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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 14, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 7
+       "Ireland" to "Isabey, Jean Baptiste"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39775]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE IRELAND: "The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 entirely
+      altered the parliamentary representation of Ireland. Twenty-two
+      small boroughs were disenfranchised." 'disenfranchised' amended
+      from 'disfranchized'.
+
+    ARTICLE IRELAND: "Catholics could not take longer leases than
+      thirty-one years at two-thirds of a rack rent; they were even
+      required to conform within six months of an inheritance accruing,
+      on pain of being ousted by the next Protestant heir." 'thirty'
+      amended from 'thiry'.
+
+    ARTICLE IRELAND: "It would be hard to name four other men who,
+      within the same period, used Shakespeare's language with equal
+      grace and force." 'four other' amended from 'other four'.
+
+    ARTICLE IRON AND STEEL: "This usefulness iron owes in part, indeed,
+      to its abundance, through which it has led us in the last few
+      thousands of years to adapt our ways to its properties; but still
+      in chief part first to the single qualities in which it excels,
+      such as its strength, its magnetism ..." Added 'properties'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XIV, SLICE VII
+
+       Ireland to Isabey, Jean Baptiste
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+  IRELAND                         IRONWOOD
+  IRELAND, CHURCH OF              IRON-WOOD
+  IRENAEUS                        IRONY
+  IRENE                           IROQUOIS
+  IRETON, HENRY                   IRRAWADDY
+  IRIARTE Y OROPESA, TOMÁS DE     IRREDENTISTS
+  IRIDACEAE                       IRRIGATION
+  IRIDIUM                         IRULAS
+  IRIGA                           IRUN
+  IRIS (Greek mythology)          IRVINE
+  IRIS (botany)                   IRVING, EDWARD
+  IRISH MOSS                      IRVING, SIR HENRY
+  IRKUTSK (government of Russia)  IRVING, WASHINGTON
+  IRKUTSK (Russian town)          IRVINGTON
+  IRMIN                           ISAAC (child of Abraham)
+  IRNERIUS                        ISAAC I.
+  IRON                            ISAAC II.
+  IRON AGE                        ISAAC OF ANTIOCH
+  IRON AND STEEL                  ISABELLA (queen of Castile)
+  IRON MASK                       ISABELLA II.
+  IRON MOUNTAIN                   ISABELLA (wife of Charles VI)
+  IRONSIDES                       ISABELLA OF HAINAUT
+  IRONTON                         ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE
+
+
+
+
+IRELAND, an island lying west of Great Britain, and forming with it the
+United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It extends from 51° 26´ to
+55° 21´ N., and from 5° 25´ to 10° 30´ W. It is encircled by the
+Atlantic Ocean, and on the east is separated from Great Britain by
+narrow shallow seas, towards the north by the North Channel, the width
+of which at the narrowest part between the Mull of Cantire (Scotland)
+and Torr Head is only 13˝ m.; in the centre by the Irish Sea, 130 m. in
+width, and in the south by St George's Channel, which has a width of 69
+m. between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales) and of 47 m. at its southern
+extremity. The island has the form of an irregular rhomboid, the largest
+diagonal of which, from Torr Head in the north-east to Mizen Head in the
+south-west, measures 302 m. The greatest breadth due east and west is
+174 m., from Dundrum Bay to Annagh Head, county Mayo; and the average
+breadth is about 110 m. The total area is 32,531 sq. m.
+
+Ireland is divided territorially into four provinces and thirty-two
+counties:--(a) _Ulster_ (northern division): Counties Antrim, Armagh,
+Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan, Tyrone. (b)
+_Leinster_ (eastern midlands and south-east): Counties Carlow, Dublin,
+Kildare, Kilkenny, King's County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen's
+County, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow. (c) _Connaught_ (western midlands):
+Counties Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo. (d) _Munster_
+(south-western division): Counties Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick,
+Tipperary, Waterford.
+
+_Physical Geography._--Ireland stands on the edge of the European
+"continental shelf." Off the peninsula of Mullet (county Mayo) there are
+100 fathoms of water within 25 m. of the coast which overlooks the
+Atlantic; eastward, northward and southward, in the narrow seas, this
+depth is never reached. The average height of the island is about 400
+ft., but the distribution of height is by no means equal. The island has
+no spinal range or dominating mountain mass. Instead, a series of small,
+isolated clusters of mountains, reaching from the coast to an extreme
+distance of some 70 m. inland, almost surrounds a great central plain
+which seldom exceeds 250 ft. in elevation. A physical description of
+Ireland, therefore, falls naturally under three heads--the coasts, the
+mountain rim and the central plain.
+
+
+    Coasts.
+
+  The capital city and port of Dublin lies a little south of the central
+  point of the eastern coast, at the head of a bay which marks a sudden
+  change in the coastal formation. Southward from its northern horn, the
+  rocky headland of Howth, the coast is generally steep, occasionally
+  sheer, and the mountains of county Wicklow approach it closely.
+  Northward (the direction first to be followed) it is low, sandy and
+  fringed with shoals, for here is one point at which the central plain
+  extends to the coast. This condition obtains from 53° 25´ N. until at
+  54° N. the mountains close down again, and the narrow inlet or fjord
+  of Carlingford Lough separates the abrupt heights of the Carlingford
+  and Mourne Mountains. Then the low and sandy character is resumed; the
+  fine eastward sweep of Dundrum Bay is passed, the coast turns north
+  again, and a narrow channel gives entry to the island-studded lagoon
+  of Strangford Lough. Reaching county Antrim, green wooded hills plunge
+  directly into the sea; the deep Belfast Lough strikes some 10 m.
+  inland, and these conditions obtain nearly to Fair Head, the
+  north-eastern extremity of the island. Here the coast turns westward,
+  changing suddenly to sheer cliffs, where the basaltic formation
+  intrudes its strange regular columns, most finely developed in the
+  famous Giant's Causeway.
+
+  The low land surrounding the plain-track of the Bann intervenes
+  between this and the beginning of a coastal formation which is common
+  to the north-western and western coasts. From the oval indentation of
+  Lough Foyle a bluff coast trends north-westward to Malin Head, the
+  northernmost promontory of the island. Thence over the whole southward
+  stretch to Mizen Head in county Cork is found that physical appearance
+  of a cliff-bound coast fretted with deep fjord-like inlets and fringed
+  with many islands, which throughout the world is almost wholly
+  confined to western seaboards. Mountains impinge upon the sea almost
+  over the whole length, sometimes, as in Slieve League (county
+  Donegal), immediately facing it with huge cliffs. Eight dominant
+  inlets appear. Lough Foyle is divided from Lough Swilly by the
+  diamond-shaped peninsula of Inishowen. Following the coast southward,
+  Donegal Bay is divided from Galway Bay by the hammer-like projection
+  of county Mayo and Connemara, the square inlet of Clew Bay
+  intervening. At Galway Bay the mountain barrier is broken, where the
+  great central plain strikes down to the sea as it does on the east
+  coast north of Dublin. After the stern coast of county Clare there
+  follow the estuary of the great river Shannon, and then three large
+  inlets striking deep into the mountains of Kerry and Cork--Dingle Bay,
+  Kenmare river and Bantry Bay, separating the prongs of the forklike
+  south-western projection of the island. The whole of this coast is
+  wild and beautiful, and may be compared with the west coast of
+  Scotland and even that of Norway, though it has a strong individuality
+  distinct from either; and though for long little known to travellers,
+  it now possesses a number of small watering-places, and is in many
+  parts accessible by railway. The islands though numerous are not as in
+  Scotland and Norway a dominant feature of the coast, being generally
+  small and often mere clusters of reefs. Exceptions, however, are Tory
+  Island and North Aran off the Donegal coast, Achill and Clare off
+  Mayo, the South Arans guarding Galway Bay, the Blasquets and Valencia
+  off the Kerry coast. On many of these desolate rocks, which could have
+  afforded only the barest sustenance, there are remains of the
+  dwellings and churches of early religious settlers who sought solitude
+  here. The settlements on Inishmurray (Sligo), Aranmore in the South
+  Arans, and Scattery in the Shannon estuary, had a fame as retreats of
+  piety and learning far outside Ireland itself, and the significance of
+  a pilgrimage to their sites is not yet wholly forgotten among the
+  peasantry, while the preservation of their remains has come to be a
+  national trust.
+
+  The south coast strikes a mean between the east and the west. It is
+  lower than the west though still bold in many places; the inlets are
+  narrower and less deep, but more easily accessible, as appears from
+  the commercial importance of the harbours of Cork and Waterford.
+  Turning northward to the east of Waterford round Carnsore Point, the
+  lagoon-like harbour of Wexford is passed, and then a sweeping, almost
+  unbroken, line continues to Dublin Bay. But this coast, though
+  differing completely from the western, is not lacking in beauty, for,
+  like the Mournes in county Down, the mountains of Wicklow rise close
+  to the sea, and sometimes directly from it.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  Every mountain group in Ireland forms an individual mass, isolated by
+  complex systems of valleys in all directions. They seldom exceed 3000
+  ft. in height, yet generally possess a certain dignity, whether from
+  their commanding position or their bold outline. Every variety of form
+  is seen, from steep flat-topped table-mountains as near Loughs Neagh
+  and Erne, to peaks such as those of the Twelve Pins or Bens of
+  Connemara. Unlike the Scottish Highlands no part of them was capable
+  of sheltering a whole native race in opposition to the advance of
+  civilization, though early customs, tradition and the common use of
+  the Erse language yet survive in some strength in the wilder parts of
+  the west. From the coasts there is almost everywhere easy access to
+  the interior through the mountains by valley roads; and though the
+  plain exists unbroken only in the midlands, its ramifications among
+  the hills are always easy to follow. Plain and lowland of an elevation
+  below 500 ft. occupy nearly four-fifths of the total area; and if the
+  sea were to submerge these, four distinct archipelagos would appear, a
+  northern, eastern, western and south-western. The principal groups,
+  with their highest points, are the Mournes (Slieve Donard, 2796 ft.)
+  and the Wicklow mountains (Lugnaquilla, 3039) on the east; the
+  Sperrins (Sawel, 2240) in the north; the Derryveagh group in the
+  north-west (Errigal, 2466); the many groups or short ranges of Sligo,
+  Mayo and Galway (reaching 1695 ft. in the Twelve Pins of Connemara);
+  in the south-west those of Kerry and Cork, where in Carrantuohill or
+  Carntual (3414) the famous Macgillicuddy Reeks which beautify the
+  environs of Killarney include the highest point in the island; and
+  north-east from these, the Galtees of Tipperary (3018) and Slieve
+  Bloom, the farthest inland of the important groups. Nearer the south
+  coast are the Knockmealdown (2609) and Commeragh Mountains (2470) of
+  county Waterford.
+
+
+    Central plain.
+
+  It will be realized from the foregoing description that it is
+  impossible to draw accurate boundary lines to the great Irish plain,
+  yet it rightly carries the epithet central because it distinctly
+  divides the northern mountain groups from the southern. The plain is
+  closely correlated with the bogs which are the best known physical
+  characteristic of Ireland, but the centre of Ireland is not wholly
+  bog-land. Rather the bogs of the plain are intersected by strips of
+  low-lying firm ground, and the central plain consists of these bright
+  green expanses alternating with the brown of the bogs, of which the
+  best known and (with its offshoots) one of the most extensive is the
+  Bog of Allen in the eastern midlands. But the bogs are not confined to
+  the plain. They may be divided into black and red according to the
+  degree of moisture and the vegetable matter which formed them. The
+  black bogs are those of the plain and the deeper valleys, while the
+  red, firmer and less damp, occur on the mountains. The former supply
+  most of the peat, and some of the tree-trunks dug out of them have
+  been found so flexible from immersion that they might be twisted into
+  ropes. Owing to the quantity of tannin they contain, no harmful miasma
+  exhales from the Irish bogs.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The central plain and its offshoots are drained by rivers to all the
+  coasts, but chiefly eastward and westward, and the water-partings in
+  its midst are sometimes impossible to define. The main rivers,
+  however, have generally a mountain source, and according as they are
+  fed from bogs or springs may be differentiated as black and bright
+  streams. In this connexion the frequent use of the name Blackwater is
+  noticeable. The principal rivers are--from the Wicklow Mountains, the
+  Slaney, flowing S. to Wexford harbour, and the Liffey, flowing with a
+  tortuous course N. and E. to Dublin Bay; the Boyne, fed from the
+  central plain and discharging into Drogheda Bay; from the mountains of
+  county Down, the Lagan, to Belfast Lough, and the Bann, draining the
+  great Lough Neagh to the northern sea; the Foyle, a collection of
+  streams from the mountains of Tyrone and Donegal, flowing north to
+  Lough Foyle. On the west the rivers are generally short and
+  torrential, excepting the Erne, which drains the two beautiful loughs
+  of that name in county Fermanagh, and the Shannon, the chief river of
+  Ireland, which, rising in a mountain spring in county Cavan, follows a
+  bow-shaped course to the south and south-west, and draws off the major
+  part of the waters of the plain by tributaries from the east. In the
+  south, the Lee and the Blackwater intersect the mountains of Kerry and
+  Cork flowing east, and turn abruptly into estuaries opening south.
+  Lastly, rising in the Slieve Bloom or neighbouring mountains, the
+  Suir, Nore and Barrow follow widely divergent courses to the south to
+  unite in Waterford harbour.
+
+
+    Lakes
+
+  The lakes (called loughs--pronounced _lochs_) of Ireland are
+  innumerable, and (apart from their formation) are almost all contained
+  in two great regions, (1) The central plain by its nature abounds in
+  loughs--dark, peat-stained pools with low shores. The principal of
+  these lie in county Westmeath, such as Loughs Ennel, Owel and
+  Derravaragh, famed for their trout-fishing in the May-fly season. (2)
+  The Shannon, itself forming several large loughs, as Allen, Ree and
+  Derg; and the Erne, whose course lies almost wholly through
+  loughs--Gowna, Oughter and the Loughs Erne, irregular of outline and
+  studded with islands--separate this region from the principal
+  lake-region of Ireland, coincident with the province of Connaught. In
+  the north lie Loughs Melvin, close above Donegal Bay, and Gill near
+  Sligo, Lough Gara, draining to the Shannon, and Lough Conn near
+  Ballina (county Mayo), and in the south, the great expanses of Loughs
+  Mask and Corrib, joined by a subterranean channel. To the west of
+  these last, the mountains of Connemara and, to a more marked degree,
+  the narrow plain of bog-land between them and Galway Bay, are sown
+  with small lakes, nearly every hollow of this wild district being
+  filled with water. Apart from these two regions the loughs of Ireland
+  are few but noteworthy. In the south-west the lakes of Killarney are
+  widely famed for their exquisite scenic setting; in the north-east
+  Lough Neagh has no such claim, but is the largest lake in the British
+  Isles, while in the south-east there are small loughs in some of the
+  picturesque glens of county Wicklow.
+
+_Climate._--The climate of Ireland is more equable than that of Great
+Britain as regards both temperature and rainfall. No district in Ireland
+has a rainfall so heavy as that of large portions of the Highlands of
+Scotland, or so light as that of several large districts in the east of
+Great Britain. In January the mean temperature scarcely falls below 40°
+F. in any part of Ireland, whereas over the larger part of the eastern
+slope of Great Britain it is some 3° lower; and in July the extremes in
+Ireland are 59° in the north and 62° in Kilkenny. The range from north
+to south of Great Britain in the same month is some 10°, but the greater
+extent of latitude accounts only for a part of this difference, which is
+mainly occasioned by the physical configuration of the surface of
+Ireland in its relations to the prevailing moist W.S.W. winds. Ireland
+presents to these winds no unbroken mountain ridge running north and
+south, which would result in two climates as distinct as those of the
+east and west of Ross-shire; but it presents instead only a series of
+isolated groups, with the result that it is only a few limited districts
+which enjoy climates approaching in dryness the climates of the whole of
+the eastern side of Great Britain.     (O. J. R. H.)
+
+  _Geology._--Ireland, rising from shallow seas on the margin of the
+  submarine plateau of western Europe, records in its structure the
+  successive changes that the continent itself has undergone. The first
+  broad view of the country shows us a basin-shaped island consisting of
+  a central limestone plain surrounded by mountains; but the diverse
+  modes of origin of these mountains, and the differences in their
+  trend, suggest at once that they represent successive epochs of
+  disturbance. The north-west highlands of Donegal and the Ox Mountains,
+  with their axes of folding running north-east and south-west, invite
+  comparison with the great chain of Leinster, but also with the
+  Grampians and the backbone of Scandinavia. The ranges from Kerry to
+  Waterford, on the other hand, truncated by the sea at either end, are
+  clearly parts of an east and west system, the continuation of which
+  may be looked for in South Wales and Belgium. The hills of the
+  north-east are mainly the crests of lava-plateaux, which carry the
+  mind towards Skye and the volcanic province of the Faeroe Islands. The
+  two most important points of contrast between the geology of Ireland
+  and that of England are, firstly, the great exposure of Carboniferous
+  rocks in Ireland, Mesozoic strata being almost absent; and, secondly,
+  the presence of volcanic rocks in place of the marine Eocene of
+  England.
+
+  The fact that no Cambrian strata have been established by
+  palaeontological evidence in the west of Ireland has made it equally
+  difficult to establish any pre-Cambrian system. The great difference
+  in character, however, between the Silurian strata at Pomeroy in
+  county Tyrone and the adjacent metamorphic series makes it highly
+  probable that the latter masses are truly Archean. They form an
+  interesting and bleak moorland between Cookstown and Omagh, extending
+  north-eastward into Slieve Gallion in county Londonderry, and consist
+  fundamentally of mica-schist and gneiss, affected by earth-pressures,
+  and invaded by granite near Lough Fee. The axis along which they have
+  been elevated runs north-east and south-west, and on either flank a
+  series of "green rocks" appears, consisting of altered amygdaloidal
+  andesitic lavas, intrusive dolerites, coarse gabbros and diorites, and
+  at Beagh-beg and Creggan in central Tyrone ancient rhyolitic tuffs.
+  Red and grey cherts, which have not so far yielded undoubted organic
+  remains occur in this series, and it has in consequence been compared
+  with the Arenig rocks of southern Scotland. The granite invades this
+  "green-rock" series at Slieve Gallion and elsewhere, but is itself
+  pre-Devonian. Even if the volcanic and intrusive basic rocks prove to
+  be Ordovician (Lower Silurian), which is very doubtful, the
+  metamorphic series of the core is clearly distinct, and appears to be
+  "fundamental" so far as Ireland is concerned.
+
+  The other metamorphic areas of the north present even greater
+  difficulties, owing to the absence of any overlying strata older than
+  the Old Red Sandstone. Their rocks have been variously held to be
+  Archean, Cambrian and Silurian, and their general trend has
+  undoubtedly been determined by post-Silurian earth-movements. Hence it
+  is useful to speak of them merely as "Dalradian," a convenient term
+  invented by Sir A. Geikie for the metamorphic series of the old
+  kingdom of Dalriada. They come out as mica-schists under the
+  Carboniferous sandstones of northern Antrim, and disappear southward
+  under the basaltic plateaux. The red gneisses near Torr Head probably
+  represent intrusive granite; and this small north-eastern exposure is
+  representative of the Dalradian series which covers so wide a field
+  from central Londonderry to the coast of Donegal. The oldest rocks in
+  this large area are a stratified series of mica-schists, limestones
+  and quartzites, with numerous intrusive sheets of diorite, the whole
+  having been metamorphosed by pressure, with frequent overfolding.
+  Extensive subsequent metamorphism has been produced by the invasion of
+  great masses of granite. Similar rocks come up along the Ox Mountain
+  axis, and occupy the wild west of Mayo and Connemara. The quartzites
+  here form bare white cones and ridges, notably in Errigal and Aghla
+  Mt. in county Donegal, and in the group of the Twelve Bens in county
+  Galway.
+
+  Following on these rocks of unknown but obviously high antiquity, we
+  find fossiliferous Ordovician (Lower Silurian) strata near Killary
+  harbour on the west, graduating upwards into a complete Gotlandian
+  (Upper Silurian) system. Massive conglomerates occur in these series,
+  which are unconformable on the Dalradian rocks of Connemara. In the
+  Wenlock beds of the west of the Dingle promontory there are
+  contemporaneous tuffs and lavas. Here the Ludlow strata are followed
+  by a thick series of barren beds (the Dingle Beds), which have been
+  variously claimed as Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian. No certain
+  representative of the Dingle Beds has been traced elsewhere throughout
+  the south of Ireland, where the Old Red Sandstone succeeds the
+  uptilted Silurian strata with striking unconformity. The Silurian
+  rocks were indeed greatly folded before the Old Red Sandstone was laid
+  down, the general trend of the folds being from south-west to
+  north-east. The best example of these folds is the axis of Leinster,
+  its core being occupied by granite which is now exposed continuously
+  for 70 m., forming a moorland from Dublin to New Ross. On either flank
+  the Silurian shales, slates and sandstones, which are very rarely
+  fossiliferous, rise with steep dips. They are often contorted, and
+  near the contact with the granite pass into mica-schists and
+  quartzites. The foothills and lowlands throughout southern Wicklow and
+  almost the whole of Wexford, and the corresponding country of western
+  Wicklow and eastern Kildare, are thus formed of Silurian beds, in
+  which numerous contemporaneous and also intrusive igneous rocks are
+  intercalated, striking like the chain N.E. and S.W. In south-eastern
+  Wexford, in northern Wicklow (from Ashford to Bray), and in the
+  promontory of Howth on Dublin Bay, an apparently earlier series of
+  green and red slates and quartzites forms an important feature. The
+  quartzites, like those of the Dalradian series, weather out in cones,
+  such as the two Sugarloaves south of Bray, or in knob-set ridges, such
+  as the crest of Howth or Carrick Mt. in county Wicklow. The radial or
+  fan-shaped markings known as _Oldhamia_ were first detected in this
+  series, but are now known from Cambrian beds in other countries; in
+  default of other satisfactory fossils, the series of Bray and Howth
+  has long been held to be Cambrian.
+
+  All across Ireland, from the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border to
+  the southern shore of Belfast Lough, slaty and sandy Silurian beds
+  appear in the axes of the anticlinal folds, surrounded by Old Red
+  Sandstone scarps or Carboniferous Limestone lowlands. These Silurian
+  areas give rise to hummocky regions, where small hills abound, without
+  much relation to the trend of the axis of elevation. The most
+  important area appears north of the town of Longford, and extends
+  thence to the coast of Down. In Slieve Glah it reaches a height of
+  1057 ft. above the sea. Granite is exposed along its axis from near
+  Newry to Slieve Croob, and again appears at Crossdoney in county
+  Cavan. These occurrences of granite, with that of Leinster, in
+  connexion with the folding of the Silurian strata, make it highly
+  probable that many of the granites of the Dalradian areas, which have
+  a similar trend and which have invaded the schists so intimately as to
+  form with them a composite gneiss, date also from a post-Silurian
+  epoch of earth-movement. Certain western and northern granites are
+  however older, since granite boulders occur in Silurian conglomerates
+  derived from the Dalradian complex.
+
+  This group of N.E. and S.W. ridges and hollows, so conspicuous in the
+  present conformation of Donegal, Sligo and Mayo, in the axis of Newry,
+  and in the yet bolder Leinster Chain, was impressed upon the Irish
+  region at the close of Silurian times, and is clearly a part of the
+  "Caledonian" system of folds, which gave to Europe the guiding lines
+  of the Scottish Highlands and of Scandinavia.
+
+  [Illustration: Map of Ireland.]
+
+  On the land-surface thus formed the Devonian lakes gathered, while the
+  rivers poured into them enormous deposits of sand and conglomerate. A
+  large exposure of this Old Red Sandstone stretches from Enniskillen
+  to the Silurian beds at Pomeroy, and some contemporaneous andesites
+  are included, reminding us of the volcanic activity at the same epoch
+  in Scotland. The numerous "felstone" dikes, often lamprophyric,
+  occurring in the north and west of Ireland, are probably also of
+  Devonian age. The conglomerates appear at intervals through the
+  limestone covering of central Ireland, and usually weather out as
+  conspicuous scarps or "hog's-backs." The Slieve Bloom Mountains are
+  thus formed of a dome of Old Red Sandstone folded on a core of
+  unconformable Silurian strata; while in several cases the domes are
+  worn through, leaving rings of Old Red Sandstone hills, scarping
+  inwards towards broad exposures of Silurian shales. The Old Red
+  Sandstone is most fully manifest in the rocky or heather-clad ridges
+  that run from the west of Kerry to central Waterford, rising to 3414
+  ft. in Carrantuohill in Macgillicuddy's Reeks, and 3015 ft. in
+  Galtymore. In the Dingle Promontory the conglomerates of this period
+  rest with striking unconformity on the Dingle Beds and Upper Silurian
+  series. Here there may be a local break between Lower and Upper
+  Devonian strata. The highest beds of Old Red Sandstone type pass up
+  conformably in the south of Ireland into the Lower Carboniferous,
+  through the "Yellow Sandstone Series" and the "Coomhola Grits" above
+  it. The Yellow Sandstone contains _Archanodon_, the oldest known
+  fresh-water mollusc, and plant-remains; the Coomhola Grits are marine,
+  and are sometimes regarded as Carboniferous, sometimes as uppermost
+  Devonian.
+
+  [Illustration: Geological Map of Ireland.]
+
+  In the south, the Carboniferous deposits open with the Carboniferous
+  Slate, in the base of which the Coomhola Grits occur. Its lower part
+  represents the Lower Carboniferous Shales and Sandstones of the
+  central and northern areas, while its upper part corresponds with a
+  portion of the Carboniferous Limestone. The Carboniferous Limestone,
+  laid down in a sea which covered nearly the whole Irish area, appears
+  in the synclinal folds at Cork city and Kenmare, and is the prevalent
+  rock from the north side of the Knockmealdown Mountains to Enniskillen
+  and Donegal Bay. On the east it spreads to Drogheda and Dublin, and on
+  the west to the heart of Mayo and of Clare. Loughs Mask and Corrib are
+  thus bounded on the west by rugged Silurian and Dalradian highlands,
+  and on the east appear as mere water-filled hollows in the great
+  limestone plain.
+
+  The Lower Carboniferous Sandstones are conspicuous in the region from
+  Milltown near Inver Bay in southern Donegal to Ballycastle in county
+  Antrim. In the latter place they contain workable coal-seams. The
+  Carboniferous Limestone often contains black flint (chert), and at
+  some horizons conglomerates occur, the pebbles being derived from the
+  unconformable ridges of the "Caledonian" land. A black and often shaly
+  type called "calp" contains much clay derived from the same
+  land-surface. While the limestone has been mainly worn down to a
+  lowland, it forms fine scarps and table-lands in county Sligo and
+  other western regions. Subterranean rivers and water-worn caves
+  provide a special type of scenery below the surface. Contemporaneous
+  volcanic action is recorded by tuffs and lavas south-east of Limerick
+  and north of Philipstown. The beds above the limestone are shales and
+  sandstones, sometimes reaching the true Coal-Measures, but rarely
+  younger than the English Millstone Grit. They are well seen in the
+  high ground about Lough Allen, where the Shannon rises on them, round
+  the Castlecomer and Killenaule coalfields, and in a broad area from
+  the north of Clare to Killarney. Some coals occur in the Millstone
+  Grit horizons. The Upper Coal-Measures, as a rule, have been lost by
+  denudation, much of which occurred before Triassic times. South of the
+  line between Galway and Dublin the coal is anthracitic, while north of
+  this line it is bituminous. The northern coalfields are the L.
+  Carboniferous one at Ballycastle, the high outliers of Millstone Grit
+  and Coal-Measures round Lough Allen, and the Dungannon and Coalisland
+  field in county Tyrone. The last named is in part concealed by
+  Triassic strata. The only important occurrences of coal in the south
+  are in eastern Tipperary, near Killenaule, and in the Leinster
+  coalfield (counties Kilkenny and Carlow and Queen's County), where
+  there is a high synclinal field, including Lower and Middle
+  Coal-Measures, and resembling in structure the Forest of Dean area in
+  England.
+
+  The "Hercynian" earth-movements, which so profoundly affected
+  north-west and north-central Europe at the close of Carboniferous
+  times, gave rise to a series of east and west folds in the Irish
+  region. The Upper Carboniferous beds were thus lifted within easy
+  reach of denuding forces, while the Old Red Sandstone, and the
+  underlying "Caledonian" land-surface, were brought up from below in
+  the cores of domes and anticlines. In the south, even the
+  Carboniferous Limestone has been so far removed that it is found only
+  in the floors of the synclinals. The effect of the structure of these
+  folds on the courses of rivers in the south of Ireland is discussed in
+  the paragraphs dealing with the geology of county Cork. The present
+  central plain itself may be regarded as a vast shallow synclinal,
+  including a multitude of smaller folds. The earth-wrinkles of this
+  epoch were turned into a north-easterly direction by the pre-existing
+  Leinster Chain, and the trend of the anticlinal from Limerick to the
+  Slieve Bloom Mountains, and that of the synclinal of Millstone Grit
+  and Coal-Measures from Cashel through the Leinster coalfield, bear
+  witness to the resistance of this granite mass. The Triassic beds rest
+  on the various Carboniferous series in turn, indicating, as in
+  England, the amount of denudation that followed on the uplift of the
+  Hercynian land. Little encouragement can therefore be given in Ireland
+  to the popular belief in vast hidden coalfields.
+
+  The Permian sea has left traces at Holywood on Belfast Lough and near
+  Stewartstown in county Tyrone. Certain conglomeratic beds on which
+  Armagh is built are also believed to be of Permian age. The Triassic
+  sandstones and marls, with marine Rhaetic beds above, are preserved
+  mainly round the basaltic plateaus of the north-east, and extend for
+  some distance into county Down. An elongated outlier south of
+  Carrickmacross indicates their former presence over a much wider area.
+  Rock-salt occurs in these beds north of Carrickfergus.
+
+  The Jurassic system is represented in Ireland by the Lower Lias alone,
+  and it is probable that no marine beds higher than the Upper Lias were
+  deposited during this period. From Permian times onward, in fact, the
+  Irish area lay on the western margin of the seas that played so large
+  a part in determining the geology of Europe. The Lower Lias appears at
+  intervals under the scarp of the basaltic plateaus, and contributes,
+  as in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, to the formation of landslips along
+  the coast. The alteration of the fossiliferous Lias by dolerite at
+  Portrush into a flinty rock that looked like basalt served at one time
+  as a prop for the "Neptunist" theory of the origin of igneous rocks.
+  Denudation, consequent on the renewed uplift of the country, affected
+  the Jurassic beds until the middle of Cretaceous times. The sea then
+  returned, in the north-east at any rate, and the first Cretaceous
+  deposits indicate the nearness of a shore-line. Dark "green-sands,"
+  very rich in glauconite, are followed by yellow sandstones with some
+  flint. These two stages represent the Upper Greensand, or the sandy
+  type of the English Gault. Further sands represent the Cenomanian. The
+  Turonian is also sandy, but in most areas was not deposited, or has
+  been denuded away during a local uplift that preceded Senonian times.
+  The Senonian limestone itself, which rests in the extreme north on
+  Trias or even on the schists, is often conglomeratic and glauconitic
+  at the base, the pebbles being worn from the old metamorphic series.
+  The term "Hibernian Greensand" was used by Tate for all the beds below
+  the Senonian; the quarrymen know the conglomeratic Senonian as
+  "Mulatto-stone." The Senonian chalk, or "White Limestone," is hard,
+  with numerous bands of flint, and suffered from denudation in early
+  Eocene times. Probably its original thickness was not more than 150
+  ft., while now only from 40 to 100 ft. remain. This chalk appears to
+  underlie nearly the whole basaltic plateaus, appearing as a fringe
+  round them, and also in an inlier at Templepatrick. The western limit
+  was probably found in the edge of the old continental land in Donegal.
+  Chalk flints occur frequently in the surface-deposits of the south of
+  Ireland, associated with rocks brought from the north during the
+  glacial epoch, and probably also of northern origin. It is just
+  possible, however, that here and there the Cretaceous sea that spread
+  over Devonshire may have penetrated the Irish area.
+
+  After the Irish chalk had been worn into rolling downs, on which
+  flint-gravels gathered, the great epoch of volcanic activity opened,
+  which was destined to change the character of the whole north-west
+  European area. The critical time had arrived when the sea was to be
+  driven away eastward, while the immense ridges due to the "Alpine"
+  movements were about to emerge as the backbones of new continental
+  lands. Fissure after fissure, running with remarkable constancy N.W.
+  and S.E., broke through the region now occupied by the British Isles,
+  and basalt was pressed up along these cracks, forming thousands of
+  dikes, from the coast of Down to the Dalradian ridges of Donegal. One
+  of these on the north side of Lough Erne is 15 m. long. The more
+  deep-seated type of these rocks is seen in the olivine-gabbro mass of
+  Carlingford Mountain; but most of the igneous region became covered
+  with sheets of basaltic lava, which filled up the hollows of the
+  downs, baked the gravels into a layer of red flints, and built up,
+  pile upon pile, the great plateaus of the north. There was little
+  explosive action, and few of the volcanic vents can now be traced.
+  After a time, a quiet interval allowed of the formation of lakes, in
+  which red iron-ores were laid down. The plant-remains associated with
+  these beds form the only clue to the post-Cretaceous period in which
+  the volcanic epoch opened, and they have been placed by Mr Starkie
+  Gardner in recent years as early Eocene. During this time of
+  comparative rest, rhyolites were extruded locally in county Antrim;
+  and there is very strong evidence that the granite of the Mourne
+  Mountains, and that which cuts the Carlingford gabbro, were added at
+  the same time to the crust. The basalt again broke out, through dikes
+  that cut even the Mourne granite, and some of the best-known columnar
+  masses of lava overlie the red deposits of iron-ore and mark this
+  second basaltic epoch. The volcanic plateaus clearly at one time
+  extended far west and south of their present limits, and the
+  denudation of the lava-flows has allowed a large area of Mesozoic
+  strata also to disappear.
+
+  Volcanic activity may have extended into Miocene times; but the only
+  fossiliferous relics of Cainozoic periods later than the Eocene are
+  the pale clays and silicified lignites on the south shore of Lough
+  Neagh, and the shelly gravels of pre-glacial age in county Wexford.
+  Both these deposits may be Pliocene. Probably before this period the
+  movements of subsidence had set in which faulted the basalt plateaus,
+  lowered them to form the basin of Lough Neagh, and broke up the
+  continuity of the volcanic land of the North Atlantic area. As the
+  Atlantic spread into the valleys on the west of Ireland, forming the
+  well-known marine inlets, Europe grew, under the influence of the
+  "Alpine" movements, upon the east; and Ireland was caught in, as it
+  were, on the western edge of the new continent. It seems likely that
+  it was separated from the British region shortly before the glacial
+  epoch, and that some of the ice which then abutted on the country
+  travelled across shallow seas. The glacial deposits profoundly
+  modified the surface of the country, whether they resulted from the
+  melting of the ice-sheets of the time of maximum glaciation, or from
+  the movements of local glaciers. Boulder-clays and sands, and gravels
+  rearranged by water, occur throughout the lowlands; while the eskers
+  or "green hills," characteristic grass-covered ridges of gravel, rise
+  from the great plain, or run athwart valleys and over hill-sides,
+  marking the courses of sub-glacial streams. When the superficial
+  deposits are removed, the underlying rocks are found to be scored and
+  smoothed by ice-action, and whole mountain-sides in the south and west
+  have been similarly moulded during the Glacial epoch. In numerous
+  cases, lakelets have gathered under rocky cirques behind the terminal
+  moraines of the last surviving glaciers.
+
+  There is no doubt that at this epoch various movements of elevation
+  and subsidence affected the north-west of Europe, and modern Ireland
+  may have had extensions into warmer regions on the west and south,
+  while the area now left to us was almost buried under ice. In
+  post-Glacial times, a subsidence admitted the sea into the Lagan
+  valley and across the eastern shore in several places; but elevation,
+  in the days of early human occupation, brought these last marine
+  deposits to light, and raised the beaches and shore-terraces some 10
+  to 20 ft. along the coast. At Larne, Greenore and in the neck between
+  Howth and Dublin, these raised beaches remain conspicuous. To sum up,
+  then, while the main structural features of Ireland were impressed
+  upon her before the opening of the Mesozoic era, her present outline
+  and superficial contours date from an epoch of climatic and
+  geographical change which falls within the human period.
+
+  See maps and explanatory memoirs of the _Geological Survey of
+  Ireland_ (Dublin); G. Wilkinson, _Practical Geology and Ancient
+  Architecture of Ireland_ (London, 1845); R. Kane, _Industrial
+  Resources of Ireland_ (2nd ed., Dublin, 1845); G. H. Kinahan, _Manual
+  of the Geology of Ireland_ (London, 1878); E. Hull, _Physical Geology
+  and Geography of Ireland_ (2nd ed., London, 1891); G. H. Kinahan,
+  _Economic Geology of Ireland_ (Dublin, 1889); A. McHenry and W. W.
+  Watts, _Guide to the Collection of Rocks and Fossils, Geol. Survey of
+  Ireland_ (2nd ed., Dublin, 1898).     (G. A. J. C.)
+
+
+ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION
+
+_Population._--Various computations are in existence of the population
+of Ireland prior to 1821, in which year the first government census was
+taken. According to Sir William Petty the number of inhabitants in 1672
+was 1,320,000. About a century later the tax-collectors estimated the
+population at a little over 2,500,000, and in 1791 the same officials
+calculated that the number had risen to over 4,200,000. The census
+commissioners returned the population in 1821 as 6,801,827, in 1831 as
+7,767,401, and in 1841 as 8,196,597. It is undoubted that a great
+increase of population set in towards the close of the 18th century and
+continued during the first 40 years or so of the 19th. This increase was
+due to a variety of causes--the improvement in the political condition
+of the country, the creation of leaseholds after the abolition of the
+40s. franchise, the productiveness and easy cultivation of the potato,
+the high prices during the war with France, and probably not least to
+the natural prolificness of the Irish people. But the census returns of
+1851 showed a remarkable alteration--a decrease during the previous
+decade of over 1,500,000--and since that date, as the following table
+shows, the continuous decrease in the number of its inhabitants has been
+the striking feature in the vital statistics of Ireland.
+
+  _Decrease per cent. of Population 1841-1901._
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |1841-1851.|1851-1861.|1861-1871.|1871-1881.|1881-1891.|1891-1901.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  | Leinster |   15.25  |   12.86  |    8.11  |    4.49  |    6.8   |    3.5   |
+  | Munster  |   22.47  |   18.53  |    7.93  |    4.98  |   11.8   |    8.4   |
+  | Ulster   |   15.69  |    4.85  |    4.23  |    5.11  |    7.07  |    2.4   |
+  | Connaught|   28.81  |    9.59  |    7.33  |    3.43  |   12.4   |    9.7   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  | Ireland  |   19.85  |   11.50  |    6.67  |    4.69  |    9.08  |    5.3   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+The cause of the continuous though varying decrease which these figures
+reveal has been emigration. This movement of population took its first
+great impulse from the famine of 1846 and has continued ever since. When
+that disaster fell upon the country it found a teeming population
+fiercely competing for a very narrow margin of subsistence; and so
+widespread and devastating were its effects that between 1847 and 1852
+over 1,200,000 of the Irish people emigrated to other lands. More than
+1,000,000 of these went to the United States of America, and to that
+country the main stream has ever since been directed. Between 1851 and
+1905 4,028,589 emigrants left Ireland--2,092,154 males and 1,936,435
+females, the proportion of females to males being extraordinarily high
+as compared with the emigration statistics of other countries. Between
+these years the numbers fluctuated widely--1852 showing the highest
+total, 190,322 souls, and 1905 the lowest, 30,676 souls. Since 1892,
+however, the emigrants in any one year have never exceeded 50,000,
+probably because the process of exhaustion has been so long in
+operation. As Ireland is mainly an agricultural country the loss of
+population has been most marked in the rural districts. The urban
+population, indeed, has for some years shown a tendency to increase.
+Thus in 1841 the rural population was returned as 7,052,923 and the
+urban as 1,143,674, while the corresponding figures in 1901 were
+respectively 3,073,846 and 1,384,929. This is further borne out by the
+percentages given in the above table, from which it will be seen that
+the greatest proportional decrease of population has occurred in the two
+provinces of Munster and Connaught, which may be regarded as almost
+purely agricultural. That the United States remained the great centre of
+attraction for Irish emigrants is proved by the returns for 1905, which
+show that nearly 80% of the whole number for the year sailed for that
+country. Ireland does little to swell the rising tide of emigration
+that now flows from England and Scotland to British North America.
+
+Turning now to the census figures of 1901, we find that the population
+had diminished as compared with 1891 by 245,975. During the decade only
+three counties, Dublin, Down and Antrim, showed any increase, the
+increase being due to the growth of certain urban areas. Of the total
+population of 4,458,775, 2,200,040 were males and 2,258,735 were
+females. The inhabitants of the rural districts (3,073,846) decreased
+during the decade by over 380,000; that of the urban districts, i.e. of
+all towns of not less than 2000 inhabitants (1,384,929) increased by
+over 140,000. This increase was mainly due to the growth of a few of the
+larger towns, notably of Belfast, the chief industrial centre of
+Ireland. Between 1891 and 1901 Belfast increased from 273,079 to
+349,180; Dublin from 268,587 to 289,108; and Londonderry, another
+industrial centre in Ulster, from 33,200 to 39,873. On the other hand,
+towns like Cork (75,978), Waterford (26,743) and Limerick (38,085),
+remained almost stationary during the ten years, but the urban districts
+of Pembroke and of Rathmines and Rathgar, which are practically suburbs
+of Dublin, showed considerable increases.
+
+  From the returns of occupation in 1901, it appears that the indefinite
+  or non-productive class accounted for about 55% of the entire
+  population. The next largest class was the agricultural, which
+  numbered 876,062, a decrease of about 40,000 as compared with 1891.
+  The industrial class fell from 656,410 to 639,413, but this
+  represented a slight increase in the percentage of the population. The
+  professional class was 131,035, the domestic 219,418, and the
+  commercial had risen from 83,173 in 1891 to 97,889 in 1901. The
+  following table shows the number of births and deaths registered in
+  Ireland during the five years 1901-1905.
+
+    +------+---------+---------+
+    |      | Births. | Deaths. |
+    +------+---------+---------+
+    | 1901 | 100,976 |  79,119 |
+    | 1902 | 101,863 |  77,676 |
+    | 1903 | 101,831 |  77,358 |
+    | 1904 | 103,811 |  79,513 |
+    | 1905 | 102,832 |  75,071 |
+    +------+---------+---------+
+
+  The number of illegitimate births is always very small in proportion
+  to the legitimate. In 1905 illegitimate births numbered 2710 or 2.6 of
+  the whole, a percentage which has been very constant for a number of
+  years.
+
+_Railways._--The first act of parliament authorizing a railway in
+Ireland was passed in 1831. The railway was to run from Dublin to
+Kingstown, a distance of about 6 m., and was opened in 1834. In 1836 the
+Ulster railway to connect Belfast and Armagh, and the Dublin and
+Drogheda railway uniting these two towns were sanctioned. In the same
+year commissioners were nominated by the crown to inquire (_inter alia_)
+as to a general system for railways in Ireland, and as to the best mode
+of directing the development of the means of intercourse to the channels
+whereby the greatest advantage might be obtained by the smallest outlay.
+The commissioners presented a very valuable report in 1838, but its
+specific recommendations were never adopted by the government, though
+they ultimately proved of service to the directors of private
+enterprises. Railway development in Ireland progressed at first very
+slowly and by 1845 only some 65 m. of railway were open. During the next
+ten years, however, there was a considerable advance, and in 1855 the
+Irish railways extended to almost 1000 m. The total authorized capital
+of all Irish railways, exclusive of light railways, at the end of 1905
+was Ł42,881,201, and the paid-up capital, including loans and debenture
+stock, amounted to Ł37,238,888. The total gross receipts from all
+sources of traffic in 1905 were Ł4,043,368, of which Ł2,104,108 was
+derived from passenger traffic and Ł1,798,520 from goods traffic. The
+total number of passengers carried (exclusive of season and periodical
+ticket-holders) was 27,950,150. Under the various acts passed to
+facilitate the construction of light railways in backward districts some
+15 lines have been built, principally in the western part of the island
+from Donegal to Kerry. These railways are worked by existing companies.
+
+
+  The following table shows the principal Irish railways, their mileage
+  and the districts which they serve.
+
+    +-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+
+    |     Name of Railway.    |Mileage.|            Districts Served.            |
+    +-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+
+    |Great Southern & Western | 1083   |The southern half of Leinster, the whole |
+    |                         |        |  of Munster, and part of Connaught, the |
+    |                         |        |  principal towns served being Dublin,   |
+    |                         |        |  Cork, Waterford, Limerick and Sligo.   |
+    |Midland Great Western    |  538   |The central districts of Ireland and a   |
+    |                         |        |  great part of Connaught, the principal |
+    |                         |        |  towns served being Dublin, Athlone,    |
+    |                         |        |  Galway and Sligo.                      |
+    |Great Northern           |  533   |The northern half of Leinster and a      |
+    |                         |        |  great part of Ulster, the principal    |
+    |                         |        |  towns served being Dublin, Belfast,    |
+    |                         |        |  Londonderry, Dundalk, Drogheda, Armagh |
+    |                         |        |  and Lisburn.                           |
+    |Northern Counties^1 (now |  249   |The counties of Antrim,                  |
+    |  owned by the Midland   |        |  Tyrone and Londonderry.                |
+    |  Railway of England)    |        |                                         |
+    |Dublin & South Eastern^2 |  161   |The counties of Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford |
+    |                         |        |  and Waterford.                         |
+    |Donegal                  |  106   |The counties of Tyrone and Donegal.      |
+    |Londonderry & Lough      |   99   |The counties of Londonderry and Donegal. |
+    |  Swilly                 |        |                                         |
+    |Cork, Bandon & South     |   95   |The counties of Cork and Kerry.          |
+    |  Coast                  |        |                                         |
+    |Belfast & County Down    |   76   |The county of Down.                      |
+    +-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+
+      ^1  Formerly Belfast and Northern Counties.
+      ^2  Formerly Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford.
+
+  There is no lack of cross-channel services between Ireland and Great
+  Britain. Belfast is connected by daily sailings with Glasgow,
+  Ardrossan, Liverpool, Feetwood, Barrow and Heysham Harbour, Dublin
+  with Holyhead and Liverpool, Greenore (Co. Down) with Holyhead, Larne
+  (Co. Antrim) with Stranraer, Rosslare (Co. Wexford) with Fishguard and
+  Kingstown (Co. Dublin) with Holyhead.
+
+  _Navigable Waterways._--Ireland is intersected by a network of canals
+  and waterways, which if efficiently managed and developed would prove
+  of immense service to the country by affording a cheap means for the
+  carriage of goods, especially agricultural produce. Two canals--the
+  Grand and the Royal--connect Dublin with the Shannon; the former
+  leading from the south of Dublin to Shannon Harbour and thence on the
+  other side of that river to Ballinasloe, with numerous branches; the
+  latter from the north side of Dublin to Cloondera on the Shannon, with
+  a branch to Longford. The Barrow Navigation connects a branch of the
+  Grand canal with the tidal part of the river Barrow. In Ulster the
+  Bann navigation connects Coleraine, by means of Lough Neagh, with the
+  Lagan navigation which serves Belfast; and the Ulster canal connects
+  Lough Neagh with Lough Erne. The river Shannon is navigable for a
+  distance of 143 m. in a direct course and occupies almost a central
+  position between the east and west coasts.
+
+_Agriculture._--Ireland possesses as a whole a soil which is naturally
+fertile and easily cultivated. Strong heavy clay soils, sandy and
+gravelly soils, are almost entirely absent; and the mixture of soil
+arising from the various stratifications and from the detritus carried
+down to the plains has created many districts of remarkable richness.
+The "Golden Vein" in Munster, which stretches from Cashel in Tipperary
+to near Limerick, probably forms the most fertile part of the country.
+The banks of the rivers Shannon, Suir, Nore, Barrow and Bann are lined
+with long stretches of flat lands capable of producing fine crops. In
+the districts of the Old and New Red Sandstone, which include the
+greater part of Cork and portions of Kerry, Waterford, Tyrone,
+Fermanagh, Monaghan, Mayo and Tipperary, the soil in the hollows is
+generally remarkably fertile. Even in the mountainous districts which
+are unsuitable for tillage there is often sufficient soil to yield, with
+the aid of the moist atmosphere, abundant pasturage of good quality. The
+excessive moisture in wet seasons in however hostile to cereal crops,
+especially in the southern and western districts, though improved
+drainage has done something to mitigate this evil, and might do a great
+deal more.
+
+Irish political history has largely affected the condition of
+agriculture. Confiscations and settlements, prohibitive laws (such as
+those which ruined the woollen industry), penal enactments against the
+Roman Catholics, absenteeism, the creation for political purposes of
+40s. freeholders, and other factors have combined to form a story which
+makes painful reading from whatever point of view, social or political,
+it be regarded. Happily, however, at the beginning of the 20th century
+Irish agriculture presented two new features which can be described
+without necessarily arousing any party question--the work of the
+Department of Agriculture and the spread of the principle of
+co-operation. Another outstanding feature has been the effect of the
+Land Purchase Acts in transferring the ownership of the land from the
+landlords to the tenants. Before dealing with these three features, some
+general statistics may be given bearing upon the condition of Irish
+agriculture.
+
+  _Number of Holdings._--Before 1846 the number of small holdings was
+  inordinately large. In 1841, for example, there were no less than
+  310,436 of between 1 and 5 acres in extent, and 252,799 of between 5
+  and 15 acres. This condition of affairs was due mainly to two
+  causes--to the 40s. franchise which prevailed between 1793 and 1829,
+  and after that date to the fierce competition for land by a rapidly
+  increasing population which had no other source of livelihood than
+  agriculture. But the potato famine and the repeal of the Corn Laws,
+  occurring almost simultaneously, caused an immediate and startling
+  diminution in the number of smaller holdings. In 1851 the number
+  between 1 and 5 acres in extent had fallen to 88,033 and the number
+  between 5 and 15 acres had fallen to 191,854. Simultaneously the
+  number between 15 and 30 acres had increased from 79,342 to 141,311,
+  and the number above 30 acres from 48,625 to 149,090.
+
+  Since 1851 these tendencies have not been so marked. Thus in 1905 the
+  number of holdings between 1 and 5 acres was 62,126, the number
+  between 5 and 15 acres 154,560, the number between 15 and 30 acres
+  134,370 and the number above 30 acres 164,747. Generally speaking,
+  however, it will be seen from the figures that since the middle of the
+  19th century holdings between 1 and 30 acres have decreased and
+  holdings over 30 acres have increased. Of the total holdings under 30
+  acres considerably more than one-third are in Ulster, and of the
+  holdings over 30 acres more than one-third are in Munster. The number
+  of holdings of over 500 acres is only 1526, of which 475 are in
+  Connaught. A considerable proportion, however, of these larger
+  holdings, especially in Connaught, consist of more or less waste land,
+  which at the best can only be used for raising a few sheep.
+
+  _Tillage and Pasturage._--The fact that probably about 1,000,000 acres
+  formerly under potatoes went out of cultivation owing to the potato
+  disease in 1847 makes a comparison between the figures for crops in
+  that year with present figures somewhat fallacious. Starting, however,
+  with that year as the most important in Irish economic history in
+  modern times, we find that between 1847 and 1905 the total area under
+  crops--cereals, green crops, flax, meadow and clover--decreased by
+  582,348 acres. Up to 1861, as the area formerly under potatoes came
+  back gradually into cultivation, the acreage under crops increased;
+  but since that year, when the total crop area was 5,890,536 acres,
+  there has been a steady and gradual decline, the area in 1905 having
+  fallen to 4,656,227 acres. An analysis of the returns shows that the
+  decline has been most marked in the acreage under cereal crops,
+  especially wheat. In 1847 the number of acres under wheat was 743,871
+  and there has been a steady and practically continuous decrease ever
+  since, the wheat acreage in 1905 being only 37,860 acres. In that year
+  the wheat area, excluding less than 5000 acres in Connaught, was
+  pretty equally divided between the other three provinces. Oats has
+  always been the staple cereal crop in Ireland, but since 1847 its
+  cultivation has declined by over 50%. In that year 2,200,870 acres
+  were under oats and in 1905 only 1,066,806 acres. Nearly one-half of
+  the area under oats is to be found in Ulster; Leinster and Munster are
+  fairly equal; and Connaught has something over 100,000 acres under
+  this crop. The area under barley and rye has also declined during the
+  period under review by about one-half--from 345,070 acres in 1847 to
+  164,800 in 1905. The growing of these crops is confined almost
+  entirely to Leinster and Munster. Taking all the cereal crops
+  together, their cultivation during the last 60 years has gradually
+  declined (from 3,313,579 acres in 1847 to 1,271,190 in 1905) by over
+  50%. The area, however, under green crops--potatoes, turnips,
+  mangel-wurzel, beet, cabbage, &c., shows during the same period a much
+  less marked decline--only some 300,000 acres. There has been a very
+  considerable decrease since about 1861 in the acreage under potatoes.
+  This is probably due to two causes--the emigration of the poorer
+  classes who subsisted on that form of food, and the gradual
+  introduction of a more varied dietary. The total area under potatoes
+  in 1905 was 616,755 acres as compared with 1,133,504 acres in 1861.
+  Since about 1885 the acreage under turnips has remained fairly
+  stationary in the neighbourhood of 300,000 acres, while the
+  cultivation of mangel-wurzel has considerably increased. Outside the
+  recognized cereal and green crops, two others may be considered, flax
+  and meadow and clover. The cultivation of the former is practically
+  confined to Ulster and as compared with 20 or 30 years ago has fallen
+  off by considerably more than 50%, despite the proximity of the linen
+  industry. The number of acres under flax in 1905 was only 46,158. The
+  Department of Agriculture has made efforts to improve and foster its
+  cultivation, but without any marked results as regards increasing the
+  area sown. During the period under review the area under meadow and
+  clover has increased by more than 50%, rising from 1,138,946 acres in
+  1847 to 2,294,506 in 1905. It would thus appear that a large
+  proportion of the land which has ceased to bear cereal or green crops
+  is now laid down in meadow and clover. The balance has become
+  pasturage, and the total area under grass in Ireland has so largely
+  increased that it now embraces more than one-half of the entire
+  country. This increase of the pastoral lands, with the corresponding
+  decrease of the cropped lands, has been the marked feature of Irish
+  agricultural returns since 1847. It is attributable to three chief
+  reasons, the dearth of labour owing to emigration, the greater fall in
+  prices of produce as compared with live stock, and the natural
+  richness of the Irish pastures. The following table shows the growth
+  of pasturage and the shrinkage of the crop areas since 1860.
+
+    +------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+
+    |      |            | Cultivated |Crops (other|  Meadow   |            |
+    | Year.| Total Area.| Area (Crops|than Meadow |   and     |   Grass.   |
+    |      |            | and Grass).|and Clover).|  Clover.  |            |
+    +------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+
+    | 1860 | 20,284,893 | 15,453,773 | 4,375,621  | 1,594,518 |  9,483,634 |
+    | 1880 | 20,327,764 | 15,340,192 | 3,171,259  | 1,909,825 | 10,259,108 |
+    | 1900 | 20,333,344 | 15,222,104 | 2,493,017  | 2,165,715 | 10,563,372 |
+    | 1905 | 20,350,725 | 15,232,699 | 2,410,813  | 2,224,165 | 10,597,721 |
+    +------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+
+
+  One more table may be given showing the proportional areas under the
+  various kinds of crops, grass, woods and plantations, fallow, bog,
+  waste, &c., over a series of years.
+
+    +------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+
+    |      |Cereal|Green |Meadow |      |   Total    |      |       |      |
+    | Year.|Crops.|Crops.|  and  |Grass.|Agricultural|Woods.|Fallow.|Waste.|
+    |      |      |      |Clover.|      |   Land.    |      |       |      |
+    +------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+
+    | 1851 | 15.2 |  6.7 |  6.1  | 43.0 |    71.0    |  1.5 |  1.0  | 25.7 |
+    | 1880 |  8.1 |  5.5 |  8.1  | 50.5 |    72.2    |  1.7 |  0.0  | 22.8 |
+    | 1905 |  6.3 |  5.3 | 11.3  | 52.1 |    75.0    |  1.5 |  0.0  | 23.5 |
+    +------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+
+
+  _Produce and Live Stock._--With the decrease of the area under cereal
+  and green crops and the increase of pasturage there has naturally been
+  a serious fall in the amount of agricultural produce and a
+  considerable rise in the number of live stock since the middle of the
+  19th century. Thus in 1851 the number of cattle was returned as
+  2,967,461 and in 1905 as 4,645,215, the increase during the
+  intervening period having been pretty gradual and general. Sheep in
+  1851 numbered 2,122,128 and in 1905 3,749,352, but the increase in
+  this case has not been so continuous, several of the intervening years
+  showing a considerably higher total than 1905, and for a good many
+  years past the number of sheep has tended to decline. The number of
+  pigs has also varied considerably from year to year, 1905 showing an
+  increase of about 150,000 as compared with 1851.
+
+_The Department of Agriculture._--By an act of 1899 a Department of
+Agriculture and other industries and technical instruction was
+established in Ireland. To this department were transferred numerous
+powers and duties previously exercised by other authorities, including
+the Department of Science and Art. To assist the department the act also
+provided for the establishment of a council of agriculture, an
+agricultural board and a board of technical instruction, specifying the
+constitution of each of the three bodies. Certain moneys (exceeding
+Ł180,000 per annum) were placed by the act at the disposal of the
+department, provisions were made for their application, and it was
+enacted that local authorities might contribute funds. The powers and
+duties of the department are very wide, but under the present section
+its chief importance lies in its administrative work with regard to
+agriculture. In the annual reports of the department this work is
+usually treated under three heads: (1) agricultural instruction, (2)
+improvement of live stock, and (3) special investigations.
