dirty_ inclosure, tumble about, in +their first efforts to rise, and the membrane which adheres to them +becomes smeared with dirt and dung; and the ewe's refusing to lick them +dry much increases the hazard of freezing. + +In cold storms, however, and in sudden and severe weather, all this must +be encountered; and, therefore, every shepherd should teach his sheep +docility. It requires but a very moderately cold night to destroy the +new-born Saxon lamb, which--the pure blood--is dropped nearly as naked +as a child. During a severely cold period, of several days continuance, +it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. The +Merino, South-Down, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree +of cold with impunity. Where inclosures are used for yeaning, they +should be kept clean by frequent litterings of straw--not enough, +however, to be thrown on at any one time, to embarrass the lamb about +rising. + +The predisposing symptoms of lambing are, enlargement and reddening of +the parts under the tail, and drooping of the flanks. The more immediate +are, when the ewe stretches herself frequently; separating herself from +her companions; exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place +for any length of time; lying down and rising up again, as if +dissatisfied with the place; pawing the ground with a forefoot; +bleating, as if in quest of a lamb; and appearing fond of the lambs of +other ewes. In a very few hours, or even shorter time after the +exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate symptom of lambing is the +expulsion of the bag of water from the _vagina_. When this is observed, +the ewe should be narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may be +expected to come on immediately. When these are felt by her, the ewe +presses or forces with earnestness, changing one place or position for +another, as if desirous of relief. + +The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition. Her +labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud +moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go about +several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and nose +of the lamb protruding at the mouth of the _vagina_. If let alone, +however, Nature will generally relieve her. In case of a false +parturition of the f[oe]tus--which is comparatively rare--the shepherd +may apply his thumb and finger, after oiling, to push back the lamb, and +assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear. Where +feebleness in expelling the f[oe]tus exists, only the slightest aid +should be rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. The +objection to interfering--except as a last resort--is, that the ewe is +frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease. When +aided, in any case, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in +conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. The clearing, or _placenta_, +generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very short time--in many +cases, within a few minutes--after lambing. It should be carried away, +and not allowed to lie upon the lambing-pound. + +Common kale, or curly-greens, is excellent food for ewes that have +lambed, as its nutritive matter, being mucilaginous, is wholly soluble +in water, and beneficial in encouraging the necessary discharges of the +ewe at the time of lambing. In these respects, it is a better food than +Swedish turnips--upon which sheep are sometimes fed--which become rather +too fibrous and astringent, in spring, for the secretion of milk. In the +absence of kale or cabbage, a little oil-cake will aid the discharges +and purify the body. New grass also operates medicinally upon the +system. + + +MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. + +While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise--the ewe, +meanwhile, licking it dry--it is well to be in no haste to interfere. A +lamb that gets at the teat without help, and procures even a small +quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely +perishes. If helped, it sometimes continues to expect it, and will do +little for itself for two or three days. The same is true where lambs +are fed from a spoon or bottle. + +But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise--especially if the ewe +has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly--it is time to render +assistance. It is not advisable to throw the ewe down--as is frequently +practised--in order to suckle the lamb; because instinct teaches the +latter to point its nose _upward_ in search of the teats. It is, +therefore, doubly difficult to teach it to suck from the bag of the +prostrate ewe; and when it is taught to do this, by being so suckled +several times, it is awkward about finding the teat in the natural +position, when it begins to stand and help itself. Carefully disengaging +the ewe from her companions, with his crook--which useful article will +be hereafter described--the assistant should place one hand before the +neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe, and then, pressing +her against his knees, he should hold her firmly and still, so that she +will not be constantly crowding away from the shepherd, who should set +the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible; if not, +supporting it _on its feet_ by placing one hand under its body; put its +mouth to the teat, and encourage it to suck by tickling it about the +roots of the tail, flanks, etc., with a finger. The lamb, mistaking this +last for the caresses of its dam, will redouble its efforts to suck. +Sometimes it will manifest great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, +in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding +backward, etc.; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink +himself to the level of brute, by resenting the stupidity of a brute, +will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking a +little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will +induce it to take hold. + +If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed, until the natural supply +commences, with small quantities of the milk of a _new-milch_ cow. This +should be mixed, say half and half, with water, with enough molasses to +give it the purgative effect of the first milk, gently warmed to the +natural heat--not scalded and suffered to cool--and then fed through a +bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should _suck_, +if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a +spoon or bottle, it is frequently difficult, as before stated, to induce +it to suck. Moreover, unless milk is poured into the mouth slowly and +with care--no faster than the lamb can swallow--a speedy wheezing, the +infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid +has been forced into the lungs. Lambs have been frequently killed in +this way. + +If a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped in a woollen blanket, +placed in a warm room, and given a little milk as soon as it will +swallow. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and +with good effect, for the purpose of rousing the cold and torpid +stomach into action. In New England, under such circumstances, the lamb +is sometimes "baked," as it is called--that is, put in a blanket in a +moderately-heated oven, until warmth and animation are restored; others +immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry, which is said to +be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen. A good blanket +however, a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction +will generally suffice. + +If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chance to lose her lamb, she +should be required to bring up one of some other ewe's twins, or the +lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of milk. +Her own lamb should be skinned as soon as possible after death, and the +skin sewed over the lamb which she is to foster. She will sometimes be a +little suspicious for a day or two; and if so, she should be kept in a +small pen with the lamb, and occasionally looked to. After she has taken +well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If no +lamb is placed on a ewe which lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of +milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may +ensue; even if this is not the result, permanent indurations, or other +results of inflammatory action, will take place, injuring the subsequent +nursing properties of the animal. When milked, it is well to wash the +bag for some time in cold water, since it checks the subsequent +secretions of milk, as well as allays inflammation. + +Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her +lamb, will not stand for it to suck; and in this case, if the lamb is +not very strong and persevering, and particularly if the weather is +cold, it soon grows weak, and perishes. The conduct of the dam, in such +instances, is occasioned by inflammatory action about the bag or teats, +and perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position. In this case, the +sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted her bag, +and there will not often be any trouble afterward; though it may be well +enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined. + +Such pens--necessary in a variety of cases other than those +mentioned--need not exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built +of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so that they +can be readily moved by one man, or, at the most, two, from place to +place, where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted, +when sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles +laid up like a fence, and each nailed and pegged to the lower ones at +the corners, or laid on, are quite serviceable. Two or three sides of a +few of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered, +in order to shield feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, and the +like. + +Young lambs are subject to what is commonly known as "pinning"--that is, +their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of +the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering +matter, in such cases, should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed +with a little dry clay, to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will +frequently perish from this cause, if not looked to for the first few +days. + +The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks, and have +a frequent change of pasture. Some careful shepherds adopt the plan of +confining their lambs, allowing them to suck two or three times a day. +By this method they suffer no fatigue, and thrive much faster. It is, +however, troublesome as well as injurious, since the exercise is +essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for +rearing. It is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market; +and with those who rear them for this purpose it is a common practice. + +Where there are orphans or supernumeraries in the flock, the deserted +lambs must be brought up by hand. Such animals, called pet lambs, are +supported on cow's milk, which they receive warm from the cows each time +they are milked, and as much as they can drink. In the intervals of +meals, in bad weather, they are kept under cover; in good weather they +are put into a grass enclosure during the day, and sheltered at night +until the nights become warm. They are fed by hand out of a small +vessel, which should contain as much milk as it is known each can drink. +They are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the fingers, like +a calf, and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in the mouth, a +small tin tube, about three inches in length, and of the thickness of a +goose-quill, should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed +tightly on, to use as a substitute for a teat, by means of which they +will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and quickness. A +goose-quill would answer the same purpose, were it not easily squeezed +together by the mouth. When the same person feeds the lambs--and this +should be the dairy-maid--they soon become attached to her, and desire +to follow her everywhere; but to prevent their bleating, and to make +them contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a stake or bush in +the inclosure, will keep them together. + +It is much better for the lambs and for their dams that they be _weaned_ +from three and a half to four months old. When taken away, they should +be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that they may +not hear each other's bleatings, as the lambs, when in hearing of their +dams, continue restless much longer, and make constant and, frequently, +successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. One +or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, to teach them +to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat out of +troughs when winter approaches. + +When weaned, the lambs should be put on the freshest and tenderest +grass--rich, sweet food, but not too luxuriant. The grass and clover, +sown the preceding spring, on grain-fields seeded down, is often +reserved for them. The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a +fortnight on short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be +looked to after a day or two, and if the bags of any are found much +distended, the milk should be drawn away, and the bags washed for a +little time in cold water. On short feed, they rarely give much trouble +in this respect. When thoroughly dried off, they should have the best +fare, to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and +wintering. The fall is a critical period in which to lose flesh, either +for sheep or lambs; and if any are found deficient, they should at once +be provided with extra feed and attention. If cold weather overtake +them, poor or in ill health, they will scarcely outlive it; or if by +chance they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired constitution, and +scant fleece will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost. + + +CASTRATION AND DOCKING. + +Some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after birth, while +others will not allow the operation to be performed until the lamb is a +month old. The weight of authority, however, is in favor of any time +between two and six weeks after birth, when the creature has attained +some strength, and the parts have not become too rigid. In such +circumstances, the best English breeders recommend from ten to fifteen +days old as the proper time. A lamb of a day old cannot be confirmed in +all the functions of its body, and, indeed, in many instances, the +testicles can then scarcely be found. At a month old, on the other hand, +the lamb may be so fat, and the weather so warm, that the operation may +be attended with febrile action. Dry, pleasant weather should be +selected for this: a cool day, if possible; if warm, it should be done +early in the morning. + +Castration is a simple and safe process. Let a man hold a lamb with its +back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach, and all four legs +gathered in front in his hands. Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free +the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and then draw it steadily out, +or clip the cord with a knife if it does not snap off at a proper +distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles at once +with their teeth. It is usual to drop a little salt into the pouch. +Where the weather is very warm, some touch the end of the pouch with an +ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. As a general thing, +however, the animal will do as well without any application. + +The object of _docking_ is to keep the sheep behind clean from filth and +vermin; since the tail, if left on, is apt to collect filth, and, if the +animal purges, becomes an intolerable nuisance. The tail, however, +should not be docked too short, since it is a protection against cold in +winter. This operation is by many deferred till a late period, from +apprehension of too much loss of blood; but, if the weather be favorable +and the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at the same time as +castration with the least trouble and without injury. + +The tail should be laid upon a plank, the animal being held in the same +position as before. With one hand the skin is drawn toward the body, +while another person, with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off +at a blow, between the bone-joints, leaving it from one and a half to +two inches long. The skin immediately slips back over the wound, which +is soon healed. Should bleeding continue--as, however, rarely +happens--so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord should be tied +firmly round the end of the tail; but this must not be allowed to remain +on above twenty-four hours, as the points of the tail would slough off. +Ewe lambs should be docked closer than rams. To prevent flies and +maggots, and assist in healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed +of lard and tar, in the proportion of four pounds of the former to one +quart of the latter. The lambs should be carefully protected from cold +and wet till they are perfectly well. + + + + +[Illustration] + +FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT + + +FEEDING. + +As soon as the warm weather approaches and the grass appears, sheep +become restive and impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be +repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the grass has +acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for the change +of food by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. The +tendency to excessive purging which is induced by the first +spring-feed, may be checked by housing them at night and feeding them +for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. They must be +provided with pure water and salt; for, though they may do tolerably +well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply +secured by this slight attention. + +As to _water_, it may be said that it is not indispensable in the summer +pastures, since the dews and the succulence of the feed answer as a +substitute; but a wide experience having demonstrated that free access +to it is advantageous, particularly to those having lambs, it should be +considered a matter of importance on a sheep-farm so to arrange the +pastures, if possible, as to bring water into each of them. + +[Illustration: A COVERED SALTING BOX.] + +SALT is indispensable to the health, especially in the summer. It is +common to give it once a week, while they are at grass. It is still +better to give them free access to it, at all times, by keeping it in a +covered box, open on one side, as in the engraving annexed. A large +hollow log, with holes cut along the side for the insertion of the heads +of the animals, answers very well. A sheep having free access to salt at +all times will never eat too much of it; and it will take its supply at +such times and in such quantities as Nature demands, instead of eating +of it voraciously at stated periods, as intermediate abstinence will +stimulate it to do. When salt is fed but once a week, it is better to +have a stated day, so that it will not be forgotten; and it is well to +lay the salt on flat stones--though if laid in little handfuls on the +grass, very little of it will be lost. + +TAR. This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for +sheep, and they smear the nose with it, which is licked and swallowed as +the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it to +trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to +get unusually salt-hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, +and then scatter salt upon it so that both may be consumed together. +Applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, it may be +advantageous in catarrhs; and in the same place, at the proper periods, +its odor may, perhaps, repel the fly, the eggs of which produce the +"gout in the head," as it is termed. However valuable it may be as a +medicine, and even as a debergent in the case specified, there is but +slight ground for confidence in it merely as a condiment. + +_Dry_, _sweet pastures_, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter +plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, with the exception +of the goat, crops so great a variety of plants. They eat many which are +rejected by the horse and the ox, which are even essential to their own +wants. In this respect they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, +as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdock, thistles, marsh-mallows, +milk-weed, and various other offending plants; and the Merino exceeds +the more recent breeds in the range of his selections. + +In pastures, however, where the dry stalks of the burdock, or the +hound's-tongue, or tory-weed have remained standing over the winter, the +burs are caught in the now long wool, and, if they are numerous, the +wool is rendered entirely unmarketable and almost valueless. Even the +dry prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very +numerous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads +under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the northern +spring; and, independently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult +to wash and otherwise handle the sheep. Indeed, it is a matter of the +soundest policy to keep sheep on the cleanest pastures, those free from +these and similar plants; and in a region where they are pastured the +year round, they should be kept from contact with them for some months +prior to shearing. + +Many prepare _artificial pastures_ for their flocks, which may be done +with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, +may be fed off in the fall, without injury to the crop; and, in the +following spring, the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and +begin to form a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn +may be sown broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the +fields or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard is +also a valuable crop for this purpose. + +To give sheep sufficient variety, it is better _to divide their range_ +into several smaller ones, and change them as often, at least, as once a +week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on a dry, elevated part of the +field, which soon becomes soiled. By removing them from this for a few +days, rain will cleanse or the sun dry it, so as to make it again +suitable for them. More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, +where this practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same +pasture. + +SHADE. No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in +hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is +pouring down upon their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a +matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot +summer-months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common +rail-fence. Forest trees are the most natural and the best shades, and +it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them +entirely from the sheep-walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board +fence on the south and west sides of the pasture, forms a tolerable +substitute for trees. But in the absence of all these and of buildings +of any kind, a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in +the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, +which will be hereafter described. + +FENCES. Poor _fences_ will teach ewes and wethers, as well as rams, to +jump; and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high +fences, or extirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole +flock; and if one by chance is brought in, it should be immediately +hoppled or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy. + +HOPPLING is done by sewing the ends of a leather strap, broad at the +extremities, so that it will not cut into the flesh, to a fore and hind +leg, just above the pastern joints, leaving the legs at about the +natural distance apart. _Clogging_ is fastening a billet of wood to the +fore leg by a leather strap. _Yoking_ is fastening two rams two or three +feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of +timber, some two or three inches in size. _Poking_ is done by inserting +a bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit--worn on the under +side of the neck--a rod is inserted, which projects a couple of feet in +front of the sheep. + +These and similar devices, to prevent rams from scaling fences, may be +employed as a last resort by those improvident farmers who prefer, by +such troublesome, injurious, and, at best, insecure means, to guard +against that viciousness which they might so much more easily have +prevented from being acquired. + +DANGEROUS RAMS. From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted and +played with when young, and sometimes without any other stimulant than a +naturally vicious temper, rams occasionally become very troublesome by +their propensity to attack men or cattle. Some will allow no man to +enter the field where they are without making an immediate onset upon +him; while others will knock down the ox or horse which presumes to +dispute a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known to have acquired +this propensity should at once be _hooded_, and, if not valuable, at the +proper season converted into a wether. But the courage thus manifested +is usually the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution, +and of a powerfully developed frame. If good in other particulars, it is +a pity to lose the services of so valuable an animal. In such cases, +they may be hooded, by covering their faces with leather in such a +manner that they can only see a little backward and forward. They must +then, however, be kept apart from the flock of rams, or they will soon +be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape. + +It sometimes happens that a usually quiet-tempered ram will suddenly +exhibit some pugnacity when one is salting or feeding the flock. If such +a person turns to run, he is immediately knocked down, and the ram +learns, from that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the +propensity to exercise it. As the ram gives his blow from the summit of +the parietal and the posterior portion of the frontal bones on _the top_ +of his head, and not from the forehead, he is obliged to crouch his head +so low when he makes his onset that he does not see forward well enough +to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a few quick motions to the +right and left enable one to escape him. Run in upon him, as he dashes +by, with pitch-fork, club, or boot-heel, and punish him severely by +blows about the head, if the club is used, giving him no time to rally +until he is thoroughly cowed. This may be deemed harsh treatment, and +likely to increase the viciousness of the animal. Repeated instances +have, however, proved the contrary; and if the animal once is forced to +acknowledge that he is overcome, he never forgets the lesson. + +PRAIRIE FEEDING. Sheep, when destined for the prairies, ought to +commence their journey as early after the shearing as possible, since +they are then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and retain +as much dust as when driven later; feed is also generally better, and +the roads are dry and hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, +with early lambs; or, if the latter are too young, and the distance +great, they should be left, and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought +to accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or they +may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With good care, a +hardy flock may be driven at the rate of twelve or fourteen miles a day. +Constant watchfulness is requisite, in order to keep them healthy and in +good plight. One-half the expense of driving may be saved by the use of +well-trained shepherd-dogs. + +When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly washed, to +free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to any diseases which +they may have contracted, that these may be promptly removed. A variety +of suitable food and good shelter must be provided for the autumn, +winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given to them. +This would be necessary if they were indigenous to the country; but it +is much more so when they have just undergone a campaign to which +neither they nor their race have been accustomed. + +Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, artificial food, +and proper attention; and losses have often occurred, by reason of a +false system of economy attempted by many, from disease and mortality in +the flocks, amply sufficient to have made a generous provision for the +comfort and security of twice the number lost. More especially do they +require proper food and attention after the first severe frosts set in, +which wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the bog--the +frostbitten, dead grass--they are inevitably subject to constipation, +which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, etc., is alone sufficient to +remove. + +Roots, grain, good hay, straw, corn-stalks, and pea or bean-vines are +essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the +winter, everywhere north of thirty-nine degrees. In summer, the natural +herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they shall +have acquired a denser population of animals, when it will be found +necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial +grasses. + +The prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced +into the United States; and of such are the flocks made up, according to +the taste or judgment of the owners. Shepherd dogs are invaluable to the +owners of flocks, in these unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a +defence against the small prairie wolves, which prowl around the sheep, +but have been rapidly thinned off by the settlers, and also as +assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the +open ground. + +FALL FEEDING. In the North, the grass often gets very short by the tenth +or fifteenth of November, and it has lost most of its nutritiousness +from repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, although no snow may +have fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light, daily foddering of +bright hay, and a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or +twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder +pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. It is well +to feed oats in the bundle, or threshed oats, about a gill to the head, +in the feeding-troughs, carried to the field for that purpose. + +WINTER FEEDING. The time for taking sheep from the pastures must depend +on the state of the weather and food. Severe frosts destroy much of the +nutriment in the grasses, and they soon after cease to afford adequate +nourishment. Long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain +them, will rapidly reduce the condition of these animals. The only safe +rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they +cease to thrive abroad. + +There is no better food for sheep than well-ripened, sound Timothy hay; +though the clovers and nearly all the cultivated grasses may be +advantageously fed. Hundreds and thousands of northern flocks receive, +during the entire winter, nothing but ordinary hay, consisting mainly of +Timothy, some red and white clover, and frequently a sprinkling of gum, +or spear grass. Bean and pea straw are valuable, especially the former, +which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is well +adapted to the production of wool. Where hay is the principal feed, it +may be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks every fifth or +sixth feed, or even once a day; or the daily feed, not of hay, might +alternate between stalks, pea-straw, straws of the cereal grains, etc. +It is mainly a question of convenience with the farmer, provided a +proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass is given. +It would not, however, be entirely safe to confine any kind of sheep to +the straw of the cereal grains, unless it were some of those little +hardy varieties of animals which would be of no use in this country. + +The expediency of feeding _grain_ to store-sheep in winter depends much +on circumstances. If in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply +of grass or other green esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary; +nor is it a matter of necessity where the ground is frozen or covered +with snow for weeks or months, provided the sheep be plentifully +supplied with good dry fodder. Near markets where the coarser grains +find a quick sale at fair prices, it is not usual, in the North, to feed +grain. Remote from markets it is generally fed by the holders of large +flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a +gill a head per day. Some feed half the same amount of yellow corn. +Fewer sheep, particularly lambs and yearlings, get thin and perish where +they receive a daily feed of grain; they consume less hay, and their +fleeces are increased in weight. On the whole, therefore, it is +considered good economy. Where no grain is fed, three daily feeds of hay +are given. The smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two +pounds of hay; but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to +four or even five pounds per day. Sheep, in common with all other +animals, when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if well +protected, or during a warmer season. + +It is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats in the +bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay, one at morning and one +at night. Some feed greenish cut peas in the same way. In warm, thawing +weather, when sheep get to the ground and refuse dry hay, a little grain +assists materially in keeping up their strength and condition. When the +feed is shortest in winter, in the South, there are many localities +where sheep can get enough grass to take off their appetite for dry hay, +but not quite enough to keep them in prime order. A moderate daily feed +of oats or pease, placed in the depository racks, would keep them strong +and in good plight for the lambing season, and increase their weight of +wool. + +Few Northern farmers feed _Indian corn_ to store-sheep, as it is +considered too hot and stimulating, and sheep are thought to become more +liable to become "cloyed" on it than on oats, pease, etc. Yellow corn is +not generally judged a very safe feed for lambs and yearlings. +Store-sheep should be kept in good, fair, plump condition. Lambs and +yearlings may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding. It is +stated that sheep will eat _cotton-seed_, and thrive on it. + +It must be remembered that sheep are not to be allowed to get thin +during the winter, with the idea that their condition can at any time be +readily raised by better feed, as with the horse or ox. It is always +difficult, and, unless properly managed, expensive and hazardous, to +attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock in the winter, especially +if they have reached that point where they manifest weakness. If the +feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced, fatal +diarrh[oe]a will often supervene. All extra feeding, therefore, must be +begun very gradually; and it does not appear, in any case, to produce +proportionable results. + +_Roots_, such as ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes, and the like, make a good +substitute for grain, or as extra feed for grown sheep. The ruta-baga is +preferable to the potato in its equivalents of nutriment. No root, +however, is as good for lambs and yearlings as an equivalent of grain. +Sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cultivated roots. This is done +by withholding salt from them, and then feeding the chopped roots a few +times, rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root +to obtain it; but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt before +they have acquired a taste for the roots. + +It is customary with some farmers to cut down, from time to time in the +winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the _hemlock_, +whose foliage is greedily eaten by the sheep, after being confined for +some time to dry feed. This browse is commonly used, like tar, for some +supposed medicinal virtues. It is pronounced "healthy" for sheep. Much +the same remarks might be made about this as have been already made +concerning tar. No tonics and stimulants are needed for a healthy +animal. If the foliage of the hemlock were constantly accessible to +them, there would be no possible objection to their eating it, since +their instincts, in that case, would teach them whether, and in what +quantities, to devour it; but when entirely confined to dry feed for a +protracted period, sheep will consume injurious and even poisonous +succulents, and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful quantities. As a +mere _laxative_, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial; +though, in this point of view, a day's run at grass, in a thaw, or a +feed of roots, would produce the same result. In a climate where grass +is procurable most of the time, browse for medicinal purposes is +entirely unnecessary. + +Sheep undoubtedly require _salt_ in winter. Some salt their hay when it +is stored in the barn or stack. This is objectionable, since the +appetite of the sheep is much the safest guide in the premises. It may +be left accessible to them in the salt-box, as in summer; or an +occasional feed of grined hay or straw may be given them in warm, +thawing weather, when their appetite is poor. This last is an excellent +plan, and serves a double purpose. With a wisp of straw, sprinkle a thin +layer of straw with brine, then another layer of straw, and another +sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until the next day, for the brine to +be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to all the grazing animals on +the farm which need salting. + +_Water_ is indispensable, unless sheep have access to succulent food, or +clean snow. Constant access to a brook or spring is best; but, in +default of this, they should be watered at least _once a day_ in some +other way. + +FEEDING WITH OTHER STOCK. Sheep should not run, or be fed, _in yards_, +with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often mortally; and colts tease +and frequently injure them. It is often said that "colts will pick up +what sheep leave." But well-managed sheep rarely leave any thing; and, +if they chance so to do, it is better to rake it up and throw it into +the colts' yard, than to feed them together. If sheep are not required +to eat their food pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large +quantities. If, however, they are over-fed with either hay or grain, it +is not proper to compel them, by starvation, to come back and eat it. +This they will not do, unless sorely pinched. Clean out the troughs, or +rake up the hay, and the next time feed less. + +DIVISION OF FLOCKS. If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during +winter, according to the northern custom, it is necessary to divide them +into flocks of about one hundred each, consisting of sheep of about the +same size and strength; otherwise, the stronger rob the weaker, and the +latter rapidly decline. This is not so important where the sheep roam at +large; but, even in that case, some division and classification are +best. It is best, indeed, even in summer. The poorer and feebler can by +this means receive better pasture, or a little more grain and better +shelter in winter. + +By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and wethers, +are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter; and it is best to keep +yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, +and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but +which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding ewes. + +Old and feeble or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc., should be +placed by themselves, even if the number be small, as they require +better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. Unless the sheep are of +a peculiarly valuable variety, however, it is better to sell them off in +the fall at any price, or to give them to some poor neighbor who has +time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock. + +REGULARITY IN FEEDING. If any one principle in sheep husbandry deserves +careful attention more than others, it is, that _the utmost regularity +must be preserved in feeding_. + +First, there should be regularity as to _the times_ of feeding. However +abundantly provided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour +and sometimes at another--sometimes three times a day, and sometimes +twice--some days grain, and some days none--they cannot be made to +thrive. They will do far better on inferior keep, if fed with strict +regularity. In a climate where they require hay three times a day, the +best times for feeding are about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an +hour before dark at night. Unlike cattle and horses, sheep do not feed +well in the dark; and, therefore, they should have time to consume their +food before night sets in. Noon is the common time for feeding grain or +roots, and is the best time, if but two fodderings of hay are given. If +the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a matter of much +consequence with which feeding grain is given, only that the practice be +uniform. + +Secondly, it is highly essential that there should be regularity in _the +amount_ fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon +the weather; the keener the cold, the more the sheep will eat. In the +South, much depends upon the amount of grass obtained. In many places, a +light, daily foddering supplies; in others, a light foddering placed in +the depository racks once in two days, answers the purpose. In the +steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns to +determine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering +time. And this amount should, as near as may be, be regularly fed. In +feeding grain or roots, there is no difficulty in preserving entire +regularity; and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. Of the +latter, a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself; of the former, it +will. Even if it be not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, it will +expect a like amount, however over-plenteous, at the next feeding; +failing to receive which, it will pine for it, and manifest uneasiness. +The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of any animal +is bad; and the sheep suffers more from it than any other animal. It is +much better that the flock receive no grain at all, than that they +receive it without regard to regularity in the amount. The shepherd +should _measure_ out the grain to the sheep in all instances, instead of +_guessing_ it out, and measure it to each separate flock. + +EFFECT OF FOOD. Well-fed sheep, as has been previously remarked, produce +more wool than poorly fed ones. No doctrine is more clearly recognized +in agricultural chemistry than that animal tissues derive their chemical +components from the same components existing in their food. Various +analyses show that the chemical composition of wool, hair, hoofs, nails, +horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, nerves, etc., are +nearly identical. + +The organic part of wool, according to standard authorities, consists of +carbon, 50.65; hydrogen, 7.03; nitrogen, 17.71; oxygen and sulphur, +24.61. The inorganic constituents are small. When burned, it leaves but +a trifling per cent. of ash. + +The large quantity of nitrogen contained in wool shows that its +production is increased by highly azotized food; and from various +experiments made, a striking correspondence has been found to exist +between the amount of wool and the amount of nitrogen in food. _Pease_ +rank first in increasing the wool, and very high in the average +comparative increase which they produce in all the tissues. + +The increase of fat and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of +the food. It is not very common, in the North, for wool-growers to +fatten their wethers for market by extra winter feeding. Some give them +a little more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off, +and then salt them when they have obtained their maximum fatness the +succeeding fall. + +Stall-feeding is lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty animal. The perfection +of form and health, and the uniform good condition which characterizes +the thrifty one, indicate, too plainly to be misunderstood, those which +will best repay the care of their owner. The selection of any +indifferent animal for stall-fattening will inevitably be attended with +loss. Such ought to be got rid of, when first brought from the pasture, +for the wool they will bring. + +When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shelters, +and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice +a day in troughs--or meal once and chopped roots once. The equivalent of +from half a pint to a pint of yellow corn meal per head each day is +about as much as ordinary stocks of Merino wethers will profitably +consume; though in selected flocks, consisting of large animals, this +amount is frequently exceeded. + + +YARDS. + +Experience has amply demonstrated that--in the climate of the Northern +and Eastern States, where no grass grows from four to four and a half +months in the winter, and where, therefore, all that can be obtained +from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, unnutritious herbage left in +the fall--it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where +the ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at +other times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry +hay, but not enough to sustain them; they fall away, and toward spring +they become weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. +Flocks of some size are here, of course, alluded to, and on properly +stocked farms. A few sheep would do better with a boundless range. + +Some let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, during a thaw; +others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the +spring. The former course is preferable where the sheep ordinarily get +nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and a single +day's grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one +succeeding dry feed. It is necessary, in the North, to keep sheep in the +yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they will +get off from their feed--particularly the breeding ewes--and get weak at +the most critical time for them in the year. + +Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, and, in the northern climate, kept +well littered with straw. The yarding system is not practised to any +great extent in the South; nor should it be, where sheep can get their +living from the fields. + + +FEEDING-RACKS. + +When the ground is frozen, and especially when covered with snow, the +sheep eats hay well on the ground; but when the land is soft, muddy, or +foul with manure, they will scarcely touch hay placed on it--or, if they +do, will tread much of it into the mud, in their restlessness while +feeding. It should then be fed in racks, which are more economical, even +in the first-named case; since, when the hay is fed on the ground, the +leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are almost +wholly lost. + +[Illustration: A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK.] + +To make an economical _box-rack_--the one in most general use in the +North--take six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one +for each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of pine or +hemlock, twelve or fifteen feet long, and twelve or fourteen inches +wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, +which are separated by similar boards at the ends, two and a half feet +long. Boards twelve inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space +of from nine to twelve inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, which +completes the rack. The edges of the opening should be made perfectly +smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool. The largest +dimensions given are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for +the Saxon; and still smaller are proper for the lambs. These should be +set on dry ground, or under the sheds; and they can be easily removed +wherever necessary. Unless over-fed, sheep waste very little hay in +them. + +Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the +form of the common horse-rack. This kind should always be accompanied by +a broad trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls +in feeding. These racks may be attached to the side of a building, or +used double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a large +sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding; and this amount of room, +at least, should be provided around the racks for every sheep. + +[Illustration: A HOLE-RACK.] + +With what is termed a _hole-rack_, sheep do not crowd and take advantage +of each other so much as with log-racks; but they are too heavy and +unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. This rack is +box-shaped, with the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, or, +more commonly, by nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the +sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. The holes +should be at least eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen +inches from centre to centre. + +In the South, racks are not so necessary for that constant use to which +they are put in colder sections, as they are for depositories of dry +food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. In soft, warm +weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is +to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder; though the little +they will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden +freeze, or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the +racks, and fill themselves with dry food. They anticipate the coming +storm by instinct, and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the +animal heat during the succeeding depression of temperature. They should +always have racks of dry fodder for resort in such emergencies. + +These racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from +rain, as otherwise the feed would often be spoiled before but a small +portion of it would be consumed. Hay or straw, saturated with water, or +soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of absolute +necessity. The common box-rack would answer the purpose very well by +placing on the top a triangular cover or roof, formed of a couple of +boards, one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hinges, so that +it could be lifted up like a lid; making the ends tight; drawing in the +lower edges of the sides, so that it should not be more than a foot wide +on the bottom; inserting a flow; and then mounting it on, and making it +fast to, two cross-sills, four or five inches square, to keep the floor +off from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily +overturned. The lower side-board should be narrow, on account of the +increased height given its upper edge by the sills. + +A rack of the same construction, with the sides like those described for +the hole-rack, would be still better, though somewhat more expensive; or +the sides might consist of rundles, the top being nailed down in either +case, and the fodder inserted by little doors in the ends. + +[Illustration: THE HOPPER-RACK.] + +What is termed the _hopper-rack_, serving both for a rack and a +feeding-trough, is a favorite with many sheep-owners. The accompanying +cut represents a section of such a rack. A piece of durable wood, about +four and a half feet long, six or eight inches deep, and four inches +thick, having two notches, _a a_, cut into it, and two troughs, made of +inch boards, _b b b b_, placed in these notches, and nailed fast, +constitute the formation. If the rack is to be fourteen feet long, three +sills are required. The ends of the rack are made by nailing against the +side of the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have +the rack; and nails driven through these end-boards into the ends of the +side-boards, _f f_, secure them. The sides may be further strengthened +by pieces of board on the outside of them, fitted into the trough. A +roof may be put over all, if desired, by means of which the fodder is +kept entirely from the weather, and no seeds or chaff can get into the +wool. + + +TROUGHS. + +Threshed grain, chopped roots, etc., when fed to sheep, should be placed +in troughs. With either of the racks which have been described, except +the last, a separate trough would be required. The most economical are +made of two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve inches wide. +Nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other, fastening both +into a two or three-inch plank, fifteen inches long, and a foot wide, +notched in its upper edge in the form required. In snowy sections they +are turned over after feeding, and when falls of snow are anticipated +one end is laid on the yard-fence. + +[Illustration: AN ECONOMICAL SHEEP-TROUGH.] + +Various contrivances have been brought to notice for keeping grain where +sheep can feed on it at will, a description of which is omitted, since +it is not thought best, by the most successful stock-raisers, in feeding +or fattening any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will, stated feeds +being preferred by them; and the same is true of fodder. If this system +is departed from in using depository racks, as recommended, it is +because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A +Merino store-sheep, allowed as much grain as it chose to consume, would +be likely to inflict injury on itself; and grain so fed would, generally +speaking, be productive of more damage than benefit. + + +BARNS AND SHEDS. + +Shelters, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable +sheep-raising; and in every latitude north of the Gulf of Mexico, they +would probably be found advantageous. An animal eats much less when thus +protected; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, and his manure +is richer and more abundant. The feeding may be done in the open yard in +clear weather, and under cover in severe storms: for, even in the +vigorous climate of the North, none but the breeders of Saxons make a +regular practice of feeding under cover. + +[Illustration: SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS.] + +Humanity and economy alike dictate that, in the North, sheep should be +provided with shelters under which to lie nights, and to which they can +resort at will. It is not an uncommon circumstance in New York and New +England for snow to fall to the depth of from twenty to thirty inches +within twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and then to be succeeded by a +strong and intensely cold west or northwest wind of several days +continuance, which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling +huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, etc. + +A flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning their +backs to the storm, constantly stepping, and thus treading down the snow +as it rises about them. Strong, close-coated sheep do not seem to suffer +as much from the cold, for a period, as would be expected. It is, +however, almost impossible to feed them enough, or half enough, under +such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay--entirely +impossible, indeed, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an instant +by the wind; and, even if racks are used, the sheep, leaving their +huddle, where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting snow in +their wool, soon get chilled, and are disposed to return to their +huddle. Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is +lowered, and, at the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones +sink down hopelessly, the yearlings, and those somewhat old, receive a +shock from which nothing but the most careful nursing will enable them +to rally, and even the strongest suffer an injurious loss in condition. + +Few persons, therefore, who own as many as forty or fifty sheep, attempt +to get along without some kind of shelters, which are variously +constructed, to suit their tastes or circumstances. A sheep-barn, built +upon a side-hill, will afford two floors: one underneath, surrounded by +three sides of wall, should open to the south, with sliding or swinging +doors to guard against storms; and another may be provided above, if the +floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off the urine; +and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds +overhead. They may also be constructed with twelve or fifteen-feet posts +on level ground, allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the +fodder stored above. + +In all cases, however, _thorough ventilation should be provided_; for of +the two evils, of exposure to cold or of too great privation of air, the +former is to be preferred. Sheep cannot long endure close confinement +without injury. In all ordinary weather, a shed, closely boarded on +three sides, with a light roof, is sufficient protection; especially if +the open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a +well-inclosed yard. If the floors above are used for storage, they +should be made tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the +fleece. The sheds attached to the barn are not usually framed or silled, +but are supported by some posts of durable timber set in the ground. The +roofs are formed of boards battened with slats. The barn has generally +no partitions within, and is entirely filled with hay. + +There are many situations in which open sheds are very liable to have +snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all +severe gales to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large +drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and +are very inconvenient, particularly when they thaw. For these reasons, +many prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a +wide doorway for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for the +necessary ventilation. They are convenient for yarding sheep, and the +various processes for which this is required; as for shearing, marking, +sorting, etc., and especially so for lambing-places, or the confinement +of newly-shorn sheep in cold storms. They should have so much space +that, in addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily +through the middle when required. + +The facts must not be overlooked--as bearing upon the question of +shelter, even in the warmer regions of the country--that cold rains, or +rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing +weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even +snow-storms; and that, consequently, sheep must be adequately guarded +against them. + +[Illustration: A SHED OF RAILS.] + +SHEDS. The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles or +rails, the upper end resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by +crotched posts set in the ground. It may be rendered rain-proof by +pea-vines, straw, or pine boughs. In a region where timber is very +cheap, planks or boards, of a sufficient thickness not to spring +downward, and thus open the roof, battened with slats, may take the +place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more +durable roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a +couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed +will shelter more sheep. + +These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns--"hay-barracks"--or +they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle. In the +latter case, the yard should be square, on account of the divergence in +the lower ends of the boards or poles, which a round form would render +necessary. + +Sheds of this description are frequently made between two stacks. The +end of the horizontal supporting-pole is placed on the stack-pens when +the stacks are built, and the middle is propped by crotched posts. The +supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two +hay-barracks; or two such sheds, at angles with each other, might form +wings to this structure. + +On all large sheep-farms, convenience requires that there be one barn of +considerable size, to contain the shearing-floor, and the necessary +conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, etc. This should also, for +the sake of economy, be a hay-barn, where hay is used. It may be +constructed in the corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can +be fed from it, without racking flocks of improper size. At this barn it +would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all +the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number does not exceed four +hundred. The shepherd would thus be saved much travel at all times, and +particularly at the lambing-time, and each flock would be under his +almost constant supervision. + +The size of this barn is a question to be determined entirely by the +climate. For large flocks of sheep, the storage of some hay or other +fodder for winter is an indispensable precautionary measure, at least in +any part of the United States; and, other things being equal, the +farther north, or the more elevated the land, the greater would be the +amount necessary to be stored. + +HAY-HOLDER. Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper door of +a barn into the sheep-yard--as it always must necessarily be in any mere +hay-barn--or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep +immediately rush on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding +forkfuls fall on their backs, filling their wool with dust, seed, and +chaff. This is obviated by hay-holders--yards ten feet square--either +portable, by being made of posts and boards, or simply a pen of rails, +placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each stack or +barrack. The hay is pitched into this holder in fair weather, enough for +a day's foddering at a time, and is taken from it by the fork and placed +in the racks. + +The poles or rails for stack-pens or hay-holders should be so small as +to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads in them after +hay. A sheep will often insert his head where the opening is wide enough +for that purpose, shove it along, or get crowded, to where the opening +is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until +observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as often happens, it is +thus caught when its foreparts are elevated by climbing up the side of +the pen, it will continue to lose its footing in its struggles, and will +soon choke to death. + + +TAGGING. + +Tagging, or clatting, is the removal from the sheep of such wool as is +liable to get fouled when the animal is turned on to the fresh pastures. +If sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually +purge, more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The wool +around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into +hard pellets, if the purging ceases. Whether this take place or not, the +adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of +washing; and it forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and +straining the shears to cut through it, when in a dry state, and it is +often impracticable so to do. Besides, it is difficult to force the +shears between it and the skin, without frequently and severely +wounding the latter. Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under +this mass of filth prior to shearing; and the ensuing swarm of maggots, +unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a +miserable death. + +Before the animals are let out to grass, each one should have the wool +sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs; it +should likewise be sheared from off the entire bag of the ewe, that the +newly-dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, +and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram as is usually +kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration +sometimes ensue from the constant maceration of the urine. + +An assistant should catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. +The latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off +closely and smoothly, or the object is but half accomplished, and the +sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance when the +remainder of their fleeces is taken off; while, on the other hand, it is +not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is +peculiarly so to cut that or the bag of a ewe when near lambing. The +wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the expenses of the +operation. It answers well for stockings and other domestic purposes, or +it will sell for nearly half the price of fleece-wool. + +Care should be exercised at all times in handling sheep, especially ewes +heavy with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about +and handle them roughly; for, even if abortion, the worst consequence of +such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, +rendering it difficult to catch them or render them assistance at the +lambing period, and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes, in +which it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time, without +having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, etc. If a +sheep is suddenly caught by the wool on her running, or is lifted by the +wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the +points where it is thus seized; and, if killed a day or two afterward, +blood will be found settled about those parts. + +When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just +large enough to hold them without their being crowded, so that they +shall have no chance to run and dash about. The catcher should stop them +by seizing them by the hind-leg just above the hock, or by clapping one +hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not +waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw its +right arm over and about immediately back of the shoulders, place his +hand on the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. If the sheep is +very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under +the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. He +should then set it carefully on its rump upon the tagging-table, which +should be eighteen or twenty inches high, support its back with his +legs, and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed +his duty. Two men should not be allowed to lift the same sheep together, +as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good +shearer and assistant will tag two hundred sheep per day. + +When sheep receive green feed all the year round--as they do in many +parts of the South--and no purging ensues from eating the +newly-starting grasses in the spring, tagging is unnecessary. + + +WASHING. + +Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, on account of its +tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which this animal +is particularly subject; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the +wool is always rendered more salable; and if the operation is carefully +done, it need not be attended with injury. + +Mr. Randall, the extensive sheep-breeder of Texas, states that he does +not wash his sheep at all, for what he deems good reasons. About the +middle of April, or at the time when one-half of the ewes have young +lambs at their sides, and the balance about to drop, would be the only +time in that region when he could wash them. At this period he would not +race or worry his ewes at all, on any account; as they should be +troubled as little as possible, and no advantage to the fleece from +washing could compensate for the injury to the animal. In his high +mountain-region, lambing-time could not prudently come before the latter +part of March or April--the very period when washing and shearing must +be commenced--since in February, and even up to the fifteenth or +twentieth of March, there is much bad weather, and a single cold, rainy +or sleety norther would carry off one-half of the lambs dropped during +its continuance. + +In most of that portion of the United States lying north of forty +degrees, the washing is performed from the middle of May till the first +of June, according to the season and climate. When the streams are hard, +which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it is better to +attend to it immediately after an abundant rain, which proportionately +lessens the lime derived from the springs. The climate of the Southern +States would admit of an earlier time. The rule should be to wait until +the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold +rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be expected. + +The practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their sheep to +the watering-ground early in the morning, on a warm day, leaving the +lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a +temporary enclosure, from which they are taken, and, if not too heavy, +carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. +They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, +after which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as +possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the +wool frequently staggers and throws them down. + +By the best flock-masters, sheep are usually washed in vats. A small +stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct, formed +by nailing boards together, and carried till a sufficient fall is +obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The +body of water, to do the work fast and well, should be some twenty-four +inches wide, and five or six deep; and the swifter the current the +better. The vat should be some three and a half feet deep, and large +enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the vat, from +the gate of which a platform extends to and incloses the vat on three +sides. This keeps the washer from standing in the water, and makes it +much easier to lift the sheep in and out. The yard is built opposite the +corners of two fields--to take advantage of the angle of one of them to +drive the sheep more readily into the yard, which should be large enough +to contain the entire flock, if it does not exceed two hundred; and the +bottom of it, as well as the smaller yard, unless well sodded over, +should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid becoming muddy. If the +same establishment is used by a number of flock-masters, gravelling will +always be necessary. + +[Illustration: WASHING APPARATUS.] + +As soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard, the lambs are all +immediately caught out from among them, and set over the fence into the +yard to the left, to prevent their being trampled down, as often +happens, by the old sheep, or straying off, if let loose. As many sheep +are then driven out of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the +right, as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to +the vat, to open and shut it, or the gate is drawn together with a chain +and weight, and two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head +of "tagging," commence placing them in the water for the preparatory +process of "wetting." As soon as the water strikes through the wool, +which occupies but an instant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose. +Where there are conveniences for so doing, this process may be more +readily performed by driving them through a stream deep enough to compel +the sheep to swim; but _swimming_ the compact-fleeced, fine-woolled +sheep for any length of time--as is practised with the long-wools in +England--will not properly cleanse the wool for steaming. The vat +should, of course, be in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The +whole flock should thus be passed over, and again driven round through +the field into the middle yard, where they should stand for about an +hour before washing commences. + +There is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil, which acts upon +the dirt independent of the favorable effect which would result from +thus soaking it with water alone for some time. If washed soon after a +good shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with; and it is not, +perhaps, absolutely necessary in any case. If the water is warm enough +to allow the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period, they may be +got clean by washing without any previous wetting; though the snowy +whiteness of fleece, which has such an influence on the purchaser, is +not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way. But little +time is saved by dispensing with "wetting," as it takes proportionably +longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept so long +in the water at once. + +When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are plunged in +the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are washed. This +should not, however, be done, unless the water is very warm, and the +washers are uncommonly quick and expert; and it is, upon the whole, +rather an objectionable practice, since few animals suffer so much from +the effects of a chill as the sheep; and, if they have been previously +wetted, it is wholly unnecessary. When the sheep are in the water, the +two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the +dirtier parts--the breech, belly, etc.