+
+  1. The ultimate aim of the department's policy in the matter of
+  agricultural instruction is, as defined by itself, to place within the
+  reach of a large number of young men and young women the means of
+  obtaining in their own country a good technical knowledge of all
+  subjects relating to agriculture, an object which prior to the
+  establishment of the department was for all practical purposes
+  unattainable. Before such a scheme could be put into operation two
+  things had to be done. In the first place, the department had to train
+  teachers of agricultural subjects; and secondly, it had to demonstrate
+  to farmers all over Ireland by a system of itinerant instruction some
+  of the advantages of such technical instruction, in order to induce
+  them to make some sacrifice to obtain a suitable education for their
+  sons and daughters. In order to accomplish the first of these two
+  preliminaries, the department established a Faculty of Agriculture at
+  the Royal College of Science in Dublin, and offered a considerable
+  number of scholarships the competition for which becomes increasingly
+  keen. They also reorganized the Albert Agricultural College at
+  Glasnevin for young men who have neither the time nor the means to
+  attend the highly specialized courses at the Royal College of Science;
+  and the Munster Institute at Cork is now devoted solely to the
+  instruction of girls in such subjects as butter-making,
+  poultry-keeping, calf-rearing, cooking, laundry-work, sewing and
+  gardening. In addition to these three permanent institutions, local
+  schools and classes have been established in different parts of the
+  country where systematic instruction in technical agriculture is given
+  to young men. In this and in other branches of its work the department
+  is assisted by agricultural committees appointed by the county
+  councils. The number of itinerant instructors is governed entirely by
+  the available supply of qualified men. The services of every available
+  student on completing his course at the Royal College of Science are
+  secured by some county council committee. The work of the itinerant
+  instructors is very varied. They hold classes and carry out field
+  demonstrations and experiments, the results of which are duly
+  published in the department's journal. The department has also
+  endeavoured to encourage the fruit-growing industry in Ireland by the
+  establishment of a horticultural school at Glasnevin, by efforts to
+  secure uniformity in the packing and grading of fruit, by the
+  establishment of experimental fruit-preserving factories, by the
+  planting of orchards on a large scale in a few districts, and by
+  pioneer lectures. As the result of all these efforts there has been an
+  enormous increase in the demand for fruit trees of all kinds.
+
+  2. The marked tendency which has been visible for so many years in
+  Ireland for pasturage to increase at the expense of tillage makes the
+  improvement of live-stock a matter of vital importance to all
+  concerned in agriculture. Elaborate schemes applicable to
+  horse-breeding, cattle-breeding and swine-breeding, have been drawn up
+  by the department on the advice of experts, but the working of the
+  schemes is for the most part left to the various county council
+  committees. The benefits arising from these schemes are being more and
+  more realized by farmers, and the department is able to report an
+  increase in the number of pure bred cattle and horses in Ireland.
+
+  3. The special investigations carried out by the department naturally
+  vary from year to year, but one of the duties of each instructor in
+  agriculture is to conduct a number of field experiments, mainly on the
+  influence of manures and seeds in the yield of crops. The results of
+  these experiments are issued in the form of leaflets and distributed
+  widely among farmers. One of the most interesting experiments, which
+  may have far-reaching economic effects, has been in the cultivation of
+  tobacco. So far it has been proved (1) that the tobacco plant can be
+  grown successfully in Ireland, and (2) that the crop when blended with
+  American leaf can be manufactured into a mixture suitable for smoking.
+  But whether Irish tobacco can be made a profitable crop depends upon a
+  good many other considerations.
+
+_Agricultural Co-operation._--In 1894 the efforts of a number of
+Irishmen drawn from all political parties were successfully directed
+towards the formation of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society,
+which has for its object the organizing of groups of farmers on
+co-operative principles and the provision of instruction in proper
+technical methods. The society had at first many difficulties to
+confront, but after the first two or three years of its existence its
+progress became more rapid, and co-operation became beyond all question
+one of the most hopeful features in Irish agriculture.
+
+  Perhaps the chief success of the society was seen in the establishment
+  of creameries, which at the end of 1905 numbered 275--123 in Ulster,
+  102 in Munster, 20 in Leinster and 30 in Connaught. The members
+  numbered over 42,000 and the trade turnover for the year was
+  Ł1,245,000. Agricultural societies have been established for the
+  purchase of seed, implements, &c., on co-operative lines and of these
+  there are 150, with a membership of some 14,000. The society was also
+  successful in establishing a large number of credit societies, from
+  which farmers can borrow at a low rate of interest. There are also
+  societies for poultry-rearing, rural industries, bee-keeping,
+  bacon-curing, &c., in connexion with the central organization. The
+  system is rounded off by a number of trade federations for the sale
+  and purchase of various commodities. The Department of Agriculture
+  encourages the work of the Organization Society by an annual grant.
+
+_Land Laws._--The relations of landlord and tenant in Ireland have been
+a frequent subject of legislation (see _History_ below). Under the act
+of 1881, down to the 31st of March 1906, the rents of 360,135 holdings,
+representing nearly 11,000,000 acres, had been fixed for the first
+statutory term of 15 years either by the land commissioners or by
+agreements between landlords and tenants, the aggregate reduction being
+over 20% as compared with the old rents. The rents of 120,515 holdings,
+representing over 3,500,000 acres, had been further fixed for the second
+statutory term, the aggregate reduction being over 19% as compared with
+the first term rents. Although the acts of 1870 and 1881 provided
+facilities for the purchase of holdings by the tenants, it was only
+after the passing of the Ashbourne Act in 1885 that the transfer of
+ownership to the occupying tenants began on an extended scale. Under
+this act between 1885 and 1902, when further proceedings were suspended,
+the number of loans issued was 25,367 (4221 in Leinster; 5204 in
+Munster; 12,954 in Ulster, and 2988 in Connaught) and the amount was
+Ł9,992,536. Between August 1891 and April 1906, the number of loans
+issued under the acts of 1891 and 1896 was 40,395 (7838 in Leinster;
+7512 in Munster; 14,955 in Ulster, and 10,090 in Connaught) and the
+amount was Ł11,573,952. Under the Wyndham Act of 1903 the process was
+greatly extended.
+
+  The following tables give summarized particulars, for the period from
+  the 1st of November 1903 to the 31st of March 1906, of (1) estates for
+  which purchase agreements were lodged in cases of sale direct from
+  landlords to tenants; (2) estates for the purchase of which the Land
+  Commission entered into agreements under sects. 6 and 8 of the act;
+  (3) estates in which the offers of the Land Commission to purchase
+  under sect. 7 were accepted by the land judge; and (4) estates for the
+  purchase of which, under sections 72 and 79, originating requests were
+  transmitted by the Congested Districts Board to the Land Commission:--
+
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+----------------------------------------+
+    |                   |        |         |           Purchase Money.              |
+    |                   | No. of | No. of  +------------+------------+--------------+
+    |  Classification.  |Estates.| Purchas-|            | Amount of  |  Amount of   |
+    |                   |        |   ers.  |   Price.   |  Advances  |   Proposed   |
+    |                   |        |         |            |applied for.|Cash Payments.|
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    | Direct Sales      |  3446  |86,898   |Ł32,811,564 |Ł32,692,066 |  Ł119,498    |
+    | Sections 6 and 8  |    54  | 3,567^1 |  1,231,014 |  1,226,832 |     4,182    |
+    | Section 7         |    29  | 1,174^1 |    383,388 |    381,722 |     1,666    |
+    | Sections 72 and 79|    67  | 5,606^1 |    975,211 |    975,211 |      ..      |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    |    Total          |  3596  |97,245   |Ł35,401,177 |Ł35,275,831 |  Ł125,346    |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+----------------------------------------+
+    |                   |        |         |           Purchase Money.              |
+    |                   | No. of | No. of  +------------+------------+--------------+
+    |  Classification.  |Estates.| Purchas-|            | Amount of  |  Amount of   |
+    |                   |        |   ers.  |   Price.   |  Advances  |Cash Payments.|
+    |                   |        |         |            |    made.   |              |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    | Direct Sales      |   925  | 16,732  | Ł8,317,063 | Ł8,226,736 |   Ł90,327    |
+    | Sections 6 and 8  |    40  |  3,047  |  1,048,459 |  1,047,007 |     1,452    |
+    | Section 7         |    29  |  1,174  |    383,388 |    381,722 |     1,666    |
+    | Sections 72 and 79|    12  |    763  |    199,581 |    199,581 |      ..      |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    |    Total          |  1006  | 21,716  | Ł9,948,491 | Ł9,855,046 |   Ł93,445    |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+      ^1 Estimated number of purchasers on resale.
+
+  It will be seen from these two tables that though the amount of
+  advances applied for during the period dealt with amounted to over
+  Ł35,000,000 the actual advances made were less than Ł10,000,000. It
+  will be seen further that the act operated almost entirely by means of
+  direct sales by landlords to tenants. Of the total amount advanced up
+  to March 31, 1906, almost one-half was in respect of estates in the
+  province of Leinster, the balance being divided pretty equally between
+  estates in the other three provinces.
+
+_Fisheries._--The deep-sea and coast fisheries of Ireland form a
+valuable national asset, which still admits of much development and
+improvement despite the fact that a considerable number of acts of
+parliament have been passed to promote and foster the fishing industry.
+In 1882 the Commissioners of Public Works were given further powers to
+lend money to fishermen on the recommendation of the inspectors of
+fisheries; and under an act of 1883 the Land Commission was authorized
+to pay from time to time such sums, not exceeding in all Ł250,000, as
+the Commissioners of Public Works might require, for the creation of a
+Sea Fishery Fund, such fund to be expended--a sum of about Ł240,000 has
+been expended--on the construction and improvement of piers and
+harbours. Specific acts have also been passed for the establishment and
+development of oyster, pollan and mussel fisheries. Under the Land
+Purchase Act 1891, a portion of the Sea Fisheries Fund was reserved for
+administration by the inspectors of fisheries in non-congested
+districts. Under this head over Ł36,000 had been advanced on loan up to
+December 31, 1905, the greater portion of which had been repaid. In 1900
+the powers and duties of the inspectors of fisheries were vested in the
+Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. Under the Marine
+Works Act 1902, which was intended to benefit and develop industries
+where the people were suffering from congestion, about Ł34,000 was
+expended upon the construction and improvement of fishery harbours in
+such districts.
+
+  For administrative purposes Ireland is divided into 31 deep-sea and
+  coast fisheries and during 1905, 6190 vessels were engaged in these
+  districts, giving employment to a total of 24,288 hands. Excluding
+  salmon, nearly one million hundredweights of fish were taken, and
+  including shell-fish the total money received by the fishermen
+  exceeded Ł414,000. In the same year 13,436 hands were engaged in the
+  25 salmon fishing districts into which the country is divided. In
+  addition to the organized industry which exists in these salmon
+  districts, there is a good deal of ordinary rod and line fishing in
+  the higher reaches of the larger rivers and good trout fishing is
+  obtainable in many districts.
+
+_Mining._--The mineral produce of Ireland is very limited, and its mines
+and quarries in 1905 gave employment to only about 6000 persons.
+Coal-fields are found in all the provinces, but in 1905 the total output
+was less than 100,000 tons and its value at the mines was given as
+Ł43,000. Iron ore is worked in Co. Antrim, over 113,000 tons having been
+produced in 1905. Alum clay or bauxite, from which aluminium is
+manufactured, is found in the same county. Clays of various kinds,
+mainly fire and brick clay, are obtained in several places and there are
+quarries of marble (notably in Connemara), slate, granite, limestone and
+sandstone, the output of which is considerable. Silver is obtained in
+small quantities from lead ore in Co. Donegal, and hopes have been
+entertained of the re-discovery of gold in Co. Wicklow, where regular
+workings were established about 1796 but were destroyed during the
+Rebellion.
+
+_Woollen Manufacture._--At an early period the woollen manufactures of
+Ireland had won a high reputation and were exported in considerable
+quantities to foreign countries. Bonifazio Uberti (d. c. 1367) refers in
+a posthumous poem called _Dita mundi_ to the "noble serge" which Ireland
+sent to Italy, and fine mantles of Irish frieze are mentioned in a list
+of goods exported from England to Pope Urban VI. In later times, the
+establishment of a colony from the German Palatinate at Carrick-on-Suir
+in the reign of James I. served to stimulate the manufacture, but in the
+succeeding reign the lord-deputy Strafford adopted the policy of
+fostering the linen trade at the expense of the woollen in order to
+prevent the latter from competing with English products. An act of the
+reign of Charles II. prohibited the export of raw wool to foreign
+countries from Ireland as well as England, while at the same time
+Ireland was practically excluded by heavy duties from the English
+markets, and as the Navigation Act of 1663 did not apply to her the
+colonial market was also closed against Irish exports. The foreign
+market, however, was still open, and after the prohibition of the export
+of Irish cattle to England the Irish farmers turned their attention to
+the breeding of sheep, with such good effect that the woollen
+manufacture increased with great rapidity. Moreover the improved quality
+of the wool showed itself in the improvement of the finished article, to
+the great alarm of the English manufacturer. So much trade jealousy was
+aroused that both Houses of Parliament petitioned William III. to
+interfere. In accordance with his wishes the Irish parliament in 1698
+placed heavy additional duties on all woollen clothing (except friezes)
+exported from Ireland, and in 1699 the English Parliament passed an act
+prohibiting the export from Ireland of all woollen goods to any country
+except England, to any port of England except six, and from any town in
+Ireland except six. The cumulative effect of these acts was practically
+to annihilate the woollen manufacture in Ireland and to reduce whole
+districts and towns, in which thousands of persons were directly or
+indirectly supported by the industry, to the last verge of poverty.
+According to Newenham's tables the annual average of new drapery
+exported from Ireland for the three years ending March 1702 was only 20
+pieces, while the export of woollen yarn, worsted yarn and wool, which
+to England was free, amounted to 349,410 stones. In his essay on the
+Trade of Ireland, published in 1729, Arthur Dobbs estimated the medium
+exports of wool, worsted and woollen yarn at 227,049 stones, and he
+valued the export of manufactured woollen goods at only Ł2353. On the
+other hand, the imports steadily rose. Between 1779 and 1782 the various
+acts which had hampered the Irish woollen trade were either repealed or
+modified, but after a brief period of deceptive prosperity followed by
+failure and distress, the expansion of the trade was limited to the
+partial supply of the home market. According to evidence laid before the
+House of Commons in 1822 one-third of the woollen cloth used in Ireland
+was imported from England. A return presented to Parliament in 1837
+stated that the number of woollen or worsted factories in Ireland was
+46, employing 1321 hands. In 1879 the number of factories was 76 and the
+number of hands 2022. Since then the industry has shown some tendency to
+increase, though the number of persons employed is still comparatively
+very small, some 3500 hands.
+
+_Linen Manufacture._--Flax was cultivated at a very early period in
+Ireland and was both spun into thread and manufactured into cloth. In
+the time of Henry VIII. the manufacture constituted one of the principal
+branches of Irish trade, but it did not prove a very serious rival to
+the woollen industry until the policy of England was directed to the
+discouragement of the latter. Strafford, lord-deputy in the reign of
+Charles I., did much to foster the linen industry. He invested a large
+sum of his own money in it, imported great quantities of flax seed from
+Holland and induced skilled workmen from France and the Netherlands to
+settle in Ireland. A similar policy was pursued with even more energy by
+his successor in office, the duke of Ormonde, at whose instigation an
+Irish act was passed in 1665 to encourage the growth of flax and the
+manufacture of linen. He also established factories and brought over
+families from Brabant and France to work in them. The English parliament
+in their desire to encourage the linen industry at the expense of the
+woollen, followed Ormonde's lead by passing an act inviting foreign
+workmen to settle in Ireland, and admitting all articles made of flax or
+hemp into England free of duty. In 1710, in accordance with an
+arrangement made between the two kingdoms, a board of trustees was
+appointed to whom a considerable sum was granted annually for the
+promotion of the linen manufacture; but the jealousy of English
+merchants interposed to check the industry whenever it threatened to
+assume proportions which might interfere with their own trade, and by an
+act of George II. a tax was imposed on Irish sail-cloth imported into
+England, which for the time practically ruined the hempen manufacture.
+Between 1700 and 1777 the board of trustees expended nearly Ł850,000 on
+the promotion of the linen trade, and in addition parliamentary
+bounties were paid on a considerable scale. In 1727 Arthur Dobbs
+estimated the value of the whole manufacture at Ł1,000,000. In 1830 the
+Linen Board ceased to exist, the trade having been for some time in a
+very depressed condition owing to the importation of machine-made yarns
+from Scotland and England. A year or two later, however, machinery was
+introduced on a large scale on the river Bann. The experiment proved
+highly successful, and from this period may be dated the rise of the
+linen trade of Ulster, the only great industrial manufacture of which
+Ireland can boast. Belfast is the centre and market of the trade, but
+mills and factories are to be found dotted all over the eastern counties
+of Ulster.
+
+  In 1850 the number of spindles was 396,338 and of power looms 58; in
+  1905 the corresponding figures were 826,528 and 34,498. In 1850 the
+  number of persons employed in flax mills and factories was 21,121; in
+  1901 the number in flax, hemp and jute textile factories was 64,802.
+
+_Cotton Manufacture._--This was introduced into Ireland in 1777 and
+under the protection of import duties and bounties increased so rapidly
+that in 1800 it gave employment to several thousand persons, chiefly in
+the neighbourhood of Belfast. The trade continued to grow for several
+years despite the removal of the duties; and the value of cotton goods
+exported from Ireland to Great Britain rose from Ł708 in 1814 to
+Ł347,606 in 1823. In 1822 the number of hands employed in the industry
+was stated to be over 17,000. The introduction of machinery, however,
+which led to the rise of the great cotton industry of Lancashire, had
+very prejudicial effects, and by 1839 the number of persons employed had
+fallen to 4622. The trade has dwindled ever since and is now quite
+insignificant.
+
+_Silk Manufacture._--About the end of the 17th century French Huguenots
+settled in Dublin and started the manufacture of Irish poplin, a mixture
+of silk and wool. In 1823 between 3000 and 4000 persons were employed.
+But with the abolition of the protective duties in 1826 a decline set
+in; and though Irish poplin is still celebrated, the industry now gives
+employment to a mere handful of people in Dublin.
+
+_Distilling and Brewing._--Whisky has been extensively distilled in
+Ireland for several centuries. An excise duty was first imposed in 1661,
+the rate charged being 4d. a gallon. The imposition of a duty gave rise
+to a large amount of illicit distillation, a practice which still
+prevails to some extent, though efficient police methods have largely
+reduced it. During recent years the amount of whisky produced has shown
+a tendency to decrease. In 1900 the number of gallons charged with duty
+was 9,589,571, in 1903 8,215,355, and in 1906 7,337,928. There are
+breweries in most of the larger Irish towns, and Dublin is celebrated
+for the porter produced by the firm of Arthur Guinness & Son, the
+largest establishment of the kind in the world. The number of barrels of
+beer--the inclusive term used by the Inland Revenue Department--charged
+with duty in 1906 was 3,275,309, showing an increase of over 200,000 as
+compared with 1900.
+
+  The following table shows the net annual amount of excise duties
+  received in Ireland in a series of years:--
+
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |   Articles.  |   1900.   |   1902.   |   1904.   |   1906.   |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Beer         |  Ł983,841 |Ł1,200,711 |Ł1,262,186 |Ł1,227,528 |
+    | Licences     |   209,577 |   213,092 |   213,964 |   214,247 |
+    | Spirits      | 4,952,061 | 4,292,286 | 4,311,763 | 3,952,509 |
+    | Other sources|       502 |       436 |       508 |       798 |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |    Total     |Ł6,145,981 |Ł5,706,525 |Ł5,788,421 |Ł5,395,082 |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+_Other Industries._--Shipbuilding is practically confined to Belfast,
+where the firm of Harland and Wolff, the builders of the great "White
+Star" liners, have one of the largest yards in the world, giving
+employment to several thousand hands. There are extensive engineering
+works in the same city which supply the machinery and other requirements
+of the linen industry. Paper is manufactured on a considerable scale in
+various places, and Balbriggan is celebrated for its hosiery.
+
+_Commerce and Shipping._--From allusions in ancient writers it would
+appear that in early times Ireland had a considerable commercial
+intercourse with various parts of Europe. When the merchants of Dublin
+fled from their city at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion it was
+given by Henry II. to merchants from Bristol, to whom free trade with
+other portions of the kingdom was granted as well as other advantages.
+In the Staple Act of Edward III., Dublin, Waterford, Cork and Drogheda
+are mentioned as among the towns where staple goods could be purchased
+by foreign merchants. During the 15th century the trade of these and
+other towns increased rapidly. With the 17th century began the
+restrictions on Irish trade. In 1637 duties were imposed on the chief
+commodities to foreign nations not in league with England. Ireland was
+left out of the Navigation Act of 1663 and in the same year was
+prohibited from exporting cattle to England in any month previous to
+July. Sir William Petty estimated the value of Irish exports in 1672 at
+Ł500,000 per annum, and owing principally to the prosperity of the
+woollen industry these had risen in value in 1698 to Ł996,000, the
+imports in the same year amounting to Ł576,000. A rapid fall in exports
+followed upon the prohibition of the export of woollen manufactures to
+foreign countries, but in about 20 years' time a recovery took place,
+due in part to the increase of the linen trade. Statistics of exports
+and imports were compiled for various years by writers like Newenham,
+Arthur Young and César Moreau, but these are vitiated by being given in
+Irish currency which was altered from time to time, and by the fact that
+the method of rating at the custom-house also varied. Taking the
+figures, however, for what they are worth, it appears that between 1701
+and 1710 the average annual exports from Ireland to all parts of the
+world were valued at Ł553,000 (to Great Britain, Ł242,000) and the
+average annual imports at Ł513,000 (from Great Britain, Ł242,000).
+Between 1751 and 1760 the annual values had risen for exports to
+Ł2,002,000 (to Great Britain, Ł1,068,000) and for imports to Ł1,594,000
+(from Great Britain, Ł734,000). Between 1794 and 1803 the figures had
+further risen to Ł4,310,000 (to Great Britain, Ł3,667,000) and
+Ł4,572,000 (from Great Britain Ł3,404,000). It is clear, therefore, that
+during the 18th century the increase of commerce was considerable.
+
+In 1825 the shipping duties on the cross-Channel trade were abolished
+and since that date no official figures are available as to a large part
+of Irish trade with Great Britain. The export of cattle and other
+animals, however, is the most important part of this trade and details
+of this appear in the following table:--
+
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+    | Year.| Cattle. |  Sheep. |  Swine. |   Total.  |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+    | 1891 | 630,802 | 893,175 | 505,584 | 2,029,561 |
+    | 1900 | 745,519 | 862,263 | 715,202 | 2,322,984 |
+    | 1905 | 749,131 | 700,626 | 363,973 | 1,813,730 |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+
+  The value of the animals exported in 1905 was estimated (at certain
+  standard rates) at about Ł14,000,000.
+
+  Since 1870 the Board of Trade has ceased to give returns of the
+  foreign and colonial trade for each of the separate kingdoms of
+  England, Scotland and Ireland. Returns are given, however, for the
+  principal ports of each kingdom. Between 1886 and 1905 these imports
+  at the Irish ports rose from Ł6,802,000 in value to Ł12,394,000 and
+  the exports from Ł825,000 to Ł1,887,000.
+
+  The following table shows the value of the total imports and exports
+  of merchandise in the foreign and colonial trade at the ports of
+  Dublin, Belfast and Limerick in each of the years 1901-1905:--
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |   Ports.  |   1901.  |   1902.  |   1903.  |   1904.  |   1905.  |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    | Dublin--  |     Ł    |     Ł    |     Ł    |     Ł    |     Ł    |
+    |   Imports |2,666,000 |2,856,000 |3,138,000 |2,771,000 |2,664,000 |
+    |   Exports |   54,000 |   63,000 |  122,000 |   79,000 |   78,000 |
+    | Belfast-- |          |          |          |          |          |
+    |   Imports |6,626,000 |6,999,000 |7,773,000 |7,033,000 |6,671,000 |
+    |   Exports |1,442,000 |1,344,000 |1,122,000 |1,332,000 |1,780,000 |
+    | Cork--    |          |          |          |          |          |
+    |   Imports |1,062,000 |1,114,000 |1,193,000 |1,156,000 |1,010,000 |
+    |   Exports |   15,000 |   17,000 |    6,000 |    8,000 |    5,000 |
+    | Limerick--|          |          |          |          |          |
+    |   Imports |  826,000 |  913,000 |  855,000 |  935,000 |  854,000 |
+    |   Exports |    2,000 |      400 |    3,000 |      600 |    3,000 |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  The Department of Agriculture published in 1906 a report on the
+  imports and exports at Irish ports for the year 1904. In this report,
+  the compiling of which presented great difficulties in the absence of
+  official returns, are included (1) the direct trade between Ireland
+  and all countries outside of Great Britain, (2) the indirect trade of
+  Ireland with those same countries via Great Britain, and (3) the local
+  trade between Ireland and Great Britain. The value of imports in 1904
+  is put at Ł55,148,206, and of exports at Ł46,606,432. But it is
+  pointed out in the report that while the returns as regards farm
+  produce, food stuffs, and raw materials may be considered
+  approximately complete, the information as to manufactured
+  goods--especially of the more valuable grades--is rough and
+  inadequate. It was estimated that the aggregate value of the actual
+  import and export trade in 1904 probably exceeded a total of
+  Ł105,000,000. The following table gives some details:--
+
+    +-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+
+    |                                         |  Imports. |  Exports.  |
+    +-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+
+    | I. Farm Produce, Food and Drink Stuffs--|           |            |
+    |   (a) Live-stock, meat, bacon, fish and |           |            |
+    |       dairy produce                     |Ł3,028,170 |Ł23,445,122 |
+    |   (b) Crops, fruit, meal, flour, &c.    |11,859,201 |  1,721,753 |
+    |   (c) Spirits, porter, ale, &c.         |   919,161 |  4,222,194 |
+    |   (d) Tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, &c. | 4,230,478 |  1,121,267 |
+    | II. Raw Materials--                     |           |            |
+    |   (a) Coal                              | 2,663,523 |      ..    |
+    |   (b) Wood                              | 1,880,095 |    235,479 |
+    |   (c) Mineral                           | 1,012,822 |    282,081 |
+    |   (d) Animal and vegetable products     | 4,529,002 |  3,067,398 |
+    | III. Goods, partly manufactured or of   |           |            |
+    |       simple manufacture                | 7,996,143 |  2,576,993 |
+    | IV. Manufactured goods.                 |17,059,611 |  9,934,145 |
+    +-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+
+
+  From the figures given in the report it would appear that there was in
+  1904 an excess of imports amounting to over Ł8,500,000. But owing to
+  the imperfect state of existing information, it is impossible to say
+  with any certainty what is the real state of the balance of visible
+  trade between Ireland and other countries.
+
+  Shipping returns also throw some light upon the commercial condition
+  of Ireland. Old figures are not of much value, but it may be stated
+  that Arthur Dobbs gives the number of ships engaged in the Irish trade
+  in 1721 as 3334 with a tonnage of 158,414. According to the statistics
+  of César Moreau the number of ships belonging to Irish ports in 1788
+  was 1016 with a tonnage of over 60,000, and in 1826 they had
+  increased, according to the trade and navigation returns, to 1391 with
+  a tonnage of over 90,000. In 1905 the vessels registered at Irish
+  ports numbered 934 with a tonnage of over 259,000. In the same year
+  the vessels entering and clearing in the colonial and foreign trade
+  numbered 1199 with a tonnage of over 1,086,000, and the vessels
+  entering and clearing in the trade between Great Britain and Ireland
+  numbered 41,983 with a tonnage of over 9,776,000.
+
+_Government, &c._--The executive government of Ireland is vested in a
+lord-lieutenant, assisted by a privy council and by a chief secretary,
+who is always a member of the House of Commons and generally of the
+cabinet. There are a large number of administrative departments and
+boards, some, like the Board of Trade, discharging the same duties as
+the similar department in England; others, like the Congested Districts
+Board, dealing with matters of purely Irish concern.
+
+_Parliamentary Representation._--The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885
+entirely altered the parliamentary representation of Ireland. Twenty-two
+small boroughs were disenfranchised. The towns of Galway, Limerick and
+Waterford lost one member each, while Dublin and Belfast were
+respectively divided into four divisions, each returning one member. As
+a result of these changes 85 members now represent the counties, 16 the
+boroughs, and 2 Dublin University--a total of 103. The total number of
+electors (exclusive of Dublin University) in 1906 was 686,661; 113,595
+for the boroughs and 573,066 for the counties. Ireland is represented in
+the House of Lords by 28 temporal peers elected for life from among the
+Irish peers.
+
+_Local Government._--Irish local government was entirely remodelled by
+the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which conferred on Ireland the
+same system and measure of self-government enjoyed by Great Britain. The
+administrative and fiscal duties previously exercised by the grand jury
+in each county were transferred to a county council, new administrative
+counties being formed for the purposes of the act, in some cases by the
+alteration of existing boundaries. To the county councils were also
+assigned the power of assessing and levying the poor rate in rural
+districts, the management of lunatic asylums, and the administration of
+certain acts such as the Explosives Act, the Technical Education Act and
+the Diseases of Animals Act. Subordinate district councils, urban and
+rural, were also established as in England and Scotland to manage the
+various local areas within each county. The provisions made for the
+administration of the Poor Law by the act under consideration are very
+complicated, but roughly it may be said that it was handed over to these
+new subordinate local bodies. Six towns--Dublin, Belfast, Cork,
+Limerick, Londonderry and Waterford--were constituted county boroughs
+governed by separate county councils; and five boroughs--Kilkenny,
+Sligo, Clonmel, Drogheda and Wexford--retained their former
+corporations. The act provides facilities for the conversion into urban
+districts of (1) towns having town commissioners who are not sanitary
+authorities and (2) non-municipal towns with populations of over 1500
+and entitled to petition for town commissioners.
+
+_Justice._--The Supreme Court of Judicature is constituted as follows:
+the court of appeal, which consists of the lord chancellor, the lord
+chief justice, and the master of the rolls and the chief baron of the
+exchequer as _ex-officio_ members, and two lords justices of appeal; and
+the high court of justice which includes (1) the chancery division,
+composed of the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls and two
+justices, (2) the king's bench division composed of the lord chief
+justice, the chief baron of the exchequer and eight justices, and (3)
+the land commissions with two judicial commissioners. At the first
+vacancy the title and rank of chief baron of the exchequer will be
+abolished and the office reduced to a puisne judgeship. By the County
+Officers and Courts (Ireland) Act 1877, it was provided that the
+chairmen of quarter sessions should be called "county court judges and
+chairmen of quarter sessions" and that their number should be reduced to
+twenty-one, which was to include the recorders of Dublin, Belfast, Cork,
+Londonderry and Galway. At the same time the jurisdiction of the county
+courts was largely extended. There are 66 resident (stipendiary)
+magistrates, and four police magistrates in Dublin.
+
+_Police._--The Royal Irish Constabulary were established in 1822 and
+consisted at first of 5000 men under an inspector-general for each of
+the four provinces. In 1836 the entire force was amalgamated under one
+inspector-general. The force, at present consists of about 10,000 men of
+all ranks, and costs over Ł1,300,000 a year. Dublin has a separate
+metropolitan police force.
+
+_Crime._--The following table shows the number of persons committed for
+trial, convicted and acquitted in Ireland in 1886, 1891, 1900 and
+1905:--
+
+    +------+----------+----------+----------+
+    | Year.|Committed.|Convicted.|Acquitted.|
+    +------+----------+----------+----------+
+    | 1886 |  3,028   |   1,619  |   1286   |
+    | 1891 |  2,112   |   1,255  |    669   |
+    | 1900 |  1,682   |   1,087  |    331   |
+    | 1905 |  2,060   |   1,367  |    417   |
+    +------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  Of the 1367 convicted in 1905, 375 were charged with offences against
+  the person, 205 with offences against property with violence, 545 with
+  offences against property without violence, 52 with malicious injury
+  to property, 44 with forgery and offences against the currency, and
+  146 with other offences. In 1904, 81,775 cases of drunkenness were
+  brought before Irish magistrates as compared with 227,403 in England
+  and 43,580 in Scotland.
+
+_Poor Law._--The following table gives the numbers in receipt of indoor
+and outdoor relief (exclusive of persons in institutions for the blind,
+deaf and dumb, and for idiots and imbeciles) in, the years 1902-1905,
+together with the total expenditure for relief of the poor:--
+
+    +------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+    |      |  Aggregate number relieved  |              |
+    | Year.|        during the year.     | Total Annual |
+    |      +---------+---------+---------+ Expenditure. |
+    |      | Indoor. | Outdoor.|  Total. |              |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+--------------+
+    | 1902 | 363,483 | 105,501 | 468,984 |  Ł1,026,691  |
+    | 1903 | 363,091 |  99,150 | 452,241 |     986,301  |
+    | 1904 | 390,047 |  98,607 | 488,654 |   1,033,168  |
+    | 1905 | 434,117 | 124,697 | 558,814 |   1,066,733  |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+--------------+
+
+  The average daily number in receipt of relief of all kinds (except
+  outdoor relief) during the same years was as follows: 1902, 41,163;
+  1903, 43,600; 1904, 43,721; 1905, 43,911. The percentage of indoor
+  paupers to the estimated population in 1905 was 1.00.
+
+_Congested Districts Board._--This body was constituted by the Purchase
+of Land Act 1891, and is composed of the chief secretary, a member of
+the Land Commission and five other members. A considerable sum of money
+was placed at its disposal for carrying out the objects for which it was
+created. It was provided that where more than 20% of the population of a
+county lived in electoral divisions of which the total rateable value,
+when divided by the number of the population, gave a sum of less than
+Ł1, 10s. for each individual, these divisions should, for the purposes
+of the act, form a separate county, called a congested districts county,
+and should be subject to the operations of the board. In order to
+improve the condition of affairs in congested districts, the board was
+empowered (1) to amalgamate small holdings either by directly aiding
+migration or emigration of occupiers, or by recommending the Land
+Commission to facilitate amalgamation, and (2) generally to aid and
+develop out of its resources agriculture, forestry, the breeding of
+live-stock, weaving, spinning, fishing and any other suitable
+industries. Further provisions regulating the operations of funds of the
+board were enacted in 1893, 1896, 1899 and 1903; and by its constituting
+act the Department of Agriculture was empowered to exercise, at the
+request of the board, any of its powers and duties in congested
+districts.
+
+_Religion._--The great majority of the Irish people belong to the Roman
+Catholic Church. In 1891 the Roman Catholics numbered 3,547,307 or 75%
+of the total population, and in 1901 they numbered 3,308,661 or 74%. The
+adherents of the Church of Ireland come next in number (581,089 in 1901
+or 13% of the population), then the Presbyterians (443,276 in 1901 or
+10% of the population), the only other denomination with a considerable
+number of members being the Methodists (62,006 in 1901). As the result
+of emigration, which drains the Roman Catholic portion of the population
+more than any other, the Roman Catholics show a larger proportional
+decline in numbers than the Protestants; for example, between 1891 and
+1901 the Roman Catholics decreased by over 6%, the Church of Ireland by
+a little over 3%, the Presbyterians by less than 1%, while the
+Methodists actually increased by some 11%. The only counties in which
+the Protestant religion predominates are Antrim, Down, Armagh and
+Londonderry.
+
+  The Roman Catholic Church is governed in Ireland by 4 archbishops,
+  whose sees are in Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam, and 23 bishops, all
+  nominated by the pope. The episcopal emoluments arise from the mensal
+  parishes, the incumbency of which is retained by the bishops, from
+  licences and from an annual contribution, varying in amount, paid by
+  the clergy of the diocese. The clergy are supported by fees and the
+  voluntary contributions of their flocks. At the census of 1901 there
+  were 1084 parishes, and the clergy numbered 3711. In addition to the
+  secular clergy there are several communities of regular priests
+  scattered over the country, ministering in their own churches but
+  without parochial jurisdiction. There are also numerous monasteries
+  and convents, a large number of which are devoted to educational
+  purposes. The great majority of the secular clergy are educated at
+  Maynooth College (see below).
+
+  The Protestants of Ireland belong mainly to the Church of Ireland
+  (episcopalian) and the Presbyterian Church. (For the former see
+  IRELAND, CHURCH OF).
+
+  The Presbyterian Church, whose adherents are found principally in
+  Ulster and are the descendants of Scotch settlers, was originally
+  formed in the middle of the 17th century, and in 1840 a reunion took
+  place of the two divisions into which the Church had formerly
+  separated. The governing body is the General Assembly, consisting of
+  ministers and laymen. In 1906 there were 569 congregations, arranged
+  under 36 presbyteries, with 647 ministers. The ministers are supported
+  by a sustentation fund formed of voluntary contributions, the rents of
+  seats and pews, and the proceeds of the commutation of the Regium
+  Donum made by the commissioners under the Irish Church Act 1869. Two
+  colleges are connected with the denomination, the General Assembly's
+  College, Belfast, and the Magee College, Londonderry. In 1881 the
+  faculty of the Belfast College and the theological professors of the
+  Magee College were incorporated and constituted as a faculty with the
+  power of granting degrees in divinity.
+
+  The Methodist Church in Ireland was formed in 1878 by the Union of
+  the Wesleyan with the Primitive Wesleyan Methodists. The number of
+  ministers is over 250.
+
+  _Education._--The following table shows that the proportion per cent
+  of the total population of five years old and upwards able to read and
+  write has been steadily rising since 1861:--
+
+    +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+    |                       |    Proportion per cent.     |
+    |                       +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                       |1861.|1871.|1881.|1891.|1901.|
+    +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Read and write        |  41 |  49 |  59 |  71 |  79 |
+    | Read only             |  20 |  17 |  16 |  11 |   7 |
+    | Neither read nor write|  39 |  33 |  25 |  18 |  14 |
+    +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  Further details on the same subject, according to provinces and
+  religious denominations in 1901, are subjoined:--
+
+    +---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+
+    |                           |Leinster.|Munster.|Ulster.|Connaught.|
+    +---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+
+    | Roman Catholics--         |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    80   |   80   |   70  |    72    |
+    |   Read only               |     7   |    5   |   11  |     7    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |    13   |   15   |   19  |    21    |
+    | Protestant Episcopalians--|         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    95   |   95   |   81  |    93    |
+    |   Read only               |     1   |    2   |    9  |     3    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     4   |    3   |   10  |     4    |
+    | Presbyterians--           |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    97   |   96   |   88  |    95    |
+    |   Read only               |     1   |    2   |    7  |     3    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     2   |    2   |    5  |     2    |
+    | Methodists--              |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    97   |   97   |   90  |    96    |
+    |   Read only               |     1   |    1   |    5  |     2    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     2   |    2   |    5  |     2    |
+    | Others--                  |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    91   |   91   |   90  |    94    |
+    |   Read only               |     2   |    2   |    6  |     1    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     7   |    7   |    4  |     5    |
+    | Total--                   |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    83   |   81   |   79  |    72    |
+    |   Read only               |     6   |    5   |    9  |     7    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |    11   |   14   |   12  |    21    |
+    +---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+
+
+  _Language._--The number of persons who speak Irish only continues to
+  decrease. In 1881 they numbered 64,167; in 1891, 38,192; and in 1901,
+  20,953. If to those who spoke Irish only are added the persons who
+  could speak both Irish and English, the total number who could speak
+  Irish in 1901 was 641,142 or about 14% of the population. The purely
+  Irish-speaking population is to be found principally in the province
+  of Connaught, where in 1901 they numbered over 12,000. The efforts of
+  the Gaelic League, founded to encourage the study of Gaelic literature
+  and the Irish language, produced results seen in the census returns
+  for 1901, which showed that the pupils learning Irish had very largely
+  increased as compared with 1891.
+
+
+  Universities and colleges.
+
+The university of Dublin (q.v.), which is for practical purposes
+identical with Trinity College, Dublin, was incorporated in 1591. The
+government is in the hands of a board consisting of the provost and the
+senior fellows, assisted by a council in the election of professors and
+in the regulation of studies. The council is composed of the provost
+(and, in his absence, the vice-provost) and elected members. There is
+also a senate, composed of the chancellor or vice-chancellor and all
+doctors and masters who have kept their names on the books of Trinity
+College. Religious tests were abolished in 1873, and the university is
+now open to all; but, as a matter of fact, the vast majority of the
+students, even since the abolition of tests, have always belonged to the
+Church of Ireland, and the divinity school is purely Protestant.
+
+In pursuance of the University Education (Ireland) Act 1879, the Queen's
+University in Ireland was superseded in 1882 by the Royal University of
+Ireland, it being provided that the graduates and students of the former
+should have similar rank in the new university. The government of the
+Royal University was vested in a senate consisting of a chancellor and
+senators, with power to grant all such degrees as could be conferred by
+any university in the United Kingdom, except in theology. Female
+students had exactly the same rights as male students. The university
+was simply an examining body, no residence in any college nor attendance
+at lectures being obligatory. All appointments to the senate and to
+fellowships were made on the principle that one half of those appointed
+should be Roman Catholics and the other half Protestants; and in such
+subjects as history and philosophy there were two courses of study
+prescribed, one for Roman Catholics and the other for Protestants. In
+1905 the number who matriculated was 947, of whom 218 were females, and
+the number of students who passed the academic examinations was 2190.
+The university buildings are in Dublin and the fellows were mostly
+professors in the various colleges whose students were undergraduates.
+
+The three Queen's Colleges, at Belfast, Cork and Galway, were founded in
+1849 and until 1882 formed the Queen's University. Their curriculum
+comprised all the usual courses of instruction, except theology. They
+were open to all denominations, but, as might be expected, the Belfast
+college (dissolved under the Irish Universities Act 1908; see below) was
+almost entirely Protestant. Its situation in a great industrial centre
+also made it the most important and flourishing of the three, its
+students numbering over 400. It possessed an excellent medical school,
+which was largely increased owing to private benefactions.
+
+The Irish Universities Act 1908 provided for the foundation of two new
+universities, having their seats respectively at Dublin and at Belfast.
+The Royal University of Ireland at Dublin and the Queen's College,
+Belfast, were dissolved. Provision was made for a new college to be
+founded at Dublin. This college and the existing Queen's Colleges at
+Cork and Galway were made constituent colleges of the new university at
+Dublin. Letters patent dated December 2, 1908, granted charters to these
+foundations under the titles of the National University of Ireland
+(Dublin), the Queen's University of Belfast and the University Colleges
+of Dublin, Cork and Galway. It was provided by the act that no test of
+religious belief should be imposed on any person as a condition of his
+holding any position in any foundation under the act. A body of
+commissioners was appointed for each of the new foundations to draw up
+statutes for its government; and for the purpose of dealing with any
+matter calling for joint action, a joint commission, half from each of
+the above commissions, was established. Regulations as to grants-in-aid
+were made by the act, with the stipulation that no sum from them should
+be devoted to the provision or maintenance of any building, or tutorial
+or other office, for religious purposes, though private benefaction for
+such purposes is not prohibited. Provisions were also made as to the
+transfer of graduates and students, so that they might occupy under the
+new régime positions equivalent to those which they occupied previously,
+in respect both of degrees and the keeping of terms. The commissioners
+were directed to work out schemes for the employment of officers already
+employed in the institutions affected by the new arrangements, and for
+the compensation of those whose employment could not be continued. A
+committee of the privy council in Ireland was appointed, to be styled
+the Irish Universities Committee.
+
+The Roman Catholic University College in Dublin may be described as a
+survival of the Roman Catholic University, a voluntary institution
+founded in 1854. In 1882 the Roman Catholic bishops placed the buildings
+belonging to the university under the control and direction of the
+archbishop of Dublin, who undertook to maintain a college in which
+education would be given according to the regulations of the Royal
+University. In 1883 the direction of the college was entrusted to the
+Jesuits. Although the college receives no grant from public funds, it
+has proved very successful and attracts a considerable number of
+students, the great majority of whom belong to the Church of Rome.
+
+The Royal College of Science was established in Dublin in 1867 under the
+authority of the Science and Art Department, London. Its object is to
+supply a complete course of instruction in science as applicable to the
+industrial arts. In 1900 the college was transferred from the Science
+and Art Department to the Department of Agriculture and Technical
+Instruction.
+
+Maynooth (q.v.) College was founded by an Irish act of parliament in
+1795 for the training of Roman Catholic students for the Irish
+priesthood. By an act of 1844 it was permanently endowed by a grant from
+the consolidated fund of over Ł26,000 a year. This grant was withdrawn
+by the Irish Church Act 1869, the college receiving as compensation a
+lump sum of over Ł372,000. The average number of students entering each
+year is about 100.
+
+There are two Presbyterian colleges, the General Assembly's College at
+Belfast, which is purely theological, and the Magee College,
+Londonderry, which has literary, scientific and theological courses. In
+1881 the Assembly's College and the theological professors of Magee
+College were constituted a faculty with power to grant degrees in
+divinity.
+
+  In addition to the foregoing, seven Roman Catholic institutions were
+  ranked as colleges in the census of 1901:--All Hallows (Drumcondra),
+  Holycross (Clonliffe), University College (Blackrock), St Patrick's
+  (Carlow), St Kieran's (Kilkenny), St Stanislaus's (Tullamore) and St
+  Patrick's (Thurles). In 1901 the aggregate number of students was 715,
+  of whom 209 were returned as under the faculty of divinity.
+
+
+    Schools.
+
+  As regards secondary schools a broad distinction can be drawn
+  according to religion. The Roman Catholics have diocesan schools,
+  schools under religious orders, monastic and convent schools, and
+  Christian Brothers' schools, which were attended, according to the
+  census returns in 1901, by nearly 22,000 pupils, male and female. On
+  the other hand are the endowed schools, which are almost exclusively
+  Protestant in their government. Under this heading may be included
+  royal and diocesan schools and schools upon the foundation of Erasmus
+  Smith, and others privately endowed. In 1901 these schools numbered 55
+  and had an attendance of 2653 pupils. To these must be added various
+  private establishments, which in the same year had over 8000 pupils,
+  mainly Protestants. Dealing with these secondary schools as a whole
+  the census of 1901 gives figures as to the number of pupils engaged
+  upon what the commissioners call the "higher studies," i.e. studies
+  involving instruction in at least one foreign language. In 1881 the
+  number of such pupils was 18,657; in 1891, 23,484; and in 1901,
+  28,484, of whom 17,103 were males and 11,381 females, divided as
+  follows among the different religions--Roman Catholics 18,248,
+  Protestant Episcopalians 5669, Presbyterians 3011, Methodists 760, and
+  others 567. This increase in the number of pupils engaged in the
+  higher studies is probably due to a large extent to the scheme for the
+  encouragement of intermediate education which was established by act
+  of parliament in 1879. A sum of Ł1,000,000, part of the Irish Church
+  surplus, was assigned by that act for the promotion of the
+  intermediate secular education of boys and girls in Ireland. The
+  administration of this fund was entrusted to a board of commissioners,
+  who were to apply its revenue for the purposes of the act (1) by
+  carrying on a system of public examinations, (2) by awarding
+  exhibitions, prizes and certificates to students, and (3) by the
+  payment of results fees to the manager of schools. An amending act was
+  passed in 1900 and the examinations are now held under rules made in
+  virtue of that act. The number of students who presented themselves
+  for examination in 1905 was 9677; the amount expended in exhibitions
+  and prizes was Ł8536; and the grants to schools amounted to over
+  Ł50,000. The examinations were held at 259 centres in 99 different
+  localities.
+
+  Primary education in Ireland is under the general control of the
+  commissioners of national education, who were first created in 1831 to
+  take the place of the society for the education of the poor, and
+  incorporated in 1845. In the year of their incorporation the schools
+  under the control of the commissioners numbered 3426, with 432,844
+  pupils, and the amount of the parliamentary grants was Ł75,000; while
+  in 1905 there were 8659 schools, with 737,752 pupils, and the grant
+  was almost Ł1,400,000. Of the pupils attending in the latter year, 74%
+  were Roman Catholics, 12% Protestant Episcopalians and 11%
+  Presbyterians. The schools under the commissioners include national
+  schools proper, model and workhouse schools and a number of monastic
+  and convent schools. The Irish Education Act of 1892 provided that the
+  parents of children of not less than 6 nor more than 14 years of age
+  should cause them to attend school in the absence of reasonable excuse
+  on at least 150 days in the year in municipal boroughs and in towns or
+  townships under commissioners; and provisions were made for the
+  partial or total abolition of fees in specified circumstances, for a
+  parliamentary school grant in lieu of abolished school fees, and for
+  the augmentation of the salaries of the national teachers.
+
+  There are 5 reformatory schools, 3 for boys and 2 for girls, and 68
+  industrial schools, 5 Protestant and 63 Roman Catholic.
+
+
+    Technical instruction.
+
+  By the constituting act of 1899 the control of technical education in
+  Ireland was handed over to the Department of Agriculture and Technical
+  Instruction and now forms an important part of its work. The annual
+  sum of Ł55,000 was allocated for the purpose, and this is augmented in
+  various ways. The department has devoted itself to (1) promoting
+  instruction in experimental science, drawing, manual instruction and
+  domestic economy in day secondary schools, (2) supplying funds to
+  country and urban authorities for the organization of schemes for
+  technical instruction in non-agricultural subjects--these subjects
+  embracing not only preparation for the highly organized industries but
+  the teaching of such rural industries as basket-making, (3) the
+  training of teachers by classes held at various centres, (4) the
+  provision of central institutions, and (5) the awarding of
+  scholarships.
+
+_Revenue and Expenditure._--The early statistics as to revenue and
+expenditure in Ireland are very fragmentary and afford little
+possibility of comparison. During the first 15 years of Elizabeth's
+reign the expenses of Ireland, chiefly on account of wars, amounted,
+according to Sir James Ware's estimate, to over Ł490,000, while the
+revenue is put by some writers at Ł8000 per annum and by others at less.
+In the reign of James I. the customs increased from Ł50 to over Ł9000;
+but although he obtained from various sources about Ł10,000 a year and a
+considerable sum also accrued from the plantation of Ulster, the revenue
+is supposed to have fallen short of the expenditure by about Ł16,000 a
+year. During the reign of Charles I. the customs increased fourfold in
+value, but it was found necessary to raise Ł120,000 by yearly subsidies.
+According to the report of the committee appointed by Cromwell to
+investigate the financial condition of Ireland, the revenue in 1654 was
+Ł197,304 and the expenditure Ł630,814. At the Restoration the Irish
+parliament granted an hereditary revenue to the king, an excise for the
+maintenance of the army, a subsidy of tonnage and poundage for the navy,
+and a tax on hearths in lieu of feudal burdens. "Additional duties" were
+granted shortly after the Revolution. "Appropriate duties" were imposed
+at different periods; stamp duties were first granted in 1773, and the
+post office first became a source of revenue in 1783. In 1706 the
+hereditary revenue with additional duties produced over Ł394,000.
+
+  Returns of the ordinary revenue were first presented to the Irish
+  parliament in 1730. From special returns to parliament the following
+  table shows net income and expenditure over a series of years up to
+  1868:--
+
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | Year.|  Income.  |Expenditure.|
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | 1731 |  Ł405,000 |   Ł407,000 |
+    | 1741 |   441,000 |    441,000 |
+    | 1761 |   571,000 |    773,000 |
+    | 1781 |   739,000 |  1,015,000 |
+    | 1800 | 3,017,757 |  6,615,000 |
+    | 1834 | 3,814,000 |  3,439,800 |
+    | 1850 | 4,332,000 |  4,120,000 |
+    | 1860 | 7,851,000 |  6,331,000 |
+    | 1868 | 6,176,000 |  6,621,000 |
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+
+  The amount of imperial revenue collected and expended in Ireland under
+  various heads for the five years 1902-1906 appears in the following
+  tables:--
+
+    _Revenue._
+
+    +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
+    |      |           |           |Estate, &c.| Property  |   Post   | Miscel- |   Total    | Estimated |
+    | Year.|  Customs. |  Excise.  |  Duties   |and Income |  Office. | laneous.|  Revenue.  |   True    |
+    |      |           |           |and Stamps.|    Tax.   |          |         |            |  Revenue. |
+    +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
+    | 1902 |Ł2,244,000 |Ł5,822,000 |Ł1,072,000 |Ł1,143,000 | Ł923,000 |Ł149,000 |Ł11,353,000 |Ł9,784,000 |
+    | 1903 | 2,717,000 | 6,011,000 |   922,000 | 1,244,000 |  960,000 | 148,500 | 12,002,500 |10,205,000 |
+    | 1904 | 2,545,000 | 5,904,000 | 1,033,000 | 1,038,000 |  980,000 | 146,500 | 11,646,500 | 9,748,500 |
+    | 1905 | 2,575,000 | 5,584,000 | 1,016,000 | 1,013,000 |1,002,000 | 150,500 | 11,340,500 | 9,753,500 |
+    | 1906 | 2,524,000 | 5,506,000 |   890,000 |   983,000 |1,043,000 | 150,000 | 11,096,000 | 9,447,000 |
+    +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
+
+    _Expenditure._
+
+    +------+---------+-----------+---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |      |         |           |   Local Taxation    |           |          |           |           |           |
+    |      | Consoli-|           |       Accounts.     |   Total   |          |           |           | Estimated |
+    | Year.|  dated  |   Voted.  +---------+-----------+   Civil   |Collection|   Post    |   Total   |   True    |
+    |      |  Fund.  |           |  Local  | Exchequer |  Charges. | of Taxes.|  Office.  | Expended. |  Revenue. |
+    |      |         |           |Taxation |  Revenue. |           |          |           |           |           |
+    |      |         |           | Revenue.|           |           |          |           |           |           |
+    +------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | 1902 |Ł169,000 |Ł4,271,000 |Ł389,000 |Ł1,055,000 |Ł5,884,000 | Ł243,000 |Ł1,087,000 |Ł7,214,000 |Ł9,784,000 |
+    | 1903 | 168,500 | 4,357,500 | 383,000 | 1,058,000 | 5,967,000 |  246,000 | 1,140,000 | 7,353,000 |10,205,000 |
+    | 1904 | 170,000 | 4,569,000 | 376,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,174,000 |  248,000 | 1,126,000 | 7,548,000 | 9,784,500 |
+    | 1905 | 166,000 | 4,547,000 | 374,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,146,000 |  249,000 | 1,172,000 | 7,567,000 | 9,753,500 |
+    | 1906 | 164,000 | 4,582,500 | 385,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,191,500 |  245,000 | 1,199,000 | 7,635,500 | 9,447,000 |
+    +------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  Subtracting in each year the total expenditure from the estimated true
+  revenue it would appear from the foregoing table that Ireland
+  contributed to imperial services in the years under consideration the
+  following sums: Ł2,570,000, Ł2,852,000, Ł2,200,500, Ł2,186,500 and
+  Ł1,811,500.
+
+The financial relations between Great Britain and Ireland have long been
+a subject of controversy, and in 1894 a royal commission was appointed
+to consider them, which presented its report in 1896. The commissioners,
+though differing on several points, were practically agreed on the
+following five conclusions: (1) that Great Britain and Ireland must, for
+the purposes of a financial inquiry, be considered as separate entities;
+(2) that the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which, as events
+showed, she was unable to bear; (3) that the increase of taxation laid
+upon Ireland between 1853 and 1860 was not justified by the then
+existing circumstances; (4) that identity of rates of taxation did not
+necessarily involve equality of burden; (5) that, while the actual tax
+revenue of Ireland was about one-eleventh of that of Great Britain, the
+relative taxable capacity of Ireland was very much smaller, and was not
+estimated by any of the commissioners as exceeding one-twentieth. This
+report furnished the material for much controversy, but little practical
+outcome; it was avowedly based on the consideration of Ireland as a
+separate country, and was therefore inconsistent with the principles of
+Unionism.
+
+The public debt of Ireland amounted to over Ł134,000,000 in 1817, in
+which year it was consolidated with the British national debt.
+
+  _Local Taxation._--The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 effected
+  considerable changes in local finance. The fiscal duties of the grand
+  jury were abolished, and the county council which took the place of
+  the grand jury for both fiscal and administrative purposes was given
+  three sources of revenue: (1) the agricultural grant, (2) the licence
+  duties and other imperial grants, and (3) the poor rate. These may be
+  considered separately. (1) It was provided that the Local Government
+  Board should ascertain the amount of county cess and poor rate levied
+  off agricultural land in Ireland during the year ending (as regards
+  the poor rate) on the 29th of September, and (as regards the county
+  cess) on the 21st of June 1897; and that half this amount, to be
+  called the agricultural grant, should be paid annually without any
+  variation from the original sum out of the consolidated fund to a
+  local taxation account. The amount of the agricultural grant was
+  ascertained to be over Ł727,000. Elaborate provisions were also made
+  in the act for fixing the proportion of the grant to which each county
+  should be entitled, and the lord-lieutenant was empowered to pay
+  half-yearly the proportion so ascertained to the county council. (2)
+  Before the passing of the act grants were made from the imperial
+  exchequer to the grand juries in aid of the maintenance of lunatics
+  and to boards of guardians for medical and educational purposes and
+  for salaries under the Public Health (Ireland) Act. In 1897 these
+  grants amounted to over Ł236,000. Under the Local Government Act they
+  ceased, and in lieu thereof it was provided that there should be
+  annually paid out of the consolidated fund to the local taxation
+  account a sum equal to the duties collected in Ireland on certain
+  specified local taxation licences. In addition, it was enacted that
+  a fixed sum of Ł79,000 should be forthcoming annually from the
+  consolidated fund. (3) The county cess was abolished, and the county
+  councils were empowered to levy a single rate for the rural districts
+  and unions, called by the name of poor rate, for all the purposes of
+  the act. This rate is made upon the occupier and not upon the
+  landlord, and the occupier is not entitled, save in a few specified
+  cases, to deduct any of the rate from his rent. For the year ending
+  the 31st of March 1905, the total receipts of the Irish county
+  councils, exclusive of the county boroughs, were Ł2,964,298 and their
+  total expenditure was Ł2,959,961, the two chief items of expenditure
+  being "Union Charges" Ł1,002,620 and "Road Expenditure" Ł779,174.
+  During the same period the total receipts from local taxation in
+  Ireland amounted to Ł4,013,303, and the amount granted from imperial
+  sources in aid of local taxation was Ł1,781,143.
+
+  _Loans._--The total amount issued on loan, exclusive of closed
+  sources, by the Commissioners of Public Works, up to the 31st of March
+  1906, was Ł26,946,393, of which Ł15,221,913 had been repaid to the
+  exchequer as principal and Ł9,011,506 as interest, and Ł1,609,694 had
+  been remitted. Of the sums advanced, about Ł5,500,000 was under the
+  Improvement of Lands Acts, nearly Ł3,500,000 under the Public Health
+  Acts, over Ł3,000,000 for lunatic asylums, and over Ł3,000,000 under
+  the various Labourers Acts.
+
+  _Banking._--The Bank of Ireland was established in Dublin in 1783 with
+  a capital of Ł600,000, which was afterwards enlarged at various times,
+  and on the renewal of its charter in 1821 it was increased to
+  Ł3,000,000. It holds in Ireland a position corresponding to the Bank
+  of England in England. There are eight other joint-stock banks in
+  Ireland. Including the Bank of Ireland, their subscribed capital
+  amounts to Ł26,349,230 and their paid-up capital to Ł7,309,230. The
+  authorized note circulation is Ł6,354,494 and the actual note
+  circulation in June 1906 was Ł6,310,243, two of the banks not being
+  banks of issue. The deposits in the joint-stock banks amounted in 1880
+  to Ł29,350,000; in 1890 to Ł33,061,000; in 1900 to Ł40,287,000; and in
+  1906 to Ł45,842,000. The deposits in the Post Office Savings Banks
+  rose from Ł1,481,000 in 1880 to Ł10,459,000 in 1906, and the deposits
+  in Trustee Savings Banks from Ł2,100,165 in 1880 to Ł2,488,740 in
+  1905.
+
+  _National Wealth._--To arrive at any estimate of the national wealth
+  is exceptionally difficult in the case of Ireland, since the largest
+  part of its wealth is derived from agriculture, and many important
+  factors, such as the amount of capital invested in the linen and other
+  industries, cannot be included, owing to their uncertainty. The
+  following figures for 1905-1906 may, however, be given: valuation of
+  lands, houses, &c., Ł15,466,000; value of principal crops,
+  Ł35,362,000; value of cattle, &c., Ł81,508,000; paid-up capital and
+  reserve funds of joint-stock banks, Ł11,300,000; deposits in
+  joint-stock and savings banks, Ł58,791,000; investments in government
+  stock, transferable at Bank of Ireland, Ł36,952,000; paid-up capital
+  and debentures of railway companies, Ł38,405,000; paid-up capital of
+  tramway companies, Ł2,074,000.
+
+  In 1906 the net value of property assessed to estate duty, &c., in
+  Ireland was Ł16,016,000 as compared with Ł306,673,000 in England and
+  Ł38,451,000 in Scotland; and in 1905 the net produce of the income tax
+  in Ireland was Ł983,000, as compared with Ł27,423,000 in England and
+  Ł2,888,000 in Scotland.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Agriculture: Accounts of the land systems of Ireland
+  will be found in James Godkin's _Land War in Ireland_ (1870);
+  Sigerson's _History of Land Tenure in Ireland_ (1871); Joseph Fisher's
+  _History of Land Holding in Ireland_ (1877); R. B. O'Brien's _History
+  of the Irish Land Question_ (1880); A. G. Richey's _Irish Land Laws_
+  (1880). General information will be found in J. P. Kennedy's Digest of
+  the evidence given before the Devon Commission (Dublin, 1847-1848);
+  the _Report_ of the Bessborough Commission, 1881, and of the
+  commission on the agriculture of the United Kingdom, 1881. The
+  Department of Agriculture publishes several official annual reports,
+  dealing very fully with Irish agriculture.
+
+  Manufactures and Commerce: _Discourse on the Woollen Manufacture of
+  Ireland_ (1698); _An Inquiry into the State and Progress of the Linen
+  Manufacture in Ireland_ (Dublin, 1757); G. E. Howard, _Treatise on the
+  Revenue of Ireland_ (1776); John Hely Hutchinson, _Commercial
+  Restraints of Ireland_ (1779); Lord Sheffield, _Observations on the
+  Manufactures, Trade and Present State of Ireland_ (1785); R. B.
+  Clarendon, _A Sketch of the Revenue and Finances of Ireland_ (1791);
+  the annual reports of the Flax Supply Association and other local
+  bodies, published at Belfast; reports by the Department of Agriculture
+  on Irish imports and exports (these are a new feature and contain much
+  valuable information).
+
+  Miscellaneous: Sir William Petty, _Political Anatomy of Ireland_
+  (1691); Arthur Dobbs, _Essay on the Trade of Ireland_ (1729);
+  _Abstract of the Number of Protestant and Popish Families in Ireland_
+  (1726); Arthur Young, _Tour in Ireland_ (1780); T. Newenham, _View of
+  the Circumstances of Ireland_ (1809), and _Inquiry into the Population
+  of Ireland_ (1805); César Moreau, _Past and Present State of Ireland_
+  (1827); J. M. Murphy, _Ireland, Industrial, Political and Social_
+  (1870); R. Dennis, _Industrial Ireland_ (1887); Grimshaw, _Facts and
+  Figures about Ireland_ (1893); _Report of the Recess Committee_
+  (1896, published in Dublin); _Report of the Financial Relations
+  Commission_ (1897); Sir H. Plunkett, _Ireland in the New Century_
+  (London, 1905); Filson Young, _Ireland at the Cross-Roads_ (London,
+  1904); Thom's _Almanac_, published annually in Dublin, gives a very
+  useful summary of statistics and other information.     (W. H. Po.)
+
+
+EARLY HISTORY
+
+  Historical sources.
+
+On account of its isolated position we might expect to find Ireland in
+possession of a highly developed system of legends bearing on the
+origins of its inhabitants. Ireland remained outside the pale of the
+ancient Roman world, and a state of society which was peculiarly
+favourable to the preservation of national folk-lore survived in the
+island until the 16th century. The jealousy with which the hereditary
+antiquaries guarded the tribal genealogies naturally leads us to hope
+that the records which have come down to us may shed some light on the
+difficult problems connected with the early inhabitants of these islands
+and the west of Europe. Although innumerable histories of Ireland have
+appeared in print since the publication of Roderick O'Flaherty's
+_Ogygia_ (London, 1677), the authors have in almost every case been
+content to reproduce the legendary accounts without bringing any serious
+criticism to bear on the sources. This is partly to be explained by the
+fact that the serious study of Irish philology only dates from 1853 and
+much of the most important material has not yet appeared in print. In
+the middle of the 19th century O'Donovan and O'Curry collected a vast
+amount of undigested information about the early history of the island,
+but as yet J. B. Bury in his monograph on St Patrick is the only trained
+historian who has ever adequately dealt with any of the problems
+connected with ancient Ireland. Hence it is evident that our knowledge
+of the subject must remain extremely unsatisfactory until the chief
+sources have been properly sifted by competent scholars. A beginning has
+been made by Sir John Rhys in his "Studies in Early Irish History"
+(_Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol. i.), and by John MacNeill in
+a suggestive series of papers contributed to the _New Ireland Review_
+(March 1906-Feb. 1907). Much might reasonably be expected from the
+sciences of archaeology and anthropology. But although Ireland is as
+rich as, or even richer in monuments of the past than, most countries in
+Europe, comparatively little has been done owing in large measure to the
+lack of systematic investigation.
+
+It may be as well to specify some of the more important sources at the
+outset. Of the classical writers who notice Ireland Ptolemy is the only
+one who gives us any very definite information. The legendary origins
+first appear in Nennius and in a number of poems by such writers as
+Maelmura (d. 884), Cinaed Uah Artacáin (d. 975), Eochaid Ua Flainn (d.
+984), Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056) and Gilla Coemgin (d. 1072). They are
+also embodied in the _Leabhar Gabhála_ or _Book of Invasions_, the
+earliest copy of which is contained in the _Book of Leinster_, a
+12th-century MS., Geoffrey Keating's _History_, Dugald MacFirbis's
+_Genealogies_ and various collections of annals such as those by the
+Four Masters. Of prime importance for the earlier period are the stories
+known collectively as the Ulster cycle, among which the lengthy epic the
+_Táin Bo Cúalnge_ takes first place. Amongst the numerous chronicles the
+_Annals of Ulster_, which commence with the year 441, are by far the
+most trustworthy. The _Book of Rights_ is another compilation which
+gives valuable information with regard to the relations of the various
+kingdoms to one another. Finally, there are the extensive collections of
+genealogies preserved in Rawlinson B 502, the _Books of Leinster_ and
+_Ballymote_.
+
+_Earliest Inhabitants._--There is as yet no certain evidence to show
+that Ireland was inhabited during the palaeolithic period. But there are
+abundant traces of man in the neolithic state of culture (see Sir W. R.
+W. Wilde's _Catalogue_ of the antiquities in the Museum of the Royal
+Irish Academy). The use of bronze was perhaps introduced about 1450 B.C.
+The craniological evidence is unfortunately at present insufficient to
+show whether the introduction of metal coincided with any particular
+invasion either from Britain or the European continent. At any rate it
+was not until well on in the Bronze Age, perhaps about 600 or 500 B.C.,
+that the Goidels, the first invaders speaking a Celtic language, set
+foot in Ireland. The newcomers probably overran the whole island,
+subduing but not exterminating the older race with which they doubtless
+intermarried freely, as pre-Celtic types are frequent among the
+populations of Connaught and Munster at the present day. What the
+language was that was spoken by the neolithic aborigines is a question
+which will probably never be settled. The division into provinces or
+"fifths" (Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, E. Munster and W. Munster)
+appears to be older than the historical period, and may be due to the
+Goidels. Between 300 B.C. and 150 B.C. various Belgic and other
+Brythonic tribes established themselves in Britain bringing with them
+the knowledge of how to work in iron. Probably much about the same time
+certain Belgic tribes effected settlements in the S.E. of Ireland. Some
+time must have elapsed before any Brythonic people undertook to defy the
+powerful Goidelic states, as the supremacy of the Brythonic kingdom of
+Tara does not seem to have been acknowledged before the 4th century of
+our era. The early Belgic settlers constituted perhaps in the main
+trading states which acted as intermediaries of commerce between Ireland
+and Gaul.[1] In addition to these Brythonic colonies a number of Pictish
+tribes, who doubtless came over from Scotland, conquered for themselves
+parts of Antrim and Down where they maintained their independence till
+late in the historical period. Picts are also represented as having
+settled in the county of Roscommon; but we have at present no means of
+ascertaining when this invasion took place.
+
+_Classical Writers._--Greek and Roman writers seem to have possessed
+very little definite information about the island, though much of what
+they relate corresponds to the state of society disclosed in the older
+epics. Strabo held the inhabitants to be mere savages, addicted to
+cannibalism and having no marriage ties. Solinus speaks of the luxurious
+pastures, but the natives he terms an inhospitable and warlike nation.
+The conquerors among them having first drunk the blood of their enemies,
+afterwards besmear their faces therewith; they regard right and wrong
+alike. Whenever a woman brings forth a male child, she puts his first
+food on the sword of her husband, and lightly introduces the first
+_auspicium_ of nourishment into his little mouth with the point of the
+sword. Pomponius Mela speaks of the climate as unfit for ripening grain,
+but he, too, notices the luxuriance of the grass. However, it is not
+until we reach Ptolemy that we feel we are treading on firm ground. His
+description is of supreme importance for the study of early Irish
+ethnography. Ptolemy gives the names of sixteen peoples in Ireland,
+several of which can be identified. As we should expect from our
+knowledge of later Irish history scarcely any towns are mentioned. In
+the S.E., probably in Co. Wicklow, we find the Manapii--evidently a
+colony from N.E. Gaul. North of them, perhaps in Kildare, a similar
+people, the Cauci, are located. In Waterford and Wexford are placed the
+Brigantes, who also occur in Yorkshire. The territory to the west of the
+Brigantes is occupied by a people called by Ptolemy the Iverni. Their
+capital he gives as Ivernis, and in the extreme S.W. of the island he
+marks the mouth of the river Iernos, by which the top of Dingle Bay
+called Castlemaine Harbour is perhaps intended. The Iverni must have
+been a nation of considerable importance, as they play a prominent part
+in the historical period, where they are known as the Érnai or Éraind of
+Munster. It would seem that the Iverni were the first native tribe with
+whom foreign traders came in contact, as it is from them that the Latin
+name for the whole island is derived. The earliest form was probably
+_Iveriyo_ or _Iveriyu_, genitive _Iveryonos_, from which come Lat.
+_Iverio_, _Hiverio_ (Antonine Itinerary), _Hiberio_ (Confession of St
+Patrick), Old Irish _Ériu_, _Hériu_, gen. _Hérenn_ with regular loss of
+intervocalic v, _Welsh Iwerddon_ (from the oblique cases). West of the
+Iverni in Co. Kerry Ptolemy mentions the Vellabori, and going in a
+northerly direction following the coast we find the Gangani, Autini
+(Autiri), Nagnatae (Magnatae). Erdini (cf. the name Lough Erne),
+Vennicnii, Rhobogdii, Darini and Eblanii, none of whom can be identified
+with certainty. In south Ulster Ptolemy locates a people called the
+Voluntii who seem to correspond to the Ulidians of a later period (Ir.
+_Ulaid_, in Irish Lat. _Uloti_). About Queen's county or Tipperary are
+situated the Usdiae, whose name is compared with the later Ossory (Ir.
+_Os-raige_). Lastly, in the north of Wexford we find the Coriondi who
+occur in Irish texts near the Boyne (Mid. Ir. _Coraind_). It would seem
+as if Ptolemy's description of Ireland answered in some measure to the
+state of affairs which we find obtaining in the older Ulster epic
+cycle.[2] Both are probably anterior to the foundation of a central
+state at Tara.
+
+_Legendary Origins._--We can unfortunately derive no further assistance
+from external sources and must therefore examine the native traditions.
+From the 9th century onwards we find accounts of various races who had
+colonized the island. These stories naturally become amplified as times
+goes on, and in what we may regard as the classical or standard versions
+to be found in Keating, the Four Masters, Dugald MacFirbis and
+elsewhere, no fewer than five successive invasions are enumerated. The
+first colony is represented as having arrived in Ireland in A.M. 2520,
+under the leadership of an individual named Partholan who hailed from
+Middle Greece. His company landed in Kenmare Bay and settled in what is
+now Co. Dublin. After occupying the island for 300 years they were all
+carried off by a plague and were buried at Tallaght (Ir. _Tamlacht_,
+"plague-grave"), at which place a number of ancient remains (probably
+belonging, however, to the Viking period) have come to light. In A.M.
+2850 a warrior from Scythia called Nemed reached Ireland with 900
+fighting men. Nemed's people are represented as having to struggle for
+their existence with a race of sea-pirates known as the Fomorians. The
+latter's stronghold was Tory Island, where they had a mighty fortress.
+After undergoing great hardship the Nemedians succeeded in destroying
+the fortress and in slaying the enemies' leaders, but the Fomorians
+received reinforcements from Africa. A second battle was fought in which
+both parties were nearly exterminated. Of the Nemedians only thirty
+warriors escaped, among them being three descendants of Nemed, who made
+their way each to a different country (A.M. 3066). One of them, Simon
+Brec, proceeded to Greece, where his posterity multiplied to such an
+extent that the Greeks grew afraid and reduced them to slavery. In time
+their position became so intolerable that they resolved to escape, and
+they arrived in Ireland A.M. 3266. This third body of invaders is known
+collectively as Firbolgs, and is ethnologically and historically very
+important. They are stated to have had five leaders, all brothers, each
+of whom occupied one of the provinces or "fifths." We find them landing
+in different places. One party, the Fir Galeoin, landed at Inber Slangi,
+the mouth of the Slaney, and occupied much of Leinster. Another, the Fir
+Domnand, settled in Mayo where their name survives in Irrus Domnand, the
+ancient name for the district of Erris. A third band, the Firbolg
+proper, took possession of Munster. Many authorities such as Keating and
+MacFirbis admit that descendants of the Firbolgs were still to be found
+in parts of Ireland in their own day, though they are characterized as
+"tattling, guileful, tale-bearing, noisy, contemptible, mean, wretched,
+unsteady, harsh and inhospitable." The Firbolgs had scarcely established
+themselves in the island when a fresh set of invaders appeared on the
+scene. These were the Tuatha Dé Danann ("tribes of the god Danu"), who
+according to the story were also descended from Nemed. They came
+originally from Greece and were highly skilled in necromancy. Having to
+flee from Greece on account of a Syrian invasion they proceeded to
+Scandinavia. Under Nuadu Airgetláim they moved to Scotland, and finally
+arrived in Ireland (A.M. 3303), bringing with them in addition to the
+celebrated Lia Fáil ("stone of destiny") which they set up at Tara, the
+cauldron of the Dagda and the sword and spear of Lugaid Lámfada.
+Eochaid, son of Erc, king of the Firbolgs, having declined to surrender
+the sovereignty of Ireland, a great battle was fought on the plain of
+Moytura near Cong (Co. Mayo), the site of a prehistoric cemetery. In
+this contest the Firbolgs were overthrown with great slaughter, and the
+remnants of the race according to Keating and other writers took refuge
+in Arran, Islay, Rathlin and the Hebrides, where they dwelt until driven
+out by Picts. Twenty-seven years later the Tuatha Dé had to defend
+themselves against the Fomorians, who were almost annihilated at the
+battle of north Moytura near Sligo. The Tuatha Dé then enjoyed
+undisturbed possession of Ireland until the arrival of the Milesians in
+A.M. 3500.
+
+All the early writers dwell with great fondness on the origin and
+adventures of this race. The Milesians came primarily from Scythia and
+after sojourning for some time in Egypt, Crete and in Scythia again,
+they finally arrived in Spain. In the line of mythical ancestors which
+extends without interruption up to Noah, the names of Fenius Farsaid,
+Goedel Glas, Eber Scot and Breogan constantly recur in Irish story. At
+length eight sons of Miled (Lat. _Milesius_) set forth to conquer
+Ireland. The spells of the Tuatha Dé accounted for most of their number.
+However, after two battles the newcomers succeeded in overcoming the
+older race; and two brothers, Eber Find and Eremon, divided the island
+between them, Eber Find taking east and west Munster, whilst Eremon
+received Leinster and Connaught. Lugaid, son of the brother of Miled,
+took possession of south-west Munster. At the same time Ulster was left
+to Eber son of Ir son of Miled. The old historians agree that Ireland
+was ruled by a succession of Milesian monarchs until the reign of
+Roderick O'Connor, the last native king. The Tuatha Dé are represented
+as retiring into the _síd_ or fairy mounds. Eber Find and Eremon did not
+remain long in agreement. The historians place the beginnings of the
+antithesis between north and south at the very commencement of the
+Milesian domination. A battle was fought between the two brothers in
+which Eber Find lost his life. In the reign of Eremon the Picts are
+stated to have arrived in Ireland, coming from Scythia. It will have
+been observed that Scythia had a peculiar attraction for medieval Irish
+chroniclers on account of its resemblance to the name Scotti, Scots. The
+Picts first settled in Leinster; but the main body were forced to remove
+to Scotland, only a few remaining behind in Meath. Among the numerous
+mythical kings placed by the annalists between Eremon and the Christian
+era we may mention Tigernmas (A.M. 3581), Ollam Fodla (A.M. 3922) who
+established the meeting of Tara, Cimbaeth (c. 305 B.C.) the reputed
+founder of Emain Macha, Ugaine Mór, Labraid Loingsech, and Eochaid
+Feidlech, who built Rath Cruachan for his celebrated daughter, Medb
+queen of Connaught. During the 1st century of our era we hear of the
+rising of the _aithech-tuatha_, i.e. subject or plebeian tribes, or in
+other words the Firbolgs, who paid _daer_- or base rent to the
+Milesians. From a resemblance in the name which is probably fortuitous
+these tribes have been identified with the Attecotti of Roman writers.
+Under Cairbre Cinnchait ("cathead") the oppressed peoples succeeded in
+wresting the sovereignty from the Milesians, whose princes and nobles
+were almost exterminated (A.D. 90). The line of Eremon was, however,
+restored on the accession of Tuathal Techtmar ("the legitimate"), who
+reigned A.D. 130-160. This ruler took measures to consolidate the power
+of the _ardrí_ (supreme king). He constructed a number of fortresses on
+the great central plain and carved out the kingdom of Meath to serve as
+his mensal land. The new kingdom was composed of the present counties of
+Meath, Westmeath and Longford together with portions of Monaghan, Cavan,
+King's Co. and Kildare. He was also the first to levy the famous
+Leinster tribute, the _boroma_, in consequence of an insult offered to
+him by one of the kings of that province. This tribute, which was only
+remitted in the 7th century at the instance of St Moling, must have been
+the source of constant war and oppression. A grandson of Tuathal's, the
+famous Conn Cétchathach ("the hundred-fighter"), whose death is placed
+in the year 177 after a reign of about twenty years, was constantly at
+war with the Munster ruler Eogan Mór, also called Mog Nuadat, of the
+race of Eber Find. Eogan had subdued the Érnai and the Corco Laigde
+(descendants of Lugaid son of Ith) in Munster, and even the supreme king
+was obliged to share the island with him. Hence the well-known names
+Leth Cuinn or "Conn's half" (north Ireland), and Leth Moga or "Mug's
+half" (south Ireland). The boundary line ran from the Bay of Galway to
+Dublin along the great ridge of gravel known as Eiscir Riada which
+stretches across Ireland. Mog Nuadat had a son Ailill Aulom who plays a
+prominent part in the Irish sagas and genealogies, and his sons Eogan,
+Cian and Cormac Cas, all became the ancestors of well-known families.
+Conn's grandson, Cormac son of Art, is represented as having reigned in
+great splendour (254-266) and as having been a great patron of learning.
+It was during this reign that the sept of the Dési were expelled from
+Meath. They settled in Munster where their name still survives in the
+barony of Decies (Co. Waterford). A curious passage in Cormac's
+_Glossary_ connects one of the leaders of this sept, Cairpre Musc, with
+the settlements of the Irish in south Wales which may have taken place
+as early as the 3rd century. Of greater consequence was the invasion of
+Ulster by the three Collas, cousins of the ardrí Muredach. The
+stronghold of Emain Macha was destroyed and the Ulstermen were driven
+across the Newry River into Dalriada, which was inhabited by Picts.
+
+The old inhabitants of Ulster are usually termed Ulidians to distinguish
+them from the Milesian peoples who overran the province. With the advent
+of Niall Nóigiallach ("N. of the nine hostages" reigned 379-405) son of
+Eochaid Muigmedóin (358-366) we are treading safer ground. It was about
+this time that the Milesian kingdom of Tara was firmly established. Nor
+was Niall's activity confined to Ireland alone. Irish sources represent
+him as constantly engaged in marauding expeditions oversea, and it was
+doubtless on one of these that St Patrick was taken captive. These
+movements coincide with the inroads of the Picts and Scots recorded by
+Roman writers. It is probably from this period that the Irish colonies
+in south Wales, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall date. And the earliest
+migrations from Ulster to Argyll may also have taken place about this
+time. Literary evidence of the colonization of south Wales is preserved
+both in Welsh and Irish sources, and some idea of the extent of Irish
+oversea activity may be gathered from the distribution of the Ogam
+inscriptions in Wales, south-west England and the Isle of Man.
+
+_Criticism of the Legendary Origins._--It is only in recent years that
+the Irish legendary origins have been subjected to serious criticism.
+The fondly cherished theory which attributes Milesian descent to the
+bulk of the native population has at length been assailed. MacNeill
+asserts that in MacFirbis's genealogies the majority of the tribes in
+early Ireland do not trace their descent to Eremon and Eber Find; they
+are rather the descendants of the subject races, one of which figures in
+the list of conquests under the name of Firbolg. The stories of the
+Fomorians were doubtless suggested in part by the Viking invasions, but
+the origin of the Partholan legend has not been discovered. The Tuatha
+Dé do not appear in any of the earliest quasi-historical documents, nor
+in Nennius, and they scarcely correspond to any particular race. It
+seems more probable that a special invasion was assigned to them by
+later writers in order to explain the presence of mythical personages
+going by their name in the heroic cycles, as they were found
+inconvenient by the monkish historians. In the early centuries of our
+era Ireland would therefore have been occupied by the Firbolgs and
+kindred races and the Milesians. According to MacNeill the Firbolg
+tribal names are formed with the suffix -_raige_, e.g. _Ciarraige_,
+Kerry, _Osraige_, Ossory, or with the obscure words _Corcu_ and _mocu_
+(_maccu_), e.g. _Corco Duibne_, Corkaguiney, _Corco Mruad_, Corcomroe,
+_Macu Loegdae_, _Macu Teimne_. In the case of _corcu_ and _mocu_ the
+name which follows is frequently the name of an eponymous ancestor. The
+Milesians on the other hand named themselves after an historical
+ancestor employing terms such as _ui_, "descendants," _cland_,
+"children," _dál_, "division," _cinél_, "kindred," or _síl_, "seed." In
+this connexion it may be noted that practically all the Milesian
+pedigrees converge on three ancestors in the 2nd century--Conn
+Cétchathach king of Tara, Cathair Mór of Leinster, and Ailill Aulom of
+Munster,--whilst in scarcely any of them are mythological personages
+absent when we go farther back than A.D. 300. Special genealogies were
+framed to link up other races, e.g. the Éraind and Corcu Loegdi of
+Munster and the Ulidians with the Milesians of Tara.
+
+The peculiar characteristic of the Milesian conquest is the
+establishment of a central monarchy at Tara. No trace of such a state of
+affairs is to be found in the Ulster epic. In the _Táin Bó Cúalnge_ we
+find Ireland divided into fifths, each ruled over by its own king. These
+divisions were: Ulster with Emain Macha as capital, Connaught with
+Cruachu as residence, north Munster from Slieve Bloom to north Kerry,
+south Munster from south Kerry to Waterford, and Leinster consisting of
+the two kingdoms of Tara and Ailinn. Moreover, the kings of Tara
+mentioned in the Ulster cycle do not figure in any list of Milesian
+kings. It would appear then that the central kingdom of Tara was an
+innovation subsequent to the state of society described in the oldest
+sagas and the political position reflected in Ptolemy's account. It was
+probably due to an invasion undertaken by Brythons[3] from Britain, but
+it is impossible to assign a precise date for their arrival. Until the
+end of the 3rd century the Milesian power must have been confined to the
+valley of the Boyne and the district around Tara. At the beginning of
+the 4th century the three Collas founded the kingdom of Oriel
+(comprising the present counties of Armagh, Monaghan, north Louth, south
+Fermanagh) and drove the Ulidians into the eastern part of the province.
+Brian and Fiachra, sons of Eochaid Muigmedóin, conquered for themselves
+the country of the Ui Briuin (Roscommon, Leitrim, Cavan) and Tír
+Fiachrach, the territory of the Firbolg tribe the Fir Domnann in the
+valley of the Moy (Co. Mayo). Somewhat later south Connaught was
+similarly wrested from the older race and colonized by descendants of
+Brian and Fiachra, later known as Ui Fiachrach Aidni and Ui Briuin
+Seola. The north of Ulster is stated to have been conquered and
+colonized by Conall and Eogan, sons of Niall Nóigiallach. The former
+gave his name to the western portion, Tír Conaill (Co. Donegal), whilst
+Inishowen was called Tír Eogain after Eogan. The name Tír Eogain later
+became associated with south Ulster where it survives in the county name
+Tyrone. The whole kingdom of the north is commonly designated the
+kingdom of Ailech, from the ancient stronghold near Derry which the sons
+of Niall probably took over from the earlier inhabitants. At the end of
+the 5th century Maine, a relative of the king of Tara, was apportioned a
+tract of Firbolg territory to the west of the Suck in Connaught, which
+formed the nucleus of a powerful state known as Hy Maine (in English
+commonly called the "O'Kelly's country"). Thus practically the whole of
+the north and west gradually came under the sway of the Milesian rulers.
+Nevertheless one portion retained its independence. This was Ulidia,
+consisting of Dalriada, Dal Fiatach, Dal Araide, including the present
+counties of Antrim and Down. The bulk of the population here was
+probably Pictish; but the Dal Fiatach, representing the old Ulidians or
+ancient population of Ulster, maintained themselves until the 8th
+century when they were subdued by their Pictish neighbours. The
+relationship of Munster and Leinster to the Tara dynasty is not so easy
+to define. The small kingdom of Ossory remained independent until a very
+late period. As for Leinster none of the Brythonic peoples mentioned by
+Ptolemy left traces of their name, although it is possible that the
+ruling family may have been derived from them. It would seem that the
+Fir Galeoin who play such a prominent part in the _Táin_ had been
+crushed before authentic history begins. The king of Leinster was for
+centuries the most determined opponent of the _ardrí_, an antithesis
+which is embodied in the story of the _boroma_ tribute. When we turn to
+Munster we find that Cashel was the seat of power in historical times.
+Now Cashel (a loanword from Lat. _castellum_) was not founded Until the
+beginning of the 5th century by Core son of Lugaid. The legendary
+account attributes the subjugation of the various peoples inhabiting
+Munster to Mog Nuadat, and the pedigrees are invariably traced up to his
+son Ailill Aulom. Rhys adopts the view that the race of Eber Find was
+not Milesian but a branch of the Érnai, and this theory has much in its
+favour. The allegiance of the rulers of Munster to Niall and his
+descendants can at the best of times only have been nominal.
+
+In this way we get a number of over-kingdoms acknowledging only the
+supremacy of the Tara dynasty. These were (1) Munster with Cashel as
+centre, (2) Connaught, (3) Ailech, (4) Oriel, (5) Ulidia, (6) Meath, (7)
+Leinster, (8) Ossory. Some of these states might be split up into
+various parts at certain periods, each part becoming for the time-being
+an over-kingdom. For instance, Ailech might be resolved into Tír Conaill
+and Tír Eogain according to political conditions. Hence the number of
+over-kingdoms is given variously in different documents. The supremacy
+was vested in the descendants of Niall Nóigiallach without interruption
+until 1002; but as Niall's descendants were represented by four reigning
+families, the high-kingship passed from one branch to another.
+Nevertheless after the middle of the 8th century the title of _ardrí_
+(high-king) was only held by the Cinél Eogain (northern Hy Neill) and
+the rulers of Meath (southern Hy Neill), as the kingdom of Oriel had
+dropped into insignificance. The supremacy of the _ardrí_ was more often
+than not purely nominal. This must have been particularly the case in
+Leth Moga.
+
+_Religion in Early Ireland._--Our knowledge of the beliefs of the pagan
+Irish is very slight. The oldest texts belonging to the heroic cycle are
+not preserved in any MS. before 1100, and though the sagas were
+certainly committed to writing several centuries before that date, it is
+evident that the monkish transcribers have toned down or omitted
+features that savoured too strongly of paganism. Supernatural beings
+play an important part in the _Táin Bó Cualgne_, _Cuchulinn's Sickbed_,
+the _Wooing of Emer_ and similar stories, but the relations between
+ordinary mortals and such divine or semi-divine personages is not easy
+to establish. It seems unlikely that the ancient Irish had a highly
+developed pantheon. On the other hand there are abundant traces of
+animistic worship, which have survived in wells, often associated with a
+sacred tree (Ir. _bile_), bulláns, pillar stones, weapons. There are
+also traces of the worship of the elements, prominent among which are
+sun and fire. The belief in earth spirits or fairies (Ir. _aes síde_,
+_síd_) forms perhaps the most striking feature of Irish belief. The
+sagas teem with references to the inhabitants of the fairy mounds, who
+play such an important part in the mind of the peasantry of our own
+time. These supernatural beings are sometimes represented as immortal,
+but often they fall victims to the prowess of mortals. Numerous cases of
+marriage between fairies and mortals are recorded. The Tuatha Dé Danann
+is used as a collective name for the _aes síde_. The representatives of
+this race in the _Táin Bó Cualgne_ play a somewhat similar part to the
+gods of the ancient Greeks in the _Iliad_, though they are of necessity
+of a much more shadowy nature. Prominent among them were Manannán mac
+Lir, who is connected with the sea and the Isle of Man, and the Dagda,
+the father of a numerous progeny. One of them, Bodb Derg, resided near
+Portumna on the shore of Lough Derg, whilst another, Angus Mac-in-óg,
+dwelt at the Brug of the Boyne, the well-known tumulus at New Grange.
+The Dagda's daughter Brigit transmitted many of her attributes to the
+Christian saint of the same name (d. 523). The ancient Brigit seems to
+have been the patroness of the arts and was probably also the goddess of
+fertility. At any rate it is with her that the sacred fire at Kildare
+which burnt almost uninterruptedly until the time of the Reformation
+was associated; and she was commonly invoked in the Hebrides, and until
+quite recently in Donegal, to secure good crops. Well-known fairy queens
+are Clidna (south Munster) and Aibell (north Munster). We frequently
+hear of three goddesses of war--Ana, Bodb and Macha, also generally
+called Morrígu and Badb. They showed themselves in battles hovering over
+the heads of the combatants in the form of a carrion crow. The name Bodb
+appears on a Gaulish stone as (_Cathu_-)_bodvae_. The _Geniti glinni_
+and _demna aeir_ were other fierce spirits who delighted in carnage.
+
+When we come to treat of religious rites and worship, our sources leave
+us completely in the dark. We hear in several documents of a great idol
+covered with gold and silver named Cromm Cruach, or Cenn Cruaich, which
+was surrounded by twelve lesser idols covered with brass or bronze, and
+stood on Mag Slecht (the plain of prostrations) near Ballymagauran, Co.
+Cavan. In one text the Cromm Cruach is styled the chief idol of Ireland.
+According to the story St Patrick overthrew the idol, and one of the
+lives of the saint states that the mark of his crosier might still be
+seen on the stone. In the _Dindsenchus_ we are told that the worshippers
+sacrificed their children to the idol in order to secure corn, honey and
+milk in plenty. On the occasion of famine the druids advised that the
+son of a sinless married couple should be brought to Ireland to be
+killed in front of Tara and his blood mixed with the soil of Tara. We
+might naturally expect to find the druids active in the capacity of
+priests in Ireland. D'Arbois de Jubainville maintains that in Gaul the
+three classes of druids, vates and gutuatri, corresponded more or less
+to the pontifices, augurs and flamens of ancient Rome. In ancient Irish
+literature the functions of the druids correspond fairly closely to
+those of their Gaulish brethren recorded by Caesar and other writers of
+antiquity. Had we contemporary accounts of the position of the druid in
+Ireland prior to the introduction of Christianity, it may be doubted if
+any serious difference would be discovered. In early Irish literature
+the druids chiefly appear as magicians and diviners, but they are also
+the repositaries of the learning of the time which they transmitted to
+the disciples accompanying them (see DRUIDISM). The Druids were believed
+to have the power to render a person insane by flinging a magic wisp of
+straw in his face, and they were able to raise clouds of mist, or to
+bring down showers of fire and blood. They claimed to be able to
+foretell the future by watching the clouds, or by means of divining-rods
+made of yew. They also resorted to sacrifice. They possessed several
+means for rendering a person invisible, and various peculiar and
+complicated methods of divination, such as _Imbas forosna_, _tein
+laegda_, and _díchetal do chennaib_, are described in early authorities.
+Whether or not the Irish druids taught that the soul was immortal is a
+question which it is impossible to decide. There is one passage which
+seems to support the view that they agreed with the Gaulish druids in
+this respect, but it is not safe to deny the possible influence of
+Christian teaching in the document in question. The Irish, however,
+possessed some more or less definite notions about an abode of
+everlasting youth and peace inhabited by fairies. The latter either
+dwell in the síd, and this is probably the earlier conception, or in
+islands out in the ocean where they live a life of never-ending delight.
+These happy abodes were known by various names, as Tír Tairngiri (Land
+of Promise), Mag Mell (Plain of Pleasures). Condla Caem son of Conn
+Cétchathach was carried in a boat of crystal by a fairy maiden to the
+land of youth, and among other mortals who went thither Bran, son of
+Febal, and Ossian are the most famous. The doctrine of metempsychosis
+seems to have been familiar in early Ireland. Mongan king of Dalriada in
+the 7th century is stated to have passed after death into various
+shapes--a wolf, a stag, a salmon, a seal, a swan. Fintan, nephew of
+Partholan, is also reported to have survived the deluge and to have
+lived in various shapes until he was reborn as Tuan mac Cairill in the
+6th century. This legend appears to have been worked up, if not
+manufactured, by the historians of the 9th to 11th centuries to support
+their fictions. It may, however, be mentioned that Giraldus Cambrensis
+and the _Speculum Regale_ state in all seriousness that certain of the
+inhabitants of Ossory were able at will to assume the form of wolves,
+and similar stories are not infrequent in Irish romance.
+
+_Conversion to Christianity._--In the beginning of the 4th century there
+was an organized Christian church in Britain; and in view of the
+intimate relations existing between Wales and Ireland during that
+century it is safe to conclude that there were Christians in Ireland
+before the time of St Patrick. Returned colonists from south Wales,
+traders and the raids of the Irish in Britain with the consequent influx
+of British captives sold into slavery must have introduced the knowledge
+of Christianity into the island considerably before A.D. 400. In this
+connexion it is interesting to find an Irishman named Fith (also called
+Iserninus) associated with St Patrick at Auxerre. Further, the earliest
+Latin words introduced into Irish show the influence of British
+pronunciation (e.g. O. Ir. _trindóit_ from _trinitat-em_ shows the
+Brythonic change of a to ó). Irish records preserve the names of three
+shadowy pre-Patrician saints who were connected with south-east Ireland,
+Declan, Ailbe and Ciaran.
+
+In one source the great heresiarch Pelagius is stated to have been a
+Scot. He may have been descended from an Irish family settled in south
+Wales. We have also the statement of Prosper of Aquitaine that Palladius
+was sent by Pope Celestine as first bishop to the Scots that believe in
+Christ. But though we may safely assume that a number of scattered
+communities existed in Ireland, and probably not in the south alone, it
+is unlikely that there was any organization before the time of St
+Patrick. This mission arose out of the visit of St Germanus of Auxerre
+to Britain. The British bishops had grown alarmed at the rapid growth of
+Pelagianism in Britain and sought the aid of the Gaulish church. A synod
+summoned for the occasion commissioned Germanus and Lupus to go to
+Britain, which they accordingly did in 429; Pope Celestine, we are told,
+had given his sanction to the mission through the deacon Palladius. The
+heresy was successfully stamped out in Britain, but distinct traces of
+it are to be found some three centuries later in Ireland, and it is to
+Irish monks on the European continent that we owe the preservation of
+the recently discovered copies of Pelagius's _Commentary_. Palladius's
+activity in Britain probably marked him out as the man to undertake the
+task of bringing Ireland into touch with Western Christianity. In any
+case Prosper and the Irish Annals represent him as arriving in Ireland
+in 431 with episcopal rank. His missionary activity unfortunately is
+extremely obscure. Tradition associates his name with Co. Wicklow, but
+Irish sources state that after a brief sojourn there he proceeded to the
+land of the Picts, among whom he was beginning to labour when his career
+was cut short by death.
+
+_St Patrick._--At this juncture Germanus of Auxerre decided to
+consecrate his pupil Patrick for the purpose of carrying on the work
+begun by Palladius. Patrick would possess several qualifications for the
+dignity of a missionary bishop to Ireland. Born in Britain about 389, he
+had been carried into slavery in Ireland when a youth of sixteen. He
+remained with his master for seven years, and must have had ample
+opportunity for observing the conditions, and learning the language, of
+the people around him; and such knowledge would have been indispensable
+to the Christian bishop in view of the peculiar state of Irish society
+(see PATRICK, ST). The new bishop landed in Wicklow in 432. Leinster was
+probably the province in which Christianity was already most strongly
+represented, and Patrick may have entrusted this part of his sphere to
+two fellow-workers from Gaul, Auxilius and Iserninus. At any rate he
+seems rather to have addressed himself more especially to the task of
+founding churches in Meath, Ulster and Connaught. In Ireland the land
+nominally belonged to the tribe, but in reality a kind of feudal system
+existed. In order to succeed with the body of the tribe it was necessary
+to secure the adherence of the chief. The conversion in consequence was
+in large measure only apparent; and such pagan superstitions and
+practices as did not run directly counter to the new teaching were
+tolerated by the saint. Thus, whilst the mass of the people practically
+still continued in heathendom, the apostle was enabled to found
+churches and schools and educate a priesthood which should provide the
+most effective and certain means of conversion. It would be a mistake to
+suppose that his success was as rapid or as complete as is generally
+assumed. There can be no doubt that he met with great opposition both
+from the high-king Loigaire and from the druids. But though Loigaire
+refused to desert the faith of his ancestors we are told that a number
+of his nearest kinsmen accepted Christianity; and if there be any truth
+in the story of the codification of the Brehon Laws we gather that he
+realized that the future belonged to the new religion. St Patrick's work
+seems to fall under two heads. In the first place he planted the faith
+in parts of the north and west which had probably not yet heard the
+gospel. He also organized the already existing Christian communities,
+and with this in view founded a church at Armagh as his metropolitan see
+(444). It is further due to him that Ireland became linked up with Rome
+and the Christian countries of the Western church, and that in
+consequence Latin was introduced as the language of the church. It seems
+probable that St Patrick consecrated a considerable number of bishops
+with small but definite dioceses which doubtless coincided in the main
+with the territories of the _tuatha_. In any case the ideal of the
+apostle from Britain was almost certainly very different from the
+monastic system in vogue in Ireland in the 6th and 7th centuries.
+
+_The Early Irish Church._--The church founded by St Patrick was
+doubtless in the main identical in doctrine with the churches of Britain
+and Gaul and other branches of the Western church; but after the recall
+of the Roman legions from Britain the Irish church was shut off from the
+Roman world, and it is only natural that there should not have been any
+great amount of scruple with regard to orthodox doctrine. This would
+explain the survival of the writings of Pelagius in Ireland until the
+8th century. Even Columba himself, in his Latin hymn _Altus prosator_,
+was suspected by Gregory the Great of favouring Arian doctrines. After
+the death of St Patrick there was apparently a relapse into paganism in
+many parts of the island. The church itself gradually became grafted on
+to the feudal organization, the result of which was the peculiar system
+which we find in the 6th and 7th centuries. Wherever Roman law and
+municipal institutions had been in force the church was modelled on the
+civil society. The bishops governed ecclesiastical districts co-ordinate
+with the civil divisions. In Ireland there were no cities and no
+municipal institutions; the nation consisted of groups of tribes
+connected by kinship, and loosely held together by a feudal system which
+we shall examine later. Although St Patrick endeavoured to organize the
+Irish church on regular diocesan lines, after his death an approximation
+to the lay system was under the circumstances almost inevitable. When a
+chief became a Christian and bestowed lands on the church, he at the
+same time transferred all his rights as a chief; but these rights still
+remained with his sept, albeit subordinate to the uses of the church. At
+first all church offices were exclusively confined to members of the
+sept. In this new sept there was consequently a twofold succession. The
+religious sept or family consisted in the first instance not only of the
+ecclesiastical persons to whom the gift was made, but of all the _céli_
+or vassals, tenants and slaves, connected with the land bestowed. The
+head was the coarb (Ir. _comarba_, "co-heir"), i.e. the inheritor both
+of the spiritual and temporal rights and privileges of the founder; he
+in his temporal capacity exacted rent and tribute like other chiefs, and
+made war not on temporal chiefs only, the spectacle of two coarbs making
+war on each other not being unusual. The ecclesiastical colonies that
+went forth from a parent family generally remained in subordination to
+it, in the same way that the spreading branches of a ruling family
+remained in general subordinate to it. The heads of the secondary
+families were also called the coarbs of the original founder. Thus there
+were coarbs of Columba at Iona, Kells, Derry, Durrow and other places.
+The coarb of the chief spiritual foundation was called the high coarb
+(ard-chomarba). The coarb might be a bishop or only an abbot, but in
+either case all the ecclesiastics in the family were subject to him; in
+this way it frequently happened that bishops, though their superior
+functions were recognized, were in subjection to abbots who were only
+priests, as in the case of St Columba, or even to a woman, as in the
+case of St Brigit. This singular association of lay and spiritual powers
+was liable to the abuse of allowing the whole succession to fall into
+lay hands, as happened to a large extent in later times. The temporal
+chief had his steward who superintended the collection of his rents and
+tributes; in like manner the coarb of a religious sept had his
+_airchinnech_ (Anglo-Irish _erenach_, _herenach_), whose office was
+generally, but not necessarily, hereditary. The office embodied in a
+certain sense the lay succession in the family.
+
+From the beginning the life of the converts must have been in some
+measure coenobitic. Indeed it could hardly have been otherwise in a
+pagan and half-savage land. St Patrick himself in his Confession makes
+mention of monks in Ireland in connexion with his mission, but the few
+glimpses we get of the monastic life of the decades immediately
+following his death prove that the earliest type of coenobium differed
+considerably from that known at a later period. The coenobium of the end
+of the 5th century consisted of an ordinary sept or family whose chief
+had become Christian. After making a gift of his lands the chief either
+retired, leaving it in the hands of a coarb, or remained as the
+religious head himself. The family went on with their usual avocations,
+but some of the men and women, and in some cases all, practised
+celibacy, and all joined in fasting and prayer. It may be inferred from
+native documents that grave disorders were prevalent under this system.
+A severer and more exclusive type of monasticism succeeded this
+primitive one, but apart from the separation of the sexes the general
+character never entirely changed.
+
+Diocesan organization as understood in countries under Roman Law being
+unknown, there was not that limitation of the number of bishops which
+territorial jurisdiction renders necessary, and consequently the number
+of bishops increased beyond all proportions. Thus, St Mochta, abbot of
+Louth, and a reputed disciple of St Patrick, is stated to have had no
+less than 100 bishops in his monastic family. All the bishops in a
+coenobium were subject to the abbot; but besides the bishop in the
+monastic families, every _tuath_ or tribe had its own bishop. The church
+in Ireland having been evolved out of the monastic nuclei already
+described the tribe bishop was an episcopal development of a somewhat
+later period. He was an important personage, his status being fixed in
+the Brehon laws, from which we learn that his honour price was seven
+_cumals_, and that he had the right to be accompanied by the same number
+of followers as a petty king. The power of the bishops was considerable,
+as they were strong enough to resist the kings with regard to the right
+of sanctuary, ever a fertile source of dissension. The _tuath_ bishop in
+later centuries corresponded to the diocesan bishop as closely as it was
+possible in two systems so different as tribal and municipal government.
+When diocesan jurisdiction was introduced into Ireland in the 12th
+century the _tuath_ became a diocese. Many of the old dioceses represent
+ancient _tuatha_, and even enlarged modern dioceses coincide with the
+territories of ancient tribal states. Thus the diocese of Kilmacduagh
+was the territory of the Hui Fiachrach Aidne; that of Kilfenora was the
+tribe land of Corco-Mruad or Corcomroe. Many deaneries also represent
+tribe territories. Thus the deanery of Musgrylin (Co. Cork) was the
+ancient Muscraige Mitaine, and no doubt had its tribe bishop in ancient
+times. Bishops without dioceses and monastic bishops were not unknown
+outside Ireland in the Eastern and Western churches in very early times,
+but they had disappeared with rare exceptions in the 6th century when
+the Irish reintroduced the monastic bishops and the monastic church into
+Britain and the continent.
+
+In the 8th and 9th centuries, when the great emigration of Irish
+scholars and ecclesiastics took place, the number of wandering bishops
+without dioceses became a reproach to the Irish church; and there can be
+no doubt that it led to much inconvenience and abuse, and was subversive
+of the stricter discipline that the popes had succeeded in establishing
+in the Western church. They were accused of ordaining serfs without the
+consent of their lords, consecrating bishops _per saltum_, i.e. of
+making men bishops who had not previously received the orders of
+priests, and of permitting bishops to be consecrated by a single bishop.
+This custom can hardly, however, be a reproach to the Irish church, as
+the practice was never held to be invalid; and besides, the Nicene
+canons of discipline were perhaps not known in Ireland until
+comparatively late times. The isolated position of Ireland, and the
+existence of tribal organization in full vigour, explain fully the
+anomalies of Irish discipline, many of which were also survivals of the
+early Christian practices before the complete organization of the
+church.
+
+After the death of St Patrick the bond between the numerous church
+families which his authority supplied was greatly relaxed; and the
+saint's most formidable opponents, the druids, probably regained much of
+their old power. The transition period which follows the loosening of a
+people's faith in its old religion and before the authority of the new
+is universally accepted is always a time of confusion and relaxation of
+morals. Such a period appears to have followed the fervour of St
+Patrick's time. To judge from the early literature the marriage-tie
+seems to have been regarded very lightly, and there can be little doubt
+that pagan marriage customs were practised long after the introduction
+of Christianity. The Brehon Laws assume the existence of married as well
+as unmarried clergy, and when St Patrick was seeking a bishop for the
+men of Leinster he asked for "a man of one wife." Marriage among the
+secular clergy went on in Ireland until the 15th century. Like the
+Gaulish druids described by Caesar, the poet (_fili_) and the druid
+possessed a huge stock of unwritten native lore, probably enshrined in
+verse which was learnt by rote by their pupils. The exalted position
+occupied by the learned class in ancient Ireland perhaps affords the key
+to the wonderful outbursts of scholarly activity in Irish monasteries
+from the 6th to the 9th centuries. That some of the _filid_ embraced
+Christianity from the outset is evident from the story of Dubthach. As
+early as the second half of the 5th century Enda, a royal prince of
+Oriel (c. 450-540), after spending some time at Whithorn betook himself
+to Aranmore, off the coast of Galway, and founded a school there which
+attracted scholars from all over Ireland. The connexion between Ireland
+and Wales was strong in the 6th century, and it was from south Wales
+that the great reform movement in the Irish monasteries emanated.
+Findian of Clonard (c. 470-548) is usually regarded as the institutor of
+the type of monastery for which Ireland became so famous during the next
+few centuries. He spent some time in Wales, where he came under the
+influence of St David, Gildas and Cadoc; and on returning to Ireland he
+founded his famous monastery at Clonard (Co. Meath) about 520. Here no
+less than 3000 students are said to have received instruction at the
+same time. Such a monastery consisted of countless tiny huts of wattles
+and clay (or, where stone was plentiful, of beehive cells) built by the
+pupils and enclosed by a fosse, or trench, like a permanent military
+encampment. The pupils sowed their own corn, fished in the streams, and
+milked their own cows. Instruction was probably given in the open air.
+Twelve of Findian's disciples became known as the twelve apostles of
+Ireland, the monastic schools they founded becoming the greatest centres
+of learning and religious instruction not only in Ireland, but in the
+whole of the west of Europe. Among the most famous were Moville (Co.
+Down), founded by another Findian, c. 540; Clonmacnoise, founded by
+Kieran, 541; Derry, founded by Columba, 546; Clonfert, founded by
+Brendan, 552; Bangor, founded in 558 by Comgall; Durrow, founded by
+Columba, c. 553. The chief reform due to the influence of the British
+church[4] seems to have been the introduction of monastic life in the
+strict sense of the word, i.e. communities entirely separated from the
+laity with complete separation of the sexes.
+
+One almost immediate outcome of the reformation effected by Findian was
+that wonderful spirit of missionary enterprise which made the name of
+Scot and of Ireland so well known throughout Europe, while at the same
+time the Irish were being driven out of their colonies in Wales and
+south-west Britain owing to the advance of the Saxon power. In 563
+Columba founded the monastery of Hí (Iona), which spread the knowledge
+of the Gospel among the Picts of the Scottish mainland. From this same
+solitary outpost went forth the illustrious Aidan to plant another Iona
+at Lindisfarne, which, "long after the poor parent brotherhood had
+fallen to decay, expanded itself into the bishopric of Durham." And
+Lightfoot claims for Aidan "the first place in the evangelization of the
+English race. Augustine was the apostle of Kent, but Aidan was the
+apostle of England." In 590 Columbanus, a native of Leinster (b. 543),
+went forth from Bangor, accompanied by twelve companions, to preach the
+Gospel on the continent of Europe. Columbanus was the first of the long
+stream of famous Irish monks who left their traces in Italy,
+Switzerland, Germany and France; amongst them being Gallus or St Gall,
+founder of St Gallen, Kilian of Würzburg, Virgil of Salzburg, Cathald of
+Tarentum and numerous others. At the beginning of the 8th century a long
+series of missionary establishments extended from the mouths of the
+Meuse and Rhine to the Rhône and the Alps, whilst many others founded by
+Germans are the offspring of Irish monks. Willibrord, the apostle of the
+Frisians, for instance, spent twelve years in Ireland. Other Irishmen
+seeking remote places wherein to lead the lives of anchorites, studded
+the numerous islands on the west coast of Scotland with their little
+buildings. Cormac ua Liathain, a disciple of St Columba, visited the
+Orkneys, and when the Northmen first discovered Iceland they found there
+books and other traces of the early Irish church. It may be mentioned
+that the geographer Dicuil who lived at the court of Charlemagne gives a
+description of Iceland which must have been obtained from some one who
+had been there. The peculiarities which owing to Ireland's isolation had
+survived were brought into prominence when the Irish missionaries came
+into contact with Roman ecclesiastics. The chief points of difference
+were the calculation of Easter and the form of the tonsure, in addition
+to questions of discipline such as the consecration of bishops _per
+saltum_ and bishops without dioceses. With regard to tonsure it would
+seem that the druids shaved the front part of the head from ear to ear.
+St Patrick doubtless introduced the ordinary coronal tonsure, but in the
+period following his death the old druidical tonsure was again revived.
+In the calculation of Easter the Irish employed the old Roman and Jewish
+84-years' cycle which they may have received from St Patrick and which
+had once prevailed all over Europe. Shut off from the world, they were
+probably ignorant of the new cycle of 532 years which had been adopted
+by Rome in 463. This question aroused a controversy which waxed hottest
+in England, and as the Irish monks stubbornly adhered to their
+traditions they were vehemently attacked by their opponents. As early as
+633 the church of the south of Ireland, which had been more in contact
+with Gaul, had been won over to the Roman method of computation. The
+north and Iona on the other hand refused to give in until Adamnán
+induced the north of Ireland to yield in 697, while Iona held out until
+716, although by this time the monastery had lost its influence in
+Pictland. Owing to these controversies the real work of the early Irish
+missionaries in converting the pagans of Britain and central Europe, and
+sowing the seeds of culture there, is apt to be overlooked. Thus, when
+the Anglo-Saxon, Winfrid, surnamed Boniface, appeared in the kingdom of
+the Franks as papal legate in 723, to romanize the existing church of
+the time, neither the Franks, the Thuringians, the Alemanni nor the
+Bavarians could be considered as pagans. What Irish missionaries and
+their foreign pupils had implanted for more than a century quite
+independently of Rome, Winfrid organized and established under Roman
+authority partly by force of arms.
+
+During the four centuries which elapsed between the arrival of St
+Patrick and the establishment of a central state in Dublin by the
+Norsemen the history of Ireland is almost a blank as regards
+outstanding events. From the time that the Milesians of Tara had come to
+be recognized as suzerains of the whole island all political development
+ceases. The annals contain nothing save a record of intertribal warfare,
+which the high-king was rarely powerful enough to stay. The wonderful
+achievements of the Irish monks did not affect the body politic as a
+whole, and it may be doubted if there was any distinct advance in
+civilization in Ireland from the time of Niall Nóigiallach to the
+Anglo-Norman invasion. Niall's posterity held the position of _ardrí_
+uninterruptedly until 1002. Four of his sons, Loigaire, Conall
+Crimthand, Fiacc and Maine, settled in Meath and adjoining territories,
+and their posterity were called the southern Hy Neill. The other four,
+Eogan, Enna Find, Cairpre and Conall Gulban, occupied the northern part
+of Ulster. Their descendants were known as the northern Hy Neill.[5] The
+descendants of Eogan were the O'Neills and their numerous kindred septs;
+the posterity of Conall Gulban were the O'Donnells and their kindred
+septs. Niall died in 406 in the English Channel whilst engaged in a
+marauding expedition. He was succeeded by his nephew Dathi, son of
+Fiachra, son of Eochaid Muigmedóin, who is stated to have been struck by
+lightning at the foot of the Alps in 428. Loigaire, son of Niall
+(428-463), is identified with the story of St Patrick. According to
+tradition it was during his reign that the codification of the _Senchus
+Mór_ took place. A well-known story represents him as constantly at war
+with the men of Leinster. His successor, Ailill Molt (463-483), son of
+Dathi, is remarkable as being the last high-king for 500 years who was
+not a direct descendant of Niall.