--and they continue to turn the +sheep so that the descending current of water can strike into all parts +of the fleece. + +As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running +entirely clear, each washer seizes his own animal by the foreparts, +plunges it deep in the vats, and, taking advantage of the rebound, lifts +it out, setting it gently down on its breech upon the platform. He +then--if the sheep is old and weak, and it is well in all cases--presses +out some of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to a +process presently to be mentioned, lets it go. + +There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not covered with sod, +being gravelled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures, from washing to +shearing--not where they can come in contact with the ground, burnt +logs, and the like--and they should not be driven over dusty roads. The +washers should be strong and capable men, and, protected as they are +from any thing but the water running over the sides of the vat, they can +labor several hours without inconvenience. Two hundred sheep will employ +two experienced men not over half a day, and this rate is at times much +exceeded. + +It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but +even as an item of profit, to get the wool clean, and of a snowy +whiteness, in which condition it will always sell for more than enough +extra to offset the increased labor and the diminution in weight. The +average loss in American Saxon wool in scouring, after being washed on +the back, is estimated at thirty-six per cent.; and in American Merino +forty-two and a half per cent. + + +CUTTING THE HOOFS. + +As the hoofs of fine-woolled sheep grow rapidly, turning up in front and +under at the sides, they must be clipped as often as once a year, or +they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the animal, and +the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung +in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from being +readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural +movement of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the +hoof in its proper place. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and +renders the curing of it more difficult; and it is thought by many to be +the exciting cause of the disease. + +It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the +time of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs; +but the animal must afterward be turned upon its back, to pare off the +crust which projects and turns under. If the weather be dry, or the +sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, as at shearing, the hoofs +are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty; and this is +increased by the grit and dirt adhering to the sole, which immediately +takes the edge off from the knife. These periods are ill-chosen, and the +method slow and bungling. It is particularly improper to submit +heavily-pregnant ewes to all this unnecessary handling at the time of +tagging. + +When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its +rump upon the platform, the gate-keeper should advance with a pair of +toe-nippers, and the washer present each foot separately, pressing the +toes together so that they can be severed at a single clip. The +nippers--which can be made by any blacksmith who can temper an axe or a +chisel--must be made strong, with handles a little more than a foot +long, the rivet being of half-inch iron, and confined with a nut, so +that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting-edge should +descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from +being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are +severed by a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened +knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then +grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to +each foot, the side-crust, being free from dirt, and soaked almost as +soft as a cucumber, is reduced to the level of the sole. Two expert men +will go through these processes in a very short space of time. The +closer the paring and clipping the better, if blood be not drawn. An +occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall. + +[Illustration: TOE-NIPPERS.] + + +SHEARING. + +The time which should elapse between washing and shearing depends +altogether on circumstances. From four to six days of bright, warm +weather is sufficient; if cold, or rainy, or cloudy, more time must +intervene. Sometimes the wool remains in a condition unfit for shearing +for a fortnight after washing. The rule to be observed is, that the +water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool +should so far exude as to give the wool an unctious feeling, and a +lively, glittering look. If it is sheared when dry, like cotton, and +before the oil has exuded, it is very difficult to thrust the shears +through, the umer is checked, and the wool will not keep so well for +long periods. If it is left until it gets too oily, either the +manufacturer is cheated, or, what more frequently happens, the owner +loses on the price. + +[Illustration: FLEECE.] + +Shearing, in this country, is always done on the threshing-floors of the +barns--sometimes upon low platforms, some eighteen or twenty inches +high, but more commonly on the floor itself. The place where the sheep +remain should be well littered down with straw, and fresh straw thrown +on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. No chaff or +other substance which will stick in the wool should be used for this +purpose. The shearing should not commence until the dew, if any, has +dried off from the sheep. All loose straws sticking to the wool should +be picked off, and whatever dung may adhere to any of the feet brushed +off. The floor or tables used should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, +so that they will not hold dirt, or catch the wool. They should all be +thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to the +process. If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging, or other +causes, they should first be caught out, to prevent them from +contaminating others. + +The manner of shearing varies with almost every district; and it is +difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical +instructions, which would guide an entire novice in skilfully shearing +a sheep. Practice is requisite. The following directions are as plain, +perhaps, as can be made: + +The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to +him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture with his right knee +on a cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left thigh. +He grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow, resting +his thumb along the blades, which gives him better command of the +points. He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, +proceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of +the ribs, the external sides of both sides to the edges of the flanks; +then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from the +breast, front, and both sides of the neck, but not yet the back of it, +and also the poll, or forepart, and top of the head. Then "the jacket is +opened" of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the shearer, +is changed by the animal's being turned flat upon its side, one knee of +the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the +fore-quarter of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then resumes +cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onward to the head. Thus one +side is complete. The sheep is then turned on the other side--in doing +which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn--and the +shearer proceeds as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take +the sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly +trim the legs, leaving not a solitary lock anywhere as a lodging-place +for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand +to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled +with the fleece-wool. In the use of the shears, the blades should be +laid as flat to the skin as possible, the points not lowered too much, +nor should more than from one to two inches be cut at a clip, and +frequently not so much, depending on the part, and the compactness of +the wool. + +The wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and +even. It may, indeed, be cut too close, so that the sheep can scarcely +avoid sun-scald; but this is very unusual. If the wool is left in +ridges, and uneven, it betrays a want of workmanship very distasteful to +the really good farmer. Great care should be taken not to cut the wool +twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do, since it is a +great damage to the wool. This results from cutting too far from the +points of the shears, and suffering them to get too elevated. In such +cases, every time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before, cut +off by the points, say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the +hide, is again severed. To keep the fleece entire, which is of great +importance to its good appearance when done up, and, therefore, to its +salableness, it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for +itself, so that it will not struggle violently. No man can hold it still +by main strength, and shear it well. The posture of the shearer should +be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that it +is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece; but it should not be +confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be continually +kicking and struggling. Clumsy, careless men, therefore, always complain +of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, may be +confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg +on which the shearer kneels; but the lazy or brutal shearer who suffers +his leg to rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which +the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even, +perhaps, to draw its breath. + +Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day; +but a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to +one-half of that number. It is the last process in the world which +should be hurried, as the shearer will, in that case, soon leave more +than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day's wages. Wool ought not +to be sheared, and must not be done up with any water in it. If wounds +are made, as sometimes happens with unskilful operators, a mixture of +tar and grease ought to be applied. + +Shearing lambs is, in the Northern climate, at least, an unprofitable +practice; since the lamb, at a year old, will give the same amount of +wool, and it is thus stripped of its natural protection from cold when +it is young and tender, for the mere pittance of the interest on a +pound, or a pound and a half of wool for six months, not more than two +or three cents, and this all consumed by the expense of shearing. Much +the same may be said of the custom, which obtains in some places, of +shearing from sheep twice a year. There may be a reason for it, where +they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear +every half year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder +by bushes, thorns, etc., if left for a long period; but when sheep are +inclosed, and treated as domestic animals, although there may be less +barbarity in shearing them in the fall also, than in the case of the +tender lambs, there is no ground for it on the score of utility; since +any gain accruing from it cannot pay the additional expense which it +occasions. + +COLD STORMS occurring soon after shearing sometimes destroy sheep, in +the northern portions of the country, especially the delicate Saxons; +forty or fifty of which have, at times, perished out of a single flock, +from one night's exposure. Sheep, in such cases, should be housed; or, +where this is impracticable, driven into dense forests. + +SUN-SCALD. When they are sheared close in very hot weather, have no +shade in their pastures, and especially where they are driven +immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over burning and dusty +roads, their backs are sometimes so scorched by the sun that their wool +comes off. If let alone, the matter is not a serious one; but the +application of refuse lard to the back will hasten the cure, and the +starting of the wool. + +TICKS. These vermin, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble the +sheep in winter, and should be kept entirely out of the flock. After +shearing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep, soon +drive off the tick, and it takes refuge in the wool of the lamb. Let a +fortnight elapse after shearing, to allow all to make this change of +residence. Then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong +enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure, which may be ascertained by +experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent +in stems, and the like, may be made to answer for a hundred lambs. + +This decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for the purpose, +which has an inclined shelf on one side, covered with a wooden grate. +One man holds the lamb by its hind legs, while another clasps the fore +legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the +liquid from entering them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. It +is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, and the +water squeezed out of its wool, when it is turned over and squeezed on +the other side. The grate conducts the fluid back into the box. If the +lambs are regularly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock. + + +MARKING OR BRANDING. + +The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or mistakes may occur. +Every sheep-owner should be provided with a marking instrument, which +will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a small +circle, an oval, a triangle, or a square, at a single stroke, and with +uniformity, on the sheep. It is customary to have the mark cut out of a +plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminating in wood; but one +made by cutting a type, or raised letter, or character, on the end of a +stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be better. If +the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a little too +deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the wood, as +it does from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and +spoil the appearance of the mark; and, if the pigment be applied hot, +the former will not get heated, like the latter, and increase the danger +of burning the hide. + +Various pigments are used for marking. Many boil tar until it assumes a +glazed, hard consistency when cold, and give it a brilliant, black color +by stirring in a little lampblack during the boiling. This is applied +when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a +bright, conspicuous mark all the year round. The manufacturer, however, +prefers the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter +is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. It should be boiled in +an iron vessel, with high sides, to prevent it from taking fire, on a +small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is to be used. When cool +enough, forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It +is then warmed from time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. +Paint, made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is +first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil, is also used. +The rump is a better place to mark than the side, since it is there +about as conspicuous under any circumstances, and more so when the sheep +are huddled in a pen, or running away from one. Besides, should any wool +be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on +the side. Ewes are commonly distinguished from wethers by marking them +on different sides of the rump. + +Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer; +but it consumes much less time to do it at a single job, after the +shearing is completed; and it is necessary to take the latter course if +a hot pigment is used. + +MAGGOTS. Rams with horns growing closely to their heads are very liable +to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on the +surrounding parts becomes broken by fighting; and these, unless removed, +soon destroy the animal. Boiled tar, or the marking substance first +described, is both remedy and preventive. If it is put under the horns +at the time of marking, no trouble will ever arise from this cause. + +Sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres +about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes +miserably. As a preventive, the dung should be removed; as a remedy, the +dung and maggots should be removed--the latter by touching them with a +little turpentine--and sulphur and grease afterward applied to the +excoriated surface. + +Maggot-flies sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of the long, +open-woolled English sheep, and the maggots, during the few days before +they assume the _pupa_ state, so tease and irritate the animal, that +fever and death ensue. Tar and turpentine, or butter and sulphur, +smeared over the parts, are admirable preventives. The Merino and Saxon +are exempt from these attacks. + +SHORTENING THE HORNS. A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so +presses in upon the side of the head or neck that it is necessary to +shave or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal +effects. The point of the horn of both ram and ewe both frequently turn +in so that they will grow into the flesh, and sometimes into the eye, +unless shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin +extremity of a horn; if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking-time +affords the best opportunity for attending to this operation. + + +SELECTION AND DIVISION. + +The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding all its +members falling below a certain standard of quality, and the points +which should be regarded in fixing that standard, have already been +brought to notice in connection with the principles of breeding. + +The time of shearing is by far the most favorable period for the +flock-master to make his selection. He should be present on the +shearing-floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually +taken off; since, if there are faults about it, he will then discover it +better than at any other time. A glance will likewise reveal to him +every defect in form, previously concealed, wholly, or in part, by the +wool, as soon as the newly-shorn sheep is permitted to stand up on its +feet. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently retained until she dies of +old age; a rather poor nurse or breeder is excluded for the slightest +fault, and so on. Whatever animals are to be excluded, may be marked on +the shoulder with Venetian red and hog's lard, conveniently applied with +a brush or cob. Such of the wethers as have attained their prime, and +those ewes that have passed it, should be provided with the best feed, +and fitted for the butcher. If they have been properly pushed on grass, +they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it; and, if +not intended for stall-feeding, the sooner they are then disposed of the +better. + +Those _divisions_, also, in large flocks, which utility demands, are +generally made at or soon after shearing. Not more than two hundred +sheep should be allowed to run together in the pastures; although the +number might, perhaps, be safely increased to three hundred, if the +range is extensive. + +Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off should be kept separate from the +nursing-ewes; and if the flock is large enough to require a third +division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year-old ewes and +wethers, and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better, in all cases, +to separate the rams from all the other sheep at the time of shearing, +and to inclose them in a field which is particularly well-fenced. If +they are put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome; and when cool +nights arrive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant +efforts to ride the wethers. + +The Merino ram, although a quiet animal compared with the common-woolled +one, will be tempted to jump, by poor fences, or fences half the time +down; and if he is once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome +as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or +poking is resorted to, either of which causes him to waste his strength, +besides being the occasion of frequent accidents. + + +THE CROOK. + +This convenient implement for catching sheep is of the form represented +in the cut accompanying, of three-eighths inch round iron, drawn smaller +toward the point, which is made safe by a knot. The other end is +furnished with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet long. + +[Illustration: SHEPHERD'S CROOK.] + +In using it, the hind leg is hooked in from behind the sheep, and it +fills up the narrow part beyond that point, while passing along it until +it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the hook, and when +secured, its foot easily slips through the loop. Some caution is +required in its use; for, should the animal give a sudden start forward +to get away, the moment it feels the crook, the leg will be drawn +forcibly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with such violence +against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, +and even occasion lameness for some days. On first embracing the leg, +the crook should be drawn quickly toward the shepherd, so as to bring +the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before the +sheep has time even to break off; and being secure, its struggles will +cease the moment the hand seizes the leg. + +No shepherd should be without this implement, as it saves much yarding +and running, and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or +suspicious appearance, and a seasonable application of remedy or +preventive, which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be +driven to a distant yard to effect the catching of a single sheep. + +Dexterity in its use is speedily acquired by any one; and if a flock are +properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught by it at +salting-time, or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom the +flock are familiar. It is, however, at the lambing-time, when sheep and +lambs require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more +particularly serviceable. For this purpose, at that time alone, it will +pay for itself ten times over in a single season, in saving time, to say +nothing of the advantage of the sheep. + + +DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. + +DRIVING. Mutton can be grown cheaper than any other kind of meat. It is +fast becoming better appreciated; and, strange as it may seem, good +mutton brings a higher price in our best markets than the same quality +does in England. Its substitution in a large measure for pork would +contribute materially to the health of the community. + +Winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable and +deserves greater attention, especially where manure is an object; and +the instances are few, indeed, where it is not. In England, it is +considered good policy to fatten sheep, if the increase of weight will +pay for the oil-cake or grain consumed; the manure being deemed a fair +equivalent for the other food--that is, as much straw and turnips as +they will eat. Lean sheep there usually command as high a price per +pound in the fall as fatted ones in the spring; while, in this country, +the latter usually bear a much higher price, which gives the feeder a +great advantage. + +The difference may be best illustrated by a simple calculation. Suppose +a wether of a good mutton breed, weighing eighty pounds in the fall, to +cost six cents per pound, amounting to four dollars and eighty cents, +and to require twenty pounds of hay per week, or its equivalent in other +food, and to gain a pound and a half each week; the gain in weight in +four months would be about twenty-five pounds, which, at six cents per +pound, would be one dollar and fifty cents, or less than ten dollars per +ton for the hay consumed; but if the same sheep could be bought in the +fall for three cents per pound, and sold in the spring for six cents, +the gain would amount to three dollars and ninety cents, or upwards of +twenty dollars per ton for the hay--the manure being the same in either +case. + +For fattening, it is well to purchase animals as large and thrifty, and +in as good condition as can be had at fair prices; and to feed +liberally, so as to secure the most rapid increase that can be had +without waste of food. The fattening of sheep by the aid of oil-cake, or +grain purchased for the purpose, may often be made a cheaper mode of +obtaining manure than by the purchase of artificial fertilizers, as +guano, super-phosphate of lime, and the like; and it is altogether +preferable. It is practised extensively and advantageously abroad, and +deserves at least a fair trial among us. + +[Illustration: THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK.] + +Sheep which are to be driven to market should not begin their journey +either when too full or too hungry; in the former state, they are apt to +purge while on the road, and in the latter, they will lose strength at +once. The sheep selected for market should be those in the best +condition at the time; and to ascertain this, it is necessary to examine +the whole lot, and separate the fattest from the rest, which is best +done at about mid-day, before the sheep feed again in the afternoon. The +selected ones are placed in a field by themselves, where they remain +until the time for starting. If there be rough pasture to give them, +they should be allowed to use it, in order to rid themselves of some of +the food which might be productive of inconvenience on the journey. If +there is no such pasture, a few cut turnips will answer. All their +hoofs should be carefully examined, and every unnecessary appendage +removed, though the firm portion of the horn should not be touched. +Every clotted piece of wool should also be removed with the shears, and +the animals properly marked. + +Being thus prepared, they should have feed early in the morning, and be +started, in the cold season, about mid-day. Let them walk quietly away; +and as the road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to +prevent which, the drover should go before them, and let his dog bring +up the rear. In a short time they will assume the proper speed--about +one mile an hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, they will +proceed nibbling their way onward at the grass along both sides; but if +it is a narrow turnpike, the drover will require all his attention in +meeting and being passed by various vehicles, to avoid injury to his +charge. In this part of their business, drovers generally make too much +ado; and the consequence is, that the sheep are driven more from side to +side of the road than is requisite. Upon meeting a carriage, it would be +much better for the sheep, were the drover to go forward, instead of +sending his dog, and point off with his stick the leading sheep to the +nearest side of the road; and the rest will follow, as a matter of +course, while the dog walks behind the flock and brings up the +stragglers. Open gates to fields are sources of great annoyance to +drovers, the stock invariably making an endeavor to go through them. On +observing an open gate ahead, the drover should send his dog behind him +over the fence, to be ready to meet the sheep at the gate. When the +sheep incline to rest, they should be allowed to lie down. + +When the animals are lodged for the night, a few turnips or a little hay +should be furnished to them, if the road-sides are bare. If these are +placed near the gate of the field which they occupy, they will be ready +to take the road again in the morning. As a precaution against worrying +dogs, the drover should go frequently through the flock with a light, +retire to rest late, and rise up early in the morning. These precautions +are necessary; since, when sheep have once been disturbed by dogs, they +will not settle again upon the road. The first day's journey should be a +short one, not exceeding four or five miles. The whole journey should be +so marked out as that, allowance being made for unforeseen delays, the +animals may have one day's rest near the market. + +POINTS OF FAT SHEEP. The formation of fat, in a sheep destined to be +fattened, commences in the inside, the web of fat which envelopes the +intestines being first formed, and a little deposited around the +kidneys. After that, fat is seen on the outside; and first upon the end +of the rump at the tail-head, continuing to move on along the back, on +both sides of the spine, or back-bone, to the bend of the ribs to the +neck. Then it is deposited between the muscles, parallel with the +cellular tissue. Meanwhile, it is covering the lower round of the ribs +descending to the flanks, until the two sides meet under the belly, +whence it proceeds to the brisket, or breast, in front, and the sham or +cod behind, filling up the inside of the arm-pits and thighs. While all +these depositions are proceeding on the outside, the progress in the +inside is not checked, but rather increased, by the fattening +disposition encouraged by the acquired condition; and, hence, +simultaneously, the kidneys become entirely covered, and the space +between the intestines and the lumbar region, or loin, gradually filled +up by the web and kidney fat. + +By this time the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle are +receiving their share; and when fat is deposited there in quantity, it +gives to the meat the term _marbled_. These inter-fibrous spaces are the +last to receive a deposition of fat; but after this has begun, every +other part at the same time receives its due share, the back and kidneys +securing the most, so much so that the former literally becomes +_nicked_, as it is termed--that is, the fat is felt through the skin to +be divided into two portions, from the tail-head along the back to the +top of the shoulder; and the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of +the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck toward the +breasts full, and the hollows between the breast-bone and the inside of +the fore legs, and between the cod and the inside of the hind thighs, +filled up. When all this has been accomplished, the sheep is said to be +_fat_, or _ripe_. + +When the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat, it is in the +most valuable state as mutton. Few sheep, however, lay on fat entirely +over their body; one laying the largest proportion on the rump, another +on the back; one on the parts adjoining the fore-quarter, another on +those of the hind-quarter; and one more on the inside, and another more +on the outside. Taking so many parts, and combining any two or more of +them together, a considerable variety of condition will be found in any +lot of fat sheep, while any one is as ripe in its way as any other. + +With these data for guides, the state of a sheep in its progress toward +ripeness may be readily detected by handling. A fat sheep, however, is +easily known by the eye, from the fullness exhibited by all the +external parts of the particular animal. It may exhibit want in some +parts when compared with others; but those parts, it may easily be seen, +would never become so ripe as the others; and this arises from some +constitutional defect in the animal itself; since, if this were so, +there is no reason why all the parts should not be alike ripe. The state +of a sheep that is obviously not ripe cannot altogether be ascertained +by the eye. It must be handled, or subjected to the scrutiny of the +hand. Even in so palpable an act as handling, discretion is requisite. A +full-looking sheep needs hardly to be handled on the rump; for he would +not seem so full, unless fat had first been deposited there. A +thin-looking sheep, on the other hand, should be handled on the rump; +and if there be no fat there, it is useless to handle the rest of the +body, for certainly there will not be so much as to deserve the name of +fat. Between these two extremes of condition, every variety exists; and +on that account examination by the hand is the rule, and by the eye +alone the exception. The hand is, however, much assisted by the eye, +whose acuteness detects deficiencies and redundancies at once. + +In handling sheep, the points of the fingers are chiefly employed; and +the accurate knowledge conveyed by them, through practice, of the exact +state of the condition, is truly surprising, and establishes a +conviction in the mind that some intimate relation exists between the +external and internal state of an animal. Hence originates this +practical maxim in judging stock of all kinds--that no animal will +appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat had previously been acquired +in the inside as constitutional habit will allow. + +The application of this rule is easy. When the rump is found nicked, on +handling, fat is to be found on the back; when the back is found nicked, +fat is to be expected on the top of the shoulder and over the ribs; and +when the top of the shoulder proves to be nicked, fat may be anticipated +on the under side of the belly, To ascertain its existence below, the +animal must be _turned up_, as it is termed; that is, the sheep is set +upon his rump, with his back down, and his hind feet pointing upward and +outward. In this position, it can be seen whether the breast and thighs +are filled up. Still, all these alone would not disclose the state of +the inside of the sheep, which should, moreover, be looked for in the +thickness of the flank; in the fullness of the breast, that is, the +space in front from shoulder to shoulder toward the neck; in the +stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail; and in the breadth of +the back of the neck. All these latter parts, especially with the +fullness of the inside of the thighs, indicate a fullness of fat in the +inside; that is, largeness of the mass of fat on the kidneys, thickness +of net, and thickness of layers between the abdominal muscles. Hence, +the whole object of feeding sheep on turnips and the like seems to be to +lay fat upon all the bundles of fleshy fibres, called muscles, that are +capable of acquiring that substance; for, as to bone and muscle, these +increase in weight and extent independently of fat, and fat only +increases in their magnitude. + +SLAUGHTERING. Sheep are easily slaughtered, and the operation is +unattended with cruelty. They require some preparation before being +deprived of life, which consists in food being withheld from them for +not less than twenty-four hours, according to the season. The reason for +fasting sheep before slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and +intestines to empty themselves entirely of food, as it is found that, +when an animal is killed with a full stomach, the meat is more liable to +putrefy, and it not so well flavored; and, as ruminating animals always +retain a large quantity of food in their intestines, it is reasonable +that they should fast somewhat longer to get rid of it, than animals +with single stomachs. + +Sheep are placed on their side--sometimes upon a stool, called a +killing-stool--to be slaughtered, and, requiring no fastening with +cords, are deprived of life by the use of a straight knife through the +neck, between its bone and the windpipe, severing the carotid artery and +the jugular vein of both sides, from which the blood flows freely out, +and the animal soon dies. + +[Illustration: DROVER'S OR BUTCHER'S DOG.] + +The skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken off, leaving that +on the legs and head, which are covered with hair, the legs being +disjointed by the knee. The entrails are removed by an incision along +the belly, after the carcass has been hung up by the tendons of the +boughs. The net is carefully separated from the viscera, and rolled up +by itself; but the kidney fat is not then extracted. The intestines are +placed on the inner side of the skin until divided into the _pluck_, +containing the heart, lungs, and liver; the bag, containing the stomach; +and the _puddings_, consisting of the viscera, or guts. The latter are +usually thrown away; though the Scotch, however, clean them and work +them up into their favorite _haggis_. The skin is hung over a rope or +pole under cover, with the skin-side uppermost, to dry in an airy place. + +The carcass should hang twenty-four hours in a clean, cool, airy, dry +apartment before it is cut down. It should be cool and dry; for, if +warm, the meat will not become firm; and, if damp, a clamminess will +cover it, and it will never feel dry, and present a fresh, clean +appearance. The carcass is divided in two, by being sawed right down the +back-bone. The kidney-fat is then taken out, being only attached to the +peritoneum by the cellular membrane, and the kidney is extracted from +the _suet_, the name given to sheep-tallow in an independent state. + +CUTTING UP. Of the two modes of cutting up a carcass of mutton, the +English and the Scotch--of the former, the practice in London being +taken as the standard, and of the latter, that of Edinburgh, since more +care is exercised in this respect in these two cities--the English is, +perhaps, preferable; although the Scotch accomplish the task in a +cleanly and workmanlike manner. + +The _jigot_ is the most handsome and valuable part of the carcass, +bringing the highest price, and is either a roasting or a boiling piece. +A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot, or South-Down mutton makes a beautiful +boiled leg of mutton, which is prized the more the fatter it is--this +part of the carcass being never overloaded with fat. The _loin_ is +almost always roasted, the flap of the flank being skewered up, and it +is a juicy piece. Many consider this piece of Leicester mutton, roasted, +as too rich; and when warm this is, probably, the case; but a cold +roast loin is an excellent summer dish. The _back-rib_ is divided into +two, and used for very different purposes. The forepart--the neck--is +boiled, and makes sweet barley-broth; and the meat, when boiled, or +rather the whole simmered for a considerable time beside the fire, eats +tenderly. The back-ribs make an excellent roast; indeed, there is not a +sweeter or more varied one in the whole carcass, having both ribs and +shoulder. The shoulder-blade eats best cold, and the ribs, warm. The +ribs make excellent chops, the Leicester and South-Down affording the +best. The _breast_ is mostly a roasting-piece, consisting of rib and +shoulder, and is particularly good when cold. When the piece is large, +as of the South-Down or Cheviot, the gristly parts of the ribs may be +divided from the true ribs, and helped separately. This piece also boils +well; or, when corned for eight days, and served with onion sauce, with +mashed turnips in it, there are few more savory dishes at a farmer's +table. The _shoulder_ is separated before being dressed, and makes an +excellent roast for family use, being eaten warm or cold, or carved and +dressed as the breast mentioned above. The shoulder is best from a large +carcass of South-Down, Cheviot, or Leicester. The _neck-piece_ is partly +laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the forepart being fitted for +boiling and making into broth, and the best part for roasting or +broiling into chops. On this account, it is a good family piece, and +generally preferred to any part of the hind-quarter. Heavy sheep, such +as the Leicester, South-Down, and Cheviot, supply the most thrifty +neck-piece. + +RELATIVE QUALITIES. The different sorts of mutton in common use differ +as well in quality as in quantity. The flesh of the _Leicester_ is +large, though not coarse-grained, of a lively red color, and the +cellular tissue between the fibres contains a considerable quantity of +fat. When cooked, it is tender and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and +having a sweet, rich taste; but the fat is rather too much and too rich +for some people's tastes, and can be put aside. It must be allowed that +the lean of fat meat is far better than lean meat that has never been +fat. _Cheviot_ mutton is smaller in the grain, not so bright of color, +with less fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet; but the flavor is +higher, and the fat not so luscious. The mutton of _South-Downs_ is of +medium fineness in grain, color pleasant red, fat well intermixed with +the meat, juicy, and tenderer than Cheviot. The mutton of rams of any +breed is always hard, of disagreeable flavor, and, in autumn, not +eatable; that of old ewes is dry, hard, and tasteless; of young ones, +well enough flavored, but still rather dry; while wether-mutton is the +meat in perfection, according to its kind. + +The want of relish, perhaps the distaste, for mutton has served as an +obstacle to the extension of sheep husbandry in the United States. The +common mistake in the management of mutton among us is, that it is +eaten, as a general thing, at exactly the wrong time after it is killed. +It should be eaten immediately after being killed, and, if possible, +before the meat has time to get cold; or, if not, then it should be kept +a week or more--in the ice-house, if the weather require--until the time +is just at hand when the fibre passes the state of toughness which it +takes on at first, and reaches that incipient or preliminary point in +its process toward putrefaction when the fibres begin to give way, and +the meat becomes tender. + +An opinion likewise generally prevails that mutton does not attain +perfection in juiciness and flavor much under five years. + +If this be so, that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable which takes +five years to attain its full state; and there is no breed of sheep in +this country which requires five years to bring it to perfection. This +being the case, it must be folly to restrain sheep from coming to +perfection until they have reached that age. Lovers of five-year-old +mutton do not pretend that this course bestows profit on the farmer, but +only insist on its being best at that age. Were this the fact, one of +two absurd conditions must exist in this department of agriculture: +namely, the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot, or that should not be +allowed to, attain to perfection before it is five years old; either of +which conditions makes it obvious that mutton cannot be in its _best_ +state at five years. + +The truth is, the idea of mutton of this age being especially excellent, +is founded on a prejudice, arising, probably, from this circumstance: +before winter food was discovered, which could maintain the condition of +stock which had been acquired in summer, sheep lost much of their summer +condition in winter, and, of course, an oscillation of condition +occurred, year after year, until they attained the age of five years; +when their teeth beginning to fail, would cause them to lose their +condition the more rapidly. Hence, it was expedient to slaughter them at +not exceeding five years of age; and, no doubt, mutton would be +high-flavored at that age, that had been exclusively fed on natural +pasture and natural hay. Such treatment of sheep cannot, however, be +justified on the principles of modern practice; because both reason and +taste concur in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their +perfect state of growth and condition, not their largest and heaviest; +and as one breed attains its perfect state at an earlier age than +another, its mutton attains its best before another breed attains what +is its best state, although its sheep may be older; but taste alone +prefers one kind of mutton to another, even when both are in their best +state, from some peculiar property. The cry for five-year-old mutton is +thus based on very untenable grounds; the truth being that well-fed and +fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth in its +second year; and the farmer cannot afford to keep it longer, unless the +wool would pay for the keep, since we have not the epicures and men of +wealth who would pay the butcher the extra price, which he must have, to +enable him to pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his +sheep two or three years over. + +All writers on diet agree in describing mutton as the most valuable of +the articles of human food. Pork may be more stimulating, beef perhaps +more nutritious, when the digestive powers are strong; but, while there +is in mutton sufficient nutriment, there is also that degree of +consistency and readiness of assimilation which renders it most +congenial to the human stomach, most easy of digestion, and most +promotive of human health. Of it, almost alone, can it be said that it +is our food in sickness, as well as in health; its broth is the first +thing, generally, that an invalid is permitted to taste, the first thing +that he relishes, and is a natural preparation for his return to his +natural aliment. In the same circumstances, it appears that fresh +mutton, broiled or boiled, requires three hours for digestion; fresh +mutton, roasted, three and one-fourth hours; and mutton-suet, boiled, +four and one-half hours. + +Good _ham_ may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton, though the +leg is preferable; and for this purpose it is cut in the English +fashion. It should be rubbed all over with good salt, and a little +saltpetre, for ten minutes, and then laid in a dish and covered with a +cloth for eight or ten days. After that, it should be slightly rubbed +again, for about five minutes, and then hung up in a dry place, say the +roof of the kitchen, until used. Wether mutton is used for hams, because +it is fat, and it may be cured any time from November to May; but +ram-mutton makes the largest and highest-flavored ham, provided it be +cured in spring, because it is out of season in autumn. + +There is an infallible rule for ascertaining the _age_ of mutton by +certain marks on the carcass. Observe the color of the breast-bone, when +a sheep is dressed--that is, where the breast-bone is separated--which, +in a lamb, or before it is one year old, will be quite red; from one to +two years old, the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a +small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, +and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue red; at three +years old, a very small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the +four middle bones, and the others will be white; and at four years, all +the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly color. + +CONTRIBUTIONS TO MANUFACTURES. The products of sheep are not merely +useful to man; they provide his luxuries as well. The skin of sheep is +made into _leather_, and, when so manufactured with the fleece on, makes +comfortable mats for the doors of rooms, and rugs for carriages. For +this purpose, the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with +the longest and most beautiful fleece. _Tanned sheep-skin_ is used in +coarse book-binding. _White sheep-skin_, which is not tanned, but so +manufactured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by many classes of +workmen, and, in agriculture, as gloves in the harvest; and, when cut +into strips, as twine for sewing together the leather coverings and +stuffings of horse-collars. _Morocco leather_ is made of sheep-skins, as +well as of goat-skins, and the bright red color is given to it by +cochineal. _Russia leather_ is also made of sheep-skins, the peculiar +odor of which repels insects from its vicinity, and resists the mould +arising from damp, the odor being imparted to it in currying, by the +empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch-tree. Besides soft leather, +sheep-skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known by the +name of _parchment_; and, though the skins of all animals might be +converted into writing materials, only those of the sheep and the +she-goat are used for parchment. The finer quality of the substance, +called _vellum_, is made of the skins of kids and dead-born lambs; and +for its manufacture the town of Strasburgh has long been celebrated. + +Mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common _candles_, with a +proportion of ox-tallow. Minced suet, subjected to the action of +high-pressure steam in a digester, at two hundred and fifty or two +hundred and sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, becomes so hard as to be +sonorous when struck, whiter, and capable, when made into candles, of +giving very superior light. _Stearic candles_, the invention of the +celebrated Guy Lussac, are manufactured solely from mutton-suet. + +Besides the fat, the intestines of sheep are manufactured into various +articles of luxury and utility, which pass under the absurd name of +_catgut_. All the intestines of sheep are composed of four layers, as in +the horse and cattle. The outer, or _peritoneal_ one, is formed of that +membrane, by which every portion of the belly and its contents is +invested, and confined in its natural and proper situation. It is highly +smooth and polished, and secretes a watery fluid which contributes to +preserve that smoothness, and to prevent all friction and concussion +during the different motions of the animal. The second is the _muscular_ +coat, by means of which the contents of the intestines are gradually +propelled from the stomach to the rectum, thence to be expelled when all +the useful nutriment is extracted. The muscles, as in all the other +intestines, are disposed in two layers, the fibres of the outer coat +taking a longitudinal direction, and the inner layer being circular--an +arrangement different from that of the muscles of the [oe]sophagus, and +in both beautifully adapted to the respective functions of the tube. The +_submucous_ coat comes next. It is composed of numerous glands, +surrounded by cellular tissue, and by which the inner coat is +lubricated, so that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the +food. The _mucous_ coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal +cavity. In its healthy state, it is always covered with mucus; and when +the glands beneath are stimulated, as under the action of physic, the +quantity of mucus is increased; it becomes of a more watery character; +the contents of the intestines are softened and dissolved by it; and by +means of the increased action of the muscular coat, which, as well as +the mucous one, feels the stimulus of the physic, the faeces are +hurried on more rapidly and discharged. + +In the manufacture of some sorts of _cords_ from the intestines of +sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a +thread to sew intestines, and make the cords of rackets and battledores. +Future washings cleanse the guts, which are then twisted into +different-sized cords for various purposes; some of the best known of +which are whip-cords, hatter's cords for bow-strings, clock-maker's +cords, bands for spinning-wheels, now almost obsolete, and fiddle and +harp-strings. Of the last class, the cords manufactured in Italy are +superior in goodness and strength; and the reason assigned is, that the +sheep of that country are both smaller and leaner than the breeds most +in vogue in England and in this country. The difficulty in manufacturing +from other breeds of sheep lies, it seems, in making the treble strings +from the fine peritoneal coat, their chief fault being weakness; by +reason of which the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch +required for the higher notes in concert-pitch, maintaining, at the same +time, in their form and construction, that tenuity or smallness of +diameter which is required in order to produce a brilliant and clear +tone. + + + + +[Illustration] + +DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. + + +The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and +varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, insure +perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, unless +they are peculiarly exposed to disease. No country is better suited to +sheep than most of the Northern and some of the Southern portions of our +own. In Europe, and especially in England, where the system of +management is, necessarily, in the highest degree artificial, +consisting, frequently, in an early and continued forcing of the system, +folding on wet, ploughed ground, and the excessive use of that watery +food, the Swedish turnip, there are numerous and fatal diseases, a long +list of which invariably cumbers the pages of foreign writers on this +animal. + +The diseases incident to our flocks, on the contrary, may generally be +considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising +from the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely +asserted that, with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and +nutritious grasses; a clear, running stream; sufficient shade and +protection against severe storms; a constant supply of salt, tar, and +sulphur in summer; good hay, and sometimes roots, with ample shelters in +winter--young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or never +become diseased on American soil. + +The comparatively few diseases, which it may be necessary here to +mention, are arranged in alphabetical order--as in the author's "Cattle +and their Diseases"--for convenience of reference, and treated in the +simplest manner. Remedies of general application, to be administered +often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor +complicated; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly +purchased by their application. + +A sheep, which has been reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is +the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its +owner. The wool and felt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while +the carcass of other animals will be worthless, except for manure. The +loss of sheep, from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket +in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses +or cattle. Humanity, however, alike with interest, dictates the use of +such simple remedies, for the removal of suffering and disease, as may +be within reach. + + +ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. + +The stomach into which medicines are to be administered is the fourth, +or digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen, +or paunch, are but slightly acted upon, except by doses of very improper +magnitude. Medicine, to reach the fourth stomach, should be given in a +state as nearly approaching fluidity as may be. Even then it may be +given in such a manner as to defeat the object in view. + +If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily +and bodily, they will follow the caul at the base of the gullet with +considerable momentum, force asunder the pillars, and enter the rumen; +if they are drunk more slowly, or administered gently, they will trickle +down the throat, glide over these pillars, and pass on through the +maniplus to the true stomach. + + +BLEEDING. + +Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, rarely +extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is +indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a knife is usually +inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed +down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face. + +Bleeding from the angular or cheek-vein is recommended, in the lower +part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is +placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the +external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, +sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin +of the cheek is touched. This tubercle is a certain index to the +angular vein, which is placed below. The shepherd takes the sheep +between his legs; his left hand more advanced than his right, which he +places under the head, and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder +extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in that +place, for the purpose of making it swell; he touches the right cheek at +the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and mouth, and there finds the +tubercle which is to guide him, and also feels the angular vein swelled +below this tubercle; he then makes the incision from below upward, half +a finger's breadth below the middle of the tubercle. When the vein is no +longer pressed upon, the bleeding will commonly cease; if not, a pin may +be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a lock of wool tied round +them. + +For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred. +The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the +body confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of +the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular +vein, and a ligature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the +wool, is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein +will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as before +described. + +The good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the _rapidity_ +with which the blood is abstracted, as the _amount_ taken. This is +especially true in acute diseases. _Either bleed rapidly or do not bleed +at all._ The orifice in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, +and made lengthwise with the vein. A lancet is by far the best +implement; and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the +bungling gleam. Bleeding, moreover, should always be resorted to, when +it is indicated at all, as nearly as possible to the _commencement_ of +the malady. + +The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasurement, +but by constitutional effect--the lowering of the pulse, and indications +of weakness. In urgent cases--apoplexy, or cerebral inflammation, for +example--it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. +The quantity of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in +the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth +part of his weight; and that of the ox at least one-twentieth; while +that of the sheep, in ordinary condition, is one-twenty-second. For this +reason, more caution should be exercised in bleeding the latter, +especially in frequently resorting to it; otherwise, the vital powers +will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. Many a sheep has been destroyed +by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which +did require it at the commencement, but of which the inflammatory stage +had passed. + + +FEELING THE PULSE. + +The number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on +the left side. The femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across +the inside of the thigh, and about the middle of the thigh its +pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted. The +pulsations per minute, in a healthy adult sheep, are sixty-five in +number; though they have been stated at seventy, and even seventy-five. + + +APOPLEXY. + +Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of the +best-conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead. +The symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted. The +sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself +on the ground, and suddenly rises, and dies in a few minutes. + +Where animals in somewhat poor condition are rather forced forward for +the purpose of raising their condition, it sometimes happens that they +become suddenly blind and motionless; they will not follow their +companions; when approached, they run about, knocking their heads +against fences, etc.; the head is drawn round toward one side; they +fall, grind their teeth, and their mouths are covered with a frothy +mucus. Such cases are, unquestionably, referable to a determination of +blood to the brain. + +_Treatment._ If the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the +mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the +respiration labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the +pulse strong and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial +or entire loss of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of +apoplexy which require immediate and energetic treatment. Recourse +should at once be had to the jugular vein, and the animal bled until an +obvious constitutional effect is produced--the pulse lowered, and the +rigidity of the muscles relaxed. An aperient should at once follow +bleeding; and if the animal is strong and plathoric, a sheep of the size +of the Merino would require at least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one +of the large mutton sheep, more. If this should fail to open the +bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be given, say twice a day. + + +BRAXY. + +This is manifested by uneasiness; loathing of food; frequent drinking; +carrying the head down; drawing the back up; swollen belly; feverish +symptoms; and avoidance of the flock. It appears mostly in late autumn +and spring, and may be induced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in +water when hot, and especially by constipation, brought on by feeding on +frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. Many sheep die on the +prairies from this disease, induced by exposure and miserable forage. +Entire prevention is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, dry +food. + +_Treatment._ Remedies, to be successful, must be promptly applied. Bleed +freely; and to effect this, immersion in a tub of hot water may be +necessary, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood. Then give +two ounces of Epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of +common salt. If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a +pipeful of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. +Administer half; and if this is not effectual, follow with the +remainder. Then bed the animal in dry straw, and cover with blankets; +assisting the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative +provender till well. + + +BRONCHITIS. + +Where sheep are subject to pneumonia, they are liable to bronchitis as +well, which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the +bronchial tubes, or the air-passages of the lungs. The _symptoms_ are +those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever, and a +tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon. + +_Treatment._ Administer salt in doses of from one and a half to two +ounces, with six or eight ounces of lime-water, given in some other part +of the day. + + +CATARRH. + +This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the nasal +passages, and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pharynx. In the +first instance--where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not +very violently affected--it is merely accompanied by an increased +discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In this +form, it is usually termed _snuffles_; and high-bred English +mutton-sheep, in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, +after every sudden change of weather. When the inflammation extends to +the mucous lining of the larynx and the pharynx, some degree of fever +usually supervenes, accompanied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At +this point, bleeding and purging are serviceable. + +Catarrh rarely attacks the American fine-woolled sheep with sufficient +violence in summer to require the application of remedies. Depletion, in +catarrh, in our severe winter months, however, rapidly produces that +fatal prostration, from which it is almost impossible to bring the sheep +back, without bestowing an amount of time and care upon it, costing far +more than the worth of an ordinary animal. + +The best course is to _prevent_ the disease by judicious precaution. +With that amount of attention which every prudent farmer should bestow +on his sheep, the American Merino is but little subject to it. Good, +comfortable, and well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the +sheep in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, are +usually a sufficient safeguard. + + +MALIGNANT EPIZOOeTIC CATARRH. + +[Illustration: AN ENGLISH RACK FOR FEEDING SHEEP.] + +Essentially differing, in type and virulence, from the preceding, is an +epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizooetic malady, which, as +often as once in every eight or ten years, sweeps over extended sections +of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than all other diseases +combined. It commonly makes its appearance in winters characterized by +rapid and violent changes of temperature, which are spoken of by the +farmers as "bad winters" for sheep. The disease is sometimes termed the +"distemper," and also, but erroneously, "grub in the head." The winter +of 1846-7 proved peculiarly destructive to sheep in New York, and some +of the adjoining States; some owners losing one-half, others +three-quarters, and a few seven-eighths, of their flocks. One person +lost five hundred out of eight hundred; another, nine hundred out of a +thousand. These severe losses, however, mainly fell on the holders of +the delicate Saxons, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the +best accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill. + +_Symptoms._ The primary and main disease, in such instances, is a +species of catarrh; differing, however, from ordinary catarrh in its +diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the +primary and the symptomatic diseases. The animals affected do not, +necessarily, at first show any signs of violent colds, as coughing, +sneezing, or labored respiration; the only indications of catarrh +noticed, oftentimes, being a nasal discharge. Animals having this +discharge appear dull and drooping; their eyes run a little, and are +partially closed; the caruncle and lids look pale; their movements are +languid, and there is an indisposition to eat; the pulse is nearly +natural, though at times somewhat too languid. In a few days these +symptoms are evidently aggravated; there is rapid emaciation, +accompanied with debility; the countenance is exceedingly dull and +drooping; the eye is kept more than half closed; the caruncle, lids, +etc., are almost bloodless; a gummy, yellow secretion about the eye; +thick, glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils; appetite +feeble; pulse languid; and muscular energy greatly prostrated. They +rapidly grow weaker, stumble, and fall as they walk, and soon become +unable to rise; the appetite grows feebler; the mucus at the nose is, in +some instances, tinged with dark, grumous blood; the respiration becomes +oppressed; and the animals die within a day or two after they become +unable to rise. Upon a _post-mortem_ examination, the mucous membrane +lining the whole nasal cavity is found highly congested and thickened +throughout its entire extent, accompanied with the most intense +inflammation; slight ulcers are found on the membranous lining, at the +junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribriform plate, in the +ethmoidal cells; and the inflammation extends to the mucous membrane of +the pharynx, and some inches, from two to four, of the upper portion of +the [oe]sophagus. + +No sheep, affected with this disease, recovers after emaciation and +debility have proceeded to any great extent. In the generality of +instances, the time, from the first observed symptoms until death, +varies from ten to fifteen days; although death, in some cases, results +more speedily. + +_Treatment._ Nothing has been found so serviceable as mercury, which, +from its action on the entire secretory system, powerfully tends to +relieve the congested membranes of the head. Dissolve one grain of +bi-chloride of mercury--corrosive sublimate--in two ounces of water; and +give one-half ounce of the water, or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive +sublimate, daily, in two doses. To stimulate and open the bowels, give, +also, rhubarb in a decoction, the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at +a dose, accompanied with the ordinary carminative and stomachic +adjuvants, ginger and gentian in infusion. + + +COLIC. + +Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying down and +rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore and +hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. They +appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, +unless relieved. This disease, popularly known as the "stretches," is +erroneously attributed to an involution of the part of the intestine +within another; it being, in reality, a species of flatulent colic, +induced by costiveness. + +_Treatment._ Half an ounce of Epsom salts, a drachm of Jamaica ginger, +and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will +effect the cure; as will, also, an equivalent dose of linseed oil, or +even hog's lard. + + +COSTIVENESS. + +This difficulty is removed by giving two table-spoonfuls of castor oil +every twelve hours, till the trouble ceases; or give one ounce of Epsom +salts. This may be assisted by an injection of warm weak suds and +molasses. + + +DIARRH[OE]A. + +Common diarrh[oe]a--purging, or scours--manifests itself simply by the +copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is generally +owing to improper food, as bad hay, or noxious weeds; to a sudden +change, as from dry food to fresh grass; to an excess, as from +overloading the stomach; and sometimes to cold and wet. It is important +to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. In diarrh[oe]a, +there is no apparent general fever; the appetite remains good; the +stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime, or mucus, and +blood; odor of the faeces is far less offensive than in dysentery; and +the general condition of the animal is but little changed. When it is +light, and not of long continuance, no remedy is called for, since it is +a healthful provision of Nature for the more rapid expulsion of some +offending matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to +disease. + +_Treatment._ Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual +return to it, often suffices, in the case of grown sheep. With lambs, +especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the +purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the +faeces, the feculent matter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle +cathartic; half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed oil, or half +an ounce of Epsom salts to a lamb. This should be followed by an +astringent; and, in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the +first instance. Give one quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk in half a +pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days; at the end of +which, and frequently after the first dose, the purging will have +ordinarily abated, or entirely ceased. + +"Sheep's cordial" is also a safe and excellent remedy--in severe cases, +better than simple chalk and milk. Take of prepared chalk, one ounce; +powdered catechu, half an ounce; powdered Jamaica ginger, two drachms; +and powdered opium, half a drachm; mix with half a pint of peppermint +water; give two or three table-spoonfuls morning and night to a grown +sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. + + +DISEASE OF THE BIFLEX CANAL. + +From the introduction of foreign bodies into the biflex canal, or +from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. +This canal is a small orifice, opening externally on the point of each +pastern, immediately above the cleft between the toes. It bifurcates +within, a tube passing down on each side of the inner face of the +pastern, winding round and ending in a _cul de sac_. Inflammation +of this canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, +particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are +thrown wide apart by the tumor. It rarely attacks more than one foot, +and should not be allowed to proceed to the point of ulceration +which it will do, if neglected. There is none of that soreness and +disorganization between the back part of the toes, and none of that +peculiar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail, with which disease it +is sometimes confounded. + +_Treatment._ Scarify the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in +the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal; and cover the foot +with tar. + + +DYSENTERY. + +This is occasioned by an inflammation of the mucous or inner coat of the +larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their secretions, +and a morbid alteration in their character. It is frequently consequent +on that form of diarrh[oe]a, which is caused by an inflammation of the +mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflammation extends +throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in virulence, and +becomes dysentery, a disease frequently dangerous and obstinate in its +character, but, fortunately, not common among sheep, generally, in the +United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of diarrh[oe]a, in +several readily observed particulars. There is evident fever; the +appetite is capricious, commonly very feeble; the stools are as thin as +in diarrh[oe]a, or even thinner, but much more adhesive, in consequence +of the presence of large quantities of mucus. As the erosion of the +intestines advances, the faeces are tinged with blood; their odor is +intolerably offensive; and the animal rapidly wastes away, the course of +the disease extending from a few days to several weeks. + +_Treatment._ Moderate bleeding should be resorted to, in the first or +inflammatory shape, or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be +present. Two doses of physic having been administered, astringents are +serviceable. The "sheep's cordial," already described, is as good as +any; and to this, tonics may soon begin to be added; an additional +quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial, and +gentian powder will be an useful auxiliary. With this, as an excellent +stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the +mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels opening on the +inner surface of the intestines, a half grain of strychnine may be +combined. Smaller doses should be given for three or four days. + + +FLIES. + +The proper treatment, upon the appearance of flies or maggots, has +already been detailed under the head of "FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT," to +which the reader is referred. + + +FOULS. + +Sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle are; but +encounter it, if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground. +It is an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly +resembling incipient hoof-ail, and producing lameness. It occasions, +however, no serious structural disorganization, disappears without +treatment, is not contagious, and appears in the wet weather of spring +and fall, instead of in the dry, hot period of summer, when the hoof-ail +rages most. A little solution of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of +turpentine--either followed by a coating of warm tar--promptly cures it. + +For foul noses, dip a small swab in tar, then roll it in salt; put some +on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity. + + +FRACTURES. + +If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone simply being broken, +the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking +care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes. When the swelling is +considerable, and fever present, the best course is to open a vein of +the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned +to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the +symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. Epsom +salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be +found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, +the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of +reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should +the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone +protrude, recovery is very uncertain; and it will become a question +whether it would not be better to convert the animal at once into +mutton. + + +GARGET. + +This is an inflammation of the udder, sometimes known as "caked bag," +with or without general inflammation. Where it is simply an inflammation +of the udder, it is usually caused by too great an accumulation of milk +in the latter prior to lambing, or in consequence of the death of the +lamb. + +_Treatment._ Drawing the milk partly from the bag, so that the hungry +lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, +and bathing it a few times in _cold_ water, usually suffices. If the +lamb is dead, the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing +intervals, washing the udder for some time in cold water at each +milking. In cases of obdurate induration, the udder should be anointed +with iodine ointment. If there is general fever in the system, an ounce +of Epsom salts may be given. If suppuration forms, the part affected +should be opened with the lancet. + + +GOITRE. + +The "swelled neck" in lambs is, like the goitre, or bronchocele, an +enlargement of the thyroid glands, and is strikingly analogous to that +disease, if not identical with it. It is congenital. The glands at birth +are from the size of a pigeon's egg to that of a hen's _egg_, though +more elongated and flattened than an egg in their form. The lamb is +exceedingly feeble, and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. +Many even make no effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. +It is rare, indeed, that one lives. + +A considerable number of lambs annually perish from this disease, which +does not appear to be an epizooetic, though it is more prevalent in some +seasons than in others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, or +any other natural circumstances of a region, as goitre is generally +supposed to, since it may not prevail in the same flock, or on the same +farm, once in ten years; nor can it be readily traced to any particular +kind of food. When it does appear, however, its attacks are rarely +isolated; from which circumstance some have inferred that it is induced +by some local or elimentary cause. Losses from this disease have ranged +from ten per cent. to twenty, thirty, and even fifty per cent. of the +whole number of lambs. Possibly, high condition in the ewes may be one +of the inducing causes. + +_Treatment._ None is known which will reach the case. Should one having +the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be worth while to attempt +reducing the entanglement of the glands. Perhaps keeping the +breeding-ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not _high_ condition, would +be as effectual a preventive as any. + + +GRUB IN THE HEAD. + +What is popularly known as the "grub" is the larva of the _[oe]strus +oris_, or gad-fly of the sheep. It is composed of five rings; is +tiger-colored on the back and belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of +brown; its wings are striped. + +The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the +nostrils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this--most common in July, +August, and September--are always indicated by the sheep, which collect +in close clumps, with their heads inward, and their noses thrust close +to the ground, and into it, if any loose dirt or sand is within reach. +If the fly succeeds in depositing its egg, the latter is immediately +hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or +larvae, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, +where, by means of their tentaculae, or feelers, they attach themselves +to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During the ascent of the +larvae, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and often dashes +away from its companions wildly over the field. The larvae remain on the +sinuses, feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and apparently +creating no further annoyance, until ready to assume their _pupa_ form +in the succeeding spring. + +Having remained in the sinuses during the fall and winter, they abandon +them as the warm weather approaches in the latter part of spring. They +crawl down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement +than when they originally ascended, drop on the ground, and rapidly +burrow into it. In a few hours, the skin of the larvae has contracted, +become of a dark-brown color, and it has assumed the form of chrysalis. +This fly never eats; the male, after impregnating two or three females, +dies; and the latter, having deposited their _ova_ in the nostrils of +the sheep, also soon perish. + +The larvae in the heads of sheep may, and probably do, add to the +irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which attack +the membranous lining of the nasal cavities; and they are a powerful +source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to, +and descending from, their lodging-place in the head. But in the +interval between these events, extending over a period of several +months, not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoyance at +their presence. They are, moreover, found in the heads of nearly all +sheep, the healthy as well as the diseased, at the proper season. + +_Treatment._ Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, +some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. One +simple way of effecting this is, by turning up with a plough a furrow of +earth in the sheep-pasture, into which the sheep will thrust their noses +on the approach of the _[oe]strus_, and thus many of them escape its +attacks. Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep occasionally With +tar, the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Another plan, +deemed efficacious in dislodging the larvae from the sinuses, is as +follows: Take half a pound of good Scotch snuff, and two quarts of +boiling water; stir, and let it stand till cold. Inject about a +table-spoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril, with a +syringe; repeat this three or four times, at intervals, from the middle +of October till January. The efficacy of the snuff will be increased by +adding half an ounce of asaf[oe]tida, pounded in a little water. The +effects on the sheep are immediate prostration and apparent death; but +they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco affords a substitute for +snuff; and some recommend blowing tobacco smoke through the tail of a +pipe into each nostril. + + +HOOF-AIL. + +The first symptom of this troublesome malady, known, likewise, as +foot-ail, which is ordinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of +the fore-feet. On daily examining, however, the feet of a flock which +have the disease among them, it will readily be seen that the lesions +manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with +lameness. + +The horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, gradually thinning +out, some way between the toes and divisions of the hoof, and above +these horny walls the cleft is lined with skin. When the points of the +toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered with short, +soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the heels, can be separated +only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is +naked. In a healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as +firm, dry, and uneroded as on any other part of the animal. + +The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with +inflammation and heat of the naked skin in the _back parts_ of the +clefts, immediately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated +appearance, and is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge +from the ulcerated surface. As the inflammation extends, the friction of +the parts causes pain, and the sheep limps. At this stage, the foot, +_externally_, in a great majority of cases, exhibits not the least trace +of disease, with the exception of a slight redness, and sometimes the +appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, when viewed +from behind. + +The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges of +the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is +established between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid +matter is discharged from the cavity. The extent of the separation +increases daily, and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy +sole. The bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, +and the outer walls, entirely separated from the flesh, hang only by +their attachments at the coronet. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely +disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of black, putrid +ulceration; or, as more commonly happens, the fly has struck it, and a +dense mass of writhing maggots cover the surface, and burrow in every +cavity. + +The fore-feet are generally first attacked; and, most usually but one of +them. The animal at first manifests but little constitutional +disturbance, and eats as usual. By the time that any considerable +disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot, and +sometimes sooner, the other forefoot is attacked. That becoming as lame +as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its knees; and, if +forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony +occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There is a +bare spot under the brisket, of the size of a man's hand, which looks +red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever, and the appetite +is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition. The appearance of the +maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in +contact with the side, in lying down, the filthy, ulcerous matter +adheres to, and saturates the short wool--it being but a month and a +half, or two months, after shearing--and maggots are either carried +there by the foot, or they are soon generated there. A black crust is +speedily formed round the spot, which is the decomposition of the +surrounding structures; and innumerable maggots are at work below, +burrowing into the integuments and muscles, and eating up the wretched +animal alive. The black, festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor +sufferer perishes, apparently in tortures the most excruciating. + +Sometimes but one forefoot is attacked, and subsequently one or both +hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular; and it is a +singular fact that, when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully +diseased, the fourth may be entirely sound. So, also, one foot may be +cured, while every other one is laboring under the malady. The highly +offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly +characteristic of the disease, and would reveal its character, to one +familiar with it, in the darkest night. + +Hoof-ail is probably propagated in this country exclusively by +inoculation--the contact of the matter of a diseased foot with the +integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. That it is +propagated in some of the ways classed under the ordinary designation of +_contagion_, is certain. That it may be propagated by inoculation, has +been established by experiment. The matter of diseased feet has been +placed on the skin lining the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of +circumstances--sometimes when that skin is in its ordinary and natural +state, sometimes after a very slight scorification, sometimes when +macerated by moisture; and under each of these circumstances the +disease has been communicated. The same inference may be drawn, also, +from the manner in which the disease attacks flocks. The whole, or +any considerable number, though sometimes rapidly, are never +_simultaneously_ attacked, as would be expected, among animals so +gregarious, if the disease could be transmitted by simple contact, +inhaling the breath, or other effluvium. + +The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other +substances, and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of +healthy feet. Sheep, therefore, contract the disease from being driven +over the pastures, yarded on the straw, etc., where diseased sheep have +been, perhaps even days, before. The matter would probably continue to +inoculate, until dried up by the air and heat, or washed away by the +rains. The stiff, upright stems of closely mown grass, as on meadows, +are almost as well calculated to receive the matter of diseased feet, +and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones, as any means which could +be artificially devised. It is not entirely safe to drive healthy sheep +over roads, and especially into washing-yards, or sheep houses, where +diseased sheep have been, until rain has fallen, or sufficient time has +elapsed for the matter to dry up. On the moist bottom of a washing-yard, +and particularly in houses or sheds, kept from sun and wind and rain, +this matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to +inoculate. + +When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its +attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely +disappear as cold weather approaches, and it does not manifest itself +until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a +mitigated form; the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked; +there seems to be less inflammatory action constitutionally, and in the +diseased parts; the course of the disease is less malignant and more +tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. If well kept under the +second summer, it is still milder the third. A sheep will occasionally +be seen to limp; but its condition will scarcely be affected, and +dangerous symptoms will rarely supervene. One or two applications made +during the summer, in a manner presently to be described, will suffice +to keep the disease under. At this point, a little vigor in the +treatment will rapidly extinguish the disease. + +_Treatment._ The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual +treatment is resolved upon, is always necessary, at least in bad cases. +Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if +practicable, as the hoofs can then be readily cut. In a dry time, and +after a night which left no dew upon the grass, their hoofs are almost +as tough as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on +their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their +feet. The yard should be small, so that they can be easily caught, and +it must be kept well littered down, to prevent their filling their feet +with their own excrement. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not, +of course, dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. If the yard could +be built over a shallow, gravelly-bottomed brook, it would be an +admirable arrangement; for this purpose, a portion of any little brook +might be prepared, by planking the bottom, and widening it, if +desirable. By such means the hoofs would be kept so soft that the +greatest and most unpleasant part of the labor, as ordinarily performed, +would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that +dung which, by any other arrangement, will, more or less, get into their +clefts. + +The principal operator seats himself on a chair, having within his reach +a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers already +described, a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, together +with such medicines as may be deemed necessary. The assistant catches a +sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the +foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then +kneels on some straw, or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder +extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are long, and especially if they +are dry and tough, the assistant presents each foot to the operator who +shortens the hoof with the toe-nippers. If there is any filth between +the toes, each man takes his rag from the bucket of water, and draws it +between the toes, and rinses it, until the filth is removed. Each then +takes a knife, and the process of paring away the horn commences, _upon +the effectual performance of which_ all else depends. A glance at the +foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. The least +experience cannot fail in properly settling this question. An +experienced finger, even, placed upon the back of the pastern close +above the heel, will at once detect the local inflammation, in the dark, +_by its heat_. + +If the disease is in the first stage--that is, if there are merely +erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft _above_ the +walls of the hoof--no paring is necessary. But if ulceration has +established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, _the ulcerated +parts_, however extensive, _must be entirely stripped of their horny +covering_, no matter what amount of time and care it may require. It is +better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the +running blood will wash off the subsequent application; but no fear of +wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule laid down +above. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, +during which time no application needs to be made to the foot. + +If the foot is in the third stage--a mass of rottenness, and filled with +maggots--pour, in the first place, a little spirits of turpentine--a +bottle of which, with a quill through the cork, should be always +ready--on the maggots, and most of them will immediately decamp, and the +others can be removed with a probe or small stick. Then _remove every +particle of loose horn_, though it should take the entire hoof, as it +generally will in such cases. The foot should next be cleansed with a +solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride +to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot +repeatedly in hot water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every +purpose. The great object is _to clean the foot thoroughly_. If there is +any considerable "proud flesh," it should be removed with a pair of +scissors, or by the actual cautery--hot iron. + +The following are some of the most popular remedies: Take two ounces of +blue vitriol and two ounces of verdigris, to a junk-bottle of wine; or +spirits of turpentine, tar, and verdigris in equal parts; or three +quarts of alcohol, one pint of spirits of turpentine, one pint of strong +vinegar, one pound of blue vitriol, one pound of copperas, one and a +half pounds of verdigris, one pound of alum, and one pound of saltpetre, +pounded fine; mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand +six or eight days before using; also mix two pounds of honey and two +quarts of tar, which must be applied after the preceding compound. Or +apply diluted aquafortis--nitric acid--with a feather to the ulcerated +surface; or diluted oil of vitriol--sulphuric acid--in the same way; or +the same of muriatic acid; or dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling +point. + +In the first and second stages of the disease, before the ulcers have +formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its +structure, the best application is a saturated solution of blue +vitriol--sulphate of copper. In the third stage, when the foot is a +festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already +directed, it requires some strong caustic to remove the unhealthy +granulations--the dead muscular structures--and to restore healthy +action. Lunar caustic, which is preferable to any other application, is +too expensive; chloride of antimony is excellent, but frequently +unattainable in the country drug-stores; and muriatic acid, or even +nitric or sulphuric acids, may be used instead. The diseased surface is +touched with the caustic, applied with a swab, formed by fastening a +little tow on the end of a stick, until the objects above pointed out +are attained. The foot is then treated with the solution of blue +vitriol, and subsequently coated over with tar which has been boiled, +and is properly cooled, for the purpose of protecting the raw wound from +dirt, flies, etc. Sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be +separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three +days. With this degree of attention, their cure will be rapid, and the +obliterated structures of the foot will be restored with astonishing +rapidity. + +The common method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it +from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal +lies on its back between the operators, as already described. In this +way a few cents' worth of vitriol will answer for a large number of +sheep. The method is, however, imperfect; since, without extraordinary +care, there will almost always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered +by the knife, which the solution will not reach, the passages to them +being devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed. The disease will thus +be only temporarily suppressed, not cured. + +A flock of sheep which were in the second season of the disease, had +been but little looked to during the summer, and as cold weather set in, +many of them became considerably lame, and some of them quite so. Their +feet were thoroughly pared; and into a large washing-tub, in which two +sheep could conveniently stand, a saturated solution of blue vitriol and +water, _as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment_, was +poured. The liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, +and was kept at that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. As +soon as a sheep's feet were pared, it was placed in the tub, and held +there by the neck. A second one was then prepared, and placed beside it; +when the third was ready, the first was taken out; and so on. Two sheep +were thus constantly in the tub, each remaining some five minutes. The +cure was perfect; there was not a lame sheep in the flock during the +winter or the next summer. The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of +the foot; and doubtless had a far more decisive effect, even on the +uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them. +The expense attending the operation was about _four cents_ per sheep. +Three such applications, at intervals of a week, would effectually cure +the disease, since every new case would thus be arrested and cured +before it would have time to inoculate others. It would, undoubtedly, +accomplish this at any time of year, and even during the first and most +malignant prevalence of the contagion, _provided the paring was +sufficiently thorough_. The second and third parings would be a mere +trifle; and the liquid left at the first and second applications could +again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head, +which is much cheaper, in the long run, than any ordinary temporizing +method, where the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol is counted, but +not the time consumed; and the disease is thus kept lingering in the +flock for years. + +Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy for +this disease; and in cases of ordinary virulence, especially where the +disease is chronic, it seems to dry up the ulcers, and keep the malady +under. Sheep are also sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface, +and driving them over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered with +quick-lime. It may sometimes, and under peculiar circumstances, be cured +by dryness, and repeated washing with soap-suds. + +Many farmers select rainy weather as the time for doctoring their sheep. +Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good +economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, +_provided_ they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any +kind, until the rain is over, and the grass again dry. If immediately +let out in wet grass of any length, the vitriol or other application is +measurably washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in +more tar--an admirable plan under such circumstances. + +A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, is considered +more valuable than one which has never had it. They are far less liable +to contract the disease from any casual exposure; and its ravages are +far less violent and general among them. + +This ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness, or +inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, +rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the +cause; or, if it continues, white paint or tar may be applied, after a +thorough washing. + + +HOOVE. + +This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep; but, if turned +upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will sometimes ensue. + +Hoove is a distension of the paunch by gas extricated from the +fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in +larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline +secretions of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is +prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is +determined to the head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from +making its ordinary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes +difficult and imperfect. Death, in such cases, soon supervenes. + +_Treatment._ In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driving will effect +a cure. When the animal appears swelled almost to bursting, and is +disinclined to move, it is better to open the paunch at once. At the +most protruberant point of the swelling, on the left side, a little +below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point and +dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, +carrying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. +If no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well +as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the +abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of +the former will escape into the cavity of the latter. + +However perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the belly will +ultimately produce fatal irritation. To prevent this, a canula, or +little tube, should be inserted through both orifices as soon as the +puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent, alkalies have +sometimes been successfully administered, which combine with the +carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexible +probang, or in default of it, a rattan, or grape-vine, with a knot on +the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and the gas thus +permitted to escape. + + +HYDATID ON THE BRAIN. + +The symptoms of this disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, staggers, water +in the head, etc., are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating +from the flock, a wandering and blue appearance of the eye, and +sometimes partial or total blindness; the sheep appears unsteady in its +walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop +across the field, and, after the disease has existed for some time, will +almost constantly move round in a circle--there seems, indeed, to be an +aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely +all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent +any mistake as to the nature of the disease. + +On examining the brain of sheep thus affected, what appears to be a +watery bladder, called a hydatid, is found, which may be either small or +of the size of a hen's egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozooens, +has been termed by naturalists the _hydatis polycephalus cerebralis_, or +many-headed hydatid of the brain; these heads being irregularly +distributed on the surface of the bladder, and on the front part of each +head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of +sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment, by forming +a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus, by +the aid of the hooks, the parasite is nourished. The coats of the +hydatid are disposed in several layers, one of which appears to possess +a muscular power. These facts are developed by the microscope, which +also discloses numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. +The fluid in the bladder is usually clear but occasionally turbid, and +then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. + +_Treatment._ This is deemed an almost incurable disorder. Where the +hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly +enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the +part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield +under the pressure of the finger. + +When such a spot is discovered, the English veterinarians usually +dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, +carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if +possible, remove the hydatid whole; or, failing to do this, remove its +fluid contents. The membranes and integuments are then restored to their +position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French +veterinarians usually simply puncture the cranium and the cyst with a +trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, allow the fluid to run out +through the orifice thus made. A common awl would answer every purpose +for such a puncture; and the puncture is the preferable method for the +unskilled practitioner. An instance is, indeed, recorded of a cure +having been effected, where the animal had been given up, by boring with +a gimlet into the soft place on the head, when the water rushed out, +and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture. + +When, however, the hazard and cruelty attending the operation, under the +most favorable circumstances, are considered, as well as the conceded +liability of a return of the malady--the growth of new hydatids--it is +evident that in this country, it would not be worth while, except in the +case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to adopt any other remedy than +depriving the miserable animal of life. + + +OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET. + +[Illustration: A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP-FODDER.] + +After pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing substance +which occasions the "choking," can frequently be removed up or down by +external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down with the +flexible probang, described in "Cattle and their Diseases," or a +flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knot, or a little bag of +flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or +two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through +the cloth, and protects the [oe]sophagus, or gullet, from laceration. +But little force must be used, and the whole operation conducted with +the utmost care and gentleness; or the [oe]sophagus will be so far +lacerated as to produce death, although the obstruction is removed. + + +OPHTHALMIA. + +Ophthalmia, or inflammation of the eyes, is not uncommon in this +country; but it is little noticed, as, in most cases, it disappears in a +few days, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract, which, being +usually confined to one eye, does not appreciably effect the value of +the animal, and therefore has no influence on its market price. + +_Treatment._ Some recommend blowing pulverized red chalk in the inflamed +eye; others squirt into it tobacco juice. As a matter of humanity, blood +may be drawn from under the eye, and the eye bathed in tepid water, and +occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with +tincture of opium. These latter applications diminish the pain, and +hasten the cure. + + +PALSY. + +Paralysis, or palsy, is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of +motion in some parts of the body. In the winter, poor lambs, or poor +pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the +spring, occasionally lose the power of walking or standing rather too +suddenly to have it referable to increasing debility. The animal seems +to have lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are +powerless; it makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand if +placed upon its feet. + +_Treatment._ Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing may raise the +patient; but, in the vast majority of cases, it is more economical and +equally humane, to deprive it of life at once. + + +PELT-ROT. + +This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is, in fact, a different and +less dangerous disease. The wool falls off, and leaves the sheep nearly +naked; but it is attended with no soreness, though a reddish crust will +cover the skin, from the wool which has dropped. It generally arises +from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet; and, in fact, the +animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers on account +of the loss of its coat. + +The _remedy_ is full feeding, a warm stall, and anointing the hard part +of the skin with tar, oil, and butter. Some, however, do nothing for it, +scarcely considering it a disease. Such say that if the condition of a +poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the +winter, the wool is very apt to drop off; and, if yet cold, the sheep +will require warm shelter. + + +PNEUMONIA. + +Pneumonia--or inflammation of the lungs--is not a common disease in the +Northern States; but undoubted cases of it sometimes occur, after sheep +have been exposed to sudden cold, particularly when recently shorn. The +adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of +slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this disease in the +animal--though, in many instances, it was so slight as to be mistaken, +at the time, for a hard cold. + +_Symptoms._ The animal is dull, ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, +drinks frequently and largely, and its breathing is rapid and laborious; +the eye is clouded; the nose discharges a tenacious, fetid matter; the +teeth are ground frequently, so that the sound is audible at some +distance; the pulse is at first hard and rapid, sometimes intermits, but +before death it becomes weak. During the height of the fever, the flanks +heave violently; there is a hard, painful cough during the first stages, +which becomes weaker, and seems to be accompanied with more pain as +death approaches. + +After death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized--that is, +permanently condensed and engorged with blood, so that their structure +resembles that of the _hepar_, or liver--and they have so far lost their +integrity that they are torn asunder by the slightest force. It may here +be remarked that when sheep die from any cause, _with their blood in +them_, the lungs have a dark, hepatized appearance. Whether they are +actually hepatized or not, can readily be decided by compressing the +windpipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then between such +compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting orifice, +inserting a goose-quill, or other tube, and continuing to blow until the +lungs are inflated as far as they can be. As they inflate, they will +become of a lighter color, and plainly manifest their cellular +structure. If any portions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their +dark, liver-like consistence, and color, they exhibit hepatization--the +result of high inflammatory action--and a state utterly incompatible, in +the living animal, with the discharge of the natural functions of the +viscus. + +_Treatment._ In the first, or inflammatory stages, bleeding and +aperients are clearly called for. Some recommend early and copious +bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours; this followed by +aperient medicines, such as two ounces of Epsom salts, which may be +repeated in smaller doses, if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. +The following sedative may also be given with gruel, twice a day: +nitrate of potash, one drachm; powdered digitalis, one scruple; and +tartarized antimony, one scruple. + +While depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance--the +short continuance--of the febrile state, yet excitation like this will +soon be followed by corresponding exhaustion, when the bleeding and +purging would be murderous expedients; and gentian, ginger, and the +spirits of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure. + + +POISON. + +Sheep will often, in the winter or spring, eat greedily of the low +laurel. The animal appears afterward to be dull and stupid, swells a +little, and is constantly gulping up a feverish fluid, which it swallows +again; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its +lips. The plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stomach, and +nature endeavors to throw off the poisonous herb by retching or +vomiting. + +_Treatment._ In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be allowed to +escape from the stomach, the animal generally recovers. To effect this, +gag the sheep, which may be done in this manner: Take a stick of the +size of the wrist, six inches long--place it in the animal's mouth--tie +a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other +end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as +fast as thrown up from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted +onions and sweetened milk freely. A better plan, however, is to force a +gill of melted lard down the throat; or, boil for an hour the twigs of +the white ash, and give one-half to one gill of the strong liquor +immediately; to be repeated, if not successful. Drenchers of milk and +castor-oil are also recommended. + + +ROT. + +This disease, which sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep, in +England, in a single year, is comparatively unknown in this country. It +prevails somewhat in the Western States, from allowing sheep to pasture +on land that is overflowed with water. Even a crop of green oats, early +in the fall, before a frost comes; has been known to rot young sheep. + +_Symptoms._ The first are by no means strongly marked; there is no loss +of condition, but rather the contrary, to all appearance. A paleness and +want of liveliness of the membranes, generally, may be considered as the +first symptoms, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at +the corner of the eye. When in warm, sultry, or rainy weather, sheep +that are grazing on low and moist lands, feed rapidly, and some of them +die suddenly, there is ground for fearing that they have contracted the +rot. This suspicion will be farther increased if, a few days afterward, +the sheep begin to shrink and grow flaccid about the loins. By pressure +about the hips at this time, a crackling is perceptible now or soon +afterward, the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece, the +skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, and the +wool is easily separated from the felt; and as the disorder advances, +the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots. To these symptoms +succeed increased dullness, loss of condition, and greater paleness of +the mucous membranes, the eye-lids becoming almost white, and afterward +yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a watery +fluid appears under the skin, the latter becoming loose and flabby, and +the wool coming off readily. The symptoms of dropsy often extend over +the body, and sometimes the sheep becomes _chockered_, as it is termed; +a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearance of the +fluid which it contains, is sometimes called the _watery poke_. The +duration of the disease is uncertain; the animal occasionally dies +shortly after becoming affected, but more frequently it extends to from +three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away, +particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging +supervenes. + +_Post-mortem._ The whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and +a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft +and flabby, having the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are +pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands are enlarged, and +engorged with yellow serous fluid. The belly is frequently filled with +water, or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and +the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is +enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The +principal alterations of structure are in the liver, which is pale, +livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure; and on being boiled, +it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often +curiously spotted; in some cases it is speckled, like the back of a +toad; some parts of it, however, are hard and schirrous; others are +ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. The malady is, +unquestionably, inflammation of the liver. This fluke is from +three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, and from +one-third to one-half an inch in its greatest breadth. These fluke-worms +undoubtedly aggravate the disease, and perpetuate a state of +irritability and disorganization, which must necessarily undermine the +strength of any animal. + +_Treatment._ This must, to a considerable extent, be very +unsatisfactory. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the +best _preventives_ is the abundant use of pure salt. In violent attacks, +take eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood, according to the +circumstances of the case; to this, let a dose of physic succeed--two or +three ounces of Epsom salts; and to these means add a change of diet, +good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff in the yard. After the +operation of the physic--an additional dose having been administered, +oftentimes, in order to quicken the action of the first--two or three +grains of calomel may be given daily, mixed with half the quantity of +opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious +effects on the ruminant. To this should be added common salt, which acts +as a purgative and a tonic. A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is +plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. The doses should +be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When the +inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to +the salt, and there are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots; +from one to two drachms of each, finely pounded, may be added to each +dose of the salt. The sheep having a little recovered from the disease, +should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and +should always have salt within their reach. The rot is not infectious. + + +SCAB. + +This is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in horses and the +itch in man, and is caused and propagated by a minute insect, the +_acarus_. + +[Illustration: THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP.] + +If one or more female _acari_ are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, +they quickly travel to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, +the place at which they penetrate being scarcely visible, or only +distinguishable by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelfth day, a +little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes +its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly +formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, when the mothers again +appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by a +portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These +little ones immediately set to work, penetrate the neighboring skin, +bury themselves beneath it, find their proper nourishment, and grow and +propagate, until the poor creature has myriads of them preying upon him. +It is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, he should speedily +sink. The male _acari_, when placed on the sound skin of a sheep, will +likewise burrow their way and disappear for a while, the pustule rising +in due time; but the itching and the scab soon disappear without the +employment of any remedy. The female brings forth from eight to fifteen +young at a time. + +In the United States, this disease is comparatively little known, and +never originates spontaneously. The fact, that short-woolled sheep--like +the Merino--are much less subject to its attacks, is probably one reason +for this slight comparative prevalence. The disease spreads from +individual to individual, and from flock to flock, not only by means of +direct contact, but by the _acari_ left on posts, stones, and other +substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy +sheep are, therefore, liable to contract the malady, if turned on +pastures previously occupied by scabby sheep, although some considerable +time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter. + +The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs +itself with violence against trees, stones, fences, etc.; scratches +itself with its feet, bites its sores, and tears off its wool with its +teeth; as the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms +scabs, causing red, inflamed sores, which constantly extend, increasing +the misery of the tortured animal; if unrelieved, he pines away, and +soon perishes. + +The _post-mortem_ appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There +is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence +of a great number of worms. The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the +spleen enlarged; and there are frequently serous effusions in the belly, +and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy between the +digestive and the cutaneous systems. + +_Treatment._ First, separate the sheep; then cut off the wool as far as +the skin feels hard to the finger; the scab is then washed with +soap-suds, and rubbed hard With a shoe-brush, so that it may be cleansed +and broken. For this use take a decoction of tobacco, to which add +one-third, by measure, of the lye of wood-ashes, as much hog's lard as +will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from a tar-bucket, +which contains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole, by measure, of +spirits of turpentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and +spread to a little distance around it, in three washings, with an +interval of three days each. This will invariably effect a cure, when +the disorder is only partial. + +Or, the following: Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the +proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The +sheep should be previously washed in soap and water. The infusion must +not be permitted to enter the mouth or nostrils. + +Or, take common mercurial ointment; for bad cases, rub it down with +three times its weight of lard--for ordinary cases, five times its +weight. Rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part +the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, +and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. +Make a similar furrow and application on each side, four inches from the +first; and so on, over the whole body. The quantity of ointment after +composition with the lard, should not exceed two ounces; and, generally, +less will suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown +sheep. This will generally cure; but, if the animal should continue to +rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten +days. + +Or, take two pounds of lard or palm oil; half a pound of oil of tar; and +one pound of sulphur; gradually mix the last two, then rub down the +compound with the first. Apply as before. Or, take of corrosive +sublimate, one half a pound; white hellabore, powdered, three-fourths of +a pound; whale or other oil, six gallons; rosin, two pounds; and tallow, +two pounds. The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the +rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed. This is a +powerful preparation, and must not be applied too freely. + +An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable +itching, sometimes troubles sheep. This is a febrile disease, and is +treated with a cooling purgative, bleeding, and oil or lard applied to +the sores. + + +SMALL-POX. + +The author acknowledges himself indebted for what follows under this +head to R. McClure, V. S., of Philadelphia, author of a Prize Essay on +Diseases of Sheep, read before the U. S. Agricultural Society, in 1860, +for which a medal and diploma were awarded. + +Although the small-pox in domestic animals has, fortunately, been as yet +confined to the European Continent--where it has been chiefly limited to +England--no good reason can ever be assigned why it should not at some +future time make its appearance among us, especially when we remember +how long a period elapsed, during which we escaped the cattle plague, +although the Continent had long been suffering from it. + +The small-pox in sheep--_variola overia_--is, at times, epizooetic in the +flocks of France and Italy, but was unknown in England until 1847, when +it was communicated to a flock at Datchett and another at Pinnier by +some Merinos from Spain. It soon found its way into Hampshire and +Norfolk, but was shortly afterward supposed to be eradicated. In 1862, +however, it suddenly reappeared in a severe form among the flocks of +Wiltshire; for which reappearance neither any traceable infection nor +contagion could be assigned. With the present light upon the subject, it +would seem to be an instance of the origination _anew_ of a malignant +type of varioloid disease. Such an origin is, in fact, assigned to this +disease in Africa, it being well established that certain devitalizing +atmospheric influences produce skin diseases, and facilitate the +appearance of pustular eruptions. + +The disease once rooted soon becomes epizooetic, and causes a greater +mortality than any other malady affecting this animal. Out of a flock +numbering 1720, 920 were attacked in a natural way, of which 50 per +cent. died. Of 800 inoculated cases, but 36 per cent. died. + +Numerous experiments have proved beyond all doubt that this disease in +sheep is both infectious and contagious; its period of incubation varies +from seven to fourteen days. The mortality is never less than 25 per +cent., and not unfrequently whole flocks have been swept away, death +taking place in the early stages of the eruption, or in the stages of +suppuration and ulceration. + +The _symptoms_ may be mapped out as follows: The animal is seized with a +shivering fit, succeeded by a dull stupidity, which remains until death +or recovery results; on the second or third day, pimples are seen on the +thighs and arm-pits, accompanied with extreme redness of the eyes, +complete loss of appetite, etc., etc. It is needless to enumerate other +symptoms which exist in common with those of other disorders. + +_Prevention._ At present, but two modes are resorted to, for the purpose +of preventing the spread of the disease, which promise any degree of +certainty of success. The first is by _inoculation_, which was +recommended by Professor Simonds, of London. This distinguished +pathologist appears to have overlooked the fact that he was thereby only +enlarging the sphere of mischief, by imparting the disease to animals +that, in all probability, would otherwise have escaped it. By +inoculation, moreover, a form of the disease is given, not of a modified +character, but with all the virulence of the original affection which is +to be arrested, and equally as potent for further destruction of others. +By such teaching, inoculation and vaccination would be made one and the +same thing, notwithstanding their dissimilarity. Even vaccination will +not protect the animal, as has been already shown by the experiments of +Hurbrel D'Arboval. + +The second and best plan of prevention is _isolation and destruction_, +as recommended by Professor Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College. +This proved a great protection to the sheep-farmers of Wiltshire, in +1862. In all epizooetic diseases, individual cases occur, which, when +pointed out and recognized as soon as the fever sets in and the early +eruptions appear, should be slaughtered at once and buried, and the rest +of the flock isolated. By this means the disease has been confined to +but two or three in a large flock. + +_Treatment._ In treating this disease, resort has of late been had to a +plant, known as _Sarracenia purpura_--Indian cup, or pitcher +plant--used for this purpose by the Micmacs, a tribe of Indians in +British North America. This plant is indigenous, perennial, and is found +from the coast of Labrador to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, growing +in great abundance on wet, marshy ground. The use of this plant is +becoming quite general, and good results have almost uniformly attended +it. + +Take from one to two ounces of the dried root, and slice in thin pieces; +place in an earthen pot; add a quart of cold water, and allow the liquid +to simmer gently over a steady fire for two or three hours, so as to +lose one-fourth of the quantity. Give of this decoction three +wine-glassfuls at once, and the same quantity from four to six hours +afterwards, when a cure will generally be affected. Weaker and smaller +doses are certain preventives of the disease. The public are indebted to +Dr. Morris, physician to the Halifax (Nova Scotia) Dispensary, for the +manner of preparing this eminently useful article. + + +SORE FACE. + +Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John's wort, frequently exhibit +an irritation of skin about the nose and face, which causes the hair to +drop off from the parts. The irritation sometimes extends over the +entire body. If this plant is eaten in too large quantities, it produces +violent inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, +and sometimes to adults. + +_Treatment._ Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If +there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, this should be put +into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick. Abundance of salt is +deemed a _preventive_. + + +SORE MOUTH. + +The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter, and +swell to the thickness of a man's hand. The malady occasionally attacks +whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. It is usually attributed to +noxious weeds cut with the hay. + +_Treatment._ Daub the lips and mouth plentifully with tar. + + +TICKS. + +The treatment necessary as a preventive against these insects, and a +remedy for them, has already been indicated under the head of "FEEDING +AND MANAGEMENT," to which the reader is referred. + + + + + SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. + + + + +[Illustration] + +HISTORY AND BREEDS. + + +The hog is a cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every climate; +though its natural haunts--like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, +the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals--are in warm +countries. They are most abundant in China, the East Indies, and the +immense range of islands extending throughout the whole Southern and +Pacific oceans; but they are also numerous throughout Europe, from its +Southern coast to the Russian dominions within the Arctic. + +As far back as the records of history extend, this animal appears to +have been known, and his flesh made use of as food. Nearly fifteen +hundred years before Christ, Moses gave those laws to the Israelites +which have given rise to so much discussion; and it is evident that, had +not pork been the prevailing food of that nation at the time, such +stringent commandments and prohibitions would not have been necessary. +The various allusions to this kind of meat, which repeatedly occur in +the writings of the old Greek authors, show the esteem in which it was +held among that nation; and it appears that the Romans made the art of +breeding, rearing, and fattening pigs a study. In fact, the hog was very +highly prized among the early nations of Europe; and some of the +ancients even paid it divine honors. + +The Jews, the Egyptians, and the Mohammedans alone appear to have +abstained from the flesh of swine. The former were expressly denied its +use by the laws of Moses. "And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and +be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean unto you." +Lev. xi. 7. Upon this prohibition, Mohammed, probably, founded his own. +For the Mosaic prohibition, various reasons have been assigned: the +alleged extreme filthiness of the animal; it being afflicted with a +leprosy; the great indigestibility of its flesh in hot climates; the +intent to make the Jews "a peculiar people;" a preventive of gluttony; +and an admonition of abstinence from sensual and disgusting habits. + +At what period the animal was reclaimed from his wild State, and by what +nation, cannot be stated. From the earliest times, in England, the hog +has been regarded as a very important animal, and vast herds were tended +by swineherds, who watched over their safety in the woods, and collected +them under shelter at night. Its flesh was the staple article of +consumption in every household, and much of the wealth of the rich and +free portion of the community consisted in these animals. Hence bequests +of swine, with land for their support, were often made; rights and +privileges connected with their feeding, and the extent of woodland to +be occupied by a given number, were granted according to established +rules. Long after the end of the Saxon dynasty, the practice of feeding +swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was continued till the +forests were cut down, and the land laid open for the plough. + +Nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions in a forest +country. By his burrowing after roots and the like, he turns up and +destroys the larvae of innumerable insects, which would otherwise injure +the trees as well as their fruit. He destroys the slug-snail and adder, +and thus not only rids the forests of these injurious and unpleasant +inhabitants, but also makes them subservient to his own nourishment, and +therefore to the benefit of mankind. The fruits which he eats are such +as would otherwise rot on the ground and be wasted, or yield nutriment +to vermin; and his diggings for earth-nuts and the like, loosens the +soil, and benefits the roots of the trees. Hogs in forest land may, +therefore, be regarded as eminently beneficial; and it is only the abuse +which is to be feared. + +The hog is popularly regarded as a stupid, brutal, rapacious, and filthy +animal, grovelling and disgusting in all his habits, intractable and +obstinate in temper. The most offensive epithets among men are borrowed +from him, or his peculiarities. In their native state, however, swine +seem by no means destitute of natural affections; they are gregarious, +assemble together in defence of each other, herd together for warmth, +and appear to have feelings in common; no mother is more tender to her +young than the sow, or more resolute in their defence. Neglected as this +animal has ever been by authors, recorded instances are not wanting of +their sagacity, tractability, and susceptibility of affection. Among the +European peasantry, where the hog is, so to speak, one of the family, he +may often be seen following his master from place to place, and grunting +his recognition of his protectors. + +The hog, in point of actual fact, is also a much more cleanly animal +than he has the credit of being. He is fond of a good, cleanly bed; and +when this is not provided for him, it is oftentimes interesting to note +the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for himself. It is, +however, so much the vogue to believe that he may be kept in any state +of neglect, that the terms "pig," and "pig-sty" are usually regarded as +synonymous with all that is dirty and disgusting. His rolling in the mud +is cited as a proof of his filthy habits. This practice, which he shares +in common with all the pachydermatous animals, is undoubtedly the +teaching of instinct, and for the purpose of cooling himself and keeping +off flies. + +Pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will nestle +together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle vehemently to +secure the warmest berth. They are likewise peculiarly sensitive of +approaching changes in the weather, and may often be observed suddenly +leaving the places in which they had been quietly feeding, and running +off to their styes at full speed, making loud outcries. When storms are +overhanging, they collect straw in their mouths, and run about as if +inviting their companions to do the same; and if there is a shed or +shelter near at hand, they will carry it there and deposit it, as if for +the purpose of preparing a bed. + +In their domesticated state, they are, undeniably, very greedy animals; +eating is the business of their lives; nor do they appear to be very +delicate as to the kind or quality of food which is placed before them. +Although naturally herbivorous animals, they have been known to devour +carrion with all the voracity of beasts of prey, to eat and mangle +infants, and even gorge their appetites with their own young. It is not, +however, unreasonable to believe that the last revolting act--rarely if +ever happening in a state of nature--arises more from the pain and +irritation produced by the state of confinement, and often filth, in +which the animal is kept, and the disturbances to which it is subjected, +than from any actual ferocity; for it is well known that a sow is always +unusually irritable at this period, snapping at all animals that +approach her. If she is gently treated, properly supplied with +sustenance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there is little danger +of this practice ever happening. + +All the offences which swine commit are attributed to a disposition +innately bad; whereas they too often arise from bad management, or total +neglect. They are legitimate objects for the sport of idle boys, hunted +with curs, pelted with stones, often neglected and obliged to find a +meal for themselves, or wander about half-starved. Made thus the +Ishmaelites of our domestic animals, is it a matter of wonder that they +should, under such circumstances, incline to display Ishmaelitish +traits? In any well-regulated farm-yard, the swine are as tractable and +as little disposed to wander or trespass as any of the animals that it +contains. + +The WILD BOAR is generally admitted to be the parent of the stock from +which all our domesticated breeds and varieties have sprung. This animal +is generally of a dusky brown or iron-gray color, inclining to black, +and diversified with black spots or streaks. The body is covered with +coarse hairs, intermixed with a downy wool; these hairs become bristles +as they approach the neck and shoulders, and are in those places so long +as to form a mane, which the animal erects when irritated. The head is +short, the forehead broad and flat, the ears short, rounded at the tips, +and inclined toward the neck, the jaw armed with sharp, crooked tusks, +which curve slightly upward, and are capable of inflicting fearful +wounds, the eye full, neck thick and muscular, the shoulders high, the +loins broad, the tail stiff, and finished off with a tuft of bristles at +the tip, the haunch well turned, and the leg strong. A full-grown wild +boar in India averages from thirty to forty inches in height at the +shoulder; the African wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty inches +high. + +The wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and becomes fiercer +as he grows older. When existing in a state of nature, he is generally +found in moist, shady, and well-wooded situations, not far remote from +streams or water. In India, they are found in the thick jungles, in +plantations of sugar-cane or rice, or in the thick patches of high, long +grass. In England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, their resorts have +been in the woods and forests. This animal is naturally herbivorous, +and appears to feed by choice upon plants, fruits, and roots. He will, +however, eat the worms and larvae which he finds in the ground, also +snakes and other such reptiles, and the eggs of birds. They seldom quit +their coverts during the day, but prowl about in search of food during +twilight and the night. Their acute sense of smell enables them to +detect the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil, and +they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground in search +of them, particularly as they do not, like the common hog, root up a +little spot here and there, but plough long, continuous, furrows. + +The wild boar, properly so called, is neither a solitary nor a +gregarious animal. For the first two or three years, the whole herd +follows the sow, and all unite in defence against any enemies, calling +upon each other with loud cries in case of emergency, and forming in +regular line of battle, the weakest occupying the rear. When arrived at +maturity, the animals wander alone, as if in perfect consciousness of +their strength, and appear as if they neither sought nor avoided any +living creature. They are reputed to live about thirty years; as they +grow old, the hair becomes gray, and the tusks begin to show symptoms of +decay. Old boars rarely associate with a herd, but seem to keep apart +from the rest, and from each other. + +The female produces but one litter in the year, much smaller in number +than those of the domestic pig; she carries her young sixteen or twenty +weeks, and generally is only seen with the male during the rutting +season. She suckles her young for several months, and continues to +protect them for some time afterward; if attacked at that time, she will +defend herself and them with exceeding courage and fierceness. Many +sows will often be found herding together, each followed by her litter +of young; and in such parties they are exceedingly formidable to man and +beast. Neither they nor the boar, however, seem desirous of attacking +any thing; and only when roused by aggression, or disturbed in their +retreat, do they turn upon their enemies and manifest the mighty +strength with which Nature has endowed them. When attacked by dogs, the +wild boar at first sullenly retreats, turning upon them from time to +time and menacing them with his tusks; but gradually his anger rises, +and at length he stands at bay, fights furiously for his life, and tears +and rends his persecutors. He has even been observed to single out the +most tormenting of them, and rush savagely upon him. Hunting this animal +has been a favorite sport, in almost all countries in which it has been +found, from the earliest ages. + +[Illustration: THE WILD BOAR AT BAY.] + +Wild boars lingered in the forests of England and Scotland for several +centuries after the Norman conquest, and many tracts of land in those +countries derived their name from this circumstance; while instances of +valor in their destruction are recorded in the heraldic devices of many +of their noble families. The precise period at which the animal became +exterminated there cannot be precisely ascertained. They had, however, +evidently been long extinct in the time of Charles I., since he +endeavored to re-introduce them, and was at considerable expense to +procure a wild boar and his mate from Germany. They still exist in Upper +Austria, on the Syrian Alps, in many parts of Hungary, and in the +forests of Poland, Spain, Russia, and Sweden; and the inhabitants of +those countries hunt them with hounds, or attack them with fire-arms, or +with the proper boar-spear. + +All the varieties of the domestic hog will breed with the wild boar; the +period of gestation is the same in the wild and the tame sow; their +anatomical structure is identical; their general form bears the same +characters; and their habits, so far as they are not changed by +domestication, remain the same. Where individuals of the pure wild race +have been caught young and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic +pig, their fierceness has disappeared, they have become more social and +less nocturnal in their habits, lost their activity, and lived more to +eat. In the course of one or two generations, even the form undergoes +certain modifications; the body becomes larger and heavier; the legs +shorter, and less adapted for exercise; the formidable tusks of the +boar, being no longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear; the shape +of the head and neck alters; and in character as well as in form, the +animal adapts itself to its situation. Nor does it appear that a return +to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance; for, +in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man, and bred +in the wilderness and woods, not a single instance is on record in which +they have resumed the habits and form of the wild boar. They, indeed, +become fierce, wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon roots and fruits; +but they are, notwithstanding, merely degenerated swine, and they still +associate together in herds, and do not walk solitary and alone, like +their grim ancestors. + + +AMERICAN SWINE. + +In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its +earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market has been found for +pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. +Swine are not, however, indigenous to this country, but were doubtless +originally brought hither by the early English settlers; and the breed +thus introduced may still be distinguished by the traces they retain of +their parent stock. France, also, as well as Spain, and, during the +existence of the slave-trade, Africa, have also combined to furnish +varieties of this animal, so much esteemed throughout the whole of the +country, as furnishing a valuable article of food. For nearly twenty +years following the commencement of the general European wars, soon +after the organization of our national government, pork was a +comparatively large article of commerce; but exports for a time +diminished, and it was not until within a more recent period that this +staple has been brought up to its former standard as an article of +exportation to that country. The recent use which has been made of its +carcass in converting it into lard oil, has tended to still further +increase its consumption. By the census of 1860, there were upward of +thirty-two and a half millions of these animals in the United States. + +They are reared in every part of the Union, and, when properly managed, +always at a fair profit. At the extreme North, in the neighborhood of +large markets, and on such of the Southern plantations as are +particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond +the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food +produced. Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or +orchard; since, with little additional food besides what is thus +afforded, they can be put in good condition for the butcher. + +On the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, however, where Indian +corn is raised in profusion and at small expense, they can be reared in +the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The Scioto, Miami, +Wabash, Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, +Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining States, have for many years +taken the lead in the production of Swine; and it is probable that the +climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as +well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them to hold their +position as the leading pork-producers of the North American Continent. + +The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous; and, like our native +cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst, to be +found among the species. Great attention has been paid, for many years, +to their improvement in the Eastern States; and nowhere are there better +specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended +West and South; and among most of the intelligent farmers, who make them +a leading object of attention, on their rich corn-grounds, swine have +attained a high degree of excellence. This does not consist in the +introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the +breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such +meritorious individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within +their reach. + + +THE BYEFIELD. + +This breed was formerly in high repute in the Eastern States, and did +much good among the species generally. They are white, with fine curly +hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad +backs, and at fifteen months attaining some three hundred to three +hundred and fifty pounds net. + + +THE BEDFORD. + +The Bedford or Woburn is a breed originating with the Duke of Bedford, +on his estate at Woburn, and brought to their perfection, probably, by +judicious crosses of the Chinese hog on some of the best English swine. +A pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present to General +Washington; but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger, in +Maryland, in which State, and in Pennsylvania, they were productive of +much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through +different States. Several other importations of this breed have been +made at various times, and especially by the enterprising masters of the +Liverpool packets, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a large, +spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and +fattening. This is an exceedingly valuable hog, but nearly extinct, both +in England and in this country, as a breed. + + +THE LEICESTER. + +The old Leicestershire breed, in England, was a perfect type of the +original hogs of the midland counties; large, ungainly, slab-sided +animals, of a light color, and spotted with brown or black. The only +good parts about them were their heads and ears, which showed greater +traces of breeding than any other portions. These have been materially +improved by various crosses, and the original breed has nearly lost all +its peculiarities and defects. They may now be characterized as a large, +white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow +in maturing. Some varieties differ essentially in these particulars, and +mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses with small +compact breeds are generally thrifty, desirable animals. + + +THE YORKSHIRE. + +The old Yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, and one of +the most unprofitable for a farmer, being greedy feeders, difficult to +fatten, and unsound in constitution. They were of a dirty white or +yellow color, spotted with black, had long legs, flat sides, narrow +backs, weak loins, and large bones. Their hair was short and wirey, and +intermingled with numerous bristles about the head and neck, and their +ears long. When full grown and fat, they seldom weighed more than from +three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds. + +These have been crossed with pigs of the improved Leicester breed; and +where the crossings have been judiciously managed, and not carried too +far, a fine race of deep-sided, short-legged, thin-haired animals has +been obtained, fattening kindly, and rising to a weight of from two +hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds, when killed between one and +two years old; and when kept over two years, reaching even from five +hundred to seven hundred pounds. + +They have also been crossed with the Chinese, Neapolitan, and Berkshire +breeds, and hardy, profitable, well-proportioned animals thereby +obtained. The original breed, in its purity, size, and defectiveness, is +now hardly to be met with, having shared the fate of the other large old +breeds, and given place to smaller and more symmetrical animals. The +_Yorkshire white_ is among the large breeds deserving commendation among +us. To the same class belong also the large _Miami white_, and the +_Kenilworth_; each frequently attaining, when dressed, a weight of from +six hundred to eight hundred pounds. + + +THE CHINESE. + +This hog is to be found in the south-eastern countries of Asia, as Siam, +Cochin China, the Burman Empire, Cambodia, Malacca, Sumatra, and in +Batavia, and other Eastern islands; and is, without doubt, the parent +stock of the best European and American swine. + +There are two distinct varieties, the _white_ and the _black_; both +fatten readily, but from their diminutive size attain no great weight. +They are small in limb, round in body, short in the head, wide in the +cheek, and high in the chime; covered with very fine bristles growing +from an exceedingly thin skin; and not peculiarly symmetrical, since, +when fat, the head is so buried in the neck that little more than the +tip of the snout is visible. The pure Chinese is too delicate and +susceptible to cold ever to become a really profitable animal in this +country; it is difficult to rear, and the sows are not good nurses; but +one or two judicious crosses have, in a manner, naturalized it. This +breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quantity of +food; the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does not make good bacon, +and is often too fat and oily to be generally esteemed as pork. They are +chiefly kept by those who rear sucking-pigs for the market, as they make +excellent roasters at three weeks or a month old. Five, and even seven, +varieties of this breed are distinguished, but these are doubtless the +results of different crosses with our native kinds; among these are +black, white, black and white, spotted, blue and white, and sandy. + +[Illustration: THE CHINESE HOG.] + +Many valuable crosses have been made with these animals; for the +prevalent fault of the old English breeds having been coarseness of +flesh, unwieldiness of form, and want of aptitude to fatten, an +admixture of the Chinese breed has materially corrected these defects. +Most of our smaller breeds are more or less indebted to the Asiatic +swine for their present compactness of form, the readiness with which +they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their early maturity; but +these advantages are not considered, in the judgment of some, as +sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size, the +increased delicacy of the animals, and the decrease of number in the +litters. The best cross is between the Berkshire and Chinese. + + +THE SUFFOLK. + +The old Suffolks are white in color, long-legged, long-bodied, with +narrow backs, broad foreheads, short hams, and an abundance of bristles. +They are by no means profitable animals. A cross between the Suffolk and +Lincoln has produced a hardy animal, which fattens kindly, and attains +the weight of from four hundred to five hundred and fifty, and even +seven hundred pounds. Another cross, much approved by farmers, is that +of the Suffolk and Berkshire. + +[Illustration: THE SUFFOLK PIG.] + +There are few better breeds, perhaps, than the improved Suffolk--that +is, the Suffolk crossed with the Chinese. The greater part of the pigs +on the late Prince Albert's farm, near Windsor, were of this breed. They +are well-formed, compact, of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, +short legs, small heads, and fat cheeks. Many, at a year or fifteen +months old, weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds; +at which age they make fine bacon hogs. The sucking-pigs are also very +delicate and delicious. + +Those arising from Berkshire and Suffolk are not so well shaped as the +latter, being coarser, longer-legged, and more prominent about the hips. +They are mostly white, with thin, fine hair; some few are spotted, and +are easily kept in fine condition; they have a decided aptitude to +fatten early, and are likewise valuable as store-pigs. + + +THE BERKSHIRE. + +[Illustration: A BERKSHIRE BOAR.] + +The Berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are distinguished by +their color, which is a sandy or whitish brown, spotted regularly with +dark brown or black spots, and by their having no bristles. The hair is +long, thin, somewhat curly, and looks rough; the ears are fringed with +long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a ragged or feathery +appearance; the body is thick, compact, and well formed; the legs short, +the sides broad, the head well set on, the snout short, the jowl thick, +the ears erect, skin exceedingly thin in texture, the flesh firm and +well flavored, and the bacon very superior. This breed has generally +been considered one of the best in England, on account of its smallness +of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood, +and the females being good breeders. Hogs of the pure original breed +have been known to weigh from eight hundred to nine hundred and fifty +pounds. + +Numerous crosses have been made from this breed; the principal foreign +ones are those with the Chinese and Neapolitan swine, made with the view +of decreasing the size of the animal, improving the flavor of the flesh, +and rendering it more delicate; and the animals thus attained are +superior to almost any others in their aptitude to fatten; but are very +susceptible to cold, from being almost entirely without hair. A cross +with the Suffolk and Norfolk also is much improved, which produces a +hardy kind, yielding well when sent to the butcher; although, under most +circumstances, the pure Berkshire is the best. + +No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, +within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, and they have +produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. They weigh +variously, from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net, at +sixteen months, according to their food and style of breeding; and some +full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred pounds. They +particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and heavy, and +contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best +flavor. + +None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it +is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department +of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are obliged to import most of +what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This improvement is +manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow +to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing +face, delicate muzzle, and wild eye; and in the short legs, low flanks, +deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity. + + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG. + +[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE HOG AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. + +1. The lower jaw. 2. The teeth. 3. The nasal bones. 4. The upper jaw. 5. +The frontal bone. 6. The orbit or socket of the eye. 7. The occipital +bone. 8. The first vertebrae of the neck. 9. The vertebrae of the neck. +10. The vertebrae of the back. 11. The vertebrae of the loins. 12. The +bones of the tail. 13, 14. The true and false ribs. 15. The +shoulder-blade. 16. The round shoulder-bone 17. The breast-bone. 18. The +elbow. 19. The bone of the fore-arm. 20. The navicular bone. 21. The +first and second bones of the foot. 22. The bones of the hoof. 23. The +haunch bones. 24. The thigh bone. 25. The stifle bone. 26. The upper +bone of the leg. 27. The hock bones. 28. The navicular bone. 29. The +first digits of the foot. 30. The second digits of the foot.] + + DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. + CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. + ORDER. _Pachydermata_--thick-skinned. + FAMILY. _Suidae_--the swine kind. + GENUS. _Sus_--the hog. Of this genus there are five +varieties. + _Sus Scropa_, or Domestic Hog. + _Sus Papuensis_, or Bene. + _Sus Guineensis_, or Guinea Hog. + _Sus Africanus_, or Masked Boar. + _Sus Babirussa_, or Babirussa. + +A very slight comparison of the face of this animal with that of any +other will prove that strength is the object in view--strength toward +the inferior part of the bone. In point of fact, the snout of the hog is +his spade, with which, in his natural state, he digs and ruts in the +ground for roots, earth-nuts, worms, etc. To render this implement more +nearly perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone, being +connected with it by strong ligaments, cartilages, and muscles, and +termed the snout-bone, or spade-bone, or ploughshare. By it and its +cartilaginous attachment, the snout is rendered strong as well as +flexible, and far more efficient than it otherwise could be; and the hog +often continues to give both farmers and gardeners very unpleasant +proofs of its efficiency, by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-sown +fields, and grubbing up the soil in all directions in quest of living +and dead food. + +As roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food of the +hog, his face terminates in this strong, muscular snout, insensible at +the extremity, and perfectly adapted for turning up the soil. There is a +large plexus or fold of nerves proceeding down each side of the nose; +and in these, doubtless, resides that peculiar power which enables the +hog to select his food, though buried some inches below the surface of +the ground. The olfactory nerve is likewise large, and occupies a middle +rank between that of the herbivorous and carnivorous animals; it is +comparatively larger than that of the ox; indeed, few animals--with the +exception of the dog, none--are gifted with a more acute sense of smell +than the hog. To it epicures are indebted for the truffles which form +such a delicious sauce, for they are the actual finders. A pig is turned +into a field, allowed to pursue his own course, and watched. He stops, +and begins to grub up the earth; the man hurries up, drives him away, +and secures the truffle, which is invariably growing under that spot; +and the poor pig goes off to sniff out another, and another, only now +and then being permitted, by way of encouragement, to reap the fruits of +his research. + + +FORMATION OF THE TEETH. + +The hog has fourteen _molar_ teeth in each jaw, six _incisors_, and two +_canines_; these latter are curved upward, and commonly denominated +_tushes_. The molar teeth are all slightly different in structure, and +increase in size from first to last; they bear no slight resemblance to +those of the human being. The incisors are so fantastic in form that +they cannot well be described, and their destined functions are by no +means clear. Those in the lower jaw are long, round, and nearly +straight; of those in the upper jaw, four closely resemble the +corresponding teeth in the horse; while the two corner incisors bear +something of the shape of those of the dog. These latter are placed so +near the tushes as often to obstruct their growth, and it is sometimes +necessary to draw them, in order to relieve the animal and enable him to +feed. + +The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw; by the time he +is three or four months old, he is provided with his incisive milk-teeth +and the tushes; the supernumerary molars protrude between the fifth and +seventh month, as does the first back molar; the second back molar is +cut at about the age of ten months; and the third, generally, not until +the animal is three years old. The upper corner teeth are shed at about +the age of six or eight months; and the lower ones at about seven, nine, +or ten months old, and replaced by the permanent ones. The milk tushes +are also shed and replaced between six and ten months old. The age of +twenty months, and from that to two years, is denoted by the shedding +and replacement of the middle incisors, or _pincers_, in both jaws, and +the formation of a black circle at the base of each of the tushes. At +about two years and a half or three years of age, the adult middle teeth +in both jaws protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded at +the ends. + +After three years, the age may be computed by the growth of the tushes; +at about four years, or rather before, the upper tushes begin to raise +the lip; at five, they protrude through the lips; and at six years, the +tushes of the lower jaw begin to show themselves out of the mouth, and +assume a spiral form. These acquire a prodigious length in old animals, +and particularly in uncastrated boars; and as they increase in size, +they become curved backward and outward, and at length are so crooked as +to interfere with the motion of the jaws to such a degree that it is +necessary to cut off those projecting teeth, which is done with the +file, or with nippers. + + + + +[Illustration] + +BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT + + +BREEDING + +In the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, much more attention and +consideration are requisite than is generally imagined. It is as easy, +with a very little judgment and management, to procure a good as an +inferior breed; and the former is much more remunerative, in proportion +to the outlay, than the latter can possibly ever be. + +The object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such an +animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has in view, whether +that is the consumption of certain things which could not otherwise be +so well disposed of, the converting into hams, bacon, and pork, or the +raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market. Almost all farmers +keep one or more pigs to devour the offal and refuse, which would +otherwise be wasted. This is, however, a matter totally distinct from +breeding swine. In the former case, the animal or animals are purchased +young for a small price, each person buying as many as he considers he +shall have food enough for, and then sold to the butcher, or killed, +when in proper condition; and thus a certain degree of profit is +realized. In the latter, many contingencies must be taken into account: +the available means of feeding them; whether or not the food may be more +profitably disposed of; the facilities afforded by railroads, the +vicinity of towns, or large markets, etc., for disposing of them. + +In the breeding of swine, as much as that of any other livestock, it is +important to pay great attention, not only to the breed, but also to the +choice of individuals. The sow should produce a great number of young +ones, and she must be well fed to enable her to support them. Some sows +bring forth ten, twelve, or even fifteen pigs at a birth; but eight or +nine is the usual number; and sows which produce fewer than this must be +rejected. It is, however, probable that fecundity depends also on the +boar; he should, therefore, be chosen from a race which multiplies +quickly. + +If a bacon and a late market be objects, the large and heavy varieties +should be selected, care being taken that the breed has the character of +possessing those qualities most likely to insure a heavy return--growth, +and facility of taking fat. Good one-year bacon-hogs being in great +demand, they may be known by their long bodies, low bellies, and short +legs. With these qualities are usually coupled long, pendulous ears, +which attract purchasers. If, however, hogs are to be sold at all +seasons to the butchers, the animals must attain their full growth and +be ready for killing before they are a year old. This quality is +particularly prominent in the Chinese breed; but among our ordinary +varieties, hogs are often met with better adapted for this purpose than +for producing large quantities of bacon and lard. The Berkshire crossed +with Chinese is an excellent porker. + +The sow should be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape, sound +and free from blemishes and defects. In every case--whether the object +be pork or bacon--the _points_ to be looked for in the _sow_ are a +small, lively head; a broad and deep chest; round ribs; capacious +barrel; a haunch falling almost to the hough; deep and broad loin; ample +hips; and considerable length of body, in proportion to its height. One +qualification should ever be kept in view, and, perhaps, should be the +first point to which the attention should be directed--that is, +smallness of bone. She should have at least twelve teats; for it is +observed that each pig selects a teat for himself and keeps to it, so +that a pig not having one belonging to him would be starved. A good sow +should produce a great number of pigs, all of equal vigor. She must be +very careful of them, and not crush them by her weight; above all, she +must not be addicted to eating the after-birth, and, what may often +follow, her own young. If a sow is tainted with those bad habits, or if +she has difficult labors, or brings forth dead pigs, she must be spayed +forthwith. It is, therefore, well to bring up several young sows at +once, so as to keep those only which are free from defects. Breeding +sows and boars should never be raised from defective animals. Sows that +have very low bellies, almost touching the ground, seldom produce large +or fine litters. A good-sized sow is generally considered more likely to +prove a good breeder and nurse, and to farrow more easily and safely +than a small, delicate animal. + +The ancients considered the distinguishing marks of a good _boar_ to be +a small head, short legs, a long body, large thighs and neck, and this +latter part thickly covered with strong, erect bristles. The most +experienced modern breeders prefer an animal with a long, cylindrical +body; small bones; well-developed muscles; a wide chest, which denotes +strength of constitution; a broad, straight back; short head and fine +snout; brilliant eyes; a short, thick neck; broad, well-developed +shoulders; a loose, mellow skin; fine, bright, long hair, and few +bristles; and small legs and hips. Some give the preference to long, +flapping ears; but experience seems to demonstrate that those animals +are best which have short, erect, fine ears. The boar should always be +vigorous and masculine in appearance. + +Few domesticated animals suffer so much from in-and-in breeding as +swine. Where this system is pursued, the number of young ones is +decreased at every litter, until the sows become, in a manner, barren. +This practice also undoubtedly contributes to their liability to +hereditary diseases, such as scrofula, epilepsy, and rheumatism; and +when those possessing any such diseases are coupled, the ruin of the +flock is easily and speedily effected, since they are propagated by +either parent, and always most certainly and in most aggravated form, +when occurring in both. As soon as the slightest degeneracy is observed, +the breed should be crossed from time to time, keeping sight, however, +while so doing, of the end in view. The Chinese will generally be found +the best which can be used for this purpose; since a single cross, and +even two, with one of these animals, will seldom do harm, but often +effect considerable improvements. The best formed of the progeny +resulting from this cross must be selected as breeders, and with them +the old original stock crossed back again. Selection, with judicious and +cautious admixture, is the true secret of forming and improving the +breed. Repeated and indiscriminate crosses are as injurious as an +obstinate adherence to one particular breed, and as much to be avoided. + +The following rules for the selection of the best stock of hogs will +apply to all breeds: + +_Fertility._ In a breeding sow, this quality is essential, and it is one +which is inherited. Besides this, she should be a careful mother. A +young, untried sow will generally display in her tendencies those which +have predominated in the race from which she has descended. Both boar +and sow should be sound, healthy, and in fair, but not over fat, +condition. + +_Form._ Where a farmer has an excellent breed, but with certain defects, +or too long in the limb, or too heavy in the bone, the sire to be +chosen, whether of a pure or of a cross breed, should exhibit the +opposite qualities, even to an extreme; and be, moreover, one of a +strain noted for early and rapid fattening. If in perfect health, young +stock selected for breeding will be lively, animated, hold up the head, +and move freely and nimbly. + +_Bristles._ These should be fine and scanty, so as to show the skin +smooth and glossy; coarse, wirey, rough bristles usually accompany heavy +bones, large, spreading hoofs, and flapping ears, and thus become one of +the indications of a thick-skinned and low breed. + +_Color._ Different breeds of high excellence have their own colors; +white, black, parti-colored, black and white, sandy, mottled with large +marks of black, are the most prevalent. A black skin, with short, scanty +bristles, and small stature, demonstrate the prevalence of the +Neapolitan strain, or the black Chinese, or, perhaps, an admixture of +both. Many prefer white; and in sucking-pigs, destined for the table, +and for porkers, this color has its advantages, and the skin looks more +attractive; it is, however, generally thought that the skin of black +hogs is thinner than that of white, and less subject to eruptive +diseases. + +The influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent progeny by other +males is at times curiously illustrated. This has been noticed in +respect of the sow. A sow of the black and white breed, in one instance, +became pregnant by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color. +The pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar being very +predominant in some. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same +breed as herself, some of the produce were still stained or marked with +the chestnut color which prevailed in the first litter; and the same +occurred after a third impregnation, the boar being then of the same +kind as herself. What adds to the force of this case is, that in the +course of many years' observation, the breed in question was never +known to produce progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color. + +A sow is capable of conceiving at the age of six or seven months; but it +is always better not to let her commence breeding too early, as it tends +to weaken her. From ten to twelve months--and the latter is +preferable--is about the best age. The boar should be, at least, a +twelvemonth old--some even recommend eighteen months, at least--before +he is employed for the purpose of propagating his species. If, however, +the sow has attained her second year, and the boar his third, a vigorous +and numerous offspring is more likely to result. The boar and sow retain +their ability to breed for almost five years; that is, until the former +is upward of eight years old, and the latter seven. It is not advisable, +however, to use a boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow +after her fourth, unless she has proved a peculiarly valuable +breeder--in which case she might produce two or three more litters. + +A boar left on the pasture, at liberty with the sows, might suffice for +thirty or forty of them; but as he is commonly shut up, and allowed +access at stated times only, so that the young ones may be born at +nearly the same time, it is usual to allow him to serve from six to +ten--on no account should he serve more. The best plan is, to shut up +the boar and sow in a sty together; for, when turned in among several +females, he is apt to ride them so often that he exhausts himself +without effect. The breeding boar should be fed well and kept in high +condition, but not fat. Full grown boars being often savage and +difficult to tame, and prone to attack men and animals, should be +deprived of their tusks. + +Whenever it is practicable, it should always be so arranged that the +animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the latter end of +summer, or quite the beginning of autumn. In the former case, the young +pigs will have the run of the early pastures, which will be a benefit to +them, and a saving to their owners; and there will also be more whey, +milk, and other dairy produce which can be spared for them by the time +they are ready to be weaned. In the second case, there will be +sufficient time for the young to have grown and acquired strength before +the cold weather comes on, which is always very injurious to +sucking-pigs. + + +POINTS OF A GOOD HOG. + +It may be not amiss to group together what is deemed desirable under +this head. No one should be led away by mere name in his selection of a +hog. It may be called a Berkshire, or a Suffolk, or any other breed most +in estimation, and yet, in reality, may possess none of this valuable +blood. The only sure way to avoid imposition is, to make _name_ always +secondary to _points_. If a hog is found possessing such points of form +as are calculated to insure early maturity and faculty of taking on +flesh, one needs to care but little by what name he is called; since no +mere name can bestow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities +already indicated. + +The true Berkshire--that possessing a dash of the Chinese and Neapolitan +varieties--comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired standard than any +other. + +The chief points which characterize such a hog are the following:--In +the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, and such an elongation of +body as will insure a sufficient lateral expansion. The loin and breast +should be broad. The breadth of the former denotes good room for the +play of the lungs, and, as a consequence, a free and healthy +circulation, essential to the thriving or fattening of any animal. The +bone should be small, and the joints fine--nothing is more indicative of +high breeding than this; and the legs should be no longer than, when +fully fat, would just prevent the animal's belly from trailing upon the +ground. The leg is the least profitable portion of the hog, and no more +of it is required than is absolutely necessary for the support of the +rest. The feet should be firm and sound; the toes should lie well +together, and press straightly upon the ground; the claws, also, should +be even, upright and healthy. + +The form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or no consequence, it +being generally, perhaps, supposed that a good hog may have an ugly +head; but the head of all animals is one of the very principal points in +which pure or impure breeding will be most obviously indicated. A +high-bred animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at +maturity, to take flesh more easily, and at an earlier period, and, +altogether, to turn out more profitably than one of questionable or +impure stock. Such being the case, the head of the hog is a point by no +means to be overlooked. The description of head most likely to +promise--or, rather to be the accompaniment of--high breeding, is one +not carrying heavy bones, not too flat on the forehead, or possessing a +snout too elongated; the snout should be short, and the forehead rather +convex, curving upward; and the ear, while pendulous, should incline +somewhat forward, and at the same time be light and thin. The carriage +of the pig should also be noticed. If this be dull, heavy, and dejected, +one may reasonably suspect ill health, if not some concealed disorder +actually existing, or just about to break forth; and there cannot be a +more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down, slouching head. Of course, a +fat hog for slaughter and a sow heavy with young, have not much +sprightliness of deportment. + +Color is, likewise, not to be disregarded. Those colors are preferable +which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds. If the hair is +scant, black is desirable, as denoting connection with the Neapolitan; +if too bare of hair, a too intimate alliance with that variety may be +apprehended, and a consequent want of hardihood, which--however +unimportant, if pork be the object--renders such animals a hazardous +speculation for store purposes, on account of their extreme +susceptibility of cold, and consequent liability to disease. If white, +and not too small, they are valuable as exhibiting connection with the +Chinese. If light, or sandy, or red with black marks, the favorite +Berkshire is detected; and so on, with reference to every possible +variety of hue. + + +TREATMENT DURING PREGNANCY. + +Sows with pigs should be well and judiciously fed; that is to say, they +should have a sufficiency of wholesome, nutritious food to maintain +their strength and keep them in good condition, but should by no means +be allowed to get fat; as when they are in high condition, the dangers +of parturition are enhanced, the animal is more awkward and liable to +smother and crush her young, and, moreover, never has as much or as good +milk as a leaner sow. She should also have a separate sty; for swine are +prone to lie so close together that, if she is even among others, her +young would be in great danger; and this sty should be perfectly clean +and comfortably littered, but not so thickly as to admit of the young +being able to bury themselves in the straw. + +As the time of her farrowing approaches, she should be well supplied +with food, especially if she be a young sow, and this her first litter, +and also carefully watched, in order to prevent her devouring the +after-birth, and thus engendering a morbid appetite which will next +induce her to fall upon her own young. A sow that has once done this can +never afterward be depended upon. Hunger, thirst, or irritation of any +kind, will often induce this unnatural conduct, which is another reason +why a sow about to farrow should have a sty to herself, and be carefully +attended to, and have all her wants supplied. + + +ABORTION. + +This is by no means of so common occurrence in the case of the sow as in +many other of the domesticated animals. Various causes tend to produce +it: insufficiency of food, eating too much succulent vegetable food, or +unwholesome, unsubstantial diet; blows and falls; and the animal's habit +of rubbing itself against hard bodies, for the purpose of allaying the +irritation produced by the vermin or cutaneous eruptions to which it is +subject. Reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in +the sow; at least to the extent it does in other animals. + +The symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are similar to those of +parturition, but more intense. There are, generally, restlessness, +irritation, and shivering; and the cries of the animal evince the +presence of severe labor-pains. Sometimes the rectum, vagina, or +uterus, becomes relaxed, and one or the other protrudes, and often +becomes inverted at the moment of the expulsion of the f[oe]tus, +preceded by the placenta, which presents itself foremost. + +Nothing can be done, at the last hour, to prevent abortion; but, from +the first, every predisposing cause should be removed. The treatment +will depend upon circumstances. Where the animal is young, vigorous, and +in high condition, bleeding will be beneficial--not a copious +blood-letting, but small quantities taken at different times; purgatives +may also be administered. If, when abortion has taken place, the whole +of the litter was not born, emollient injections may be resorted to with +considerable benefit; otherwise, the after treatment should be made the +same as in parturition, and the animal should be kept warm, quiet, and +clean, and allowed a certain degree of liberty. Whenever one sow has +aborted, the causes likely to have produced this accident should be +sought, and an endeavor made, by removing them, to secure the rest of +the inmates of the piggery from a similar mishap. + +In cases of abortion, the f[oe]tus is seldom born alive, and often has +been dead for some days; where this is the case--which may be readily +detected by a peculiarly unpleasant putrid exhalation, and the discharge +of a fetid liquid from the vagina--the parts should be washed with a +diluted solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one part of +chloride to three parts of water, and a portion of this lotion gently +injected into the uterus, if the animal will submit to it. Mild doses of +Epsom salts, tincture of gentian, and Jamaica ginger, will also act +beneficially in such cases, and, with attention to diet, soon restores +the animal. + + +PARTURITION. + +The period of gestation varies according to age, constitution, food, and +the peculiarities of the individual breed. The most usual period during +which the sow carries her young is, according to some, three months, +three weeks, and three days, or one hundred and eight days; according to +others, four lunar months, or sixteen weeks, or about one hundred and +thirteen days. It may safely be said to range from one hundred and nine +to one hundred and forty-three days. + +[Illustration: WILD HOGS.] + +The sow produces from eight to thirteen young at a litter, and sometimes +even more. Young and weakly sows not only produce fewer pigs, but farrow +earlier than those of maturer age and sounder condition; and besides, as +might be expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor, oftentimes, +indeed, puny and feeble. Extraordinary fecundity is not however, +desirable, for nourishment cannot be afforded to more than twelve, the +sow's number of teats. The supernumerary pigs must therefore suffer; if +but one, it is, of course, the smallest and weakest; a too numerous +litter are all, indeed, generally undersized and weakly, and seldom or +never prove profitable; a litter not exceeding ten will usually be found +to turn out most advantageously. On account of the discrepancy between +the number farrowed by different sows, it is a good plan, if it can be +managed, to have more than one breeding at the same time, in order that +the number to be suckled by each may be equalized. The sow seldom +recognizes the presence of a strange little one, if it has been +introduced among the others during her absence, and has lain for half an +hour or so among her own offspring in their sty. + +The approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the immense size of +the belly, by a depression of the back, and by the distention of the +teats. The animal manifests symptoms of acute suffering, and wanders +restlessly about, collecting straw, and carrying it to her sty, grunting +piteously meanwhile. As soon as this is observed, she should be +persuaded into a separate sty, and carefully watched. On no account +should several sows be permitted to farrow in the same place at the same +time, as they will inevitably irritate each other, or devour their own +or one another's young. + +The young ones should be taken away as soon as they are born, and +deposited in a warm spot; for the sow being a clumsy animal, is not +unlikely in her struggles to overlie them; nor should they be returned +to her, until all is over, and the after-birth has been removed, which +should always be done the moment it passes from her; for young sows, +especially, will invariably devour it, if permitted, and then, as the +young are wet with a similar fluid, and smell the same they will eat +them also, one after another. Some advise washing the backs of young +pigs with a decoction of aloes, colocynth, or some other nauseous +substance, as a remedy for this; but the simplest and easiest one is to +remove the little ones until all is over, and the mother begins to +recover herself and seek about for them, when they should be put near +her. Some also recommend strapping up the sow's mouth for the first +three or four days, only releasing it to admit of her taking her meals. + +Some sows are apt to lie upon and crush their young. This may best be +avoided by not keeping her too fat or heavy, and by not leaving too many +young upon her. The straw forming the bed should likewise be short, and +not in too great quantity, lest the pigs get huddled up under it, and +the sow unconsciously overlie them in that condition. + +It does not always happen that the parturition is effected with ease. +Cases of false presentation, of enlarged f[oe]tus, and of debility in +the mother, often render it difficult and dangerous. The womb will +occasionally become protruded and inverted, in consequence of the +forcing pains of difficult parturition, and even the bladder has been +known to come away. These parts must be returned as soon as may be; and +if the womb has come in contact with the dung or litter, and acquired +any dirt, it must first be washed in lukewarm water, and then returned, +and confined in its place by means of a suture passed through the lips +of the orifice. The easiest and perhaps the best way, however, is not to +return the protruded parts at all, but merely tie a ligature round them +and leave them to slough off, which they will do in the course of a few +days, without effusion of blood, or farther injury to the animal. No +sow that has once suffered from protrusion of the womb should be +allowed to breed again. + + +TREATMENT WHILE SUCKLING. + +Much depends upon this; as many a fine sow and promising litter have +been ruined for want of proper and judicious care at this period. +Immediately after farrowing, many sows incline to be feverish; where +this is the case, a light and sparing diet only should be given them for +the first day or two, as gruel, oatmeal porridge, whey, and the like. +Others, again, are very much debilitated, and require strengthening; for +them, strong soup, bread steeped in wine, or in a mixture of brandy and +sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small quantities, will often +prove highly beneficial. + +The rations must gradually be increased and given more frequently; and +they must be composed of wholesome, nutritious, and succulent +substances. All kinds of roots--carrots, turnips, potatoes, and +beet-roots--well steamed or boiled, but never raw, may be given; bran, +barley, and oatmeal, bran-flour, Indian corn, whey, sour, skim, and +butter-milk, are all well adapted for this period; and, should the +animal appear to require it, grain well bruised and macerated may be +added. Whenever it is possible, the sow should be turned out for an hour +each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the fresh air, +exercise, and herbage, will do her immense good. The young pigs must be +shut up for the first ten days or fortnight, after which they will be +able to follow her, and take their share of the benefit. + +The food should be given regularly at certain hours; small and +often-repeated meals are far preferable to large ones, since +indigestion, or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach +vitiates the milk, and produces diarrh[oe]a and other similar affections +in the young. The mother should always be well fed, but not over-fed; +the better and more carefully she is fed, the more abundant and +nutritious will her milk be, the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, +and the less will she be reduced by suckling them. + +When a sow is weakly, and has not a sufficiency of milk, the young pigs +must be taught to feed as early as possible. A kind of gruel, made of +skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, is a good thing for this purpose, or +potatoes, boiled and then mashed in milk or whey, with or without the +addition of a little bran or oatmeal. Toward the period when the pigs +are to be weaned, the sow must be less plentifully fed, otherwise the +secretion of milk will be as great as ever; it will, besides, +accumulate, and there will be hardness, and perhaps inflammation of the +teats. If necessary, a dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying +off the milk; but, in general, a little judicious management in the +feeding and weaning will be all that is required. + + +TREATMENT OF YOUNG PIGS. + +For the first ten days, or a fortnight, the mother will generally be +able to support her litter without assistance, unless, as has been +already observed, she is weakly, or her young are too numerous; in +either of which cases they must be fed from the first. When the young +pigs are about a fortnight old, warm milk should be given to them. In +another week, this may be thickened with some species of farina; and +afterward, as they gain strength and increase in size, boiled roots and +vegetables may be added. As soon as they begin to eat, an open frame or +railing should be placed in the sty under which the little pigs can run, +and on the other side of this should be the small troughs containing +their food; for it never answers to let them eat out of the same trough +with their mother, because the food set before her is generally too +strong and stimulating for them, even if they should secure any of it, +which is, to say the least, extremely doubtful. Those intended to be +killed for sucking-pigs should not be above four weeks old; most kill +them for this purpose on the twenty-first or twenty-second day. The +others, excepting those kept for breeding, should be castrated at the +same time. + + +CASTRATION AND SPAYING. + +Pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them; and, +doubtless, this operation has the desired effect--for at the same time +that it increases the quiescent qualities of the animal, it diminishes +also his courage, spirits, and nobler attributes, and even affects his +form. The tusks of a castrated boar never grow like those of the natural +animal, but always have a dwarfed, stunted appearance. The operation, if +possible, should be performed in the spring or autumn, as the +temperature is the more uniform, and care should be taken that the +animal is in perfect health. Those which are fat and plethoric should be +prepared by bleeding, cooling diet and quiet. Pigs are castrated at all +ages, from a fortnight to three, six and eight weeks, and even four +months old. + +There are various modes of performing this operation. If the pig is not +more than six weeks old, an incision is made at the bottom of the +scrotum, the testicle pushed out, and the cord cut, without any +precautionary means whatever. When the animal is older, there is reason +to fear that hemorrhage, to a greater or less extent, will supervene; +consequently, it will be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a +little above the spot where the division is to take place. + +By another mode--to be practised only on very young animals--a portion +of the base of the scrotum is cut off, the testicles forced out, and the +cord sawn through with a somewhat serrated but blunt instrument. If +there is any hemorrhage, it is arrested by putting ashes in the wound. +The animal is then dismissed and nothing further done with him. + +On animals two and three years old, the operation is some times +performed in the following manner: An assistant holds the pig, pressing +the back of the animal against his chest and belly, keeping the head +elevated, and grasping all the four legs together; or, which is the +preferable way, one assistant holds the animal against his chest, while +another kneels down and secures the four legs. The operator then grasps +the scrotum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision across its +base, opening both divisions of the bag at the same time. The testicles +are then pressed out with his finger and thumb, and removed with a blunt +knife, which lacerates the part without bruising it and rendering it +painful. Laceration only is requisite in order to prevent the subsequent +hemorrhage which would occur, if the cord were simply severed by a sharp +instrument. The wound is then closed by pushing the edges gently +together with the fingers, and it speedily heals. Some break the +spermatic cord without tearing it; they twist it, and then pull it +gently and finally until it gives way. + +In other cases, a waxed cord is passed as tightly as possible round the +scrotum, above the epididymus, which completely stops the circulation, +and in a few days the scrotum and testicles will drop off. This +operation should never be performed on pigs of more than six weeks of +age, and the spermatic should always, first of all, be measured. It, +moreover requires great nicety and skill; otherwise, accidents will +occur, and considerable pain and inflammation be caused. Too thick a +cord, a knot not tied sufficiently tight, or a portion of the testicle +included in the ligature, will prevent its success. + +The most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, or lockjaw, induced +by the shock communicated to the nervous system by the torture of the +operation. + + +SPAYING. + +This operation consists in removing the ovaries, and sometimes a portion +of the uterus, more or less considerable, of the female. The animal is +laid upon its left side, and firmly held by one or two assistants; an +incision is then made into the flank, the forefinger of the right hand +introduced into it, and gently moved about until it encounters and hooks +hold of the right ovary, which it draws through the opening; a ligature +is then passed round this one, and the left ovary felt for in like +manner. The operator then severs these two ovaries, either by cutting or +tearing, and returns the womb and its appurtenances to their proper +position. This being done, he closes the wound with two or three +stitches, sometimes rubs a little oil over it, and releases the animal. +All goes on well, for the healing power of the pig is very great. + +The after-treatment is very simple. The animals should be well littered +with clean straw, in styes weather-tight and thoroughly ventilated; +their diet should be cared for; some milk or whey, with barley-meal is +an excellent article; it is well to confine them for a few days, as they +should be prevented from getting into cold water or mud until the wound +is perfectly healed, and also from creeping through fences. + +The best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks; indeed, as a general +rule, the younger the animal is when either operation is performed the +quicker it recovers. Some persons, however, have two or three litters +from their sows before they operate upon them; where this is the case, +the result is more to be feared, as the parts have become more +susceptible, and are, consequently, more liable to take on inflammation. + + +WEANING. + +Some farmers wean the pigs a few hours after birth, and turn the sow at +once to the boar. The best mode, however, is to turn the boar into the +hog-yard about a week after parturition, at which time the sow should be +removed a few hours daily from her young. It does not injure either the +sow or her pigs if she takes the boar while suckling; but some sows will +not do so until the drying of their milk. + +The age at which pigs may be weaned to the greatest advantage is when +they are about eight or ten weeks old; many, however, wean them as early +as six weeks, but they seldom turn out as well. They should not be taken +from the sow at once, but gradually weaned. At first they should be +removed from her for a certain number of hours each day, and accustomed +to be impelled by hunger to eat from the trough; then they may be turned +out for an hour without her, and afterwards shut up while she also is +turned out by herself. Subsequently, they must only be allowed to suck a +certain number of times in twenty-four hours; perhaps six times at +first, then four, then three, and, at last, only once; and meanwhile +they must be proportionably better and more plentifully fed, and the +mother's diet in a like manner diminished. Some advise that the whole +litter should be weaned at once; this is not best, unless one or two of +the pigs are much weaker and smaller than the others; in such case, if +the sow remain in tolerable condition, they might be suffered to suck +for a week longer; but this should be the exception, and not a general +rule. + +Pigs are more easily weaned than almost any other animals, because they +learn to feed sooner; but attention must, nevertheless, be paid to them, +if they are to grow up strong, healthy animals. Their styes must be +warm, dry, clean, well-ventilated, and weather-tight. They should have +the run of a grass meadow or enclosure for an hour or two every fine +day, in spring and summer, or be turned into the farm-yard among the +cattle in the winter, as fresh air and exercise tend to prevent them +from becoming rickety or crooked in the legs. + +The most nutritious and succulent food that circumstances will permit +should be furnished them. Newly-weaned pigs require five or six meals in +the twenty-four hours. In about ten days, one may be omitted; in another +week, a second; and then they should do with three _regular_ meals each +day. A little sulphur mingled with the food, or a small quantity of +Epsom or Glauber salts dissolved in the water, will frequently prove +beneficial. A plentiful supply of clear, cold water should always be +within their reach; the food left in the trough after the animals have +finished eating should be removed, and the trough thoroughly rinsed out +before any more is put into it. Strict attention should also be paid to +cleanliness. The boars and sows should be kept apart from the period of +weaning. + +The question, which is more profitable, to breed swine, or to buy young +pigs and fatten them, can best be determined by those interested; since +they know best what resources they can command, and what chance of +profits each of these separate branches offers. + + +RINGING. + +This operation is performed to counteract the propensity which swine +have of digging and furrowing up the earth. The ring is passed through +what appears to be a prolongation of the septum, between the +supplemental, or snout-bone, and the nasal. The animal is thus unable to +obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout with any effect, without +causing the ring to press so painfully upon the part that he is forced +to desist. The ring, however, is apt to break, or it wears out in +process of time, and has to be replaced. + +The snout should be perforated at weaning-time, after the animal has +recovered from castration or spaying; and it will be necessary to renew +the operation as it becomes of large growth. It is too generally +neglected at first; but no pigs, young or old, should be suffered to run +at large without this precaution. The sow's ring should be ascertained +to be of sufficient strength previously to her taking the boar, on +account of the risk of abortion, if the operation is renewed while she +is with pig. Care must be taken by the operator not to go too close to +the bone, and that the ring turn easily. + +A far better mode of proceeding is, when the pig is young, to cut +through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations, by which the +supplementary bone is united to the proper nasals. The divided edges of +the cartilage will never re-unite, and the snout always remains +powerless. + + +FEEDING AND FATTENING. + +Roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as well as +in a domesticated state; and it is evident that, however omnivorous it +may occasionally appear, its palate is by no means insensible to the +difference in eatables, since, whenever it finds variety, it will select +the best with as much cleverness as other quadrupeds. Indeed, the hog is +more nice in the selection of his vegetable diet than any of the other +domesticated herbivorous animals. To a certain extent he is omnivorous, +and may be reared on the refuse of slaughter-houses; but such food is +not wholesome, nor is it natural; for, though he is omnivorous, he is +not essentially carnivorous. The refuse of the dairy-farm is more +congenial to his health, to say nothing of the quality of its flesh. + +Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months old; +and for bacon, at from a year to two years. Eighteen months is generally +considered the proper age for a good bacon hog. The feeding will always, +in a great measure, depend upon the circumstances of the owner--upon the +kind of food which he has at his disposal, and can best spare--and the +purpose for which the animal is intended. It will also, in some degree, +be regulated by the season; it being possible to feed pigs very +differently in the summer from what they are fed in the winter. + +The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries and +distilleries, may be given to swine with advantage, and seem to induce a +tendency to lay on flesh. They should not, however, be given in too +large quantities, nor unmixed with other and more substantial food; +since, although they give flesh rapidly when fed on it, the meat is not +firm, and never makes good bacon. Hogs eat acorns and beech-mast +greedily, and so far thrive on this food that it is an easy matter to +fatten them afterwards. Apples and pumpkins are likewise valuable for +this purpose. + +There is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in every way adapted +for the purpose of fattening, as are the various kinds of grain--nothing +that tends more to create firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh. +Indian corn is equal, if not superior, to any kind of grain for +fattening purposes, and can be given in its natural state, as pigs are +so fond of it that they will eat up every kernel. The pork and bacon of +animals that have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid. Animal +food tends to make swine savage and feverish, and often lays the +foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines. Weekly washing +with soap and a brush adds wonderfully to the thriving condition of a +hog. + +In the rich corn regions of our States, upon that grain beginning to +ripen, as it does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable +lots, and large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the +grain at their leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, which in +that land of plenty are considered of little value, and they are still +useful as manure for succeeding crops; and whatever grain is left by +them, leaner droves which follow will readily glean. Peas, early +buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way. + +There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' +keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and the +cost of storage. If fattened early in the season, hogs will consume less +food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will +require less attention; and, generally, early pork will command the +highest price in market. + +It is most economical to provide swine with a fine clover pasture, to +run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have access +to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that +falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to +which add meal, and let it sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than +one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to hogs, is saved by +grinding and cooking, or souring. Care must, however, be taken that the +souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A +mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of +a former fermentation as adhere to the sides or bottom of the vessel, +and exposure to a temperature between sixty-eight and seventy-seven +degrees Fahrenheit, will produce immediate fermentation. + +In this process there are five stages: the _saccharine_, by which the +starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are +converted into sugar; the _vinous_, which changes the sugar into +alcohol; the _mucilaginous_, sometimes taking the place of the vinous, +and occurring where the sugar solution, or fermenting principle, is +weak, producing a slimy, glutinous product; the _acetic_, forming +vinegar, from the vinous or alcoholic stage; and the _putrefactive_, +which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a +poison. The precise points in fermentation, when the food becomes most +profitable for feeding, has not as yet been satisfactorily determined; +but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full +maturity of the acetic, is certain. + +The roots for fattening ought to be washed, and steamed or boiled; and +when not intended to be fermented, the meal may be scalded with the +roots. A small quantity of salt should be added. Potatoes are the best +roots for swine; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian; +sugar-beets; mangel-wurtzels; ruta-bagas; and then white turnips, in the +order mentioned. The nutritive properties of turnips are diffused +through so large a bulk that it is doubtful if they can ever be fed to +fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain life when +fed to them uncooked. + +There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without +cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, +to prevent imperfect mastication, and consequent loss of the food. It is +better, indeed, to have it always before them. The animal machine is an +expensive one to keep in motion; and it should be the object of the +farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate +conversion into fat and muscle. + +The following injunctions should be rigidly observed, if one would +secure the greatest results: + +1. Avoid _foul feeding_. + +2. Do not omit adding _salt_ in moderate quantities to the mess given. + +3. Feed at _regular intervals_. + +4. _Cleanse_ the troughs previous to feeding. + +5. Do not _over-feed_; give only as much as will be consumed at the +meal. + +6. _Vary_ the food. Variety will create, or, at all events, increase +appetite, and it is most conducive to health. Let the variations be +governed by the condition of the _dung_ cast, which should be of a +medium consistence, and of a grayish-brown color; if _hard_, increase +the quantity of bran and succulent roots; if too _liquid_, diminish, or +dispense with bran, and make the mess firmer; add a portion of corn. + +7. Feed the stock _separately_, in classes, according to their relative +conditions. Keep sows with young by themselves; store-hogs by +themselves; and bacon-hogs and porkers by themselves. It is not +advisable to keep the store-hogs too high in flesh, since high feeding +is calculated to retard development of form and bulk. It is better to +feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon _loosely_ and not too +abundantly, until they have attained their full stature; they can then +be brought into the highest possible condition in a surprisingly short +space of time. + +8. Keep the swine _clean_, dry, and warm. Cleanliness, dryness, and +warmth are _essential_, and as imperative as feeding; for an inferior +description of food will, by their aid, succeed far better than the +highest feeding will without them. + + +PIGGERIES. + +Few items conduce more to the thriving and well-being of swine than +airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and above all, cleanliness. +They were formerly too often housed in damp, dirty, close, and +imperfectly-built sheds, which was a fruitful source of disease and of +unthrifty animals. Any place was once thought good enough to keep a pig +in. + +In large establishments, where numerous pigs are kept, there should be +divisions appropriated to all the different kinds; the boars, the +breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the fattening pigs should all be +kept separate; and in the divisions assigned to the second and last of +these classes, it is best to have a distinct apartment for each animal, +all opening into a yard or inclosure of limited extent. As pigs require +warmth, these buildings should face the south, and be kept weather-tight +and well drained. Good ventilation is also important; for it is idle to +expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health, unless they +have a sufficiency of pure air. The blood requires this to give it +vitality and free it from impurities, as much as the stomach requires +wholesome and strengthening food; and when it does not have it, it +becomes vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions. Bad smells and +exhalations, moreover, injure the flavor of the meat. + +Damp and cold floors should be guarded against, as they tend to induce +cramp and diarrh[oe]a; and the roof should be so contrived as to carry +off the wet from the pigs. The walls of a well-constructed sty should be +of solid masonry; the roof sloping, and furnished with spouts to carry +off the rain; the floors either slightly inclined toward a gutter made +to carry off the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or +joists, and perforated so that all urine and moisture shall drain off. +Bricks and tiles, sometimes used for flooring, are objectionable, +because, however well covered with straw, they still strike cold. Wood +is far superior in this respect, as well as because it admits of those +clefts or perforations being made, which serve not only to drain off all +moisture, but also to admit fresh air. + +The manure proceeding from the pig-sty has often been much undervalued, +and for this reason, that the litter is supposed to form the principal +portion of it; whereas it constitutes the least valuable part, and, +indeed, it can scarcely be regarded as manure at all--at least by +itself--where the requisite attention is paid to the cleanliness of the +animals and of their dwellings. The urine and the dung are valuable, +being, from the very nature of the food of the animals, exceedingly rich +and oleaginous, and materially beneficial to cold soils and grass-lands. +The manure from the sty should always be collected as carefully as that +from the stable or cow-house, and husbanded in the same way. + +The door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inward or +outward, so as to give the animals free ingress and egress. For this +purpose, it should be hung across from side to side, and the animal can +push it up to effect its entry or exit; for, if it were hung in the +ordinary way, it would derange the litter every time it opened inward, +and be very liable to hitch. If it is not intended that the pigs shall +leave their sty, there should be an upper and lower door; the former of +which should always be left open when the weather is warm and dry, while +the latter will serve to confine the animal. There should likewise be +windows or slides, which can be opened or closed at will, to give +admission to the fresh air, or exclude rain or cold. + +Wherever it can be managed, the troughs--which should be of stone or +cast metal, since wooden ones will soon be gnawed to pieces--should be +so situated that they can be filled and cleaned from the outside, +without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all; and for this +purpose it is well to have a flap, or door, with swinging hinges, made +to hang horizontally on the trough, so that it can be moved to and fro, +and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of the +manger. When the hogs have fed sufficiently, the door is swung inward +and fastened, and so remains until feeding-time, when the trough is +cleansed and refilled without any trouble, and then the flap drawn back, +and the animals admitted to their food. Some cover the trough with a lid +having as many holes in it as there are pigs to eat from it, which gives +each pig an opportunity of selecting his own hole, and eating away +without interfering with or incommoding his neighbor. + +A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and +evacuations; of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the +highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried +into the first two as possible. The piggery should always be built as +near as possible to that portion of the establishment from which the +chief part of the provision is to come, since much labor will thus be +saved. Washings, and combings, and brushings, as has been previously +suggested, are valuable adjuncts in the treatment of swine; the energies +of the skin are thus roused, the pores opened, the healthful functions +aided, and that inertness, so likely to be engendered by the lazy life +of a fattening pig, counteracted. + +A supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of swine, and +should be freely furnished. If a stream can be brought through the +piggery, it answers better than any thing else. Swine are dirty feeders +and dirty drinkers, usually plunging their fore-feet into the trough or +pail, and thus polluting with mud or dirt whatever may be given to them. +One of the advantages, therefore, to be derived from the stream of +running water is, its being kept constantly clean and wholesome by its +running. If this advantage cannot be procured, it is desirable to +present water in vessels of a size to receive but one head at a time, +and of such height as to render it impossible, or difficult, for the +drinker to get his feet into it. The water should be renewed twice +daily. If swine are closely confined in pens, they should have as much +charcoal twice a week as they will eat, for the purpose of correcting +any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an imperfect +substitute for charcoal. + + +SLAUGHTERING. + +A pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for from twelve +to sixteen hours previous to slaughtering; a little water must, however, +be within his reach. He should, in the first place, be stunned by a blow +on the head. Some advise that the knife should be thrust into the neck +so as to sever the artery leading from the heart; while others prefer +that the animal should be stuck through the brisket in the direction of +the heart--care being exercised not to touch the first rib. The blood +should then be allowed to drain from the carcass into vessels placed for +the purpose; and the more completely it does so, the better will be the +meat. + +A large tub, or other vessel, has been previously got ready, which is +now filled with boiling water. The carcass of the hog is plunged into +this, and the hair is then removed with the edge of a knife. The hair is +more easily removed if the hog is scalded before he stiffens, or becomes +quite cold. It is not, however, necessary, but simply brutal and +barbarous, to scald him while there is yet some life in him. Bacon-hogs +may be singed, by enveloping the body in straw, and setting the straw on +fire, and then scraping it all over. When this is done, care must be +observed not to burn or parch the cuticle. The entrails should then be +removed, and the interior of the body well washed with lukewarm water, +so as to remove all blood and impurities, and afterward wiped dry with a +clean cloth; the carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for +eighteen or twenty hours, to become set and firm. + +[Illustration: THE OLD ENGLISH HOG.] + +For cutting up, the carcass should be laid on the back, upon a strong +table. The head should then be cut off close by the ears, and the +hinder feet so far below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams, and +leave room sufficient for hanging them up; after which the carcass is +divided into equal halves, up the middle of the back bone, with a +cleaving-knife, and, if necessary, a hand-mallet. Then cut the ham from +the side by the second joint of the back-bone, which will appear on +dividing the carcass, and dress the ham by paring a little off the +flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half round point, +clearing off any top fat which may appear. Next cut off the sharp edge +along the back bone with a knife and mallet, and slice off the first rib +next the shoulder, where there is a bloody vein, which must be taken +out, since, if it is left in, that part is apt to spoil. The corners +should be squared off when the ham is cut. The ordinary practice is to +cut out the spine, or back bone. Some take out the chine and upper parts +of the ribs in the first place; indeed, almost every locality has its +peculiar mode of proceeding. + + +PICKLING AND CURING. + +The usual method of curing is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding +brine to the barrel when filled. But it may be dry-salted, by rubbing it +in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber +firmly secured to the palm of the right hand. The pieces are then thrown +into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured; +or it may at once be packed in dry casks, which are rolled at times to +bring the salt into contact with every part. + +Hams and shoulders may be cured in the same manner either dry or in +pickle, but with differently arranged materials. The following is a +good pickle for two hundred pounds: Take fourteen pounds of Turk's +Island salt; one-half pound of saltpetre; two quarts of molasses, or +four pounds of brown sugar; with water enough to dissolve them. Bring +the liquor to the scalding-point, and skim off all the impurities which +rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be +perfectly cool, but not frozen, and closely packed; if not sufficient to +cover it, add pure water for this purpose. Some extensive packers of +choice hams add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves. + +The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then should be +hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from ten +to twenty days, according to the quantity of smoke. The fire should not +be near enough to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is +made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry +chamber. This is, undoubtedly, the best mode of smoking. The hams should +at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green +sugar-maple chips are best for smoke; next to them are hickory, sweet +birch, corn-cobs, white ash, or beech. + +The smoke-house is the best place in which to keep hams until they are +wanted. If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. +A canvas cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a +whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be +kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, +without injury. A common method is to pack in dry oats, baked saw-dust, +etc. + +The following is the method in most general use in several of the +Western States. The chine is taken out, as also the spare-ribs from +the shoulders, and the mouse-pieces and short-ribs, or griskins, +from the middlings. No acute angles should be left to shoulders or +hams. In salting up, all the meat, except the heads, joints, and +chines, and smaller pieces, is put into powdering-tubs--water-tight +half-hogsheads--or into large troughs, ten feet long and three or four +feet wide at the top, made of the poplar tree. The latter are much more +convenient for packing the meat in, and are easily caulked, if they +should crack so as to leak. The salting-tray--or box in which the meat +is to be salted, piece by piece, and from which each piece, as it is +salted, is to be transferred to the powdering-tub, or trough--must be +placed just so near the trough that the man standing between can +transfer the pieces from one to the other easily, and without wasting +the salt as they are lifted from the salting-box into the trough. The +salter stands on the off-side of the salting-box. The hams should be +salted first, the shoulders next, and the middlings last, which may be +piled up two feet above the top of the trough or tub. The joints will +thus in a short time be immersed in brine. + +Measure into the salting-tray four measures of salt--a peck measure will +be found most convenient--and one measure of clean, dry, sifted ashes; +mix, and incorporate them well. The salter takes a ham into the tray, +rubs the skin, and the raw end with his composition, turns it over, and +packs the composition of salt and ashes on the fleshy side till it is at +least three-quarters of an inch deep all over it; and on the interior +lower part of the ham, which is covered with the skin, as much as will +lie on it. The man standing ready to transfer the pieces, deposits it +carefully, without disturbing the composition, with the skin-side down, +in the bottom of the trough. Each succeeding ham is then deposited, side +by side, so as to leave the least possible space unoccupied. + +When the bottom is wholly covered, see that every visible part of this +layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes. Then +begin another layer, every piece being covered on the upper or fleshy +side three-quarters of an inch thick with the composition. When the +trough is filled, even full, in this way, with the joints, salt the +middlings with salt only, without the ashes, and pile them up on the +joints so that the liquified salt may pass from them into the trough. +Heads, joints, back bones, etc., receive salt only, and should not be +put in the trough with the large pieces. + +Much slighter salting will preserve them, if they are salted upon loose +boards, so that the bloody brine from them can pass off. The joints and +middlings are to remain in and above the trough without being +re-handled, re-salted, or disturbed in any way, till they are to be hung +up to be smoked. + +If the hogs do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds, the +joints need not remain longer than five weeks in the pickle; if they +weigh two hundred, or upward, six or seven weeks are not too long. It is +better that they should stay in too long, rather than too short a time. + +In three weeks, the joints, etc., may be hung up. Taking out of pickle, +and preparing for hanging up to smoke, are thus performed: Scrape off +the undissolved salt; if the directions have been followed, there will +be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not immersed in the brine; +this salt and the brine are all saved; the brine is boiled down, and the +dry composition given to stock, especially to hogs. Wash every piece in +lukewarm water, and with a rough towel clean off the salt and ashes. +Next, put the strings in to hang up. Set the pieces up edgewise, that +they may drain and dry. Every piece is then to be dipped into the +meat-paint, as it is termed, composed of warm--not hot--water and very +fine ashes, stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick +paint, and hang up to smoke. By being thus dipped, they receive a +coating which protects them from the fly, prevents dripping, and tends +to lessen all external injurious influences. Hang up the pieces while +yet moist with the paint, and smoke them well. + + +VALUE OF THE CARCASS. + +No part of the hog is valueless, excepting, perhaps, the bristles of the +fine-bred races. The very intestines are cleansed, and knotted into +chittarlings, very much relished by some; the blood, mixed with fat and +rice, is made into black puddings; and the tender muscle under the +lumbar vertebrae is worked up into sausages, sweet, high-flavored, and +delicious; the skin, roasted, is a rare and toothsome morsel; and a +roast sucking-pig is a general delight; salt pork and bacon are in +incessant demand, and form important articles of commerce. + +One great value arises from the peculiarity of its fat, which, in +contradistinction to that of the ox or of the sheep, is termed _lard_, +and differs from either in the proportion of its constituent principles, +which are essentially oleine and stearine. It is rendered, or fried out, +in the same manner as mutton-suet. It melts completely at ninety-nine +degrees Fahrenheit, and then has the appearance of a transparent and +nearly colorless fixed oil. Eighty degrees is the melting-point. It +consists of sixty-two parts oleine, and thirty-eight of stearine, out of +one hundred. When subjected to pressure between folds of blotting-paper, +the oleine is absorbed, while the stearine remains. For domestic +purposes, lard is much used: it is much better than butter for frying +fish; and is much used in pastry, on the score of economy. + +The stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids, which, when +separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or +spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, +and in American commerce is known as _lard-oil_, which is very pure, and +extensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for +which olive or spermaceti oils are valued. It has given to pork a new +and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly +increased. A large amount of pork has thus been withdrawn from the +market, and the depression, which must otherwise have occurred, has been +thereby prevented. + +Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams +and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bottoms, the upper one +perforated with holes. The pork is laid on the latter, and then tightly +covered. Steam, at a high temperature, is then admitted into the tub, +and in a short time all the fat is extracted, and falls upon the lower +bottom. The remaining mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs, +poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are +either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, valuable +for various purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a +fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering fat then +carefully scraped off; thus avoiding the oily, viscid matter of the +skin. + +The _bristles_ of the coarse breeds are long, strong, firm, and elastic. +These are formed into brushes for painters and artists, as well as for +numerous domestic uses. The _skin_, when tanned, is of a peculiar +texture, and very tough. It is used for making pocket-books, and for +some ornamental purposes; but chiefly for the seats of riding-saddles. +The numerous little variegations on it, which constitute its beauty, are +the orifices whence the bristles have been removed. + + + + +[Illustration] + +DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES + + +By reason of being generally considered a subordinate species of stock, +swine do not, in many cases, share in the benefits which an improved +system of agriculture and the present advanced state of veterinary +science, have conferred upon other domesticated animals. Since they are +by no means the most tractable of patients, it is any thing but an easy +matter to compel them to swallow any thing to which their appetite does +not incite them; and, hence, prevention will be found better than cure. +_Cleanliness_ is the great point to be insisted upon in the management +of these animals. If this, and warmth, be only attended to, ailments +among them are comparatively rare. + +As, however, disappointment may occasionally occur, even under the best +system of management, a brief view of the principal complaints with +which they are liable to be attacked is presented, together with the +best mode of treatment to be adopted in such cases. + + +CATCHING THE PIG. + +Swine are very difficult animals to obtain any mastery over, or to +operate on, or examine. Seldom tame, or easily handled, they are at such +periods most unmanageable--kicking, screaming, and even biting fiercely. +The following method of getting hold of them has been recommended: +Fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let +there be a running noose in the cord; tie a piece of bread to the cord, +and present it to the animal; and when he opens his mouth to seize the +bait, catch the upper jaw in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is +fast. + +Another method is, to catch one foot in a running noose suspended from +some place, so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground; or, to +envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack. + +All coercive measures, however, should, as far as possible, be avoided; +for the pig is naturally so averse to being handled that in his +struggles he will often do himself far more mischief than the disease +which is to be investigated or remedied would effect. + + +BLEEDING. + +The common mode of drawing blood from the pig is by cutting off portions +of the ears or tail; this should only be resorted to when local and +instant blood-letting is requisite. The jugular veins of swine lie too +deep, and are too much imbedded in fat to admit of their being raised by +any ligature about the neck; it is, therefore, useless to attempt to +puncture them, as it would only be striking at random. + +Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface of the ear, +and especially toward its outer edge, may be opened without much +difficulty; if the ear is turned back on the poll, one or more of them +may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit of its being +punctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear, near to the +conch. When the necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the +finger may be raised, and it will cease to flow. + +The palate veins, running on either side of the roof of the mouth, are +also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each side of the +palate, about half way between the centre of the roof of the mouth and +the teeth. The flow of blood may be readily stopped by means of a +pledget of tow and a string, as in bleeding the horse. + +The brachial vein of the fore-leg--commonly called the +plate-vein--running along the inner side under the skin affords a good +opportunity. The best place for puncturing it is about an inch above the +knee, and scarcely half an inch backward from the radius, or the bone of +the fore-arm. No danger need to be apprehended from cutting two or three +times, if sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once. This vein will +become easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly around the leg, +just below the shoulder. + +This operation should always be performed with the lancet, if possible. +In cases of urgent haste, where no lancet is at hand, a small penknife +may be used; but the fleam is a dangerous and objectionable instrument. + + +DRENCHING. + +Whenever it is possible, the medicine to be administered should be +mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus cheated or coaxed +into taking it; since many instances are on record, in which the pig has +ruptured some vessel in his struggles, and died on the spot, or so +injured himself as to bring on inflammation and subsequent death. + +Where this cannot be done, the following is the best method: Let a man +get the head of the animal firmly between his knees--without, however, +pinching it--while another secures the hinder parts. Then let the first +take hold of the head from below, raise it a little, and incline it +slightly toward the right, at the same time separating the lips on the +left side so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually +poured--no more being introduced into the mouth at a time than can be +swallowed at once. Should the animal snort or choke, the head must be +released for a few moments, or he will be in danger of being strangled. + + +CATARRH. + +This ailment--an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, +etc.--is, if taken in time, easily cured by opening medicines, followed +up by warm bran-wash--a warm, dry sty--and abstinence from rich grains, +or stimulating, farinaceous diet. The cause, in most cases, is exposure +to drafts of air, which should be guarded against. + + +CHOLERA. + +For what is presented concerning this disease, the author is indebted to +his friend, G. W. Bowler, V. S., of Cincinnati, Ohio, whose familiarity +with the various diseases of our domestic animals and the best modes of +treating them, entitles his opinions to great weight. + +The term "cholera" is employed to designate a disease which has been +very fatal among swine in different parts of the United States; and for +the reason, that its symptoms, as well as the indications accompanying +its termination, are very nearly allied to what is manifested in the +disease of that name which visits man. + +Epidemic cholera has, for several years past, committed fearful ravages +among the swine of, particularly, Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. Indeed, +many farmers who, until recently, have been accustomed to raise large +numbers of these animals, are, in a great measure, disinclined to invest +again in such stock, on account of the severe losses--in some instances +to the extent of the entire drove upon particular places. + +Various remedies have, of course, been prescribed; but the most have +failed in nearly every case where the disease has secured a firm +foothold. Preventives are, therefore, the most that can at present be +expected; and in this direction something may be done. Although some +peculiar change in the atmosphere is, probably, an impelling cause of +cholera, its ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other +predisposing associate causes. + +Granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting among +filth, it is by no means necessary to persist, for that reason, in +surrounding him with all the nastiness possible; for even a hog, when +penned up in a filthy place, in company with a large number of other +hogs--particularly when that place is improperly ventilated--is not as +healthy as when the animals are kept together in smaller numbers in a +clean and well ventilated barn or pen. Look, for a moment, at a drove of +hogs coming along the street, the animals all fat and ready for the +knife. They have been driven several miles, and are scarcely able to +crawl along, many of them having to be carried on drays, while others +have died on the road. At last they are driven into a pen, perhaps, +several inches deep with the manure and filth deposited there by +hundreds of predecessors; every hole in the ground has become a puddle; +and in such a place some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled +together, exhausted from the drive which they have had. They lie down in +the mud; and in a short time one can see the steam beginning to rise +from their bodies in volumes, increasing their already prostrate +condition by the consequent inhalation of the noxious gas thus thrown +off from the system; the blood becomes impregnated with poison; the +various functions of the body are thereby impaired; and disease will +inevitably be developed in one form or another. Should the disease, +known as the hog cholera, prevail in the neighborhood, the chances are +very greatly in favor of their being attacked by it, and consequently +perishing. + +The _symptoms_ of cholera are as follows: The animal appears to be +instantaneously deprived of energy; loss of appetite; lying down by +himself; occasionally moving about slowly, as though experiencing some +slight uneasiness internally; the eyes have a very dull and sunken +appearance, which increases with the disease; the evacuations are almost +continuous, of a dark color, having a fetid odor, and containing a large +quantity of bile; the extremities are cold, and soreness is evinced when +the abdomen is pressed; the pulse is quickened, and sometimes hardly +perceptible, while the buccal membrane--that belonging to the +cheek--presents a slight purple hue; the tongue has a furred appearance. +The evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires, which may be in +twelve hours from the first attack, or the disease may run on for +several days. + +In a very short time after death, the abdomen becomes of a dark purple +color, and upon examination, the stomach is found to contain but a +little fluid; the intestines are almost entirely empty, retaining a +slight quantity of the dark colored matter before mentioned; the mucous +membrane of the alimentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation, +which sometimes appears only in patches, while the other parts are +filled with dark venous blood--indicating a breaking up of the capillary +vessels in such places. + +_Treatment._ As a preventive, the following will be found valuable: +Flour of sulphur, six pounds; animal charcoal, one pound; sulphate of +iron, six ounces; cinchona pulverized, one pound. Mix well together in a +large mortar; afterwards give a table-spoonful to each animal, mixed +with a few potato-peelings and corn meal, three times a day. Continue +this for one week, keeping the animal at the same time in a clean, dry +place, and not allowing too many together. + + +CRACKINGS. + +These will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog, especially about the +root of the ears and of the tail, and at the flanks. They are not at all +to be confounded with mange, as they never result from any thing but +exposure to extremes of temperature, while the animal is unable to avail +himself of such protection as, in a state of nature, instinct would have +induced him to adopt. They are peculiarly troublesome in the heat of +summer, if he does not have access to water, in which to lave his +parched limbs and half-scorched carcass. + +Anoint the cracked parts twice or three times a day with tar and lard, +well melted up together. + + +DIARRH[OE]A. + +Before attempting to stop the discharge in this disease--which, if +permitted to continue unchecked, will rapidly prostrate the animal, and +probably terminate fatally--ascertain the quality of food which the +animal has recently had. + +In a majority of instances, this will be found to be the cause. If taken +in its incipient stage, a mere change to a more binding diet, as corn, +flour, etc., will suffice for a cure. If acidity is present--produced, +probably, by the hog's having fed upon coarse, rank grasses in swampy +places--give some chalk in the food, or powdered egg-shells, with about +half a drachm of powdered rhubarb; the dose, of course, should vary with +the size of the animal. In the acorn season, they alone will be found +sufficiently curative, where facilities for obtaining them exist. Dry +lodging is indispensable; and diligence is requisite to keep it dry and +clean. + + +FEVER. + +The _symptoms_ of this disease are, redness of the eyes, dryness and +heat of the nostrils, the lips, and the skin generally; appetite gone, +or very defective; and, generally, a very violent thirst. + +[Illustration: HUNTING THE WILD BOAR.] + +Bleed as soon as possible; after which house the animal well, taking +care, at the same time, to have the sty well and thoroughly ventilated. +The bleeding will usually be followed, in an hour or two, by such a +return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient quantity +of food to be made the vehicle for administering external remedies. The +best is bread, steeped in broth. The hog, however, sinks so rapidly when +his appetite is near gone, that no depletive medicines are, in general, +necessary or proper; the fever will ordinarily yield to the bleeding, +and the only object needs to be the support of his strength, small +portions of nourishing food, administered frequently. + +Do not let the animal eat as much as his inclination might prompt; when +he appears to be no longer ravenous, remove the mess, and do not offer +it again until after a lapse of three or four hours. If the bowels are +confined, castor and linseed oil, in equal quantities, should be added +to the bread and broth, in the proportion of two to six ounces. + +A species of fever frequently occurs as an _epizooetic_, oftentimes +attacking the male pigs, and generally the most vigorous and best +looking, without any distinction of age, and with a force and rapidity +absolutely astonishing. At other times, its progress is much slower; the +symptoms are less intense and alarming; and the veterinary surgeon, +employed at the outset, may meet with some success. + +The _causes_ are, in the majority of instances, the bad styes in which +the pigs are lodged, and the noisome food which they often contain. In +addition to these is the constant lying on the dung-heap, whence is +exhaled a vast quantity of deleterious gas; also, the remaining far too +long on the muddy or parched ground, or too protracted exposure to the +rigor of the season. + +When an animal is attacked with this disease, he should be separated +from the others, placed in a warm situation, some stimulating ointment +applied to the chest, and a decoction of sorrel administered. Frictions +of vinegar should also be applied to the dorsal and lumbar region. The +drinks should be emolient, slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar, and +with aromatic fumigation about the belly. + +If the fever then appears to be losing ground, which may be ascertained +by the regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the plaintive cries +before heard, by a less laborious respiration, by the absence of +convulsions, and by the non-appearance of blotches on the skin, there is +a fair chance of recovery. Then administer, every second hour, as before +directed, and give a proper allowance of white water, with ground barley +and rye. + +When the symptoms redouble in intensity, it is best to destroy the +animal; for it is rare that, after a certain period, much chance of +recovery exists. Bleeding is seldom of much avail, but produces, +occasionally, considerable loss of vital power, and augments the putrid +diathesis. + + +FOUL SKIN. + +A simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to +cleanliness, and a washing with a solution of chloride of lime; but, if +it is neglected for any length of time, it assumes a malignant +character--scabs and blotches, or red and fiery eruptions appear--and +the disease rapidly passes into mange, which will be hereafter noticed. + + +INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. + +This disease, popularly known as heavings, is scarcely to be regarded as +curable. Were it observed in its first stage, when indicated by loss of +appetite and a short, hard cough, it might, possibly, be got under by +copious bleeding, and friction with stimulating ointment on the region +of the lungs; minute and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be +given in butter--all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided--and +the animal kept dry and warm. If once the heavings set in, it may be +calculated with confidence that the formation of tubercles in the +substance of the lungs has begun; and when these are formed, they are +very rarely absorbed. + +The _causes_ of the disease are damp lodging, foul air, want of +ventilation, and unwholesome food. When tubercular formation becomes +established, the disease may be communicated through the medium of the +atmosphere, the infectious influence depending upon the noxious +particles respired from the lungs of the diseased animal. + +The following may be tried, though the knife is probably the best +resort, if for no other reason, at least to provide against the danger +of infection: Shave the hair away from the chest, and beneath each +fore-leg; wet the part with spirits of turpentine, and set fire to it, +having previously had the animal well secured, with his head well +raised, and a flannel cloth at hand with which to extinguish the flame +after it has, burned a sufficient time to produce slight blisters; if +carried too far, a sore is formed, productive of no good effects, and +causing unnecessary suffering. Calomel may also be used, with a view to +promote the absorption of the tubercles; but the success is +questionable. + + +JAUNDICE. + +The _symptoms_ of this disease are, yellowness of the white of the eye; +a similar hue extending to the lips; and sometimes, but not invariably, +swelling of the under part of the jaw. + +_Treatment._ Bleed freely; diminish the quantity of food; and give an +active aperient every second day. Aloes are, perhaps, the best, combined +with colocynth; the dose will vary with the size of the animal. + + +LEPROSY. + +This complaint commonly commences with the formation of a small tumor in +the eye, followed by a general prostration of spirits; the head is held +down; the whole frame inclines toward the ground; universal languor +succeeds; the animal refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls away in +flesh; blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue, then upon +the throat, the jaws, the head, and the entire body. + +The _Causes_ of this disease are want of cleanliness, absence of fresh +air, want of due attention to ventilation, and foul feeding. The obvious +_treatment_, therefore, is, first, bleed; clean out the sty daily; wash +the affected animal thoroughly with soap and water, to which soda or +potash has been added; supply him with a clean bed; keep him dry and +comfortable; let him have gentle exercise, and plenty of fresh air; +limit the quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness; give bran +with wash, in which add, for an average-sized hog--say one of one +hundred and sixty pounds weight--a table-spoonful of the flour of +sulphur, with as much nitre as will cover a dime, daily. A few grains of +powdered antimony may also be given with effect. + + +LETHARGY. + +_Symptoms_: torpor; desire to sleep; hanging of the head; and, +frequently, redness of the eyes. The origin of this disease is, +apparently, the same as that of indigestion, or surfeit, except that, in +this instance, it acts upon a hog having a natural tendency to a +redundancy of blood. + +_Treatment._ Bleed copiously; then administer an emetic. A decoction of +camomile flowers will be safest; though a sufficient dose of tartar +emetic will be far more certain. After this, reduce for a few days the +amount of the animal's food, and administer a small portion of nitre and +sulphur in each morning's meal. + + +MANGE. + +This cutaneous affection owes its existence to the presence of a minute +insect, called _acarus scabiei_, or mange-fly, which burrows beneath the +cuticle, and occasions much irritation and annoyance in its progress +through the skin. + +Its _symptoms_ are sufficiently well known, consisting of scabs, +blotches, and sometimes multitudes of minute pustules on different parts +of the body. If neglected, these symptoms become aggravated; the disease +spreads rapidly over the entire surface of the skin, and if allowed to +proceed on its course unchecked, will before long produce deep-seated +ulcers and malignant sores, until the whole carcass of the affected +animal becomes a mass of corruption. + +The _cause_ is to be looked for in dirt, accompanied by hot-feeding. +Hogs, however well and properly kept, will occasionally become affected +with this disease from contagion. Few diseases are more easily +propagated by contact than mange. The introduction of a single affected +pig into an establishment may, in one night, cause the seizure of scores +of others. No foul-skinned pigs, therefore, should be introduced into +the piggery; indeed, it would be an excellent precaution to wash every +animal newly purchased with a strong solution of chloride of lime. + +_Treatment._ If the mange is but of moderate violence, and not of very +long standing, the best mode is to wash the animal, from snout to tail, +leaving no portion of the body uncleansed, with soft soap and water. +Place him in a dry and clean sty, which is so situated as to command a +constant supply of fresh air, without, at the same time, an exposure to +cold or draught; furnish a bed of clean, fresh straw. Reduce his food, +both in quality and quantity; let boiled or steamed roots, with +butter-milk, or dairy-wash take the place of any food of a heating or +inflammatory character. Keep him without food for five or six hours, and +then give to a hog of average size two ounces of Epsom salts in a warm +bran mash--to be increased or diminished, of course, as the animal's +size may require. This should be previously mixed with a pint of warm +water, and added to about half a gallon of warm bran mash, and it will +act as a gentle purgative. Give in every meal afterward one +table-spoonful of flour of sulphur, and as much nitre as will cover a +dime, for from three days to a week, according to the state of the +disease. When the scabs begin to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the +fiery sores to fade, a cure may be anticipated. + +When the above treatment has been practised for fourteen days, without +effecting a cure, prepare the following: train oil, one pint; oil of +tar, two drachms; spirits of turpentine, two drachms; naphtha, one +drachm; with as much flour of sulphur as will form the foregoing into a +thick paste. Rub the animal previously washed with this mixture; let no +portion of the hide escape. Keep the hog dry and warm after this +application, and allow it to remain on his skin for three days. On the +fourth day wash him again with soft soap, adding a small quantity of +soda to the water. Dry him well afterward, and let him remain as he is, +having again changed his bedding, for a day or so; continue the sulphur +and nitre as before. Almost all cases of mange, however obstinate, will, +sooner or later, yield to this treatment. After he is convalescent, +whitewash the sty, and fumigate it by placing a little chloride of lime +in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a little vitriol upon it. In the +absence of vitriol, boiling water will answer nearly as well. + + +MEASLES. + +This is one of the most common diseases to which hogs are liable. The +_symptoms_ are, redness of the eyes, foulness of the skin, and +depression of spirits; decline, or total departure of the appetite; +small pustules about the throat, and red and purple eruptions on the +skin. The last are more plainly visible after death, when they impart a +peculiar appearance to the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, +and distention of the fibre, giving an appearance similar to that which +might be produced by puncturing the flesh. + +_Treatment._ Allow the animal to fast, in the first instance, for +twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, containing a drachm +of carbonate of soda, and an ounce of bole armenian; wash the animal, +cleanse the sty, and change the bedding; give at every feeding, or +thrice a day, thirty grains of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. + +This malady is attributable to dirt, combined with the giving of steamed +food or wash to hogs at too high a temperature. It is troublesome to +eradicate, but usually yields to treatment, and is rarely fatal. + + +MURRAIN. + +This resembles leprosy in its _symptoms_, with the addition of +staggering, shortness of breath, and discharge of viscid matter from the +eyes and mouth. + +The _treatment_ should consist of cleanliness, coolness, bleeding, +purging, and limitation of food. Cloves of garlic are recommended; and +as in all febrile diseases there exists a greater or less disposition to +putrefaction, it is probable that garlic, from its antiseptic +properties, may be useful. + + +QUINSY. + +This is an inflammatory affection of the glands of the throat. + +_Treatment._ Shave away the hair, and rub with tartar-emetic ointment. +Fomenting with very warm water is also useful. When external suppuration +takes place, it is to be regarded as a favorable symptom. In this case, +wait until the swellings are thoroughly ripe; then with a sharp knife +make an incision through the entire length, press out the matter, wash +with warm water, and afterward dress the wound with any resinous +ointment, or yellow soap with coarse brown sugar. + + +STAGGERS. + +This disease is caused by an excessive determination of blood to the +head. + +_Treatment._ Bleed freely and purge. + + +SWELLING OF THE SPLEEN. + +The _symptom_ most positively indicative of this disease is the +circumstance of the affected animal leaning toward one side, cringing, +as it were, from internal pain, and bending toward the ground. + +The _cause_ of the obstruction on which the disease depends, is +over-feeding--permitting the animal to indulge its appetite to the +utmost extent that gluttony may prompt, and the capacity of its stomach +admits. A very short perseverance in this mode of management--or, +rather, mismanagement--will produce this, as well as other maladies, +deriving their origin from a depraved condition of the secretions and +the obstruction of the excretory ducts. + +_Treatment._ Clean out the alimentary canal by means of a powerful +aperient. Allow the animal to fast for four or five hours, when he will +take a little sweet wash or broth, in which may be mingled a dose of +Epsom salts proportioned to his size. This will generally effect the +desired end--a copious evacuation--and the action of the medicine on the +watery secretions will also relieve the existing diseased condition of +the spleen. + +If the affection has continued for any length, the animal should be +bled. A decoction of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liverwort, +produced by boiling them in soft water for six hours, may be given in +doses of from half a pint to a pint and a half, according to the size, +age, etc., of the animal. Scammony and rhubarb, mixed in a bran wash, or +with Indian meal, may be given with advantage on the following day; or, +equal portions of blue-pill mass and compound colocynth pill, formed +into a bolus with butter. The animal having been kept fasting the +previous night, will probably swallow it; if not, let his fast continue +a couple of hours longer. Lower his diet, and keep him on reduced fare, +with exercise, and, if it can be managed, grazing, until the malady has +passed away. If he is then to be fattened, it should be done gradually; +be cautious of at once restoring him to full diet. + + +SURFEIT. + +This is another name for indigestion. The _symptoms_ are, panting; loss +of appetite; swelling of the region about the stomach, etc.; and +frequently throwing up the contents of the stomach. + +_Treatment._ In general, this affection will pass away, provided only it +is allowed to cure itself, and all food carefully kept from the animal +for a few hours; a small quantity of sweet grains, with a little bran +mash, may then be given, but not nearly as much as the animal would wish +to take. For a few days, the food should be limited in quantity, and of +a washy, liquid nature. The ordinary food may then be resumed, only +observing to feed regularly, and remove the fragments remaining after +each meal. + + +TUMORS. + +These are hard swellings, which make their appearance on different parts +of the body. They are not formidable, and require only to be suffered to +progress until they soften; then make a free incision, and press out the +matter. Sulphur and nitre should be given in the food, as the appearance +of these swellings, whatever be their cause, indicates the necessity of +alterative medicines. + + + + + POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. + + + + +[Illustration] + +HISTORY AND VARIETIES + + +THE DOMESTIC FOWL. The cock tribe is used as a generic term, to include +the whole family of domestic fowls; the name of the male, in this +instance, furnishing an appellation sufficiently comprehensive and well +recognized. + +The domestic cock appears to have been known to man from a very early +period. Of his real origin there is little definitely known; and even +the time and manner of his introduction into Greece, or Southern Europe, +are enveloped in obscurity. In the palmiest days of Greece and Rome, +however, he occupied a conspicuous place in those public shows which +amused the masses of the people. He was dedicated to the service of the +pagan deities, and was connected with the worship of Apollo, Mercury, +Mars, and particularly Esculapius. The flesh of this bird was highly +esteemed as a delicacy, and occupied a prominent place at the Roman +banquets. Great pains were taken in the rearing and fattening of poultry +for this purpose. + +The practice of cock-fighting, barbarous as it is, originated in classic +times, and among the most polished and civilized people of antiquity. To +its introduction into Britain by the Caesars we owe our acquaintance with +the domestic fowl. + +It is impossible to state positively to what species of the wild cock, +known at present, we are to look for the primitive type, so remote is +the date of the original domestication of the fowl. Many writers have +endeavored to show that all the varieties of the domestic fowl, of which +we now have knowledge, are derived from a single primitive stock. It +has, also, been confidently asserted that the domestic cock owes his +origin to the jungle fowl of India. The most probable supposition, +however, is, that the varieties known to us may be referred to a few of +the more remarkable fowls, as the progenitors of the several species. +The great fowl of St. Jago and Sumatra may, perhaps, safely be +recognized as the type of some of the larger varieties, such as the +Spanish and the Padua fowls, and those resembling them; while to the +Bankiva cock, probably, the smaller varieties belong, such as Bantams, +the Turkish fowl, and the like. + +The reasons assigned for supposing these kinds to be the true originals +of our domestic poultry, are, _first_, the close resemblance subsisting +between their females and our domestic hens; _second_, the size of our +domestic cock being intermediate between the two, and alternating in +degree, sometimes inclining toward the one, and sometimes toward the +other; _third_, from the nature of their feathers and their general +aspect--the form and distribution of their tails being the same as our +domestic fowls; and, _fourth_, in these two birds alone are the females +provided with a crest and small wattles, characteristics not to be met +with in any other wild species. + +The wild cock, or the St. Jago fowl, is frequently so tall as to be able +to peck crumbs without difficulty from an ordinary dinner-table. The +weight is usually from ten to thirteen or fourteen pounds. The comb of +both cock and hen is large, crown-shaped, often double, and sometimes, +but not invariably, with a tufted crest of feathers, which occurs with +the greatest frequency, and grows to the largest size, in the hen. The +voice is strong and very harsh; and the young do not arrive to full +plumage until more than half grown. + +The Bankiva fowl is a native of Java, and is characterized by a red +indented comb, red wattles, and ashy-gray legs and feet. The comb of the +cock is scolloped, and the tail elevated a little above the rump, the +feathers being disposed in the form of tiles or slates; the +neck-feathers are of a gold color, long, dependent, and rounded at the +tips; the head and neck are of a fawn color; the wing coverts a dusky +brown and black; the tail and belly, black. The color of the hen is a +dusky ash-gray and yellow; her comb and wattles much smaller than those +of the cock, and--with the exception of the long hackles--she has no +feathers on her neck. These fowl are exceedingly wild, and inhabit the +skirts of woods, forests, and other savage and unfrequented places. +These Bankivas resemble our Bantams very much; and, like them, are also +occasionally to be seen feathered to the feet and toes. + +Independent of all considerations of profitableness, domestic fowls are +gifted with two qualifications, which--whether in man, beast, or +bird--are sure to be popular: a courageous temper and an affectionate +disposition. When we add to these beauty of appearance and hardiness of +constitution, it is no wonder that they are held in such universal +esteem. + +The courage of the cock is emblematic, his gallantry admirable, and his +sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary. The hen is +deservedly the acknowledged pattern of maternal love. When her passion +of philoprogenitiveness is disappointed by the failure or subtraction of +her own brood, she will either continue incubating till her natural +powers fail, or will violently kidnap the young of other fowls, and +insist upon adopting them. + +It would be idle to attempt an enumeration here of the numerous breeds +and varieties of the domestic fowl. Those only, therefore, will be +described which are generally accepted as the best varieties; and these +arranged, not in the order of their merits necessarily, but +alphabetically, for convenience of reference. + + +THE BANTAM. + +The original of the Bantam is, as has been already remarked, the Bankiva +fowl. The small white, and also the colored Bantams, whose legs are +heavily feathered, are sufficiently well-known to render a particular +description unnecessary. Bantam-fanciers generally prefer those which +have clean, bright legs, without any vestige of feathers. A +thorough-bred cock, in their judgment, should have a rose comb; a +well-feathered tail, but without the sickle feathers; full hackles; a +proud, lively carriage; and ought not to exceed a pound in weight. The +nankeen-colored, and the black are the general favorites. + +[Illustration: THE BANTAM.] + +These little creatures exhibit some peculiar habits and traits of +disposition. Amongst others, the cocks are so fond of sucking the eggs +laid by the hen that they will often drive her from the nest in order to +obtain them; they have even been known to attack her, tear open the +ovarium, and devour its shell-less contents. To prevent this, first a +hard-boiled, and then a marble egg may be given them to fight with, +taking care, at the same time, to prevent their access either to the hen +or to any real eggs. Another strange propensity is a passion for sucking +each other's blood, which is chiefly exhibited when they are moulting, +when they have been known to peck each other naked, by pulling out the +new feathers as they appear, and squeezing with their beaks the blood +from the bulbs at the base. These fowls being subject to a great heat of +the skin, its surface occasionally becomes hard and tightened; in which +cases the hard roots of the feathers are drawn into a position more +nearly at right angles with the body than at ordinary times, and the +skin and superficial muscles are thus subjected to an unusual degree of +painful irritation. The disagreeable habit is, therefore, simply a +provision of Nature for their relief, which may be successfully +accomplished by washing with warm water, and the subsequent application +of pomatum to the skin. + +[Illustration: BANTAM.] + +Bantams, in general, are greedy devourers of some of the most +destructive of our insects; the grub of the cock-chafer and the +crane-fly being especial favorites with them. Their chickens can hardly +be raised so well, as by allowing them free access to minute insect +dainties; hence, the suitableness of a worn-out hotbed for them during +the first month or six weeks. They are thus positively serviceable +creatures to the farmer, as far as their limited range extends; and +still more so to the gardener and the nurseryman, as they will save +various garden crops from injuries to which they would otherwise be +exposed. + +The fowl commonly known as the Bantam is a small, elegantly-formed, and +handsomely tinted variety, evidently but remotely allied to the game +breed, and furnished with feathers to the toes. + +THE AFRICAN BANTAM. The cock of this variety is red upon the neck, back, +and hackles; tail, black and erect, studded with glossy green feathers +upon the sides; breast, black ground spotted with yellow, like the +Golden Pheasant; comb, single; cheeks, white or silvery; the pullet is +entirely black, except the inside of the wing-tips, which is perfectly +white. In size, they compare with the common pigeon, being very small; +their wings are about two inches longer than their bodies; and their +legs dark and destitute of feathers. They are very quiet, and of decided +benefit in gardens, in destroying bugs. + +These symmetrically-formed birds are highly prized, both by the fancier +and the practical man, and the pure-bloods are very rare. They weigh +from eight to twelve ounces each for the hens; and the cocks, from +sixteen to twenty ounces. + + +THE BOLTON GRAY. + +[Illustration: BOLTON GRAYS OR CREOLE FOWL.] + +These fowls--called, also, Dutch Every-day Layers, Pencilled Dutch Fowl, +Chittaprats, and, in Pennsylvania, Creole Fowl--were originally imported +from Holland to Bolton, a town in Lancashire, England, whence they were +named. + +They are small sized, short in the leg, and plump in the make; color of +the genuine kind, invariably pure white in the whole cappel of the neck; +the body white, thickly spotted with black, sometimes running into a +grizzle, with one or more black bars at the extremity of the tail. A +good cock of this breed may weigh from four to four and a half pounds; +and a hen from three to three and a half pounds. + +The superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so much in rapid +as in continued laying. She may not produce as many eggs in a month as +some other kinds, but she will, it is claimed, lay more months in the +year than probably any other variety. They are said to be very hardy; +but their eggs, in the judgment of some, are rather watery and +innutritious. + + +THE BLUE DUN. + +The variety known under this name originated in Dorsetshire, England. +They are under the average size, rather slenderly made, of a soft and +pleasing bluish-dun color, the neck being darker, with high, single +combs, deeply serrated. The cock is of the same color as the hen, but +has, in addition, some handsome dark stripes in the long feathers of the +tail, and sometimes a few golden, or even scarlet marks, on the wings. +They are exceedingly impudent, familiar, and pugnacious. + +The hens are good layers, wanting to sit after laying a moderate number +of eggs, and proving attentive and careful rearers of their own +chickens, but rather savage to those of other hens. The eggs are small +and short, tapering slightly at one end, and perfectly white. The +chickens, on first coming from the egg, sometimes bear a resemblance to +the gray and yellow catkin of the willow, being of a soft bluish gray, +mixed with a little yellow here and there. + +Some class these birds among the game fowls, not recognizing them as a +distinct race, upon the ground that, as there are Blue Dun families +belonging to several breeds--the Spanish, the Polish, the Game, and the +Hamburghs, for example--it is more correct to refer each Blue Dun to its +own proper ancestry. + + +THE CHITTAGONG. + +The Chittagong is a very superior bird, showy in plumage, exceedingly +hardy, and of various colors. In some, the gray predominates, +interspersed with lightish yellow and white feathers upon the pullets. +The legs are of a reddish flesh-color; the meat is delicately white, the +comb large and single, wattles very full, wings good size. The legs are +more or less feathered; the model is graceful, carriage proud and easy, +and action prompt and determined. + +This breed is the largest in the world; the pullets usually weighing +from eight to nine pounds when they begin to lay, and the cocks from +nine to ten pounds at the same age. They do not lay as many eggs in a +year as smaller hens; but they lay as many pounds of eggs as the best +breeds. This breed has been, by some, confounded with the great Malay; +but the points of difference are very noticeable. There is less offal; +the flesh is finer, although the size is greatly increased; their +fecundity is greater; and the offspring arrive earlier at maturity than +in the common Malay variety. + +There is also a _red_ variety of the Chittagong, which is rather +smaller than the gray. These have legs sometimes yellow and sometimes +blue; the latter color, perhaps, from some mixture with the dark +variety; the wings and tail are short. Sometimes there is a rose-colored +comb, and a top-knot, through crossing. This variety may weigh sixteen +or eighteen pounds a pair, as ordinarily bred. The eggs are large and +rich, but not very abundant, and they do not hatch remarkably well. + +There is, besides, a _dark-red_ variety; the hens yellow or brown, with +single serrated comb, and no top-knot; legs heavily feathered, the +feathers black and the legs yellow. The cock is black on the breast and +thighs. + +The Chittagongs are generally quite leggy, standing some twenty-six +inches high; and the hens twenty-two inches. A first cross with the +Shanghae makes a very large and valuable bird for the table, but not for +breeding purposes. + + +THE COCHIN CHINA. + +The Cochin China fowl are said to have been presented to Queen Victoria +from the East Indies. In order to promote their propagation, her majesty +made presents of them occasionally to such persons as she supposed +likely to appreciate them. They differ very little in their qualities, +habits, and general appearance from the Shanghaes, to which they are +undoubtedly nearly related. The egg is nearly the same size, shape, and +color; both have an equal development of comb and wattles--the Cochins +slightly differing from the Shanghaes, chiefly in being somewhat fuller +and deeper in the breast, not quite so deep in the quarter, and being +usually smooth-legged, while the Shanghaes, generally, are more or less +heavily feathered. The plumage is much the same in both cases; and the +crow in both is equally sonorous and prolonged, differing considerably +from that of the Great Malay. + +[Illustration: COCHIN CHINAS.] + +The cock has a large, upright, single, deeply-indented comb, very much +resembling that of the Black Spanish, and, when in high condition, of +quite as brilliant a scarlet; like him, also, he has sometimes a very +large white ear-hole on each cheek, which, if not an indispensable or +even a required qualification, is, however, to be preferred, for beauty +at least. The wattles are large, wide, and pendent. The legs are of a +pale flesh-color; some specimens have them yellow, which is +objectionable. The feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright +chestnut-brown, large and well-defined, giving a scaly or imbricated +appearance to those parts. The hackle of the neck is of a light +yellowish brown; the lower feathers being tipped with dark brown, so as +to give a spotted appearance to the neck. The tail-feathers are black, +and darkly iridescent; back, scarlet-orange; back-hackle, yellow-orange. +It is, in short, altogether a flame-colored bird. Both sexes are lower +in the leg than either the Black Spanish or the Malay. + +The hen approaches in her build more nearly to the Dorking than to any +other breed, except that the tail is very small and proportionately +depressed; it is smaller and more horizontal than in any other fowl. Her +comb is of moderate size, almost small; she has, also, a small, white +ear-hole. Her coloring is flat, being composed of various shades of very +light brown, with light yellow on the neck. Her appearance is quiet, and +only attracts attention by its extreme neatness, cleanliness, and +compactness. + +The eggs average about two ounces each. They are smooth, of an oval +shape, equally rounded at each end, and of a rich buff color, nearly +resembling those of the Silver Pheasant. The newly-hatched chickens +appear very large in proportion to the size of the egg. They have light, +flesh-colored bills, feet, and legs, and are thickly covered with down, +of the hue commonly called "carroty." They are not less thrifty than any +other chickens, and feather somewhat more uniformly than either the +Black Spanish or the Malay. It is, however, most desirable to hatch +these--as well as other large-growing varieties--as early in the spring +as possible; even so soon as the end of February. A peculiarity in the +cockerels is, that they do not show even the rudiments of their +tail-feathers till they are nearly full-grown. They increase so rapidly +in other directions, that there is no material to spare for the +production of these decorative appendages. + +The merits of this breed are such that it may safely be recommended to +people residing in the country. For the inhabitants of towns it is less +desirable, as the light tone of its plumage would show every mark of +dirt and defilement; and the readiness with which they sit would be an +inconvenience, rather than otherwise, in families with whom perpetual +layers are most in requisition. Expense apart, they are equal or +superior to any other fowl for the table; their flesh is delicate, +white, tender, and well flavored. + + +THE CUCKOO. + +The fowl so termed in Norfolk, England, is, very probably, an old and +distinct variety; although they are generally regarded as mere Barn-door +fowls--that is, the merely accidental result of promiscuous crossing. + +The name probably originated from its barred, plumage, which resembles +that on the breast of the Cuckoo. The prevailing color is a slaty blue, +undulated, and softly shaded with white all over the body, forming bands +of various widths. The comb is very small; irides, bright orange; feet +and legs, light flesh-color. The hens are of a good size; the cocks are +large, approaching the heaviest breeds in weight. The chickens, at two +or three months old, exhibits the barred plumage even more perfectly +than the full-grown birds. The eggs average about two ounces each, are +white, and of porcelain smoothness. The newly-hatched chickens are +gray, much resembling those of the Silver Polands, except in the color +of the feet and legs. + +This breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers, good sitters, +good mothers and good feeders; and is well worth promotion in the +poultry-yard. + + +THE DOMINIQUE. + +This seems to be a tolerably distinct and permanent variety, about the +size of the common Dunghill Fowl. Their combs are generally double--or +rose, as it is sometimes called--and the wattles small. Their plumage +presents, all over, a sort of greenish appearance, from a peculiar +arrangement of blue and white feathers, which is the chief +characteristic of the variety; although, in some specimens, the plumage +is inevitably gray in both cock and hen. They are very hardy, healthy, +excellent layers, and capital incubators. No fowl have better stood the +tests of mixing without deteriorating than the pure Dominique. + +Their name is taken from the island of Dominica, from which they are +reported to have been imported. Take all in all, they are one of the +very best breeds of fowl which we have; and although they do not come in +to laying so young as the Spanish, they are far better sitters and +nursers. + + +THE DORKING. + +This has been termed the Capon Fowl of England. It forms the chief +supply for the London market, and is distinguished by a white or +flesh-colored smooth leg, armed with five, instead of four toes, on each +foot. Its flesh is extremely delicate, especially after caponization; +and it has the advantage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly, and +growing to a very respectable size when properly managed. + +[Illustration: WHITE DORKINGS.] + +For those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls of the most +desirable shape and size, clothed in rich and varigated plumage, and, +not expecting perfection, are willing to overlook one or two other +points, the Speckled Dorkings--so called from the town of Surrey, +England, which brought them into modern repute--should be selected. The +hens, in addition to their gay colors, have a large, vertically flat +comb, which, when they are in high health, adds very much to their +brilliant appearance, particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The cocks +are magnificent. The most gorgeous hues are lavished upon them, which +their great size and peculiarly square-built form display to the +greatest advantage. Their legs are short; their breast broad; there is +but a small proportion of offal; and the good, profitable flesh is +abundant. The cocks may be brought to considerable weight, and the +flavor and appearance of their meat are inferior to none. The eggs are +produced in reasonable abundance; and, though not equal in size to those +of Spanish hens, may fairly be called large. + +They are not everlasting layers, but at due or convenient intervals +manifest the desire of sitting. In this respect, they are steady and +good mothers when the little ones appear. They are better adapted than +any other fowl, except the Malay, to hatch superabundant turkeys' eggs; +as their size and bulk enable them to afford warmth and shelter to the +young for a long period. For the same reason, spare goose eggs may be +entrusted to them. + +With all these merits, however, they are not found to be a profitable +breed, if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. Their powers seem to fail at +an early age. They are also apt to pine away and die just at the point +of reaching maturity. They appear at a certain epoch to be seized with +consumption--in the Speckled Dorkings, the lungs seeming to be the seat +of the disease. The White Dorkings are, however, hardy and active birds, +and are not subject to consumption or any other disease. + +As mothers, an objection to the Dorkings is, that they are too heavy and +clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and more delicate bird than +themselves. Pheasants, partridges, bantams, and Guinea fowl are trampled +under foot and crushed, if in the least weakly. The hen, in her +affectionate industry in scratching for grub, kicks her smallest +nurslings right and left, and leaves them sprawling on their backs; and +before they are a month old, half of them will be muddled to death with +this rough kindness. + +In spite of these drawbacks, the Dorkings are still in high favor; but a +cross is found to be more profitable than the true breed. A glossy, +energetic game-cock, with Dorking hens, produces chickens in size and +beauty little inferior to their maternal parentage, and much more +robust. The supernumerary toe on each foot almost always disappears +with the first cross; but it is a point which can very well be spared +without much disadvantage. In other respects, the appearance of the +newly-hatched chickens is scarcely altered. The eggs of the Dorkings are +large, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each +end. The chickens are brownish-yellow, with a broad brown stripe down +the middle of the back, and a narrower one on each side; feet and legs +yellow. + +THE FAWN-COLORED DORKING. The fowl bearing this name is a cross between +the white Dorking and the fawn-colored Turkish fowl. They are, of lofty +carriage, handsome, and healthy. The males of this breed weigh from +eight to nine pounds, and the females from six to seven; and they come +to maturity early for so large a fowl. Their tails are shorter and their +eggs darker than those of other Dorkings; their flesh is fine and their +eggs rich. It is one of the best varieties of fowl known, as the size is +readily increased without diminishing the fineness of the flesh. + +THE BLACK DORKING. The bodies of this variety are of a large size, with +the usual proportions of the race, and of a jet-black color. The +neck-feathers of some of the cocks are tinged with a bright gold color, +and those of some of the hens bear a silvery complexion. Their combs are +usually double, and very short, though sometimes cupped, rose, or +single, with wattles small; and they are usually very red about the +head. Their tails are rather shorter and broader than most of the race, +and they feather rather slowly. Their legs are short and black, with +five toes on each foot, the bottom of which is sometimes yellow. The two +back toes are very distinct, starting from the foot separately; and +there is frequently a part of an extra toe between the two. + +This breed commence laying when very young, and are very thrifty layers +during winter. Their eggs are of a large size, and hatch well; they are +perfectly hardy, as their color indicates, and for the product are +considered among the most valuable of the Dorking breed. + + +THE DUNGHILL FOWL. + +This is sometimes called the Barn-door fowl, and is characterized by a +thin, serrated, upright comb, and wattles hanging from each side of the +lower mandible; the tail rises in an arch, above the level of the rump; +the feathers of the rump are long and line-like; and the color is finely +variegated. The female's comb and wattles are smaller than those of the +cock; she is less in size, and her colors are more dull and sombre. + +In the best specimens of this variety, the legs should be white and +smooth, like those of the Dorking, and their bodies round and plump. +Being mongrels, they breed all colors, and are usually from five to +seven or eight pounds per pair. + + +THE FRIZZLED FOWL. + +This fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of Japan, and, by an +equally common error, is frequently called the "Friesland," under the +apprehension that it is derived from that place. Its name, however, +originates from its peculiar appearance. It is difficult to say whether +this is an aboriginal variety, or merely a peculiar instance of the +morphology of feathers; the circumstance that there are also frizzled +Bantams, would seem to make in favor of the latter position. + +The feathers are ruffled or frizzled, and the reversion makes them +peculiarly susceptible of cold and wet, since their plumage is of little +use as clothing. They have thus the demerit of being tender as well as +ugly. In good specimens, every feather looks as if it had been curled +the wrong way with a pair of hot curling-irons. The plumage is +variegated in its colors; and there are two varieties, called the Black +and White Frizzled. The stock, which is rather curious than valuable, is +retained in this country more by importation than by rearing. + +Some writers say that this variety is a native of Asia, and that it +exists in a domestic state throughout Java, Sumatra, and all the +Philippine islands, where it succeeds well. It is, according to such, +uncertain in what country it is still found wild. + + +THE GAME FOWL. + +It is probable that these fowl, like other choice varieties, are natives +of India. It is certain that in that country an original race of some +fowl exists, at the present day, bearing in full perfection all the +peculiar characteristics of the species. In India, as is well known, the +natives are infected with a passion for cock-fighting. These fowls are +carefully bred for this barbarous amusement, and the finest birds become +articles of great value. In Sumatra, the inhabitants are so much +addicted to the cruel sports to which these fowls are devoted, that +instances are recorded of men staking not only their property upon the +issue of a fight, but even their wives and children. The Chinese are +likewise passionately fond of this pastime; as, indeed, are all the +inhabitants of the Indian countries professing the Mussulman creed. The +Romans introduced the practice into Britain, in which country the +earliest recorded cock-fight dates back to about the year 1100. In +Mexico and the South American countries it is still a national +amusement. + +[Illustration: GRAY GAME FOWLS.] + +The game fowl is one of the most gracefully formed and beautifully +colored of our domestic breeds of poultry; and in its form, aspect, and +that extraordinary courage which characterizes its natural disposition, +exhibits all that either the naturalist or the sportsman would at once +recognize as the purest type of high blood, embodying, in short, all the +most indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy. + +It is somewhat inferior in size to other breeds, and in its shape +approximates more closely to the elegance and lightness of form usually +characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated race. Amongst poultry, he is +what the Arabian is amongst horses, the high-bred Short-horn amongst +cattle, and the fleet greyhound amongst the canine race. + +The flesh is beautifully white, as well as tender and delicate. The hens +are excellent layers, and although the eggs are under the average size, +they are not to be surpassed in excellence of flavor. Such being the +character of this variety of fowl, it would doubtless be much more +extensively cultivated than it is, were it not for the difficulty +attending the rearing of the young; their pugnacity being such, that a +brood is scarcely feathered before at least one-half are killed or +blinded by fighting. + +With proper care, however, most of the difficulties to be apprehended +may be avoided. It is exceedingly desirable to perpetuate the race, for +uses the most important and valuable. As a cross with other breeds, they +are invaluable in improving the flavor of the flesh, which is an +invariable consequence. The plumage of all fowl related to them is +increased in brilliancy; and they are, moreover, very prolific, and the +eggs are always enriched. + +THE MEXICAN HEN-COCK. This unique breed is a favorite variety with the +Mexicans, who term them Hen-cocks from the fact that the male birds have +short, broad tails, and, in color and plumage, the appearance of the +hens of the same variety, differing only in the comb, which is very +large and erect in the cock, and small in the hen. They are generally +pheasant-colored, with occasional changes in plumage from a light yellow +to a dark gray; and, in some instances, there is a tendency to black +tail-feathers and breast, as well as an inclination to gray and light +yellow, and with a slight approximation to red hackles in some rare +instances. + +This variety has a strong frame, and very large and muscular thighs. The +cocks are distinguished by large, upright combs, strong bills, and very +large, lustrous eyes. The legs vary from a dirty to a dark-green color. +The hen does not materially differ in appearance from the cock. They +are as good layers and sitters as any other game breed, and are good +nurses. + +THE WILD INDIAN GAME. This variety was originally imported into this +country from Calcutta. The hen has a long neck, like a wild goose; +neither comb nor wattles; of a dark, glossy green color; very short fan +tail; lofty in carriage, trim built, and wild in general appearance; +legs very large and long, spotted with blue; ordinary weight from four +and a half to six pounds. As a layer, she is equal to other fowls of the +game variety. + +The cock stands as high as a large turkey, and weighs nine pounds and +upward; the plumage is of a reddish cast, interspersed with spots of +glossy green; comb very small; no wattles; and bill unlike every other +fowl, except the hen. + +THE SPANISH GAME. This variety is called the English fowl by some +writers. It is more slender in the body, the neck, the bill, and the +legs, than the other varieties, and the colors, particularly of the +cock, are very bright and showy. The flesh is white, tender, and +delicate, and on this account marketable; the eggs are small, and +extremely delicate. The plumage is very beautiful--a clear, dark red, +very bright, extending from the back to the extremities, while the +breast is beautifully black. The upper convex side of the wing is +equally red and black, and the whole of the tail-feathers white. The +beak and legs are black; the eyes resemble jet beads, very full and +brilliant; and the whole contour of the head gives a most ferocious +expression. + + +THE GUELDERLAND. + +The Guelderland fowl were originally imported into this country from the +north of Holland, where they are supposed to have originated. They are +very symmetrical in form, and graceful in their motions. They have one +noticeable peculiarity, which consists in the absence of a comb in +either sex. This is replaced by an indentation on the top of the head; +and from the extreme end of this, at the back, a small spike of feathers +rises. This adds greatly to the beauty of the fowl. The presence of the +male is especially dignified, and the female is little inferior in +carriage. + +[Illustration: GUELDERLANDS.] + +The plumage is of a beautiful black, tinged with blue, of very rich +appearance, and bearing a brilliant gloss. The legs are black, and, in +some few instances, slightly feathered. Crosses with the Shanghae have +heavily feathered legs. The wattles are of good size in the cock, while +those of the hen are slightly less. The flesh is fine, of white color, +and of excellent flavor. The eggs are large and delicate--the shell +being thicker than in those of most other fowls--and are much prized for +their good qualities. The hens are great layers, seldom inclining to +sit. Their weight is from five pounds for the pullets, to seven pounds +for the cocks. + +The Guelderlands, in short, possess all the characteristics of a perfect +breed; and in breeding them, this is demonstrated by the uniform aspect +which is observable in their descendants. They are light and active +birds, and are not surpassed, in point of beauty and utility, by any +breed known in this country. The only objection, indeed, which has been +raised against them is the tenderness of the chickens. With a degree of +care, however, equal to their value, this difficulty can be surmounted, +and the breed must be highly appreciated by all who have a taste for +beauty, and who desire fine flesh and luscious eggs. + + +THE SPANGLED HAMBURGH. + +The Spangled Hamburgh fowl are divided into two varieties, the +distinctive characteristics being slight, and almost dependent upon +color; these varieties are termed the Golden and Silver Spangled. + +[Illustration: HAMBURGH FOWLS.] + +_The Golden Spangled_ is one of no ordinary beauty; it is well and very +neatly made, has a good body, and no very great offal. On the crest, +immediately above the beak, are two small, fleshy horns, resembling, to +some extent, an abortive comb. Above this crest, and occupying the place +of a comb, is a very large brown or yellow tuft, the feathers composing +it darkening toward their extremities. Under the insertion of the lower +mandible--or that portion of the neck corresponding to the chin in +man--is a full, dark-colored tuft, somewhat resembling a beard. The +wattles are very small; the comb, as in other high-crested fowls, is +very diminutive; and the skin and flesh white. The hackles on the neck +are of a brilliant orange, or golden yellow; and the general +ground-color of the body is of the same hue, but somewhat darker. The +thighs are of a dark-brown or blackish shade, and the legs and feet are +of a bluish gray. + +In the _Silver Spangled_ variety, the only perceptible difference is, +that the ground color is a silvery white. The extremity and a portion of +the extreme margin of each feather are black, presenting, when in a +state of rest, the appearance of regular semicircular marks, or +spangles--and hence the name, "Spangled Hamburgh;" the varieties being +termed _gold_ or _silver_, according to the prevailing color being +bright yellow, or silvery white. + +The eggs are of moderate size, but abundant; chickens easily reared. In +mere excellence of flesh and as layers, they are inferior to the Dorking +or the Spanish. They weigh from four and a half to five and a half +pounds for the male, and three and a half for the female. The former +stands some twenty inches in height, and the latter about eighteen +inches. + + +THE JAVA. + +The Great Java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its purity. They +are of a black or dark auburn color, with very large, thick legs, single +comb and wattles. They are good layers, and their eggs are very large +and well-flavored; their gait is slow and majestic. They are, in fact, +amongst the most valuable fowls in the country, and are frequently +described as Spanish fowls, than which nothing is more erroneous. + +They are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded Great +Malay, and possess about the same qualities as to excellence, but fall +rather short of them in beauty. Some, however, consider the pure Java +superior to all other large fowls, so far as beauty is concerned. Their +plumage is decidedly rich. + + +THE JERSEY-BLUE. + +The color of this variety is light-blue, sometimes approaching to dun; +the tail and wings rather shorter than those of the common fowl; its +legs