+
+In 503 a body of colonists under Fergus, son of Erc, moved from Dalriada
+to Argyll and effected settlements there. The circumstances which
+enabled the Scots to succeed in occupying Kintyre and Islay cannot now
+be ascertained. The little kingdom had great difficulty to maintain
+itself, and its varying fortunes are very obscure. Neither is it clear
+that bodies of Scots had not already migrated to Argyll. Diarmait, son
+of Fergus Cerbaill (544-565), of the southern Hy Neill, undoubtedly
+professed Christianity though he still clung to many pagan practices,
+such as polygamy and the use of druidical incantations in battle. The
+annals represent him as getting into trouble with the Church on account
+of his violation of the right of sanctuary. At an assembly held at Tara
+in 554 Curnan, son of the king of Connaught, slew a nobleman, a crime
+punishable with death. The author of the deed fled for sanctuary to St
+Columba. But Diarmait pursued him, and disregarding the opposition of
+the saint seized Curnan and hanged him. St Columba's kinsmen, the
+northern Hy Neill, took up the quarrel, and attacked and defeated the
+king at Culdreimne in 561. In this battle Diarmait is stated to have
+employed druids to form an _airbe druad_ (fence of protection?) round
+his host. A few years later Diarmait seized by force the chief of Hy
+Maine, who had slain his herald and had taken refuge with St Ruadan of
+Lothra. According to the legend the saint, accompanied by St Brendan of
+Birr, followed the king to Tara and solemnly cursed it, from which time
+it was deserted. It has been suggested that Tara was abandoned during
+the plague of 548-549. Others have surmised that it was abandoned as a
+regular place of residence long before this, soon after the northern and
+southern branches of the Hy Neill had consolidated their power at Ailech
+and in Westmeath. Whatever truth there may be in the legend, it
+demonstrates conclusively the absence of a rallying point where the idea
+of a central government might have taken root. Aed, son of Ainmire
+(572-598) of the northern Hy Neill, figures prominently in the story of
+St Columba. It was during his reign that the famous assembly of Drumcet
+(near Newtown-limavaddy in Co. Derry) was held. The story goes that the
+_filid_ had increased in number to such an extent that they included
+one-third of the freemen. There was thus quite an army of impudent
+swaggering idlers roaming about the country and quartering themselves
+on the chiefs and nobles during the winter and spring, story-telling,
+and lampooning those who dared to hesitate to comply with their demands.
+
+Some idea of the style of living of the learned professions in early
+Ireland may be gathered from the income enjoyed in later times by the
+literati of Tír Conaill (Co. Donegal). It has been computed that no less
+than Ł2000 was set aside yearly in this small state for the maintenance
+of the class. No wonder, then, that Aed determined to banish them from
+Ireland. At the convention of Drumcet the number of _filid_ was greatly
+reduced, lands were assigned for their maintenance, the ollams were
+required to open schools and to support the inferior bards as teachers.
+This reform may have helped to foster the cultivation of the native
+literature, and it is possible that we owe to it the preservation of the
+Ulster epic. But the Irish were unfortunately incapable of rising above
+the saga, consisting of a mixture of prose and verse. Their greatest
+achievement in literature dates back to the dawn of history, and we find
+no more trace of development in the world of letters than in the
+political sphere. The Irishman, in his own language at any rate, seems
+incapable of a sustained literary effort, a consequence of which is that
+he invents the most intricate measures. Sense is thus too frequently
+sacrificed to sound. The influence of the professional literary class
+kept the clan spirit alive with their elaborate genealogies, and in
+their poems they only pandered to the vanity and vices of their patrons.
+That no new ideas came in may be gathered from the fact that the bulk of
+Irish literature so far published dates from before 800, though the MSS.
+which contain it are much later. Bearing in mind how largely the Finn
+cycle is modelled on the older Ulster epic, works of originality
+composed between 1000 and 1600 are with one or two exceptions
+conspicuously absent.
+
+At the convention of Drumcet the status of the Dalriadic settlement in
+Argyll was also regulated. The _ardrí_ desired to make the colony an
+Irish state tributary to the high-king; but on the special pleading of
+St Columba it was allowed to remain independent. Aed lost his life in
+endeavouring to exact the _boroma_ tribute from Brandub, king of
+Leinster, who defeated him at Dunbolg in 598. After several short reigns
+the throne was occupied by Aed's son Domnall (627-641). His predecessor,
+Suibne Menn, had been slain by the king of Dalaraide, Congal Claen. The
+latter was driven out of the country by Domnall, whereupon Congal
+collected an army of foreign adventurers made up of Saxons, Dalriadic
+Scots, Britons and Picts to regain his lands and to avenge himself on
+the high-king. In a sanguinary encounter at Mag Raith (Moira in Co.
+Down), which forms the subject of a celebrated romance, Congal was slain
+and the power of the settlement in Kintyre weakened for a considerable
+period. A curious feature of Hy Neill rule about this time was joint
+kingship. From 563 to 656 there were no less than five such pairs. In
+681 St Moling of Ferns prevailed upon the _ardrí_ Finnachta (674-690) to
+renounce for ever the _boroma_, tribute, which had always been a source
+of friction between the supreme king and the ruler of Leinster. This
+was, however, unfortunately not the last of the _boroma_. Fergal
+(711-722), in trying to enforce it again, was slain in a famous battle
+at Allen in Kildare. As a sequel Fergal's son, Aed Allan (734-743),
+defeated the men of Leinster with great slaughter at Ballyshannon (Co.
+Kildare) in 737. If there was so little cohesion among the various
+provinces it is small wonder that Ireland fell such an easy prey to the
+Vikings in the next century. In 697 an assembly was held at Tara in
+which a law known as _Cáin Adamnáin_ was passed, at the instance of
+Adamnán, prohibiting women from taking part in battle; a decision that
+shows how far Ireland with its tribal system lagged behind Teutonic and
+Latin countries in civilization. A similar enactment exempting the
+clergy, known as _Cáin Patraic_, was agreed to in 803. The story goes
+that the _ardrí_ Aed Oirdnigthe (797-819) made a hostile incursion into
+Leinster and forced the primate of Armagh and all his clergy to attend
+him. When representations were made to the king as to the impropriety of
+his conduct, he referred the matter to his adviser, Fothud, who was also
+a cleric. Fothud pronounced that the clergy should be exempted, and
+three verses purporting to be his decision are still extant.
+
+_Invasion of the Northmen._--The first incursion of the Northmen took
+place in A.D. 795, when they plundered and burnt the church of Rechru,
+now Lambay, an island north of Dublin Bay. When this event occurred, the
+power of the over-king was a mere shadow. The provincial kingdoms had
+split up into more or less independent principalities, almost constantly
+at war with each other. The oscillation of the centre of power between
+Meath and Tír Eogain, according as the _ardrí_ belonged to the southern
+or northern Hy Neill, produced corresponding perturbations in the
+balance of parties among the minor kings. The army consisted of a number
+of tribes, each commanded by its own chief, and acting as so many
+independent units without cohesion. The tribesmen owed fealty only to
+their chiefs, who in turn owed a kind of conditional allegiance to the
+over-king, depending a good deal upon the ability of the latter to
+enforce it. A chief might through pique or other causes withdraw his
+tribe even on the eve of a battle without such defection being deemed
+dishonourable. What the tribe was to the nation or the province, the
+_fine_ or sept was to the tribe itself. The head of a sept had a voice
+not only in the question of war or peace, for that was determined by the
+whole tribe, but in all subsequent operations. However brave the
+individual soldiers of such an army might be, the army itself was
+unreliable against a well-organized and disciplined enemy. Again, such
+tribal forces were only levies gathered together for a few weeks at
+most, unprovided with military stores or the means of transport, and
+consequently generally unprepared to attack fortifications of any kind,
+and liable to melt away as quickly as they were gathered together.
+Admirably adapted for a sudden attack, such an army was wholly unfit to
+carry on a regular campaign or take advantage of a victory. These
+defects of the Irish military system were abundantly shown throughout
+the Viking period and also in Anglo-Norman times.
+
+The first invaders were probably Norwegians[6] from Hördaland in search
+of plunder and captives. Their attacks were not confined to the
+sea-coasts; they were able to ascend the rivers in their ships, and
+already in 801 they are found on the upper Shannon. At the outset the
+invaders arrived in small bodies, but as these met with considerable
+resistance large fleets commanded by powerful Vikings followed. With
+such forces it was possible to put fleets of boats on the inland lakes.
+Rude earthen or stockaded forts, serving as magazines and places of
+retreat, were erected; or in some cases use was made of strongholds
+already existing, such as Dun Almain in Kildare, Dunlavin in Wicklow and
+Fermoy in Cork. Some of these military posts in course of time became
+trading stations or grew into towns. During the first half of the 9th
+century attacks were incessant in most parts of the island. In 801 we
+find Norwegians on the upper Shannon; in 820 the whole of Ireland was
+harried; and five years later we hear of Vikings in Co. Dublin, Meath,
+Kildare, Wicklow, Queen's Co., Kilkenny and Tipperary. However, the
+invaders do not appear to have acted in concert until 830. About this
+time a powerful leader, named Turgeis (Turgesius), accompanied by two
+nobles, Saxolb and Domrair (Thorir), arrived with a "royal fleet."
+Sailing up the Shannon they built strongholds on Lough Ree and
+devastated Connaught and Meath. Eventually Turgeis established himself
+in Armagh, whilst his wife Ota settled at Clonmacnoise and profaned the
+monastery church with pagan rites. Indeed, the numerous ecclesiastical
+establishments appear to have been quite as much the object of the
+invaders' fury as the civil authorities. The monastery of Armagh was
+rebuilt ten times, and as often destroyed. It was sacked three times in
+one month. Turgeis himself is reported to have usurped the abbacy of
+Armagh. To escape from the continuous attacks on the monasteries, Irish
+monks and scholars fled in large numbers to the continent carrying with
+them their precious books. Among them were many of the greatest lights
+in the world of letters of the time, such as Sedulius Scottus and
+Johannes Scottus Erigena. The figure of Turgeis has given rise to
+considerable discussion, as there is no mention of him in Scandinavian
+sources. It seems probable that his Norwegian name was Thorgils and he
+was possibly related to Godfred, father of Olaf the White, who figures
+prominently in Irish history a little later. Turgeis apparently united
+the Viking forces, as he is styled the first king of the Norsemen in
+Ireland. A permanent sovereignty over the whole of Ireland, such as
+Turgeis seems to have aimed at, was then as in later times impossible
+because of the state of society. During his lifetime various cities were
+founded--the first on Irish soil. Dublin came into existence in 840, and
+Waterford and Limerick appear in history about the same time. Although
+the Norsemen were constantly engaged in conflict with the Irish, these
+cities soon became important commercial centres trading with England,
+France and Norway. Turgeis was captured and drowned by the _ardrí_
+Maelsechlainn in 844, and two years later Domrair was slain. However
+cruel and rapacious the Vikings may have been, the work of disorder and
+ruin was not all theirs. The condition of the country afforded full
+scope for the jealousy, hatred, cupidity and vanity which characterize
+the tribal state of political society. For instance, Fedilmid, king of
+Munster and archbishop of Cashel, took the opportunity of the
+misfortunes of the country to revive the claims of the Munster dynasty
+to be kings of Ireland. To enforce this claim he ravaged and plundered a
+large part of the country, took hostages from Niall Caille the over-king
+(833-845), drove out the _comarba_ of St Patrick, or archbishop of
+Armagh, and for a whole year occupied his place as bishop. On his return
+he plundered the termon lands of Clonmacnoise "up to the church door,"
+an exploit which was repeated the following year. There is no mention of
+his having helped to drive out the foreigners.
+
+For some years after the death of Turgeis the Norsemen appear to have
+lacked a leader and to have been hard pressed. It was during this period
+that Dublin was chosen as the point of concentration for their forces.
+In 848 a Danish fleet from the south of England arrived in Dublin Bay.
+The Danes are called in Irish _Dubgaill_, or black foreigners, as
+distinguished from the _Findgaill_[7] or white foreigners, i.e.
+Norwegians. The origin of these terms, as also of the Irish name for
+Norway (_Lochlann_), is obscure. At first the Danes and Norwegians
+appear to have made common cause, but two years later the new city of
+Dublin was stormed by the Danes. In 851 the Dublin Vikings succeeded in
+vanquishing the Danes after a three days' battle at Snaim Aignech
+(Carlingford Lough), whereupon the defeated party under their leader
+Horm took service with Cerball, king of Ossory. Even in the first half
+of the 9th century there must have been a great deal of intermarriage
+between the invaders and the native population, due in part at any rate
+to the number of captive women who were carried off. A mixed race grew
+up, recruited by many Irish of pure blood, whom a love of adventure and
+a lawless spirit led away. This heterogeneous population was called
+_Gallgoidel_ or foreign Irish (whence the modern name Galloway), and
+like their northern kinsmen they betook themselves to the sea and
+practised piracy. The Christian element in this mixed society soon
+lapsed to a large extent, if not entirely, into paganism. The
+Scandinavian settlements were almost wholly confined to the seaport
+towns, and except Dublin included none of the surrounding territory.
+Owing to its position and the character of the country about it,
+especially the coast-land to the north of the Liffey which formed a kind
+of border-land between the territories of the kings of Meath and
+Leinster, a considerable tract passed into the possession of so powerful
+a city as Dublin.
+
+The social and political condition of Ireland, and the pastoral
+occupation of the inhabitants, were unfavourable to the development of
+foreign commerce, and the absence of coined money among them shows that
+it did not exist on an extensive scale. The foreign articles of luxury
+(dress, ornaments, wine, &c.) required by them were brought to the great
+_oenachs_ or fairs held periodically in various parts of the country. A
+flourishing commerce, however, soon grew up in the Scandinavian towns;
+mints were established, and many foreign traders--Flemings, Italians and
+others--settled there. It was through these Scandinavian trading
+communities that Ireland came into contact with the rest of Europe in
+the 11th and 12th centuries. If evidence were needed it is only
+necessary to point to the names of three of the Irish provinces, Ulster,
+Leinster, Munster, which are formed from the native names (_Ulaid_,
+_Laigin_, _Muma-n_) with the addition of Norse _stađr_; and the very
+name by which the island is now generally known is Scandinavian in form
+(_Ira-land_, the land of the Irish). The settlers in the Scandinavian
+towns early came to be looked upon by the native Irish as so many septs
+of a tribe added to the system of petty states forming the Irish
+political system. They soon mixed in the domestic quarrels of
+neighbouring tribes, at first selling their protection, but afterwards
+as vassals, sometimes as allies, like the septs and tribes of the Goidel
+among themselves. The latter in turn acted in similar capacities with
+the Irish-Norwegian chiefs, Irish tribes often forming part of the
+Scandinavian armies in Britain. This intercourse led to frequent
+intermarriage between the chiefs and nobility of the two peoples. As an
+instance, the case of Cerball, king of Ossory (d. 887), may be cited.
+Eyvindr, surnamed Austmađr, "the east-man,"[8] son of Björn, agreed to
+defend Cerball's territory on condition of receiving his daughter
+Raforta in marriage. Among the children of this marriage were Helgi
+Magri, one of the early settlers in Iceland, and Thurida, wife of
+Thorstein the Red. Three other daughters of Cerball married
+Scandinavians: Gormflaith (Kormlöđ) married Grimolf, who settled in
+Iceland, Fridgerda married Thorir Hyrna, and Ethne (Edna) married
+Hlöđver, father of Earl Sigurd Digri who fell at Clontarf. Cerball's son
+Domnall (Dufnialr) was the founder of an Icelandic family, whilst the
+names Raudi and Baugr occur in the same family. Hence the occurrence of
+such essentially Irish names as Konall, Kjaran, Njall, Kormakr, Brigit,
+Kađlin, &c., among Icelanders and Norwegians cannot be a matter for
+surprise; nor that a number of Norse words were introduced into Irish,
+notably terms connected with trade and the sea.
+
+The obscure contest between the Norwegians and Danes for supremacy in
+Dublin appears to have made the former feel the need of a powerful
+leader. At any rate, in 851-852 the king of Lochlann (Norway) sent his
+son Amlaib (Olaf the White) to assume sovereignty over the Norsemen in
+Ireland and to receive tribute and vassals. From this time it is
+possible to speak of a Scandinavian kingdom of Dublin, a kingdom which
+lasted almost without interruption until the Norman Conquest. The king
+of Dublin exercised overlordship over the other Viking communities in
+the island, and thus became the most dangerous opponent of the _ardrí_,
+with whom he was constantly at variance. Amlaib was accompanied by Ivar,
+who is stated in one source to have been his brother. Some writers wish
+to identify this prince with the famous Ivar Beinlaus, son of Ragnar
+Lodbrok. Amlaib was opposed to the _ardrí_ Maelsechlainn I. (846-863)
+who had overcome Turgeis. This brave ruler gained a number of victories
+over the Norsemen, but in true Irish fashion they were never followed
+up. Although his successor Aed Finnliath (863-879) gave his daughter in
+marriage to Amlaib, no better relations were established. The king of
+Dublin was certainly the most commanding figure in Ireland in his day,
+and during his lifetime the Viking power was greatly extended. In 870 he
+captured the strongholds of Dumbarton and Dunseverick (Co. Antrim). He
+disappears from the scene in 873. One source represents him as dying in
+Ireland, but the circumstances are quite obscure. Ivar only survived
+Olaf two or three years, and it is stated that he died a Christian.
+During the ensuing period Dublin was the scene of constant family feuds,
+which weakened its power to such an extent that in 901 Dublin and
+Waterford were captured by the Irish and were obliged to acknowledge the
+supremacy of the high-king. The Irish Annals state that there were no
+fresh invasions of the Northmen for about forty years dating from 877.
+During this period Ireland enjoyed comparative rest notwithstanding the
+intertribal feuds in which the Norse settlers shared, including the
+campaigns of Cormac, son of Cuilennan, the scholarly king-bishop of
+Cashel.
+
+Towards the end of this interval of repose a certain Sigtrygg, who was
+probably a great-grandson of the Ivar mentioned above, addressed himself
+to the task of winning back the kingdom of his ancestor. Waterford was
+retaken in 914 by Ivar, grandson of Ragnall and Earl Ottir, and Sigtrygg
+won a signal victory over the king of Leinster at Cenn Fuait (Co.
+Kilkenny?) two years later. Dublin was captured, and the high-king Niall
+Glúndub (910-919) prepared to oppose the invaders. A battle of prime
+importance was gained by Sigtrygg over the _ardrí_, who fell fighting
+gallantly at Kilmashogue near Dublin in 919. Between 920 and 970 the
+Scandinavian power in Ireland reached its zenith. The country was
+desolated and plundered by natives and foreigners alike. The lower
+Shannon was more thoroughly occupied by the Norsemen, with which fact
+the rise of Limerick is associated. Carlow, Kilkenny and the territory
+round Lough Neagh were settled, and after the capture of Lough Erne in
+932 much of Longford was colonized. The most prominent figures at this
+time were Muirchertach "of the leather cloaks," son of Niall Glúndub,
+Cellachan of Cashel and Amlaib (Olaf) Cuarán. The first-named waged
+constant warfare against the foreigners and was the most formidable
+opponent the Scandinavians had yet met. In his famous circuit of Ireland
+(941) he took all the provincial kings, as well as the king of Dublin,
+as hostages, and after keeping them for five months at Ailech he handed
+them over to the feeble titular _ardrí_, showing that his loyalty was
+greater than his ambition. Unlike Muirchertach, Cellachan of Cashel, the
+hero of a late romance, was not particular whether he fought for or
+against the Norsemen. In 920 Sigtrygg (d. 927) was driven out of Dublin
+by his brother Godfred (d. 934) and retired to York, where he became
+king of Northumbria. His sons Olaf and Godfred were expelled by
+Ćthelstan. The former, better known as Amlaib (Olaf) Cuarán, married the
+daughter of Constantine, king of Scotland, and fought at Brunanburh
+(938). Born about 920, he perhaps became king of York in 941. Expelled
+in 944-945 he went to Dublin and drove out his cousin Blákáre, son of
+Godfred. At the same time he held sway over the kingdom of Man and the
+Isles. We find this romantic character constantly engaged on expeditions
+in England, Ireland and Scotland. In 956 Congalach, the high-king, was
+defeated and slain by the Norse of Dublin. In 973 his son Domnall, in
+alliance with Amlaib, defeated the high-king Domnall O'Neill at Cell
+Mona (Kilmoon in Co. Meath). This Domnall O'Neill, son of Muirchertach,
+son of Niall Glúndub, was the first to adopt the name O'Neill (Ir. _ua_,
+_ó_ = "grandson"). The tanists or heirs of the northern and southern Hy
+Neill having died, the throne fell to Maelsechlainn II., of the Cland
+Colmáin, the last of the Hy Neill who was undisputed king of Ireland.
+Maelsechlainn, who succeeded in 980, had already distinguished himself
+as king of Meath in war with the Norsemen. In the first year of his
+reign as high-king he defeated them in a bloody battle at Tara, in which
+Amlaib's son, Ragnall, fell. This victory, won over the combined forces
+of the Scandinavians of Dublin, Man and the Isles, compelled Amlaib to
+deliver up all his captives and hostages,--among whom were Domnall
+Claen, king of Leinster, and several notables--to forgo the tribute
+which he had imposed upon the southern Hy Neill and to pay a large
+contribution of cattle and money. Amlaib's spirit was so broken by this
+defeat that he retired to the monastery of Hí, where he died the same
+year.
+
+_The Dalcais Dynasty._--We have already seen that the dominant race in
+Munster traced descent from Ailill Aulom. The Cashel dynasty claimed to
+descend from his eldest son Eogan, whilst the Dalcassians of Clare
+derived their origin from a younger son Cormac Cas. Ailill Aulom is said
+to have ordained that the succession to the throne should alternate
+between the two lines, as in the case of the Hy Neill. This, however, is
+perhaps a fiction of later poets who wished to give lustre to the
+ancestry of Brian Boruma, as very few of the Dalcais princes appear in
+the list of the kings of Cashel. The Dalcassians play no prominent part
+in history until, in the middle of the 10th century, they were ruled by
+Kennedy (Cennétig), son of Lorcan, king of Thomond (d. 954), by whom
+their power was greatly extended. He left two sons, Mathgamain (Mahon)
+and Brian, called Brian Boruma, probably from a village near
+Killaloe.[9] About the year 920 a Viking named Tomrair, son of Elgi, had
+seized the lower Shannon and established himself in Limerick, from which
+point constant incursions were made into all parts of Munster. After a
+period of guerrilla warfare in the woods of Thomond, Mathgamain
+concluded a truce with the foreigners, in which Brian refused to join.
+Thereupon Mathgamain crossed the Shannon and gained possession of the
+kingdom of Cashel, as Dunchad, the representative of the older line, had
+just died. Receiving the support of several of the native tribes, he
+felt himself in a position to attack the settlements of the foreigners
+in Munster. This aroused the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, who determined to
+carry the war into Thomond. He was supported by Maelmuad, king of
+Desmond, and Donoban, king of Hy Fidgeinte, and Hy Cairpri. Their army
+was met by Mathgamain at Sulchoit near Tipperary, where the Norsemen
+were defeated with great slaughter (968). This decisive victory gave the
+Dalcais Limerick, which they sacked and burnt, and Mathgamain then took
+hostages of all the chiefs of Munster. Ivar escaped to Britain, but
+returned after a year and entrenched himself at Inis Cathaig (Scattery
+Island in the lower Shannon). A conspiracy was formed between Ivar and
+his son Dubcenn and the two Munster chieftains Donoban and Maelmuad.
+Donoban was married to the daughter of a Scandinavian king of Waterford,
+and his own daughter was married to Ivar of Waterford.[10] In 976 Inis
+Cathaig was attacked and plundered by the Dalcais and the garrison,
+including Ivar and Dubcenn, slain. Shortly before this Mathgamain had
+been murdered by Donoban, and Brian thus became king of Thomond, whilst
+Maelmuad succeeded to Cashel. In 977 Brian made a sudden and rapid
+inroad into Donoban's territory, captured his fortress and slew the
+prince himself with a vast number of his followers. Maelmuad, the other
+conspirator, met with a like fate at Belach Lechta in Barnaderg (near
+Ballyorgan). After this battle Brian was acknowledged king of all
+Munster (978). After reducing the Dési, who were in alliance with the
+Northmen of Waterford and Limerick, in 984 he subdued Ossory and took
+hostages from the kings of East and West Leinster. In this manner he
+became virtually king of Leth Moga.
+
+This rapid rise of the Dalcassian leader was bound to bring him into
+conflict with the _ardrí_. Already in 982 Maelsechlainn had invaded
+Thomond and uprooted the venerable tree under which the Dalcais rulers
+were inaugurated. After the battle of Tara he had placed his
+half-brother Gluniarind, son of Amlaib Cuarán, in Dublin. This prince
+was murdered in 989 and was succeeded by Sigtrygg Silkiskeggi, son of
+Amlaib and Gormflaith, sister of Maelmorda, king of Leinster. In the
+same year Maelsechlainn took Dublin and imposed an annual tribute on the
+city. During these years there were frequent trials of strength between
+the _ardrí_ and the king of Munster. In 992 Brian invaded Meath, and
+four years later Maelsechlainn defeated Brian in Munster. In 998 Brian
+ascended the Shannon with a large force, intending to attack Connaught,
+and Maelsechlainn, who received no support from the northern Hy Neill,
+came to terms with him. All hostages held by the over-king from the
+Northmen and Irish of Leth Moga were to be given up to Brian, which was
+a virtual surrender of all his rights over the southern half of Ireland;
+while Brian on his part recognized Maelsechlainn as sole king of Leth
+Cuinn. In 1000 Leinster revolted against Brian and entered into an
+alliance with the king of Dublin. Brian advanced towards the city,
+halting at a place called Glen Mama near Dunlavin (Co. Wicklow). He was
+attacked by the allied forces, who were repulsed with great slaughter.
+Maelmorda, king of Leinster, was taken prisoner, and Sigtrygg fled for
+protection to Ailech. The victor gave proof at once that he was not only
+a clever general but also a skilful diplomatist. Maelmorda was restored
+to his kingdom, Sigtrygg received Brian's daughter in marriage, whilst
+Brian took to himself the Dublin king's mother, the notorious
+Gormflaith, who had already been divorced by Maelsechlainn. After thus
+establishing peace and consolidating his power, Brian returned to his
+residence Cenn Corad and matured his plan of obtaining the high-kingship
+for himself. When everything was ready he entered Mag Breg with an army
+consisting of his own troops, those of Ossory, his South Connaught
+vassals and the Norsemen of Munster. The king of Dublin also sent a
+small force to his assistance. Maelsechlainn, taken by surprise and
+feeling himself unequal to the contest, endeavoured to gain time. An
+armistice was concluded, during which he was to decide whether he would
+give Brian hostages (i.e. abdicate) or not. He applied to the northern
+Hy Neill to come to his assistance, and even offered to abdicate in
+favour of the chief of the Cinél Eogain, but the latter refused unless
+Maelsechlainn undertook to cede to them half the territory of his own
+tribe, the Cland Colmáin. The attempt to unite the whole of the
+Eremonian against the Eberian race and preserve a dynasty that had ruled
+Ireland for 600 years, having failed, Maelsechlainn submitted to Brian,
+and without any formal act of cession the latter became _ardrí_. During
+a reign of twelve years (1002-1014) he is said to have effected much
+improvement in the country by the erection and repair of churches and
+schools, and the construction of bridges, causeways, roads and
+fortresses. We are also told that he administered rigid and impartial
+justice and dispensed royal hospitality. As he was liberal to the bards,
+they did not forget his merits.
+
+Towards the end of Brian's reign a conspiracy was entered into between
+Maelmorda, king of Leinster, and his nephew Sigtrygg of Dublin. The
+ultimate cause of this movement was an insult offered by Murchad,
+Brian's son, to the king of Leinster, who was egged on by his sister
+Gormflaith. Sigtrygg secured promises of assistance from Sigurd, earl of
+Orkney, and Brodir of Man. In the spring of 1014 Maelmorda and Sigtrygg
+had collected a considerable army in Dublin, consisting of contingents
+from all the Scandinavian settlements in the west in addition to
+Maelmorda's own Leinster forces, the whole being commanded by Sigurd,
+earl of Orkney. This powerful prince, whose mother was a daughter of
+Cerball of Ossory (d. 887), appears to have aimed at the supreme command
+of all the Scandinavian settlements of the west, and in the course of a
+few years conquered the kingdom of the Isles, Sutherland, Ross, Moray
+and Argyll. To meet such formidable opponents, Brian, now an old man
+unable to lead in person, mustered all the forces of Munster and
+Connaught, and was joined by Maelsechlainn in command of the forces of
+Meath. The northern Hy Neill and the Ulaid took no part in the struggle.
+Brian advanced into the plain of Fingall, north of Dublin, where a
+council of war was held. The longest account of the battle that followed
+occurs in a source very partial to Brian and the deeds of Munstermen, in
+which Maelsechlainn is accused of treachery, and of holding his troops
+in reserve. The battle, generally known as the battle of Clontarf,
+though the chief fighting took place close to Dublin, about the small
+river Tolka, was fought on Good Friday 1014. After a stout and
+protracted resistance the Norse forces were routed. Maelsechlainn with
+his Meathmen came down on the fugitives as they tried to cross the
+bridge leading to Dublin or to reach their ships. On both sides the
+slaughter was terrible, and most of the leaders lost their lives. Brian
+himself perished along with his son Murchad and Maelmorda. This great
+struggle finally disposed of the possibility of Scandinavian supremacy
+in Ireland, but in spite of this it can only be regarded as a national
+misfortune. The power of the kingdom of Dublin had been already broken
+by the defeat of Amlaib Cuarán at Tara in 980, and the main result of
+the battle of Clontarf was to weaken the central power and to throw the
+whole island into a state of anarchy. Although beaten on the field of
+battle the Norsemen still retained possession of their fortified cities,
+and gradually they assumed the position of native tribes. The Dalcassian
+forces had been so much weakened by the great struggle that
+Maelsechlainn was again recognized as king of Ireland. However, the
+effects of Brian's revolution were permanent; the prescriptive rights of
+the Hy Neill were disputed, and from the battle of Clontarf until the
+coming of the Normans the history of Ireland consisted of a struggle for
+ascendancy between the O'Brians of Munster, the O'Neills of Ulster and
+the O'Connors of Connaught.
+
+_From the Battle of Clontarf to the Anglo-Norman Invasion._--The death
+of Maelsechlainn in 1022 afforded an opportunity for an able and
+ambitious man to subdue Ireland, establish a strong central government,
+break up the tribal system and further the gradual fusion of factions
+into a homogeneous nation. Such a man did not arise; those who
+afterwards claimed to be _ardrí_ lacked the qualities of founders of
+strong dynasties, and are termed by the annalists "kings with
+opposition." Brian was survived by two sons, Tadg and Donnchad, the
+elder of whom was slain in 1023. Donnchad (d. 1064) was certainly the
+most distinguished figure in Ireland in his day. He subdued more than
+half of Ireland, and almost reached the position once held by his
+father. His strongest opponent was his son-in-law Diarmait Mael-na-mBó,
+king of Leinster, who was also the foster-father of his brother Tadg's
+son, Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Brian. On the death of Diarmait in 1072
+Tordelbach (d. 1086) reigned supreme in Leth Moga; Meath and Connaught
+also submitted to him, but he failed to secure the allegiance of the
+northern Hy Neill. He was succeeded by his son Muirchertach (d. 1119),
+who spent most of his life contending against his formidable opponent
+Domnall O'Lochlainn, king of Tír Eogain (d. 1121). The struggle for the
+sovereignty between these two rivals continued, with intervals of truce
+negotiated by the clergy, without any decisive advantage on either side.
+In 1102 Magnus Barefoot made his third and last expedition to the west
+with the express design of conquering Ireland. Muirchertach opposed him
+with a large force, and a conference was arranged at which a son of
+Magnus was betrothed to Biadmuin, daughter of the Irish prince. He was
+also mixed up in English affairs, and as a rule maintained cordial
+relations with Henry I. After the death of Domnall O'Lochlainn there was
+an interregnum of about fifteen years with no _ardrí_, until Tordelbach
+(Turlough) O'Connor, king of Connaught, resolved to reduce the other
+provinces. Munster and Meath were repeatedly ravaged, and in 1151 he
+crushed Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Brian, king of Thomond, at Moanmor.
+O'Connor's most stubborn opponent was Muirchertach O'Lochlainn, with
+whom he wrestled for supremacy until the day of his death (1156).
+Tordelbach, who enjoyed a great reputation even after his death, was
+remembered as having thrown bridges over the Shannon, and as a patron of
+the arts. However, war was so constant in Ireland at this time that
+under the year 1145 the Four Masters describe the island as a "trembling
+sod." Tordelbach was succeeded by his son Ruadri (Roderick, q.v.), who
+after some resistance had to acknowledge Muirchertach O'Lochlainn's
+supremacy. The latter, however, was slain in 1166 in consequence of
+having wantonly blinded the king of Dal Araide. Ruadri O'Connor, now
+without a serious rival, was inaugurated with great pomp at Dublin.
+
+Diarmait MacMurchada (Dermod MacMurrough), great-grandson of Diarmait
+Mael-na-mBó, as king of Leinster was by descent and position much mixed
+up with foreigners, and generally in a state of latent if not open
+hostility to the high-kings of the Hy Neill and Dalcais dynasties. He
+was a tyrant and a bad character. In 1152 Tigernan O'Rourke, prince of
+Breifne, had been dispossessed of his territory by Tordelbach O'Connor,
+aided by Diarmait, and the latter is accused also of carrying off
+Derbforgaill, wife of O'Rourke. On learning that O'Rourke was leading an
+army against him with the support of Ruadri, he burnt his castle of
+Ferns and went to Henry II. to seek assistance. The momentous
+consequences of this step belong to the next section, and it now
+remains for us to state the condition of the church and society in the
+century preceding the Anglo-Norman invasion.
+
+Although the Irish Church conformed to Roman usage in the matter of
+Easter celebration and tonsure in the 7th century, the bond between
+Ireland and Rome was only slight until several centuries later. Whatever
+co-ordination may have existed in the church of the 8th century was
+doubtless destroyed during the troubled period of the Viking invasions.
+It is probable that St Patrick established Armagh as a metropolitan see,
+but the history of the primacy, which during a long period can only have
+been a shadow, is involved in obscurity. Its supremacy was undoubtedly
+recognized by Brian Boruma in 1004, when he laid 20 oz. of gold upon the
+high altar. In the 11th century a competitor arose in the see of Dublin.
+The Norse rulers were bound to come under the influence of Christianity
+at an early date. For instance, Amlaib Cuarán was formally converted in
+England in 942 and was baptized by Wulfhelm of Canterbury. The
+antithesis between the king of Dublin and the _ardrí_ seems to have had
+the effect of linking the Dublin Christian community rather with
+Canterbury than Armagh. King Sigtrygg founded the bishopric of Dublin in
+1035, and the early bishops of Dublin, Waterford and Limerick were all
+consecrated by the English primate. As Lanfranc and Anselm were both
+anxious to extend their jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland, the
+submission of Dublin opened the way for Norman and Roman influences. At
+the beginning of the 12th century Gilbert, bishop of Limerick and papal
+legate, succeeded in winning over Celsus, bishop of Armagh (d. 1129), to
+the reform movement. Celsus belonged to a family which had held the see
+for 200 years; he was grandson of a previous primate and is said to have
+been himself a married man. Yet he became, in the skilful hands of
+Gilbert and Maelmaedóc O'Morgair, the instrument of overthrowing the
+hereditary succession to the primatial see. In 1118 the important synod
+of Rathbressil was held, at which Ireland was divided into dioceses,
+this being the first formal attempt at getting rid of that anarchical
+state of church government which had hitherto prevailed. The work begun
+under Celsus was completed by his successor Maelmaedóc (Malachy). At a
+national synod held about 1134 Maelmaedóc, in his capacity as bishop of
+Armagh, was solemnly elected to the primacy; and armed with full power
+of church and state he was able to overcome all opposition. Under his
+successor Gelasius, Cardinal Paparo was despatched as supreme papal
+legate. At the synod of Kells (1152) there was established that diocesan
+system which has ever since continued without material alteration.
+Armagh was constituted the seat of the primacy, and Cashel, Tuam and
+Dublin were raised to the rank of archbishoprics. It was also ordained
+that tithes should be levied for the support of the clergy.
+
+_Social Conditions._--In the middle ages there were considerable forests
+in Ireland encompassing broad expanses of upland pastures and marshy
+meadows. It is traditionally stated that fences first came into general
+use in the 7th century. There were no cities or large towns before the
+arrival of the Norsemen; no stone bridges spanned the rivers; stepping
+stones or hurdle bridges at the fords or shallows offered the only mode
+of crossing the broadest streams, and connecting the unpaved roads or
+bridle paths which crossed the country over hill and dale from the
+principal _dúns_. The forests abounded in game, the red deer and wild
+boar were common, whilst wolves ravaged the flocks. Scattered over the
+country were numerous small hamlets, composed mainly of wicker cabins,
+among which were some which might be called houses; other hamlets were
+composed of huts of the rudest kind. Here and there were large villages
+that had grown up about groups of houses surrounded by an earthen mound
+or rampart; similar groups enclosed in this manner were also to be found
+without any annexed hamlet. Sometimes there were two or three
+circumvallations or even more, and where water was plentiful the ditch
+between was flooded. The simple rampart enclosed a space called
+_lis_[11] which contained the agricultural buildings and the groups of
+houses of the owners. The enclosed houses belonged to the free men
+(_aire_, pl. _airig_). The size of the houses and of the enclosing mound
+and ditch marked the wealth and rank of the _aire_. If his wealth
+consisted of chattels only, he was a _bó-aire_ (cow-_aire_). When he
+possessed ancestral land he was a _flaith_ or lord, and was entitled to
+let his lands for grazing, to have a hamlet in which lived labourers and
+to keep slaves. The larger fort with several ramparts was a _dún_, where
+the _rí_ (chieftain) lived and kept his hostages if he had subreguli.
+The houses of all classes were of wood, chiefly wattles and wicker-work
+plastered with clay. In shape they were most frequently cylindrical,
+having conical roofs thatched with rushes or straw. The oratories were
+of the same form and material, but the larger churches and kingly
+banqueting halls were rectangular and made of sawn boards. Bede,
+speaking of a church built by Finan at Lindisfarne, says, "nevertheless,
+after the manner of the Scots, he made it not of stone but of hewn oak
+and covered it with reeds." When St Maelmaedóc in the first half of the
+12th century thought of building a stone oratory at Bangor it was deemed
+a novelty by the people, who exclaimed, "we are Scotti not Galli." Long
+before this, however, stone churches had been built in other parts of
+Ireland, and many round towers. In some of the stone-forts of the
+south-west (Ir. _cathir_) the houses within the rampart were made of
+stone in the form of a beehive, and similar cloghans, as they are
+called, are found in the western isles of Scotland.
+
+Here and there in the neighbourhood of the hamlets were patches of corn
+grown upon allotments which were gavelled, or redistributed, every two
+or three years. Around the _dúns_ and _raths_, where the corn land was
+the fixed property of the lord, the cultivation was better. Oats was the
+chief corn crop, but wheat, barley and rye were also grown. Much
+attention was paid to bee-keeping and market-gardening, which had
+probably been introduced by the church. The only industrial plants were
+flax and the dye-plants, chief among which were woad and rud, roid (a
+kind of bed-straw?). Portions of the pasture lands were reserved as
+meadows; the tilled land was manured. There are native names for the
+plough, so it may be assumed that some form of that implement, worked by
+oxen, yoked together with a simple straight yoke, was in use in early
+times. Wheeled carts were also known; the wheels were often probably
+only solid disks, though spoked wheels were used for chariots. Droves of
+swine under the charge of swineherds wandered through the forests; some
+belonged to the _rí_, others to lords (_flaith_) and others again to
+village communities. The house-fed pig was then as now an important
+object of domestic economy, and its flesh was much prized. Indeed, fresh
+pork was one of the inducements held out to visitors to the Irish
+Elysium. Horned cattle constituted the chief wealth of the country, and
+were the standard for estimating the worth of anything, for the Irish
+had no coined money and carried on all commerce by barter. The unit of
+value was called a _sét_, a word denoting a jewel or precious object of
+any kind. The normal _sét_ was an average milch-cow. Gold, silver,
+bronze, tin, clothes and all other kinds of property were estimated in
+_séts_. Three _séts_ were equal to a _cumal_ (female slave). Sheep were
+kept everywhere for their flesh and their wool, and goats were numerous.
+Horses were extensively employed for riding, working in the fields and
+carrying loads. Irish horsemen rode without saddle or stirrups. So
+important a place did bee-culture hold in the rural economy of the
+ancient Irish that a lengthy section is devoted to the subject in the
+Brehon Laws. The honey was used both in cooking and for making mead, as
+well as for eating.
+
+The ancient Irish were in the main a pastoral people. When they had sown
+their corn, they drove their herds and flocks to the mountains, where
+such existed, and spent the summer there, returning in autumn to reap
+their corn and take up their abode in their more sheltered winter
+residences. This custom of "booleying" (Ir. _buaile_, "shieling") is not
+originally Irish, according to some writers, but was borrowed from the
+Scandinavians. Where the tribe had land on the sea-coast they also
+appear to have migrated thither in summer. The chase in the summer
+occupied the freemen, not only as a source of enjoyment but also as a
+matter of necessity, for wolves were very numerous. For this purpose
+they bred dogs of great swiftness, strength and sagacity, which were
+much admired by the Romans.
+
+The residences within enclosing ramparts did not consist of one house
+with several apartments, but every room was a separate house. Thus the
+buildings forming the residence of a well-to-do farmer of the _bó-aire_
+class as described in the Laws, consisted of a living-house in which he
+slept and took his meals, a cooking-house, a kiln for drying corn, a
+barn, a byre for calves, a sheep-fold and a pigsty. In the better
+classes the women had a separate house known as _grianán_ (sun-chamber).
+The round houses were constructed in the following manner. The wall was
+formed of long stout poles placed in a circle close to one another, with
+their ends fixed firmly in the ground. The spaces between were closed in
+with rods (usually hazel) firmly interwoven. The poles were peeled and
+polished smooth. The whole surface of the wicker-work was plastered on
+the outside and made brilliantly white with lime, or occasionally
+striped in various colours, leaving the white poles exposed to view.
+There was no chimney; the fire was made in the centre of the house and
+the smoke escaped through a hole in the roof, or through the door as in
+Hebridean houses of the present day. Near the fire, fixed in a kind of
+holder, was a candle of tallow or raw beeswax. Around the wall in the
+houses of the wealthy were arranged the bedsteads, or rather
+compartments, with testers and fronts, sometimes made of carved yew. At
+the foot of each compartment, and projecting into the main room, there
+was a low fixed seat, often stuffed with some soft material, for use
+during the day. Besides these there were on the floor of the main
+apartment a number of detached movable couches or seats, all low, with
+one or more low tables of some sort. In the halls of the kings the
+position of each person's bed and seat, and the portion of meat which he
+was entitled to receive from the distributor, were regulated according
+to a rigid rule of precedence. Each person who had a seat in the king's
+house had his shield suspended over him. Every king had hostages for the
+fealty of his vassals; they sat unarmed in the hall, and those who had
+become forfeited by a breach of treaty or allegiance were placed along
+the wall in fetters. There were places in the king's hall for the judge,
+the poet, the harper, the various craftsmen, the juggler and the fool.
+The king had his bodyguard of four men always around him; these were
+commonly men whom he had saved from execution or redeemed from slavery.
+Among the miscellaneous body of attendants about the house of a king or
+noble were many Saxon slaves, in whom there was a regular trade until it
+was abolished by the action of the church in 1171. The slaves slept on
+the ground in the kitchen or in cabins outside the fort.
+
+The children of the upper classes in Ireland, both boys and girls, were
+not reared at home but were sent elsewhere to be fostered. It was usual
+for a chief to send his child to one of his own sub-chiefs, but the
+parents often chose a chief of their own rank. For instance, the _ollam
+fili_, or chief poet, who ranked in some respects with a tribe-king,
+sent his sons to be fostered by the king of his own territory. Fosterage
+might be undertaken out of affection or for payment. In the latter case
+the fee varied according to rank, and there are numerous laws extant
+fixing the cost and regulating the food and dress of the child according
+to his position. Sometimes a chief acted as foster-father to a large
+number of children. The cost of the fosterage of boys seems to have been
+borne by the mother's property, that of the daughters by the father's.
+The ties created by fosterage were nearly as close and as binding on
+children as those of blood.
+
+There is ample evidence that great laxity prevailed with regard to the
+marriage tie even after the introduction of Christianity, as marrying
+within the forbidden degrees and repudiation continued to be very
+frequent in spite of the efforts of the church. Marriage by purchase was
+universal, and the wealth of the contracting parties constituted the
+primary element of a legitimate union. The bride and bridegroom should
+be provided with a joint fortune proportionate to their rank. When they
+were of equal rank, and the family of each contributed an equal share
+to the marriage portion, the marriage was legal in the full sense and
+the wife was a wife of equal rank. The church endeavoured to make the
+wife of a first marriage the only true wife; but concubinage was known
+as an Irish institution until long after the Anglo-Norman invasion, and
+it is recognized in the Laws. If a concubine had sons her position did
+not differ materially in some respects from that of a chief wife. As the
+tie of the sept was blood, all the acknowledged children of a man,
+whether legitimate or illegitimate, belonged equally to his sept. Even
+adulterine bastardy was no bar to a man becoming chief of his tribe, as
+in the case of Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. (See O'NEILL.)
+
+The food of the Irish was very simple, consisting in the main of oaten
+cakes, cheese, curds, milk, butter, and the flesh of domestic animals
+both fresh and salted. The better classes were acquainted with wheaten
+bread also. The food of the inhabitants of the Land of Promise consisted
+of fresh pork, new milk and ale. Fish, especially salmon, and game
+should of course be added to the list. The chief drinks were ale and
+mead.
+
+The dress of the upper classes was similar to that of a Scottish
+Highlander before it degenerated into the present conventional garb of a
+highland regiment. Next the skin came a shirt (_léine_) of fine texture
+often richly embroidered. Over this was a tightly fitting tunic (_inar_,
+_lend_) reaching below the hips with a girdle at the waist. In the case
+of women the _inar_ fell to the feet. Over the left shoulder and
+fastened with a brooch hung the loose cloak (_brat_), to which the
+Scottish plaid corresponds. The kilt seems to have been commonly worn,
+especially by soldiers, whose legs were usually bare, but we also hear
+of tight-fitting trousers extending below the ankles. The feet were
+either entirely naked or encased in shoes of raw hide fastened with
+thongs. Sandals and shoes of bronze are mentioned in Irish literature,
+and quite a number are to be seen in museums. A loose flowing garment,
+intermediate between the _brat_ and _lend_, usually of linen dyed
+saffron, was commonly worn in outdoor life, and was still used in the
+Hebrides about 1700. A modified form of this over-tunic with loose
+sleeves and made of frieze formed probably the general covering of the
+peasantry. Among the upper classes the garments were very costly and
+variously coloured. It would seem that the number of colours in the
+dress indicated the rank of the wearer. The hair was generally worn long
+by men as well as women, and ringlets were greatly admired. Women
+braided their hair into tresses, which they confined with a pin. The
+beard was also worn long. Like all ancient and semi-barbarous people,
+the Irish were fond of ornaments. Indeed the profusion of articles of
+gold which have been found is remarkable; in the Dublin Museum may be
+seen bracelets, armlets, finger-rings, torques, crescents, gorgets,
+necklets, fibulae and diadems, all of solid gold and most exquisite
+workmanship.
+
+The principal weapons of the Irish soldiers were a lance, a sword and a
+shield; though prior to the Anglo-Norman invasion they had adopted the
+battle-axe from the Scandinavians. The shields were of two kinds. One
+was the _sciath_, oval or oblong in shape, made of wicker-work covered
+with hide, and often large enough to cover the whole body. This was
+doubtless the form introduced by the Brythonic invaders. But round
+shields, smaller in size, were also commonly employed. These were made
+of bronze backed with wood, or of yew covered with hide. This latter
+type scarcely goes back to the round shield of the Bronze age. Armour
+and helmets were not generally employed at the time of the Anglo-Norman
+invasion.
+
+In the Brehon Laws the land belongs in theory to the tribe, but this did
+not by any means correspond to the state of affairs. We find that the
+power of the petty king has made a very considerable advance, and that
+all the elements of feudalism are present, save that there was no
+central authority strong enough to organize the whole of Irish society
+on a feudal basis. The _tuath_ or territory of a _rí_ (represented
+roughly by a modern barony) was divided among the septs. The lands of a
+sept consisted of the estates in severally of the lords (_flathi_), and
+of the _ferand duthaig_, or common lands of the sept. The dwellers on
+each of these kinds of land differed materially from each other. On the
+former lived a motley population of slaves, horse-boys, and mercenaries
+composed of broken men of other clans, many of whom were fugitives from
+justice, possessing no rights either in the sept or tribe and entirely
+dependent on the bounty of the lord, and consequently living about his
+fortified residence. The poorer servile classes or cottiers,
+wood-cutters, swine-herds, &c., who had a right of domicile (acquired
+after three generations), lived here and there in small hamlets on the
+mountains and poorer lands of the estate. The good lands were let to a
+class of tenants called _fuidirs_, of whom there were several kinds,
+some grazing the land with their own cattle, others receiving both land
+and cattle from the lord. _Fuidirs_ had no rights in the sept; some were
+true serfs, others tenants-at-will; they lived in scattered homesteads
+like the farmers of the present time. The lord was responsible before
+the law for the acts of all the servile classes on his estates, both
+new-comers and _senchleithe_, i.e. descendants of _fuidirs_, slaves,
+&c., whose families had lived on the estate during the time of three
+lords. He paid their blood-fines and received compensation for their
+slaughter, maiming or plunder. The _fuidirs_ were the chief source of a
+lord's wealth, and he was consequently always anxious to increase them.
+
+The freemen were divided into freemen pure and simple, freemen
+possessing a quantity of stock, and nobles (_flathi_) having vassals.
+Wealth consisted in cattle. Those possessed of large herds of kine lent
+out stock under various conditions. In the case of a chief such an offer
+could not be refused. In return, a certain customary tribute was paid.
+Such a transaction might be of two kinds. By the one the freemen took
+_saer_-stock and retained his status. But if he accepted _daer_-stock he
+at once descended to the rank of a vassal. In this way it was possible
+for the chief to extend his power enormously. Rent was commonly paid in
+kind. As a consequence of this, in place of receiving the farm produce
+at his own home the chief or noble reserved to himself the right of
+quartering himself and a certain number of followers in the house of his
+vassal, a practice which must have been ruinous to the small farmers.
+Freemen who possessed twenty-one cows and upwards were called _airig_
+(sing, _aire_), or, as we should say, had the franchise, and might
+fulfil the functions of bail, witness, &c. As the chief sought to extend
+his power in the _tuath_, he also endeavoured to aggrandize his position
+at the expense of other _tuatha_ by compelling them to pay tribute to
+him. Such an aggregate of _tuatha_ acknowledging one _rí_ was termed a
+_mórthuath_. The ruler of a _mórthuath_ paid tribute to the provincial
+king, who in his turn acknowledged at any rate in theory the
+overlordship of the _ardrí_.
+
+The privileges and tributes of the provincial kings are preserved in a
+remarkable 10th century document, the _Book of Rights_. The rules of
+succession were extraordinarily complicated. Theoretically the members
+of a sept claimed common descent from the same ancestor, and the land
+belonged to the freemen. The chief and nobles, however, from various
+causes had come to occupy much of the territory as private property: the
+remainder consisted of tribe-land and commons-land. The portions of the
+tribe-land were not occupied for a fixed term, as the land of the sept
+was liable to gavelkind or redistribution from time to time. In some
+cases, however, land which belonged originally to a _flaith_ was owned
+by a family; and after a number of generations such property presented a
+great similarity to the gavelled land. A remarkable development of
+family ownership was the _geilfine_ system, under which four groups of
+persons, all nearly related to each other, held four adjacent tracts of
+land as a sort of common property, subject to regulations now very
+difficult to understand.[12] The king's mensal land, as also that of the
+tanist or successor to the royal office appointed during the king's
+lifetime, was not divided up but passed on in its entirety to the next
+individual elected to the position. When the family of an _aire_
+remained in possession of his estate in a corporate capacity, they
+formed a "joint and undivided family," the head of which was an aire,
+and thus kept up the rank of the family. Three or four poor members of a
+sept might combine their property and agree to form a "joint family,"
+one of whom as the head would be an _aire_. In consequence of this
+organization the homesteads of airig commonly included several families,
+those of his brothers, sons, &c. (see BREHON LAWS).
+
+The ancient Irish never got beyond very primitive notions of justice.
+Retaliation for murder and other injuries was a common method of
+redress, although the church had endeavoured to introduce various
+reforms. Hence we find in the Brehon Laws a highly complicated system of
+compensatory payment; but there was no authority except public opinion
+to enforce the payment of the fines determined by the brehon in cases
+submitted to him.
+
+There were many kinds of popular assemblies in ancient Ireland. The sept
+had its special meeting summoned by its chief for purposes such as the
+assessment of blood-fines due from the sept, and the distribution of
+those due to it. At larger gatherings the question of peace and war
+would be deliberated. But the most important of all such assemblies was
+the fair (_oenach_), which was summoned by a king, those summoned by the
+kings of provinces having the character of national assemblies. The most
+famous places of meeting were Tara, Telltown and Carman. The _oenach_
+had many objects. The laws were publicly promulgated or rehearsed; there
+were councils to deal with disputes and matters of local interest;
+popular sports such as horse-racing, running and wrestling were held;
+poems and tales were recited, and prizes were awarded to the best
+performers of every _dán_ or art; while at the same time foreign traders
+came with their wares, which they exchanged for native produce, chiefly
+skins, wool and frieze. At some of these assemblies match-making played
+a prominent part. Tradition connects the better known of these fairs
+with pagan rites performed round the tombs of the heroes of the race;
+thus the assembly of Telltown was stated to have been instituted by
+Lugaid Lámfada. Crimes committed at an _oenach_ could not be commuted by
+payment of fines. Women and men assembled for deliberation in separate
+_airechta_ or gatherings, and no man durst enter the women's _airecht_
+under pain of death.
+
+The noble professions almost invariably ran in families, so that members
+of the same household devoted themselves for generations to one
+particular science or art, such as poetry, history, medicine, law. The
+heads of the various professions in the _tuath_ received the title of
+_ollam_. It was the rule for them to have paying apprentices living with
+them. The literary _ollam_ or _fili_ was a person of great distinction.
+He was provided with mensal land for the support of himself and his
+scholars, and he was further entitled to free quarters for himself and
+his retinue. The harper, the metal-worker (_cerd_), and the smith were
+also provided with mensal land, in return for which they gave to the
+chief their skill and the product of their labour as customary tribute
+(_béstigi_).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Annals of the Four Masters_, ed. J. O'Donovan (7
+  vols., Dublin, 1856); _Annals of Ulster_ (4 vols., London, 1887-1892);
+  Keating's _Forus Feasa ar Éirinn_ (3 vols., ed. D. Comyn and P.
+  Dinneen, London, 1902-1908); E. Windisch, _Táin Bó Cúalnge_ (Leipzig,
+  1905), with a valuable introduction; P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of
+  Ancient Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1903), also _A Short History of
+  Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1608_ (London, 1895); A. G. Richey,
+  _A Short History of the Irish People_ (Dublin, 1887); W. F. Skene,
+  _Celtic Scotland_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876-1880); J. Rhys, "Studies
+  in Early Irish History," in _Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol.
+  i.; John MacNeill, papers in _New Ireland Review_ (March 1906-February
+  1907); _Leabhar na gCeart_, ed. O'Donovan (Dublin, 1847); E. O'Curry,
+  _The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish_, ed. W. K. Sullivan (3
+  vols., London, 1873); G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_,
+  revised by H. J. Lawlor (London^6, 1907); J. Healy, _Ireland's Ancient
+  Schools and Scholars_ (Dublin^3, 1897); H. Zimmer, article "Keltische
+  Kirche" in Hauck's _Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und
+  Kirche_ (trans. A. Meyer, London, 1902), cf. H. Williams, "H. Zimmer
+  on the History of the Celtic Church," _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ iv.
+  527-574; H. Zimmer, "Die Bedeutung des irischen Elements in der
+  mittelalterlichen Kultur," _Preussische Jahrbücher_, vol. lix., trans.
+  J. L. Edmands, _The Irish Element in Medieval Culture_ (New York,
+  1891); J. H. Todd, _St Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland_ (Dublin,
+  1864); J. B. Bury, _Life of St Patrick_ (London, 1905); W. Reeves,
+  _Adamnan's Life of Columba_ (Dublin, 1857; also ed. with introd. by J.
+  T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894); M. Roger, _L'Enseignement des lettres
+  classiques d'Ausone ŕ Alcuin_ (Paris, 1905); J. H. Todd, _The War
+  of the Gćdhil with the Gall_ (London, 1867); L. J. Vogt, _Dublin som
+  Norsk By_ (Christiania, 1897); J. Steenstrup, _Normannerne_, vols.
+  ii., iii. (Copenhagen, 1878-1882); W. G. Collingwood, _Scandinavian
+  Britain_ (London, 1908).     (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+_History from the Anglo-Norman Invasion._
+
+  "Bull" of Adrian IV.
+
+According to the _Metalogus_ of John of Salisbury, who in 1155 went on a
+mission from King Henry II. to Pope Adrian IV., the only Englishman who
+has ever occupied the papal chair, the pope in response to the envoy's
+prayers granted to the king of the English the hereditary lordship of
+Ireland, sending a letter, with a ring as the symbol of investiture.