are of various colors, generally black, sometimes lightly +feathered. Of superior specimens, the cocks weigh from seven to nine +pounds, and the hens from six to eight. + +They are evidently mongrels; and though once much esteemed, they have +been quite neglected, so far as breeding from them is concerned, since +the introduction of the purer breeds, as the Shanghaes and the +Cochin-Chinas. + + +THE LARK-CRESTED FOWL. + +This breed is sometimes confounded with the Polish fowl; but the shape +of the crest, as well as the proportions of the bird, is different. +This variety, of whatever color it may be, is of a peculiar taper-form, +inclining forward, with a moderately depressed, backward-directed crest, +and deficient in the neatness of the legs and feet so conspicuous in the +Polands; the latter are of more upright carriage and of a more +squarely-built frame. Perhaps a good distinction between the two +varieties is, that the Lark-crested have an occipital crest, and the +Poland more of a frontal one. + +They are of various colors: pure snow white, brown with yellow hackles, +and black. The white is, perhaps, more brilliant than is seen in any +other domesticated gallinaceous bird, being much more dazzling than that +of the White Guinea Fowl, or the White Pea Fowl. This white variety is +in great esteem, having a remarkably neat and lively appearance when +rambling about a homestead. They look very clean and attractive when +dressed for market; an old bird, cleverly trussed, will be, apparently, +as delicate and transparent in skin and flesh as an ordinary chicken. +Their feathers are also more salable than those from darker colored +fowls. They are but little, if, indeed, any, more tender than other +kinds raised near the barn-door; they are in every way preferable to the +White Dorkings. + +In the cocks, a single, upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the +place of the crest; the hens, too, vary in this respect, some having not +more than half a dozen feathers in their head-dress. + +If they were not of average merit, as to their laying and sitting +qualifications, they would not retain the favor they do with the thrifty +house-wives by whom they are chiefly cultivated. + + +THE MALAY. + +[Illustration: MALAYS.] + +This majestic bird is found on the peninsula from which it derives its +name, and, in the opinion of many, forms a connecting link between the +wild and domesticated races of fowls. Something very like them is, +indeed, still to be found in the East. This native Indian bird--the +_Gigantic Cock_, the _Kulm Cock_ of Europeans--often stands considerably +more than two feet from the crown of the head to the ground. The comb +extends backward in a line with the eyes; it is thick, a little +elevated, rounded upon the top, and has almost the appearance of having +been cut off. The wattles of the under mandibles are comparatively +small, and the throat is bare. Pale, golden-reddish hackles ornament the +head, neck, and upper part of the back, and some of these spring before +the bare part of the throat. The middle of the back and smaller +wing-coverts are deep chestnut, the webs of the feathers disunited; pale +reddish-yellow, long, drooping hackles cover the rump and base of the +tail, which last is very ample, and entirely of a glossy green, of which +color are the wing-coverts; the secondaries and quills are pale +reddish-yellow on their outer webs. All the under parts are deep glossy +blackish-green, with high reflections; the deep chestnut of the base of +the feathers appears occasionally, and gives a mottled and interrupted +appearance to those parts. + +The weight of the Malay, in general, exceeds that of the Cochin-China; +the male weighing, when full-grown, from eleven to twelve, and even +thirteen pounds, and the female from eight to ten pounds; height, from +twenty-six to twenty-eight inches. They present no striking uniformity +of plumage, being of all shades, from black to white; the more common +color of the female is a light reddish-yellow, with sometimes a faint +tinge of dunnish-blue, especially in the tail. + +The cock is frequently of a yellowish-red color, with black intermingled +in the breast, thighs, and tail. He has a small, but thick comb, +generally inclined to one side; he should be snake-headed, and free from +the slightest trace of top-knot; the wattles should be extremely small, +even in an old bird; the legs are not feathered, as in the case of the +Shanghaes, but, like them and the Cochin-Chinas, his tail is small, +compared with his size. In the female, there is scarcely any show of +comb or wattles. Their legs are long and stout; their flesh is very +well flavored, when they have been properly fattened; and their eggs are +so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of our +ordinary fowls. + +The Malay cock, in his perfection, is a remarkably courageous and strong +bird. His beak is very thick, and he is a formidable antagonist when +offended. His crow is loud, harsh, and prolonged, as in the case of the +Cochin-China, but broken off abruptly at the termination; this is quite +characteristic of the bird. + +The chickens are at first very strong, with yellow legs, and are thickly +covered with light brown down; but, by the time they are one-third +grown, the increase of their bodies has so far outstripped that of their +feathers, that they are half naked about the back and shoulders, and +extremely susceptible of cold and wet. The great secret of rearing them +is, to have them hatched very early indeed, so that they may have safely +passed through this period of unclothed adolescence during the dry, +sunny part of May and June, and reached nearly their full stature before +the midsummer rains descend. + +Malay hens are much used by some for hatching the eggs of turkeys--a +task for which they are well adapted in every respect but one, which is, +that they will follow their natural instinct in turning off their +chickens at the usual time, instead of retaining charge of them as long +as the mother turkey would have done. Goslings would suffer less from +such untimely desertion. + +THE PHEASANT MALAY. This variety is highly valued by many, not on +account of its intrinsic merits, which are considerable, but because it +is believed to be a cross between the pheasant and the common fowl. This +is, however, an erroneous opinion. Hybrids between the pheasant and the +fowl are, for the most part, absolutely sterile; when they do breed, it +is not with each other, but with the stock of one of their progenitors; +and the offspring of these either fail or assimilate to one or the other +original type. No half-bred family is perpetuated, no new breed created, +by human or volucrine agency. + +The Pheasant Malays are large, well-flavored, good sitters, good layers, +good mothers, and, in many points, an ornamental and desirable stock. +Some object to them as being a trifle too long in their make; but they +have a healthy look of not being over-bred, which is a recommendation to +those who rear for profit as well as pleasure. The eggs vary in size; +some are very large in summer, smooth, but not polished, sometimes +tinged with light buff, balloon-shaped, and without the zone of +irregularity. The chickens, when first hatched, are all very much alike; +yellow, with a black mark all down the back. The cock has a black tail, +with black on the neck and wings. + + +THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. + +This name has been given to a very good breed of fowls, produced by +crossing a China cock with a hen, a cross between the Fawn-colored +Dorking, the Great Malay, and the Wild Indian. + +At a little over a year old, the cocks stand from thirty-two to +thirty-five inches high, and weigh about ten pounds; and the pullets +from six and a half to seven pounds each. The latter commence laying +when five months old, and prove themselves very superior layers. Their +eggs are of a medium size, rich, and reddish-yellow in color. Their +plumage is rich and variegated; the cocks usually red or speckled, and +the pullets darkish brown. They have very fine flesh, and are fit for +the table at an early age. The legs are very large, and usually blue or +green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally having five toes upon +each foot. Some have their legs feathered, but this is not usual. They +have large and single combs and wattles, large cheeks, rather short +tails, and small wings in proportion to their bodies. + +They are domestic, and not so destructive to gardens as smaller fowls. +There is the same uniformity in size and general appearance, at the same +age of the chickens, as in those of the pure bloods of primary races. + + +THE POLAND. + +The Poland, or Polish fowl, is quite unknown in the country which would +seem to have suggested the name, which originated from some fancied +resemblance between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of +the feathered caps worn by the Polish soldiers. + +The breed of crested fowls is much esteemed by the curious, and is +bred with great care. Those desirous of propagating any singular +varieties, separate and confine the individuals, and do not suffer them +to mingle with such as have the colors different. The varieties are more +esteemed in proportion to the variety of the colors, or the contrast of +the tuft with the rest of the plumage. Although the differences of +plumage are thus preserved pretty constant, they seem to owe their +origin to the same breed, and cannot be reproduced pure without careful +superintendence. The cocks are much esteemed in Egypt, in consequence of +the excellence of their flesh, and are so common that they are sold at +a remarkably cheap rate. They are equally abundant at the Cape of Good +Hope, where their legs are feathered. + +[Illustration: POLAND FOWLS.] + +The Polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way, and in a clean +and grassy place. They are certainly not so fit for the farm-yard, as +they become blinded and miserable with dirt. Care should be exercised to +procure them genuine, since there is no breed of fowls more disfigured +by mongrelism than this. They will, without any cross-breeding, +occasionally produce white stock that are very pretty, and equally good +for laying. If, however, an attempt is made to establish a separate +breed of them, they become puny and weak. It is, therefore, better for +those who wish for them to depend upon chance; every brood almost of the +black produces one white chicken, as strong and lively as the rest. + +These fowls are excellent for the table, the flesh being white, tender, +and juicy; but they are quite unsuitable for being reared in any +numbers, or for general purposes, since they are so capricious in their +growth, frequently remaining stationary in this respect for a whole +month, getting no larger; and this, too, when they are about a quarter +or half grown--the time of their life when they are most liable to +disease. As aviary birds, they are unrivalled among fowls. Their plumage +often requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate beauty; +the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to their health; and +their plumage improves in attractiveness with almost every month. + +The great merit, however, of all the Polish fowls is, that for three or +four years they continue to grow and gain in size, hardiness, and +beauty--the male birds especially. This fact certainly points out a very +wide deviation in constitution from those fowls which attain their full +stature and perfect plumage in twelve or fifteen months. The similarity +of coloring in the two sexes--almost a specific distinction of Polish +and perhaps Spanish fowls--also separates them from those breeds, like +the Game, in which the cocks and hens are remarkably dissimilar. Their +edible qualities are as superior, compared with other fowls, as their +outward apparel surpasses in elegance. They have also the reputation of +being everlasting layers, which further fits them for keeping in small +enclosures; but, in this respect, individual exceptions are often +encountered--as in the case of the Hamburghs--however truly the habit +may be ascribed to the race. + +There are four known varieties of the Polish fowl, one of which appears +to be lost to this country. + +THE BLACK POLISH. This variety is of a uniform black--both cock and +hen--glossed with metallic green. The head is ornamented with a handsome +crest of white feathers, springing from a fleshy protuberance, and +fronted more or less deeply with black. The comb is merely two or three +spikes, and the wattles are rather small. Both male and female are the +same in color, except that the former has frequently narrow stripes of +white in the waving feathers of the tail, a sign, it is said, of true +breeding. The hens, also, have two or three feathers on each side of the +tail, tinged in the tip with white. They do not lay quite so early in +the spring as some varieties, especially after a hard winter; but they +are exceedingly good layers, continuing a long time without wanting to +sit, and laying rather large, very white, sub-ovate eggs. They will, +however, sit at length, and prove of very diverse dispositions; some +being excellent sitters and nurses, others heedless and spiteful. + +The chickens, when first hatched, are dull black, with white breasts, +and white down on the front of the head. They do not always grow and get +out of harm's way so quickly as some other sorts, but are not +particularly tender. In rearing a brood of these fowls, some of the hens +may be observed with crests round and symmetrical as a ball, and others +in which the feathers turn all ways, and fall loosely over the eyes; and +in the cocks, also, some have the crest falling gracefully over the back +of the head, and others have the feathers turning about and standing on +end. These should be rejected, the chief beauty of the kind depending +upon such little particulars. One hen of this variety laid just a +hundred eggs, many of them on consecutive days, before wanting to +incubate; and after rearing a brood successfully, she laid twenty-five +eggs before moulting in autumn. + +THE GOLDEN POLANDS. These are sometimes called Gold Spangled, as their +plumage approaches to that of the Gold Spangled Hamburghs; but many of +the finest specimens have the feathers merely fringed with a darker +color, and the cocks, more frequently than the hens, exhibit a spotted +or spangled appearance. Many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard; +as to which the question has been raised whether it is an original +appendage to these birds or not. A distinct race, of which the muff is +one permanent characteristic, is not at present known. This appendage, +whenever introduced into the poultry-yard, is not easily got rid of; +which has caused some to suspect either that the original Polish were +beardless, or that there were two ancient races. + +The Golden Polands, when well-bred, are exceedingly handsome; the cock +has golden hackles, and gold and brown feathers on the back; breast and +wings richly spotted with ochre and dark brown; tail darker; large +golden and brown crest, falling back over the neck; but little comb and +wattles. The hen is richly laced with dark-brown or black on an ochre +ground; dark-spotted crest; legs light-blue, very cleanly made, and +displaying a small web between the toes, almost as proportionately large +as that in some of the waders. + +They are good layers, and produce fair-sized eggs. Many of them make +excellent mothers, although they cannot be induced to sit early in the +season. The chickens are rather clumsy-looking little creatures, of a +dingy-brown, with some dashes of ochre about the head, breast and wings. +They are sometimes inclined to disease in the first week of their +existence; but, if they pass this successfully, they become tolerably +hardy, though liable to come to a pause when about half-grown. It may be +noted as a peculiarity in the temper of this breed, that, if one is +caught, or attacked by any animal, the rest, whether cocks or hens, will +instantly make a furious attack upon the aggressor, and endeavor to +effect the rescue of their companion. + +THE SILVER POLANDS. These are similar to the preceding in shape and +markings, except that white, black, and gray are exchanged for ochre or +yellow, and various shades of brown. They are even more delicate in +their constitution, more liable to remain stationary at a certain point +of their adolescence, and, still more than the other varieties, require +and will repay extra care and accommodation. Their top-knots are, +perhaps, not so large, as a general thing; but they retain the same neat +bluish legs and slightly-webbed feet. The hens are much more ornamental +than the cocks; though the latter are sure to attract notice. They may, +unquestionably, be ranked among the choicest of fowls, whether their +beauty or their rarity is considered. They lay, in tolerable abundance, +eggs of moderate size, French-white, much pointed at one end; and when +they sit, acquit themselves respectably. + +The newly-hatched chickens are very pretty; gray, with black eyes, light +lead-colored legs, and a swelling of down on the crown of the head, +indicative of the future top-knot, which is exactly the color of a +powdered wig, and, indeed, gives the chicken the appearance of wearing +one. There is no difficulty in rearing them for the first six weeks or +two months; the critical time being the interval between that age and +their reaching the fifth or sixth month. They acquire their peculiar +distinctive features at a very early age, and are then the most elegant +little miniature fowls which can possibly be imagined. The distinction +of sex is not very manifest till they are nearly full-grown; the first +observable indication being in the tail. That of the pullet is carried +uprightly, as it ought to be; but in the cockerel, it remains depressed, +awaiting the growth of the sickle-feathers. The top-knot of the cockerel +inclines to hang more backward than that of the pullets. It is +remarkable that the Golden Polish cock produces as true Silver chickens, +and those stronger, with the Silver Polish hen, as the Silver Polish +cock would bring. + +The Silver Polands have all the habits of their golden companions, the +main difference being the silvery ground instead of the golden. This +variety will sometimes make its appearance even if merely its Golden +kind is bred, precisely as the Black Polish now and then produce some +pure White chickens that make very elegant birds. + +THE BLACK-TOPPED WHITE. This variety does not at present exist among us; +and some have even questioned whether it ever did. Buffon mentions them +as if extant in France in his time. An attempt has been made to obtain +them from the preceding, by acting on the imagination of the parents. +The experiment failed, though similar schemes are said to have succeeded +with animals; it proved, however, that it will not do to breed from the +White Polish as a separate breed. Being Albinos, the chickens come very +weakly, and few survive. + +This breed is now recoverable, probably, only by importation from Asia. + + +THE SHANGHAE. + +For all the purposes of a really good fowl--for beauty of model, good +size, and laying qualities--the thorough-bred Shanghae is among the +best, and generally the most profitable of domestic birds. The cock, +when full-grown, stands about twenty-eight inches high, if he is a good +specimen; the female, about twenty-two or twenty-three inches. A large +comb or heavy wattles are rarely seen on the hen at any age; but the +comb of the male is high, deeply indented, and his wattles double and +large. The comb and wattles are not, however, to be regarded as the +chief characteristics of this variety, nor even its reddish-yellow +feathered leg; but the abundant, soft, and downy covering of the thighs, +hips, and region of the vent, together with the remarkably short tail, +and large mound of feathers piled over the upper part of its root, +giving rise to a considerable elevation on that part of the rump. It +should be remarked, also, that the wings are quite short and small in +proportion to the size of the fowl, and carried very high up the body, +thus exposing the whole of the thighs, and a considerable portion of the +side. + +[Illustration: SHANGHAES.] + +These characteristics are not found, in the same degree, in any other +fowl. The peculiar arrangement of feathers gives the Shanghae in +appearance, what it has in reality--a greater depth of quarter, in +proportion to the brisket, than any other fowl. + +As to the legs, they are not very peculiar. The color is usually +reddish-white, or flesh-color, or reddish-yellow, mostly covered down +the outside, even to the end of the toes, with feathers. This last, +however, is not always the case. The plumage of the thorough-bred is +remarkably soft and silky, or rather downy; and is, in the opinion of +many, equally as good for domestic purposes as that of the goose. The +feathers are certainly quite as fine and soft, if not as abundant. + +In laying qualities, the pure Shanghae equals, if it does not excel, any +other fowl. The Black Poland, or the Bolton Gray, may, perhaps, lay a +few more eggs in the course of a year, in consequence of not so +frequently inclining to sit; but their eggs are not so rich and +nutritious. A pullet of this breed laid one hundred and twenty eggs in +one hundred and twenty-five days, then stopped six days, then laid +sixteen eggs more, stopped four days, and again continued her laying. +The eggs are generally of a pale yellow, or nankeen color, not +remarkably large, compared with the size of the fowl, and generally +blunt at the ends. The comb is commonly single, though, in some +specimens, there is a slight tendency to rose. + +The flesh of this fowl is tender, juicy, and unexceptionable in +every respect. Taking into consideration the goodly size of the +Shanghae--weighing, as the males do, at maturity, from ten to twelve +pounds, and the females from seven and a half to eight and a half, +and the males and females of six months, eight and six pounds +respectively--the economical uses to which its soft, downy feathers may +be applied, its productiveness, hardiness, and its quiet and docile +temper, this variety must occupy, and deservedly so, a high rank among +our domestic fowls; and the more it is known, the better will it be +appreciated. + +THE WHITE SHANGHAE. This variety is entirely white, with the legs +usually feathered, and differ in no material respect from the red, +yellow, and Dominique, except in color. The legs are yellowish, or +reddish-yellow, and sometimes of flesh-color. Many prefer them to all +others. The eggs are of a nankeen, or dull yellow color, and blunt at +both ends. + +[Illustration: WHITE SHANGHAES.] + +It is claimed by the friends of this variety that they are larger and +more quiet than other varieties, that their flesh is much superior, +their eggs larger, and the hens more profitable. Being more quiet in +their habits, and less inclined to ramble, the hens are invaluable as +incubators and nurses; and the mildness of their disposition makes them +excellent foster-mothers, as they never injure the chickens belonging to +other hens. + +These fowls will rank among the largest coming from China, and are very +thrifty in our climate. A cock of this variety attained a weight of +eight pounds, at about the age of eight months, and the pullets of the +same brood were proportionably large. They are broad on the back and +breast, with a body well rounded up; the plumage white, with a downy +softness--in the latter respect much like the feathering of the Bremen +goose; the tail-feathers short and full; the head small, surmounted by a +small, single, serrated comb; wattles long and wide, overlaying the +cheek-piece, which is also large, and extends back on the neck; and the +legs of a yellow hue, approaching a flesh-color, and feathered to the +ends of the toes. + + +THE SILVER PHEASANT. + +This variety of fowls is remarkable for great brilliancy of plumage and +diversity of colors. On a white ground, which is usually termed silvery, +there is an abundance of black spots. The feathers on the upper part of +the head are much longer than the rest, and unite together in a tuft. +They have a small, double comb, and their wattles are also comparatively +small. A remarkable peculiarity of the cock is, that there is a spot of +a blue color on the cheeks, and a range of feathers under the throat, +which has the appearance of a collar. + +The hen is a smaller bird, with plumage similar to that of the cock, and +at a little distance seems to be covered with scales. On the head is a +top-knot of very large size, which droops over it on every side. The +Silver Pheasants are beautiful and showy birds, and chiefly valuable as +ornamental appendages to the poultry-yard. + + +THE SPANISH. + +[Illustration: SPANISH FOWLS.] + +This name is said to be a misnomer, as the breed in question was +originally brought by the Spaniards from the West Indies; and, although +subsequently propagated in Spain, it has for some time been very +difficult to procure good specimens from that country. From Spain, they +were taken in considerable numbers into Holland, where they have been +carefully bred, for many years; and it is from that quarter that our +best fowls of this variety come. + +The Spanish is a noble race of fowls, possessing many merits; of +spirited and animated appearance; of considerable size; excellent for +the table, both in whiteness of flesh and skin, and also in flavor; and +laying exceedingly large eggs in considerable numbers. Among birds of +its own breed it is not deficient in courage; though it yields, without +showing much fight, to those which have a dash of game blood in their +veins. It is a general favorite in all large cities, for the additional +advantage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its plumage. + +The thorough-bred birds should be entirely black, as far as feathers are +concerned; and when in high condition, display a greenish, metallic +lustre. The combs of both cock and hen are exceedingly large, of a vivid +and most brilliant scarlet; that of the hen droops over upon one side. +Their most singular feature is a large, white patch, or ear-hole, on the +cheek--in some specimens extending over a great part of the face--of a +fleshy substance, similar to the wattle; it is small in the female, but +large and very conspicuous in the male. This marked contrast of black, +bright red, and white, makes the breed of the Spanish cock as handsome +as that of any variety which we have; in the genuine breed, the whole +form is equally good. + +Spanish hens are celebrated as good layers, and produce very large, +quite white eggs, of a peculiar shape, being very thick at both ends, +and yet tapering off a little at each. They are, by no means, good +mothers of families, even when they do sit--which they will not often +condescend to do--proving very careless, and frequently trampling half +their brood under foot. The inconveniences of this habit are, however, +easily obviated by causing the eggs to be hatched by some more motherly +hen. + +This variety of fowl has frequently been known to lose nearly all the +feathers in its body, besides the usual quantity on the neck, wings, and +tail; and, if they moult late, and the weather is severe, they feel it +much. This must often happen in the case of an "everlasting layer;" for +if the system of a bird is exhausted by the unremitting production of +eggs, it cannot contain within itself the material for supplying the +growth of feathers. They have not, even yet, become acclimated in this +country, since continued frost at any time is productive of much injury +to their combs; frequently causing mortification in the end, which at +times terminates in death. A warm poultry-house, high feeding, and care +that they do not remain too long exposed to severe weather, are the best +means of preventing this disfigurement. Some birds are occasionally +produced, handsomely streaked with red on the hackle and back. This is +no proof of bad breeding, if other points are right. + +The chickens are large, as would be expected from such eggs, entirely +shining black, except a pinafore of white on the breast--in which +respect they are precisely like the Black Polish chickens--and a slight +sprinkling under the chin, with sometimes also a little white round the +back and eyes; their legs and feet are black. Many of them do not get +perfectly feathered till they are three-fourths grown; and, therefore, +to have this variety come to perfection in a country where the summers +are much shorter than in their native climate, they must be hatched +early in spring, so that they may be well covered with plumage before +the cold rains of autumn. There is, however, a great lack of uniformity +in the time when they get their plumage; the pullets are always earlier +and better feathered than the cockerels--the latter being generally half +naked for a considerable time after being hatched, though some feather +tolerably well at an early age. + +The _Black_ is not the only valuable race of Spanish fowl; there is, +also, the _Gray_, or _Speckled_, of a slaty gray color, with white legs. +Their growth is so rapid, and their size, eventually, so large, that +they are remarkably slow in obtaining their feathers. Although well +covered with down when first hatched, they look almost naked when +half-grown, and should, therefore, be hatched as early in spring as +possible. The cross between the Pheasant-Malay and the Spanish produces +a particularly handsome fowl. + +As early pullets, for laying purposes in the autumn and winter after +they are hatched, no fowls can surpass the Spanish. They are believed, +also, to be more precocious in their constitution; and consequently to +lay at an earlier age than the pullets of other breeds. + + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS. + +Fowls are classed by modern naturalists as follows: + + DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back bone. + CLASS. _Aves_--birds. + ORDER. _Rasores_--scrapers. + FAMILY. _Phasianidae_--Pheasants. + GENUS. _Gallus_--the cock. + +Birds, as well as quadrupeds, may be divided into two great classes, +according to their food: the Carnivorous and the Graminivorous. Fowls +belong, strictly speaking, to the latter. + +In the structure of the _digestive organs_, birds exhibit a great +uniformity. The [oe]sophagus, which is often very muscular, is +dilated into a large sac--called the _crop_--at its entrance into +the breast; this is abundantly supplied with glands, and serves as a +species of first stomach, in which the food receives a certain amount +of preparation before being submitted to the action of the proper +digestive organs. A little below the crop, the narrow [oe]sophagus is +again slightly dilated, forming what is called the _ventriculus +succenturiatus_, the walls of which are very thick, and contain a great +number of glands, which secrete the gastric juice. Below this, the +intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the _gizzard_, in +which the process of digestion is carried still farther. In the +graminivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and +muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny _epithelium_, +serving for the trituration of the food. The intestine is rather short, +but usually exhibits several convolutions; the large intestine is always +furnished with two _corea_. It opens by a semicircular orifice into the +_cloaca_, which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative +organs. The liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a +gall-bladder. The pancreas is lodged in a kind of loop, formed by the +small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. There are also +large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, which pour their +secretion into that cavity. + +The _organs of circulation and respiration_ in birds are adapted to +their peculiar mode of life; but are not separated from the abdominal +cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mammalia. The heart consists of four +cavities distinctly separated--two auricles and two ventricles--so that +the venous and arterial blood can never mix in that organ; and the +whole of the blood returned from the different parts of the body passes +through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries. +The blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle, +from which it passes through a tabular opening into the right ventricle, +and is thence driven into the lungs. From these organs it returns +through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, and passes thence +into the ventricles of the same side, by the contraction of which it is +driven into the aorta. This soon divides into two branches, which, by +their subdivision, give rise to the arteries of the body. + +_The jaws_, or mandibles, are sheathed in a horny case, usually of a +conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. In most birds, the +sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp; but in some they are +denticulated along the margins. The two anterior members of the body are +extended into wings. The beak is used instead of hands; and such is the +flexibility of the vertebral column, that the bird is able to touch with +its beak every part of its body. This curious and important result is +obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebrae of the neck, which, in the +swan, consists of twenty-three bones, and in the domestic cock, +thirteen. The vertebrae of the back are seven to eleven; the ribs never +exceed ten on each side. + +The clothing of the skin consists of _feathers_, which in their nature +and development resemble hair, but are of a more complicated structure. +A perfect feather consists of the _shaft_, a central stem, which is +tubular at the base, where it is inserted into the skin, and the +_barbs_, or fibres, which form the _webs_ on each side of the shaft. The +two principal modifications of feathers are _quills_ and _plumes_; the +former confined to the wings and tail, the latter constituting the +general clothing of the body. Besides the common feathers, the skin of +many birds is covered with a thick coating of down, which consists of a +multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction; each of these down +feathers is composed of a very small, soft tube imbedded in the skin, +from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments, +without any central shaft. These filaments are very slender, and bear on +each side a series of still more delicate filaments, which may be +regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers. This +downy coat fulfils the same office as the soft, woolly fur of many +quadrupeds; the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long, smooth +hair by which the fur of these animals is concealed. The skin also bears +many hair-like appendages, which are usually scattered sparingly over +its surface; they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and +usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence +of a few minute barbs toward the apex. + +Once or twice in the course of a year the whole plumage of the bird is +renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called _moulting_. The +base of the quills is covered by a series of large feathers, called the +_wing coverts_; and the feathers of the tail are furnished with numerous +muscles, by which they can be spread out and folded up like a fan. In +the aquatic birds--like the goose, the duck, and the swan--the feathers +are constantly lubricated by an oily secretion, which completely +excludes the water. + +In their reproduction, birds are strictly oviparous. The _eggs_ are +always enclosed in a hard shell, consisting of calcareous matter, and +birds almost invariably devote their whole attention, during the +breeding season, to the hatching of their eggs and the development of +their offspring; sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them +the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and +attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter +are in a condition to shift for themselves. + +In the structure and development of the egg there is a great uniformity; +but there is a remarkable difference in the condition of the young bird +at the moment of hatching. In the class under consideration, the young +are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell; +and the only care of the parents is devoted to protecting their +offspring from danger, and leading them into those places where they are +likely to meet with food. + +The _longevity_ of birds is various, and, unlike the case of men and +quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they +acquire maturity. A few months, or even a few weeks, suffice to bring +them to their perfection of stature, instincts, and powers. Domestic +fowls live to the age of twenty years; geese, fifty; while swans exceed +a century. + +The order _Rasores_ includes the numerous species of _gallinaceous +birds_, and the term is applied to them from their habit of scratching +in the ground in search of food. They are generally marked by a small +head, stout legs, plumage fine, the males usually adorned with +magnificent colors, and the tails often developed in a manner to render +the appearance extremely elegant. The wings are usually short and weak, +and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor prolonged. The +_corla_ of this order are larger than in any other birds. + +The species are found in almost all parts of the world, from the tropics +to the frozen regions of the north; but the finest and most typical +kinds are inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of Asia. They +feed principally on seeds, fruit, and herbage, but also, to a +considerable extent, on insects, worms, and other small animals. Their +general habitation is on the ground, where they run with great celerity, +but many of them roost on trees. They are mostly polygamous in their +habits, the males being usually surrounded by a considerable troop of +females; and to these, with a few exceptions, the whole business of +incubation is generally left. The nest is always placed on the ground in +some sheltered situation, and very little art is exhibited in its +construction; indeed, an elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the +young are able to run about and feed almost as soon as they have left +the egg; and at night or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath +the wings of their mother. Most of these species are esteemed for the +table, and many of them are among the most celebrated of game birds. + +The _pheasant family_, of this order, includes the most beautiful of the +rasorial birds; indeed, some of them may, perhaps, be justly regarded as +pre-eminent in this respect over all the rest of their class. In these, +the bill is of moderate size and compressed, with the upper mandible +arched to the tip, where it overhangs the lower one; the _tarsi_ are of +moderate length and thickness, usually armed with one or two spurs; the +toes are moderate, and the hinder one short and elevated; the wings are +rather short and rounded, and the tail more or less elongated and +broad, but frequently wedge-shaped and pointed. The head is rarely +feathered all over; the naked skin is sometimes confined to a space +about the eye, but generally occupies a greater portion of the surface, +occasionally covering the whole head, and even a part of the neck, and +frequently forming combs and wattles of very remarkable forms. In some +species, the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers. + +The birds of this family are, for the most part, indigenous to the +Asiatic continent and islands, from which, however, several species have +been introduced into other parts of the globe. The Guinea Fowl of +Africa, and the Turkeys of America, are almost the only instances of +wild Phasianidous birds out of Asia. Some species, such as the Domestic +Fowl, the Peacock, the Turkey, and the Guinea Fowl, have been reduced to +a state of complete domestication, and are distributed pretty generally +over the world. + + +THE GUINEA FOWL. + +This bird belongs to the same division, class, order, and family as the +Domestic Fowl; but is assigned by naturalists to the genus Numida, or +Numidian. It is indigenous to the tropical parts of Africa, and in a +wild state, Guinea Fowls live in flocks, in woods, preferring marshy +places, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds; they roost on trees; the +nest is made on the ground, and usually contains as many as twenty eggs. +They have been propagated in the Island of Jamaica to such an extent as +to have become wild, and are shot like other game. They do much damage +to the crops, and are therefore destroyed by various means; one of which +is, to get them tipsy by strewing corn steeped in rum, and mixed with +the intoxicating juice of the cassava, upon the ground; the birds +devour this, and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety. + +The Guinea Fowl, to a certain degree, unites the characteristics of the +pheasant and the turkey; having the delicate shape of the one, and the +bare head of the other. There are several varieties: the White, the +Spotted, the Madagascar, and the Crested. The latter is not so large as +the common species; the head and neck are bare, of a dull blue, shaded +with red, and, instead of the casque, it has an ample crest of +hair-like, disunited feathers, of a bluish black, reaching as far +forward as the nostrils, but, in general, turned backward. The whole +plumage, except the quills, is of a bluish black, covered with small +grayish spots, sometimes four, sometimes six on each feather. + +[Illustration: THE GUINEA FOWL.] + +This fowl is not a great favorite among many keepers of poultry, being +so unfortunate as to have gained a much worse reputation than it really +deserves, from having been occasionally guilty of a few trifling faults. +It is, however, useful, ornamental, and interesting during its life; +and, when dead, a desirable addition to the table, at a time when all +other poultry is scarce. + +The best way to commence keeping Guineas is to procure a sitting of eggs +which can be depended upon for freshness, and if possible, from a place +where but a single pair is kept. A Bantam hen is the best mother; she is +lighter, and less likely to injure them by treading on them than a +full-sized fowl. She will cover nine eggs, and incubation will last a +month. The young are excessively pretty. When first hatched, they are so +strong and active as to appear not to require the attention which is +really necessary to rear them. Almost as soon as they are dry from the +moisture of the egg, they will peck each other's toes, as if supposing +them to be worms, scramble with each other for a crumb of bread, and +domineer over any little Bantam or chicken that may chance to have been +hatched at the same time with themselves. No one, ignorant of the fact, +would guess, from their appearance, to what species of bird they +belonged; their orange-red bills and legs, and the dark, zebra-like +stripes with which they are regularly marked from head to tail, bear no +traces of the speckled plumage of their parents. + +Of all known birds, the Guinea fowl is, perhaps, the most prolific of +eggs. Week after week, and month after month, there are very few +intermissions, if any, of the daily deposit. Even the process of +moulting is sometimes insufficient to draw off the nutriment which it +takes to make feathers instead of eggs; and the poor thing will +sometimes go about half-naked in the chilly autumn months, unable to +refrain from its diurnal visit to the nest, and consequently unable to +furnish itself with a new outer garment. The body of the Guinea hen may +be regarded, in fact, as a most admirable machine for producing eggs +out of insects, grain, and vegetables, garbage, or whatever material an +omnivorous creature can appropriate. + +Its normal plumage is singularly beautiful, being spangled over with an +infinity of white spots on a black ground, shaded with gray and brown. +The spots vary from the size of a pea to extreme minuteness. The black +and white occasionally change places, causing the bird to appear covered +with a net of lace. + +The white variety is not uncommon, and is said to be equally hardy and +profitable with the usual kind; but the peculiar beauty of the original +plumage is, certainly, all exchanged for a dress of not the purest +white. It is doubtful how long either this or the former variety would +remain permanent; though, probably, but for a few generations. Pied +birds blotched with patches of white, are frequent, but are not +comparable, in point of beauty, with those of the original wild color. + + +THE PEA FOWL. + +This bird is assigned to the genus _paro_, or peacock--the division, +class, or sex, and family, being the same as the preceding. The male of +this species is noted for its long, lustrous tail, which it occasionally +spreads, glittering with hundreds of jewel-like eye-spots, producing an +unrivalled effect of grace and beauty. The form of the bird is also +exceedingly elegant, and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich +metallic tints; that of the neck, particularly, being of a fine deep +blue, tinged with golden green. The female, however, is of a much more +sober hue, her whole plumage being usually of a brownish color. The +voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to the beauty of its +external appearance, consisting of a harsh, disagreeable cry, not unlike +the word _paon_, which is the French name of the bird. + +[Illustration: THE PEA FOWL.] + +Although naturalized as a domestic bird in Europe and America, the pea +fowl is a native of India, where it is still found abundantly in a wild +state; and the wild specimens are said to be more brilliant than those +bred in captivity. The date of its introduction into England is not +known; but the first peacocks appear to have been brought into Europe by +Alexander the Great, although these birds were among the articles +imported into Judea by the fleets of Solomon. They reached Rome toward +the end of the republic, and their costliness soon caused them to be +regarded as one of the greatest luxuries of the table, though the +moderns find them dry and leathery. This, perhaps, as much as the desire +of ostentation, may have induced the extravagance of Vitellius and +Heliogabulus, who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and +tongues of peacocks at their feasts. In Europe, during the middle ages, +the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill of fare of grand +entertainments, at which it was served with the greatest pomp and +magnificence. And during the period of chivalry, it was usual for +knights to make vows of enterprise on these occasions, "before the +peacock and the ladies." At present, however, the bird is kept entirely +on account of the beauty of its appearance. + +In a state of nature, pea fowl frequent jungles and wooded localities, +feeding upon grain, fruits, and insects. They are polygamous, and the +females make their nests upon the ground among bushes; the nest is +composed of grass, and the number of eggs laid is said to be five or +six. They roost in high trees, and, even in captivity, their inclination +to get into an elevated position frequently manifests itself; and they +may often be seen perched upon high walls, or upon the ridges of +buildings. + +The latter characteristic is, indirectly, one reason why many are +disinclined to keep pea fowl in a domestic state. Their decided +determination so to roost prevents such a control being exercised over +them as would restrain them from mischief, until an eye could be kept on +their movements; and, consequently, they commit many depredations upon +gardens, stealing off to their work of plunder at the first dawn, or at +the most unexpected moments. Their cunning indeed is such that, if +frequently driven away from the garden at any particular hour of the day +or evening, they will never be found there, after a certain time, at +that special hour, but will invariably make their inroads at day-break. +Many have tried, as a last resort, to eject them with every mark of +scorn and insult, such as harsh words, the cracking of whips, and the +throwing of harmless brooms; but they remain incorrigible marauders, +indifferent to this disrespectful usage, and careless of severe rebuke. + +A mansion, therefore, where the fruit and vegetable garden is at a +distance, is almost the only place where they can be kept without daily +vexation. The injury they do to flowers is comparatively trifling; +though, like the Guinea-fowl, they are great eaters of buds, cutting +them out cleanly from the _axillae_ of leaves. They must likewise have a +dusting-hole, which is large and unsightly; but this can be provided for +them in some nook out of the way; and by feeding and encouragement, they +will soon be taught to dispose themselves into a pleasing spectacle, at +whatever point of view may be deemed desirable. No one with a very +limited range should attempt to keep them at all, unless confined in an +aviary. Where they can be kept at large, they should be collected in +considerable numbers, that their dazzling effects may be as impressive +as possible. + +A wanton destructiveness toward the young of other poultry is also +charged upon them. Relative to this, however, statements differ; some +contending that such instances of cruelty constitute the exceptions, and +not the rule. + +The hen does not lay till her third summer; but she then seems to have +an instinctive fear of her mate, manifested by the secrecy with which +she selects the place for her nest; nor, if the eggs are disturbed, will +she go there again. She lays from four or five to seven. If these are +taken, she will frequently lay a second time during the summer; and the +plan is recommended to those who are anxious to increase their stock. +She sits from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. A common hen will hatch +and rear the young; but the same objection lies against her performing +that office, except in very fine, long summers, for the pea fowl as for +turkeys--that the young require to be brooded longer than the hen is +conveniently able to do. A turkey will prove a much better foster-mother +in every respect. The peahen should, of course, be permitted to take +charge of one set of eggs. Even without such assistance, she will be +tolerably successful. + +The same wise provision of Nature noticed in the case of the Guinea fowl +is evinced in a still greater degree in the little pea chickens. Their +native jungle--tall, dense, sometimes impervious, swarming with reptile, +quadruped, and even insect, enemies--would be a most dangerous +habitation for a little tender thing that could merely run and squall. +Accordingly, they escape from the egg with their quill-feathers very +highly developed. In three days, they will fly up, and perch upon any +thing three feet high; in a fortnight, they will roost on trees, or the +tops of sheds; and in a month or six weeks, they will reach the ridge of +a barn, if there are any intermediate low stables or other buildings to +help them to mount from one to the other. + +There are two varieties of the common pea fowl: the _pied_ and the +_white_. The first has irregular patches of white about it, like the +pied Guinea fowl, and the remainder of the plumage resembling the +original sorts; the white have the ocellated spots on the tail faintly +visible in certain lights. These last are tender, and much prized by +those who prefer variety to real beauty. They are occasionally produced +by birds of the common kind, in cases where no intercourse with other +white birds can have taken place. In one instance, in the same brood, +whose parents were both of the usual colors, there were two of the +common sort, and one white cock, and one white hen. + + +THE TURKEY. + +THE WILD TURKEY. The turkey belongs to the genus _meleagris_, and, +though now known as a domestic fowl in most civilized countries, was +confined to America until after the discovery of that country by +Columbus. It was probably introduced into Europe by the Spaniards about +the year 1530. It was found in the forests of North America, when the +country was first settled, from the Isthmus of Darien to Canada, being +then abundant even in New England; at present, a few are found in the +mountains of Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey; in the Western and +the Southwestern States they are still numerous, though constantly +diminishing before the extending and increasing settlements. + +[Illustration: THE WILD TURKEY.] + +The wild male bird measures about three feet and a half, or nearly four +feet, in length, and almost six in expanse of the wings, and weighs from +fifteen to forty pounds. The skin of the head is of a bluish color, as +is also the upper part of the neck, and is marked with numerous reddish, +warty elevations, with a few black hairs scattered here and there. On +the under part of the neck, the skin hangs down loosely, and forms a +sort of wattle; and from the point where the bill commences, and the +forehead terminates, arises a fleshy protuberance, with a small tuft of +hair at the extremity, which becomes greatly elongated when the bird is +excited; and at the lower part of the neck is a tuft of black hair, +eight or nine inches in length. + +The feathers are, at the base, of a bright dusky tinge, succeeded by a +brilliant metallic band, which changes, according to the point whence +the light falls upon it, to bronze, copper, violet, or purple; and the +tip is formed by a narrow, black, velvety band. This last marking is +absent from the neck and breast. The color of the tail is brown, mottled +with black, and crossed with numerous lines of the latter color; near +the tip is a broad, black band, then a short mottled portion, and then a +broad band of dingy yellow. The wings are white, banded closely with +black, and shaded with brownish yellow, which deepens in tint toward the +back. The head is very small, in proportion to the size of the body; the +legs and feet are strongly made, and furnished with blunt spurs, about +an inch long, and of a dusky reddish color; the bill is reddish, and +brown-colored at the tip. + +The female is less in size; her legs are destitute of spurs; her neck +and head are less naked, being furnished with short, dirty, gray +feathers; the feathers on the back of the neck have brownish tips, +producing on that part a brown, longitudinal band. She also, +frequently, but not invariably, wants the tuft of feathers on the +breast. Her prevailing color is a dusky gray, each feather having a +metallic band, less brilliant than that of the cock, then a blackish +band, and a grayish fringe. Her whole color is, as usual among birds, +duller than that of the cock; the wing-feathers display the white, and +have no bands; the tail is similarly colored to that of the cock. When +young, the sexes are so much alike that it is not easy to discern the +difference between them; and the cock acquires his beauty only by +degrees, his plumage not arriving at perfection until the fourth or +fifth year. + +The habits of these birds in their native wilds are exceedingly curious. +The males, called _Gobblers_, associate in parties of from ten to a +hundred, and seek their food apart from the females, which either go +about singly with their young, at that time about two-thirds grown, or +form troops with other females and their families, sometimes to the +number of seventy or eighty. These all avoid the old males, who attack +and destroy the young, whenever they can, by reiterated blows upon the +skull. But all parties travel in the same direction, and on foot, unless +the dog or the hunter or a river on their line of march compels them to +take wing. When about to cross a river, they select the highest +eminences, that their flight may be more sure, and in such positions +they sometimes stay for a day or more, as if in consultation. The males +upon such occasions gobble obstreperously, strutting with extraordinary +importance, as if to animate their companions; and the females and the +young assume much of the same pompous manner, and spread their tails as +they move silently around. Having mounted, at length, to the tops of the +highest trees, the assembled multitude, at the signal note of their +leader, wing their way to the opposite shore. The old and fat birds, +contrary to what might be expected, cross without difficulty, even when +the river is a mile in width; but the wings of the young and the meagre, +and, of course, those of the weak, frequently fail them before they have +completed their passage, when they drop in, and are forced to swim for +their lives, which they do cleverly enough, spreading their tails for a +support, closing their wings, stretching out their necks, and striking +out quickly and strongly with their feet. All, however, do not succeed +in such attempts, and the weaker often perish. + +The wild turkeys feed on maize, all sorts of berries, fruits, grasses, +and beetles; tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards, are occasionally found +in their crops. The pecan nut is a favorite food, and so is the acorn, +on which last they fatten rapidly. About the beginning of October, while +the mast still hangs on the trees, they gather together in flocks, +directing their course to the rich bottom-lands, and are then seen in +great numbers on the Ohio and Mississippi. This is the _turkey-month_ of +the Indians. When they have arrived at the land of abundance, they +disperse in small, promiscuous flocks of both sexes and every age, +devouring all the mast as they advance. Thus they pass the autumn and +winter, becoming comparatively familiar after their journeys, when they +venture near plantations and farm-houses. They have even been known, on +such occasions, to enter stables and corn-cribs in quest of food. +Numbers are killed in the winter, and preserved in a frozen state for +distant markets. + +The beginning of March is the pairing season, for a short time previous +to which the females separate from their mates, and shun them, though +the latter pertinaciously follow them, gobbling loudly. The sexes roost +apart, but at no great distance, so that when the female utters a call, +every male within hearing responds, rolling note after note in the most +rapid succession; not as when spreading the tail and strutting near the +hen, but in a voice resembling that of the tame turkey when he hears any +unusual or frequently-repeated noise. + +Where the turkeys are numerous, the woods, from one end to the other, +sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with this remarkable voice of +their wooing, uttered responsively from their roosting-places. This is +continued for about an hour; and, on the rising of the sun, they +silently descend from their perches, and the males begin to strut for +the purpose of winning the admiration of their mates. + +If the call of a female be given from the ground, the males in the +vicinity fly toward the individual, and, whether they perceive her or +not, erect and spread their tails, throw the head backward, and distend +the comb and wattles, shout pompously, and rustle their wings and +body-feathers, at the same moment ejecting a puff of air from the lungs. +While thus occupied, they occasionally halt to look out for the female, +and then resume their strutting and puffing, moving with as much +rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit. During this ceremonious +approach, the males often encounter each other, and desperate battles +ensue, when the conflict is only terminated by the flight or death of +the vanquished. The usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the +conqueror, who is followed by one or more females, that roost near him, +if not upon the same tree, until they begin to lay, when their habits +are altered, with the view of saving their eggs, which the male breaks, +if he can get at them. These are usually from nine to fifteen in number, +sometimes twenty, whitish and spotted with brown, like those of the +domestic bird. The nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the +ground, sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes on the fallen top of a dead +leafy tree, under a thicket of sumach or briers, or by the side of a +log. Whenever the female leaves the nest, she covers it with leaves, so +as to screen it from observation. She is a very close sitter, and when +she has chosen a spot will seldom leave it, on account of its being +discovered by a human intruder. Should she find one of her eggs, +however, sucked by a snake, or other enemy, she abandons the nest +forever. When the eggs are near hatching, she will not forsake her nest +while life remains. + +The females are particularly attentive to their young, which are very +sensitive to the effects of damp; and consequently wild turkeys are +always scarce after a rainy season. The flesh of the wild turkey is much +superior to that of the domestic bird; yet the flesh of such of the +latter as have been suffered to roam at large in the woods and in the +plains is, in no respect, improved by this partially wild mode of life. + + +THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. + +The origin of the popular name, turkey, appears to be the confusion at +first unaccountably subsisting relative to the identity of the bird with +the Guinea fowl, which was still scarce at the time of the introduction +of the turkey. Some, however, say that the name arose from the proud and +_Turkish_ strut of the cock. There is a question whether the domestic +turkey is actually a second and distinct species, or merely a variety of +the wild bird, owing its diversity of aspect to circumstances dependent +on locality, and consequent change of habit, combined with difference of +climate and other important causes, which are known in the case of other +animals to produce such remarkable effects. + +[Illustration: THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.] + +The _varieties_ of the domesticated turkey are not very distinct; and as +to their relative value, it is, perhaps, difficult to give any decisive +opinion. Some suppose that the _white_ turkey is the most robust, and +most easily fattened. Experience has, however, shown to the contrary. +The pure white are very elegant creatures; and though very tender to +rear, are not so much so as the white pea fowl. Most birds, wild as well +as tame, occasionally produce perfectly white individuals, of more +delicate constitution than their parents. The selection and pairing of +such have probably been the means of establishing and keeping up this +breed. With all care, they will now and then produce speckled birds and +so show a tendency to return to the normal plumage. It is remarkable +that in specimens which are, in other respects, snow-white, the tuft on +the breast remains coal-black, appearing, in the hens, like a tail of +ermine, and so showing us a great ornament. The head and caruncles on +the neck of the male are, when excited, of the same blue and scarlet +hues. The bird is truly beautiful, with its snowy and trembling flakes +of plumage thus relieved with small portions of black, blue, and +scarlet. They have one merit--they dress most temptingly white for +market; but they are unsuited for mirey, smokey, or clayey situations, +and show and thrive best where they have a range of clean, short +pasture, on a light or chalky subsoil. + +The _bronze_ and _copper-colored_ varieties are generally undersized, +and are among the most difficult of all to rear; but their flesh is, +certainly, very delicate, and, perhaps, more so than that of other +kinds--a circumstance, however, that may partly result from their far +greater delicacy of constitution, and the consequent extra trouble +devoted to their management. + +The _brown_ and _ashy-gray_ are not particularly remarkable; but the +_black_ are decidedly superior, in every respect, not only as regards +greater hardiness, and a consequent greater facility of rearing, but as +acquiring flesh more readily, and that, too, of the very best and +primest quality. Those of this color appear also to be far less removed +than the others from the original wild stock. Fortunately, the black +seems to be the favorite color of Nature; and black turkeys are produced +far more abundantly than those of any other hue. + +The turkey is a most profitable bird, since it can almost wholly provide +for itself about the roads; snails, slugs, and worms are among the +number of its dainties, and the nearest stream serves to slake its +thirst. To the farmer, however, it is often a perfect nuisance, from its +love of grain; and should, therefore, be kept in the yard until all +corn is too strong in the root to present any temptation. + +Notwithstanding the separation which, with the exception of certain +seasons, subsists between the cock and hen turkey in a wild state, they +have been taught to feed and live amiably together in a state of +domesticity. The former, however, retains sufficient of his hereditary +propensities to give an occasional sly blow to a froward chicken, but +that very seldom of a serious or malicious character. + +One reason why the turkeys seen in poultry-yards do not vie in splendor +of plumage with their untamed brethren is, that they are not allowed to +live long enough. For the same cause, the thorough development of their +temper and disposition is seldom witnessed. It does not attain its full +growth till its fifth or sixth year, yet it is killed at latest in the +second, to the evident deterioration of the stock. If some of the best +breeds were retained to their really adult state, and well fed +meanwhile, they would quite recompense their keeper by their beauty in +full plumage, their glancing hues of gilded green and purple, their +lovely shades of bronze, brown, and black, and the pearly lustre that +radiates from their polished feathers. + + +THE DUCK. + +This bird is of the order of _natatores_, or swimmers; family, +_anatidae_, of the duck kind; genus, _anas_, or duck. The most striking +character of the swimming bird is derived from the structure of the +_feet_, which are always palmate--that is, furnished with webs between +the toes. There are always three toes directed forward, and these are +usually united by a membrane to their extremities; but, in some cases, +the membrane is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, +and furnished with a distinct web on each side. The fourth toe is +generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; when +present, it is usually directed backward, and the membrane is sometimes +continued to it along the side of the feet. These webbed feet are the +principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water, +upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their +time. The feet are generally placed very far back, a position which is +exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming, but which renders +their progression on the land somewhat awkward. + +[Illustration: THE EIDER DUCK.] + +The _body_ is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very thick, +close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the +greasy secretions of the caudal gland, so that it is completely +water-proof. The _wings_ exhibit a great variety in their development; +in some species being merely rudimentary, destitute of quills, and +covered with a scaly skin--in others, being of vast size and power, and +the birds passing a great part of their lives in the air. The form of +the _bill_ is also very remarkable; in some, broad and flat; in others, +deep and compressed; and in others, long and slender. + +Most of these birds live in societies, which are often exceedingly +numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes. + +The distinguishing characteristic of the family of the _anatidae_ is the +_bill_, which is usually of a flattened form, covered with a soft skin, +and furnished at the edges with a series of _lamellae_, which serve to +sift or strain the mud in which they generally seek their food. The feet +are furnished with four toes, three of which are directed forward, and +united by a web; the fourth is directed backward, usually of small size, +and quite free. They are admirable swimmers, and live and move on the +water with the utmost security, ease, and grace. Such is their +adaptation to this element that the young, immediately after being +hatched, will run to it, and fearlessly launch themselves upon its +bosom, rowing themselves along with their webbed feet, without a single +lesson, and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman. They are +generally inhabitants of the fresh waters, and for the most part, prefer +ponds and shallow lakes, in which they can investigate the bottom with +their peculiar bills, without actually diving beneath the surface; yet +at some seasons they are found along the borders of the sea. Their food +generally consists of worms, mollusca, and aquatic insects, which they +separate from the mud by the agency of the lamellae at the margin of the +bill; but most of them also feed upon seeds, fruits, and other vegetable +substances. + + +THE WILD DUCK. + +This bird, known also by the name of _mallard_, is the original of all +the domestic varieties. It is twenty-four inches long, and marked with +green, chestnut and white. Wild ducks are gregarious in their habits, +and generally migrate in large flocks. The males are larger than the +females, and the latter are also usually of a more uniform and sober +tint. + +It is an inhabitant of all the countries of Europe, especially toward +the north, and is also abundant in North America, where it is migratory, +passing to the North in Spring, and returning to the South in autumn. It +frequents the lakes of the interior, as well as the sea-coasts. It is +plentiful in Great Britain at all seasons, merely quitting the more +exposed situations at the approach of winter, and taking shelter in the +valleys; or, in case of a severe winter, visiting the estuaries. + +[Illustration: WILD DUCK.] + +They moult twice in the year, in June and November; in June, the males +acquire the female plumage to a certain extent, but regain their proper +dress at the second moult, and retain it during the breeding season. In +a wild state, the mallard always pairs, and, during the period of +incubation, the male, although taking no part in the process, always +keeps in the neighborhood of the female; and it is singular that +half-bred birds between the wild and tame varieties always exhibit the +same habits, although the ordinary domestic drakes are polygamous, +always endeavoring to get as many wives as they can. The nest is usually +placed upon the ground among reeds and ledges near the water; sometimes +in holes or hollow trees, but rarely among the branches. The eggs vary +from about eight to fourteen in number, and the young are active from +the moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the water, where they +are as much at home as the old birds. + +As the flesh of wild ducks is greatly valued, immense numbers are shot, +or taken in other ways. In England, large numbers are captured by +decoys, consisting of a piece of water situated in the midst of a quiet +plantation, from which six semicircular canals are cut, which are roofed +over with hoops, and covered in with netting. Into this vast trap the +ducks are enticed by young ducks trained for the purpose. + + +THE DOMESTIC DUCK. + +The duck should always find a place in the poultry-yard, provided that +it can have access to water, even a small supply of which will suffice. +They have been kept with success, and the ordinary duck fattened to the +weight of eight pounds, with no further supply of water than that +afforded by a large pool sunk in the ground. In a garden, ducks will do +good service, voraciously consuming slops, frogs, and insects--nothing, +indeed, coming amiss to them; not being scratchers, they do not, like +other poultry, commit such a degree of mischief, in return, as to +partially counterbalance their usefulness. A drake and two or three +ducks cost little to maintain; and the only trouble they will give is, +that if there is much extent of water or shrubbery about their home, +they will lay and sit abroad, unless they are brought up every night, +which should be done. They will otherwise drop their eggs carelessly +here and there, or incubate in places where their eggs will be sucked by +crows, and half their progeny destroyed by rats. + +[Illustration: ROUEN DUCK.] + +The duck is very prolific, and its egg is very much relished by some, +having a rich piquancy of flavor, which gives it a decided superiority +over the egg of the domestic fowl; and these qualities render it much in +request with the pastry-cook and confectioner--three duck's eggs being +equal in culinary value to six hen's eggs. The duck does not lay during +the day, but generally in the night; exceptions, regulated by +circumstances, will, of course, occasionally occur. While laying, it +requires, as has been intimated, more attention than does the hen, until +it is accustomed to resort to a regular nest for depositing its eggs; +when, however, this is once effected, little care is needed beyond what +has been indicated. + +The duck is a bad hatcher, being too fond of the water, and, +consequently, too apt to allow her eggs to get cold; she will also, no +matter what kind of weather it may be, bring the ducklings to the water +the moment they break the shell--a practice always injurious, and +frequently fatal; hence the very common practice of setting duck's eggs +under hens. + +There are several _varieties_ of tame ducks; but their merits are more +diverse in an ornamental than in a profitable point of view. Of _white_ +ducks, the best is the _Aylesbury_, with its unspotted, snowy plumage, +and yellow legs and feet. It is large and excellent for the table, but +not larger or better than several others. They are assiduous mothers and +nurses, especially after the experience of two or three seasons. A much +smaller race of white ducks is imported from Holland, useful only to the +proprietors of extensive or secluded waters, as enticers of passing wild +birds to alight and join their society. This variety has a yellow-orange +bill; that of the Aylesbury should be flesh-colored. There is, also, the +_white hook-billed_ duck, with a bill monstrously curved downward--a +Roman-nosed duck, in fact--with Jewish features, of a most grotesque and +ludicrous appearance; the bill has some resemblance in its curvature to +that of the Flamingo. White ducks, of course, make but a sorry figure in +towns or dirty suburbs, or in any place where the means of washing +themselves are scanty. + +There are one or two pretty varieties, not very common; one of a +_slate-gray_, or bluish dun, another of a _sandy-yellow_; there are also +some with top-knots as compact and spherical as those of any Polish +fowl, which rival the hook-billed in oddity. What are termed the _white_ +Poland and the _black_ Poland are crested; they breed early, and are +excellent layers; the former are deemed the most desirable though the +black are the larger. + +Of _mottled_ and _pied_ sorts, there exists a great variety; black and +white, bronze and white, lightly speckled, and many other mixtures. To +this class belongs the _Rouen_--or Rhone, or Rohan, since each +designation has been used--duck, which has been needlessly overpraised +by interested dealers. This variety is highly esteemed by epicures; it +is a prolific bird, and lays large eggs; its size is the criterion of +its value. There is also a pied variety of the _Poland_ ducks, a hybrid +between the white and the black, the Beaver. + +Another variety, known as the _Labrador_, the Buenos Ayres, or the black +East Indian duck, is somewhat rare and highly esteemed by dealers. They +are very beautiful birds. The feet, legs, and entire plumage should be +black; a few white feathers will occasionally appear. The bill also is +black, with a slight under-tinge of green. Not only the neck and back, +but the larger feathers of the tail and wings are gilt with metallic +green; the female also exhibits slight traces of the same decoration. On +a sunshiny spring day, the effect of these glittering black ducks +sporting in the blue water is very pleasing. + +A peculiarity of this variety is, that they occasionally--that is, at +the commencement of the season--lay black eggs; the color of those +subsequently laid gradually fades to that of the common kinds. This +singular appearance is not caused by any internal strain penetrating the +whole thickness of the shell, but by an oily pigment, which may be +scraped off with the nail. They lay, perhaps, a little later than other +ducks, but are not more difficult to rear. Their voice, likewise, is +said to differ slightly from that of other varieties; but they are far +superior in having a high, wild-duck flavor and, if well kept, are in +deserved repute as being excellent food when killed immediately from the +pond, without any fattening. + +Still another breed, known as the _Muscovy_ duck, is a distinct species +from the common duck; and the hybrid race will not, therefore, breed +again between themselves, although they are capable of doing so with +either of the species from the commixture of which they spring. This +duck does not derive its name from having been brought from the country +indicated, but from the flavor of its flesh, and should more properly be +termed the _musk_ duck, of which this name is but a corruption. It is +easily distinguished by a red membrane surrounding the eyes, and +covering the cheeks. Not being in esteem, on account of their peculiar +odor, and the unpleasant flavor of their flesh, they are not worth +breeding, unless to cross with the common varieties; in which case, the +musk drake must be put to the common duck. This will produce a very +large cross, while the opposite course will beget a very inferior one. + + +THE GOOSE. + +THE WILD GOOSE. The goose belongs to the same family as the duck, but is +classed with the genus _anser_. The _gray-leg_ goose--a common wild +goose of England--is by some regarded as the original of the domestic +bird. It is thirty-five inches long; upper parts ash-brown and ash-gray; +under parts white. This variety is migratory, proceeding to the Northern +parts of Europe and Asia in summer, and to the South in winter. + +The _Canada_, or Cravat goose, the wild goose of this country, is a fine +species, forty inches long, often seen in spring and autumn in large, +triangular flocks, high in air, and led by an old, experienced gander, +who frequently utters a loud _honk_, equivalent, doubtless, to "All's +well!" This sound often comes upon the ear at night, when the flock are +invisible; and it is frequently heard even in the daytime, seeming to +come from the sky, the birds being beyond the reach of vision. Immense +numbers of these noble birds are killed in Canada, as well as along our +coasts, where they assemble in the autumn in large flocks, and remain +till driven to more Southern climates by the season. + +[Illustration: WILD OR CANADA GOOSE.] + +The Canada goose is capable of domestication, and, in spite of its +original migratory habits--which it appears, in almost every instance, +to forget in England--shows much more disposition for a truly domestic +life than the swan; and it may be maintained in perfect health with very +limited opportunities for bathing. They eat worms and soft insects, as +well as grass and aquatic plants; with us, they do not breed until they +are at least two years old, and so far approach the swan; like which +bird, also, the male appears to be fit for reproduction at an earlier +period than the female. Many writers speak highly of the half-bred +Canada. They are, certainly, very large, and may merit approbation on +the table; but with whatever other species the cross is made, they are +hideously disgusting. + + +THE DOMESTIC GOOSE. + +The goose is not mentioned in the Bible, but it was known to the ancient +Egyptians, and is represented in numerous instances on their monuments, +showing that it was anciently used for food, as in our own times. It was +held sacred by the Romans, because it was said to have alarmed, by its +cackling at night, the sentinels of the capitol, at the invasion of the +Gauls, and thus to have saved the city. This was attributed by one of +the Roman writers to its fine sense of smell, which enables them to +perceive at a great distance the odor of the human race. The liver of +this bird seems to have been a favorite morsel with epicures in all +ages; and invention appears to have been active in exercising the means +of increasing the volume of that organ. It is generally esteemed a +foolish bird; yet it displays courage in defending its young, and +instances of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not +deficient in sentiment. The value and usefulness of geese are scarcely +calculable. The only damage which they do lies in the quantity of food +which they consume; the only care they require is to be saved from +starvation. All the fears and anxieties requisite to educate the turkey +and prepare it for making a proper appearance at the table are with them +unnecessary; grass by day, a dry bed at night, and a tolerably attentive +mother, are all that is required. Roast goose, fatted to the point of +repletion, is almost the only luxury that is not deemed an extravagance +in an economical farm-house; for there are the feathers, to swell the +stock of beds; there is the dripping, to enrich the dumpling or pudding; +there are the giblets, for market or a pie; and there is the wholesome, +solid, savory flesh for all parties interested. + +They are accused by some of rendering the spots where they feed +offensive to other stock; but the explanation is simple. A horse bites +closer than an ox; a sheep goes nearer to the ground than a horse; but, +after the sharpest shearing by sheep, the goose will polish up the tuft, +and grow fat upon the remnants of others. Consequently, where geese are +kept in great numbers on a small area, little will be left to maintain +any other grass-eating creature. If, however, the pastures are not +short, it will not be found that other grazing animals object to feeding +either together with, or immediately after, a flock of geese. + +The goose has the merit of being the earliest of poultry. In three +months, or, about four, from leaving the egg, the birds ought to be fit +for the feather-bed, the spit, and the fire. It is not only very early +in its laying, but also very late. It often anticipates the spring in +November, and, afterward, when spring really comes in March, it cannot +resist its general influence. The autumnal eggs afford useful employment +to turkeys and hens that choose to sit at unseasonable times; and the +period of incubation is less tedious than that required for the eggs of +some other birds. + +The flight of the domestic goose is quite powerful enough, especially in +young birds, to allow them to escape in that way, where they are so +inclined. In the autumn, whole broods may be seen by early risers taking +their morning flight, and circling in the air for matutinal exercise, +just like pigeons, when first let out of their locker. The bird lives to +a very great age, sometimes seventy years or more. + +As to the origin of our domestic species, opinions differ. By some, as +already remarked, the gray-leg is regarded as the parent stock; others +consider it a mongrel, like the dunghill fowl, made up of several +varieties, to each of which it occasionally shows more or less affinity; +and yet others contend that it is not to be referred to any existing +species. The latter assert that there is really but one variety of the +domestic goose, individuals of which are found from entirely white +plumage, through different degrees of patchedness with gray, to entirely +gray coloring, except on the abdomen. + +The domestic gander is polygamous, but he is not an indiscriminate +libertine; he will rarely couple with females of any other species. +Hybrid common geese are almost always produced by the union of a wild +gander with a domestic goose, and not by the opposite. The ganders are +generally, though not invariably, white, and are sometimes called Embden +geese, from a town of Hanover. High feeding, care, and moderate warmth +will induce a prolific habit, which becomes, in some measure, +hereditary. The season of the year at which the young are hatched--and +they may be reared at any season--influences their future size and +development. After allowing for these causes of diversity, it is claimed +that the domestic goose constitutes only one species or permanent +variety. + + +THE BERNACLE GOOSE. + +This bird is sometimes called the Barnacle goose; its name originates +from the fact that it was formerly supposed to be bred from the shells +so termed, which cling to wood in the sea. It is about twenty-five +inches long, and is found wild in Europe, abundantly in the Baltic; and, +occasionally, as it is said, in Hudson's Bay, on this continent. + +This bird is one of those species in which the impulse of reproduction +has at length overcome the sullenness of captivity, and instances of +their breeding when in confinement have increased in frequency to such +an extent that hopes are entertained of the continuance of that +increase. The young so reared should be pinioned at the wrist as a +precaution. They would probably stay at home contentedly, if unpinioned, +until the approach of inclement weather, when they would be tempted to +leave their usual haunts in search of marshes, unfrozen springs, +mud-banks left by the tide, and the open sea; or they might be induced +to join a flock of wild birds, instead of returning to their former +quarters. + +Broods of five, six, and seven have been reared; but they are generally +valued as embellishments to ponds merely, their small size rendering +them suitable even for a very limited pleasure-ground, and the variety +being perhaps the prettiest geese that are thus employed. The lively +combination of black, white, gray, and lavender, gives them the +appearance of being in agreeable half-mourning. The female differs +little from the male, being distinguished by voice and deportment more +than by plumage. Their short bill, the moderate-sized webs of their +feet, and their rounded proportions, indicate an affinity with the +curious Cereopsis goose, which is found in considerable numbers on the +seashore of Sucky Bay and Goose Island, at the south-eastern point of +Australia. + +The number of eggs laid is six or seven, and the time of incubation is +about a month; it being difficult to name the exact period, from the +uncertainty respecting the precise hour when the process commences. They +are steady sitters. The young are lively and active little creatures, +running hither and thither, and tugging at the blades of grass. Their +ground color is of a dirty white; their legs, feet, eyes, and short +stump of a bill, are black; they have a gray spot on the crown of the +head, gray patches on the back and wings, and a yellowish tinge about +the forepart of the head. The old birds are very gentle in their +disposition and habits, and are less noisy than most geese. + +The service they may render as weed-eaters is important, though their +size alone precludes any comparison of them, in this respect, with the +swan. Their favorite feeding-grounds are extensive flats, partially +inundated by the higher tides; and their breeding may perhaps best be +promoted by their being furnished with a little sea-weed during winter +and early spring; a few shrimps, or small mussels, would probably not be +unacceptable. A single pair is more likely to breed than if they are +congregated in larger numbers. + + +THE BREMEN GOOSE. + +[Illustration: A BREMEN GOOSE.] + +The Bremen geese--so called from the place whence they were originally +imported, though some term them Embden geese--have been bred in this +country, pure, and to a feather, since 1821; no single instance having +occurred in which the slightest deterioration of character could be +observed. The produce has invariably been of the purest white; the bill, +legs, and feet being of a beautiful yellow. + +The flesh of this goose does not partake of that dry character which +belongs to other and more common kinds, but is as tender and juicy as +the flesh of a wild fowl; it shrinks less in cooking than that of any +other fowl. Some pronounce its flesh equal if not superior to that of +the canvas-back duck. + +They likewise sit and hatch with more certainty than common barn-yard +geese; will weigh nearly, and in some instances quite, twice the +weight--the full-blood weighing twenty pounds and upward; they have +double the quantity of feathers; and never fly. + + +THE BRENT GOOSE. + +This is a small species, twenty-one inches long, common in a wild state, +in both Europe and America. On our coast, it is a favorite game-bird, +and known by the name of _Brant_. It is easily tamed, and is said to +have produced young in captivity, though no details have been furnished. + +This and the Sandwich Island goose are the smallest of their tribe yet +introduced to our aquatic aviaries. Their almost uniform color of leaden +black, and their compactness of form, make them a striking feature in +the scene, though they cannot be compared in beauty with many other +waterfowl. There is so little difference in the sexes that it is not +easy to distinguish them. Their chief merit rests in their fondness for +water-weeds, in which respect they appear to be second only to the swan. +They are quiet, gentle and harmless in captivity. Some praise their +flesh, while others pronounce it fishy, strong, and oily; they may, +however, be converted into tolerable meat by being skinned and baked in +a pie. + + +THE CHINA GOOSE. + +[Illustration: CHINA OR HONG KONG GOOSE.] + +This bird figures under a variety of _aliases_: Knob goose, Hong Kong +goose, Asiatic goose, Swan goose, Chinese Swan Guinea goose, Polish +goose, Muscovy goose, and, probably, others. + +There is something in the aspect of this creature--in the dark-brown +stripe down its neck, its small, bright eye, its harsh voice, its +ceremonious strut, and its affectation of seldom being in a hurry--which +seems to say that it came from China. If so, it has no doubt been +domesticated for many hundred years, perhaps as long as the pea fowl or +the common fowl. They may be made to lay a large number of eggs by an +increased supply of nourishing food. If liberally furnished with oats, +boiled rice, etc., the China goose will, in the spring, lay from twenty +to thirty eggs before she begins to sit, and again in the autumn, after +her moult, from ten to fifteen more. Another peculiarity is their +deficient power of flight, compared with other geese, owing to the +larger proportionate size of their bodies. Indeed, of all geese, this is +the worst flyer; there is no occasion to pinion them; the common +domestic goose flies much more strongly. + +The prevailing color of their plumage is brown, comparable to the color +of wheat. The different shades are very harmoniously blended, and are +well relieved by the black tuberculated bill, and the pure white of the +abdomen. Their movements on the water are graceful and swan-like. Slight +variations occur in the color of the feet and legs, some having them of +a dull orange, others black; a delicate fringe of minute white feathers +is occasionally seen at the base of the bill. These peculiarities are +hereditarily transmitted. + +The male is almost as much disproportionately larger than the female as +the Musk drake is in comparison with his mate. He is much inclined to +libertine wanderings, without, however, neglecting proper attention at +home. If there is any other gander on the premises, a disagreement is +sure to result. Both male and female are, perhaps, the noisiest of all +geese; at night, the least footfall or motion in their neighborhood is +sufficient to call forth their clangor and resonant trumpetings. + +The eggs are somewhat less than those of the domestic kind, of a short +oval, with a smooth, thick shell, white, but slightly tinged with yellow +at the smaller end. The goslings, when first hatched, are usually very +strong. They are of a dirty green, like the color produced by mixing +India-ink and yellow ochre, with darker patches here and there. The legs +and feet are lead-color, but afterward change to a dull red. With good +pasturage, they require no farther attention than that bestowed by their +parents. After a time, a little grain will strengthen and forward them. +If well fed, they come to maturity very rapidly; in between three and +four months from the time of leaving the shell, they will be full-grown +and ready for food. They do not bear being shut up to fatten so well as +common geese, and, therefore, those destined for the table are the +better for profuse hand-feeding. Their flesh is well-flavored, short, +and tender; their eggs, excellent for cooking purposes. + +They are said to be a short-lived species; the ganders, at least, not +lasting more than ten or a dozen years. Hybrids between them and the +common goose are prolific with the latter; the second and third cross is +much prized by some farmers, particularly for their ganders; and in many +flocks the blood of the China goose may be traced oftentimes by the more +erect gait of the birds, accompanied by a faint stripe down the back of +the neck. With the White-grented goose they also breed freely. + +_The White-China._ These are larger than the preceding, and apparently +more terrestrial in their habits; the knob on the head is not only of +greater proportion, but of a different shape. It is of a spotless, pure +white--though a very few gray feathers occasionally appear--more +swan-like than the brown, with a bright orange-colored bill, and a large +knot of the same color at its base. It is particularly beautiful, +either in or out of the water, its neck being long, slender, and +gracefully arched when swimming. It breeds three or four times in the +season; the egg is quite small for the size of the bird, being not more +than half the size of that of the common goose. + +In many instances, efforts to obtain young from their eggs have been +unsuccessful; but if the female is supplied with the eggs of the common +goose, she invariably hatches and rears the goslings. They sit +remarkably well, never showing themselves out of the nest by day; but, +possibly, they may leave the nest too long in the cold of the night. +Some think that a quiet lake is more to their taste than a rapid running +stream, and more conducive to the fecundity of their eggs. It is also +believed by many that, under favorable circumstances, they would be very +prolific. + + +THE EGYPTIAN GOOSE. + +This species is bred to a certain extent in this country. It is a most +stately and rich bird, reminding one of the solemn antiquity of the +Nile, with its gorgeous mantle of golden hues and its long history. + +It is dark red round the eyes; red ring round the neck; white bill; neck +and breast light fawn-gray; a maroon star on the breast; belly red and +gray; half of the wing-feathers rich black, the other part of them pure +white; black bar running across the centre, back light-red, growing +dark-red toward the tail; the tail a deep black. + +They are very prolific, bringing off three broods a year, from eight to +twelve each time; their weight is about eight pounds each. + + +THE JAVA GOOSE. + +The gander of this species is white, with head and half the neck +light-fawn; red tubercle at the root of the bill; larger than the common +goose, and longer in the body; walks erect, standing as high as the +China goose, the female appearing to carry two pouches, or egg-bags, +under the belly. + +It is very prolific; and the meat is of fine flavor. + + +THE TOULOUSE GOOSE. + +This bird is said to have been originally imported from the +Mediterranean; and is known also by the names Mediterranean goose, and +Pyrenean goose. It is chiefly remarkable for its vast size, in which +respect it surpasses all others. + +Its prevailing color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and +occasionally relieved with black; the head, neck, as far as the +beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck, as far as the +shoulders, of a dark-brown; the breast slaty-blue; the belly is white, +in common with the under surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, +and the feet flesh-color. + +In habit, the Toulouse goose resembles his congeners, but seems to +possess a milder and more tractable disposition, which greatly conduces +to the chance of his early fattening, and that, too, at a little cost. +The curl of the plumage on the neck comes closer to the head than that +on common geese, and the abdominal pouch, which, in other varieties, is +an accompaniment of age, exists from the shell. The flesh is said to be +tender and well-flavored. + +Some pronounce this bird the unmixed and immediate descendant of the +Gray-leg; while others assert that it is only the common domestic, +enlarged by early hatching, very liberal feeding during youth, fine +climate, and, perhaps, by age, and style them grenadier individuals of +the domestic goose--nothing more. + + +THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. + +In its wild state, the White-fronted or Laughing goose is twenty-seven +inches long, and found in great numbers in Europe and in the North +American Fur countries, but rare along our coasts. + +When domesticated, it belongs to the class of birds which are restrained +from resuming their original wild habits more by the influence of local +and personal attachment than from any love which they seem to have for +the comforts of domestication; which may be trusted with their entire +liberty, or nearly so, but require an eye to be kept on them from time +to time, lest they stray away and assume an independent condition. The +white-fronted goose well deserves the patronage of those who have even a +small piece of grass. + +The first impression of every one, upon seeing this species in +confinement, would be that it could not be trusted with liberty; and the +sight of it exercising its wings at its first escape would make its +owner despair of recovering it. This is not, however, the case. By no +great amount of care and attention, they will manifest such a degree of +confidence and attachment as to remove all hesitation as to the future; +and they may be regarded as patterns of all that is valuable in anserine +nature--gentle, affectionate, cheerful, hardy, useful, and +self-dependent. The gander is an attentive parent, but not a faithful +spouse. + +The eggs are smaller than those of the common goose, pure white, and of +a very long oval; the shell is also thinner than in, most others; the +flesh is excellent. + + * * * * * + +Having completed the enumeration and description of the varieties of +poultry, it will, perhaps, be appropriate to give some account, before +proceeding to the next general division of the subject, of the +structure, or anatomy, so to speak, of + + +THE EGG. + +In a laying hen may be found, upon opening the body, what is called the +_ovarium_--a cluster of rudimental eggs, of different sizes, from very +minute points up to shapes of easily-distinguished forms. These +rudimental eggs have as yet no shell or white, these being exhibited in +a different stage of development; but consist wholly of _yolk_, on the +surface of which the germ of the future chicken lies. The yolk and the +germ are enveloped by a very thin membrane. + +When the rudimental egg, still attached to the ovarium, becomes longer +and larger, and arrives at a certain size, either its own weight, or +some other efficient cause, detaches it from the cluster, and makes it +fall into a sort of funnel, leading to a pipe, which is termed the +_oviduct_. + +Here the yolk of the rudimental egg, hitherto imperfectly formed, puts +on its mature appearance of a thick yellow fluid; while the rudimental +chick or embryo, lying on the surface opposite to that by which it had +been attached to the ovarium, is white, and somewhat like paste. + +The white, or _albumen_, of the egg now becomes diffused around the +yolk, being secreted from the blood vessels of the egg-pipe, or oviduct, +in the form of a thin, glassy fluid; and it is prevented from mixing +with the yolk and the embryo chicken by the thin membrane which +surrounded them before they were detached from the egg-cluster, while +it is strengthened by a second and stronger membrane, formed around the +first, immediately after falling into the oviduct. This second membrane, +enveloping the yolk of the germ of the chicken, is thickest at the two +ends, having what may be termed bulgings, termed _chalazes_ by +anatomists; these bulgings of the second membrane pass quite through the +white at the ends, and being thus, as it were, embedded in the white, +they keep the inclosed yolk and germ somewhat in a fixed position, +preventing them from rolling about within the egg when it is moved. + +The white of the egg being thus formed, a third membrane, or, rather, a +double membrane, much stronger than either of the first two, is formed +around it, becoming attached to the chalazes of the second membrane, and +tending still more to keep all the parts in their relative positions. + +During the progress of these several formations, the egg gradually +advances about half way along the oviduct. It is still, however, +destitute of the shell, which begins to be formed by a process similar +to the formation of the shell of a snail, as soon as the outer layer of +the third membrane has been completed. When the shell is fully formed, +the egg continues to advance along the oviduct, till the hen goes to her +nest and lays it. + +From ill health, or accidents, eggs are sometimes excluded from the +oviducts before the shell has begun to be formed, and in this state they +are popularly called _wind-eggs_. + +Reckoning, then, from the shell inward, there are _six_ different +envelopes, of which one only could be detected before the descent of the +egg into the oviduct: the shell; the external layer of the membrane +lining the shell; the internal layer of same lining; the white, composed +of a thinner liquid on the outside, and a thicker and more yellowish +liquid on the inside; the bulgings, or chalaziferous membrane; and the +proper membrane. + +One important part of the egg is the _air-bag_, placed at the larger +end, between the shell and its lining membrane. This is about the size +of the eye of a small bird in new-laid eggs, but is increased as much as +ten times in the process of hatching. The air bag is of such great +importance to the development of the chicken--probably by supplying it +with a limited atmosphere of oxygen--that, if the blunt end of an egg be +pierced with the point of the smallest needle, the egg cannot be +hatched. + +Instead of one rudimental egg falling from the ovarium, two may be +detected, and will, of course, be inclosed in the same shell, when the +egg will be double-yolked. The eggs of a goose have, in some instances, +contained even three yolks. If the double-yolked eggs be hatched, they +will rarely produce two separate chickens, but, more commonly, +monstrosities--chickens with two heads, and the like. + +The _shell_ of an egg, chemically speaking, consists chiefly of +carbonate of lime, similar to chalk, with a small quantity of phosphate +of lime, and animal mucus. When burnt, the animal matter and the +carbonic acid gas of the carbonate of lime are separated; the first +being reduced to ashes, or animal charcoal, while the second is +dissipated, leaving the decarbonized lime mixed with a little phosphate +of lime. + +The _white_ of the egg is without taste or smell, of a viscid, glairy +consistence, readily dissolving in water, coagulable by acids, by +spirits of wine, and by a temperature of one hundred and sixty-five +degrees, Fahrenheit. If it has once been coagulated, it is no longer +soluble in either cold or hot water, and acquires a slight insipid +taste. It is composed of eighty parts of water, fifteen and a half parts +of albumen, and four and a half parts of mucus; besides giving traces of +soda, benzoic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The latter, on an egg +being eaten on a silver spoon, stains the spoon of a blackish purple, by +combining with the silver, and forming sulphuret of silver. + +The white of the egg is a very feeble conductor of heat, retarding its +escape; and preventing its entrance to the yolk; a providential +contrivance, not merely to prevent speedy fermentation and corruption, +but to arrest the fatal chills, which might occur in hatching, when the +mother hen leaves her eggs, from time to time, in search of food. Eels +and other fish which can live long out of water, secrete a similar +viscid substance on the surface of their bodies, furnished to them, +doubtless, for a similar purpose. + +The _yolk_ has an insipid, bland, oily taste; and, when agitated with +water, forms a milky emulsion. If it is long boiled it becomes a +granular, friable solid, yielding upon expression, a yellow, insipid, +fixed oil. It consists, chemically, of water, oil, albumen, and +gelatine. In proportion to the quantity of albumen, the egg boils hard. + +The weight of the eggs of the domestic fowl varies materially; in some +breeds, averaging thirty-three ounces per dozen, in others, but fourteen +and a half ounces. A fair average weight for a dozen is twenty-two and a +half ounces. Yellow, mahogany, and salmon-colored eggs are generally +richer than white ones, containing, as they do, a larger quantity of +yolk. These are generally preferred for culinary purposes; while the +latter, containing an excess of albumen, are preferred for boiling, +etc., for the table. + + + + +[Illustration] + +BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT + + +BREEDING. Good fowls are very profitable in the keeping of intelligent +breeders. It is stated, by those most competent to express the opinion, +that four acres of land, devoted to the rearing of the best varieties of +poultry, will, at ordinary prices, be quite as productive as a farm of +one hundred and fifty acres cultivated in the usual way. The eggs of the +common and cheaper kinds which might be used for incubators and nurses, +would pay--or could be made to pay, if properly preserved, and sold at +the right time--all expenses of feed, etc.; while good capons of the +larger breeds will bring, in any of our larger markets, from three to +five dollars per pair, and early spring chickens from twenty to +twenty-five cents per pound. + +To make poultry profitable, then, it is only necessary that the better +kinds be bred from, that suitable places be provided for them, that they +be properly fed, and carefully and intelligently managed. These +requirements are too rarely complied with, in every respect, to enable a +correct opinion to be formed as to what may be made out of poultry under +the most favorable circumstances. + +A few general principles, well-understood and faithfully applied, will +prove of great value. By "in-and-in breeding" is meant commerce between +individuals of the same brood, or brother and sister, so to speak; by +"close breeding," commerce between the parent and his offspring, in +whatever degree. + +_Crossing the breed._ To insure successful and beneficial crossing of +distinct breeds, in order to produce a new and valuable variety, the +breeder must have an accurate knowledge of the laws of procreation, and +the varied influences of parents upon their offspring. All the breeds in +this country are crosses, produced either by accident or design. +Crossing does not necessarily produce a breed; but it always produces a +variety, and that variety becomes a breed only where there is a +sufficiency of stamina to make a distinctive race, and continue a +progeny with the uniform or leading characteristics of its progenitors. + +_High breeding._ When uniformity of plumage can be effected in mixed +breeds or varieties without a resort to in-and-in, or close breeding, +and without sacrificing the health and vigor of the race, it is +desirable; and, in many instances, it can be accomplished in a +satisfactory manner. What are called highly-bred fowls are, however, +too often the deteriorated offspring of progenitors far below +the original stock. Genuine high breeding consists in the selection +of parent stock of the same race, perfect in all the general +characteristics, and _of remote consanguinity_. This should be resorted +to periodically, in order to secure the best results. + +If a race is _pure_--that is, if the species or variety is absolutely +distinct and unsophisticated--the progeny resembles the progenitors in +almost every respect. The mixture of races, where the consanguinity is +remote, is productive of decided benefits. + +To illustrate, in the case of fowls: when the blood is _unmixed_--as +with the Guelderlands, and some others--the offspring, _in all +respects_, resemble their parents; in plumage, general habits, form, +outline, etc. In this case, they look almost identically the same. But +when the blood is _mixed_--as with the Cochin Chinas, and many +others--the plumage will vary widely, or slightly, according to +circumstances, though many or most of the general characteristics may +remain the same. The close breeding, to which many resort for the +purpose of procuring uniformity, generally results in an absolute +deterioration of the race in important respects. + +In some cases, close breeding--and, occasionally, in-and-in--seems to be +in accordance with the laws of Nature; as with the wild turkey, which, +in its natural state, resorts to these modes of breeding; and yet the +race does not change in appearance or degenerate. The reason is that the +breed is pure. In comparing any number of these birds, not the least +dissimilarity is discoverable; they all look alike, as they always +have, and always will. They are changed, or deteriorated, only by +crossing or confinement. + +Most breeds of the hen kind degenerate rapidly from close, or in-and-in +breeding, because they are not perfect of their kind; that is, the breed +is not pure, but of mixed blood; and in such objectionable breeding, the +race degenerates just in proportion as the breed is imperfect, or +impure. The perfect Guelderland will admit of these modes of breeding, +for a great length of time, without deterioration; but the impure or +mixed will rapidly degenerate. This is also true of all breeds, wherein +the characteristic marks are uniform and confirmed, showing perfection +in the race. + +As a general rule, however, close and in-and-in breeding should be +carefully avoided where the race is not absolutely perfect, if it is +desired to improve the breed; and as all the breeds of this kind of +fowls are of mixed blood, the danger of such breeding is greater or +less, in exact proportion as the distinctive characteristics are variant +or fixed; and the danger still increases if the breed is composed of +strains of blood greatly dissimilar, or of races widely differing in the +conformation or general habits. + +_Preserving the distinctive breeds._ As to the time when the different +breeds of hens should be separated in the spring, in order to preserve +the breed pure, the most ample experience indicates that if the eggs be +preserved and set after a separation of _two days_, the breed will be +perfect, the offspring having all the characteristics or distinctive +marks. + +When a valuable breed is produced, either by accident or design, it +should be preserved, and the subsequent breeding should continue from +that stock; otherwise, there is no certainty of the purity of the blood +of the new breed, for it does not follow that a different parentage, +though of the same name or original breed precisely, will produce the +same new breed, or any thing resembling it. The Dorking fowl, for +instance, was originally produced by crossing the Great Malay with the +English Game, as an accident; but it by no means follows that Dorkings +are the uniform, or even the common result of such a cross, for hundreds +of similar experiments have proved unsuccessful. The breeding, +therefore, to be pure-blooded, must continue from the stock originally +produced by accident; and as such breeding produces the leading +characteristics of the race with great uniformity, the genuineness of +the breed cannot be doubted. + +In order to produce a good cross, the parentage should be healthy, and +from healthy races, not materially dissimilar in their general habits. +The _size of the leg_ should always be looked to, in order to judge +accurately as to purity of blood. If the leg is large for the +breed--that is, if larger than the generality of the same breed--the +purity of the blood, the fineness of the flesh, and most of the other +valuable qualities, can be relied on; but, if the legs are smaller than +most others of the same breed, the fowl is spurious, and of deteriorated +blood. The fifth toe and feathered legs of some breeds were originally +the result of accident; but by long and careful breeding, they have +become incorporated into the nature of certain races of general, though +not universal or essential, requisites. When a fowl exhibits any special +marks indicative of all the races or breeds from which the cross +originated, it is a sure evidence of extraordinary purity of blood, and +of the superior excellence of the race. The best fowls of the race +should always be selected for crossing or general breeding; otherwise +the breeds will degenerate. + +The _quality_--that is, the fineness, juiciness, and richness of +flavor--of the flesh of domestic fowls is of much more importance than +their size. All coarse-meated fowls should, therefore, be rejected, no +matter how large they may be. There is no difficulty in discriminating +between coarse and fine fowls at any time. In the case of chickens, if +the down is straight and stands out, and the body and limbs are loosely +joined, the meat is coarse; but if the down is glossy, and lies close to +the body, and the body and limbs are compactly formed, the meat is fine; +and when grown, if the fowl is light in weight, in proportion to its +size, the flesh is coarse; but if heavy, the flesh is fine. + +There is also a _fitness_ in the quality of the flesh; for, if the meat +is fine, the bones are fine, and the feathers are fine; and the converse +holds true. If the flesh is fine, it is juicy and richly flavored; if +coarse, it is dry, fibrous, and insipid. + +The _color of the legs_, too, is quite material in judging of the +quality of fowls. All other things being equal, dark-legged fowls have +the finest flesh, and are most hardy. Turkeys, which have the finest +flesh of any fowl of their size, have black legs; the game-cock, +likewise, which is universally acknowledged to be the finest-fleshed of +any of the domestic fowls, except the Wild Indian fowl of Calcutta, has +dark legs. It does not, however, of necessity follow that all +dark-legged fowls are fine, or that all yellow or white-legged ones are +coarse, since much depends upon the breed; but it is true that the +darkest leg which pertains to the breed indicates the finest fowl. + +The _color of the feathers_, also, has more or less to do with the +quality of the fowl. Some breeds have a much more brilliant plumage than +others; but when brilliancy of plumage is here spoken of, it is to be +understood in comparison with others of the same breed. If, therefore, a +fowl is selected of rich and glossy plumage, when compared with others +of the same breed, the legs will be dark of the kind, and the quality of +the bird will excel. + +The _best_ breeding is to cross or mix the races; this process improves +the breeds, in all respects. When the object in view is to perpetuate +distinct varieties of uncontaminated blood, the first requisite is to +procure fowls known to be of pure blood, and possessing all the +necessary characteristics of their kind. Labor is lost, unless the fowl +selected is a perfect specimen of the variety; for whatever imperfection +exists is likely to be perpetuated in the progeny. Regard should be had +to plumage, size, and form, in making a selection either of a cock or a +pullet; and those are preferable which are hatched earliest in the year. +The _age_ of the fowls is a matter of considerable importance; and, +though it is true that a pullet will lay the greatest number of eggs in +her first year, yet it is believed that the chickens which are hatched +from the second year's eggs are more vigorous and hardy. Old hens are +generally preferred to pullets as sitters, on account of their more +sedate and matronly character. A young cock, though more active in his +earliest days, and likely to bestow his attention on the hens with less +reserve, is not, however, best for use in keeping up a breed. The eggs +impregnated by him after his first season are likely to produce the +strongest chickens. It is an error to suppose--as is often +represented--that his procreative power is decayed or vitiated after +three or four years. On the contrary, a healthy, vigorous cock, if not +allowed to walk with too many hens, may be valuable and useful in the +poultry-yard for a longer time. + +An error is often committed by assigning too many hens to one cock; and +the result is a weakly and otherwise deteriorated progeny. Not more than +_five_ hens should be allowed to associate with a single cock, when the +quality of the breed is a matter of interest. _Three_, indeed, would be +the better number for restriction; but five is the farthest limit which +can be safely assigned. + +Most persons, in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen of a desirable +variety, find their anticipations more than realized in the production +of a fine progeny. The plumage is brilliant, and the chickens are of +increased size, and remarkably strong and healthy. This desirable state +of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number +of hens; but as soon as his harem is enlarged, different effects +are manifested, and a deterioration in the stock is clearly +observable--attributable, not to close-breeding, but to the increased +disproportion of the females to the male, and the consequent overtasking +of his powers. + +In breeding-time, great cleanliness should be preserved in the lodgings +of the fowls, and the quantity and quality of food should be attended +to. They should not be suffered to feed to repletion, and such kinds of +food as are most nutritious should be carefully provided. Variety of +food is essential; and a proper proportion of animal and green food +should be given with their usual fare. Suitable arrangements should, of +course, be made to prevent any intermixture of breeds. A constant +vigilance in this respect is the price of success; and when all proper +precautions are taken, the breeder may be perfectly secure that his +anticipations will be realized. + + +SELECTION OF STOCK. + +The habits of the domestic fowl, in a wild state, are too little known +to ascertain whether the cocks always associate with the hens, or only +occasionally. Though hens will lay some eggs without pairing, as this is +not natural, the number will, for the most part, be less, and the laying +uncertain; it is, therefore, indispensable to attend to the laws of +Nature in this respect. + +The number of hens to be allowed to one cock should vary with the object +in view. The limit for valuable breeding purposes has already been +indicated. If profit is sought for, in the production of eggs alone, one +cock--if a stout, young, and lively bird--may have as many as +twenty-four hens. + +[Illustration: FIGHTING COCKS.] + +_The choice of a cock_ is a very important thing. He is considered to +have every requisite quality when he is of a good middling size; carries +his head high; has a quick, animated look; a strong and shrill voice; a +fine red comb, shining as if varnished; wattles of a large size, and of +the same color as the comb; the breast broad; the wings strong; the +plumage black or of an obscure red; the thighs very muscular; the legs +thick, and furnished with strong spurs; and the claws rather bent and +sharply pointed. He ought, also, to be free in his motions, to crow +frequently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so +much for himself as to treat his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, +spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens; quick in defending +them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and +in assembling them at night. + +In breeding _game cocks_, the qualities required are every mark of +perfect health, such as a ruddy complexion; the feathers close, short, +and not feeling cold or dry; the flesh firm and compact; and a full +breast, betokening good lungs; a tapering and thinness behind. He should +be full in the girth, well coupled, lofty and aspiring, with a good +thigh, the beam of his leg very strong, the eye large and vivid, and the +beak strong, crooked, and thick at the base. + +A cock is in his prime at two years old; though cocks are sometimes so +precocious as to show every mark of full vigor at four months, while +others of the same brood do not appear in that state for several months +afterward. When marks of declining vigor are perceived, the cock must be +displaced, to make way for a successor, which should be chosen from +among the finest and bravest of the supernumerary young cocks, that +ought to be reared for this special purpose. + +The change of cocks is of much importance, and is frequently very +troublesome to manage; for peace does not long subsist between them when +they hold a divided dominion in the poultry-yard, since they are all +actuated by a restless, jealous, hasty, fiery, ardent disposition; and +hence their quarrels become no less frequent than sanguinary. A battle +soon succeeds to provocation or affront. The two opponents face each +other, their feathers bristling up, their necks stretched out, their +heads low, and their beaks ready for the onslaught. They observe each +other in silence, with fixed and sparkling eyes. On the least motion of +either, they stand stiffly up, and rush furiously forward, dashing at +each other with beak and spur in repeated sallies, till the more +powerful or the more adroit has grievously torn the comb and wattles of +his adversary, has thrown him down by the heavy stroke of his wings, or +has stabbed him with his spurs. + +In _the choice of a hen_ for sitting, a large bird should be selected, +with large, wide-spreading wings. Though large, she must not, however, +be heavy nor leggy. No one of judgment would sit a Malay; as, in such +case, not only would many eggs remain uncovered, but many, also, would +be trampled upon and broken. Elderly hens will be more willing to sit +than young and giddy pullets. + +After the common hen, which, on account of her fecundity, is deservedly +esteemed, the tufted hens may be justly ranked; particularly from being +more delicate eating, because she fattens more readily, on account of +laying less. The large breed, though less prolific, is preferable in +rearing chickens for the market, or for making capons. With regard to +these three kinds, the general opinion of breeders is, that the first is +more prolific in the number of eggs, while the others produce larger +chickens, which bring good prices. + +The Spanish fowl are not generally good sitters, but are excellent +layers; the Dorkings reverse the order, being better sitters than +layers. These qualities will be found to extend pretty generally to hens +partaking of the prevailing colors of these two varieties; the black +being usually the best layers, and but careless or indifferent sitters, +while gray or checkered hens are the best that can be produced. + + +FEEDING. + +Experiments have demonstrated that what may be called the gastric juice +in fowls has not sufficient power to dissolve their food, without the +aid of the grinding action of the gizzard. Before the food is prepared +for digestion, therefore, the grains must be subjected to a triturating +process; and such as are not sufficiently bruised in this manner, before +passing into the gizzard, are there reduced to the proper state, by its +natural action. The action of the gizzard is, in this respect, +mechanical; this organ serving as a mill to grind the food to pieces, +and then, by means of its powerful muscles, pressing it gradually into +the intestines, in the form of pulp. The power of this organ is said to +be sufficient to pulverize hollow globules of glass in a very short +time, and solid masses of the same substance in a few weeks. The +rapidity of this process seems to be proportionate, generally, to the +size of the bird. A chicken, for example, breaks up such substances as +are received into its stomach less readily than the capon; while a goose +performs the same operation sooner than either. Needles, and even +lancets, given to turkeys, have been broken in pieces and voided, +without any apparent injury to the stomach. The reason, undoubtedly, is, +that the larger species of birds have thicker and more powerful organs +of digestion. + +It has long been the general opinion that, from some deficiency in the +digestive apparatus, fowls are obliged to resort to the use of stones +and gravel, in order to enable them to dispose of the food which they +consume. Some have supposed that the use of these stones is to sheath +the gizzard, in order to fit it to break into smaller fragments the +hard, angular substances which might be swallowed; they have also been +considered to have a medicinal effect; others have imagined that they +acted as absorbents for undue quantities of acids in the stomach, or as +stimulants to digestion; while it has even been gravely asserted that +they contribute directly to nutrition. + +Repeated experiments, however, have established that pebbles are not at +all necessary to the trituration of the hardest kinds of substances +which can be introduced into their stomachs; and, of course, the usual +food of fowls can be bruised without their aid. They do, however, serve +a useful auxiliary purpose. When put in motion by the muscles, they are +capable of producing some effects upon the contents of the stomach; thus +assisting to grind down the grain, and separating its parts, the +digestive fluid, or gastric juice, comes more readily in contact with +it. + +VARIETIES OF FOOD. Fowls about a poultry-yard can usually pick up a +portion of their subsistence, and, under favorable circumstances, the +largest portion. When so situated, the keeping of poultry pays decidedly +the best. The support even of poultry not designed for fattening should +not, however, be made to depend entirely upon such precarious resources. +Fowls should be fed with punctuality, faithfulness, and discretion. + +They are fond of all sorts of grain--such as Indian corn, wheat, oats, +rye, buckwheat, barley, millet, etc.; but their particular preferences +are not so likely to guide in the selection of their food, as the +consideration of what is most economical, and easiest to be procured on +the part of their owner. They will readily eat most kinds of vegetables +in their green state, both cooked and raw. They likewise manifest an +inclination for animal food--such as blood, fish, and flesh--whether raw +or otherwise; and seem by no means averse to feeding on their own +species. Insects, worms, and snails they will take with avidity. + +It is usual to give to domestic fowls a quantity of grain once, at +least, daily; but, commonly, in less quantity than they would consume, +if unrestricted. They feed with great voracity; but their apparent +greediness is not the criterion by which the possibility of satisfying +them is to be judged. Moderate quantities of food will suffice; and the +amount consumed will usually be proportioned to the size of the +individuals. Whatever is cheapest, at any given time, may be given, +without regard to any other considerations. Different circumstances and +different seasons may occasion a variation in their appetite; but a gill +of grain is, generally speaking, about the usual daily portion. Some +very voracious fowls, of the largest size, will need the allowance of a +third of a pint each day. + +_Wheat_ is the most nutritive of cereal grains--with, perhaps, the +exception of rice--as an article of human food. It is, therefore, +natural to suppose that it is the best for fowls; and the avidity with +which they eat it would induce the conclusion that they would eat more +of this than of any other grain. Yet it appears that when fowls have as +much wheat as they can consume, they will eat about a fourth part less +than of oats, barley, or buckwheat; the largest quantity of wheat eaten +by a fowl in one day being, according to several experiments, about +three-sixteenths of a pint. The difference in bulk is, however, +compensated by the difference in weight, these three-sixteenths of wheat +weighing more than one-fourth of a pint of oats. The difference in +weight is not, in every instance, the reason why a fowl is satisfied +with a larger or smaller measure of one sort than another. _Rye_ weighs +less than wheat; but still a fowl will be satisfied with half the +quantity of this grain. _Indian corn_ ranks intermediately between wheat +and rye; five-fourths of a pint of Indian corn with fowls being found, +by experiment, equal to six-fourths of wheat, and three-fourths of rye. + +In estimating the quantity of grain daily consumed by the common fowl, +it is wise to use data a little above than below the average. It may, +therefore, safely be said that a fowl of the common size, having free +access to as much as can be eaten through the day, will consume, day by +day, of oats, buckwheat, or barley, one-fourth of a pint; of wheat, +three-sixteenths; of Indian corn, five thirty-seconds; and of rye, three +thirty-seconds. + +It has been conclusively settled, by experiments instituted to that end, +that there is the best economy in feeding poultry with _boiled_ grain +rather than with dry, in every case where Indian corn, barley, and wheat +can be procured. The expense of fuel, and the additional trouble +incident to the process of cooking, are inconsiderable in comparison +with the advantages derived. Where oats, buckwheat, or rye are used, +boiling is useless, when profit is concerned. + +BRAN. It is an erroneous notion that money can be saved by feeding bran +to fowls; since, then, so little of the farina of the grain remains in +it, that the nourishment derived from its use is hardly worth +mentioning. When boiled, as it always must be, its bulk is but slightly +increased. Two measures of dry bran, mixed with water, are equal to but +three-fifths of a measure of dry barley. + +MILLET. This is recommended as excellent food for young chickens. Fowls +always prefer it raw; though, as its bulk is increased one-half by +boiling, it is doubtless more economical to feed it cooked. + +RICE. Fowls are especially fond of this food, although they soon lose +their relish for it when allowed to have it at their discretion. It +should always be boiled; but its expense puts it out of the question as +a daily diet. When used continuously, it should always be mixed with +some substance containing less nutritive matter, in order that the +appetite may not be cloyed by it. + +POTATOES. These are very nutritious, and are usually acceptable to +fowls, when properly prepared. When raw, or in a cold state, they appear +to dislike them; they should, therefore, be boiled and given when +moderately hot; when very hot, it is said that fowls will injure +themselves by eating them, and burning their mouths. They should also be +broken into pieces of convenient size; otherwise, they will be avoided. +Occasionally raw pieces of potato will be devoured; but fowls cannot be +said to be fond of the root in this state. The same remark applies to +most other roots, especially to _carrots_ and _parsnips_; these should +always be prepared, in order to be wholesome and palatable. Fowls should +never be confined to a root diet, in any case; but such food should be +mingled or alternated with a sufficient quantity of grain. + +GREEN FOOD. Indulgence in this kind of diet is absolutely necessary to +the health of fowls, and is also advantageous in an economical point of +view. The more delicate kinds of green vegetables are eaten with the +utmost avidity; all succulent weeds, grass, and the leaves of trees and +shrubs will also be consumed. If hens have green plots to graze in +during the day, the expense of their keeping will be reduced one-half. +All the refuse of the kitchen, of a vegetable nature, should be freely +thrown into the poultry-yard. + +Green food, however, will not answer for an exclusive diet. Experiment +has shown that fowls fed with this food alone for a few days together +exhibit severe symptoms of relaxation of the bowels; and, after the +lapse of eight or nine days, their combs become pale and livid, which is +the same indication of disease in them that paleness of the lips is in +the human species. + +EARTH-WORMS. These are regarded as delicacies by the inhabitants of the +poultry-yard; and the individual who is fortunate enough to capture one +is often forced to undergo a severe ordeal in order to retain his +captive. Earth-worms are more plentiful in moist land, such as pastures, +etc., than in that which is cultivated; in gardens, also, they exist in +vast numbers. When it is desirable to take worms in quantities, it is +only necessary to thrust a stake or three-pronged fork into the ground, +to the depth of about a foot, and to move it suddenly backward and +forward, in order to shake the soil all around; the worms are +instinctively terrified by any motion in the ground, and, when +disturbed, hasten to the surface. + +It is advisable to store worms, on account of the trouble and difficulty +of making frequent collections. They may be placed in casks, filled +one-third full with earth, in quantities at least equal in bulk to the +earth. The earth should be sprinkled occasionally, to prevent it from +becoming too dry. Care should, however, be exercised that the earth does +not become too moist; since, in such an event, the worms will perish. In +rainy weather, the casks should be protected with a covering. + +ANIMAL FOOD. Fowls readily eat both fish and flesh meat, and have no +reluctance to feeding even on their own kind, picking much more +faithfully than quadrupeds. Blood of any kind is esteemed by them a +delicacy; and fish, even when salted, is devoured with a relish. They +seem to be indifferent whether animal food is given to them in a cooked +or raw state; though, if any preference can be detected, it is for the +latter. They are sometimes so greedy that they will attack each other in +order to taste the blood which flows from the wounds so inflicted; and +it is quite common for them, in the moulting season, to gratify +themselves by picking at the sprouting feathers on their own bodies and +those of their companions. They appear to be partial to suet and fat; +but they should not be allowed to devour these substances in large +quantities, on account of their tendency to render them inconveniently +fat. + +It is highly advantageous to fowls to allow them a reasonable quantity +of animal food for their diet, which should be fed to them in small +pieces, both for safety and convenience. Bones and meat may be boiled; +and the liquor, when mixed with bran or meal, is healthy, and not +expensive. + +INSECTS. Fowls have a decided liking to flies, beetles, grasshoppers, +and crickets; and grubs, caterpillars, and maggots are held by them in +equal esteem. It is difficult, however, to supply the poultry-yard with +this species of food in sufficient quantity; but enough may be provided, +probably, to serve as luxuries. Some recommend that pailfuls of blood +should be thrown on dunghills, where fowls are allowed to run, for the +purpose of enticing flies to deposit their eggs; which, when hatched, +produce swarms of maggots for the fowls. With the same view, any sort of +garbage or offal may be thrown out, if the dunghill is so situated--as +it always should be--that its exhalations will not prove an annoyance. + + +LAYING. + +The ordinary productiveness of a single individual of the family of +domestic fowls is astonishing. While few hens are capable of hatching +more than fifteen eggs, and are incapable usually of sitting more than +twice in the year, frequent instances have occurred of hens laying three +hundred eggs annually, while two hundred is the average number. Some +hens are accustomed to lay at longer intervals than others. The habit of +one variety is to lay once in three days only; others will lay every +other day; and some produce an egg daily. The productiveness of hens +depends, undoubtedly, upon circumstances, to a great degree. Climate has +a great influence in this respect; and their lodging and food, as well +as the care bestowed upon them, have more or less effect in promoting or +obstructing their fecundity. + +[Illustration: ON THE WATCH.] + +There seems to be, naturally, two periods of the year in which fowls +lay--early in the spring, and in the summer; and this fact would seem +to indicate that, if they were left to themselves, like wild birds, they +would bring forth two broods in a year. The laying continues, with few +interruptions, till the close of summer, when the natural process of +moulting causes them to cease. This annual process commences about +August, and continues through the three following months. The +constitutional effect attending the beginning, continuance, and +consequences of this period--a very critical one in the case of all +feathered animals--prevents them from laying, until its very close, when +the entire coat of new feathers replaces the old, the washing of the +nutritive juices, yielded by the blood for the express purpose of +promoting this growth, is a great drain upon the system; and the +constitutional forces, which would otherwise assist in forming the egg, +are rendered inoperative. The approach of cold weather, also, at the +close of the moulting period, contributes to the same result. As the +season of moulting is every year later, the older the hen is, the later +in the spring she will begin to lay. As pullets, on the contrary, do not +moult the first year, they commence laying sooner than the elder hens; +and it is possible, by judicious and careful management, so to arrange, +in a collection of poultry tolerably numerous, as to have eggs +throughout the year. It is a singular fact that pullets hatched very +late in autumn, and therefore of stunted growth, will lay nearly as +early as those hatched in spring. The checking of their growth seems to +have a tendency to produce eggs; of course, very tiny ones at first. + +When a hen is near to the time of laying, her comb and wattles change +from their previous dull hue to a bright red, while the eye becomes more +bright, the gait more spirited, and she occasionally cackles for three +or four days. These signs rarely prove false; and when the time comes +that she desires to lay, she appears very restless, going backward and +forward, visiting every nook and corner, cackling meanwhile, as if +displeased because she cannot suit herself with a convenient nest. Not +having looked out for one previously, she rarely succeeds in pleasing +herself till the moment comes when she can no longer tarry, when she is +compelled to choose one of the boxes or baskets provided for this +purpose in the poultry-house, where she settles herself in silence and +lays. + +In some instances, a hen will make choice of a particular nest in which +to lay, and when she finds, upon desiring to lay, that this is +pre-occupied by another hen, she will wait till it is vacated; but, in +other cases, hens will go into any nest which they find, preferring, for +the most part, those having the greatest number of eggs. The process of +laying is, most probably, rather painful, though the hen does not +indicate this by her cries; but the instant she has done she leaves the +nest, and utters her joy by peculiarly loud notes, which are re-echoed +by the cock, as well as by some of the other hens. Some hens, however, +leave the nest in silence, after laying. + +It seems ever to have been an object of great importance, in an +economical point of view, to secure the laying of hens during those +parts of the year when, if left to themselves, they are indisposed to +deposit their eggs. For this purpose many methods have been devised, the +most of which embrace an increase of rich and stimulating food. Some +recommend shutting hens up in a warm place during winter, and giving +them boiled potatoes, turnips, carrots, and parsnips. Others assign as +the reason for their not laying in winter, in some climates, that the +earth is covered with snow, so that they can find no ground, or other +calcareous matter, to form the shells; and advise, therefore, that bones +of meat or poultry should be pounded and given to them, either mixed +with their food, or by itself, which they will greedily eat. Upon the +whole, it would seem that the most feasible means of obtaining fresh +eggs during the winter is to have young hens--pullets hatched only the +previous spring being the best--to use extreme liberality in feeding, +and to cautiously abstain from over-stocking the poultry-yard. + +As serviceable _food_ to increase laying, scraps of animal food, given +two or three times a week, answer admirably; the best mode of doing so +is throwing down a bullock's liver, leaving it with them, and permitting +them to pick it at will; this is better raw than boiled. Lights, or +guts, or any other animal refuse, will be found to answer the same +purpose; but these substances require, or, at all events, are better +for, boiling. Cayenne pepper--in fact all descriptions of pepper, but +especially cayenne pepper in pods--is a favorite food with fowls; and, +being a powerful stimulant, it promotes laying. + +An abundant supply of lime, in some form, should not be omitted; either +chopped bones, old mortar, or a lump of chalky marl. The shell of every +egg used in the house should be roughly crushed and thrown down to the +hens, which will greedily eat them. A green, living turf will be of +service, both for its grass and the insects it may contain. A +dusting-place, wherein to get rid of vermin, is indispensable. A daily +hot meal of potatoes, boiled as carefully as for the family table, then +chopped, and sprinkled or mixed with bran, will be comfortable and +stimulating. After every meal of the household, the bones and other +scraps should be collected and thrown out. + +As to _the number of eggs_, the varieties which possess the greatest +fecundity are the Shanghaes, Guelderlands, Dorkings, Polish, and +Spanish. The Poland and Spanish lay the largest eggs; the Dorkings, eggs +of good size; while the Game and the smaller kinds produce only small +eggs. Those eggs which have the brightest yolks are the finest flavored; +and this is usually the case with the smaller kinds. The large eggs of +the larger varieties often have yolks of a pale color, and are inferior +in flavor. + + +PRESERVATION OF EGGS. + +Eggs, after being laid, lose daily, by transpiration, a portion of the +matter which they contain, notwithstanding the compact texture of their +shell, and of the close tissue of the flexible membranes lining the +shell, and enveloping the white. When an egg is fresh, it is full, +without any vacancy; and this is a matter of common observation, whether +it be broken raw, or when it is either soft or hard-boiled. In all stale +eggs, on the contrary, there is uniformly more or less vacancy, +proportioned to the loss they have sustained by transpiration; hence, +in order to judge of the freshness of an egg, it is usual to hold it up +to the light, when the transparency of the shell makes it appear whether +or not there is any vacancy in the upper portion, as well as whether the +yolk and white are mingled and muddy, by the rotting and bursting of +their enveloping membranes. + +The transpiration of eggs, besides, is proportional to the temperature +in which they are placed, cold retarding and heat promoting the process; +hence, by keeping fresh-lain eggs in a cool cellar, or, better still, in +an ice-house, they will transpire less, and be preserved for a longer +period sound, than if they are kept in a warm place, or exposed to the +sun's light, which has also a good effect in promoting the exhalation of +moisture. As, therefore, fermentation and putridity can only take place +by communication with the air at a moderate temperature, such connection +must be excluded by closing the pores of the shell. + +It is an indispensable condition of the material used for this purpose, +that it shall be incapable of being dissolved by the moisture transpired +from the interior. Spirits of wine varnish, made with lac, answers the +requirement; this is not very expensive, but is rather an uncommon +article in country places, where eggs are most abundantly produced. + +A better material is a mixture of mutton and beef suet, which should be +melted together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth +into an earthen pan. The chief advantage in the use of this is, that the +eggs rubbed over with it will boil as quickly as if nothing had been +done to them, the fat melting off as soon as they touch the water. The +transpiration is as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat as +by a thick coating, provided that no sensible vestige be left on the +surface of the shell. All sorts of fat, grease, or oil are well adapted +to this purpose; by means of butter, hog's lard, olive oil, and similar +substances, eggs maybe preserved for nine months as fresh as the day +upon which they were laid. + +Another method is, to dip each egg into melted pork-lard, rubbing it +into the shell with the finger, and pack them in old fig-drums, or +butter firkins, setting every egg upright, with the small end downward. +Or, the eggs may be packed in the same way in an upright earthen pan; +then cut some rough sheep's tallow, procured the same day that the +animal is killed, into small pieces, and melt it down; strain it from +the scraps, and pour it while warm, not hot, over the eggs in the jar +till they are completely covered. When all is cold and firm, set the +vessel in a cool, dry place till the contents are wanted. + +Eggs will also keep well when preserved in salt, by arranging them in a +barrel, first a layer of salt, then a layer of eggs, alternately. This +can, however, also act mechanically, like bran or saw-dust, so long as +the salt continues dry; for, in that case, the chlorine, which is the +antiseptic principle of the salt, is not evolved. When the salt, +however, becomes damp, its preservative principle will be brought into +action, and may penetrate through the pores of the shell. + +Immersing eggs in vitriol, or sulphuric acid, is likewise a very +effectual means of preserving them; the sulphuric acid acts chemically +upon the carbonate of lime in the shell, by setting free the carbonic +acid gas, while it unites with the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, or +plaster of Paris. Another method is, to mix together a bushel of +quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, +adding a sufficient quantity of water, so that eggs may be plunged into +the paint. When a paste is made of this consistence, the eggs are put +into it, and may be kept fresh, it is said, for two years. + +Another method of preserving eggs a long while fresh, depends upon a +very different principle. Eggs that have not been rendered reproductive +by the cock have been found to continue very uncorrupted. In order, +therefore, to have eggs keep fresh from spring to the middle or even to +the end of Winter, it is only necessary to deprive the hens of all +communication with the cocks, for at least a month before the eggs are +put away. + +It ought