+Giraldus Cambrensis, in his _Expugnatio Hibernica_, gives what purports
+to be the text of this letter, known as "the Bull Laudabiliter," and
+adds further a _Privilegium_ of Pope Alexander III. confirming Adrian's
+grant. The _Privilegium_ is undoubtedly spurious, a fact which lends
+weight to the arguments of those who from the 19th century onwards have
+attacked the genuineness of the "Bull." This latter, indeed, appears to
+have been concocted by Gerald, an ardent champion of the English cause
+in Ireland, from genuine letters of Pope Alexander III., still preserved
+in the _Black Book of the Exchequer_, which do no more than commend King
+Henry for reducing the Irish to order and extirpating _tantae
+abominationis spurcitiam_, and exhort the Irish bishops and chiefs to be
+faithful to the king to whom they had sworn allegiance.[13]
+
+Henry was, indeed, at the outset in a position to dispense with the
+moral aid of a papal concession, of which even if it existed he
+certainly made no use. In 1156 Dermod MacMurrough (Diarmait
+MacMurchada), deposed for his tyranny from the kingdom of Leinster,
+repaired to Henry in Aquitaine (see _Early History_ above). The king was
+busy with the French, but gladly seized the opportunity, and gave Dermod
+a letter authorizing him to raise forces in England. Thus armed, and
+provided with gold extorted from his former subjects in Leinster, Dermod
+went to Bristol and sought the acquaintance of Richard de Clare, earl of
+Pembroke, a Norman noble of great ability but broken fortunes. Earl
+Richard, whom later usage has named Strongbow, agreed to reconquer
+Dermod's kingdom for him. The stipulated consideration was the hand of
+Eva his only child, and according to feudal law his sole heiress, to
+whose issue lands and kingdoms would naturally pass. But Irish customs
+admitted no estates of inheritance, and Eva had no more right to the
+reversion of Leinster than she had to that of Japan. It is likely that
+Strongbow had no conception of this, and that his first collision with
+the tribal system was an unpleasant surprise. Passing through Wales,
+Dermod agreed with Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice Fitzgerald to invade
+Ireland in the ensuing spring.
+
+
+  The invasion of Strongbow.
+
+About the 1st of May 1169 Fitzstephen landed on the Wexford shore with a
+small force, and next day Maurice de Prendergast brought another band
+nearly to the same spot. Dermod joined them, and the Danes of Wexford
+soon submitted. According to agreement Dermod granted the territory of
+Wexford, which had never belonged to him, to Robert and Maurice and
+their heirs for ever; and here begins the conflict between feudal and
+tribal law which was destined to deluge Ireland in blood. Maurice
+Fitzgerald soon followed with a fresh detachment. About a year after the
+first landing Raymond Le Gros was sent over by Earl Richard with his
+advanced guard, and Strongbow himself landed near Waterford on the 23rd
+of August 1170 with 200 knights and about 1000 other troops.
+
+The natives did not understand that this invasion was quite different
+from those of the Danes. They made alliances with the strangers to aid
+them in their intestine wars, and the annalist writing in later years
+(_Annals of Lough Cé_) describes with pathetic brevity the change
+wrought in Ireland:--"Earl Strongbow came into Erin with Dermod
+MacMurrough to avenge his expulsion by Roderick, son of Turlough
+O'Connor; and Dermod gave him his own daughter and a part of his
+patrimony, and Saxon foreigners have been in Erin since then."
+
+Most of the Norman leaders were near relations, many being descended
+from Nesta, daughter of Rhys Ap Tudor, prince of South Wales, the most
+beautiful woman of her time, and mistress of Henry I. Her children by
+that king were called Fitzhenry. She afterwards married Gerald de
+Windsor, by whom she had three sons--Maurice, ancestor of all the
+Geraldines; William, from whom sprang the families of Fitzmaurice,
+Carew, Grace and Gerard; and David, who became bishop of St David's.
+Nesta's daughter, Angareth, married to William de Barri, bore the
+chronicler Giraldus Cambrensis, and was ancestress of the Irish Barries.
+Raymond le Gros, Hervey de Montmorency, and the Cogans were also
+descendants of Nesta, who, by her second husband, Stephen the Castellan,
+was mother of Robert Fitzstephen.
+
+While waiting for Strongbow's arrival, Raymond and Hervey were attacked
+by the Danes of Waterford, whom they overthrew. Strongbow himself took
+Waterford and Dublin, and the Danish inhabitants of both readily
+combined with their French-speaking kinsfolk, and became firm supporters
+of the Anglo-Normans against the native Irish.
+
+Alarmed at the principality forming near him, Henry invaded Ireland in
+person, landing near Waterford on the 18th of October 1172. Giraldus
+says he had 500 knights and many other soldiers; Regan, the metrical
+chronicler, says he had 4000 men, of whom 400 were knights; the _Annals
+of Lough Cé_ that he had 240 ships. The Irish writers tell little about
+these great events, except that the king of the Saxons took the hostages
+of Munster at Waterford, and of Leinster, Ulster, Thomond and Meath at
+Dublin. They did not take in the grave significance of doing homage to a
+Norman king, and becoming his "man."
+
+
+  Henry II. in Ireland.
+
+Henry's farthest point westward was Cashel, where he received the homage
+of Donald O'Brien, king of Thomond, but he does not appear to have been
+present at the famous synod. Christian O'Conarchy, bishop of Lismore and
+papal legate, presided, and the archbishops of Dublin, Cashel and Tuam
+attended with their suffragans, as did many abbots and other
+dignitaries. The primate of Armagh, the saintly Gelasius, was absent,
+and presumably his suffragans also, but Giraldus says he afterwards came
+to the king at Dublin, and favoured him in all things. Henry's
+sovereignty was acknowledged, and constitutions made which drew Ireland
+closer to Rome. In spite of the "enormities and filthinesses," which
+Giraldus says defiled the Irish Church, nothing worse could be found to
+condemn than marriages within the prohibited degrees and trifling
+irregularities about baptism. Most of the details rest on the authority
+of Giraldus only, but the main facts are clear. The synod is not
+mentioned by the Irish annalists, nor by Regan, but it is by Hoveden and
+Ralph de Diceto. The latter says it was held at Lismore, an error
+arising from the president having been bishop of Lismore. Tradition says
+the members met in Cormac's chapel.
+
+Henry at first tried to be suzerain without displacing the natives, and
+received the homage of Roderick O'Connor, the high king. But the
+adventurers were uncontrollable, and he had to let them conquer what
+they could, exercising a precarious authority over the Normans only
+through a viceroy. The early governors seemingly had orders to deal as
+fairly as possible with the natives, and this involved them in quarrels
+with the "conquerors," whose object was to carve out principalities for
+themselves, and who only nominally respected the sovereign's wishes. The
+mail-clad knights were not uniformly successful against the natives, but
+they generally managed to occupy the open plains and fertile valleys.
+Geographical configuration preserved centres of resistance--the O'Neills
+in Tyrone and Armagh, the O'Donnells in Donegal, and the Macarthies in
+Cork being the largest tribes that remained practically unbroken. On the
+coast from Bray to Dundalk, and by the navigable rivers of the east and
+south coasts, the Norman put his iron foot firmly down.
+
+Prince John landed at Waterford in 1185, and the neighbouring chiefs
+hastened to pay their respects to the king's son. Prince and followers
+alike soon earned hatred, the former showing the incurable vices of his
+character, and pulling the beards of the chieftains. After eight
+disgraceful months he left the government to John de Courci, but
+retained the title "Dominus Hiberniae." It was even intended to crown
+him; and Urban III. sent a licence and a crown of peacock's feathers,
+which was never placed on his head. Had Richard I. had children Ireland
+might have become a separate kingdom.
+
+Henry II. had granted Meath, about 800,000 acres, to Hugh de Lacy (d.
+1186), reserving scarcely any prerogative to the crown, and making his
+vassal almost independent. De Lacy sublet the land among kinsmen and
+retainers, and to his grants the families of Nugent, Tyrell, Nangle,
+Tuyt, Fleming and others owe their importance in Irish history. It is
+not surprising that the Irish bordering on Meath should have thought De
+Lacy the real king of Ireland.
+
+
+  King John.
+
+During his brother Richard I.'s reign, John's viceroy was William
+Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who married Strongbow's daughter, and thus
+succeeded to his claims in Leinster. John's reputation was no better in
+Ireland than in England. He thwarted or encouraged the Anglo-Normans as
+best suited him, but on the whole they increased their possessions. In
+1210 John, now king, visited Ireland again, and being joined by Cathal
+Crovderg O'Connor, king of Connaught, marched from Waterford by Dublin
+to Carrickfergus without encountering any serious resistance from Hugh
+de Lacy (second son of the Hugh de Lacy mentioned above), who had been
+made earl of Ulster in 1205. John did not venture farther west than
+Trim, but most of the Anglo-Norman lords swore fealty to him, and he
+divided the partially obedient districts into twelve counties--Dublin
+(with Wicklow), Meath (with Westmeath), Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny,
+Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Limerick, Kerry and Tipperary. John's
+resignation of his kingdom to the pope in 1213 included Ireland, and
+thus for the second time was the papal claim to Ireland formally
+recorded.
+
+
+  Henry III. (1216-1272).
+
+During Henry III.'s long reign the Anglo-Norman power increased, but
+underwent great modifications. Richard Marshal, grandson of Strongbow,
+and to a great extent heir of his power, was foully murdered by his own
+feudatories--men of his own race; and the colony never quite recovered
+this blow. On the other hand, the De Burghs, partly by alliance with the
+Irish, partly by sheer hard fighting, made good their claims to the
+lordship of Connaught, and the western O'Connors henceforth play a very
+subordinate part in Irish history. Tallage was first imposed on the
+colony in the first year of this reign, but yielded little, and tithes
+were not much better paid.
+
+
+  Objections to Irish clergy.
+
+
+  Separation of the two races.
+
+On the 14th of January 1217 the king wrote from Oxford to his
+justiciary, Geoffrey de Marisco, directing that no Irishman should be
+elected or preferred in any cathedral in Ireland, "since by that means
+our land might be disturbed, which is to be deprecated." This order was
+annulled in 1224 by Honorius III., who declared it "destitute of all
+colour of right and honesty." The pope's efforts failed, for in the 14th
+century several Cistercian abbeys excluded Irishmen, and as late as 1436
+the monks of Abingdon complained bitterly that an Irish abbot had been
+imposed on them by lay violence. Parliament was not more liberal, for
+the statute of Kilkenny, passed in 1366, ordained that "no Irishman be
+admitted into any cathedral or collegiate church, nor to any benefice
+among the English of the land," and also "that no religious house
+situated among the English shall henceforth receive an Irishman to their
+profession." This was confirmed by the English parliament in 1416, and
+an Irish act of Richard III. enabled the archbishop of Dublin to collate
+Irish clerks for two years, an exception proving the rule. Many Irish
+monasteries admitted no Englishmen, and at least one attempt was made,
+in 1250, to apply the same rule to cathedrals. The races remained nearly
+separate, the Irish simply staying outside the feudal system. If an
+Englishman slew an Irishman (except one of the five regal and
+privileged bloods) he was not to be tried for murder, for Irish law
+admitted composition (_eric_) for murder. In Magna Charta there is a
+proviso that foreign merchants shall be treated as English merchants are
+treated in the country whence the travellers came. Yet some enlightened
+men strove to fuse the two nations together, and the native Irish, or
+that section which bordered on the settlements and suffered great
+oppression, offered 8000 marks to Edward I. for the privilege of living
+under English law. The justiciary supported their petition, but the
+prelates and nobles refused to consent.
+
+
+  Edward I. (1272-1307).
+
+There is a vague tradition that Edward I. visited Ireland about 1256,
+when his father ordained that the prince's seal should have regal
+authority in that country. A vast number of documents remain to prove
+that he did not neglect Irish business. Yet this great king cannot be
+credited with any specially enlightened views as to Ireland. Hearing
+with anger of enormities committed in his name, he summoned the viceroy,
+Robert de Ufford (d. 1298), to explain, who coolly said that he thought
+it expedient to wink at one knave cutting off another, "whereat the king
+smiled and bade him return into Ireland." The colonists were strong
+enough to send large forces to the king in his Scottish wars, but as
+there was no corresponding immigration this really weakened the English,
+whose best hopes lay in agriculture and the arts of peace, while the
+Celtic race waxed proportionally numerous. Outwardly all seemed fair.
+The De Burghs were supreme in Connaught, and English families occupied
+eastern Ulster. The fertile southern and central lands were dominated by
+strong castles. But Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and the mountains everywhere,
+sheltered the Celtic race, which, having reached its lowest point under
+Edward I., began to recover under his son.
+
+
+  Edward II. (1307-1327).
+
+In 1315, the year after Bannockburn, Edward Bruce landed near Larne with
+6000 men, including some of the best knights in Scotland. Supported by
+O'Neill and other chiefs, and for a time assisted by his famous brother,
+Bruce gained many victories. There was no general effort of the natives
+in their favour; perhaps the Irish thought one Norman no better than
+another, and their total incapacity for national organization forbade
+the idea of a native sovereign. The family quarrels of the O'Connors at
+this time, and their alliances with the Burkes, or De Burghs, and the
+Berminghams, may be traced in great detail in the annalists--the general
+result being fatal to the royal tribe of Connaught, which is said to
+have lost 10,000 warriors in the battle of Templetogher. In other places
+the English were less successful, the Butlers being beaten by the
+O'Carrolls in 1318, and Richard de Clare falling about the same time in
+the decisive battle of Dysert O'Dea. The O'Briens re-established their
+sway in Thomond and the illustrious name of Clare disappears from Irish
+history. Edward Bruce fell in battle near Dundalk, and most of his army
+recrossed the channel, leaving behind a reputation for cruelty and
+rapacity. The colonists were victorious, but their organization was
+undermined, and the authority of the crown, which had never been able to
+keep the peace, grew rapidly weaker. Within twenty years after the great
+victory of Dundalk, the quarrels of the barons allowed the Irish to
+recover much of the land they had lost.
+
+
+  Edward III. (1327-1377).
+
+John de Bermingham, earl of Louth, the conqueror of Bruce, was murdered
+in 1329 by the Gernons, Cusacks, Everards and other English of that
+county, who disliked his firm government. They were never brought to
+justice. Talbot of Malahide and two hundred of Bermingham's relations
+and adherents were massacred at the same time. In 1333, William de
+Burgh, the young earl of Ulster, was murdered by the Mandevilles and
+others; in this case signal vengeance was taken, but the feudal dominion
+never recovered the blow, and on the north-east coast the English laws
+and language were soon confined to Drogheda and Dundalk. The earl left
+one daughter, Elizabeth, who was of course a royal ward. She married
+Lionel, duke of Clarence, and from her springs the royal line of
+England from Edward IV., as well as James V. of Scotland and his
+descendants.
+
+The two chief men among the De Burghs were loth to hold their lands of a
+little absentee girl. Having no grounds for opposing the royal title to
+the wardship of the heiress, they abjured English law and became Irish
+chieftains. As such they were obeyed, for the king's arm was short in
+Ireland. The one appropriated Mayo as the Lower (Oughter) M'William, and
+the earldom of Mayo perpetuates the memory of the event. The other as
+the Upper (Eighter) M'William took Galway, and from him the earls of
+Clanricarde afterwards sprung.
+
+Edward III. being busy with foreign wars had little time to spare for
+Ireland, and the native chiefs everywhere seized their opportunity.
+Perhaps the most remarkable of these aggressive chiefs was Lysaght
+O'More, who reconquered Leix. Clyn the Franciscan annalist, whose
+Latinity is so far above the medieval level as almost to recall Tacitus,
+sums up Lysaght's career epigrammatically: "He was a slave, he became a
+master; he was a subject, he became a prince (de servo dominus, de
+subjecto princeps effectus)." The two great earldoms whose contests form
+a large part of the history of the south of Ireland were created by
+Edward III. James Butler, eldest son of Edmund, earl of Carrick, became
+earl of Ormonde and palatine of Tipperary in 1328. Next year Maurice
+Fitzgerald was made earl of Desmond, and from his three brethren
+descended the historic houses of the White Knight, the knight of Glin,
+and the knight of Kerry. The earldom of Kildare dates from 1316. In this
+reign too was passed the statute of Kilkenny (q.v.), a confession by the
+crown that obedient subjects were the minority. The enactments against
+Irish dress and customs, and against marriage and fostering proved a
+dead letter.
+
+
+  Richard II. (1377-1399).
+
+In two expeditions to Ireland Richard II. at first overcame all
+opposition, but neither had any permanent effect. Art MacMurrough, the
+great hero of the Leinster Celts, practically had the best of the
+contest. The king in his despatches divided the population into Irish
+enemies, Irish rebels and English subjects. As he found them so he left
+them, lingering in Dublin long enough to lose his own crown. But for
+MacMurrough and his allies the house of Lancaster might never have
+reigned. No English king again visited Ireland until James II., declared
+by his English subjects to have abdicated, and by the more outspoken
+Scots to have forfeited the crown, appealed to the loyalty or piety of
+the Catholic Irish.
+
+
+  Henry IV. (1399-1413).
+
+Henry IV. had a bad title, and his necessities were conducive to the
+growth of the English constitution, but fatal to the Anglo-Irish. His
+son Thomas, duke of Clarence, was viceroy in 1401, but did very little.
+"Your son," wrote the Irish council to Henry, "is so destitute of money
+that he has not a penny in the world, nor can borrow a single penny,
+because all his jewels and his plate that he can spare, and those which
+he must of necessity keep, are pledged to lie in pawn." The nobles waged
+private war unrestrained, and the game of playing off one chieftain
+against another was carried on with varying success. The provisions of
+the statute of Kilkenny against trading with the Irish failed, for
+markets cannot exist without buyers.
+
+
+  Henry V. (1413-1422).
+
+  Henry VI. (1422-1461).
+
+The brilliant reign of Henry V. was a time of extreme misery to the
+colony in Ireland. Half the English-speaking people fled to England,
+where they were not welcome. The disastrous reign of the third
+Lancastrian completed the discomfiture of the original colony in
+Ireland. Quarrels between the Ormonde and Talbot parties paralysed the
+government, and a "Pale" of 30 m. by 20 was all that remained. Even the
+walled towns, Kilkenny, Ross, Wexford, Kinsale, Youghal, Clonmel,
+Kilmallock, Thomastown, Fethard and Cashel, were almost starved out;
+Waterford itself was half ruined and half deserted. Only one parliament
+was held for thirty years, but taxation was not remitted on that
+account. No viceroy even pretended to reside continuously. The north and
+west were still worse off than the south. Some thoughtful men saw
+clearly the danger of leaving Ireland to be seized by the first chance
+comer, and the _Libel of English Policy_, written about 1436, contains a
+long and interesting passage declaring England's interests in protecting
+Ireland as "a boterasse and a poste" of her own power. Sir John Talbot,
+immortalized by Shakespeare, was several times viceroy; he was almost
+uniformly successful in the field, but feeble in council. He held a
+parliament at Trim which made one law against men of English race
+wearing moustaches, lest they should be mistaken for Irishmen, and
+another obliging the sons of agricultural labourers to follow their
+father's vocation under pain of fine and imprisonment. The earls of
+Shrewsbury are still earls of Waterford, and retain the right to carry
+the white staff as hereditary stewards, but the palatinate jurisdiction
+over Wexford was taken away by Henry VIII. The Ulster annalists give a
+very different estimate of the great Talbot from that of Shakespeare: "A
+son of curses for his venom and a devil for his evils; and the learned
+say of him that there came not from the time of Herod, by whom Christ
+was crucified, any one so wicked in evil deeds" (O'Donovan's _Four
+Masters_).
+
+
+  Richard of York in Ireland.
+
+In 1449 Richard, duke of York, right heir by blood to the throne of
+Edward III., was forced to yield the regency of France to his rival
+Somerset, and to accept the Irish viceroyalty. He landed at Howth with
+his wife Cicely Neville, and Margaret of Anjou hoped thus to get rid of
+one who was too great for a subject. The Irish government was given to
+him for ten years on unusually liberal terms. He ingratiated himself
+with both races, taking care to avoid identification with any particular
+family. At the baptism of his son George--"false, fleeting, perjured
+Clarence"--who was born in Dublin Castle, Desmond and Ormonde stood
+sponsors together. In legislation Richard fared no better than others.
+The rebellion of Jack Cade, claiming to be a Mortimer and cousin to the
+duke of York, took place at this time. This adventurer, at once
+ludicrous and formidable, was a native of Ireland, and was thought to be
+put forward by Richard to test the popularity of the Yorkist cause.
+Returning suddenly to England in 1450, Richard left the government to
+James, earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire, who later married Eleanor,
+daughter of Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and was deeply engaged on
+the Lancastrian side. This earl began the deadly feud with the house of
+Kildare, which lasted for generations. After Blore Heath Richard was
+attainted by the Lancastrian parliament, and returned to Dublin, where
+the colonial parliament acknowledged him and assumed virtual
+independence. A separate coinage was established, and the authority of
+the English parliament was repudiated. William Overy, a bold squire of
+Ormonde's, offered to arrest Richard as an attainted traitor, but was
+seized, tried before the man whom he had come to take, and hanged, drawn
+and quartered. The duke only maintained his separate kingdom about a
+year. His party triumphed in England, but he himself fell at Wakefield.
+
+
+  Edward IV. (1461-1483).
+
+Among the few prisoners taken on the bloody field of Towton was Ormonde,
+whose head long adorned London Bridge. He and his brothers were
+attainted in England and by the Yorkist parliament in Ireland, but the
+importance of the family was hardly diminished by this. For the first
+six years of Edward's reign the two Geraldine earls engrossed official
+power. The influence of Queen Elizabeth Woodville, whom Desmond had
+offended, then made itself felt. Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, became
+deputy. He was an accomplished Oxonian, who made a speech at Rome in
+such good Latin as to draw tears from the eyes of that great patron of
+letters Pope Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius). But his Latinity did not soften
+his manners, and he was thought cruel even in that age. Desmond was
+beheaded, ostensibly for using Irish exactions, really, as the partisans
+of his family hold, to please Elizabeth. The remarkable lawlessness of
+this reign was increased by the practice of coining. Several mints had
+been established since Richard of York's time; the standards varied and
+imitation was easy.
+
+
+  Richard III.
+
+  Henry VII. (1485-1509).
+
+During Richard III.'s short reign the earl of Kildare, head of the Irish
+Yorkists, was the strongest man in Ireland. He espoused the cause of
+Lambert Simnel (1487), whom the Irish in general seem always to have
+thought a true Plantagenet. The Italian primate, Octavian de Palatio,
+knew better, and incurred the wrath of Kildare by refusing to officiate
+at the impostor's coronation. The local magnates and several
+distinguished visitors attended, and Lambert was shown to the people
+borne aloft on "great D'Arcy of Platten's" shoulders. His enterprise
+ended in the battle of Stoke, near Newark, where the flower of the
+Anglo-Irish soldiery fell. "The Irish," says Bacon, "did not fail in
+courage or fierceness, but, being almost naked men, only armed with
+darts and skeins, it was rather an execution than a fight upon them."
+Conspicuous among Henry VII.'s adherents in Ireland were the citizens of
+Waterford, who, with the men of Clonmel, Callan, Fethard and the Butler
+connexion generally, were prepared to take the field in his favour.
+Waterford was equally conspicuous some years later in resisting Perkin
+Warbeck, who besieged it unsuccessfully, and was chased by the citizens,
+who fitted out a fleet at their own charge. The king conferred honour
+and rewards on the loyal city, to which he gave the proud title of _urbs
+intacta_. Other events of this reign were the parliament of Drogheda,
+held by Sir Edward Poynings, which gave the control of Irish legislation
+to the English council ("Poynings's Act"--the great bone of contention
+in the later days of Flood and Grattan), and the battle of Knockdoe, in
+which the earl of Kildare used the viceregal authority to avenge a
+private quarrel.
+
+
+  Henry VIII. (1509-1547).
+
+Occupied in pleasure or foreign enterprise, Henry VIII. at first paid
+little attention to Ireland. The royal power was practically confined to
+what in the previous century had become known as the "Pale," that is
+Dublin, Louth, Kildare and a part of Meath, and within this narrow limit
+the earls of Kildare were really more powerful than the crown.
+Waterford, Drogheda, Dundalk, Cork, Limerick and Galway were not Irish,
+but rather free cities than an integral part of the kingdom; and many
+inland towns were in the same position. The house of Ormonde had created
+a sort of small Pale about Kilkenny, and part of Wexford had been
+colonized by men of English race. The Desmonds were Irish in all but
+pride of blood. The Barretts, Condons, Courcies, Savages, Arundels,
+Carews and others had disappeared or were merged in the Celtic mass.
+Anglo-Norman nobles became chiefs of pseudo-tribes, which acknowledged
+only the Brehon law, and paid dues and services in kind. These
+pseudo-tribes were often called "nations," and a vast number of
+exactions were practised by the chiefs. "Coyne and livery"--the right of
+free-quarters for man and beast--arose among the Anglo-Normans, and
+became more oppressive than any native custom. When Henry took to
+business, he laid the foundation of reconquest. The house of Kildare,
+which had actually besieged Dublin (1534), was overthrown, and the Pale
+saved from a standing danger (see FITZGERALD). But the Pale scarcely
+extended 20 m. from Dublin, a march of uncertain width intervening
+between it and the Irish districts. Elsewhere, says an elaborate report,
+all the English folk were of "Irish language and Irish condition,"
+except in the cities and walled towns. Down and Louth paid black rent to
+O'Neill, Meath and Kildare to O'Connor, Wexford to the Kavanaghs,
+Kilkenny and Tipperary to O'Carroll, Limerick to the O'Briens, and Cork
+to the MacCarthies. MacMurrough Kavanagh, in Irish eyes the
+representative of King Dermod, received an annual pension from the
+exchequer. Henry set steadily to work to reassert the royal title. He
+assumed the style of king of Ireland, so as to get rid of the notion
+that he held the island of the pope. The Irish chiefs acknowledged his
+authority and his ecclesiastical supremacy, abjuring at the same time
+that of the Holy See. The lands of the earl of Shrewsbury and other
+absentees, who had performed no duties, were resumed; and both Celtic
+and feudal nobles were encouraged to come to court. Here begins the long
+line of official deputies, often men of moderate birth and fortune.
+Butler and Geraldine, O'Neill and O'Donnell, continued to spill each
+other's blood, but the feudal and tribal systems were alike doomed. In
+the names of these Tudor deputies and other officers we see the origin
+of many great Irish families--Skeffington, Brabazon, St Leger,
+Fitzwilliam, Wingfield, Bellingham, Carew, Bingham, Loftus and others.
+Nor were the Celts overlooked. O'Neill and O'Brien went to London to be
+invested as earls of Tyrone and Thomond respectively. O'Donnell, whose
+descendants became earls of Tyrconnel, went to court and was well
+received. The pseudo-chief MacWilliam became earl of Clanricarde, and
+others reached lower steps in the peerage, or were knighted by the
+king's own hand. All were encouraged to look to the crown for redress of
+grievances, and thus the old order slowly gave place to the new.
+
+
+  The Irish Church.
+
+The moment when Protestantism and Ultramontanism are about to begin
+their still unfinished struggle is a fit time to notice the chief points
+in medieval Irish church history. Less than two years before Strongbow's
+arrival Pope Eugenius had established an ecclesiastical constitution in
+Ireland depending on Rome, but the annexation was very imperfectly
+carried out, and the hope of fully asserting the Petrine claims was a
+main cause of Adrian's gift to Henry II. Hitherto the Scandinavian
+section of the church in Ireland had been most decidedly inclined to
+receive the hierarchical and diocesan as distinguished from the monastic
+and quasi-tribal system. The bishops or abbots of Dublin derived their
+succession from Canterbury from 1038 to 1162, and the bishops of
+Waterford and Limerick also sought consecration there. But both Celt and
+Northman acknowledged the polity of Eugenius, and it was chiefly in the
+matters of tithe, Peter's pence, canonical degrees and the observance of
+festivals that Rome had still victories to gain. Between churchmen of
+Irish and English race there was bitter rivalry; but the theory that the
+ancient Celtic church remained independent, and as it were Protestant,
+while the English colony submitted to the Vatican, is a mere
+controversial figment. The crown was weak and papal aggression made
+rapid progress. It was in the Irish church, about the middle of the 13th
+century, that the system of giving jurisdiction to the bishops "in
+temporalibus" was adopted by Innocent IV. The vigour of Edward I.
+obtained a renunciation in particular cases, but the practice continued
+unabated. The system of provisions was soon introduced at the expense of
+free election, and was acknowledged by the statute of Kilkenny. In the
+more remote districts it must have been almost a matter of necessity.
+Many Irish parishes grew out of primitive monasteries, but other early
+settlements remained monastic, and were compelled by the popes to adopt
+the rule of authorized orders, generally that of the Augustinian canons.
+That order became much the most numerous in Ireland, having not less
+than three hundred houses. Of other sedentary orders the Cistercians
+were the most important, and the mendicants were very numerous. Both
+Celtic chiefs and Norman nobles founded convents after Henry II. 's
+time, but the latter being wealthier were most distinguished in this
+way. Religious houses were useful as abodes of peace in a turbulent
+country, and the lands attached were better cultivated than those of lay
+proprietors. Attempts to found a university at Dublin (1311) or Drogheda
+(1465) failed for want of funds. The work of education was partially
+done by the great abbeys, boys of good family being brought up by the
+Cistercians of Dublin and Jerpoint, and by the Augustinians of Dublin,
+Kells and Connel, and girls by the canonesses of Gracedieu. A strong
+effort was made to save these six houses, but Henry VIII. would not hear
+of it, and there was no Irish Wolsey partially to supply the king's
+omissions.
+
+Ample evidence exists that the Irish church was full of abuses before
+the movement under Henry VIII. We have detailed accounts of three
+sees--Clonmacnoise, Enaghdune and Ardagh. Ross, also in a wild district,
+was in rather better case. But even in Dublin strange things happened;
+thus the archiepiscopal crozier was in pawn for eighty years from 1449.
+The morals of the clergy were no better than in other countries, and we
+have evidence of many scandalous irregularities. But perhaps the most
+severe condemnation is that of the report to Henry VIII. in 1515. "There
+is," says the document, "no archbishop, ne bishop, abbot, ne prior,
+parson, ne vicar, ne any other person of the church, high or low, great
+or small, English or Irish, that useth to preach the word of God, saving
+the poor friars beggars ... the church of this land use not to learn any
+other science, but the law of canon, for covetise of lucre transitory."
+Where his hand reached Henry had little difficulty in suppressing the
+monasteries or taking their lands, which Irish chiefs swallowed as
+greedily as men of English blood. But the friars, though pretty
+generally turned out of doors, were themselves beyond Henry's power, and
+continued to preach everywhere among the people. Their devotion and
+energy may be freely admitted; but the mendicant orders, especially the
+Carmelites, were not uniformly distinguished for morality. Monasticism
+was momentarily suppressed under Oliver Cromwell, but the Restoration
+brought the monks back to their old haunts. The Jesuits, placed by Paul
+III. under the protection of Conn O'Neill, "prince of the Irish of
+Ulster," came to Ireland towards the end of Henry's reign, and helped to
+keep alive the Roman tradition. Anglicanism was regarded as a symbol of
+conquest and intrusion. The _Four Masters_ thus describes the
+Reformation: "A heresy and new error arising in England, through pride,
+vain glory, avarice, and lust, and through many strange sciences, so
+that the men of England went into opposition to the pope and to Rome."
+The destruction of relics and images and the establishment of a
+schismatic hierarchy is thus recorded: "Though great was the persecution
+of the Roman emperors against the church, scarcely had there ever come
+so great a persecution from Rome as this."
+
+
+  Edward VI. (1547-1553).
+
+The able opportunist Sir Anthony St Leger, who was accused by one party
+of opposing the Reformation and by the other of lampooning the
+Sacrament, continued to rule during the early days of Edward VI. To him
+succeeded Sir Edward Bellingham, a Puritan soldier whose hand was heavy
+on all who disobeyed the king. He bridled Connaught by a castle at
+Athlone, and Munster by a garrison at Leighlin Bridge. The O'Mores and
+O'Connors were brought low, and forts erected where Maryborough and
+Philipstown now stand. Both chiefs and nobles were forced to respect the
+king's representative, but Bellingham was not wont to flatter those in
+power, and his administration found little favour in England. Sir
+Francis Bryan, Henry VIII.'s favourite, succeeded him, and on his death
+St Leger was again appointed. Neither St Leger nor his successor Sir
+James Croft could do anything with Ulster, where the papal primate
+Wauchop, a Scot by birth, stirred up rebellion among the natives and
+among the Hebridean invaders. But little was done under Edward VI. to
+advance the power of the crown, and that little was done by Bellingham.
+
+
+  The Reformation.
+
+The English government long hesitated about the official establishment
+of Protestantism, and the royal order to that effect was withheld until
+1551. Copies of the new liturgy were sent over, and St Leger had the
+communion service translated into Latin, for the use of priests and
+others who could read, but not in English. The popular feeling was
+strong against innovation, as Edward Staples, bishop of Meath, found to
+his cost. The opinions of Staples, like those of Cranmer, advanced
+gradually until at last he went to Dublin and preached boldly against
+the mass. He saw men shrink from him on all sides. "My lord," said a
+beneficed priest, whom he had himself promoted, and who wept as he
+spoke, "before ye went last to Dublin ye were the best beloved man in
+your diocese that ever came in it, now ye are the worst beloved.... Ye
+have preached against the sacrament of the altar and the saints, and
+will make us worse than Jews.... The country folk would eat you.... Ye
+have more curses than ye have hairs of your head, and I advise you for
+Christ's sake not to preach at Navan." Staples answered that preaching
+was his duty, and that he would not fail; but he feared for his life. On
+the same prelate fell the task of conducting a public controversy with
+the archbishop of Armagh, George Dowdall, which of course ended in the
+conversion of neither. Dowdall fled; his see was treated as vacant, and
+Cranmer cast about him for a Protestant to fill St Patrick's chair. His
+first nominee, Dr Richard Turner, resolutely declined the honour,
+declaring that he would be unintelligible to the people; and Cranmer
+could only answer that English was spoken in Ireland, though he did
+indeed doubt whether it was spoken in the diocese of Armagh. John Bale,
+a man of great learning and ability, became bishop of Ossory. There is
+no reason to doubt his sincerity, but he was coarse and
+intemperate--Froude roundly calls him a foul-mouthed ruffian--without
+the wisdom of the serpent or the harmlessness of the dove. His choice
+rhetoric stigmatized the dean of St Patrick's as ass-headed, a blockhead
+who cared only for his kitchen and his belly.
+
+
+  Mary (1553-1558).
+
+The Reformation having made no real progress, Mary found it easy to
+recover the old ways. Dowdall was restored; Staples and others were
+deprived. Bale fled for bare life, and his see was treated as vacant.
+Yet the queen found it impossible to restore the monastic lands, though
+she showed some disposition to scrutinize the titles of grantees. She
+was Tudor enough to declare her intention of maintaining the old
+prerogatives of the crown against the Holy See, and assumed the royal
+title without papal sanction. Paul IV. was fain to curb his fiery
+temper, and to confer graciously what he could not withhold. English
+Protestants fled to Ireland to escape the Marian persecution; but had
+the reign continued a little longer, Dublin would probably have been no
+safe place of refuge.
+
+Mary scarcely varied the civil policy of her brother's ministers. Gerald
+of Kildare, who had been restored to his estates by Edward VI., was
+created earl of Kildare. The plan of settling Leix and Offaly by
+dividing the country between colonists and natives holding by English
+tenure failed, owing to the unconquerable love of the people for their
+own customs. But resistance gradually grew fainter, and we hear little
+of the O'Connors after this. The O'Mores, reduced almost to brigandage,
+gave trouble till the end of Elizabeth's reign, and a member of the clan
+was chief contriver of the rebellion of 1641. Maryborough and
+Philipstown, King's county and Queen's county, commemorate Mary's
+marriage.
+
+
+  Elizabeth (1558-1603).
+
+Anne Boleyn's daughter succeeded quietly, and Sir Henry Sidney was sworn
+lord-justice with the full Catholic ritual. When Thomas Radclyffe, earl
+of Sussex, superseded him as lord-lieutenant, the litany was chanted in
+English, both cathedrals having been painted, and scripture texts
+substituted for "pictures and popish fancies." At the beginning of 1560
+a parliament was held which restored the ecclesiastical legislation of
+Henry and Edward. In two important points the Irish Church was made more
+dependent on the state than in England: _congés d'élire_ were abolished
+and heretics made amenable to royal commissioners or to parliament
+without reference to any synod or convocation. According to a
+contemporary list, this parliament consisted of 3 archbishops, 17
+bishops, 23 temporal peers, and members returned by 10 counties and 28
+cities and boroughs. Some of the Irish bishops took the oath of
+supremacy, some were deprived. In other cases Elizabeth connived at what
+she could not prevent, and hardly pretended to enforce uniformity except
+in the Pale and in the large towns.
+
+
+  Rebellion of Shane O'Neill.
+
+Ulster demanded the immediate attention of Elizabeth. Her father had
+conferred the earldom of Tyrone on Conn Bacach O'Neill, with remainder
+to his supposed son Matthew, created baron of Dungannon, the offspring
+of a smith's wife at Dundalk, who in her husband's lifetime brought the
+child to Conn as his own. When the chief's legitimate son Shane grew up
+he declined to be bound by this arrangement, which the king may have
+made in partial ignorance of the facts. "Being a gentleman," he said,
+"my father never refusid no child that any woman namyd to be his." When
+Tyrone died, Matthew's son, Brian O'Neill, baron of Dungannon, claimed
+his earldom under the patent. Shane being chosen O'Neill by his tribe
+claimed to be chief by election, and earl as Conn's lawful son. Thus
+the English government was committed to the cause of one who was at best
+an adulterine bastard, while Shane appeared as champion of hereditary
+right (See O'NEILL). Shane maintained a contest which had begun under
+Mary until 1567, with great ability and a total absence of morality, in
+which Sussex had no advantage over him. The lord-lieutenant twice tried
+to have Shane murdered; once he proposed to break his safe-conduct; and
+he held out hopes of his sister's hand as a snare. Shane was induced to
+visit London, where the government detained him for some time. On his
+return to Ireland, Sussex was outmatched both in war and diplomacy; the
+loyal chiefs were crushed one by one; and the English suffered checks of
+which the moral effect was ruinous. Shane diplomatically acknowledged
+Elizabeth as his sovereign, and sometimes played the part of a loyal
+subject, wreaking his private vengeance under colour of expelling the
+Scots from Ulster. At last, in 1566, the queen placed the sword of state
+in Sidney's strong grasp. Shane was driven helplessly from point to
+point, and perished miserably at the hands of the MacDonnells, whom he
+had so often oppressed and insulted.
+
+
+  First Desmond Rebellion, 1574.
+
+Peace was soon broken by disturbances in the south. The earl of Desmond
+having shown rebellious tendencies was detained for six years in London.
+Treated leniently, but grievously pressed for money, he tried to escape,
+and, the attempt being judged treasonable, he was persuaded to surrender
+his estates--to receive them back or not at the queen's discretion.
+Seizing the opportunity, English adventurers proposed to plant a
+military colony in the western half of Munster, holding the coast from
+the Shannon to Cork harbour. Some who held obsolete title-deeds were
+encouraged to go to work at once by the example of Sir Peter Carew, who
+had established his claims in Carlow. Carew's title had been in abeyance
+for a century and a half, yet most of the Kavanaghs attorned to him.
+Falling foul of Ormonde's brothers, seizing their property and using
+great cruelty and violence, Sir Peter drove the Butlers, the only one
+among the great families really loyal, into rebellion. Ormonde, who was
+in London, could alone restore peace; all his disputes with Desmond were
+at once settled in his favour, and he was even allowed to resume the
+exaction of coyne and livery, the abolition of which had been the
+darling wish of statesmen. The Butlers returned to their allegiance, but
+continued to oppose Carew, and great atrocities were committed on both
+sides. Sir Peter had great but undefined claims in Munster also, and the
+people there took warning. His imitators in Cork were swept away. Sidney
+first, and after him Humphrey Gilbert, could only circumscribe the
+rebellion. The presidency of Munster, an office the creation of which
+had long been contemplated, was then conferred on Sir John Perrot, who
+drove James "Fitzmaurice" Fitzgerald into the mountains, reduced castles
+everywhere, and destroyed a Scottish contingent which had come from
+Ulster to help the rebels. Fitzmaurice came in and knelt in the mud at
+the president's feet, confessing his sins; but he remained the real
+victor. The colonizing scheme was dropped, and the first presidency of
+Munster left the Desmonds and their allies in possession. Similar plans
+were tried unsuccessfully in Ulster, first by a son of Sir Thomas Smith,
+afterwards by Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, a knight-errant rather
+than a statesman, who was guilty of many bloody deeds. He treacherously
+captured Sir Brian O'Neill and massacred his followers. The Scots in
+Rathlin were slaughtered wholesale. Essex struggled on for more than
+three years, seeing his friends gradually drop away, and dying ruined
+and unsuccessful.
+
+Towards the end of 1575 Sidney was again persuaded to become viceroy.
+The Irish recognized his great qualities, and he went everywhere without
+interruption. Henceforth presidencies became permanent institutions. Sir
+William Drury in Munster hanged four hundred persons in one year, Sir
+Nicholas Malby in reducing the Connaught Burkes spared neither young nor
+old, and burned all corn and houses. The Desmonds determined on a great
+effort. A holy war was declared. Fitzmaurice landed in Kerry with a few
+followers, and accompanied by the famous Nicholas Sanders, who was
+armed with a legate's commission and a banner blessed by the pope.
+Fitzmaurice fell soon after in a skirmish near Castleconnell, but
+Sanders and Desmond's brothers still kept the field. When it was too
+late to act with effect, Desmond himself, a vain man, neither frankly
+loyal nor a bold rebel, took the field. He surprised Youghal, then an
+English town, by night, sacked it, and murdered the people. Roused at
+last, Elizabeth sent over Ormonde as general of Munster, and after long
+delay gave him the means of conducting a campaign. It was as much a war
+of Butlers against Geraldines as of loyal subjects against rebels, and
+Ormonde did his work only too well. Lord Baltinglass raised a hopeless
+subsidiary revolt in Wicklow (1580), which was signalized by a crushing
+defeat of the lord deputy, Lord Grey de Wilton (Arthegal) in Glenmalure.
+A force of Italians and Spaniards landing at Smerwick in Kerry, Grey
+hurried thither, and the foreigners, who had no commission, surrendered
+at discretion, and were put to the sword. Neither Grey nor the Spanish
+ambassador seems to have seen anything extraordinary in thus disposing
+of inconvenient prisoners. Spenser and Raleigh were present. Sanders
+perished obscurely in 1581, and in 1583 Desmond himself was hunted down
+and killed in the Kerry mountains. More than 500,000 Irish acres were
+forfeited to the crown. The horrors of this war it is impossible to
+exaggerate. The _Four Masters_ says that the lowing of a cow or the
+voice of a ploughman could scarcely be heard from Cashel to the farthest
+point of Kerry; Ormonde, who, with all his severity, was honourably
+distinguished by good faith, claimed to have killed 5000 men in a few
+months. Spenser, an eye-witness, says famine slew far more than the
+sword. The survivors were unable to walk, but crawled out of the woods
+and glens. "They looked like anatomies of death; they did eat the dead
+carrion and one another soon after, insomuch as the very carcasses they
+spared not to scrape out of their graves; ... to a plot of watercresses
+or shamrocks they flocked as to a feast."
+
+In 1584 Sir John Perrot, the ablest man available after Sidney's
+retirement, became lord-deputy. Sir John Norris, famed in the Netherland
+wars, was president of Munster, and so impressed the Irish that they
+averred him to be in league with the devil. Perrot held a parliament in
+1585 in which the number of members was considerably increased. He made
+a strenuous effort to found a university in Dublin, and proposed to
+endow it with the revenues of St Patrick's, reasonably arguing that one
+cathedral was enough for any city. Here he was opposed by Adam Loftus,
+archbishop of Dublin and chancellor, who had expressed his anxiety for a
+college, but had no idea of endowing it at his own expense. The
+colonization of the Munster forfeitures was undertaken at this time. It
+failed chiefly from the grants to individuals who neglected to plant
+English farmers, and were often absentees themselves. Raleigh obtained
+42,000 acres. The quit rents reserved to the crown were less than one
+penny per acre. Racked with the stone, hated by the official clique,
+thwarted on all sides, Perrot was goaded into using words capable of a
+treasonable interpretation. Archbishop Loftus pursued him to the end. He
+died in the Tower of London under sentence for treason, and we may
+charitably hope that Elizabeth would have pardoned him. In his will,
+written after sentence, he emphatically repudiates any treasonable
+intention--"I deny my Lord God if ever I proposed the same."
+
+
+  Last Desmond Rebellion.
+
+In 1584 Hugh O'Neill, if O'Neill he was (being second son of Matthew,
+mentioned above), became chief of part of Tyrone; in 1587 he obtained
+the coveted earldom, and in 1593 was the admitted head of the whole
+tribe. A quarrel with the government was inevitable, and, Hugh Roe
+O'Donnell having joined him, Ulster was united against the crown. In
+1598 James Fitzthomas Fitzgerald assumed the title of Desmond, to which
+he had some claims by blood, and which he pretended to hold as Tyrone's
+gift. Tyrone had received a crown of peacock's feathers from the pope,
+who was regarded by many as king of Ireland. The title of _Sugan_ or
+straw-rope earl has been generally given to the Desmond pretender. Both
+ends of the island were soon in a blaze, and the _Four Masters_ says
+that in seventeen days there was not one son of a Saxon left alive in
+the Desmond territories. Edmund Spenser lost his all, escaping only to
+die of misery in a London garret. Tyrone more than held his own in the
+north, completely defeated Sir Henry Bagnal in the battle of the Yellow
+Ford (1598), invaded Munster, and ravaged the lands of Lord Barrymore,
+who had remained true to his allegiance. Tyrone's ally, Hugh Roe
+O'Donnell, overthrew the president of Connaught, Sir Conyers Clifford.
+"The Irish of Connaught," says the _Four Masters_, "were not pleased at
+Clifford's death; ... he had never told them a falsehood." Robert
+Devereux, earl of Essex, came over in 1599 with a great army, but did
+nothing of moment, was outgeneralled and outwitted by Tyrone, and threw
+up his command to enter on the mad and criminal career which led to the
+scaffold. In 1600 Sir George Carew became president of Munster, and, as
+always happened when the crown was well served, the rebellion was
+quickly put down. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy (afterwards earl of
+Devonshire), who succeeded Essex, joined Carew, and a Spanish force
+which landed at Kinsale surrendered. The destruction of their crops
+starved the people into submission, and the contest was only less
+terrible than the first Desmond war because it was much shorter. In
+Ulster Mountjoy was assisted by Sir Henry Docwra, who founded the second
+settlement at Derry, the first under Edward Randolph having been
+abandoned. Hugh O'Donnell sought help in Spain, where he died. Tyrone
+submitted at last, craving pardon on his knees, renouncing his Celtic
+chiefry, and abjuring all foreign powers; but still retaining his
+earldom, and power almost too great for a subject. Scarcely was the
+compact signed when he heard of the great queen's death. He burst into
+tears, not of grief, but of vexation at not having held out for better
+terms.
+
+
+  Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland.
+
+  Religious policy.
+
+In reviewing the Irish government of Elizabeth we shall find much to
+blame, a want of truth in her dealings and of steadiness in her policy.
+Violent efforts of coercion were succeeded by fits of clemency, of
+parsimony or of apathy. Yet it is fair to remember that she was
+surrounded by enemies, that her best energies were expended in the
+death-struggle with Spain, and that she was rarely able to give
+undivided attention to the Irish problem. After all she conquered
+Ireland, which her predecessors had failed to do, though many of them
+were as crooked in action and less upright in intention. Considering the
+times, Elizabeth cannot be called a persecutor. "Do not," she said to
+the elder Essex, "seek too hastily to bring people that have been
+trained in another religion from that in which they have been brought
+up." Elizabeth saw that the Irish could only be reached through their
+own language. But for that harvest the labourers were necessarily few.
+The fate of Bishop Daly of Kildare, who preached in Irish, and who
+thrice had his house burned over his head, was not likely to encourage
+missionaries. In all wild parts divine service was neglected, and
+wandering friars or subtle Jesuits, supported by every patriotic or
+religious feeling of the people, kept Ireland faithful to Rome. Against
+her many shortcomings we must set the queen's foundation of the
+university of Dublin, which has been the most successful English
+institution in Ireland, and which has continually borne the fairest
+fruit.
+
+
+  James I. (1603-1625).
+
+Great things were expected of James I. He was Mary Stuart's son, and
+there was a curious antiquarian notion afloat that, because the Irish
+were the original "Scoti," a Scottish king would sympathize with
+Ireland. Corporate towns set up the mass, and Mountjoy, who could argue
+as well as fight, had to teach them a sharp lesson. Finding Ireland
+conquered and in no condition to rise again, James established circuits
+and a complete system of shires. Sir John Davies was sent over as
+solicitor-general. His famous book (_Discoverie of the State of
+Ireland_) in which he glorifies his own and the king's exploits gives
+far too much credit to the latter and far too little to his great
+predecessor.
+
+
+  Plantation of Ulster.
+
+Two legal decisions swept away the customs of tanistry and of Irish
+gavelkind, and the English land system was violently substituted. The
+earl of Tyrone was harassed by sheriffs and other officers, and the
+government, learning that he was engaged in an insurrectionary design,
+prepared to seize him. The information was probably false, but Tyrone
+was growing old and perhaps despaired of making good his defence. By
+leaving Ireland he played into his enemies' hands. Rory O'Donnell,
+created earl of Tyrconnel, accompanied him. Cuconnaught Maguire had
+already gone. The "flight of the earls," as it is called, completed the
+ruin of the Celtic cause. Reasons or pretexts for declaring forfeitures
+against O'Cahan were easily found. O'Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, and
+foreman of the grand jury which found a bill for treason against the
+earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, was insulted by Sir George Paulet, the
+governor of Derry. O'Dogherty rose, Derry was sacked, and Paulet
+murdered. O'Dogherty having been killed and O'Hanlon and others being
+implicated, the whole of northern Ulster was at the disposal of the
+government. Tyrone, Donegal, Armagh, Cavan, Fermanagh and Derry were
+parcelled out among English and Scottish colonists, portions being
+reserved to the natives. The site of Derry was granted to the citizens
+of London, who fortified and armed it, and Londonderry became the chief
+bulwark of the colonists in two great wars. Whatever may have been its
+morality, in a political point of view the plantation of Ulster was
+successful. The northern province, which so severely taxed the energies
+of Elizabeth, has since been the most prosperous and loyal part of
+Ireland. But the conquered people remained side by side with the
+settlers; and Sir George Carew, who reported on the plantation in 1611,
+clearly foresaw that they would rebel again. Those natives who retained
+land were often oppressed by their stronger neighbours, and sometimes
+actually swindled out of their property. It is probable that in the
+neglect of the grantees to give proper leases to their tenants arose the
+Ulster tenant-right custom which attracted so much notice in more modern
+times.
+
+
+  The Irish Parliament.
+
+The parliamentary history of the English colony in Ireland corresponds
+pretty closely to that of the mother country. First there are informal
+meetings of eminent persons; then, in 1295, there is a parliament of
+which some acts remain, and to which only knights of the shire were
+summoned to represent the commons. Burgesses were added as early as
+1310. The famous parliament of Kilkenny in 1366 was largely attended,
+but the details of its composition are not known. That there was
+substantial identity in the character of original and copy may be
+inferred from the fact that the well-known tract called _Modus tenendi
+parliamentum_ was exemplified under the Great Seal of Ireland in 6 Hen.
+V. The most ancient Irish parliament remaining on record was held in
+1374, twenty members in all being summoned to the House of Commons, from
+the counties of Dublin, Louth, Kildare and Carlow, the liberties and
+crosses of Meath, the city of Dublin, and the towns of Drogheda and
+Dundalk. The liberties were those districts in which the great vassals
+of the crown exercised palatinate jurisdiction, and the crosses were the
+church lands, where alone the royal writ usually ran. Writs for another
+parliament in the same year were addressed in addition to the counties
+of Waterford, Cork and Limerick; the liberties and crosses of Ulster,
+Wexford, Tipperary and Kerry; the cities of Waterford, Cork and
+Limerick; and the towns of Youghal, Kinsale, Ross, Wexford and Kilkenny.
+The counties of Clare and Longford, and the towns of Galway and Athenry,
+were afterwards added, and the number of popular representatives does
+not appear to have much exceeded sixty during the later middle ages. In
+the House of Lords the temporal peers were largely outnumbered by the
+bishops and mitred abbots. In the parliament which conferred the royal
+title on Henry VIII. it was finally decided that the proctors of the
+clergy had no voice or votes. Elizabeth's first parliament, held in
+1559, was attended by 76 members of the Lower House, which increased to
+122 in 1585. In 1613 James I. by a wholesale creation of new boroughs,
+generally of the last insignificance, increased the House of Commons to
+232, and thus secured an Anglican majority to carry out his policy. He
+told those who remonstrated to mind their own business. "What is it to
+you if I had created 40 noblemen and 400 boroughs? The more the merrier,
+the fewer the better cheer." In 1639 the House of Commons had 274
+members, a number which was further increased to 300 at the Revolution,
+and so it remained until the Union.
+
+
+  Religious policy of James I.
+
+Steeped in absolutist ideas, James was not likely to tolerate religious
+dissent. He thought he could "mak what liked him law and gospel." A
+proclamation for banishing Romish priests issued in 1605, and was
+followed by an active and general persecution, which was so far from
+succeeding that they continued to flock in from abroad, the lord-deputy
+Arthur Chichester admitting that every house and hamlet was to them a
+sanctuary. The most severe English statutes against the Roman Catholic
+laity had never been re-enacted in Ireland, and, in the absence of law,
+illegal means were taken to enforce uniformity. Privy seals addressed to
+men of wealth and position commanded their attendance at church before
+the deputy or the provincial president, on pain of unlimited fine and
+imprisonment by the Irish Star Chamber. The Roman Catholic gentry and
+lawyers, headed by Sir Patrick Barnewall, succeeded in proving the
+flagrant illegality of these mandates, and the government had to yield.
+On the whole Protestantism made little progress, though the number of
+Protestant settlers increased. As late as 1622, when Sir Henry Cary,
+Viscount Falkland, was installed as deputy, the illustrious James
+Ussher, then bishop of Meath, preached from the text "he beareth not the
+sword in vain," and descanted on the over-indulgence shown to recusants.
+The primate, Christopher Hampton, in a letter which is a model of
+Christian eloquence, mildly rebuked his eminent suffragan.
+
+
+  Charles I. (1625-1649).
+
+  Administration of Strafford.
+
+The necessities of Charles I. induced his ministers to propose that a
+great part of Connaught should be declared forfeited, owing to mere
+technical flaws in title, and planted like Ulster. Such was the general
+outcry that the scheme had to be given up; and, on receiving a large
+grant from the Irish parliament, the king promised certain graces, of
+which the chief were security for titles, free trade, and the
+substitution of an oath of allegiance for that of supremacy. Having got
+the money, Charles as usual broke his word; and in 1635 the lord-deputy
+Strafford began a general system of extortion. The Connaught and Munster
+landowners were shamelessly forced to pay large fines for the
+confirmation of even recent titles. The money obtained by oppressing the
+Irish nation was employed to create an army for the oppression of the
+Scottish and English nations. The Roman Catholics were neither awed nor
+conciliated. Twelve bishops, headed by the primate Ussher, solemnly
+protested that "to tolerate popery is a grievous sin." The Ulster
+Presbyterians were rigorously treated. Of the prelates employed by
+Strafford in this persecution the ablest was John Bramhall (1594-1663)
+of Derry, who not only oppressed the ministers but insulted them by
+coarse language. The "black oath," which bound those who took it never
+to oppose Charles in anything, was enforced on all ministers, and those
+who refused it were driven from their manses and often stripped of their
+goods.
+
+
+  Rebellion of 1641.
+
+Strafford was recalled to expiate his career on the scaffold; the army
+was disbanded; and the helm of the state remained in the hands of a
+land-jobber and of a superannuated soldier. Disbanded troops are the
+ready weapons of conspiracy, and the opportunity was not lost. The Roman
+Catholic insurgents of 1641 just failed to seize Dublin, but quickly
+became masters of nearly the whole country. That there was no definite
+design of massacring the Protestants is likely, but it was intended to
+drive them out of the country. Great numbers were killed, often in cold
+blood and with circumstances of great barbarity. The English under Sir
+Charles Coote and others retaliated. In 1642 a Scottish army under
+General Robert Monro landed in Ulster, and formed a rallying point for
+the colonists. Londonderry, Enniskillen, Coleraine, Carrickfergus and
+some other places defied Sir Phelim O'Neill's tumultuary host. Trained
+in foreign wars, Owen Roe O'Neill gradually formed a powerful army among
+the Ulster Irish, and showed many of the qualities of a skilful general.
+But like other O'Neills, he did little out of Ulster, and his great
+victory over Monro at Benburb on the Blackwater (June 5, 1646) had no
+lasting results. The English of the Pale were forced into rebellion, but
+could never get on with the native Irish, who hated them only less than
+the new colonists. Ormonde throughout maintained the position of a loyal
+subject, and, as the king's representative, played a great but hopeless
+part. The Celts cared nothing for the king except as a weapon against
+the Protestants; the old Anglo-Irish Catholics cared much, but the
+nearer Charles approached them the more completely he alienated the
+Protestants. In 1645 Rinuccini reached Ireland as papal legate. He could
+never co-operate with the Roman Catholic confederacy at Kilkenny, which
+was under old English influence, and by throwing in his lot with the
+Celts only widened the gulf between the two sections. The state of
+parties at this period in Ireland has been graphically described by
+Carlyle. "There are," he says, "Catholics of the Pale, demanding freedom
+of religion, under my lord this and my lord that. There are Old-Irish
+Catholics, under pope's nuncios, under Abba O'Teague of the
+excommunications, and Owen Roe O'Neill, demanding not religious freedom
+only, but what we now call 'repeal of the union,' and unable to agree
+with Catholics of the English Pale. Then there are Ormonde Royalists, of
+the Episcopalian and mixed creeds, strong for king without covenant;
+Ulster and other Presbyterians strong for king _and_ covenant; lastly,
+Michael Jones and the Commonwealth of England, who want neither king nor
+covenant."
+
+In all their negotiations with Ormonde and Glamorgan, Henrietta Maria
+and the earl of Bristol, the pope and Rinuccini stood out for an
+arrangement which would have destroyed the royal supremacy and
+established Romanism in Ireland, leaving to the Anglicans bare
+toleration, and to the Presbyterians not even that. Charles behaved with
+his usual weakness. Ormonde was forced to surrender Dublin to the
+Parliamentarians (July 1647), and the inextricable knot awaited
+Cromwell's sword.
+
+
+  Cromwell.
+
+Cromwell's campaign (1640-1650) showed how easily a good general with an
+efficient army might conquer Ireland. Resistance in the field was soon
+at an end; the starving-out policy of Carew and Mountjoy was employed
+against the guerrillas, and the soldiers were furnished with scythes to
+cut down the green corn. Bibles were also regularly served out to them.
+Oliver's severe conduct at Drogheda and elsewhere is not morally
+defensible, but such methods were common in the wars of the period, and
+much may be urged in his favour. Strict discipline was maintained,
+soldiers being hanged for stealing chickens; faith was always kept; and
+short, sharp action was more merciful in the long run than a milder but
+less effective policy. Cromwell's civil policy, to use Macaulay's words,
+was "able, straightforward, and cruel." He thinned the disaffected
+population by allowing foreign enlistment, and 40,000 are said to have
+been thus got rid of. Already Irish Catholics of good family had learned
+to offer their swords to foreign princes. In Spain, France and the
+Empire they often rose to the distinction which they were denied at
+home. About 9000 persons were sent to the West Indies, practically into
+slavery. Thus, and by the long war, the population was reduced to some
+850,000, of whom 150,000 were English and Scots. Then came the
+transplantation beyond the Shannon. The Irish Catholic gentry were
+removed bodily with their servants and such tenants as consented to
+follow them, and with what remained of their cattle. They suffered
+dreadful hardships. To exclude foreign influences, a belt of 1 m. was
+reserved to soldiers on the coast from Sligo to the Shannon, but the
+idea was not fully carried out. The derelict property in the other
+provinces was divided between adventurers who had advanced money and
+soldiers who had fought in Ireland. Many of the latter sold their claims
+to officers or speculators, who were thus enabled to form estates. The
+majority of Irish labourers stayed to work under the settlers, and the
+country gradually became peaceful and prosperous. Some fighting
+Catholics haunted woods and hills under the name of tories, afterwards
+given in derision to a great party, and were hunted down with as little
+compunction as the wolves to which they were compared. Measures of great
+severity were taken against Roman Catholic priests; but it is said that
+Cromwell had great numbers in his pay, and that they kept him well
+informed. All classes of Protestants were tolerated, and Jeremy Taylor
+preached unmolested. Commercial equality being given to Ireland, the
+woollen trade at once revived, and a shipping interest sprang up. A
+legislative union was also effected, and Irish members attended at
+Westminster.
+
+
+  Charles II. (1660-1685).
+
+Charles II. was bound in honour to do something for such Irish Catholics
+as were innocent of the massacres of 1641, and the claims were not
+scrutinized too severely. It was found impossible to displace the
+Cromwellians, but they were shorn of about one-third of their lands.
+When the Caroline settlement was complete it was found that the great
+rebellion had resulted in reducing the Catholic share of the fertile
+parts of Ireland from two-thirds to one-third. Ormonde, whose wife had
+been allowed by Cromwell's clemency to make him some remittances from
+the wreck of his estate, was largely and deservedly rewarded. A revenue
+of Ł30,000 was settled on the king, in consideration of which Ireland
+was in 1663 excluded from the benefit of the Navigation Act, and her
+nascent shipping interest ruined. In 1666 the importation of Irish
+cattle and horses into England was forbidden, the value of the former at
+once falling five-fold, of the latter twenty-fold. Dead meat, butter and
+cheese were also excluded, yet peace brought a certain prosperity. The
+woollen manufacture grew and flourished, and Macaulay is probably
+warranted in saying that under Charles II. Ireland was a pleasanter
+place of residence than it has been before or since. But it was pleasant
+only for those who conformed to the state religion. Roman Catholicism
+was tolerated, or rather connived at; but its professors were subject to
+frequent alarms, and to great severities during the ascendancy of Titus
+Oates. Bramhall became primate, and his hand was heavy against the
+Ulster Presbyterians. Jeremy Taylor began a persecution which stopped
+the influx of Scots into Ireland. Deprived of the means of teaching, the
+Independents and other sectaries soon disappeared. In a military colony
+women were scarce, and the "Ironsides" had married natives. Roman
+Catholicism held its own. The Quakers became numerous during this reign,
+and their peaceful industry was most useful. They venerate as their
+founder William Edmundson (1627-1712), a Westmorland man who had borne
+arms for the Parliament, and who settled in Antrim in 1652.
+
+
+  James II. (1685-1689).
+
+The duke of Ormonde was lord-lieutenant at the death of Charles II. At
+seventy-five his brain was as clear as ever, and James saw that he was
+no fit tool for his purpose. "See, gentlemen," said the old chief,
+lifting his glass at a military dinner-party, "they say at court I am
+old and doting. But my hand is steady, nor doth my heart fail.... To the
+king's health." Calculating on his loyal subservience, James appointed
+his brother-in-law, Lord Clarendon, to succeed Ormonde. Monmouth's
+enterprise made no stir, but gave an excuse for disarming the Protestant
+militia. The tories at once emerged from their hiding-places, and
+Clarendon found Ireland in a ferment. It was now the turn of the
+Protestants to feel persecution. Richard Talbot, one of the few
+survivors of Drogheda, governed the king's Irish policy, while the
+lord-lieutenant was kept in the dark. Finally Talbot, created earl of
+Tyrconnel, himself received the sword of state. Protestants were weeded
+out of the army, Protestant officers in particular being superseded by
+idle Catholics of gentle blood, where they could be found, and in any
+case by Catholics. Bigotry rather than religion was Tyrconnel's ruling
+passion, and he filled up offices with Catholics independently of
+character. Sir Alexander Fitton, a man convicted of forgery, became
+chancellor, and but three Protestant judges were left on the bench. The
+outlawries growing out of the affairs of 1641 were reversed as quickly
+as possible. Protestant corporations were dissolved by "quo warrantos";
+but James was still Englishman enough to refuse an Irish parliament,
+which might repeal Poyning's Act and the Act of Settlement.
+
+
+  William III.
+
+At the close of 1688 James was a fugitive in France. By this time
+Londonderry and Enniskillen had closed their gates, and the final
+struggle had begun. In March 1689 James reached Ireland with some French
+troops, and summoned a parliament which repealed the Act of Settlement.
+The estates of absentees were vested in the crown, and, as only two
+months law was given, this was nearly equivalent to confiscating the
+property of all Protestants. Between 2000 and 3000 Protestants were
+attainted by name, and moreover the act was not published. The appalling
+list may be read in the _State of the Protestants_ by William King,
+archbishop of Dublin, one of many divines converted by the logic of
+events to believe in the lawfulness of resistance. Interesting details
+may be gleaned from Edmundson's _Diary_. The dispossessed Protestants
+escaped by sea or flocked into Ulster, where a gallant stand was made.
+The glories of Londonderry and Enniskillen will live as long as the
+English language. The Irish cause produced one great achievement--the
+defence of Limerick, and one great leader--Patrick Sarsfield. The Roman
+Catholic Celts aided by France were entirely beaten, the Protestant
+colonists aided by England were entirely victorious at the battle of the
+Boyne, on the 1st of July 1690; and at the battle of Aughrim on the 12th
+of July 1691. Even the siege of Limerick showed the irreconcilable
+divisions which had nullified the efforts of 1641. Hugh Baldearg
+O'Donnell, last of Irish chiefs, sold his services to William for Ł500 a
+year. But it was their king that condemned the Irish to hopeless
+failure. He called them cowards, whereas the cowardice was really his
+own, and he deserted them in their utmost need. They repaid him with the
+opprobrious nickname of "Sheemas-a-Cacagh," or dirty James.
+
+Irish rhetoric commonly styles Limerick "the city of the violated
+treaty." The articles of capitulation (Oct. 3, 1691) may be read in
+Thomas Leland's _History of Ireland_ (1773) or in F. P. Plowden's
+_History of Ireland_ (1809); from the first their interpretation was
+disputed. Hopes of religious liberty were held out, but were not
+fulfilled. Lords Justices Porter and Coningsby promised to do their
+utmost to obtain a parliamentary ratification, but the Irish parliament
+would not be persuaded. There was a paragraph in the original draft
+which would have protected the property of the great majority of Roman
+Catholics, but this was left out in the articles actually signed.
+William thought the omission accidental, but this is hardly possible. At
+all events he ratified the treaty in the sense most favourable to the
+Catholics, while the Irish parliament adhered to the letter of the
+document. Perhaps no breach of faith was intended, but the sorrowful
+fact remains that the modern settlement of Ireland has the appearance of
+resting on a broken promise. More than 1,000,000 Irish acres were
+forfeited, and, though some part returned to Catholic owners, the
+Catholic interest in the land was further diminished. William III. was
+the most liberally minded man in his dominions; but the necessities of
+his position, such is the awful penalty of greatness, forced him into
+intolerance against his will, and he promised to discourage the Irish
+woollen trade. His manner of disposing of the Irish forfeitures was
+inexcusable. The lands were resumed by the English parliament, less
+perhaps from a sense of justice than from a desire to humiliate the
+deliverer of England, and were resold to the highest bidder.
+Nevertheless it became the fashion to reward nameless English services
+at the expense of Ireland. Pensions and sinecures which would not bear
+the light in England were charged on the Irish establishment, and even
+bishoprics were given away on the same principle. The tremendous uproar
+raised by Swift about Wood's halfpence was heightened by the fact that
+Wood shared his profits with the duchess of Kendal, the mistress of
+George I.
+
+
+  Penal laws.
+
+From the first the victorious colonists determined to make another 1641
+impossible, and the English government failed to moderate their
+severity. In 1708 Swift declared that the Papists were politically as
+inconsiderable as the women and children. In despair of effecting
+anything at home, the young and strong enlisted in foreign armies, and
+the almost incredible number of 450,000 are said to have emigrated for
+this purpose between 1691 and 1745. This and the hatred felt towards
+James II. prevented any rising in 1715 or 1745. The panic-stricken
+severity of minorities is proverbial, but it is not to be forgotten that
+the Irish Protestants had been turned out of house and home twice within
+fifty years. The restrictions on Irish commerce provoked Locke's friend
+William Molyneux (1656-1698) to write his famous plea for legislative
+independence (1698). Much of the learning contained in it now seems
+obsolete, but the question is less an antiquarian one than he supposed.
+Later events have shown that a mother country must have supreme
+authority, or must relax the tie with self-governing colonies merely
+into a close alliance. In the case of Ireland the latter plan has always
+been impossible. In 1703 the Irish parliament begged for a legislative
+union, but as that would have involved at least partial free trade the
+English monopolists prevented it. By Poynings's law (see above) England
+had control of all Irish legislation, and was therefore an accomplice in
+the penal laws. These provided that no Papist might teach a school or
+any child but his own, or send children abroad, the burden of proof
+lying on the accused, and the decision being left to magistrates without
+a jury. Mixed marriages were forbidden between persons of property, and
+the children might be forcibly brought up Protestants. A Catholic could
+not be a guardian, and all wards in chancery were brought up
+Protestants. The Protestant eldest son of a Catholic landed proprietor
+might make his father tenant for life and secure his own inheritance.
+Among Catholic children land went in compulsory gavelkind. Catholics
+could not take longer leases than thirty-one years at two-thirds of a
+rack rent; they were even required to conform within six months of an
+inheritance accruing, on pain of being ousted by the next Protestant
+heir. Priests from abroad were banished, and their return declared
+treason. All priests were required to register and to remain in their
+own parishes, and informers were to be rewarded at the expense of the
+Catholic inhabitants. No Catholic was allowed arms, two justices being
+empowered to search; and if he had a good horse any Protestant might
+claim it on tendering Ł5.
+
+These laws were of course systematically evaded. The property of Roman
+Catholics was often preserved through Protestant trustees, and it is
+understood that faith was generally kept. Yet the attrition if slow was
+sure, and by the end of the century the proportion of land belonging to
+Roman Catholics was probably not more than one-tenth of the whole. We
+can see now that if the remaining Roman Catholic landlords had been
+encouraged they would have done much to reconcile the masses to the
+settlement. Individuals are seldom as bad as corporations, and the very
+men who made the laws against priests practically shielded them. The
+penal laws put a premium on hypocrisy, and many conformed only to
+preserve their property or to enable them to take office. Proselytizing
+schools, though supported by public grants, entirely failed.
+
+
+  Commercial restraints.
+
+The restraints placed by English commercial jealousy on Irish trade
+destroyed manufacturing industry in the south and west (see the section
+_Economics_ above). Driven by the Caroline legislation against cattle
+into breeding sheep, Irish graziers produced the best wool in Europe.
+Forbidden to export it, or to work it up profitably at home, they took
+to smuggling, for which the indented coast gave great facilities. The
+enormous profits of the contraband trade with France enabled Ireland to
+purchase English goods to an extent greater than her whole lawful
+traffic. The moral effect was disastrous. The religious penal code it
+was thought meritorious to evade; the commercial penal code was
+ostentatiously defied; and both tended to make Ireland the least
+law-abiding country in Europe. The account of the smugglers is the most
+interesting and perhaps the most valuable part of J. A. Froude's work in
+Ireland, and should be compared with the Irish and Scottish chapters of
+Lecky's _History_.
+
+
+  Ulster prosperous.
+
+When William III. promised to depress the Irish woollen trade, he
+promised to do all he could for Irish linen. England did not fulfil the
+second promise; still the Ulster weavers were not crushed, and their
+industry flourished. Some Huguenot refugees, headed by Louis Crommelin
+(1652-1727), were established by William III. at Lisburn, and founded
+the manufacturing prosperity of Ulster. Other Huguenots attempted other
+industries, but commercial restraints brought them to nought. The
+peculiar character of the flax business has prevented it from crossing
+the mountains which bound the northern province. Wool was the natural
+staple of the south.
+
+
+  Dissenters.
+
+The Scottish Presbyterians who defended Londonderry were treated little
+better than the Irish Catholics who besieged it--the sacramental test of
+1704 being the work of the English council rather than of the Irish
+parliament. In 1715 the Irish House of Commons resolved that any one who
+should prosecute a Presbyterian for accepting a commission in the army
+without taking the test was an enemy to the king and to the Protestant
+interest. Acts of indemnity were regularly passed throughout the reign
+of George II., and until 1780, when the Test Act was repealed. A bare
+toleration had been granted in 1720. Various abuses, especially forced
+labour on roads which were often private jobs, caused the Oakboy
+Insurrection in 1764. Eight years later the Steelboys rose against the
+exactions of absentee landlords, who often turned out Protestant yeomen
+to get a higher rent from Roman Catholic cottiers. The dispossessed men
+carried to America an undying hatred of England which had much to say to
+the American revolution, and that again reacted on Ireland. Lawless
+Protestant associations, called Peep o' Day Boys, terrorized the north
+and were the progenitors of the Orangemen (1789). Out of the rival
+"defenders" Ribbonism in part sprung, and the United Irishmen drew from
+both sources (1791).
+
+
+  Poverty of the peasantry.
+
+The Ulster peasants were never as badly off as those of the south and
+west. Writers the most unlike each other--Swift and Hugh Boulter, George
+Berkeley and George Stone, Arthur Young and Dr Thomas Campbell--all tell
+the same tale. Towards the end of the 17th century Raleigh's fatal gift
+had already become the food of the people. When Sir Stephen Rice
+(1637-1715), chief baron of the Irish exchequer, went to London in 1688
+to urge the Catholic claims on James II., the hostile populace escorted
+him in mock state with potatoes stuck on poles. Had manufactures been
+given fair play in Ireland, population might have preserved some
+relation to capital. As it was, land became almost the only property,
+and the necessity of producing wool for smuggling kept the country in
+grass. The poor squatted where they could, receiving starvation wages,
+and paying exorbitant rents for their cabins, partly with their own
+labour. Unable to rise, the wretched people multiplied on their potato
+plots with perfect recklessness. During the famine which began in the
+winter of 1739 one-fifth of the population is supposed to have perished;
+yet it is hardly noticed in literature, and seems not to have touched
+the conscience of that English public which in 1755 subscribed Ł100,000
+for the sufferers by the Lisbon earthquake. As might be expected where
+men were allowed to smuggle and forbidden to work, redress was sought in
+illegal combinations and secret societies. The dreaded name of Whiteboy
+was first heard in 1761; and agrarian crime has never since been long
+absent. Since the Union we have had the Threshers, the Terry Alts, the
+Molly Maguires, the Rockites, and many others. Poverty has been the real
+cause of all these disturbances, which were often aggravated by the
+existence of factions profoundly indicative of barbarism. Communism,
+cupidity, scoundrelism of all kinds have contributed to every
+disturbance. The tendency shown to screen the worst criminals is
+sometimes the result of sympathy, but more often of fear. The cruelties
+which have generally accompanied Whiteboyism is common to servile
+insurrections all over the world. No wonder if Irish landlords were
+formerly tyrannical, for they were in the position of slave-owners. The
+steady application of modern principles, by extending legal protection
+to all, has altered the slavish character of the oppressed Irish. The
+cruelty has not quite died out, but it is much rarer than formerly; and,
+generally speaking, the worst agrarianism has of late years been seen in
+the districts which retain most of the old features.
+
+The medieval colony in Ireland was profoundly modified by the pressure
+of the surrounding tribes. While partially adopting their laws and
+customs, the descendants of the conquerors often spoke the language of
+the natives, and in so doing nearly lost their own. The _Book of Howth_
+and many documents composed in the Pale during the 16th century show
+this clearly. Those who settled in Ireland after 1641 were in a very
+different mood. They hated, feared and despised the Irish, and took
+pride in preserving their pure English speech. Molyneux and Petty, who
+founded the Royal Society of Dublin in 1683, were equally Englishmen,
+though the former was born in Ireland. Swift and Berkeley did not
+consider themselves Irishmen at all. Burke and Goldsmith, coming later,
+though they might not call themselves Englishmen, were not less free
+from provincialism. It would be hard to name four other men who, within
+the same period, used Shakespeare's language with equal grace and force.
+They were all educated at Trinity College, Dublin. The Sheridans were
+men of Irish race, but with the religion they adopted the literary tone
+of the dominant caste, which was small and exclusive, with the virtues
+and the vices of an aristocracy. Systematic infringement of English
+copyright was discreditable in itself, but sure evidence of an appetite
+for reading. "The bookseller's property," says Gibbon of his first
+volume, "was twice invaded by the pirates of Dublin." The oratory of the
+day was of a high order, and incursions into the wide field of pamphlet
+literature often repay the student. Handel was appreciated in Dublin at
+a time when it was still the fashion to decry him in London. The public
+buildings of the Irish capital have great architectural merit, and
+private houses still preserve much evidence of a refined taste. Angelica
+Kauffmann worked long in Ireland; James Barry and Sir Martin Archer Shee
+were of Irish birth; and on the whole, considering the small number of
+educated inhabitants, it must be admitted that the Ireland of Flood and
+Grattan was intellectually fertile.
+
+
+  Struggle for independence.
+
+The volunteers (see FLOOD, HENRY) extorted partial free trade (1779),
+but manufacturing traditions had perished, and common experience shows
+how hard these are to recover. The demand for union was succeeded by a
+craving for independence. Poynings's law was repealed, and in 1782, in
+Grattan's opinion, Ireland was at last a nation. The ensuing period of
+eighteen years is the best known in Irish history. The quarrel and
+reconciliation of Flood and Grattan (q.v.), the kindly patriotism of
+Lord Charlemont, the eloquence, the devotion, the corruption, are
+household words. (Details will be found in the biographical articles on
+these and other men of the period.) In the parliament of 1784, out of
+300 members 82 formed the regular opposition, of whom 30 were the
+nominees of Whig potentates and 52 were really elected. The majority
+contained 29 members considered independent, 44 who expected to be
+bought, 44 placemen, 12 sitting for regular government boroughs, and 12
+who were supposed to support the government on public grounds. The
+remaining seats were proprietary, and were let to government for
+valuable consideration. The House of Lords, composed largely of borough
+mongers and controlled by political bishops, was even less independent.
+Only Protestant freeholders had votes, which encouraged leases for
+lives, about the worst kind of tenure, and the object of each proprietor
+was to control as many votes as possible. The necessity of finding
+Protestants checked subdivision for a time, but in 1793 the Roman
+Catholics received the franchise, and it became usual to make leases in
+common, so that each lessee should have a freehold interest of 40s. The
+landlord indeed had little choice, for his importance depended on the
+poll-book. Salaries, sinecures, even commissions in the army were
+reserved for those who contributed to the return of some local magnate.
+
+
+  Dependence on the potato.
+
+But no political cause swelled the population as much as the potato.
+Introduced by Raleigh in 1610, the cultivation of this important tuber
+developed with extraordinary rapidity. The Elizabethan wars were most
+injurious to industry, for men will not sow unless they hope to reap,
+and the very essence of military policy had been to deprive a
+recalcitrant people of the means of living. The Mantuan peasant was
+grieved at the notion of his harvest being gathered by barbarian
+soldiers, and the Irishman could not be better pleased to see his
+destroyed. There was no security for any one, and every one was tempted
+to live from hand to mouth. The decade of anarchy which followed 1641
+stimulated this tendency fearfully. The labour of one man could plant
+potatoes enough to feed forty, and they could neither be destroyed nor
+carried away easily. When Petty wrote, early in Charles II.'s reign,
+this demoralizing esculent was already the national food. Potatoes
+cannot be kept very long, but there was no attempt to keep them at all;
+they were left in the ground, and dug as required. A frost which
+penetrated deep caused the famine of 1739. Even with the modern system
+of storing in pits the potato does not last through the summer, and the
+"meal months"--June, July and August--always brought great hardship. The
+danger increased as the growing population pressed ever harder upon the
+available land. Between 1831 and 1842 there were six seasons of dearth,
+approaching in some places to famine.
+
+The population increased from 2,845,932 in 1785 to 5,356,594 in 1803.
+They married and were given in marriage. Wise men foresaw the deluge,
+but people who were already half-starved every summer did not think
+their case could well be worse. In 1845 the population had swelled to
+8,295,061, the greater part of whom depended on the potato only. There
+was no margin, and when the "precarious exotic" failed an awful famine
+was the result.
+
+Great public and private efforts were made to meet the case, and relief
+works were undertaken, on which, in March 1847, 734,000 persons,
+representing a family aggregate of not less than 3,000,000, were
+employed. It was found that labour and exposure were not good for
+half-starved men. The jobbing was frightful, and is probably inseparable
+from wholesale operations of this kind. The policy of the government was
+accordingly changed, and the task of feeding a whole people was
+undertaken. More than 3,000,000 rations, generally cooked, were at one
+time distributed, but no exertions could altogether avert death in a
+country where the usual machinery for carrying, distributing and
+preparing food was almost entirely wanting. From 200,000 to 300,000
+perished of starvation or of fever caused by insufficient food. An
+exodus followed which, necessary as it was, caused dreadful hardship,
+and among the Roman Catholic Irish in America Fenianism took its rise.
+One good result of the famine was thoroughly to awaken Englishmen to
+their duty towards Ireland. Since then, purse-strings have been even too
+readily untied at the call of Irish distress.
+
+
+  Rebellion of 1798.
+
+Great brutalities disgraced the rebellion of 1798, but the people had
+suffered much and had French examples before them. The real originator
+of the movement was Theobald Wolfe Tone (q.v.), whose proffered services
+were rejected by Pitt, and who founded the United Irishmen. His Parisian
+adventures detailed by himself are most interesting, and his tomb is
+still the object of an annual pilgrimage. Tone was a Protestant, but he
+had imbibed socialist ideas, and hated the priests whose influence
+counteracted his own. In Wexford, where the insurrection went farthest,
+the ablest leaders were priests, but they acted against the policy of
+their church.
+
+
+  Union of Great Britain and Ireland.
+
+  Catholic Emancipation.
+
+  Repeal agitation.
+
+The inevitable union followed (1st January 1801). From this period the
+history of Ireland naturally becomes intermingled with English politics
+(see ENGLISH HISTORY), and much of the detail will also be found in the
+biographical articles on prominent Irishmen and other politicians. Pitt
+had some time before (1785) offered a commercial partnership, which had
+been rejected on the ground that it involved the ultimate right of
+England to tax Ireland. He was not less liberally inclined in religious
+matters, but George III. stood in the way, and like William III. the
+minister would not risk his imperial designs. Carried in great measure
+by means as corrupt as those by which the constitution of '82 had been
+worked, the union earned no gratitude. But it was a political necessity,
+and Grattan never gave his countrymen worse advice than when he urged
+them to "keep knocking at the union." The advice has, however, been
+taken. Robert Emmet's insurrection (1803) was the first emphatic
+protest. Then came the struggle for emancipation. It was proposed to
+couple the boon with a veto on the appointment of Roman Catholic
+bishops. It was the ghost of the old question of investitures. The
+remnant of the Roman Catholic aristocracy would have granted it; even
+Pius VII. was not invincibly opposed to it; but Daniel O'Connell took
+the lead against it. Under his guidance the Catholic association became
+a formidable body. At last the priests gained control of the elections;
+the victor of Waterloo was obliged to confess that the king's government
+could no longer be carried on, and Catholic emancipation had to be
+granted in 1829. The tithe war followed, and this most oppressive of all
+taxes was unfortunately commuted (1838) only in deference to clamour and
+violence. The repeal agitation was unsuccessful, but let us not be
+extreme to mark the faults of O'Connell's later years. He doubtless
+believed in repeal at first; probably he ceased to believe in it, but he
+was already deeply committed, and had abandoned a lucrative profession
+for politics. With some help from Father Mathew he kept the monster
+meetings in order, and his constant denunciations of lawless violence
+distinguish him from his imitators. His trial took place in 1844. There
+is a sympathetic sketch of O'Connell's career in Lecky's _Leaders of
+Public Opinion in Ireland_ (1871); Sir Thomas Wyse's _Historical Sketch
+of the late Catholic Association_ (1829) gives the best account of the
+religious struggle, and much may be learned from W. J. Fitzpatrick's
+_Life of Bishop Doyle_ (1880).
+
+The national system of education introduced in 1833 was the real
+recantation of intolerant opinions, but the economic state of Ireland
+was fearful. The famine, emigration and the new poor law nearly got rid
+of starvation, but the people never became frankly loyal, feeling that
+they owed more to their own importunity and to their own misfortunes
+than to the wisdom of their rulers. The literary efforts of young
+Ireland eventuated in another rebellion (1848); a revolutionary wave
+could not roll over Europe without touching the unlucky island. After
+the failure of that outbreak there was peace until the close of the
+American civil war released a number of adventurers trained to the use
+of arms and filled with hatred to England.
+
+Already in 1858 the discovery of the Phoenix conspiracy had shown that
+the policy of John Mitchel (1815-1875) and his associates was not
+forgotten. John O'Mahony, one of the men of '48, organized a formidable
+secret society in America, which his historical studies led him to call
+the Fenian brotherhood (see FENIANS).
+
+The Fenian movement disclosed much discontent, and was attended by
+criminal outrages in England. The disestablishment of the Irish Church,
+the privileged position of which had long been condemned by public
+opinion, was then decreed (1869) and the land question was next taken in
+hand (1870). These reforms did not, however, put an end to Irish
+agitation. The Home Rule party which demanded the restoration of a
+separate Irish parliament, showed increased activity, and the general
+election of 1874 gave it a strong representation at Westminster, where
+one section of the party developed into the "obstructionists" (see the
+articles on ISAAC BUTT and C. S. PARNELL).
+
+Isaac Butt, who died in May 1879, led a parliamentary party of
+fifty-four, but the Conservatives were strong enough to outvote them and
+the Liberals together. His procedure was essentially lawyer-like, for he
+respected the House of Commons and dreaded revolutionary violence. His
+death left the field clear for younger and bolder men. William Shaw
+succeeded him as chairman of the Irish party in Parliament; but after
+the election of 1880, Parnell, who had the Land League at his back,
+ousted him by 23 votes to 18.
+
+
+  The Land League.
+
+The Land Law of 1860, known as Deasy's Act, had been based on the
+principle that every tenancy rested on contract either expressed or
+implied. The act of 1870, admitting the divergence between theory and
+practice, protected the tenants' improvements and provided compensation
+for disturbance within certain limits, but not where the ejectment was
+for non-payment of rent. In good times this worked well enough, but
+foreign competition began to tell, and 1879 was the worst of several bad
+seasons. A succession of wet summers told against all farmers, and in
+mountainous districts it was difficult to dry the turf on which the
+people depended for fuel. A famine was feared, and in the west there was
+much real distress. The Land League, of which Michael Davitt (q.v.) was
+the founder, originated in Mayo in August, and at a meeting in Dublin in
+October the organization was extended to all Ireland, with Parnell as
+president. The country was thickly covered with branches before the end
+of the year, and in December Parnell went to America to collect money.
+He was absent just three months, visiting over sixty cities and towns;
+and 200,000 dollars were subscribed. Parnell had to conciliate the
+Clan-na-Gael and the Fenians generally, both in Ireland and America,
+while abstaining from action which would make his parliamentary position
+untenable. He did not deny that he would like an armed rebellion, but
+acknowledged that it was an impossibility. Speaking at Cincinnati on the
+23rd of February 1880, he declared that the first thing necessary was to
+undermine English power by destroying the Irish landlords. Ireland might
+thus become independent. "And let us not forget," he added, "that that
+is the ultimate goal at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether
+we be in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be satisfied
+until we have destroyed the last link which keeps Ireland bound to
+England." At Galway in October of the same year he said that he "would
+not have taken off his coat" to help the tenant farmers had he not known
+that that was the way to legislative independence. Fenianism and
+agrarianism, essentially different as they are, might be worked to the
+same end.
+
+
+  Boycotting.
+
+To meet the partial failure of the potatoes in Connaught and Donegal,
+very large sums were subscribed and administered by two committees, one
+under the duchess of Marlborough and the other under the lord mayor of
+Dublin. When Lord Beaconsfield appealed to the country in March 1880, he
+reminded the country in a letter to the viceroy, the duke of
+Marlborough, that there was a party in Ireland "attempting to sever the
+constitutional tie which unites it to Great Britain in that bond which
+has favoured the power and prosperity of both," and that such an
+agitation might in the end be "scarcely less disastrous than pestilence
+and famine." But the general election did not turn mainly upon Ireland,
+and the result gave Gladstone a majority of 50 over Conservatives and
+Home Rulers combined. Earl Cowper became lord-lieutenant, with W. E.
+Forster (q.v.) as chief secretary, and Parnell remained chairman of his
+own party in parliament. The Compensation for Disturbance Bill, even
+where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent, passed the House of
+Commons, but the Lords threw it out, and this has often been represented
+as the great cause of future trouble. Probably it made little real
+difference, for the extreme party in Ireland were resolved to stop at
+nothing. It is not easy to defend the principle that a landlord who has
+already lost his rent should also have to pay the defaulter before
+getting a new tenant or deriving a profit from the farm by working it
+himself. Speaking at Ennis on the 19th of September, Parnell told the
+people to punish a man for taking a farm from which another had been
+evicted "by isolating him from his kind as if he was a leper of old."
+The advice was at once taken and its scope largely extended. For
+refusing to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants, Captain
+Boycott (1832-1897), Lord Erne's agent in Mayo, was severely
+"boycotted," the name of the first victim being given to the new system.
+His servants were forced to leave him, his crops were left unsaved, even
+the post and telegraph were interfered with. The Ulster Orangemen
+resolved to get in the crops, and to go in armed force sufficient for
+the purpose. The government allowed 50 of them to go under the
+protection of about 900 soldiers. The cost seemed great, but the work
+was done and the law vindicated. In Cork William Bence-Jones (1812-1882)
+was attacked. The men in the service of the steam-packet companies
+refused to put his cattle on board, and they were eventually smuggled
+across the Channel in small lots. Several associations were formed which
+had more or less success against the League, and at last a direct attack
+was made. Parnell with four other members of parliament and the chief
+officers of the Land League were indicted for conspiracy in the Queen's
+Bench. No means of intimidating the jurors was neglected, and in the
+then state of public feeling a verdict was hardly to be expected. On the
+25th of January 1881 the jury disagreed, and Parnell became stronger
+than ever.
+
+Then followed a reign of terror which lasted for years. No one was safe,
+and private spite worked freely in the name of freedom. The system
+originated by Parnell's Ennis speech became an all-devouring tyranny. In
+the House of Commons, on the 24th of May 1882, Gladstone said that
+boycotting required a sanction like every other creed, and that the
+sanction which alone made it effective "is the murder which is not to be
+denounced." The following description by a resident in Munster was
+published in _The Times_ of the 5th of November 1885: "Boycotting means
+that a peaceable subject of the queen is denied food and drink, and that
+he is ruined in his business; that his cattle are unsaleable at fairs;
+that the smith will not shoe his horse, nor the carpenter mend his cart;
+that old friends pass him by on the other side, making the sign of the
+cross; that his children are hooted at the village school; that he sits
+apart like an outcast in his usual place of public worship: all for
+doing nothing but what the law says he has a perfect right to do. I know
+of a man who is afraid to visit his own son. A trader who is even
+suspected of dealing with such a victim of tyranny may be ruined by the
+mere imputation; his customers shun him from fear, and he is obliged to
+get a character from some notorious leaguer. Membership of the National
+League is, in many cases, as necessary a protection as ever was a
+certificate of civism under Robespierre. The real Jacobins are few, but
+the masses groan and submit." Medicine was refused by a shopkeeper even
+for the sick child of a boycotted person. A clergyman was threatened for
+visiting a parishioner who was under the ban of the League. Sometimes no
+one could be found to dig a grave. The League interfered in every
+relation of life, and the mere fact of not belonging to it was often
+severely punished. "The people," says the report of the Cowper
+Commission, "are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for its
+success on the probability of outrage, than they are of the judgments of
+the courts of justice. This unwritten law in some districts is supreme."
+
+
+  Coercion.
+
+The session of parliament of 1881 was chiefly occupied with Ireland.
+"With fatal and painful precision," Gladstone told the House of Commons
+on the 28th of January, "the steps of crime dogged the steps of the Land
+League," and the first thing was to restore the supremacy of the law. In
+1871 there had been an agrarian war in Westmeath, and an act had been
+passed authorizing the arrest of suspected persons and their detention
+without trial. The ringleaders disappeared and the county became quiet
+again. It was now proposed to do the same thing for the whole of
+Ireland, the power of detention to continue until the 30th of September
+1882. Parnell cared nothing for the dignity of the House of Commons. His
+leading idea was that no concession could be got from England by fair
+means, and he made himself as disagreeable as possible. Parliamentary
+forms were used with great success to obstruct parliamentary action. The
+"Coercion Bill" was introduced on the 24th of January 1881. There was a
+sitting of 22 hours and another of 41 hours, and on the 2nd of February
+the debate was closured by the Speaker on his own responsibility and
+the bill read a first time. The Speaker's action was approved by the
+House generally, but acrimonious debates were raised by Irish members.
+Parnell and 35 of his colleagues were suspended, and the bill became law
+on the 2nd of March, but not before great and permanent changes were
+made in parliamentary procedure. An Arms Bill, which excited the same
+sort of opposition, was also passed into law.
+
+
+  Land Act, 1881.
+
+  Kilmainham "Treaty."
+
+That a Land Act should be passed was a foregone conclusion as soon as
+the result of the general election was known. There were many drafts and
+plans which never saw the light, but it was at last resolved to adopt
+the policy known as the "Three F's"--free sale, fixity of tenure and
+fair rents. By the first tenants at will were empowered to sell their
+occupation interests, the landlord retaining a right of pre-emption. By
+the second the tenant was secured from eviction except for non-payment
+of rent. By the third the tenant was given the right to have a "fair
+rent" fixed by a newly formed Land Commission Court, the element of
+competition being entirely excluded. There were several exceptions and
+qualifying clauses, but most of them have been swept away by later acts.
+The act of 1881 can scarcely be said to have worked well or smoothly,
+but it is not easy to see how any sort of settlement could have been
+reached without accepting the principle of having the rent fixed by a
+third party. Drastic as the bill was, Parnell refused to be a party to
+it, and on the second reading, which was carried by 352 to 176, he
+walked out of the House with 35 of his followers. When the bill became
+law in August he could not prevent the tenants from using it, but he did
+what he could to discourage them in order to please his American
+paymasters, who repudiated all parliamentary remedies. In September a
+convention was held in Dublin, and Parnell reported its action to the
+American Land League: "Resolutions were adopted for national
+self-government, the unconditional liberation of the land for the
+people, tenants not to use the rent-fixing clauses of the Land Act, but
+follow old Land League lines, and rely on the old methods to reach
+justice. The executive of the League is empowered to select test cases,
+in order that tenants in surrounding districts may realize, by the
+results of cases decided, the hollowness of the act" (Barry O'Brien,
+_Life of C. S. Parnell_, i. 306). His organ _United Ireland_ declared
+that the new courts must be cowed into giving satisfactory decisions.
+The League, however, could not prevent the farmers from using the
+fair-rent clauses. It was more successful in preventing free sale,
+maintaining the doctrine that, rent or no rent, no evictions were to be
+allowed. At the first sitting of the Land Commission in Dublin the
+crier, perhaps by accident, declared "the court of the Land League to be
+open." Speaking at Leeds on the 7th of October, Gladstone said "the
+resources of civilization were not exhausted," adding that Parnell
+"stood between the living and the dead, not like Aaron to stay the
+plague, but to spread the plague." Two days later Parnell called the
+prime minister a "masquerading knight-errant," ready to oppress the
+unarmed, but submissive to the Boers as soon as he found "that they were
+able to shoot straighter than his own soldiers." Four days after this
+Parnell was arrested under the Coercion Act and lodged in Kilmainham
+gaol. The Land League having retorted by ordering the tenants to pay no
+rent, it was declared illegal, and suppressed by proclamation. Parnell
+is said to have disapproved of the no-rent manifesto, as also Mr John
+Dillon, who was in Kilmainham with him, but both of them signed it (ib.
+i. 319). At Liverpool on the 27th of October Gladstone described Parnell
+and his party as "marching through rapine to the disintegration and
+dismemberment of the empire." In 1881, 4439 agrarian outrages were
+reported; nothing attracted more attention in England than the cruel
+mutilations of cattle, which became very frequent. The Ladies' Land
+League tried to carry on the work of the suppressed organization and
+there was even an attempt at a Children's League. Sex had no effect in
+softening the prevalent style of oratory, but the government thought it
+better to take no notice. The imprisonment of suspects under the
+Coercion Act had not the expected result, and outrages were incessant,
+the agitation being supported by constant supplies of money from
+America. Gladstone resolved on a complete change of policy. It was
+decided to check evictions by an Arrears Bill, and the three imprisoned
+members of parliament--Messrs Parnell, Dillon and O'Kelly--were released
+on the 2nd of May 1882, against the wishes of the Irish government. This
+was known as the Kilmainham Treaty. Lord Cowper and Forster at once
+resigned, and were succeeded by Lord Spencer and Lord Frederick
+Cavendish, who entered Dublin on the 6th of May.
+
+
+  Phoenix Park murders.
+
+That same evening Lord Frederick and the permanent under-secretary
+Thomas Henry Burke were murdered in the Phoenix Park in broad daylight.
+The weapons were amputating knives imported for the purpose. The
+assassins drove rapidly away; no one, not even those who saw the deed
+from a distance, knew what had been done. A Dublin tradesman named
+Field, who had been a juror in a murder trial, was attacked by the same
+gang and stabbed in many places. He escaped with life, though with
+shattered health, and it was the identification of the man who drove his
+assailants' car that afterwards led to the discovery of the whole
+conspiracy. The clue was obtained by a private examination of suspected
+persons under the powers given by the Crimes Act. To obtain convictions
+the evidence of an informer was wanted, and the person selected was
+James Carey, a member of the Dublin Corporation and a chief contriver of
+the murders. He swore that they had been ordered immediately after the
+appearance of an article in the _Freeman's Journal_ which declared that
+a "clean sweep" should be made of Dublin Castle officials. The evidence
+disclosed the fact that several abortive attempts had been previously
+made to murder Forster. Out of twenty persons, subsequently arraigned,
+five were hanged, and others sentenced to long terms of imprisonment.
+Carey embarked for South Africa in the following July, and was murdered
+on board ship by Patrick O'Donnell, who was brought to England,
+convicted, and hanged on the 17th of December 1883.
+
+
+  National League.
+
+  Dynamite.
+
+  Labourers Act.
+
+Mr (afterwards Sir) G. O. Trevelyan had been appointed chief secretary
+in May 1882, and in July the Crimes Prevention Act was passed for three
+years on lines indicated by Lord Cowper. In the first six months of the
+year 2597 agrarian outrages were reported, and in the last six months
+836. They fell to 834 in 1883, and to 744 in 1884. The Arrears Bill also
+became law. Money enough was advanced out of the surplus property of the
+Irish Church to pay for tenants of holdings under Ł30 one year's rent
+upon all arrears accruing before November 1880, giving them a clear
+receipt to that date on condition of their paying another year
+themselves; of the many reasons against the measure the most important
+was that it was a concession to agrarian violence. But the same could be
+and was said of the Land Act of 1881. That had been passed, and it was
+probably impossible to make it work at all smoothly without checking
+evictions by dealing with old arrears. The Irish National League was,
+however, founded in October to take up the work of the defunct Land
+League, and the country continued to be disturbed. The law was
+paralysed, for no jury could be trusted to convict even on the clearest
+evidence, and the National League branches assumed judicial functions.
+Men were openly tried all over the country for disobeying the
+revolutionary decrees, and private spite was often the cause of their
+being accused. "Tenants," to quote the Cowper Commission again, "who
+have paid even the judicial rents have been summoned to appear before
+self-constituted tribunals, and if they failed to do so, or on appearing
+failed to satisfy those tribunals, have been fined or boycotted." In
+February 1883 Mr Trevelyan gave an account of his stewardship at Hawick,
+and said that all law-abiding Irishmen, whether Conservative or Liberal,
+were on one side, while on the other were those who "planned and
+executed the Galway and Dublin murders, the boycotting and firing into
+houses, the mutilation of cattle and intimidation of every sort." In
+this year the campaign of outrage in Ireland was reinforced by one of
+dynamite in Great Britain. The home secretary, Sir W. Harcourt, brought
+in an Explosives Bill on the 9th of April, which was passed through all
+its stages in one day and received the royal assent on the next. The
+dynamiters were for the most part Irish-Americans, who for obvious
+reasons generally spared Ireland, but one land-agent's house in Kerry
+was shaken to its foundations in November 1884. At Belfast in the
+preceding June Lord Spencer, who afterwards became a Home Ruler, had
+announced that the secret conspirators would "not terrify the English
+nation." On the 22nd of February 1883 Forster made his great attack on
+Parnell in the House of Commons, accusing him of moral complicity with
+Irish crime. A detailed answer was never attempted, and public attention
+was soon drawn to the trial of the "Invincibles" who contrived the
+Phoenix Park murders. On the 11th of December Parnell received a present
+of Ł37,000 from his followers in Ireland. The tribute, as it was called,
+was raised in spite of a papal prohibition. As a complement to the Land
+Act and Arrears Act, boards of guardians were this year empowered to
+build labourers' cottages with money borrowed on the security of the
+rates and repayable out of them. Half an acre of land went with the
+cottage, and by a later act this was unwisely extended to one acre. That
+the labourers had been badly housed was evident, and there was little
+chance of improvement by private capitalists, for cottage property is
+not remunerative. But the working of the Labourers Acts was very costly,
+cottages being often assigned to people who were not agricultural
+labourers at all. In many districts the building was quite overdone, and
+the rent obtainable being far less than enough to recoup the guardians,
+the system operated as out-door relief for the able-bodied and as a rate
+in aid of wages.
+
+
+  Ashbourne Act.
+
+  Home Rule Bill, 1886.
+
+The Explosives Act, strong as it was, did not at once effect its object.
+In February 1884 there was a plot to blow up four London railway
+stations by means of clockwork infernal machines containing dynamite,
+brought from America. Three Irish-Americans were convicted, of whom one,
+John Daly, who was sentenced to penal servitude for life, lived to be
+mayor of Limerick in 1899. In January 1885 Parnell visited Thurles,
+where he gave a remarkable proof of his power by breaking down local
+opposition to his candidate for Tipperary. In April the prince and
+princess of Wales visited Ireland. At Dublin they were well received,
+and at Belfast enthusiastically, but there were hostile demonstrations
+at Mallow and Cork. In May it was intended to renew the Crimes
+Prevention Act, but before that was done the government was beaten on a
+financial question by 264 to 252, Parnell and 39 of his followers voting
+with the Conservatives. The Crimes Prevention Act expired on the 12th of
+July, and the want of it was at once felt. The number of agrarian
+outrages reported in the first six months of the year was 373; in the
+last six months they rose to 543, and the number of persons boycotted
+was almost trebled. Lord Salisbury came into office, with Lord Carnarvon
+as lord-lieutenant and Sir W. Hart Dyke as chief secretary. The
+lord-lieutenant had an interview with Parnell, of which very conflicting
+accounts were given, but the Irish leader issued a manifesto advising
+his friends to vote against the Liberals as oppressors and coercionists,
+who promised everything and did nothing. The constitutional Liberal
+party in Ireland was in fact annihilated by the extension of the
+franchise to agricultural labourers and very small farmers. The most
+important Irish measure of the session was the Ashbourne Act, by which
+Ł5,000,000 was allotted on the security of the land for the creation of
+an occupying proprietary. Later the same sum was again granted, and
+there was still a good deal unexpended when the larger measure of 1891
+became law. In December 1885, when the general election was over, an
+anonymous scheme of Home Rule appeared in some newspapers, and in spite
+of disclaimers it was at once believed that Gladstone had made up his
+mind to surrender. In October 1884, only fourteen months before, he had
+told political friends that he had a sneaking regard for Parnell, and
+that Home Rule might be a matter for serious consideration within ten
+years (Sir A. West's _Recollections_, 1899, ii. 206). The shortening of
+the time was perhaps accounted for by the fact that the new House of
+Commons consisted of 331 Liberals, 249 Conservatives, 86 Home Rulers and
+Independents, Parnell thus holding the balance of parties. In Ireland
+there had been 66 elections contested, and out of 451,000 voters 93,000
+were illiterates. Such were the constituencies to whom it was proposed
+to hand Ireland over. On the 26th of January 1886 the government were
+defeated by a combination of Liberal and Nationalists on an issue not
+directly connected with Ireland, and their resignation immediately
+followed. Gladstone became prime minister, with Lord Aberdeen as
+lord-lieutenant and Mr John Morley as chief secretary. Lord Hartington
+and Mr Goschen were not included in this administration. In February
+Parnell again showed his power by forcing Captain O'Shea upon the
+unwilling electors of Galway. He introduced a Land Bill to relieve
+tenants from legal process if they paid half their rent, and foretold
+disorder in consequence of its rejection. In April the Government of
+Ireland Bill was brought in, Mr Chamberlain (q.v.), Mr Trevelyan and
+others leaving the ministry. The bill attempted to safeguard British
+interests, while leaving Ireland at the mercy of the native politicians.
+Irish members were excluded from the imperial parliament. The local
+legislature was to consist of two orders sitting and voting together,
+but with the power of separating on the demand of either order present.
+The 28 representative peers, with 75 other members having an income of
+Ł200, or a capital of Ł4000, elected for ten years by Ł25 occupiers,
+were to constitute the first order. The second was to have 204 members
+returned for five years by the usual parliamentary electorate. The
+status of the lord-lieutenant was unalterable by this legislature.
+Holders of judicial offices and permanent civil servants had the option
+of retiring with pensions, but the constabulary, whom the Home Rulers
+had openly threatened to punish when their time came, were to come after
+an interval under the power of the Irish Parliament. Parnell accepted
+the bill, but without enthusiasm.
+
+The Government of Ireland Bill gave no protection to landowners, but as
+the crisis was mainly agrarian, it would have been hardly decent to make
+no show of considering them. A Land Purchase Bill was accordingly
+introduced on the 16th of April by the prime minister under "an
+obligation of honour and policy," to use his own words. Fifty millions
+sterling in three years was proposed as payment for what had been
+officially undervalued at 113 millions. It was assumed that there would
+be a rush to sell, the choice apparently lying between that and
+confiscation, and priority was to be decided by lot. The Irish
+landlords, however, showed no disposition to sell their country, and the
+Purchase Bill was quickly dropped, though Gladstone had declared the two
+measures to be inseparable. He reminded the landlords that the "sands
+were running in the hour-glass," but this threat had no effect. The
+Unionists of Ireland had been taken by surprise, and out of Ulster they
+had no organization capable of opposing the National League and the
+government combined. Individuals went to England and spoke wherever they
+could get a hearing, but it was uphill work. In Ulster the Orange lodges
+were always available, and the large Protestant population made itself
+felt. Terrible riots took place at Belfast in June, July and August. In
+October there was an inquiry by a royal commission with Mr Justice Day
+at its head, and on the report being published in the following January
+there were fresh riots. Foolish and criminal as these disturbances were,
+they served to remind the English people that Ireland would not cease to
+be troublesome under Home Rule. In parliament the Home Rule Bill soon
+got into rough water; John Bright declared against it. The "dissentient
+Liberals," as Gladstone always called them, were not converted by the
+abandonment of the Purchase Bill, and on the 7th of June 93 of them
+voted against the second reading, which was lost by 30 votes. A general
+election followed in July, and 74 Liberal Unionists were returned,
+forming with the Conservatives a Unionist party, which outnumbered
+Gladstonians and Parnellites together by over a hundred. Gladstone
+resigned, and Lord Salisbury became prime minister, with Lord
+Londonderry as lord-lieutenant and Sir M. Hicks-Beach (afterwards Lord
+St Aldwyn) as chief secretary.
+
+
+  The "Plan of Campaign."
+
+The political stroke having failed, agrarianism again occupied the
+ground. The "plan of campaign" was started, against Parnell's wishes,
+towards the end of 1886. The gist of this movement was that tenants
+should offer what they were pleased to consider a fair rent, and if it
+was refused, should pay the money into the hands of a committee. In
+March 1887 Sir M. Hicks-Beach resigned on account of illness, and Mr
+Arthur Balfour (q.v.) became chief secretary. The attempt to govern
+Ireland under what was called "the ordinary law" was necessarily
+abandoned, and a perpetual Crimes Act was passed which enabled the
+lord-lieutenant to proclaim disturbed districts and dangerous
+associations, and substituted trial by magistrates for trial by jury in
+the case of certain acts of violence. In August the National League was
+suppressed by proclamation. The conservative instincts of the Vatican
+were alarmed by the lawless state of Ireland, and an eminent
+ecclesiastic, Monsignor Persico, arrived in the late summer on a special
+commission of inquiry. He made no secret of his belief that the
+establishment of an occupying proprietary was the only lasting cure, but
+the attitude of the clergy became gradually more moderate. The
+government passed a bill giving leaseholders the benefit of the act of
+1881, and prescribing a temporary reduction upon judicial rents already
+fixed. This last provision was open to many great and obvious
+objections, but was more or less justified by the fall in prices which
+had taken place since 1881.
+
+The steady administration of the Crimes Act by Mr Balfour gradually
+quieted the country. Parnell had now gained the bulk of the Liberal
+party, including Lord Spencer (in spite of all that he had said and
+done) and Sir G. Trevelyan (in spite of his Hawick speech). In the
+circumstances the best chance for Home Rule was not to stir the land
+question. Cecil Rhodes, hoping to help imperial federation, gave Parnell
+Ł10,000 for the cause. In September 1887 a riot arising out of the "plan
+of campaign" took place at Mitchelstown. The police fired, and two lives
+were lost, Mr Henry Labouchere and Mr (afterwards Sir John) Brunner,
+both members of parliament, being present at the time. The coroner's
+jury brought in a verdict against the police, but that was a matter of
+course, and the government ignored it. A telegram sent by Gladstone a
+little later, ending with the words "remember Mitchelstown," created a
+good deal of feeling, but it did the Home Rulers no good. In October Mr
+Chamberlain visited Ulster, where he was received with enthusiasm, and
+delivered several stirring Unionist speeches. In November Lord
+Hartington and Mr Goschen were in Dublin, and addressed a great loyalist
+meeting there.
+
+
+  Parnell Commission.
+
+In July 1888 an act was passed appointing a commission, consisting of
+Sir James Hannen, Mr Justice Day and Mr Justice A. L. Smith, to inquire
+into certain charges made by _The Times_ against Parnell and his party.
+What caused most excitement was the publication by _The Times_ on the
+15th of May 1887 of a _facsimile_ letter purporting to have been written
+by Parnell on the 15th of May 1882, nine days after the Phoenix Park
+murders. The writer of this letter suggested that his open condemnation
+of the murders had been a matter of expediency, and that Burke deserved
+his fate. Parnell at once declared that this was a forgery, but he did
+nothing more at the time. Other alleged incriminating letters followed.
+The case of _O'Donnell_ v. _Walter_, tried before the Lord Chief Justice
+of England in July 1888, brought matters to a head, and the special
+commission followed. The proceedings were necessarily of enormous
+length, and the commissioners did not report until the 13th of February
+1890, but the question of the letters was decided just twelve months
+earlier, Richard Pigott, who shot himself at Madrid, having confessed
+to the forgeries. A few days later, on the 8th of March 1889, Parnell
+was entertained at dinner by the Eighty Club, Lords Spencer and Rosebery
+being present; and he was well received on English platforms when he
+chose to appear. Yet the special commission shed a flood of light on the
+agrarian and Nationalist movement in Ireland. Eight members of
+parliament were pronounced by name to have conspired for the total
+political separation of the two islands. The whole party were proved to
+have disseminated newspapers tending to incite to sedition and the
+commission of crime, to have abstained from denouncing the system of
+intimidation, and to have compensated persons injured in committing
+crime. (See PARNELL.)
+
+
+  New Tipperary.
+
+The conduct of the agrarian war had in the meantime almost passed from
+Parnell's hands. The "plan of campaign" was not his work, still less its
+latest and most remarkable exploit. To punish Mr Smith-Barry (afterwards
+Lord Barrymore) for his exertions in favour of a brother landlord, his
+tenants in Tipperary were ordered to give up their holdings. A sum of
+Ł50,000 was collected to build "New Tipperary," and the fine shops and
+flourishing concerns in the town were deserted to avoid paying small
+ground-rents. The same course was pursued with the farmers, some of whom
+had large capitals invested. Mr William O'Brien presided at the
+inaugural dinner on the 12th of April, and some English M.P.'s were
+present, but his chief supporter throughout was Father Humphreys.
+Parnell was invited, but neither came nor answered. No shopkeeper nor
+farmer had any quarrel with his landlord. "Heretofore," a tenant wrote
+in _The Times_ in the following December, "people were boycotted for
+taking farms; I am boycotted for not giving up mine, which I have held
+for twenty-five years. A neighbour of mine, an Englishman, is undergoing
+the same treatment, and we alone. We are the only Protestant tenants on
+the Cashel estate. The remainder of the tenants, about thirty, are
+clearing everything off their land, and say they will allow themselves
+to be evicted." In the end the attack on Mr Smith-Barry completely
+failed, and he took back his misguided tenants. But the town of
+Tipperary has not recovered its old prosperity.
+
+
+  Land purchase.
+
+The principal Irish measure passed in 1891 was Mr Balfour's Purchase
+Act, to extend and modify the operation of the Ashbourne acts.
+Ł30,000,000 were provided to convert tenants into proprietors, the
+instalments paid being again available, so that all the tenanted land in
+Ireland might ultimately be passed through if desired. The land itself
+in one shape or another formed the security, and guaranteed stock was
+issued which the holder might exchange for consols. The 40th clause of
+the Land Act of 1896 greatly stimulated the creation of occupying owners
+in the case of over-incumbered estates, but solvent landlords were not
+in a hurry to sell. The interests of the tenant were so carefully
+guarded that the prices obtainable were ruinous to the vendor unless he
+had other resources. The security of the treasury was also so jealously
+scrutinized that even the price which the tenant might be willing to pay
+was often disallowed. Thus the Land Commission really fixed the price of
+all property, and the last vestige of free contract was obliterated.