not to be overlooked, in this connection, that eggs not only +spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation +of their contents, in consequence of air penetrating through the pores +of the shell, but also by being moved about and jostled, when carried to +a distance by sea or land. Any kind of rough motion, indeed, ruptures +the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the +chicken in their appropriate places; and, upon these being mixed, +putrefaction is promoted. + + +CHOICE OF EGGS FOR SETTING. + +Eggs for hatching should be as fresh as possible; if laid the very same +day, so much the better. This is not always possible when a particular +stock is required; but, if a numerous and healthy brood is all that is +wanted, the most recent eggs should be selected. Eggs may be kept for +this purpose in either of the ways first mentioned; or they may be +placed on their points in a box, in a cool, dry place; the temperature +about sixty or sixty-five, Fahrenheit; the bottom of the box should be +covered with a layer of wheat bran, then a layer of eggs put in, and +covered with bran; and so on, alternating. In this mode, evaporation is +prevented, and the eggs are almost as certain to hatch out, at the end +of six weeks, or even two months, as when they were laid. + +It is difficult to fix the exact term during which the vitality of an +egg remains unextinguished; as it, unquestionably, varies from the very +first, according to the vigor of the parents of the inclosed germ, and +fades away gradually till the final moment of non-existence. The +chickens in stale eggs have not sufficient strength to extricate +themselves from the shell; if assisted, the yolk is found to be +partially absorbed into the abdomen, or not at all; they are too faint +to stand; the muscles of the neck are unable to lift their heads, much +less to peck; and although they may sometimes be saved by extreme care, +their usual fate is to be trampled to death by the mother, if they do +not expire almost as soon as they begin to draw their breath. +Thick-shelled eggs, like those of geese, Guinea fowls, etc., will retain +life longer than thin-shelled ones, as those of hens and ducks. When +choice eggs are expected to be laid, it is more prudent to have the hen +which is to sit upon them wait for them, than to keep other eggs waiting +for her. A good sitter may be amused for two or three weeks with a few +addle-eggs, and so be ready to take charge of those of value immediately +upon their arrival. + +As to the choice of eggs for hatching, such should be taken, of course, +as are believed to have been rendered productive. Those of medium +size--the average size that the hen lays--are most apt to fulfil this +requirement. A very fair judgment may be formed of eggs from their +specific gravity; such as do not sink to the bottom in a bowl of tepid +water should be rejected. + +The old-time notion, that small, round eggs produce females, and long, +pointed ones males--originally applied, by the ancients, to eating +rather than hatching purposes--may be considered exploded. The hen that +lays one round egg, continues to lay all her eggs round; and the hen +that lays one oblong, lays all oblong. According to this theory, then, +one hen would be the perpetual mother of cocks, and another the +perpetual producer of pullets; which is absurd, as daily experience +proves. + +The same fate has been meted out to that other venerable test of sex, +the position of the air-bag at the blunt end of the shell. "If the +vacancy is a little on one side, it will produce a hen; if it is exactly +in the centre, a cock." Upon this assumption, the cock should be a very +rare bird; since there are very few eggs indeed in which the air bottle +is exactly concentric with the axis of the egg. In many breeds, on the +contrary, the cockerels bear a proportion of at least one-third, and +sometimes two-thirds, especially in those hatched during winter, or in +unfavorable seasons; the immediate cause, doubtless, being that the eggs +producing a more robust sex possess a stronger vitality. + +Nor are these two alleged tests--the shape of the egg, and the position +of the air-tube--consistent with each other; for, if the round egg +produces a pullet, and an egg with the air-bag a little on one side does +the same, then all round eggs should have the air bag in that position, +or one test contradicts the other; and the same argument applies to the +long or oval egg. The examination of a few eggs by the light of a candle +will satisfy any one that the position of the air-bag differs as much +in a long egg as it does in a round. + +There are, indeed, no known means of determining beforehand the sex of +fowl; except, perhaps, that cocks may be more likely to issue from large +eggs, and hens from small ones. As, however, the egg of each hen may be +recognized, the means are accessible of propagating from those parents +whose race it is judged most desirable to continue. + + +INCUBATION. + +The hen manifests the desire of incubation in a manner different from +that of any other known bird. Nature having been sufficiently tasked in +one direction, she becomes feverish, and loses flesh; her comb is livid; +her eyes are dull; she bristles her feathers to intimidate an imaginary +enemy; and, as if her chickens were already around her, utters the +maternal "cluck." + +When the determination to sit becomes fixed--it is not necessary to +immediately gratify the first faint inclinations--the nest which she has +selected should be well cleaned, and filled with fresh straw. The number +of eggs to be allowed will depend upon the season, and upon the size of +egg and hen. The wisest plan is not to be too greedy; the number of +chickens hatched is often in inverse proportion to the number of eggs +set--five have only been obtained from sixteen. An odd number is, +however, to be preferred, as being better adapted to covering in the +nest. Hens will, in general, well cover from eleven to thirteen eggs +laid by themselves. A bantam may be trusted with about half a dozen eggs +of a large breed, such as the Spanish. A hen of the largest size as a +Dorking, will successfully hatch, at the most, five goose-eggs. + +When hens are determined to sit at seasons of the year at which there is +little chance of bringing up chickens, the eggs of ducks or geese may be +furnished her; the young may be reared, with a little painstaking, at +any time of the year. The autumnal laying of the China and of the common +goose is very valuable for this purpose. Turkey-hens frequently have +this fit of unseasonable incubation. + +Where, however, it is inconvenient to gratify the desire, one or two +doses of jalap will often entirely remove it; and fowls often lay in +three weeks afterward. Some place the would-be sitter in an aviary, for +four or five days at most, and feed her but sparingly; from the +commencement of her confinement, she will gradually leave off clucking, +and when this has ceased, she may be again set free, without manifesting +the least desire to take to the nest again, and in a short time the hen +will commence laying with renewed vigor. The barbarous measures +sometimes resorted to should be frowned upon by every person with humane +feelings. + +Three weeks is the period of incubation; though chickens are sometimes +excluded on the eighteenth day. When the hen does not sit close for the +first day or two, or in early spring, it will occasionally be some hours +longer; when the hen is assiduous, and the weather hot, the time will be +a trifle shorter. Chickens have been known to come out as late as the +twenty-seventh day. + +It may not be uninteresting to note the changes which the egg passes +through in hatching. In _twelve hours_, traces of the head and body of +the chicken may be discerned; at the end of the _second day_, it +assumes the form of a horse-shoe, but no red blood as yet is seen; at +the _fiftieth hour_, two vesicles of blood, the rudiments of the heart, +may be distinguished, one resembling a noose folded down on itself, and +pulsating distinctly; at the end of _seventy hours_, the wings may be +seen, and, in the head, the brain and the bill, in the form of bubbles; +toward the end of the _fourth day_, the heart is more completely formed; +and on the _fifth day_, the liver is discernible; at the end of _one +hundred and thirty hours_, the first voluntary motions may be observed; +in _seven hours_ more, the lungs and stomach appear; and, _in four +hours_ after this, the intestines, the loins, and the upper jaw. At the +end of the one _hundred and forty-fourth hour_, two drops of blood are +observable in the heart, which is also further developed; and, on the +_seventh day_, the brain exhibits some consistence. At the _one hundred +and ninetieth hour_, the bill opens, and the muscular flesh appears on +the breast; in _four hours_ more, the breast bone is seen; and, in _six +hours_ afterward, the ribs may be observed forming from the back. At the +expiration of _two hundred and thirty-six hours_, the bill assumes a +green color, and, if the chicken be taken out of the egg, it will +visibly move. At _two hundred and sixty-four hours_, the eyes appear; at +_two hundred and eighty-eight hours_, the ribs are perfect; and _at +three hundred and thirty-one hours_, the spleen approaches near to the +stomach, and the lungs to the chest; at the end of _three hundred and +fifty-five hours_, the bill frequently opens and shuts. At the end of +the _eighteenth day_, the first cry of the chicken is heard; and it +gradually acquires more strength, till it is enabled to release itself +from confinement. + +After the hen has set a week, the fertility of the eggs may be +satisfactorily ascertained by taking a thin board with a small orifice +in it, placing a candle at the back, and holding up each egg to the +points of light. The barren eggs may then be removed, and used, +hard-boiled, for young chickens. Some reserve this for the eleventh or +twelfth day. + +About the _twenty-first day_, the chicken is excluded from the _egg_; +for the purpose of breaking the shell of which it is furnished with a +horny-pointed scale, greatly harder than the bill itself, at the upper +tip of the bill--a scale which falls off, or becomes absorbed, after the +chicken is two or three days old. The chicken is rolled up in the egg in +the form of a ball, with its forepart toward the highest end, and its +beak uppermost, the hard scale nearly touching the shell. + +The first few strokes of the chicken's beak produce a small crack, +rather nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg, and the egg is +said to be _chipped_. From the first crack, the chicken turns gradually +round, from left to right, chipping the shell as it turns, in a circular +manner, never obliquely. All do not succeed in producing the result in +the same time; some being able to complete the work within an hour, and +others taking two or three hours, while half a day is most usually +employed, and some require twenty-four hours or more, but rarely two +days. Some have greater obstacles to overcome than others, all shells +not being alike in thickness and hardness. + +When chickens do not effect their escape easily, some little assistance +is needed; but the difficulty is to know when to give it, as a rash +attempt to help them, by breaking the shell, particularly in a downward +direction toward the smaller end, is often followed by a loss of blood, +which can ill be spared. It is better not to interfere, until it is +apparent that a part of the brood have been hatched for some time, say +twelve hours, and that the rest cannot succeed in making their +appearance. It will then generally be found that the whole fluid +contents of the egg, yolk and all, are taken up into the body of the +chicken, and that weakness alone has prevented its forcing itself out. +The causes of such weakness are various; sometimes, insufficient warmth, +from the hen having set on too many eggs; sometimes the original +feebleness of the vital spark; but, most frequently, the staleness of +the eggs employed for incubation. + +The chances of rearing such chickens are small; but, if they survive the +first twenty-four hours, they may be considered as safe. The only thing +to be done is to take them from the hen till she is settled at night, +keeping them in the meanwhile as snug and warm as possible. If a gentle +hand can persuade a crust of bread down their throats, it will do no +harm; but all rough and clumsy manipulation will utterly defeat the end +in view. Animal heat will be their greatest restorative. At night, they +should be quietly slipped under their mother; the next morning will +disclose the sequel. + +The period of incubation in the _Guinea fowl_ is twenty-eight days, or +one month; in the _pea fowl_, from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days; in +_turkeys_, a month; in _ducks_, thirty or thirty-one days; and in +_geese_, from twenty-seven to thirty days. + +INCUBATION OF TURKEYS. When the turkey hen has once selected a spot for +her nest, she will continue to lay there till the time for incubation; +so that the egg may be brought home from day to day, there being no +need of a nest-egg, as with the domestic fowl. She will lay from fifteen +to twenty eggs, more or less. If there are any dead leaves or dry grass +at hand, she will cover her eggs with these; but if not, she will take +no trouble to collect them from a distance. + +Her determination to sit will be known by her constantly remaining on +the nest, though it is empty; and, as it is seldom in a position +sufficiently secure against the weather or pilferers, a nest should be +prepared for her, by placing some straw, with her eggs, on the floor of +a convenient out-building. She should then be brought home, and gently +and kindly placed upon it. With the smallest varieties, thirteen eggs +will suffice; a large hen might cover more. At the end of a week, it is +usual to add some fowls' eggs; the activity of the chickens excites some +emulation in the larger brethren, and the eggs take up but little room +in the nest. + +Some believe it necessary to turn the eggs once a day; but the hen +herself does that many times daily. If the eggs are marked, and their +position noticed when she leaves the nest, they will never be found in +the same order. In about four weeks, the young will be hatched. + +INCUBATION OF GEESE. Geese breed in general only once a year; but, if +well kept, they sometimes hatch twice a season. During the sitting, in +sections where the most attention is paid to breeding them, each bird +has a space allotted to it, in rows of wicker-pens, placed one above +another, and the person in charge of them drives the whole flock to +water three times a day, and, bringing them back to their habitations, +places each bird in its own nest. + +The most successful breeders of _Bremen geese_ adopt the following +method: The birds are, in the first place, carefully and properly fed; +the eggs are removed every day in the gentlest manner from the nest, and +placed in a basket of cotton kept in a moderate temperature, and free +from damp. When all the geese begin to sit steadily, each is furnished +with a nest composed of chopped straw; and care is taken that it is +sufficiently capacious. + +Not more than one of the geese is allowed to leave the eggs at a time. +As soon as one leaves, she makes a cackling noise, which is the signal +for the attendant to shut up the boxes in which the others are sitting. +These are made somewhat like a dog-kennel, with a roof pitched both +ways; and are thirty inches long, by twenty-four wide, and twenty-four +high; the door is in the end, and is covered by a sliding panel, which +moves upward, when egress or ingress is sought, and may be shut down at +pleasure. The goose, upon returning, finds only her own box open. When +she re-enters her box, the whole of the doors are again opened, and the +same rule observed throughout the period of hatching. In this way, each +goose is kept to its own nest. + + +REARING OF THE YOUNG. + +For about twenty-four hours after birth, the chickens can not only do +well enough without any extraneous nourishment, but will be far more +likely to thrive subsequently, if let alone, than if crammed or incited +to eat prematurely. More chickens are destroyed by over-feeding than are +lost by the want of it. It is, however, well to turn them in among other +chickens that already feed themselves; they will, in such cases, +generally follow the example of the rest, and pick away at whatever is +around. + +[Illustration: MARQUEE OR TENT-SHADED COOPS.] + +A roomy, boarded coop, in a dry, sunny spot, is the best position for +them during the first month; after which it may be left open during the +day, for the hen to retire to when she pleases. In quiet grassy places, +it is scarcely necessary to coop the hen at all. As to food, they may +have every thing which is not absolutely poisonous; though if wet food +is given, the chicken is thus obliged to take water, whether it requires +it or not, in order to get a sufficient supply of solid food, and +diseased bowels will be likely to follow; whereas, if the food is dry, +they can supply themselves with food and water according to their +pleasure. If Indian meal is well boiled, and fed not too moist, it will +answer a very good purpose, particularly after they are eight or ten +days old. Pure water must be placed near them in such a manner as to +enable them to drink without getting into the water, which, by wetting +their feathers, benumbs and injures them. Meat and insect diet are +almost necessary; but, whatever the food, the meals must be given at +short intervals; as much as they can swallow, and as often as they can +eat. With all their industry, they are only half-clad till flesh and +bone stop growing for a while, and allow down and feathers to overtake +them. + +Chickens should not be let out of their coops too early in the morning, +or whilst the dew is on the ground; still less should they be suffered +to range over the wet grass, which is a common cause of disease and +death. They should also be guarded against sudden unfavorable changes of +the weather, more particularly if attended with rain. Nearly all the +diseases of gallinaceous fowls arise from cold moisture. + +The period at which they are left to shift for themselves depends upon +the disposition of the hen. Some will continue their attentions to their +chickens till they are nearly full-grown, while others will cast them +off much earlier. In the latter case, an eye should be kept upon them +for a few days; for chickens in this half-grown state are much more +liable to disease than when they were apparently tender little +weaklings, crowded under their mother's wings. They should be kept in a +dry, warm, place; dryness is especially necessary. + +If the chickens feather rapidly when very young--as is the case with the +Golden Pheasant, Black Poland, Guelderland, and some others--they are +always weakly, however healthy in other respects, from the fact that +their food goes to sustain their feathers rather than their bodies; and +they frequently languish and die, from this circumstance alone. If, on +the other hand, they feather slowly, as do the Cochin Chinas, Shanghaes, +and others, the food in early life goes to nourish and sustain their +bodies until they become more vigorous, and old enough to sustain the +shock of feathering without detriment. Pure tan-colored Dorkings are +more easily raised than others of the race, because they feather more +slowly. + +Chickens which feather rapidly must be kept perfectly dry and warm, or +they will die; while naked chickens, as they are termed, or those which +feather at a more advanced age, and very slowly, seldom suffer from the +cold, from the fact that their down is very warm, and their blood is +hotter, and circulates more rapidly; since their food principally goes +to blood, and flesh, and bones, and not to feathers. + +REARING OF GUINEA FOWLS. For the young of these, ants' eggs, so called, +hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, small worms, maggots, bread-crumbs, +chopped meat, or suet--whatever, in short, is most nutritious, is the +most appropriate food. This need not be offered to them in large +quantities, as it would only be devoured by the mother Bantam as soon as +she saw that they had for the time satisfied their appetites, or it +would be stolen by other birds; but it should frequently be administered +to them in small supplies. Feeding them three, four, or five times a +day, is not often enough; every half hour during daylight they should be +tempted to fill their craws, which are soon emptied again by an +extraordinary power and quickness of digestion. + +The newly-hatched Guinea fowl is a tiny creature, and its growth is, +consequently, very rapid, requiring incessant supplies. A check once +received can never be recovered. They do not, in such cases, mope and +pine for a day or two; like young turkeys under similar circumstances, +and then die; but, in half an hour after being in apparent health, they +fall on their backs, give a convulsive kick or two, and fall victims, in +fact, to starvation. The demands of Nature for the growth of bone, +muscle, and particularly of feathers, are so great, that no subsequent +abundant supply of food can compensate for a fast of a couple of hours. +The feathers still go on growing in geometrical progression, and drawing +the sources of vitality still faster than they can be supplied, till the +bird faints and expires from inanition. + +A dry, sunny corner in the garden will be the best place to coop them +with their bantam hen. As they increase in strength, they will do no +harm, but much good, by devouring worms, grubs, caterpillars, maggots, +and all sorts of insects. By the time their bodies are little longer +than those of sparrows, they will be able to fly with some degree of +strength; other additions to their complete stature are successively and +less immediately developed, the spurs, comb, and ornamental plumage not +appearing till a subsequent period. + +When they are about the size of thrushes, or a little larger, unless the +summer be very fine, the bantam may be allowed to range loose in the +orchard and shrubbery, and no longer permitted to enter the garden. The +young must, however, still receive a bountiful and frequent supply of +food; they are not to be considered safe till the horn on their head is +fairly grown. Oatmeal is a great treat; cooked potatoes, boiled rice, or +any thing, in short, that is eatable, may be thrown to them; they will +pick the bones left after dinner with evident satisfaction. The tamer +they can be made, the less troublesome will they be when grown; the more +kindly they are treated, the fatter will they be for food, and the +better price will they bring in market. + +For rearing the young of the _pea fowl_, the same directions will be +found useful, and should be carried out in practice. + +REARING OF TURKEYS. Much quackery has been recommended in the treatment +of young turkeys. Nothing, however, should be given to them, nothing +done for them; they should remain in the nest, under the shelter of +their mother's wings, for at least eight or ten hours; if hatched in the +afternoon, till the following morning. The hen should then be placed on +the grass, in the sun, under a roomy coop. If the weather is fine, she +may be stationed at any point desired, by a long piece of flannel-list +tied round one leg, and fastened to a stump or stone. + +At first, a few crumbs of bread should be offered; for some hours, the +little ones will be in no hurry to eat; but, when they do commence, they +should be supplied constantly and abundantly with chopped egg, shreds of +meat and fat, curd, boiled rice mixed with cress, lettuce, and the green +of onions; melted mutton-suet poured over barley-meal, and cut up when +cold, as also bullock's liver boiled and minced, are excellent things. +Young turkeys do not like to have their food minced much smaller than +they can swallow it, preferring to make a meal at three or four +mouthfuls, rather than to trouble themselves with the incessant pecking +and scratching in which chickens so much delight. Pepper will be found +particularly useful in feeding them; as, indeed, all stimulating +vegetables, such as horse-radish, and the like. + +Young turkeys are sometimes attacked by _fasciolae_, or worms in the +trachea; but not so often as chickens. Cramp is the most fatal to them, +particularly in bad weather. A few pieces of board laid under and about +the coop are useful; sometimes rubbing the leg with spirit will bring +back the circulation. + +The time when the hen may be allowed full liberty with her brood depends +most upon the season, the situation, etc. Some think that if the young +are thriving, the sooner the old ones are out with them the better, +after the first ten days or so. A safer rule may be fixed at the season, +called "shooting the red," when young turkeys approach the size of a +partridge, or before the granular, fleshy excrescences on the head and +neck begin to appear; soon after, the whole plumage, particularly the +tail-feathers, shoot into rapid growth, and liberal nourishment is +imperatively required. If let loose at this time, they will obtain much +foraging, and still be thankful for all that is given to them. +Caraway-seeds, as a tonic, are beneficial, if added to plenty of barley, +boiled potatoes, chopped vegetables, and refuse meat. At this time the +turkeys, naturally enough, begin to be troublesome and voracious; they +have to grow from the size of a lark to twelve or fourteen pounds, in +eight or nine months. One great merit in old birds is, that in +situations where nuts, acorns, and mast are to be had, they will lead +off their brood to these, and all of them will abstain, comparatively, +from ravaging other crops. + +[Illustration: DUCK-POND AND HOUSES.] + +REARING OF DUCKLINGS. The best mode of rearing the young of ducks +depends very much upon the situation in which they are hatched. It is +customary to dip their feet in water as soon as they are hatched, and +then to clip the down on their tails close with a pair of scissors, to +prevent their becoming drabbled and water-logged; and before their +introduction to the pond, which should not be until a day or two after +hatching, it is thought advisable by many to let them have a private +swim or two in a small pan of water, that they may try their strength +and practice their webbed feet before venturing upon a larger space. + +For the first month, the confinement of the mother under a coop is +better than too much liberty. Their first food may be boiled eggs, +nettles, and a little barley; all kinds of sapped food, cornmeal and +water mixed thin, worms, etc., suit them; they will also greedily eat +cabbages or other greens, mixed with boiled bran; and this mess, with +the addition of pepper, forms a valuable dietetic. In a few days, they +require no care, being perfectly able to shift for themselves; but at +any age they are the most helpless of the inhabitants of the +poultry-yard, having no weapons with which to defend themselves from +vermin, or animals of prey, and their awkward, waddling gait precluding +their seeking safety in flight. The old duck is not so brave in defence +of her brood as the hen; but she will, nevertheless, display at times +much spirit. The young seldom die of any disease, and with proper +precaution there will be no trouble in raising almost as many ducklings +as are hatched. They come early to maturity, being nearly full-grown and +in fine eating order at three months old; far excelling, in this +respect, all other poultry, except geese. + +None are more successful in rearing ducklings than those who keep them, +for the first period of their existence, in pens two or three yards +square, and cram them night and morning with long, dried pellets of +flour and water, or egg and flour, until they are judged old enough to +be turned out with their mother to forage for themselves. They are +cheerful, harmless, good-natured, cleanly creatures, carefully washing +themselves, and arranging their dress, before commencing their meals; +and the healthy heartiness of their appetite is amusing, rather than +disgusting. + +REARING OF GOSLINGS. For the first three or four days, goslings must be +kept warm and dry, and fed on barley-meal, or oatmeal, mixed with milk, +if easily procurable; if not, with water. They will begin to grow in +about a week. For a week or two, they should not be turned out until +late in the morning, and should always be taken in early in the evening. +Their great enemy is the cramp, which can be kept off by making them +sleep on dry straw. A little boiled rice, daily, assists their growth; +with corn, of course, as soon as they can eat it. When goslings are +first allowed to go at large with their mother, every plant of hemlock +which grows within their range should be pulled up, as they are very apt +to eat it, and it generally proves fatal. Nightshade is equally +pernicious to them; and they have been known to be poisoned by eating +sprigs of yew-tree. + +The young of _Bremen geese_, when first hatched, are of a very delicate +and tender constitution. It is best to let them remain in the +breeding-box in which they are hatched for twenty-four hours after they +leave the shell. This should, however, be regulated by the weather; +since, if it is fair and warm, they may be let out an hour or two in the +middle of the day, when they will wet their little bills and nibble at +the grass. They ought not to be out in the rain at any time during the +first month; and both geese and goslings should be shut up in the boxes +at night, during the same period, as a protection against rats and +vermin. A very shallow pool, dug in the yard, with a bucket or two of +water thrown into it, to suit the temporary purpose of bathing, is +sufficient during that period. If well fed on grain from the time they +are hatched, twenty-five pounds weight can be secured, at seven or eight +months old. By feeding them till four days old, and then literally +turning them out to grass, an average weight of from seventeen to +eighteen pounds each has been attained, at that age after the feathers +are cleanly picked off. + + +CAPONIZING. + +Capons have ever been esteemed among the greatest delicacies of the +table; and are made by the extirpation of the reproductive organs in +male fowls. If a cock, when young, is emasculated, a remarkable change +takes place in him. His natural fierceness is calmed; he becomes placid +and peaceful; his pugnacity has deserted him; he no longer seeks the +company of the hens; he loses his previous strong, shrill voice; he +grows to a far larger size than he would otherwise have done, having +nothing to interfere with the main business of his life--to eat, drink, +sleep, and get fat as speedily as possible; his flesh is peculiarly +white, firm and succulent; and even the fat is perfectly destitute of +rankness. The capon may, also, by a little management be converted into +an admirable nurse. Some assert that caponized cocks are never afterward +subject to the natural process of moulting; but this is denied by +others. + +The art has been practised from the earliest antiquity, in Greece, +India, and China, for the purpose of improving the flesh of birds for +the table, in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. It is extensively +performed in the great poultry-breeding districts of England; but in +this country it is by no means so generally practised as would naturally +be expected. + +The instruments most approved by skilful operators consist of two five +or seven-pound weights for confining the fowl; a scalpel, for cutting +open the thin skin enveloping the testicles; a silver retractor, for +stretching open the wound sufficiently wide for operating within; a pair +of spring forceps--with a sharp, cutting edge, resembling that of a +chisel, having a level half an inch in its greatest width--for making +the incision, and securing the thin membrane; a spoon-shaped instrument, +with a sharp hook at one end, for pushing and removing the testicles, +adjusting the loop, and assisting in tearing open the tender covering; +and a double silver canula, for containing the two ends of horse-hair, +or fibre, constituting the loop. The expense of these instruments is in +the neighborhood of six dollars. A cheap penknife may be used instead of +the scalpel; and the other instruments may be obtained of a cheaper +construction--the whole not costing more than half the above-named +amount. + +The cockerel intended for capons should be of the largest breeds, as the +Dorking, Cochin China, or the Great Malay. They may be operated upon at +any time after they are a month old; the age of from two to three months +is considered preferable. If possible, it should be done before July; as +capons made later never prove so fine. + +The fowl should be confined to a table or board, by laying him with the +left side downward, the wings drawn behind the rump, the legs extended +backward, with the upper one farthest drawn out, and the head and neck +left perfectly free. The feathers are next to be plucked from the right +side, near the hip-joint, on a line with, and between the joint of the +shoulder. The space uncovered may be from an inch to an inch and a half +in diameter, according to the size of the bird. After drawing off the +skin from the part, backward--so that, when left to itself after the +operation is completed, it will cover the wound in the flesh--make an +incision with the bevel-edged knife, at the end of the forceps, between +the last two ribs, commencing about an inch from the back-bone, and +extending it obliquely downward, from an inch to an inch and a half, +cutting just deep enough to separate the ribs, taking due care not to +wound the intestines. + +Next, adjust and apply the retractor by means of the small thumb-screw, +and stretch the wound sufficiently wide apart to afford room for an +examination of the organs to be removed. Then, with the scalpel, or a +sharp penknife, carefully cut open the skin, or membrane, covering the +intestines, which, if not sufficiently drawn up, in consequence of the +previous confinement, may be pushed forward toward the breast-bone, by +means of the bowl of the spoon-shaped instrument, or--what would answer +equally well--with the handle of a tea-spoon. + +As the testicles are exposed to view, they will be found connected with +the back and sides by a thin membrane, or skin, passing over them. This +covering must then be seized with the forceps, and torn open with the +sharp-pointed hook at the small end of the spoon-shaped instrument; +after which the bowl of the spoon must be introduced, with the left +hand, under the lower or left testicle, which is, generally, a little +nearer to the rump than the right one. Then take the double canula, +adjust the hair-loop, and, with the right hand, pass the loop over the +small hooked end of the spoon, running it down under the bowl of the +spoon containing the testicle, so as to bring the loop to act upon the +parts which connect the testicle to the back. By drawing the ends of the +hair-loop backward and forward, and at the same time pushing the lower +end of the tube, or canula, toward the rump of the fowl, the cord or +fastening of the testicle is severed. + +A similar process is then to be repeated with the uppermost or right +testicle; after which, any remains of the testicles, together with the +blood at or around the bottom of the wound, must be scooped out with the +bowl of the spoon. The left testicle is first cut out, in order to +prevent the blood which may issue from covering the one remaining, and +so rendering it more difficult to be seen. The operation, if skilfully +done, occupies but a few moments; when the skin of the fowl should be +drawn over the wound with the retractor, and the wound covered with the +feathers that were plucked off at the commencement. + +In some fowls, the fore part of the thigh covers the two hindmost ribs; +in which case, care must be taken to draw the fleshy part of the thigh +well back, to prevent it from being cut; since, otherwise, the operation +might lame the fowl, or even cause its death. + +For loops, nothing answers better than the fibre of a cocoa-nut husk, +which is rough, and readily separates the testicles by sawing. The next +best substance is the hair of a horse's mane or tail. + +After the operation, the bird may be placed in a warm house, where there +are no perches; since if such appliances are present, the newly-made +capon will very probably injure himself in his attempts to perch. For +about a week, the food should be soft, meal porridge, and that in small +quantities, alternated with bread steeped in milk; he may be given as +much pure water as he will drink, it being best to use it in a tepid +state, or at least with the chill taken off. At the end of a week, or +ten days, at most, the fowl, if previously of a sound, vigorous +constitution, will be all right, and may be turned out with the others. + +The usual method, in France, of making _poulardes_, or hen-capons, as +they are sometimes improperly designated, is to extirpate the +egg-cluster, or _ovarium_, in the same manner as the testicles are +extracted from the cockerel; but it is quite sufficient merely to cut +across the oviduct, or egg-tube, with a sharp knife. Otherwise, they may +be treated in the same manner as the capons. Capons are fattened in +precisely the same manner as other fowls. + + +FATTENING AND SLAUGHTERING. + +[Illustration: A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING.] + +Fat is not a necessary part of any animal body, being the form which +superabundant nourishment assumes, which would, if needed, be converted +into muscles and other solids. It is contained in certain membranous +receptacles provided for it, distributed over the body, and it is turned +to use whenever the supply of nourishment is defective, which should be +provided by the stomach, and other great organs. In such emergencies it +is taken up, in the animal economy, by the absorbents; if the latter, +from any cause, act feebly, the health suffers. When, however, +nourishment is taken into the system in greater quantities than is +necessary for ordinary purposes, the absorbent vessels take it up; and +the fat thus made is generally healthy, provided there is a good +digestion. + +A common method of fattening fowl is to give them the run of a +farm-yard, where they thrive upon the offal of the stable and other +refuse, with perhaps some small regular daily feeds; but at +threshing-time, they become fat, and are styled _barn-door fowls_, +probably the most delicate and high-flavored of all, both from their +full allowance of the finest grain, and the constant health in which +they are kept, by living in the natural state, and having the full +enjoyment of air and exercise; or, they are confined in coops during a +certain number of weeks, those fowls which are soonest ready being taken +as wanted. + +Fowls may also be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved in a +healthy state--their flesh being equal in quality to that of the +barn-door fowl--when confined in feeding-houses. These should be at once +warm and airy, with earth floors, well-raised, and sufficiently +capacious to accommodate well the number desired. The floor may be +slightly littered down, the litter being often changed; and the greatest +cleanliness should be observed. Sandy gravel should be placed in several +different layers, and often changed. A sufficient number of troughs, for +both water and food, should be placed around, that the fowls may feed +with as little interruption as possible from each other; and perches in +the same proportion should be furnished for those which are inclined to +avail themselves of them; though the number will be few, after they have +begun to fatten. This arrangement, however, assists in keeping them +quiet and contented until that period. Insects and animal food forming a +part of the natural diet of poultry, they are medicinal to them in a +weakly state, and the want of such food may sometimes impede their +thriving. + +The least nutritious articles of food, so far as it can be done +conveniently, should be fed out first; afterward, those that are more +nutritive. Fattening fowls should be kept quiet, and suffered to take no +more exercise than is necessary for their health; since more exercise +than this calls for an expenditure of food which does not avail any +thing in the process of fattening. They should be fed regularly with +suitable food, and that properly prepared; and as much should be given +them as they are able to convert into flesh and fat, without waste. The +larger the quantity of food which a fattening animal can be made to +consume daily, with a good appetite, or which it can digest thoroughly, +the greater will be the amount of flesh and fat gained, in proportion to +the whole quantity of food consumed. + +Substances in which the nutriment is much concentrated should be fed +with care. There is danger, especially when the bird is first put to +feed, that more may be eaten at once than the digestive organs can +manage. Meal of Indian corn is highly nutritive; and, when properly fed, +causes fowls to fatten faster than almost any other food. They will not, +however, bear to be kept exclusively on this article for a great length +of time. Meal made from the heaviest varieties of corn, especially that +made from the hard, flinty kinds grown in the Northern and Eastern +States, is quite too strong for fowls to be full-fed upon. Attention +should also be paid to the bulk of the food given; since sufficient bulk +is necessary to effect a proper distending of the stomach, as a +necessary condition of healthy digestion. + +One simple mode of fattening, which is adopted by many, is the +following: Shut the fowls up where they can get no gravel; keep corn by +them all the time, and also give them dough enough once a day; for +drink, give them skimmed milk; with this feed, they will fatten in ten +days; if kept longer, they should have some gravel, or they will fall +away. + +Oats ground into meal, and mixed with a little molasses and water, +barley-meal with sweet milk, and boiled oats, mixed with meat, are all +excellent for fattening poultry--reference being had to time, expense, +and quality of flesh. + +In _fattening ducks_, it must be remembered that their flesh will be +found to partake, to a great extent, of the flavor of the food on which +they have been fattened; and as they are naturally quite indiscriminate +feeders, care should be taken, for at least a week or so before killing, +to confine them to select food. Boiled potatoes are very good feeding, +and are still better if a little grain is mixed with them; Indian meal +is both economical and nutritive, but should be used sparingly at first. +Some recommend butcher's offal; but, although ducks may be fattened on +such food to an unusual weight, and thus be profitable for the market, +their flesh will be rendered rank and gross, and not at all fit for the +table. + +To _fatten geese_, it is necessary to give them a little corn daily, +with the addition of some raw Swedish turnips, carrots, mangel-wurtzel +leaves, lucerne, tares, cabbage leaves, and lettuces. Barley-meal and +water is recommended by some; but full-grown geese that have never been +habituated to the mixture when young, will occasionally refuse to eat +it. Cooked potatoes, in small quantities, do no harm; and, apart from +the consideration of expense, steeped wheat would produce a first-rate +delicacy. + +Those who can only afford to bring up one or two, should confine them in +a crib or some such place, about the beginning of July, and feed them as +directed, giving them a daily supply of clean water for drink. If from a +dozen to twenty are kept, a large pen of from fifteen to twenty feet +square should be made, well covered with straw on the bottom, and a +covered house in a corner for protection against the sun and rain, when +required; since exposure to either of these is not good. It will be +observed that, about noon, if geese are at liberty, they will seek some +shady spot, to avoid the influence of the sun; and when confined in +small places, they have not sufficient space for flapping their wings, +and drying themselves after being wet, nor have they room for moving +about so as to keep themselves warm. There should be three troughs in +the crib: one for dry oats; another for vegetables, which ought always +to be cut down; and a third for clean water, of which they must always +have a plentiful supply. The riper the cabbages and lettuces are with +which they are supplied the better. + +SLAUGHTERING AND DRESSING. Both ducks and geese should be led out to the +pond a few hours before being slaughtered, where they will neatly purify +and arrange their feathers. The common mode of slaughtering the +latter--bleeding them from the internal parts of the throat--is +needlessly slow and cruel. + +Fowls for cooking, that are to be sent to a distance, or to be kept any +time before being served, should be plucked, drawn, and dressed +immediately after being killed. The feathers strip off much more easily +and cleanly while the bird is yet warm. When large numbers are to be +slaughtered and prepared in a short time, the process is expedited by +scalding the bird in boiling water, when the feathers drop off almost at +once. Fowls thus treated are, however, generally thought inferior in +flavor, and are more likely to acquire a taint in close, warm weather, +than such as are plucked and dressed dry. + +In dressing, all bruises or rupturing of the skin should be avoided. A +coarse, half-worn cloth, that is pervious to the air, like a wire sieve, +and perfectly dry and clean, forms the best wrapper. The color of +yellow-skinned turkeys--equally well-flavored, by the way--is improved +for appearance at market by wrapping them for twelve or twenty-four +hours in cloths soaked in cold salt and water, frequently changed. For +the same purpose, the loose fat is first laid in warm salt and water, +and afterward in milk and water for two or three hours. Some dust with +flour, inside and out, any fowls that are to be carried far or to hang +many days before being cooked. + +The oldest and toughest fowls, which are often pronounced unfit for +eating, thrown away, and wasted, may be made into a savory and +nutritious dish by jointing, after the bird is plucked and drawn, as for +a pie; it should not be skinned. Stew it five hours in a close saucepan, +with salt, mace, onions, or any other flavoring ingredients desired. +When tender, turn it out into a deep dish, so that the meat may be +entirely covered with the liquor. Let it stand thus in its own jelly +for a day or two; it may then be served in the shape of a curry, a +hash, or a pie, and will be found to furnish an agreeable repast. + +Old geese, killed in the autumn, after they have recovered from +moulting, and before they have begun to think about the breeding time, +make excellent meat, if cut into small portions, stewed slowly five or +six hours with savory condiments, and made into pie the next day. By +roasting and broiling, the large quantity of nutriment contained in the +bones and cartilages is lost, and what might easily be made tender has +to be swallowed tough. Young geese, as well as the old, are, also, often +salted and boiled. + + +POULTRY-HOUSES. + +The three grand requisites in a poultry house are _cleanliness_, +_dryness_, and _warmth_. A simple arrangement for this purpose is a shed +built against the gable of the house, opposite to the part warmed by the +kitchen fire, in which are placed cross-bars for roosting, with boxes +for laying in, or quantities of fresh straw. This should always have an +opening, to allow the poultry-house to be cleansed out, at least once a +week. Fowls will never thrive long amidst uncleanliness; and even with +the utmost care a place where they have been long kept becomes tainted, +as it is called; the surface of the ground becomes saturated with their +_exuriae_, and is therefore no longer conducive to health. + +To avoid this effect, some persons in the country frequently change the +sites of their poultry-houses, to obtain fresh ground; while others, who +cannot thus change, purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch, +by washing with hot lime water, and by strewing large quantities of +pure sand both within and without. Washing the floor every week is a +necessity; for which purpose it is advantageous to have the house paved +either with stones, bricks, or tiles. A good flooring, however, and +cheaper than either of these, may be formed by using a composition of +lime and smithy ashes, together with the riddlings of common kitchen +ashes; these, having been all finely broken, must be mixed together with +water, put on the floor with a mason's trowel, and nicely smoothed on +the surface. If this is put on a floor which is in a tolerably dry +situation, and allowed to harden before being used, it will become +nearly as solid and compact as stone, and is almost as durable. + +[Illustration: RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE.] + +The inside of the laying-boxes should be frequently washed with hot lime +water, to free them from vermin, which greatly torment the sitting hens. +For the same purpose, poultry should always have a heap of dry sand, or +fine ashes, laid under some covered place or thick tree near their yard, +in which they may dust themselves; this being their means of ridding +themselves of the vermin with which they are annoyed. + +In every establishment for poultry-rearing, there ought to be some +separate crib or cribs, into which to remove fowl when laboring under +disease; for, not only are many of the diseases to which poultry are +liable highly contagious, but the sick birds are also regarded with +dislike by such as are in health; and the latter will, generally, attack +and maltreat them, aggravating, at least, their sufferings, if not +actually depriving them of life. The moment, therefore, that a bird is +perceived to droop, or appears pining, it should be removed to one of +these infirmaries. + +[Illustration: A FANCY COOP IN CHINESE OR GOTHIC STYLE.] + +Separate pens are also necessary, to avoid quarrelling among some of the +highly-blooded birds, more particularly the game fowl. They are also +necessary when different varieties are kept, in order to avoid improper +or undesirable commixture from accidental crossing. These lodgings may +be most readily constructed in rows, parallel to each other; the +partitions may be formed of lattice-work, being thus rather ornamental, +and the cost of erection but trifling. Each of these lodgings should be +divided into two compartments, one somewhat larger than the other; one +to be close and warm, for the sleeping-room; and the other, a large one, +airy and open, that the birds may enjoy themselves in the daytime. Both +must be kept particularly dry and clean, and be well protected from the +weather. + +A _hen-ladder_ is an indispensable piece of furniture, though frequently +absent. This is a sort of ascending scale of perches, one a little +higher than the other; not exactly above its predecessor, but somewhat +in advance. By neglecting the use of this very simple contrivance, many +valuable fowls may be lost or severely injured, by attempting to fly +down from their roost--an attempt from succeeding in which the birds are +incapacitated, in consequence of the bulk of their body preponderating +over the power of their wings. + +Some people allow their fowl to roost abroad all night, in all weathers, +in trees, or upon fences near the poultry-house. This is a slovenly mode +of keeping even the humblest live stock; it offers a temptation to +thieves, and the health of the fowls cannot be improved by their being +soaked all night long in drenching rain, or having their feet frozen to +the branches or rails. There is no difficulty in accustoming any sort of +poultry, except the pea fowl, to regular housing at night. + +It is better that turkeys should not roost in the same house with the +domestic fowl, as they are apt to be cross to sitting and laying hens. + +No poultry-house is what it ought to be, it may be suggested, in +conclusion, unless it is in such a state as to afford a lady, without +offending her sense of decent propriety, a respectable shelter on a +showery day. + + + + +[Illustration] + +DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. + + +In our climate, the disorders to which poultry are liable are, +comparatively, few in number, and they usually yield to judicious +treatment. The little attention that has too generally been bestowed +upon this subject may be accounted for from the circumstance that, in an +economical point of view, the value of an individual fowl is relatively +insignificant; and while the ailments of other domesticated animals +generally claim a prompt and efficient care, the unhappy inhabitants of +the poultry-yard are too often relieved of their sufferings in the most +summary manner. There are reasons, however, which will justify a more +careful regard in this matter, besides the humanity of adding to the +comfort of these useful creatures; and the attempt to cure, in cases of +disease, will often be rewarded by their flesh being rendered more +palatable, and their eggs more wholesome. + +Most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the result of errors +in diet or management, and should have been prevented, or may be removed +by a change, and the adoption of a suitable regimen. When an individual +is attacked, it should be forthwith removed, to prevent the +contamination of the rest of the flock. Nature, who proves a guardian to +fowls in health, will nurse them in their weakness, and act as a most +efficient physician to the sick; and the aim of all medical treatment +should be to follow the indications which Nature holds out, and assist +in the effort which she constantly makes for the restoration of health. + +The more common diseases which afflict poultry will be so described that +they need not be misapprehended, and such remedies suggested as +experience has proved to be salutary; and, taken alphabetically, the +first on the list is + + +ASTHMA. + +This common disease seems to differ sufficiently in its characteristics +to warrant a distinction into two species. In one it appears to be +caused by an obstruction of the air-cells, by an accumulation of phlegm, +which interferes with the exercise of their functions. The fowl labors +for breath, in consequence of not being able to take in the usual +quantity of air at an inspiration. The capacity of the lungs is thereby +diminished, the lining membrane of the windpipe becomes thickened, and +its minute branches are more or less affected. These effects may, +perhaps, be attributed to the fact that, as our poultry are originally +natives of tropical climates, they require a more equal temperature than +is afforded, except by artificial means, however well they may appear +acclimated. + +Another variety of asthma is induced by fright, or undue excitement. It +is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to catch them, by seizing them +suddenly, or by their fighting with each other. In these cases, a +blood-vessel is often ruptured, and sometimes one or more of the +air-cells. The symptoms are, short breathing; opening of the beak often, +and for quite a time; heaving and panting of the chest; and, in case of +a rupture of a blood-vessel, a drop of blood appearing on the beak. + +_Treatment._ Confirmed asthma is difficult to cure. For the disease in +its incipient state, the fowl should be kept warm, and treated with +repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter, with the +addition of a small quantity of Cayenne pepper. + + +COSTIVENESS. + +The existence of this disorder will become apparent by observing the +unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to relieve itself. It frequently +results from continued feeding on dry diet, without access to green +vegetables. Indeed, without the use of these, or some substitute--such +as mashed potatoes--costiveness is certain to ensue. The want of a +sufficient supply of good water will also occasion the disease, on +account of that peculiar structure of the fowl, which renders them +unable to void their urine, except in connection with the _faeces_ of +solid food, and through the same channel. + +_Treatment._ Soaked bread, with warm skimmed-milk, is a mild remedial +agent, and will usually suffice. Boiled carrots or cabbage are more +efficient. A meal of earth-worms is sometimes advisable; and hot +potatoes, mixed with bacon-fat, are said to be excellent. Castor-oil and +burned butter will remove the most obstinate cases; though a clyster of +oil, in addition, may sometimes be required, in order to effect a cure. + + +DIARRH[OE]A. + +There are times when fowls dung more loosely than at others, especially +when they have been fed on green or soft food; but this, may occur +without the presence of disease. Should this state, however, deteriorate +into a confirmed and continued laxity, immediate attention is required +to guard against fatal effects. The causes of diarrh[oe]a are dampness, +undue acidity in the bowels, or the presence of irritating matter there. + +The _symptoms_ are lassitude and emaciation; and, in very severe cases, +the voiding of calcareous matter, white, streaked with yellow. This +resembles the yolk of a stale egg, and clings to the feathers near the +vent. It becomes acrid, from the presence of ammonia, and causes +inflammation, which speedily extends throughout the intestines. + +_Treatment._ This, of course, depends upon the cause. If the disease is +brought on by a diet of green or soft food, the food must be changed, +and water sparingly given; if it arises from undue acidity, chalk mixed +with meal is advantageous, but rice-flour boluses are most reliable. +Alum-water, of moderate strength, is also beneficial. In cases of +_bloody flux_, boiled rice and milk, given warm, with a little magnesia, +or chalk, may be successfully used. + + +FEVER. + +The most decided species of fever to which fowls are subject occurs at +the period of hatching, when the animal heat is often so increased as to +be perceptible to the touch. A state of fever may also be observed when +they are about to lay. This is, generally, of small consequence, when +the birds are otherwise healthy; but it is of moment, if any other +disorder is present, since, in such case, the original malady will be +aggravated. Fighting also frequently occasions fever, which sometimes +proves fatal. + +The _symptoms_ are an increased circulation of the blood; excessive +heat; and restlessness. + +_Treatment._ Light food and change of air; and, if necessary, aperient +medicine, such as castor oil, with a little burned butter. + + +INDIGESTION. + +Cases of indigestion among fowls are common, and deserve attention +according to the causes from which they proceed. A change of food will +often produce _crop-sickness_, as it is called, when the fowl takes but +little food, and suddenly loses flesh. Such disease is of little +consequence, and shortly disappears. When it requires attention at all, +all the symptoms will be removed by giving their diet in a warm state. + +Sometimes, however, a fit of indigestion threatens severe consequences, +especially if long continued. Every effort should be made to ascertain +the cause, and the remedy must be governed by the circumstances of the +case. + +The _symptoms_ are heaviness, moping, keeping away from the nest, and +want of appetite. + +[Illustration: PRAIRIE HENS.] + +_Treatment._ Lessen the quantity of food, and oblige the fowl to +exercise in an open walk. Give some powdered cayenne and gentian, mixed +with the usual food. Iron-rust, mixed with soft food, or diffused in +water, is an excellent tonic, and is indicated when there is atrophy, or +diminution of the flesh. It may be combined with oats or grain. +Milk-warm ale has also a good effect, when added to the diet of diseased +fowls. + + +LICE. + +The whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly liable to be infested +with lice; and there have been instances when fowls have been so covered +in this loathsome manner that the natural color of the feathers has been +undistinguishable. The presence of vermin is not only annoying to +poultry, but materially interferes with their growth, and prevents their +fattening. They are, indeed, the greatest drawback to the success and +pleasure of the poultry fanciers; and nothing but unremitting vigilance +will exterminate them, and keep them exterminated. + +_Treatment._ To attain this, whitewash frequently all the parts +adjacent to the roosting-pole, take the poles down and run them slowly +through a fire made of wood shavings, dry weeds, or other light +waste combustibles. Flour of sulphur, placed in a vessel, and set on +fire in a close poultry-house, will penetrate every crevice, and +effectually exterminate the vermin. When a hen comes off with her +brood, the old nest should be cleaned out, and a new one placed; and +dry tobacco-leaves, rubbed to a powder between the hands, and mixed +with the hay of the nest, will add much to the health of the poultry. + +Flour of sulphur may also be mixed with Indian-meal and water, and fed +in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to two dozen fowls, in two +parcels, two days apart. Almost any kind of grease, or unctuous matter, +is also certain death to the vermin of domestic poultry. In the case of +very young chickens, it should only be used in a warm, sunny day, When +they should be put into a coop with their mother, the coop darkened for +an hour or two, and every thing made quiet, that they may secure a good +rest and nap after the fatigue occasioned by greasing them. They should +be handled with great care, and greased thoroughly; the hen, also. After +resting, they may be permitted to come out and bask in the sun; and in a +few days they will look sprightly enough. + +To guard against vermin, however, it should not be forgotten that +_cleanliness_ is of vital importance; and there must always be plenty of +slacked lime, dry ashes, and sand, easy of access to the fowls, in which +they can roll and dust themselves. + + +LOSS OF FEATHERS. + +This disease, common to confined fowls, should not be confounded with +the natural process of moulting. In this diseased state, no new feathers +come to replace the old, but the fowl is left bald and naked; a sort of +roughness also appears on the skin; there is a falling off in appetite, +as well as moping and inactivity. + +_Treatment._ As this affection is, in all probability, constitutional +rather than local, external remedies may not always prove sufficient. +Stimulants, however, applied externally, will serve to assist the +operation of whatever medicine may be given. Sulphur may be thus +applied, mixed with lard. Sulphur and cayenne, in the proportion of one +quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, is good to be given internally, +and will act as a powerful alterative. The diet should be changed; and +cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable. + +In _diseased moulting_, where the feathers stare and fall off, till the +naked skin appears, sugar should be added to the water which the fowls +drink, and corn and hemp-seed be given. They should be kept warm, and +occasionally be treated to doses of cayenne pepper. + + +PIP. + +This disorder, known also as the _gapes_, is the most common ailment of +poultry and all domestic birds. It is especially the disease of young +fowls, and is most prevalent in the hottest months, being not only +troublesome but frequently fatal. + +As to its _cause_ and nature, there has been some diversity of opinion. +Some consider it a catarrhal inflammation, which produces a thickening +of the membrane lining the nostrils and mouth, and particularly the +tongue; others assert that it is caused by want of water, or by bad +water; while others describe it as commencing in the form of a vesicle +on the tip of the tongue, which occasions a thickened state of the skin, +by the absorption of its contents. The better opinion, however, is, that +the disease is occasioned by the presence of worms, or _fasciolae_, in +the windpipe. On the dissection of chickens dying with this disorder, +the windpipe will be found to contain numerous small, red worms, about +the size of a cambric needle, which, at the first glance, might be +mistaken for blood-vessels. It is supposed by some that these worms +continue to grow, until, by their enlargement, the windpipe is so filled +up that the chicken is suffocated. + +The common _symptoms_ of this malady are the thickened state of the +membrane of the tongue, particularly toward the tip; the breathing is +impeded, and the beak is frequently held open, as if the creature were +gasping for breath; the beak becomes yellow at its base; and the +feathers on the head appear ruffled and disordered; the tongue is very +dry; the appetite is not always impaired; but yet the fowl cannot eat, +probably on account of the difficulty which the act involves, and sits +in a corner, pining in solitude. + +_Treatment._ Most recommend the immediate removal of the thickened +membrane, which can be effected by anointing the part with butter or +fresh cream. If necessary, the scab may be pricked with a needle. It +will also be found beneficial to use a pill, composed of equal parts of +scraped garlic and horse-radish, with as much cayenne pepper as will +outweigh a grain of wheat; to be mixed with fresh butter, and given +every morning; the fowl to be kept warm. + +If the disease is in an advanced state, shown by the chicken's holding +up its head and gaping for want of breath, the fowl should be thrown on +its back, and while the neck is held straight, the bill should be +opened, and a quill inserted into the windpipe, with a little +turpentine. This being round, will loosen and destroy a number of small, +red worms, some of which will be drawn up by the feather, and others +will be coughed up by the chicken. The operation should be repeated the +following day, if the gaping continues. If it ceases, the cure is +effected. + +It is stated, also, that the disease has been entirely prevented by +mixing a small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the food of fowls; +from five to ten drops, to a pint of meal, to be made into a dough. +Another specific recommended is to keep iron standing in vinegar, and +put a little of the liquid in the food every few days. + +Some assert that it is promoted by simply scanting fowls in their food; +and this upon the ground that chickens which are not confined with the +hen, but both suffered to run at large and collect their own food, are +not troubled with this disease. There can be little doubt that it is +caused by inattention to cleanliness in the habits and lodgings of +fowls; and some, therefore, think that if the chicken-houses and coops +are kept clean, and frequently washed with thin whitewash, having plenty +of salt and brine mixed with it, that it would be eradicated. + + +ROUP. + +This disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture; but it is often +ascribed to improper feeding and want of cleanliness and exercise. It +affects fowls of all ages, and is either acute or chronic; sometimes +commencing suddenly, on exposure; at others gradually, as the +consequence of neglected colds, or damp weather or lodging. Chronic roup +has been known to extend through two years. + +[Illustration: SWANS.] + +The most prominent _symptoms_ are difficult and noisy breathing and +gaping, terminating in a rattling in the throat; the head swells, and is +feverish; the eyes are swollen, and the eye-lidsappear livid; the sight +decays, and sometimes total blindness ensues; there are discharges from +the nostrils and mouth, at first thin and limpid, afterward thick, +purulent, and fetid. In this stage, which resembles the glanders in +horses, the disease becomes infectious. + +As _secondary_ symptoms, it may be noticed that the appetite fails, +except for drink; the crop feels hard; the feathers are staring, +ruffled, and without the gloss that appears in health; the fowl mopes by +itself and seems to suffer much pain. + +_Treatment._ The fowls should be kept warm, and have plenty of water and +scalded bran, or other light food. When chronic, change of food and air +is advisable. The ordinary remedies--such as salt dissolved in +water--are inefficacious. A solution of sulphate of zinc, as an +eye-water, is a valuable cleansing application. Rue-pills, and a +decoction of rue, as a tonic, have been administered with apparent +benefit. + +The following is recommended: of powdered gentian and Jamaica ginger, +each one part; Epsom salts, one and a half parts; and flour of sulphur, +one part; to be made up with butter, and given every morning. + +The following method of treatment is practised by some of the most +successful poulterers in the country. As soon as discovered, if in warm +weather, remove the infected fowls to some well-ventilated apartment, or +yard; if in winter, to some warm place; then give a dessert-spoonful of +castor-oil; wash their heads with warm Castile-soap suds, and let them +remain till next morning fasting. Scald for them Indian-meal, adding two +and a half ounces of Epsom salts for ten hens, or in proportion for a +less or larger number; give it warm, and repeat the dose in a day or +two, if they do not recover. + +Perhaps, however, the best mode of dealing with roup and all putrid +affections is as follows: Take of finely pulverized, fresh-burnt +charcoal, and of new yeast, each three parts; of pulverized sulphur, two +parts; of flour, one part; of water, a sufficient quantity; mix well, +and make into two doses, of the size of a hazel-nut, and give one three +times a day. _Cleanliness_ is no less necessary than warmth; and it will +sometimes be desirable to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk and +water, or suds, as convenient. + + +WOUNDS AND SORES. + +Fowls are exposed to wounds from many sources. In their frequent +encounters with each other, they often result; the poultry-house is +besieged by enemies at night, and, in spite of all precaution, rats, +weasels, and other animals will assault the occupants of the roost, or +nest, to their damage. These wounds, if neglected, often degenerate into +painful and dangerous ulcers. + +When such injuries occur, _cleanliness_ is the first step toward a cure. +The wound should be cleared from all foreign matter, washed with tepid +milk and water, and excluded as far as possible from the air. The fowl +should be removed from its companions, which, in such cases, seldom or +never show any sympathy, but, on the contrary, are always ready to +assault the invalid, and aggravate the injury. Should the wound not +readily heal, but ulcerate, it may be bathed with alum-water. The +ointment of creosote is said to be effectual, even when the ulcer +exhibits a fungous character, or _proud flesh_ is present. Ulcers may +also be kept clean, if dressed with a little lard, or washed with a weak +solution of sugar of lead; if they are indolent, they may be touched +with blue-stone. + +When severe _fractures_ occur to the limbs of fowls, the best course, +undoubtedly, to pursue--unless they are very valuable--is to kill them +at once, as an act of humanity. When, however, it is deemed worth while +to preserve them, splints may be used, when practicable. Great +cleanliness must be observed; the diet should be reduced; and every +precaution taken against the inflammation, which is sure to supervene. +When it is established, cooling lotions--such as warm milk and +water--may be applied. + + + + +LIST OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. + + * * * * * + +MAILING NOTICE.--Single copies of any of these Books will be sent to any +address, post-paid, on receipt of price. This very convenient mode may +be adopted where your neighboring bookseller is not supplied with the +work. Address, + +JOHN E. 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POTTER & CO., Publishers, 617 Sansom Street, +Philadelphia.= + + + + + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + | Transcriber's notes: | + | | + | Several minor typographical and punctuation errors have been fixed.| + | Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in | + | the original book. | + | | + | More important changes made: | + | 'inter-fibrous' changed to 'inter-fibrous spaces' (page 182); | + | illegible text in original taken as reading 'the other side of' | + | (page 284) and 'omnivorous' (page 290); | + | part of sentence missing in original, completed as 'meet with | + | some success' (page 316); | + | 'muscles' changed to 'mussels' (page 408); | + | 'white-grented' changed to 'white-fronted' (page 413). | + | | + | The parts on swine and poultry have two page numbers in the | + | original work: one for that particular part, one for the complete | + | three-part book. The latter has been used in the Table of Contents,| + | with the former being given between brackets. | + | | + | The chapter headers in the original book consist of illustrations | + | with the chapter title included in the illustration. For the sake | + | of clarity, these chapter titles have been separated from the | + | illustrations and are used as text-only chapter titles. | + | | + | The original book does not contain separator pages between the | + | three parts: the illustrations make it clear where one animal ends | + | and the next begins. In this text headers have been included to | + | mark these transitions. | + | | + +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Sheep, Swine, and Poultry, by Robert Jennings + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY *** + +***** This file should be named 39205.txt or 39205.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/2/0/39205/ + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Harry Lame and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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