+Compulsory purchase became a popular cry, especially in Ulster. Owners,
+however, could not with any pretence of justice be forced to sell at
+ruinous prices, nor tenants be forced to give more than they thought
+fair. If the state, for purposes of its own, insisted upon expropriating
+all landlords, it was bound to find the difference, or to enter upon a
+course of undisguised confiscation. The Purchase Act was not the only
+one relied on by Mr Balfour. The Light Railways Act, passed by him in
+1890, did much to open up some of the poorest parts of the west, and the
+temporary scarcity of that year was dealt with by relief works.
+
+
+  Parnell's downfall.
+
+An action begun by Parnell against _The Times_ was settled by the
+payment of a substantial sum. The Nationalist leader seemed to stand
+higher than ever, but the writ in the divorce proceedings, brought by
+Captain O'Shea against his wife, with the Irish leader as co-respondent,
+was hanging over him. To public astonishment, when the case came on for
+trial there was no defence, and on the 17th of November 1890 a decree
+nisi was granted. Parnell's subsequent marriage with the respondent
+before a registrar did him no good with his Roman Catholic supporters.
+The Irish bishops remained silent, while in England the "Nonconformist
+conscience" revolted. Three days after the verdict a great meeting was
+held in the Leinster Hall, Dublin, attended by 25 members of the Irish
+parliamentary party. The result was an enthusiastic vote of confidence
+in Parnell, moved by Mr Justin M'Carthy and seconded by Mr T. M. Healy.
+Five days later he was unanimously re-elected chairman by his party in
+parliament, but the meeting was scarcely over when Gladstone's famous
+letter to Mr Morley became public. The writer in effect demanded
+Parnell's resignation of the leadership as the condition upon which he
+could continue at the head of the Liberal party. He had to choose
+between the Nonconformist vote and the Irish leader, and he preferred
+the former. Next day the secession of the Irish members from their chief
+began. Long and acrimonious debates followed in committee-room 15, and
+on the 6th of December Parnell was left in the chair with only 26
+supporters. The majority of 45 members--Anti-Parnellites, as they came
+to be called--went into another room, unanimously deposed him, and
+elected Mr Justin M'Carthy in his place. Parnell then began a campaign
+as hopeless as that of Napoleon after Leipzig. He seized the office of
+_United Ireland_ in person. The Fenian element was with him, as he
+admitted, but the clergy were against him, and the odds were too great,
+especially against a Protestant politician. His candidate in a
+by-election at Kilkenny was beaten by nearly two to one, and he himself
+was injured in the eyes by lime being thrown at him. Similar defeats
+followed at Sligo and Carlow. He went over to France to meet Messrs
+Dillon and O'Brien, who had not yet taken sides, but nothing was agreed
+to, and in the end both these former followers went against him. Every
+Saturday he went from London to Dublin and addressed some Sunday meeting
+in the country. The last was on the 27th of September. On the 6th of
+October 1891 he died at Brighton, from the effects of a chill following
+on overwork and excitement. His funeral at Glasnevin was attended by
+200,000 people. At the general election of 1892, however, only 9
+Parnellites--the section which under Mr John Redmond remained staunch to
+his memory--were returned to parliament.
+
+
+  Home Rule Bill 1893.
+
+The "Parnellite split," as it was called, proved fatal to the cause of
+Home Rule, for the Nationalist party broke up into factions. No one of
+the sectional leaders commanded general confidence, and personal
+rivalries were of the bitterest kind. An important result of these
+quarrels was to stop the supply of American money, without which neither
+the Land League nor the Home Rule agitation could have been worked. The
+Unionist party had adopted a policy of local government for Ireland
+while opposing legislative independence, and a bill was introduced into
+the House of Commons by Mr Balfour in February 1892. The principle was
+affirmed by a great majority, but the measure could not then be
+proceeded with. At the general election in July the Gladstonians and
+Nationalists together obtained a majority of 40 over Conservatives and
+Liberal Unionists. Lord Salisbury resigned in August, and was succeeded
+by Gladstone, with Lord Houghton (afterwards earl of Crewe) as
+lord-lieutenant and Mr John Morley as chief secretary. The Crimes Act,
+which had already been relaxed, was altogether suspended, and the
+proclamation declaring the National League illegal was revoked. The
+lord-lieutenant, on taking up his quarters in Dublin, refused a loyal
+address because of its Unionist tone; and in October the government
+issued a commission, with Mr Justice Mathew as chairman, which had the
+restoration of the evicted tenants as its avowed object. Two of the
+commissioners very shortly resigned, and the whole inquiry became
+somewhat farcical. It was given in evidence that out of Ł234,431
+collected under the plan of campaign only Ł125,000 had been given to
+evicted tenants. In February 1893, on the application of the sheriff of
+Kerry, an order from Dublin Castle, refusing protection, was pronounced
+illegal in the Queen's Bench, and persons issuing it were declared
+liable to criminal prosecution. In the same month Gladstone introduced
+his second Home Rule Bill, which proposed to retain 80 Irish members in
+the imperial parliament instead of 103, but they were not to vote on any
+proceedings expressly confined to Great Britain. On the 8th of April
+1886 he had told the House of Commons that it "passed the wit of man" to
+draw a practical distinction between imperial and non-imperial affairs.
+On the 20th of July 1888 he informed the same assembly that there was no
+difficulty in doing so. It had become evident, in the meantime, to
+numberless Englishmen that the exclusion of the Irish members would mean
+virtual separation. The plan now proposed met with no greater favour,
+for a good many English Home Rulers had been mainly actuated all along
+by the wish to get the Irish members out of their way. The financial
+provisions of the bill were objected to by the Nationalists as tending
+to keep Ireland in bondage.
+
+During the year 1892 a vast number of Unionist meetings were held
+throughout Ireland, the most remarkable being the great Ulster
+convention in Belfast, and that of the three other provinces in Dublin,
+on the 14th and 23rd of June. On the 22nd of April 1893, the day after
+the second reading of the bill, the Albert Hall in London was filled by
+enthusiastic Unionist delegates from all parts of Ireland. Next day the
+visitors were entertained by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield, the duke of
+Devonshire, Mr Balfour, Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain being present.
+Between the second reading and the third on 1st September the government
+majority fell from 43 to 34. A great part of the bill was closured by
+what was known as the device of the "gag" without discussion, although
+it occupied the House of Commons altogether eighty-two nights. It was
+thrown out by the Lords by 419 to 41, and the country undoubtedly
+acquiesced in their action. On the 3rd of March 1894 Gladstone resigned,
+and Lord Rosebery (q.v.) became prime minister. A bill to repeal the
+Crimes Act of 1887 was read a second time in the Commons by 60, but went
+no farther. A committee on the Irish Land Acts was closured at the end
+of July by the casting vote of the chairman, Mr Morley, and the minority
+refused to join in the report. The bill to restore the evicted tenants,
+which resulted from the Mathew Commission, was rejected in the Lords by
+249 to 30. In March 1895 Mr Morley introduced a Land Bill, but the
+government majority continued to dwindle. Another Crimes Act Repeal Bill
+passed the second reading in May by only 222 to 208. In July, however,
+the government were defeated on the question of the supply of small-arms
+ammunition. A general election followed, which resulted in a Unionist
+majority of 150. The Liberal Unionists, whose extinction had once been
+so confidently foretold, had increased from 46 to 71, and the
+Parnellites, in spite of the most violent clerical opposition, from 9 to
+12. Lord Cadogan became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Mr Gerald
+Balfour--who announced a policy of "killing Home Rule by
+kindness"--chief secretary.
+
+
+  Land Act 1896.
+
+In the session of 1896 a new Land Act was added to the statute-book. The
+general effect was to decide most disputed points in favour of the
+tenants, and to repeal the exceptions made by former acts in the
+landlord's favour. Dairy farms, to mention only a few of the most
+important points which had been hitherto excluded, were admitted within
+the scope of the Land Acts, and purely pastoral holdings of between Ł50
+and Ł100 were for the first time included. A presumption of law in the
+tenant's favour was created as to improvements made since 1850. The 40th
+clause introduced the principle of compulsory sale to the tenants of
+estates in the hands of receivers. The tendency of this provision to
+lower the value of all property was partly, but only partly, neutralized
+by the firmness of the land judge. The landlords of Ireland, who had
+made so many sacrifices and worked so hard to return Lord Salisbury to
+power, felt that the measure was hardly what they had a right to expect
+from a Unionist administration. In their opinion it unsettled the
+agricultural mind, and encouraged judicial tenants to go to law at the
+expiration of the first fifteen years' term instead of bargaining
+amicably with their landlords.
+
+
+  Financial relations.
+
+In the autumn of this year was published the report of the royal
+commission on the financial relations between England and Ireland. Mr
+Hugh C. E. Childers was the original chairman of this commission, which
+was appointed in 1894 with the object of determining the fiscal
+contribution of Ireland under Home Rule, and after his death in 1896 The
+O'Conor Don presided. The report--or rather the collection of minority
+reports--gave some countenance to those who held that Ireland was
+overtaxed, and there was a strong agitation on the subject, in which
+some Irish Unionists joined without perceiving the danger of treating
+the two islands as "separate entities." No individual Irishman was taxed
+on a higher scale than any corresponding citizen of Great Britain. No
+tax, either on commodities or property, was higher in Ireland than in
+England. The alleged grievance was, however, exploited to the utmost
+extent by the Nationalist party. In 1897 a royal commission, with Sir
+Edward Fry as chairman, was appointed to inquire into the operation of
+the Land Acts. Voluminous evidence was taken in different parts of
+Ireland, and the commissioners reported in the following year. The
+methods and procedure of the Land Commission were much criticized, and
+many recommendations were made, but no legislation followed. This
+inquiry proved, what few in Ireland doubted, that the prices paid for
+occupancy interest or tenant right increased as the landlord's rent was
+cut down.
+
+
+  Local Government Act 1898.
+
+The session of 1898 was largely occupied with the discussion of a bill
+to establish county and district councils on the lines of the English
+Act of 1888. The fiscal jurisdiction of grand juries, which had lasted
+for more than two centuries and a half, was entirely swept away. Local
+government for Ireland had always been part of the Unionist programme,
+and the vote on the abortive bill of 1892 had committed parliament to
+legislation. It may, nevertheless, be doubted whether enough attention
+was paid to the local peculiarities of Ireland, and whether English
+precedents were not too closely followed. In Ireland the poor-rate used
+to be divided between landlord and tenant, except on holdings valued at
+Ł4 and under, in which the landlord paid the whole. Councils elected by
+small farmers were evidently unfit to impose taxes so assessed. The
+poor-rate and the county cess, which latter was mostly paid by the
+tenants, were consolidated, and an agricultural grant of Ł730,000 was
+voted by parliament in order to relieve both parties. The consolidated
+rate was now paid by the occupier, who would profit by economy and lose
+by extravagance. The towns gained nothing by the agricultural grant, but
+union rating was established for the first time. The net result of the
+county council elections in the spring of 1899 was to displace, except
+in some northern counties, nearly all the men who had hitherto done the
+local business. Nationalist pledges were exacted, and long service as a
+grand juror was an almost certain bar to election. The Irish gentry,
+long excluded, as landlords and Unionists, from political life, now felt
+to a great extent that they had no field for activity in local affairs.
+The new councils very generally passed resolutions of sympathy with the
+Boers in the South African war. The one most often adopted, though
+sometimes rejected as too mild, was that of the Limerick corporation,
+hoping "that it may end in another Majuba Hill." Efforts not wholly
+unsuccessful were made to hinder recruiting in Ireland, and every
+reverse or repulse of British arms was greeted with Nationalist
+applause.
+
+The scheme for a Roman Catholic University--of which Mr Arthur Balfour,
+speaking for himself and not for the government, made himself a
+prominent champion--was much canvassed in 1899, but it came to nothing.
+It had not been forgotten that this question wrecked the Liberal party
+in 1874.
+
+
+  Board of Agriculture.
+
+The chief Irish measure of 1899 was an Agricultural and Technical
+Instruction Act, which established a new department (see the section
+_Economics_ above) with the chief secretary at its head and an elaborate
+system of local committees. Considerable funds were made available, and
+Mr (afterwards Sir) Horace Plunkett, who as an independent Conservative
+member had been active in promoting associations for the improvement of
+Irish methods in this direction, became the first vice-president. The
+new county councils were generally induced to further attempts at
+technical instruction and to assist them out of the rates, but progress
+in this direction was necessarily slow in a country where organized
+industries have hitherto been so few. In agriculture, and especially in
+cattle-breeding, improvement was formerly due mainly to the landlords,
+who had now been deprived by law of much of their power. The gap has
+been partly filled by the new department, and a good deal has been done.
+Some experience has been gained not only through the voluntary
+associations promoted by Sir H. Plunkett, but also from the Congested
+Districts Board founded under the Land Purchase Act of 1891. This board
+has power within the districts affected by it to foster agriculture and
+fisheries, to enlarge holdings, and to buy and hold land. In March 1899
+it had from first to last laid out a little more than half a million.
+The principal source of income was a charge of Ł41,250 a year upon the
+Irish Church surplus, but the establishment expenses were paid by
+parliament.
+
+
+  1900.
+
+At the opening of the session in January 1900 there was a formal
+reconciliation of the Dillonite, Healyite, and Redmondite or Parnellite
+factions. It was evident from the speeches made on the occasion that
+there was not much cordiality between the various leaders, but the
+outward solidarity of the party was calculated to bring in renewed
+subscriptions both at home and from America. It was publicly agreed that
+England's difficulty in South Africa was Ireland's opportunity, and that
+all should abstain from supporting an amendment to the address which
+admitted that the war would have to be fought out. Mr John Redmond was
+chosen chairman, and the alliance of Nationalists and Gladstonian
+Liberals was dissolved. The United Irish League, founded in Mayo in 1898
+by Mr William O'Brien, had recently become a sort of rival to the
+parliamentary party, its avowed object being to break up the great grass
+farms, and its methods resembling those of the old Land League.
+
+The most striking event, however, in Ireland in the earlier part of 1900
+was Queen Victoria's visit. Touched by the gallantry of the Irish
+regiments in South Africa, and moved to some extent, no doubt, by the
+presence of the duke of Connaught in Dublin as commander-in-chief, the
+queen determined in April to make up for the loss of her usual spring
+holiday abroad by paying a visit to Ireland. The last time the queen had
+been in Dublin was in 1861 with the Prince Consort. Since then, besides
+the visit of the prince and princess of Wales in 1885, Prince Albert
+Victor and Prince George of Wales had visited Ireland in 1887, and the
+duke and duchess of York (afterwards prince and princess of Wales) in
+1897; but the lack of any permanent royal residence and the
+long-continued absence of the sovereign in person had aroused repeated
+comment. Directly the announcement of the queen's intention was made the
+greatest public interest was taken in the project. Shortly before St
+Patrick's Day the queen issued an order which intensified this interest,
+that Irish soldiers might in future wear a sprig of shamrock in their
+headgear on this national festival. For some years past the "wearing of
+the green" had been regarded by the army authorities as improper, and
+friction had consequently occurred, but the queen's order put an end in
+a graceful manner to what had formerly been a grievance. The result was
+that St Patrick's Day was celebrated in London and throughout the empire
+as it never had been before, and when the queen went over to Dublin at
+the beginning of April she was received with the greatest enthusiasm.
+
+The general election later in the year made no practical difference in
+the strength of parties, but Mr George Wyndham took Mr Gerald Balfour's
+place as chief secretary, without a seat in the Cabinet. Both before and
+after the election the United Irish League steadily advanced, fresh
+branches continually springing up.
+
+
+  Recent years.
+
+The visit of Mr Redmond and others to America in 1901 was not believed
+to have brought in much money, and the activity of the League was more
+or less restrained by want of funds. Boycotting, however, became rife,
+especially in Sligo, and paid agents also promoted an agitation against
+grass farms in Tipperary, Clare and other southern counties. In
+Roscommon there was a strike against rent, especially on the property of
+Lord De Freyne. This was due to the action of the Congested Districts
+Board in buying the Dillon estate and reducing all the rents without
+consulting the effect upon others. It was argued that no one else's
+tenants could be expected to pay more. Some prosecutions were
+undertaken, but the government was much criticized for not using the
+special provisions of the Crimes Act; and in April 1902 certain counties
+were "proclaimed" under it. In February 1902 Lord Rosebery definitely
+repudiated Home Rule, and steps to oppose his followers were at once
+taken among Irish voters in English constituencies.
+
+Lord Cadogan resigned the viceroyalty in July 1902, and was succeeded by
+Lord Dudley. In November Sir Antony Macdonnell (b. 1844), a member of
+the Indian Council, became under-secretary to the lord-lieutenant.
+During a long and successful career in India (1865-1901) Sir Antony had
+never concealed his Nationalist proclivities, but his appointment, about
+the form of which there was nothing peculiar, was favoured by Lord
+Lansdowne and Lord George Hamilton, and ultimately sanctioned by Mr
+Balfour, who had been prime minister since Lord Salisbury's resignation
+in July. About the same time a conference took place in Dublin between
+certain landlords and some members of the Nationalist party, of whom Mr
+W. O'Brien was the most conspicuous. Lord Dunraven presided, and it was
+agreed to recommend a great extension of the Land Purchase system with a
+view to give the vendor as good an income as before, while decreasing
+the tenants' annual burden. This was attempted in Mr Wyndham's Land
+Purchase Act of 1903, which gave the tenants a material reduction, a
+bonus of 12% on the purchase-money being granted to vendors from funds
+provided by parliament. A judicial decision made it doubtful whether
+this percentage became the private property of tenants for life on
+settled estates, but a further act passed in 1904 answered the question
+in the affirmative. After this the sale of estates proceeded rapidly. In
+March 1903 was published the report of the Royal Commission on Irish
+University Education appointed two years before with Lord Robertson as
+chairman, Trinity College, Dublin, being excluded from the inquiry. The
+report, which was not really unanimous, was of little value as a basis
+for legislation. It recommended an examining university with the Queen's
+Colleges at Belfast, Cork and Galway, and with a new and well-endowed
+Roman Catholic college in Dublin.
+
+
+  The "Devolution" question.
+
+In August was formed the Irish Reform Association out of the wreckage of
+the late Land Conference and under Lord Dunraven's presidency, and it
+was seen that Sir A. Macdonnell took a great interest in the
+proceedings. Besides transferring private bill legislation to Dublin on
+the Scottish plan, to which no one in Ireland objected, it was proposed
+to hand over the internal expenditure of Ireland to a financial council
+consisting half of nominated and half of elected members, and to give an
+Irish assembly the initiative in public Irish bills. This policy, which
+was called Devolution, found little support anywhere, and was ultimately
+repudiated both by Mr Wyndham and by Mr Balfour. But a difficult
+parliamentary crisis, caused by Irish Unionist suspicions on the
+subject, was only temporarily overcome by Mr Wyndham's resignation in
+March 1905. Mr Walter Long succeeded him. One of the chief questions at
+issue was the position actually occupied by Sir Antony Macdonnell. The
+new chief secretary, while abstaining from displacing the
+under-secretary, whose encouragement of "devolution" had caused
+considerable commotion among Unionists, announced that he considered him
+as on the footing of an ordinary and subordinate civil servant, but Mr
+Wyndham had said that he was "invited by me rather as a colleague than
+as a mere under-secretary to register my will," and Lord Lansdowne that
+he "could scarcely expect to be bound by the narrow rules of routine
+which are applicable to an ordinary member of the civil service." While
+Mr Long remained in office no further complication arose, but in 1906
+(Sir A. Macdonnell being retained in office by the Liberal government)
+his Nationalist leanings again became prominent, and the responsibility
+of the Unionist government in introducing him into the Irish
+administration became a matter of considerable heart-burning among the
+Unionist party.
+
+Mr Balfour resigned in December 1905 and was succeeded by Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman, Lord Aberdeen becoming lord-lieutenant for the
+second time, with Mr James Bryce as chief secretary. The general
+election at the beginning of 1906 was disastrous to the Unionist party,
+and the Liberal government secured an enormous majority. Mr Walter Long,
+unseated at Bristol, had made himself very popular among Irish
+Unionists, and a seat was found him in the constituency of South Dublin.
+Speaking in August 1906 he raised anew the Macdonnell question and
+demanded the production of all correspondence connected with the
+under-secretary's appointment. Sir A. Macdonnell at once admitted
+through the newspapers that he had in his possession letters (rumoured
+to be "embarrassing" to the Unionist leaders) which he might publish at
+his own discretion; and the discussion as to how far his appointment by
+Mr Wyndham had prejudiced the Unionist cause was reopened in public with
+much bitterness, in view of the anticipation of further steps in the
+Home Rule direction by the Liberal ministry. In 1908 Sir Antony resigned
+and was created a peer as Baron Macdonnell. Soon after the change of
+government in 1906 a royal commission, with ex-Lord Justice Fry as
+chairman, was appointed to investigate the condition of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and another under Lord Dudley to inquire into the question of
+the congested districts.
+
+Mr Bryce being appointed ambassador to Washington, Mr Birrell faced the
+session of 1907 as chief secretary. Before he left office Mr Bryce
+publicly sketched a scheme of his own for remodelling Irish University
+Education, but his scheme was quietly put on the shelf by his successor
+and received almost universal condemnation. Mr Birrell began by
+introducing a bill for the establishment of an Irish Council, which
+would have given the Home Rulers considerable leverage, but, to the
+surprise of the English Liberals, it was summarily rejected by a
+Nationalist convention in Dublin, and was forthwith abandoned. The
+extreme party of Sinn Fein ("ourselves alone") were against it because
+of the power it gave to the government officials, and the Roman Catholic
+clergy because it involved local control of primary education, which
+would have imperilled their position as managers. An Evicted Tenants
+Bill was however passed at the end of the session, which gave the
+Estates Commissioners unprecedented powers to take land compulsorily. In
+the late summer and autumn, agitation in Ireland (led by Mr Ginnell,
+M.P.) took the form of driving cattle off large grass farms, as part of
+a campaign against what was known as "ranching." This reckless and
+lawless practice extended to several counties, but was worst in Galway
+and Roscommon. The government was determined not to use the Crimes Act,
+and the result was that offenders nearly always went unpunished, benches
+of magistrates being often swamped by the chairmen of district councils
+who were _ex officio_ justices under the act of 1898.
+
+The general election of 1910 placed the Liberal and Unionist parties in
+a position of almost exact equality in the House of Commons, and it was
+at once evident that the Nationalists under Mr Redmond's leadership
+would hold the balance of power and control the fortunes of Mr Asquith's
+government. A small body of "independent Nationalists," led by Mr
+William O'Brien and Mr T. M. Healy, voiced the general dislike in
+Ireland of the Budget of 1909, the rejection of which by the House of
+Lords had precipitated the dissolution of parliament. But although this
+band of free-lances was a menace to Mr Redmond's authority and to the
+solidarity of the "pledge-bound" Irish parliamentary party, the two
+sections did not differ in their desire to get rid of the "veto" of the
+House of Lords, which they recognized as the standing obstacle to Home
+Rule, and which it was the avowed policy of the government to abolish.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Ancient: The _Annals of the Four Masters_, ed. J.
+  O'Donovan (1851), compiled in Donegal under Charles I., gives a
+  continuous account of Celtic Ireland down to 1616. The independent
+  _Annals of Lough Cé_ (Rolls series) end with 1590. The _Topographia
+  and Expugnatio_ of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls series) are chiefly
+  valuable for his account of the Anglo-Norman invaders and for
+  descriptions of the country. Sir J. T. Gilbert's _Viceroys of Ireland_
+  (Dublin, 1865) gives a connected view of the feudal establishment to
+  the accession of Henry VIII. The _Calendar of Documents relating to
+  Ireland_ in the Public Record Office extends from 1171 to 1307.
+  Christopher Pembridge's _Annals from 1162 to 1370_ were published by
+  William Camden and reprinted in Sir J. T. Gilbert's _Chartularies of
+  St Mary's Abbey_ (Dublin, 1884). _The Annals of Clyn, Dowling and
+  Grace_ have been printed by the Irish Archaeological Society and the
+  Celtic Society.
+
+  For the 16th century see volumes ii. and iii. of the _Printed State
+  Papers_ (1834), and the _Calendars of State Papers, Ireland_,
+  including that of the Carew MSS. 1515 to 1603. See also Richard
+  Stanihurst's _Chronicle_, continued by John Hooker, which is included
+  in Holinshed's _Chronicles_; E. Spenser, _View of the State of
+  Ireland_, edited by H. Morley (1890); Fynes Moryson, _History of
+  Ireland_ (1735); Thomas Stafford, _Pacata Hibernia_ (1810); and R.
+  Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_ (1885-1890).
+
+  For the 17th century see the _Calendars of Irish State Papers,
+  1603-1665_ (Dublin, 1772); _Strafford Letters_, edited by W. Knowler
+  (1739): Thomas Carte, _Life of Ormonde_ (1735-1736), and _Ormonde
+  Papers_ (1739); Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery, _State letters_ (1743);
+  the _Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland, 1641-1652_
+  (1879-1880), and _History of the Irish Confederation and the War in
+  Ireland, 1641-1649_ (1882-1891), both edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert;
+  Edmund Ludlow's _Memoirs_, edited by C. H. Firth (1894); the _Memoirs_
+  of James Touchet, earl of Castlehaven (1815); and _Cromwell's Letters
+  and Speeches_, edited by T. Carlyle (1904). See also J. P.
+  Prendergast, _The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland_ (1870); Denis
+  Murphy, _Cromwell in Ireland_ (1885): M. A. Hickson, _Ireland in the
+  17th Century_ (1884); Sir John Temple, _History of the Irish
+  Rebellion_ (1812); P. Walsh, _History of the Remonstrance_ (1674);
+  George Story, _Impartial History of the Wars of Ireland_ (1693);
+  Thomas Witherow, _Derry and Enniskillen_ (1873); Philip Dwyer, _Siege
+  of Derry_ (1893); Lord Macaulay, _History of England_; and S. R.
+  Gardiner, _History of England, 1603-1656_. Further writings which may
+  be consulted are: _The Embassy in Ireland of Rinuccini, 1645-1649_,
+  translated from the Italian by A. Hutton (1873); Sir William Petty's
+  _Down Survey_, edited by T. A. Larcom (1851), and his _Economic
+  Writings_, edited by C. H. Hull (1899); Charles O'Kelly's _Macariae
+  Excidium_, edited by J. C. O'Callaghan (1850); and _A Jacobite
+  Narrative of the War in Ireland, 1688-91_, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert
+  (1892).
+
+  For the 18th century J. A. Froude's _English in Ireland_ and W. E. H.
+  Lecky's _History of England_ cover the whole ground. See also the
+  _Letters 1724-1738_ of Archbishop Hugh Boulter, edited by G. Faulkner
+  (1770); the _Works_ of Dean Swift; John Campbell's _Philosophical
+  Survey of Ireland_ (1778); Arthur Young's _Tour in Ireland_ (1780);
+  Henry Grattan's _Life of the Right Hon. Henry Grattan_ (1839-1846);
+  the _Correspondence_ of the Marquess Cornwallis, edited by C. Ross
+  (1859); Wolfe Tone's _Autobiography_, edited by R. B. O'Brien (1893);
+  and R. R. Madden's _United Irishmen_ (1842-1846).
+
+  For the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century see the _Annual
+  Register_; R. M. Martin, _Ireland before and after the Union_ (1848);
+  Sir T. Wyse, _Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association_
+  (1829); G. L. Smyth, _Ireland, Historical and Statistical_
+  (1844-1849); Sir C. E. Trevelyan, _The Irish Crisis_ (1880); N. W.
+  Senior, _Journals, Conversations and Essays relating to Ireland_
+  (1868); Sir G. C. Lewis, _On Local Disturbances in Ireland and on the
+  Irish Church Question_ (1836); John Morley, _Life of W. E. Gladstone_;
+  Lord Fitzmaurice, _Life of Lord Granville_ (1905); and R. Barry
+  O'Brien, _Life of Parnell_ (1898). Other authorities are Isaac Butt,
+  _Irish Federalism_ (1870); H. O. Arnold-Forster, _The Truth about the
+  Land League_ (1883); A. V. Dicey, _England's Case against Home Rule_
+  (1886); W. E. Gladstone, _History of an Idea_ (1886), and a reply to
+  this by J. E. Webb entitled _The Queen's Enemies in America_ (1886);
+  and Mrs E. Lynn Linton, _About Ireland_ (1890). See also the _Report
+  of the Parnell Special Commission_ (1890); the _Report_ of the
+  Bessborough Commission (1881), of the Richmond Commission (1881), of
+  the Cowper Commission (1887), and of the Mathew Commission (1893),
+  and the _Report_ of the Congested Districts Board (1899).
+
+  For the church in Ireland see: Henry Cotton, _Fasti ecclesiae
+  hibernicae_ (1848-1878); W. M. Brady, _The Episcopal Succession_
+  (Rome, 1876); R. Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (1840); J.
+  T. Ball, _The Reformed Church in Ireland, 1537-1886_ (1886); and W. D.
+  Killen, _Ecclesiastical History of Ireland_ (1875). A. Theiner's
+  _Vetera Monumenta_ (Rome, 1864) contains documents concerning the
+  medieval church, and there are many others in Ussher's Works, and for
+  a later period in Cardinal Moran's _Spicilegium Ossoriense_
+  (1874-1884). The _Works_ of Sir James Ware, edited by Walter Harris,
+  are generally useful, and Alice S. Green's _The Making of Ireland and
+  its Undoing_ (1908), although written from a partisan standpoint, may
+  also be consulted.     (R. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The importance of the commerce between Ireland and Gaul in early
+    times, and in particular the trade in wine, has been insisted upon by
+    H. Zimmer in papers in the _Abh. d. Berl. Akad. d. Wissenschaften_
+    (1909).
+
+  [2] On the subject of Ptolemy's description of Ireland see articles
+    by G. H. Orpen in the _Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of
+    Ireland_ (June 1894), and John MacNeill in the _New Ireland Review_
+    (September 1906).
+
+  [3] Scholars are only beginning to realize how close was the
+    connexion between Ireland and Wales from early times. Pedersen has
+    recently pointed out the large number of Brythonic and Welsh loan
+    words received into Irish from the time of the Roman occupation of
+    Britain to the beginning of the literary period. Welsh writers now
+    assume an Irish origin for much of the contents of the Mabinogion.
+
+  [4] It seems probable that the celebrated monastery of Whithorn in
+    Galloway played some part in the reform movement, at any rate in the
+    north of Ireland. Findian of Moville spent some years there.
+
+  [5] The O'Neills who played such an important part in later Irish
+    history do not take their name from Niall Nóigiallach, though they
+    are descended from him. They take their name from Niall Glúndub (d.
+    919).
+
+  [6] At this period it is extremely difficult to distinguish between
+    Norwegians and Danes on account of the close connexion between the
+    ruling families of both countries.
+
+  [7] This name survives in Fingall, the name of a district north of
+    Dublin city. Dubgall is contained in the proper names MacDougall,
+    MacDowell.
+
+  [8] In Anglo-Norman times the Scandinavians of Dublin and other
+    cities are always called Ostmen, i.e. Eastmen; hence the name
+    Ostmanstown, now Oxmanstown, a part of the city of Dublin.
+
+  [9] On the name see K. Meyer _Erin_, iv. pp. 71-73.
+
+  [10] Donaban, the son of this Ivar of Waterford, is the ancestor of
+    the O'Donavans, Donoban that of the O'Donovans.
+
+  [11] The term _rath_ was perhaps applied to the rampart, but both
+    _lis_ and _rath_ are used to denote the whole structure.
+
+  [12] See D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Revue celtique_, xxv. 1 ff., 181
+    ff.
+
+  [13] The whole question is discussed by Mr J. H. Round in his article
+    on "The Pope and the Conquest of Ireland" (_Commune of London_, 1899,
+    pp. 171-200), where further references will be found.
+
+
+
+
+IRELAND, CHURCH OF. The ancient Church of Ireland (described in the
+Irish Church Act 1869 by this its historic title) has a long and
+chequered history, which it will be interesting to trace in outline. The
+beginnings of Christianity in Ireland are difficult to trace, but there
+is no doubt that the first Christian missionary whose labours were
+crowned with any considerable success was Patrick (fl. c. 450), who has
+always been reckoned the patron saint of the country. For six centuries
+the Church of which he was the founder occupied a remarkable position in
+Western Christendom. Ireland, in virtue at once of its geographical
+situation and of the spirit of its people, was less affected than other
+countries by the movements of European thought; and thus its
+development, social and religious, was largely independent of foreign
+influences, whether Roman or English. In full communion with the Latin
+Church, the Irish long preserved many peculiarities, such as their
+monastic system and the date at which Easter was kept, which
+distinguished them in discipline, though not conspicuously in doctrine,
+from the Christians of countries more immediately under papal control
+(see IRELAND: _Early History_). The incessant incursions of the Danes,
+who were the scourge of the land for a period of nearly three hundred
+years, prevented the Church from redeeming the promise of her infancy;
+and at the date of the English conquest of Ireland (1172) she had lost
+much of her ancient zeal and of her independence. By this time she had
+come more into line with the rest of Europe, and the Synod of Cashel put
+the seal to a new policy by its acknowledgment of the papal jurisdiction
+and by its decrees assimilating the Church, in ritual and usages, to
+that of England. There was no thought of a breach of continuity, but the
+distinctive features of Celtic Christianity gradually disappeared from
+this time onwards. English influence was strong only in the region round
+Dublin (known as the Pale); and beyond this district the Irish were not
+disposed to view with favour any ecclesiastical reforms which had their
+origin in the sister country. Thus from the days of Henry VIII. the
+Reformation movement was hindered in Ireland by national prejudice, and
+it never succeeded in gaining the allegiance of the Irish people as a
+whole. The policy which directed its progress was blundering and stupid,
+and reflects little credit on the English statesmen who were responsible
+for it. No attempt was made to commend the principles of the Reformation
+to the native Irish by conciliating national sentiment; and the policy
+which forbade the translation of the Prayer Book into the Irish
+language, and suggested that where English was not understood Latin
+might be used as an alternative, was doomed to failure from the
+beginning. And, in fact, the reformed church of Ireland is to this day
+the church of a small section only of the population.
+
+The Reformation period begins with the passing of the Irish Supremacy
+Act 1537. As in England, the changes in religion of successive
+sovereigns alternately checked and promoted the progress of the
+movement, although in Ireland the mass of the people were less deeply
+affected by the religious controversies of the times than in Great
+Britain. At Mary's accession five bishops either abandoned, or were
+deprived of, their sees; but the Anglo-Irish who remained faithful to
+the Reformation were not subjected to persecution such as would have
+been their fate on the other side of the Channel. Again, under
+Elizabeth, while two bishops (William Walsh of Meath and Thomas Leverous
+of Kildare) were deprived for open resistance to the new order of
+things, and while stern measures were taken to suppress treasonable
+plotting against the constitution, the uniform policy of the government
+in ecclesiastical matters was one of toleration. James I. caused the
+Supremacy Act to be rigorously enforced, but on political rather than on
+religious grounds. In distant parts of Ireland, indeed, the unreformed
+order of service was often used without interference from the secular
+authority, although the bishops had openly accepted the Act of
+Uniformity.
+
+The episcopal succession, then, was unbroken at the Reformation. The
+Marian prelates are admitted on all hands to have been the true bishops
+of the Church, and in every case they were followed by a line of lawful
+successors, leading down to the present occupants of the several sees.
+The rival lines of Roman Catholic titulars are not in direct succession
+to the Marian bishops, and cannot be regarded as continuous with the
+medieval Church. The question of the continuity of the pre-Reformation
+Church with the Church of the Celtic period before the Anglo-Norman
+conquest of Ireland is more difficult. Ten out of eleven archbishops of
+Armagh who held office between 1272 and 1439 were consecrated outside
+Ireland, and there is no evidence forthcoming that any one of them
+derived his apostolic succession through bishops of the Irish Church. It
+may be stated with confidence that the present Church of Ireland is the
+direct and legitimate successor of the Church of the 14th and 15th
+centuries, but it cannot so clearly be demonstrated that any existing
+organization is continuous with the Church of St Patrick. In the reign
+of James I. the first Convocation of the clergy was summoned in Ireland,
+of which assembly the most notable act was the adoption of the "Irish
+Articles" (1615). These had been drawn up by Usher, and were more
+decidedly Calvinistic in tone than the Thirty-nine Articles, which were
+not adopted as standards in Ireland until 1634, when Strafford forced
+them on Convocation. During the Commonwealth period the bishoprics which
+became vacant were not filled; but on the accession of Charles II. the
+Church was strengthened by the translation of John Bramhall (the most
+learned and zealous of the prelates) from Derry to the primatial see of
+Armagh, and the consecration of twelve other bishops, among whom was
+Jeremy Taylor. The short period during which the policy of James II.
+prevailed in Ireland was one of disaster to the Church; but under
+William and Mary she regained her former position. She had now been
+reformed for more than 100 years, but had made little progress; and the
+tyrannical provisions of the Penal Code introduced by the English
+government made her more unpopular than ever. The clergy, finding their
+ministrations unacceptable to the great mass of the population, were
+tempted to indolence and non-residence; and although bright exceptions
+could be named, there was much that called for reform. To William King
+(1650-1729), bishop of Derry, and subsequently archbishop of Dublin, it
+was mainly due that the work of the Church was reorganized, and the
+impulse which he gave it was felt all through the 18th century. His
+ecclesiastical influence was exerted in direct opposition to Primate
+Hugh Boulter and his school, who aimed at making the Established Church
+the instrument for the promotion of English political opinions rather
+than the spiritual home of the Irish people. In 1800 the Act of Union
+was passed by the Legislature; and thenceforward, until
+Disestablishment, there was but one "United Church of England and
+Ireland."
+
+Continuous agitation for the removal of Roman Catholic disabilities
+brought about in 1833 the passing of the Church Temporalities Act, one
+of the most important provisions of which was the reduction of the
+number of Irish archbishoprics from four to two, and of bishoprics from
+eighteen to ten, the funds thus released being administered by
+commissioners. In 1838 the Tithe Rentcharge Act, which transferred the
+payment of tithes from the occupiers to the owners of land, was passed,
+and thus a substantial grievance was removed. It became increasingly
+plain, however, as years passed, that all such measures of relief were
+inadequate to allay the dissatisfaction felt by the majority of Irishmen
+because of the continued existence of the Established Church. Her
+position had been pledged to her by the Act of Union, and she was
+undoubtedly the historical representative of the ancient Church of the
+land; but such arguments proved unavailing in view of the visible fact
+that she had not gained the affections of the people. The census of 1861
+showed that out of a total population of 5,798,967 only 693,357 belonged
+to the Established Church, 4,505,265 being Roman Catholics; and once
+this had been made clear, the passing of the Act of Disestablishment was
+only a question of time. Introduced by Mr Gladstone, and passed in 1869,
+it became law on the 1st of January 1871.
+
+The Church was thus suddenly thrown on her own resources, and called on
+to reorganize her ecclesiastical system, as well as to make provision
+for the maintenance of her future clergy. A convention of the bishops,
+clergy, and laity was summoned in 1870, and its first act was to declare
+the adherence of the Church of Ireland to the ancient standards, and her
+determination to uphold the doctrine and discipline of the Catholic and
+Apostolic Church, while reaffirming her witness, as Protestant and
+Reformed, against the innovations of Rome. Under the constitution then
+agreed on, the supreme governing body of the Church is the General
+Synod, consisting of the bishops and of 208 clerical and 416 lay
+representatives of the several dioceses, whose local affairs are managed
+by subordinate Diocesan Synods. The bishops are elected as vacancies
+arise, and, with certain restrictions, by the Diocesan Synods, the
+Primate, whose see is Armagh, being chosen by the bishops out of their
+own number. The patronage of benefices is vested in boards of
+nomination, on which both the diocese and the parish are represented.
+The Diocesan Courts, consisting of the bishop, his chancellor, and two
+elected members, one clerical and the other lay, deal as courts of first
+instance with legal questions; but there is an appeal to the Court of
+the General Synod, composed of three bishops and four laymen who have
+held judicial office. During the years 1871 to 1878 the revision of the
+Prayer Book mainly occupied the attention of the General Synod; but
+although many far-reaching resolutions were proposed by the then
+predominant Evangelical party, few changes of moment were carried, and
+none which affected the Church's doctrinal position. A two-thirds
+majority of both the lay and clerical vote is necessary before any
+change can be made in the formularies, and an ultimate veto rests, on
+certain conditions, with the house of bishops.
+
+The effects of Disestablishment have been partly good and partly evil.
+On the one hand, the Church has now all the benefits of autonomy and is
+free from the anomalies incidental to state control. Her laws are
+definite, and the authority of her judicial courts is recognized by all
+her members. The place given to the laity in her synods has quickened in
+them the sense of responsibility so essential to the Church's progress.
+And although there are few worldly inducements to men to take orders in
+Ireland, the clergy are, for the most part, the equals of their
+predecessors in social standing and in intellectual equipment, while the
+standard of clerical activity is higher than in pre-Disestablishment
+days. On the other hand, the vesting of patronage in large bodies like
+synods, or (as is the case in some districts) in nominators with little
+knowledge of the Church beyond the borders of their own parish, is not
+an ideal system, although it is working better as the dangers of
+parochialism and provinciality are becoming more generally recognized
+than in the early years of Disestablishment.
+
+The finances are controlled by the Representative Church Body, to which
+the sum of Ł7,581,075, sufficient to provide life annuities for the
+existing clergy (2043 in number), amounting to Ł596,913, was handed over
+by the Church Temporalities Commissioners in 1870. So skilfully was this
+fund administered, and so generous were the contributions of clergy and
+laity, at and since Disestablishment, that while on 31st December 1906
+only 136 annuitants were living, the total assets in the custody of the
+Representative Church Body amounted at that date to Ł8,729,941. Of this
+sum no less than Ł6,525,952 represented the free-will offerings of the
+members of the Church for the thirty-seven years ending 31st December
+1906. Out of the interest on capital, augmented by the annual parochial
+assessments, which are administered by the central office, provision has
+to be made for two archbishops at Ł2500 per annum, eleven bishops, who
+receive about Ł1500 each, and over 1500 parochial clergy. Of the clergy
+only 338 are curates, while 1161 are incumbents, the average annual
+income of a benefice being about Ł240, with (in most cases) a house. The
+large majority of the clergy receive their training in the Divinity
+School of Trinity College, Dublin. At the census of 1901 the members of
+the Church of Ireland numbered 579,385 out of a total population of
+4,456,546.
+
+  See R. Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (2 vols., London,
+  1840); _Essays on the Irish Church_, by various writers (Oxford,
+  1866); Maziere Brady, _The Alleged Conversion of the Irish Bishops_
+  (London, 1877); A. T. Lee, _The Irish Episcopal Succession_ (Dublin,
+  1867); G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_ (London, 1888),
+  _Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church_ (London, 1892), _Some Worthies
+  of the Irish Church_ (London, 1900); T. Olden, _The Church of Ireland_
+  (London, 1892); J. T. Ball, _The Reformed Church of Ireland_ (London,
+  1890); H. C. Groves, _The Titular Archbishops of Ireland_ (Dublin,
+  1897); W. Lawlor, _The Reformation in Ireland_ (London, 1906);
+  _Reports of the Representative Church Body_ (Dublin, 1872-1905).
+       (J. H. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+IRENAEUS, bishop of Lyons at the end of the 2nd century, was one of the
+most distinguished theologians of the ante-Nicene Church. Very little is
+known of his early history. His childhood was spent in Asia Minor,
+probably at or near Smyrna; for he himself tells us (_Adv. haer._ iii.
+3, 4, and Euseb. _Hist. Eccl._ v. 20) that as a child he heard the
+preaching of Polycarp, the aged bishop of Smyrna (d. February 22, 156).
+But we do not know when this was. He can hardly have been born very long
+after 130, for later on he frequently mentions having met certain
+Christian presbyters who had actually seen John, the disciple of our
+Lord. The circumstances under which he came into the West are also
+unknown to us; the only thing which is certain is that at the time of
+the persecution of the Gallic Church under Marcus Aurelius (177) he was
+a presbyter of the church at Lyons. In 177 or 178 he went to Rome on a
+mission from this church, to make representations to Bishop Eleutherius
+in favour of a more lenient treatment of the Montanists (see MONTANISM.;
+Eus. v. 4. 2). On his return he was called upon to undertake the
+direction of the church at Lyons in the place of Bishop Pothinus, who
+had perished in the persecution (Eus. v. 5. 8). As bishop he carried on
+a great and fruitful work. Though the statement of Gregory of Tours
+(_Hist. Franc._ i. 29), that within a short time he succeeded in
+converting all Lyons to Christianity, is probably exaggerated, from him
+at any rate dates the wide spread of Christianity in Lyons and its
+neighbourhood. He devoted particular attention to trying to reconcile
+the numerous sects which menaced the existence of the church (see
+below). In the dispute on the question of Easter, which for a long time
+disturbed the Christian Church both in West and East, he endeavoured by
+means of many letters to effect a compromise, and in particular to
+exercise a moderating influence on Victor, the bishop of Rome, and his
+unyielding attitude towards the dissentient churches of Africa, thus
+justifying his name of "peace-maker" (Eirenaios) (Eus. _H. E._ v. 24.
+28). The date of his death is unknown. His martyrdom under Septimius
+Severus is related by Gregory of Tours, but by no earlier writer.
+
+The chief work of Irenaeus, written about 180, is his "Refutation and
+Overthrow of Gnosis, falsely so called" (usually indicated by the name
+_Against the Heresies_). Of the Greek original of this work only
+fragments survive; it only exists in full in an old Latin translation,
+the slavish fidelity of which to a certain extent makes up for the loss
+of the original text. The treatise is divided into five books: of these
+the first two contain a minute and well-informed description and
+criticism of the tenets of various heretical sects, especially the
+Valentinians; the other three set forth the true doctrines of
+Christianity, and it is from them that we find out the theological
+opinions of the author. Irenaeus admits himself that he is not a good
+writer. And indeed, as he worked, his materials assumed such
+unmanageable proportions that he could not succeed in throwing them
+into a satisfactory form. But however clumsily he may have handled his
+material, he has produced a work which is even nowadays rightly valued
+as the first systematic exposition of Catholic belief. The foundation
+upon which Irenaeus bases his system consists in the episcopate, the
+canon of the Old and New Testaments, and the rule of faith. With their
+assistance he sets forth and upholds, in opposition to the gnostic
+dualism, i.e. the severing of the natural and the supernatural, the
+Catholic monism, i.e. the unity of the life of faith as willed by God.
+The "grace of truth" (the _charisma_), which the apostles had called
+down upon their first disciples by prayer and laying-on of hands, and
+which was to be imparted anew by way of succession ([Greek: diadochę],
+_successio_) to the bishops from generation to generation without a
+break, makes those who receive it living witnesses of the salvation
+offered to the faithful by written and spoken tradition. The Scriptures
+of the Old and New Testaments, rightly expounded by the church alone,
+give us an insight into God's plan of salvation for mankind, and explain
+to us the covenant which He made on various occasions (Moses and Christ;
+or Noah, Abraham, Moses and Christ). Finally, the "rule of faith"
+(_regula fidei_), received at baptism, contains in itself all the riches
+of Christian truth. To distribute these, i.e. to elucidate the rule of
+faith as set forth in the creed, and further to point out its agreement
+with the Scriptures, is the object of Irenaeus as a theologian. Hence he
+lays the greatest stress on the conception of God's disposition of
+salvation towards mankind (_oeconomia_), the object of which is that
+mankind, who in Adam were sunk in sin and death, should in Christ,
+comprised as it were in his person, be brought back to life. God, as the
+head of the family, so to speak, disposes of all. The Son, the Word
+(_Logos_) for ever dwelling with the Father, carries out His behests.
+The Holy Ghost (_Pneuma_), however, as the Spirit of wisdom for ever
+dwelling with the Father, controls what the Father has appointed and the
+Son fulfilled, and this Spirit lives in the church. The climax of the
+divine plan of salvation is found in the incarnation of the Word. God
+was to become man, and in Christ he became man. Christ must be God; for
+if not, the devil would have had a natural claim on him, and he would
+have been no more exempt from death than the other children of Adam; he
+must be _man_, if his blood were indeed to redeem us. On God incarnate
+the power of the devil is broken, and in Him is accomplished the
+reconciliation between God and man, who henceforth pursues his true
+object, namely, to become like unto God. In the God-man God has drawn
+men up to Himself. Into their human, fleshly and perishable nature
+imperishable life is thereby engrafted; it has become deified, and death
+has been changed into immortality. In the sacrament of the Lord's Supper
+it is the heavenly body of the God-man which is actually partaken of in
+the elements. This exposition by Irenaeus of the divine economy and the
+incarnation was taken as a criterion by later theologians, especially in
+the Greek Church (cf. Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria,
+John of Damascus). He himself was especially influenced by St John and
+St Paul. Before him the Fourth Gospel did not seem to exist for the
+Church; Irenaeus made it a living force. His conception of the Logos is
+not that of the philosophers and apologists; he looks upon the Logos not
+as the "reason" of God, but as the "voice" with which the Father speaks
+in the revelation to mankind, as did the writer of the Fourth Gospel.
+And the Pauline epistles are adopted almost bodily by Irenaeus,
+according to the ideas contained in them; his expositions often present
+the appearance of a patchwork of St Paul's ideas. Certainly, it is only
+one side of Paul's thought that he displays to us. The great conceptions
+of justification and atonement are hardly ever touched by Irenaeus. In
+Irenaeus is no longer heard the Jew, striving about and against the law,
+who has had to break free from his early tradition of Pharisaism.
+
+Till recent times whatever other writings and letters of Irenaeus are
+mentioned by Eusebius appeared to be lost, with the exception of a
+fragment here or there. Recently, however, two Armenian scholars,
+Karapet Ter-Mekerttschian and Erwand Ter-Minassianz, have published
+from an Armenian translation a German edition (Leipzig, 1907; minor
+edition 1908) of the work "in proof of the apostolic teaching" mentioned
+by Eusebius _(H. E._ v. 26). This work, which is in the form of a
+dialogue with one Marcianus, otherwise unknown to us, contains a
+statement of the fundamental truths of Christianity. It is the oldest
+catechism extant, and an excellent example of how Bishop Irenaeus was
+able not only to defend Christianity as a theologian and expound it
+theoretically, but also to preach it to laymen.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The edition of the Benedictine R. Massuet (Paris, 1710
+  and 1734, reprinted in Migne, _Cursus patrologiae_, Series Graeca,
+  vol. v., Paris, 1857) long continued to be the standard one, till it
+  was superseded by the editions of Adolph Stieren (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1848-1853) and of W. Wigan Harvey (2 vols., Cambridge, 1857), the
+  latter being the only edition which contains the Syriac fragments. For
+  an English translation see the _Ante-Nicene Library_. Of modern
+  monographs consult H. Ziegler, _Irenaeus, der Bischof von Lyon_
+  (Berlin, 1871); Friedrich Loofs, _Irenaeus-Handschriften_ (Leipzig,
+  1888); Johannes Werner, _Der Paulinismus des Irenaeus_ (Leipzig,
+  1889); Johannes Kunze, _Die Gotteslehre des Irenaeus_ (Leipzig, 1891);
+  Ernst Klebba, _Die Anthropologie des heiligen Irenaeus_ (Münster,
+  1894); Albert Dufourcq, _Saint Irénée_ (Paris, 1904); Franz Stoll,
+  _Die Lehre des Heil. Irenaeus von der Erlösung und Heiligung_ (Mainz,
+  1905); also the histories of dogma, especially Harnack, and
+  Bethune-Baker, _An Introduction to the Early History of Christian
+  Doctrine_ (London, 1903).     (G. K.)
+
+
+
+
+IRENE, the name of several Byzantine empresses.
+
+1. IRENE (752-803), the wife of Leo IV., East Roman emperor. Originally
+a poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily gained the love and
+confidence of her feeble husband, and at his death in 780 was left by
+him sole guardian of the empire and of their ten-year-old son
+Constantine VI. Seizing the supreme power in the name of the latter,
+Irene ruled the empire at her own discretion for ten years, displaying
+great firmness and sagacity in her government. Her most notable act was
+the restoration of the orthodox image-worship, a policy which she always
+had secretly favoured, though compelled to abjure it in her husband's
+lifetime. Having elected Tarasius, one of her partisans, to the
+patriarchate (784), she summoned two church councils. The former of
+these, held in 786 at Constantinople, was frustrated by the opposition
+of the soldiers. The second, convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived
+the adoration of images and reunited the Eastern church with that of
+Rome. As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restive under
+her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force was met and
+crushed by the empress, who demanded that the oath of fidelity should
+thenceforward be taken in her name alone. The discontent which this
+occasioned swelled in 790 into open resistance, and the soldiers, headed
+by the Armenian guard, formally proclaimed Constantine VI. as the sole
+ruler. A hollow semblance of friendship was maintained between
+Constantine and Irene, whose title of empress was confirmed in 792; but
+the rival factions remained, and Irene, by skilful intrigues with the
+bishops and courtiers, organized a powerful conspiracy on her own
+behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces, but even
+there he was surrounded by participants in the plot. Seized by his
+attendants on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, the emperor was carried
+back to the palace at Constantinople; and there, by the orders of his
+mother, his eyes were stabbed out. An eclipse of the sun and a darkness
+of seventeen days' duration were attributed by the common superstition
+to the horror of heaven. Irene reigned in prosperity and splendour for
+five years. She is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage
+between herself and Charlemagne; but according to Theophanes, who alone
+mentions it, the scheme was frustrated by Aëtius, one of her favourites.
+A projected alliance between Constantine and Charlemagne's daughter,
+Rothrude, was in turn broken off by Irene. In 802 the patricians, upon
+whom she had lavished every honour and favour, conspired against her,
+and placed on the throne Nicephorus, the minister of finance. The
+haughty and unscrupulous princess, "who never lost sight of political
+power in the height of her religious zeal," was exiled to Lesbos and
+forced to support herself by spinning. She died the following year. Her
+zeal in restoring images and monasteries has given her a place among
+the saints of the Greek church.
+
+  See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. J.
+  Bury, London, 1896), vol. v.; G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed.
+  1877, Oxford,) vol. ii.; F. C. Schlosser, _Geschichte der
+  bilderstürmenden Kaiser des oströmischen Reiches_ (Frankfort, 1812);
+  J. D. Phoropoulos, [Greek: Eiręnę hę autokrateira Rhômaiôn] (Leipzig,
+  1887); J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (London, 1889), ii.
+  480-498; C. Diehl, _Figures byzantines_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 77-109.
+       (M. O. B. C.)
+
+2. IRENE (c. 1066-c. 1120), the wife of Alexius I. The best-known fact
+of her life is the unsuccessful intrigue by which she endeavoured to
+divert the succession from her son John to Nicephorus Bryennius, the
+husband of her daughter Anna. Having failed to persuade Alexius, or,
+upon his death, to carry out a _coup d'état_ with the help of the palace
+guards, she retired to a monastery and ended her life in obscurity.
+
+3. IRENE (d. 1161), the first wife of Manuel Comnenus. She was the
+daughter of the count of Sulzbach, and sister-in-law of the Roman
+emperor Conrad II., who arranged her betrothal. The marriage was
+celebrated at Constantinople in 1146. The new empress, who had exchanged
+her earlier name of Bertha for one more familiar to the Greeks, became a
+devoted wife, and by the simplicity of her manner contrasted favourably
+with most Byzantine queens of the age.
+
+  H. v. Kap-Herr, _Die abendländische Politik des Kaisers Manuel_
+  (Strassburg, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+IRETON, HENRY (1611-1651), English parliamentary general, eldest son of
+German Ireton of Attenborough, Nottinghamshire, was baptized on the 3rd
+of November 1611, became a gentleman commoner of Trinity College,
+Oxford, in 1626, graduated B.A. in 1629, and entered the Middle Temple
+the same year. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the
+parliamentary army, fought at Edgehill and at Gainsborough in July 1643,
+was made by Cromwell deputy-governor of the Isle of Ely, and next year
+served under Manchester in the Yorkshire campaign and at the second
+battle of Newbury, afterwards supporting Cromwell in his accusations of
+incompetency against the general. On the night before the battle of
+Naseby, in June 1645, he succeeded in surprising the Royalist army and
+captured many prisoners, and next day, on the suggestion of Cromwell, he
+was made commissary-general and appointed to the command of the left
+wing, Cromwell himself commanding the right. The wing under Ireton was
+completely broken by the impetuous charge of Rupert, and Ireton was
+wounded and taken prisoner, but after the rout of the enemy which ensued
+on the successful charge of Cromwell he regained his freedom. He was
+present at the siege of Bristol in the September following, and took an
+active part in the subsequent victorious campaign which resulted in the
+overthrow of the royal cause. On the 30th of October 1645 Ireton entered
+parliament as member for Appleby, and while occupied with the siege of
+Oxford he was, on the 15th of June 1646, married to Bridget, daughter of
+Oliver Cromwell. This union brought Ireton into still closer connexion
+with Cromwell, with whose career he was now more completely identified.
+But while Cromwell's policy was practically limited to making the best
+of the present situation, and was generally inclined to compromise,
+Ireton's attitude was based on well-grounded principles of
+statesmanship. He was opposed to the destructive schemes of the extreme
+party, disliked especially the abstract and unpractical theories of the
+Republicans and the Levellers, and desired, while modifying their mutual
+powers, to retain the constitution of King, Lords and Commons. He urged
+these views in the negotiations of the army with the parliament, and in
+the conferences with the king, being the person chiefly entrusted with
+the drawing up of the army proposals, including the manifesto called
+"The Heads of the Proposals." He endeavoured to prevent the breach
+between the army and the parliament, but when the division became
+inevitable took the side of the former. He persevered in supporting the
+negotiations with the king till his action aroused great suspicion and
+unpopularity. He became at length convinced of the hopelessness of
+dealing with Charles, and after the king's flight to the Isle of Wight
+treated his further proposals with coldness and urged the parliament to
+establish an administration without him. Ireton served under Fairfax in
+the second civil war in the campaigns in Kent and Essex, and was
+responsible for the executions of Lucas and Lisle at Colchester. After
+the rejection by the king of the last offers of the army, he showed
+special zeal in bringing about his trial, was one of the chief promoters
+of "Pride's Purge," attended the court regularly, and signed the
+death-warrant. The regiment of Ireton having been chosen by lot to
+accompany Cromwell in his Irish campaign, Ireton was appointed
+major-general; and on the recall of his chief to take the command in
+Scotland, he remained with the title and powers of lord-deputy to
+complete Cromwell's work of reduction and replantation. This he
+proceeded to do with his usual energy, and as much by the severity of
+his methods of punishment as by his military skill was rapidly bringing
+his task to a close, when he died on the 26th of November 1651 of fever
+after the capture of Limerick. His loss "struck a great sadness into
+Cromwell," and perhaps there was no one of the parliamentary leaders who
+could have been less spared, for while he possessed very high abilities
+as a soldier, and great political penetration and insight, he resembled
+in stern unflinchingness of purpose the protector himself. By his wife,
+Bridget Cromwell, who married afterwards General Charles Fleetwood,
+Ireton left one son and three daughters.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article by C. H Firth in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ with
+  authorities there quoted; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._ iii. 298, and _Fasti_,
+  i. 451; Cornelius Brown's _Lives of Notts Worthies_, 181; _Clarke
+  Papers_ published by Camden Society; Gardiner's _History of the Civil
+  War and of the Commonwealth_.
+
+
+
+
+IRIARTE (or YRIARTE) Y OROPESA, TOMÁS DE (1750-1791), Spanish poet, was
+born on the 18th of September 1750, at Orotava in the island of
+Teneriffe, and received his literary education at Madrid under the care
+of his uncle, Juan de Iriarte, librarian to the king of Spain. In his
+eighteenth year the nephew began his literary career by translating
+French plays for the royal theatre, and in 1770, under the anagram of
+Tirso Imarete, he published an original comedy entitled _Hacer que
+hacemos_. In the following year he became official translator at the
+foreign office, and in 1776 keeper of the records in the war department.
+In 1780 appeared a dull didactic poem in _silvas_ entitled _La Música_,
+which attracted some attention in Italy as well as at home. The _Fábulas
+literarias_ (1781), with which his name is most intimately associated,
+are composed in a great variety of metres, and show considerable
+ingenuity in their humorous attacks on literary men and methods; but
+their merits have been greatly exaggerated. During his later years,
+partly in consequence of the _Fábulas_, Iriarte was absorbed in personal
+controversies, and in 1786 was reported to the Inquisition for his
+sympathies with the French philosophers. He died on the 17th of
+September 1791.
+
+  He is the subject of an exhaustive monograph (1897) by Emilio Cotarelo
+  y Mori.
+
+
+
+
+IRIDACEAE (the iris family), in botany, a natural order of flowering
+plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class Monocotyledons,
+containing about 800 species in 57 genera, and widely distributed in
+temperate and tropical regions. The members of this order are generally
+perennial herbs growing from a corm as in _Crocus_ and _Gladiolus_, or a
+rhizome as in _Iris_; more rarely, as in the Spanish iris, from a bulb.
+A few South African representatives have a shrubby habit. The flowers
+are hermaphrodite and regular as in _Iris_ (fig. 1) and _Crocus_ (fig.
+3), or with a symmetry in the median plane as in _Gladiolus_. The
+petaloid perianth consists of two series, each with three members, which
+are joined below into a longer or shorter tube, followed by one whorl of
+three stamens; the inferior ovary is three-celled and contains numerous
+ovules on an axile placenta; the style is branched and the branches are
+often petaloid. The fruit (fig. 2) is a capsule opening between the
+partitions and containing generally a large number of roundish or
+angular seeds. The arrangement of the parts in the flower resembles that
+in the nearly allied order Amaryllidaceae (_Narcissus_, _Snowdrop_,
+&c.), but differs in the absence of the inner whorl of stamens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Yellow Iris, _Iris Pseudacorus_.
+
+  1. Flower, from which the outer petals and the stigmas have been
+    removed, leaving the inner petals (a) and stamens.
+  2. Pistil with petaloid stigmas.
+  3. Fruit cut across showing the three chambers containing seeds.
+  4. A seed. 1-4 about ˝ nat. size.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Seed-vessel (capsule) of the Flower-de-Luce
+(_iris_), opening in a loculicidal manner. The three valves bear the
+septa in the centre and the opening takes place through the back of the
+chambers. Each valve is formed by the halves of contiguous carpels.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--1. Crocus in flower, reduced. 2. Flower
+dissected. b, b´, Upper and lower membranous spathe-like bracts; c, Tube
+of perianth; d, Ovary; e, Style; f, Stigmas.]
+
+The most important genera are _Crocus_ (q.v.), with about 70 species,
+_Iris_ (q.v.), with about 100, and _Gladiolus_ (q.v.), with 150. _Ixia_,
+_Freesia_ (q.v.) and _Tritonia_ (including _Montbretia_), all natives of
+South Africa, are well known in cultivation. _Sisyrinchium_, blue-eyed
+grass, is a new-world genus extending from arctic America to Patagonia
+and the Falkland Isles. One species, _S. angustifolium_, an arctic and
+temperate North American species, is also native in Galway and Kerry in
+Ireland. Other British representatives of the order are: _Iris
+Pseudacorus_, (yellow iris), common by river-banks and ditches, _I.
+foetidissima (stinking iris), _Gladiolus communis_, a rare plant found
+in the New Forest and the Isle of Wight, and _Romulea Columnae_, a small
+plant with narrow recurved leaves a few inches long and a short scape
+bearing one or more small regular funnel-shaped flowers, which occurs at
+Dawlish in Devonshire.
+
+
+
+
+IRIDIUM (symbol Ir.; atomic weight 193.1), one of the metals of the
+platinum group, discovered in 1802 by Smithson Tennant during the
+examination of the residue left when platinum ores are dissolved in
+_aqua regia_; the element occurs in platinum ores in the form of alloys
+of platinum and iridium, and of osmium and iridium. Many methods have
+been devised for the separation of these metals (see PLATINUM), one of
+the best being that of H. St. C Deville and H. J. Debray (_Comptes
+rendus_, 1874, 78, p. 1502). In this process the osmiridium is fused
+with zinc and the excess of zinc evaporated; the residue is then ignited
+with barium nitrate, extracted with water and boiled with nitric acid.
+The iridium is then precipitated from the solution (as oxide) by the
+addition of baryta, dissolved in _aqua regia_, and precipitated as
+iridium ammonium chloride by the addition of ammonium chloride. The
+double chloride is fused with nitre, the melt extracted with water and
+the residue fused with lead, the excess of lead being finally removed by
+solution in nitric acid and _aqua regia_. It is a brittle metal of
+specific gravity 22.4 (Deville and Debray), and is only fusible with
+great difficulty. It may be obtained in the spongy form by igniting
+iridium ammonium chloride, and this variety of the metal readily
+oxidizes when heated in air.
+
+  Two oxides of iridium are known, namely the _sesquioxide_, Ir2O3, and
+  the _dioxide_, IrO2, corresponding to which there are two series of
+  salts, the sesqui-salts and the iridic salts; a third series of salts
+  is also known (the iridious salts) derived from an oxide IrO. _Iridium
+  sesquioxide_, Ir2O3, is obtained when potassium iridium chloride is
+  heated with sodium or potassium carbonates, in a stream of carbon
+  dioxide. It is a bluish-black powder which at high temperatures
+  decomposes into the metal, dioxide and oxygen. The hydroxide, Ir(OH)3,
+  may be obtained by the addition of caustic potash to iridium sodium
+  chloride, the mixture being then heated with alcohol. _Iridium
+  dioxide_, IrO2, may be obtained as small needles by heating the metal
+  to bright redness in a current of oxygen (G. Geisenheimer, _Comptes
+  rendus_, 1890, 110, p. 855). The corresponding hydroxide, Ir(OH)4, is
+  formed when potassium iridate is boiled with ammonium chloride, or
+  when the tetrachloride is boiled with caustic potash or sodium
+  carbonate. It is an indigo-blue powder, soluble in hydrochloric acid,
+  but insoluble in dilute nitric and sulphuric acids. On the oxides see
+  L. Wöhler and W. Witzmann, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._ (1908), 57, p. 323.
+  _Iridium sesquichloride_, IrCl3, is obtained when one of the
+  corresponding double chlorides is heated with concentrated sulphuric
+  acid, the mixture being then thrown into water. It is thus obtained as
+  an olive green precipitate which is insoluble in acids and alkalis.
+  _Potassium iridium sesquichloride_, K3IrCl6·3H2O, is obtained by
+  passing sulphur dioxide into a suspension of potassium chloriridate in
+  water until all dissolves, and then adding potassium carbonate to the
+  solution (C. Claus, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1847, 42, p. 351). It forms
+  green prisms which are readily soluble in water. Similar sodium and
+  ammonium compounds are known. _Iridium tetrachloride_, IrCl4, is
+  obtained by dissolving the finely divided metal in _aqua regia_; by
+  dissolving the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid; and by digesting the
+  hydrated sesquichloride with nitric acid. On evaporating the solution
+  (not above 40° C.) a dark mass is obtained, which contains a little
+  sesquichloride. It forms double chlorides with the alkaline chlorides.
+  For a bromide see A. Gautbier and M. Riess, _Ber._, 1909, 42, p. 3905.
+  _Iridium sulphide_, IrS, is obtained when the metal is ignited in
+  sulphur vapour. The _sesquisulphide_, Ir2S3, is obtained as a brown
+  precipitate when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into a solution of
+  one of the sesqui-salts. It is slightly soluble in potassium sulphide.
+  The _disulphide_, IrS2, is formed when powdered iridium is heated with
+  sulphur and an alkaline carbonate. It is a dark brown powder. Iridium
+  forms many ammine derivatives, which are analogous to the
+  corresponding platinum compounds (see M. Skoblikoff, _Jahresb._, 1852,
+  p. 428; W. Palmer, _Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 15; 1890, 23, p. 3810; 1891,
+  24, p. 2090; _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1896, 13, p. 211).
+
+  Iridium is always determined quantitatively by conversion into the
+  metallic state. The atomic weight of the element has been determined
+  in various ways, C. Seubert (_Ber._, 1878, 11, p. 1770), by the
+  analysis of potassium chloriridate obtaining the value 192.74, and A.
+  Joly (_Comptes rendus_, 1890, 110, p. 1131) from analyses of potassium
+  and ammonium chloriridites, the value 191.78 (O = 15.88).
+
+
+
+
+IRIGA, a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine
+Islands, on the Bicol river, about 20 m. S.E. of Nueva Cáceres and near
+the S.W. base of Mt. Iriga, a volcanic peak reaching a height of 4092
+ft. above the sea. Pop. (1903) 19,297. Iriga has a temperate climate.
+The soil in its vicinity is rich, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar,
+pepper, cacao, cotton, abacá, tobacco and copra. The neighbouring
+forests furnish ebony, molave, tindalo and other very valuable
+hardwoods. The language is Bicol.
+
+
+
+
+IRIS, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thaumas and the Ocean nymph
+Electra (according to Hesiod), the personification of the rainbow and
+messenger of the gods. As the rainbow unites earth and heaven, Iris is
+the messenger of the gods to men; in this capacity she is mentioned
+frequently in the _Iliad_, but never in the _Odyssey_, where Hermes
+takes her place. She is represented as a youthful virgin, with wings of
+gold, who hurries with the swiftness of the wind from one end of the
+world to the other, into the depths of the sea and the underworld. She
+is especially the messenger of Zeus and Hera, and is associated with
+Hermes, whose caduceus or staff she often holds. By command of Zeus she
+carries in a ewer water from the Styx, with which she puts to sleep all
+who perjure themselves. Her attributes are the caduceus and a vase.
+
+
+
+
+IRIS, in botany. The iris flower belongs to the natural order Iridaceae
+of the class Monocotyledons, which is characterized by a petaloid
+six-parted perianth, an inferior ovary and only three stamens (the outer
+series), being thus distinguished from the Amaryllidaceae family, which
+has six stamens. They are handsome showy-flowered plants, the Greek name
+having been applied on account of the hues of the flowers. The genus
+contains about 170 species widely distributed throughout the north
+temperate zone. Two of the species are British. _I. Pseudacorus_, the
+yellow flag or iris, is common in Britain on river-banks, and in marshes
+and ditches. It is called the "water-flag" or "bastard floure de-luce"
+by Gerard, who remarks that "although it be a water plant of nature, yet
+being planted in gardens it prospereth well." Its flowers appear in June
+and July, and are of a golden-yellow colour. The leaves are from 2 to 4
+ft. long, and half an inch to an inch broad. Towards the latter part of
+the year they are eaten by cattle. The seeds are numerous and
+pale-brown; they have been recommended when roasted as a substitute for
+coffee, of which, however, they have not the properties. The astringent
+rhizome has diuretic, purgative and emetic properties, and may, it is
+said, be used for dyeing black, and in the place of galls for
+ink-making. The other British species, _I. foetidissima_, the fetid
+iris, gladdon or roast-beef plant, the _Xyris_ or stinking gladdon of
+Gerard, is a native of England south of Durham, and also of Ireland,
+southern Europe and North Africa. Its flowers are usually of a dull,
+leaden-blue colour; the capsules, which remain attached to the plant
+throughout the winter, are 2 to 3 in. long; and the seeds scarlet. When
+bruised this species emits a peculiar and disagreeable odour.
+
+_Iris florentina_, with white or pale-blue flowers, is a native of the
+south of Europe, and is the source of the violet-scented orris root used
+in perfumery. _Iris versicolor_, or blue flag, is indigenous to North
+America, and yields "iridin," a powerful hepatic stimulant. _Iris
+germanica_ of central Europe, "the most common purple Fleur de Luce" of
+Ray, is the large common blue iris of gardens, the bearded iris or fleur
+de luce and probably the Illyrian iris of the ancients. From the flowers
+of _Iris florentina_ a pigment--the "verdelis," "vert d'iris," or
+iris-green, formerly used by miniature painters--was prepared by
+maceration, the fluid being left to putrefy, when chalk or alum was
+added. The garden plants known as the Spanish iris and the English iris
+are both of Spanish origin, and have very showy flowers. Along with some
+other species, as _I. reticulata_ and _I. persica_, both of which are
+fragrant, they form great favourites with florists. All these just
+mentioned differ from those formerly named in the nature of the
+underground stem, which forms a bulb and not a strict creeping rhizome
+as in _I. Pseudacorus_, _germanica_, _florentina_, &c. Some botanists
+separate these bulbous irises from the genus _Iris_, and place them
+apart in the genus _Xiphium_, the Spanish iris, including about 30
+species, all from the Mediterranean region and the East.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Gynoecium of Iris, consisting of an inferior
+ovary o, and a style, with three petaloid segments s, bearing stigmas
+st.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of Trimerous Symmetrical Flower of Iris,
+with two whorls of perianth, three stamens in one whorl and an ovary
+formed of three carpels. The three dots indicate the position of an
+inner whorl of stamens which is present in the allied families
+Amaryllidaceae and Liliaceae but absent in Iridaceae.]
+
+The iris flower is of special interest as an example of the relation
+between the shape of the flower and the position of the pollen-receiving
+and stigmatic surfaces on the one hand and the visits of insects on the
+other. The large outer petals form a landing-stage for a flying insect
+which in probing the perianth-tube for honey will first come in contact
+with the stigmatic surface which is borne on the outer face of a
+shelf-like transverse projection on the under side of the petaloid
+style-arm. The anther, which opens towards the outside, is sheltered
+beneath the over-arching style arm below the stigma, so that the insect
+comes in contact with its pollen-covered surface only after passing the
+stigma, while in backing out of the flower it will come in contact only
+with the non-receptive lower face of the stigma. Thus an insect bearing
+pollen from one flower will in entering a second deposit the pollen on
+the stigma, while in backing out of a flower the pollen which it bears
+will not be rubbed off on the stigma of the same flower.
+
+  The hardier bulbous irises, including the Spanish iris (_I. Xiphium_)
+  and the English iris (_I. xiphioides_, so called, which is also of
+  Spanish origin), require to be planted in thoroughly drained beds in
+  very light open soil, moderately enriched, and should have a rather
+  sheltered position. Both these present a long series of beautiful
+  varieties of the most diverse colours, flowering in May, June and
+  July, the smaller Spanish iris being the earlier of the two. There are
+  many other smaller species of bulbous iris. Being liable to perish
+  from excess of moisture, they should have a well-drained bed of good
+  but porous soil made up for them, in some sunny spot, and in winter
+  should be protected by a 6-in. covering of half-decayed leaves or
+  fresh coco-fibre refuse. To this set belong _I. persica_,
+  _reticulata_, _filifolia_, _Histrio_, _juncea_, _Danfordiae_
+  _Rosenbachiana_ and others which flower as early as February and
+  March.
+
+  The flag irises are for the most part of the easiest culture; they
+  grow in any good free garden soil, the smaller and more delicate
+  species only needing the aid of turfy ingredients, either peaty or
+  loamy, to keep it light and open in texture. The earliest to bloom are
+  the dwarf forms of _Iris pumila_, which blossom during March, April
+  and May; and during the latter month and the following one most of the
+  larger growing species, such as _I. germanica_, _florentina_,
+  _pallida_, _variegata_, _amoena_, _flavescens_, _sambucina_,
+  _neglecta_, _ruthenica_, &c., produce their gorgeous flowers. Of many
+  of the foregoing there are, besides the typical form, a considerable
+  number of named garden varieties. _Iris unguicularis_ (or _stylosa_)
+  is a remarkable winter flowering species from Algeria, with sky-blue
+  flowers blotched with yellow, produced at irregular intervals from
+  November to March, the bleakest period of the year.
+
+  The beautiful Japanese _Iris Kaempferi_ (or _I. laevigata_) is of
+  comparatively modern introduction, and though of a distinct type is
+  equally beautiful with the better-known species. The outer segments
+  are rather spreading than deflexed, forming an almost circular flower,
+  which becomes quite so in some of the very remarkable duplex
+  varieties, in which six of these broad segments are produced instead
+  of three. Of this too there are numberless varieties cultivated under
+  names. They require a sandy peat soil on a cool moist subsoil.
+
+  What are known as _Oncocyclus_, or cushion irises, constitute a
+  magnificent group of plants remarkable for their large, showy and
+  beautifully marked flowers. Compared with other irises the "cushion"
+  varieties are scantily furnished with narrow sickle-shaped leaves and
+  the blossoms are usually borne singly on the stalks. The best-known
+  kinds are _atrofusca_, _Barnumae_, _Bismarckiana_, _Gatesi_,
+  _Heylandiana_, _iberica_, _Lorteti_, _Haynei_, _lupina_, _Mariae_,
+  _meda_, _paradoxa_, _sari_, _sofarana_ and _susiana_--the last-named
+  being popularly called the "mourning" iris owing to the dark silvery
+  appearance of its huge flowers. All these cushion irises are somewhat
+  fastidious growers, and to be successful with them they must be
+  planted rather shallow in very gritty well-drained soil. They should
+  not be disturbed in the autumn, and after the leaves have withered the
+  roots should be protected from heavy rains until growth starts again
+  naturally.
+
+  A closely allied group to the cushion irises are those known as
+  _Regelia_, of which _Korolkowi_, _Leichtlini_ and _vaga_ are the best
+  known. Some magnificent hybrids have been raised between these two
+  groups, and a hardier and more easily grown race of garden irises has
+  been produced under the name of _Regelio-Cyclus_. They are best
+  planted in September or October in warm sunny positions, the rhizomes
+  being lifted the following July after the leaves have withered.
+
+
+
+
+IRISH MOSS, or CARRAGEEN (Irish _carraigeen_, "moss of the rock"), a
+sea-weed (_Chondrus crispus_) which grows abundantly along the rocky
+parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. In its fresh
+condition the plant is soft and cartilaginous, varying in colour from a
+greenish-yellow to a dark purple or purplish-brown; but when washed and
+sun-dried for preservation it has a yellowish translucent horn-like
+aspect and consistency. The principal constituent of Irish moss is a
+mucilaginous body, of which it contains about 55%; and with that it has
+nearly 10% of albuminoids and about 15% of mineral matter rich in iodine
+and sulphur. When softened in water it has a sea-like odour, and from
+the abundance of its mucilage it will form a jelly on boiling with from
+20 to 30 times its weight of water. The jelly of Irish moss is used as
+an occasional article of food. It may also be used as a thickener in
+calico-printing and for fining beer. Irish moss is frequently mixed with
+_Gigartina mammillosa_, _G. acicularis_ and other sea-weeds with which
+it is associated in growth.
+
+
+
+
+IRKUTSK, a government of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia, bounded on the
+W. by the government of Yeniseisk, on the N. by Yakutsk, on the E. by
+Lake Baikal and Transbaikalia and on the S. and S.W. by Mongolia; area,
+287,061 sq. m. The most populous region is a belt of plains 1200 to 2000
+ft. in altitude, which stretch north-west to south-east, having the
+Sayan mountains on the south and the Baikal mountains on the north, and
+narrowing as it approaches the town of Irkutsk. The high road, now the
+Trans-Siberian railway, follows this belt. The south-western part of the
+government is occupied by mountains of the Sayan system, whose exact
+orography is as yet not well known. From the high plateau of Mongolia,
+fringed by the Sayan mountains, of which the culminating point is the
+snow-clad Munko-sardyk (11,150 ft.), a number of ranges, 7500 to 8500
+ft. high, strike off in a north-east direction. Going from south to
+north they are distinguished as the Tunka Alps, the Kitoi Alps (both
+snow-clad nearly all the year round), the Ida mountains and the Kuitun
+mountains. These are, however, by no means regular chains, but on the
+contrary are a complex result of upheavals which took place at different
+geological epochs, and of denudation on a colossal scale. A beautiful,
+fertile valley, drained by the river Irkut, stretches between the Tunka
+Alps and the Sayan, and another somewhat higher plain, but not so wide,
+stretches along the river Kitoi. A succession of high plains, 2000 to
+2500 ft. in altitude, formed of horizontal beds of Devonian (or Upper
+Silurian) sandstone and limestone, extends to the north of the railway
+along the Angara, or Verkhnyaya (i.e. upper) Tunguzka, and the upper
+Lena, as far as Kirensk. The Bratskaya Steppe, west of the Angara, is a
+prairie peopled by Buriats. A mountain region, usually described as the
+Baikal range, but consisting in reality of several ranges running
+north-eastwards, across Lake Baikal, and scooped out to form the
+depression occupied by the lake, is fringed on its north-western slope
+by horizontal beds of sandstone and limestone. Farther north-east the
+space between the Lena and the Vitim is occupied by another mountain
+region belonging to the Olekma and Vitim system, composed of several
+parallel mountain chains running north-eastwards (across the lower
+Vitim), and auriferous in the drainage area of the Mama (N.E. of Lake
+Baikal). Lake Baikal separates Irkutsk from Transbaikalia. The principal
+rivers of the government are the Angara, which flows from this lake
+northwards, with numerous sharp windings, and receives from the left
+several large tributaries. as the Irkut, Kitoi, Byelaya, Oka and Iya.
+The Lena is the principal means of communication both with the
+gold-mines on its own tributary, the lower Vitim, and with the province
+of Yakutsk. The Nizhnyaya Tunguzka flows northwards, to join the Yenisei
+in the far north, and the mountain streams tributary to the Vitim drain
+the north-east.
+
+  The post-Tertiary formations are represented by glacial deposits in
+  the highlands and loess on their borders. Jurassic deposits are met
+  with in a zone running north-westwards from Lake Baikal to
+  Nizhne-udinsk. The remainder of this region is covered by vast series
+  of Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian deposits--the first two but
+  slightly disturbed over wide areas. All the highlands are built up of
+  older, semi-crystalline Cambro-Silurian strata, which attain a
+  thickness of 2500 ft., and of crystalline slates and limestones of the
+  Laurentian system, with granites, syenites, diorites and diabases
+  protruding from beneath them. Very extensive beds of basaltic lavas
+  and other volcanic deposits are spread along the border ridge of the
+  high plateau, about Munko-sardyk, up the Irkut, and on the upper Oka,
+  where cones of extinct volcanoes are found (Jun-bulak). Earthquakes
+  are frequent in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal and the surrounding
+  region. Gold is extracted in the Nizhne-udinsk district; graphite is
+  found on the Botu-gol and Alibert mountains (abandoned many years
+  since) and on the Olkhon island of Lake Baikal. Brown coal (Jurassic)
+  is found in many places, and coal on the Oka. The salt springs of
+  Usoliye (45 m. west of Irkutsk), as also those on the Ilim and of
+  Ust-Kutsk (on the Lena), yield annually about 7000 tons of salt.
+  Fireclay, grindstones, marble and mica, lapis-lazuli, granites and
+  various semi-precious stones occur on the Sludyanka (south-west corner
+  of the Baikal).
+
+  The climate is severe; the mean temperatures being at Irkutsk (1520
+  ft), for the year 31° Fahr., for January -6°, for July 65°; at Shimki
+  (valley of the Irkut, 2620 ft.), for the year 24°, for January -17°,
+  for July 63°. The average rainfall is 15 in. a year. Virgin forests
+  cover all the highlands up to 6500 ft.
+
+The population which was 383,578 in 1879, was 515,132 in 1897, of whom
+238,997 were women and 60,396 were urban; except about 109,000 Buriats
+and 1700 Tunguses, they are Russians. The estimated population in 1906
+was 552,700. Immigration contributes about 14,000 every year. Schools
+are numerous at Irkutsk, but quite insufficient in the country
+districts, and only 12% of the children receive education. The soil is
+very fertile in certain parts, but meagre elsewhere, and less than a
+million acres are under crops (rye, wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat,
+potatoes). Grain has to be imported from West Siberia and cattle from
+Transbaikalia. Fisheries on Lake Baikal supply every year about
+2,400,000 Baikal herring (_omul_). Industry is only beginning to be
+developed (iron-works, glass- and pottery-works and distilleries, and
+all manufactured goods are imported from Russia). The government is
+divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Irkutsk
+(q.v.), Balagansk (pop., 1313 in 1897), Kirensk (2253), Nizhne-udinsk
+and Verkholensk.     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+IRKUTSK, the chief town of the above government, is the most important
+place in Siberia, being not only the largest centre of population and
+the principal commercial depot north of Tashkent, but a fortified
+military post, an archbishopric of the Orthodox Greek Church and the
+seat of several learned societies. It is situated in 52° 17´ N. and 104°
+16´ E., 3792 m. by rail from St Petersburg. Pop. (1875) 32,512, (1900)
+49,106. The town proper lies on the right bank of the Angara, a
+tributary of the Yenisei, 45 m. below its outflow from Lake Baikal, and
+on the opposite bank is the Glaskovsk suburb. The river, which has a
+breadth of 1900 ft., is crossed by a flying bridge. The Irkut, from
+which the town takes its name, is a small river which joins the Angara
+directly opposite the town, the main portion of which is separated from
+the monastery, the castle, the port and the suburbs by another
+confluent, the Ida or Ushakovka. Irkutsk has long been reputed a
+remarkably fine city--its streets being straight, broad, well paved and
+well lighted; but in 1879, on the 4th and 6th of July, the palace of the
+(then) governor-general, the principal administrative and municipal
+offices and many of the other public buildings were destroyed by fire;
+and the government archives, the library and museum of the Siberian
+section of the Russian Geographical Society were utterly ruined. A
+cathedral (built of wood in 1693 and rebuilt of stone in 1718), the
+governor's palace, a school of medicine, a museum, a military hospital,
+and the crown factories are among the public institutions and
+buildings. An important fair is held in December. Irkutsk grew out of
+the winter-quarters established (1652) by Ivan Pokhabov for the
+collection of the fur tax from the Buriats. Its existence as a town
+dates from 1686.
+
+
+
+
+IRMIN, or IRMINUS, in Teutonic mythology, a deified eponymic hero of the
+Herminones. The chief seat of his worship was Irminsal, or Ermensul, in
+Westphalia, destroyed in 772 by Charlemagne. Huge wooden posts (Irmin
+pillars) were raised to his honour, and were regarded as sacred by the
+Saxons.
+
+
+
+
+IRNERIUS (Hirnerius, Hyrnerius, Iernerius, Gernerius, Guarnerius,
+Warnerius, Wernerius, Yrnerius), Italian jurist, sometimes referred to
+as "lucerna juris." He taught the "free arts" at Bologna, his native
+city, during the earlier decades of the 12th century. Of his personal
+history nothing is known, except that it was at the instance of the
+countess Matilda, Hildebrand's friend, who died in 1115, that he
+directed his attention and that of his students to the _Institutes_ and
+_Code_ of Justinian; that after 1116 he appears to have held some office
+under the emperor Henry V.; and that he died, perhaps during the reign
+of the emperor Lothair II., but certainly before 1140. He was the first
+of the Glossators (see GLOSS), and according to ancient opinion (which,
+however, has been much controverted) was the author of the epitome of
+the _Novellae_ of Justinian, called the _Authentica_, arranged according
+to the titles of the _Code_. His _Formularium tabellionum_ (a directory
+for notaries) and _Quaestiones_ (a book of decisions) are no longer
+extant. (See ROMAN LAW.)
+
+  See Savigny, _Gesch. d. röm. Rechts im Mittelalter_, iii. 83; Vecchio,
+  _Notizie di Irnerio e della sua scuola_ (Pisa, 1869); Ficker, _Forsch,
+  z. Reichs- u. Rechtsgesch. Italiens_, vol. iii. (Innsbruck, 1870); and
+  Fitting, _Die Anfänge der Rechtsschule zu Bologna_ (Berlin, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (O = 16)], a metallic chemical
+element. Although iron occurs only sparingly in the free state, the
+abundance of ores from which it may be readily obtained led to its
+application in the arts at a very remote period. It is generally agreed,
+however, that the Iron Age, the period of civilization during which this
+metal played an all-important part, succeeded the ages of copper and
+bronze, notwithstanding the fact that the extraction of these metals
+required greater metallurgical skill. The Assyrians and Egyptians made
+considerable use of the metal; and in Genesis iv. 22 mention is made of
+Tubal-cain as the instructor of workers in iron and copper. The earlier
+sources of the ores appear to have been in India; the Greeks, however,
+obtained it from the Chalybes, who dwelt on the south coast of the Black
+Sea; and the Romans, besides drawing from these deposits, also exploited
+Spain, Elba and the province of Noricum. (See METAL-WORK.)
+
+The chief occurrences of metallic iron are as minute spiculae
+disseminated through basaltic rocks, as at Giant's Causeway and in the
+Auvergne, and, more particularly, in meteorites (q.v.). In combination
+it occurs, usually in small quantity, in most natural waters, in plants,
+and as a necessary constituent of blood. The economic sources are
+treated under IRON AND STEEL below; in the same place will be found
+accounts of the manufacture, properties, and uses of the metal, the
+present article being confined to its chemistry. The principal iron ores
+are the oxides and carbonates, and these readily yield the metal by
+smelting with carbon. The metal so obtained invariably contains a
+certain amount of carbon, free or combined, and the proportion and
+condition regulate the properties of the metal, giving origin to the
+three important varieties: cast iron, steel, wrought iron. The perfectly
+pure metal may be prepared by heating the oxide or oxalate in a current
+of hydrogen; when obtained at a low temperature it is a black powder
+which oxidizes in air with incandescence; produced at higher
+temperatures the metal is not pyrophoric. Péligot obtained it as minute
+tetragonal octahedra and cubes by reducing ferrous chloride in hydrogen.
+It may be obtained electrolytically from solutions of ferrous and
+magnesium sulphates and sodium bicarbonate, a wrought iron anode and a
+rotating cathode of copper, thinly silvered and iodized, being employed
+(S. Maximowitsch, _Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1905, 11, p. 52).
+
+In bulk, the metal has a silvery white lustre and takes a high polish.
+Its specific gravity is 7.84; and the average specific heat over the
+range 15°-100° is 0.10983; this value increases with temperature to
+850°, and then begins to diminish. It is the most tenacious of all the
+ductile metals at ordinary temperatures with the exception of cobalt and
+nickel; it becomes brittle, however, at the temperature of liquid air.
+It softens at a red heat, and may be readily welded at a white heat;
+above this point it becomes brittle. It fuses at about 1550°-1600°, and
+may be distilled in the electric furnace (H. Moissan, _Compt. rend._,
+1906, 142, p. 425). It is attracted by a magnet and may be magnetized,
+but the magnetization is quickly lost. The variation of physical
+properties which attends iron on heating has led to the view that the
+metal exists in allotropic forms (see IRON AND STEEL, below).
+
+Iron is very reactive chemically. Exposed to atmospheric influences it
+is more or less rapidly corroded, giving the familiar rust (q.v.). S.
+Burnie (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii. p. 469) has shown that water is
+decomposed at all temperatures from 0° to 100° by the finely divided
+metal with liberation of hydrogen, the action being accelerated when
+oxides are present. The decomposition of steam by passing it through a
+red-hot gun-barrel, resulting in the liberation of hydrogen and the
+production of magnetic iron oxide, Fe3O4, is a familiar laboratory
+method for preparing hydrogen (q.v.). When strongly heated iron inflames
+in oxygen and in sulphur vapour; it also combines directly with the
+halogens. It dissolves in most dilute acids with liberation of hydrogen;
+the reaction between sulphuric acid and iron turnings being used for the
+commercial manufacture of this gas. It dissolves in dilute cold nitric
+acid with the formation of ferrous and ammonium nitrates, no gases being
+liberated; when heated or with stronger acid ferric nitrate is formed
+with evolution of nitrogen oxides.
+
+It was observed by James Keir (_Phil. Trans._, 1790, p. 359) that iron,
+after having been immersed in strong nitric acid, is insoluble in acids,
+neither does it precipitate metals from solutions. This "passivity" may
+be brought about by immersion in other solutions, especially by those
+containing such oxidizing anions as NO´3, ClO´3, less strongly by the
+anions SO´´4 CN´, CNS´, C2H3O´2, OH´, while Cl´, Br´ practically inhibit
+passivity; H´ is the only cation which has any effect, and this tends to
+exclude passivity. It is also occasioned by anodic polarization of iron
+in sulphuric acid. Other metals may be rendered passive; for example,
+zinc does not precipitate copper from solutions of the double cyanides
+and sulphocyanides, nickel and cadmium from the nitrates, and iron from
+the sulphate, but it immediately throws down nickel and cadmium from the
+sulphates and chlorides, and lead and copper from the nitrates (see O.
+Sackur, _Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1904, 10, p. 841). Anodic polarization in
+potassium chloride solution renders molybdenum, niobium, ruthenium,
+tungsten, and vanadium passive (W. Muthmann and F. Frauenberger, _Sitz.
+Bayer. Akad. Wiss._, 1904, 34, p. 201), and also gold in commercial
+potassium cyanide solution (A. Coehn and C. L. Jacobsen, _Abs. J.C.S._,
+1907, ii. p. 926). Several hypotheses have been promoted to explain this
+behaviour, and, although the question is not definitely settled, the
+more probable view is that it is caused by the formation of a film of an
+oxide, a suggestion made many years ago by Faraday (see P. Krassa,
+_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1909, 15, p. 490). Fredenhagen (_Zeit. physik.
+Chem._, 1903, 43, p. 1), on the other hand, regarded it as due to
+surface films of a gas; submitting that the difference between iron made
+passive by nitric acid and by anodic polarization was explained by the
+film being of nitrogen oxides in the first case and of oxygen in the
+second case. H. L. Heathcote and others regard the passivity as
+invariably due to electrolytic action (see papers in the _Zeit. physik.
+Chem._, 1901 et seq.).
+
+
+_Compounds of Iron._
+
+_Oxides and Hydroxides._--Iron forms three oxides: ferrous oxide, FeO,
+ferric oxide, Fe2O3, and ferroso-ferric oxide, Fe3O4. The first two give
+origin to well-defined series of salts, the ferrous salts, wherein the
+metal is divalent, and the ferric salts, wherein the metal is trivalent;
+the former readily pass into the latter on oxidation, and the latter
+into the former on reduction.
+
+_Ferrous oxide_ is obtained when ferric oxide is reduced in hydrogen at
+300° as a black pyrophoric powder. Sabatier and Senderens (_Compt.
+rend._, 1892, 114, p. 1429) obtained it by acting with nitrous oxide on
+metallic iron at 200°, and Tissandier by heating the metal to 900° in
+carbon dioxide; Donau (_Monats._, 1904, 25, p. 181), on the other hand,
+obtained a magnetic and crystalline-ferroso-ferric oxide at 1200°. It
+may also be prepared as a black velvety powder which readily takes up
+oxygen from the air by adding ferrous oxalate to boiling caustic potash.
+Ferrous hydrate, Fe(OH)2, when prepared from a pure ferrous salt and
+caustic soda or potash free from air, is a white powder which may be
+preserved in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Usually, however, it forms a
+greenish mass, owing to partial oxidation. It oxidizes on exposure with
+considerable evolution of heat; it rapidly absorbs carbon dioxide; and
+readily dissolves in acids to form ferrous salts, which are usually
+white when anhydrous, but greenish when hydrated.
+
+_Ferric oxide_ or iron sesquioxide, Fe2O3, constitutes the valuable ores
+red haematite and specular iron; the minerals brown haematite or
+limonite, and göthite and also iron rust are hydrated forms. It is
+obtained as a steel-grey crystalline powder by igniting the oxide or any
+ferric salt containing a volatile acid. Small crystals are formed by
+passing ferric chloride vapour over heated lime. When finely ground
+these crystals yield a brownish red powder which dissolves slowly in
+acids, the most effective solvent being a boiling mixture of 8 parts of
+sulphuric acid and 3 of water. Ferric oxide is employed as a pigment, as
+jeweller's rouge, and for polishing metals. It forms several hydrates,
+the medicinal value of which was recognized in very remote times. Two
+series of synthetic hydrates were recognized by Muck and Tommasi: the
+"red" hydrates, obtained by precipitating ferric salts with alkalis, and
+the "yellow" hydrates, obtained by oxidizing moist ferrous hydroxide or
+carbonates. J. van Bemmelen has shown that the red hydrates are really
+colloids, the amount of water retained being such that its vapour
+pressure equals the pressure of the aqueous vapour in the superincumbent
+atmosphere. By heating freshly prepared red ferric hydrate with water
+under 5000 atmospheres pressure Ruff (_Ber._, 1901, 34, p. 3417)
+obtained definite hydrates corresponding to the minerals limonite
+(30°-42.5°), göthite (42.5°-62.5°), and hydrohaematite (above 62.5°).
+Thomas Graham obtained a soluble hydrate by dissolving the freshly
+prepared hydrate in ferric chloride and dialysing the solution, the
+soluble hydrate being left in the dialyser. All the chlorine, however,
+does not appear to be removed by this process, the residue having the
+composition 82Fe(OH)3·FeCl3; but it may be by electrolysing in a porous
+cell (Tribot and Chrétien, _Compt. rend._, 1905, 140, p. 144). On
+standing, the solution usually gelatinizes, a process accelerated by the
+addition of an electrolyte. It is employed in medicine under the name
+_Liquor ferri dialysati_. The so-called soluble meta-ferric hydroxide,
+FeO(OH)(?), discovered by Péan de St Gilles in 1856, may be obtained by
+several methods. By heating solutions of certain iron salts for some
+time and then adding a little sulphuric acid it is precipitated as a
+brown powder. Black scales, which dissolve in water to form a red
+solution, are obtained by adding a trace of hydrochloric acid to a
+solution of basic ferric nitrate which has been heated to 100° for three
+days. A similar compound, which, however, dissolves in water to form an
+orange solution, results by adding salt to a heated solution of ferric
+chloride. These compounds are insoluble in concentrated, but dissolve
+readily in dilute acids.
+
+Red ferric hydroxide dissolves in acids to form a well-defined series of
+salts, the ferric salts, also obtained by oxidizing ferrous salts; they
+are usually colourless when anhydrous, but yellow or brown when
+hydrated. It has also feebly acidic properties, forming _ferrites_ with
+strong bases.
+
+_Magnetite_, Fe3O4, may be regarded as ferrous ferrite, FeO·Fe2O3. This
+important ore of iron is most celebrated for its magnetic properties
+(see MAGNETISM and COMPASS), but the mineral is not always magnetic,
+although invariably attracted by a magnet. It may be obtained
+artificially by passing steam over red-hot iron. It dissolves in acids
+to form a mixture of a ferrous and ferric salt,[1] and if an alkali is
+added to the solution a black precipitate is obtained which dries to a
+dark brown mass of the composition Fe(OH)2·Fe2O3; this substance is
+attracted by a magnet, and thus may be separated from the admixed ferric
+oxide. Calcium ferrite, magnesium ferrite and zinc ferrite, RO·Fe2O3 (R
+= Ca, Mg, Zn), are obtained by intensely heating mixtures of the oxides;
+magnesium ferrite occurs in nature as the mineral magnoferrite, and zinc
+ferrite as franklinite, both forming black octahedra.
+
+_Ferric acid_, H2FeO4. By fusing iron with saltpetre and extracting the
+melt with water, or by adding a solution of ferric nitrate in nitric
+acid to strong potash, an amethyst or purple-red solution is obtained
+which contains potassium ferrate. E. Frémy investigated this discovery,
+made by Stahl in 1702, and showed that the same solution resulted when
+chlorine is passed into strong potash solution containing ferric hydrate
+in suspension. Haber and Pick (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1900, 7, p. 215)
+have prepared potassium ferrate by electrolysing concentrated potash
+solution, using an iron anode. A temperature of 70°, and a reversal of
+the current (of low density) between two cast iron electrodes every few
+minutes, are the best working conditions. When concentrated the solution
+is nearly black, and on heating it yields a yellow solution of potassium
+ferrite, oxygen being evolved. Barium ferrate, BaFeO4·H2O, obtained as a
+dark red powder by adding barium chloride to a solution of potassium
+ferrate, is fairly stable. It dissolves in acetic acid to form a red
+solution, is not decomposed by cold sulphuric acid, but with
+hydrochloric or nitric acid it yields barium and ferric salts, with
+evolution of chlorine or oxygen (Baschieri, _Gazetta_, 1906, 36, ii. p.
+282).
+
+  _Halogen Compounds._--Ferrous fluoride, FeF2, is obtained as
+  colourless prisms (with 8H2O) by dissolving iron in hydrofluoric acid,
+  or as anhydrous colourless rhombic prisms by heating iron or ferric
+  chloride in dry hydrofluoric acid gas. Ferric fluoride, FeF3, is
+  obtained as colourless crystals (with 4˝H2O) by evaporating a solution
+  of the hydroxide in hydrofluoric acid. When heated in air it yields
+  ferric oxide. Ferrous chloride, FeCl2, is obtained as shining scales
+  by passing chlorine, or, better, hydrochloric acid gas, over red-hot
+  iron, or by reducing ferric chloride in a current of hydrogen. It is
+  very deliquescent, and freely dissolves in water and alcohol. Heated
+  in air it yields a mixture of ferric oxide and chloride, and in steam
+  magnetic oxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen. It absorbs ammonia
+  gas, forming the compound FeCl2·6NH2, which on heating loses ammonia,
+  and, finally, yields ammonium chloride, nitrogen and iron nitride. It
+  fuses at a red-heat, and volatilizes at a yellow-heat; its vapour
+  density at 1300°-1400° corresponds to the formula FeCl2. By
+  evaporating in vacuo the solution obtained by dissolving iron in
+  hydrochloric acid, there results bluish, monoclinic crystals of
+  FeCl2·4H2O, which deliquesce, turning greenish, on exposure to air,
+  and effloresce in a desiccator. Other hydrates are known. By adding
+  ammonium chloride to the solution, evaporating in vacuo, and then
+  volatilizing the ammonium chloride, anhydrous ferrous chloride is
+  obtained. The solution, in common with those of most ferrous salts,
+  absorbs nitric oxide with the formation of a brownish solution.
+
+  Ferric chloride, FeCl3, known in its aqueous solution to Glauber as
+  _oleum martis_, may be obtained anhydrous by the action of dry
+  chlorine on the metal at a moderate red-heat, or by passing
+  hydrochloric acid gas over heated ferric oxide. It forms iron-black
+  plates or tablets which appear red by transmitted and a metallic green
+  by reflected light. It is very deliquescent, and readily dissolves in
+  water, forming a brown or yellow solution, from which several hydrates
+  may be separated (see SOLUTION). The solution is best prepared by
+  dissolving the hydrate in hydrochloric acid and removing the excess of
+  acid by evaporation, or by passing chlorine into the solution obtained
+  by dissolving the metal in hydrochloric acid and removing the excess
+  of chlorine by a current of carbon dioxide. It also dissolves in
+  alcohol and ether; boiling point determinations of the molecular
+  weight in these solutions point to the formula FeCl3. Vapour density
+  determinations at 448° indicate a partial dissociation of the double
+  molecule Fe2Cl6; on stronger heating it splits into ferrous chloride
+  and chlorine. It forms red crystalline double salts with the chlorides
+  of the metals of the alkalis and of the magnesium group. An aqueous
+  solution of ferric chloride is used in pharmacy under the name _Liquor
+  ferri perchloridi_; and an alcoholic solution constitutes the quack
+  medicine known as "Lamotte's golden drops." Many oxychlorides are
+  known; soluble forms are obtained by dissolving precipitated ferric
+  hydrate in ferric chloride, whilst insoluble compounds result when
+  ferrous chloride is oxidized in air, or by boiling for some time
+  aqueous solutions of ferric chloride.
+
+  Ferrous bromide, FeBr2, is obtained as yellowish crystals by the union
+  of bromine and iron at a dull red-heat, or as bluish-green rhombic
+  tables of the composition FeBr2·6H2O by crystallizing a solution of
+  iron in hydrobromic acid. Ferric bromide, FeBr3, is obtained as dark
+  red crystals by heating iron in an excess of bromine vapour. It
+  closely resembles the chloride in being deliquescent, dissolving
+  ferric hydrate, and in yielding basic salts. Ferrous iodide, FeI2, is
+  obtained as a grey crystalline mass by the direct union of its
+  components. Ferric iodide does not appear to exist.
+
+  _Sulphur Compounds._--Ferrous sulphide, FeS, results from the direct
+  union of its elements, best by stirring molten sulphur with a
+  white-hot iron rod, when the sulphide drops to the bottom of the
+  crucible. It then forms a yellowish crystalline mass, which readily
+  dissolves in acids with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen.
+  Heated in air it at first partially oxidizes to ferrous sulphate, and
+  at higher temperatures it yields sulphur dioxide and ferric oxide. It
+  is unaltered by ignition in hydrogen. An amorphous form results when a
+  mixture of iron filings and sulphur are triturated with water. This
+  modification is rapidly oxidized by the air with such an elevation of
+  temperature that the mass may become incandescent. Another black
+  amorphous form results when ferrous salts are precipitated by ammonium
+  sulphide.
+
+  Ferric sulphide, Fe2S3, is obtained by gently heating a mixture of its
+  constituent elements, or by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on
+  ferric oxide at temperatures below 100°. It is also prepared by
+  precipitating a ferric salt with ammonium sulphide; unless the alkali
+  be in excess a mixture of ferrous sulphide and sulphur is obtained. It
+  combines with other sulphides to form compounds of the type M´2Fe2S4.
+  Potassium ferric sulphide, K2Fe2S4, obtained by heating a mixture of
+  iron filings, sulphur and potassium carbonate, forms purple glistening
+  crystals, which burn when heated in air. Magnetic pyrites or
+  pyrrhotite has a composition varying between Fe7S8 and Fe8S9, i.e.
+  5FeS·Fe2S3 and 6FeS·Fe2S3. It has a somewhat brassy colour, and occurs
+  massive or as hexagonal plates; it is attracted by a magnet and is
+  sometimes itself magnetic. The mineral is abundant in Canada, where
+  the presence of about 5% of nickel makes it a valuable ore of this
+  metal. Iron disulphide, FeS2, constitutes the minerals pyrite and
+  marcasite (q.v.); copper pyrites is (Cu, Fe)S2. Pyrite may be prepared
+  artificially by gently heating ferrous sulphide with sulphur, or as
+  brassy octahedra and cubes by slowly heating an intimate mixture of
+  ferric oxide, sulphur and sal-ammoniac. It is insoluble in dilute
+  acids, but dissolves in nitric acid with separation of sulphur.
+
+  Ferrous sulphite, FeSO3. Iron dissolves in a solution of sulphur
+  dioxide in the absence of air to form ferrous sulphite and
+  thio-sulphate; the former, being less soluble than the latter,
+  separates out as colourless or greenish crystals on standing.
+
+  Ferrous sulphate, green vitriol or copperas, FeSO4·7H2O, was known to,
+  and used by, the alchemists; it is mentioned in the writings of
+  Agricola, and its preparation from iron and sulphuric acid occurs in
+  the _Tractatus chymico-philosophicus_ ascribed to Basil Valentine. It
+  occurs in nature as the mineral melanterite, either crystalline or
+  fibrous, but usually massive; it appears to have been formed by the
+  oxidation of pyrite or marcasite. It is manufactured by piling pyrites
+  in heaps and exposing to atmospheric oxidation, the ferrous sulphate
+  thus formed being dissolved in water, and the solution run into tanks,
+  where any sulphuric acid which may be formed is decomposed by adding
+  scrap iron. By evaporation the green vitriol is obtained as large
+  crystals. The chief impurities are copper and ferric sulphates; the
+  former may be removed by adding scrap iron, which precipitates the
+  copper; the latter is eliminated by recrystallization. Other
+  impurities such as zinc and manganese sulphates are more difficult to
+  remove, and hence to prepare the pure salt it is best to dissolve pure
+  iron wire in dilute sulphuric acid. Ferrous sulphate forms large green
+  crystals belonging to the monoclinic system; rhombic crystals,
+  isomorphous with zinc sulphate, are obtained by inoculating a solution
+  with a crystal of zinc sulphate, and triclinic crystals of the formula
+  FeSO4·5H2O by inoculating with copper sulphate. By evaporating a
+  solution containing free sulphuric acid in a vacuum, the
+  hepta-hydrated salt first separates, then the penta-, and then a
+  tetra-hydrate, FeSO4·4H2O, isomorphous with manganese sulphate. By
+  gently heating in a vacuum to 140°, the hepta-hydrate loses 6
+  molecules of water, and yields a white powder, which on heating in the
+  absence of air gives the anhydrous salt. The monohydrate also results
+  as a white precipitate when concentrated sulphuric acid is added to a
+  saturated solution of ferrous sulphate. Alcohol also throws down the
+  salt from aqueous solution, the composition of the precipitate varying
+  with the amount of salt and precipitant employed. The solution absorbs
+  nitric oxide to form a dark brown solution, which loses the gas on
+  heating or by placing in ä vacuum. Ferrous sulphate forms double salts
+  with the alkaline sulphates. The most important is ferrous ammonium
+  sulphate, FeSO4·(NH4)2SO4·6H2O, obtained by dissolving equivalent
+  amounts of the two salts in water and crystallizing. It is very
+  stable and is much used in volumetric analysis.
+
+  Ferric sulphate, Fe2(SO4)3, is obtained by adding nitric acid to a hot
+  solution of ferrous sulphate containing sulphuric acid, colourless
+  crystals being deposited on evaporating the solution. The anhydrous
+  salt is obtained by heating, or by adding concentrated sulphuric acid
+  to a solution. It is sparingly soluble in water, and on heating it
+  yields ferric oxide and sulphur dioxide. The mineral coquimbite is
+  Fe2(SO4)3·9H2O. Many basic ferric sulphates are known, some of which
+  occur as minerals; carphosiderite is Fe(FeO)5(SO4)4·10H2O; amarantite
+  is Fe(FeO)(SO4)2·7H2O; utahite is 3(FeO)2SO4·4H2O; copiapite is
+  Fe3(FeO)(SO4)5·18H2O; castanite is Fe(FeO)(SO4)2·8H2O; römerite is
+  FeSO4·Fe2(SO4)3·12H2O. The iron alums are obtained by crystallizing
+  solutions of equivalent quantities of ferric and an alkaline sulphate.
+  Ferric potassium sulphate, the common iron alum,
+  K2SO4·Fe2(SO4)3·24H2O, forms bright violet octahedra.
+
+  _Nitrides, Nitrates, &c._--Several nitrides are known. Guntz (_Compt.
+  rend._, 1902, 135, p. 738) obtained ferrous nitride, Fe3N2, and ferric
+  nitride, FeN, as black powders by heating lithium nitride with ferrous
+  potassium chloride and ferric potassium chloride respectively. Fowler
+  (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1901, p. 285) obtained a nitride Fe2N by acting
+  upon anhydrous ferrous chloride or bromide, finely divided reduced
+  iron, or iron amalgam with ammonia at 420°; and, also, in a compact
+  form, by the action of ammonia on red-hot iron wire. It oxidizes on
+  heating in air, and ignites in chlorine; on solution in mineral acids
+  it yields ferrous and ammonium salts, hydrogen being liberated. A
+  nitride appears to be formed when nitrogen is passed over heated iron,
+  since the metal is rendered brittle. Ferrous nitrate, Fe(NO3)2·6H2O,
+  is a very unstable salt, and is obtained by mixing solutions of
+  ferrous sulphate and barium nitrate, filtering, and crystallizing in a
+  vacuum over sulphuric acid. Ferric nitrate, Fe(NO3)3, is obtained by
+  dissolving iron in nitric acid (the cold dilute acid leads to the
+  formation of ferrous and ammonium nitrates) and crystallizing, when
+  cubes of Fe(NO3)3·6H2O or monoclinic crystals of Fe(NO3)3·9H2O are
+  obtained. It is used as a mordant.
+
+  Ferrous solutions absorb nitric oxide, forming dark green to black
+  solutions. The coloration is due to the production of unstable
+  compounds of the ferrous salt and nitric oxide, and it seems that in
+  neutral solutions the compound is made up of one molecule of salt to
+  one of gas; the reaction, however, is reversible, the composition
+  varying with temperature, concentration and nature of the salt.
+  Ferrous chloride dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid absorbs two
+  molecules of the gas (Kohlschütter and Kutscheroff, _Ber._, 1907, 40,
+  p. 873). Ferric chloride also absorbs the gas. Reddish brown amorphous
+  powders of the formulae 2FeCl3·NO and 4FeCl3·NO are obtained by
+  passing the gas over anhydrous ferric chloride. By passing the gas
+  into an ethereal solution of the salt, nitrosyl chloride is produced,
+  and on evaporating over sulphuric acid, black needles of FeCl2·NO·2H2O
+  are obtained, which at 60° form the yellow FeCl2·NO. Complicated
+  compounds, discovered by Roussin in 1858, are obtained by the
+  interaction of ferrous sulphate and alkaline nitrites and sulphides.
+  Two classes may be distinguished:--(1) the ferrodinitroso salts, e.g.
+  K[Fe(NO)2S], potassium ferrodinitrososulphide, and (2) the
+  ferroheptanitroso salts, e.g. K[Fe4(NO)7S8], potassium
+  ferroheptanitrososulphide. These salts yield the corresponding acids
+  with sulphuric acid. The dinitroso acid slowly decomposes into
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and the heptanitroso
+  acid. The heptanitroso acid is precipitated as a brown amorphous mass
+  by dilute sulphuric acid, but if the salt be heated with strong acid
+  it yields nitrogen, nitric oxide, sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, and
+  ferric, ammonium and potassium sulphates.
+
+  _Phosphides, Phosphates._--H. Le Chatelier and S. Wologdine (_Compt.
+  rend._, 1909, 149, p. 709) have obtained Fe3P, Fe2P, FeP, Fe2P3, but
+  failed to prepare five other phosphides previously described. Fe3P
+  occurs as crystals in the product of fusing iron with phosphorus; it
+  dissolves in strong hydrochloric acid. Fe2P forms crystalline needles
+  insoluble in acids except aqua regia; it is obtained by fusing copper
+  phosphide with iron. FeP is obtained by passing phosphorus vapour over
+  Fe2P at a red-heat. Fe2P3 is prepared by the action of phosphorus
+  iodide vapour on reduced iron. Ferrous phosphate, Fe3(PO4)2·8H2O,
+  occurs in nature as the mineral vivianite. It may be obtained
+  artificially as a white precipitate, which rapidly turns blue or green
+  on exposure, by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate and sodium
+  phosphate. It is employed in medicine. Normal ferric phosphate,
+  FePO4·2H2O, occurs as the mineral strengite, and is obtained as a
+  yellowish-white precipitate by mixing solutions of ferric chloride and
+  sodium phosphate. It is insoluble in dilute acetic acid, but dissolves
+  in mineral acids. The acid salts Fe(H2PO4)3 and 2FeH3(PO4)2·5H2O have
+  been described. Basic salts have been prepared, and several occur in
+  the mineral kingdom; dufrenite is Fe2(OH)3PO4.
+
+  _Arsenides, Arsenites, &c._--Several iron arsenides occur as minerals;
+  lölingite, FeAs2, forms silvery rhombic prisms; mispickel or arsenical
+  pyrites, Fe2AsS2, is an important commercial source of arsenic. A
+  basic ferric arsenite, 4Fe2O3·As2O3·5H2O, is obtained as a flocculent
+  brown precipitate by adding an arsenite to ferric acetate, or by
+  shaking freshly prepared ferric hydrate with a solution of arsenious
+  oxide. The last reaction is the basis of the application of ferric
+  hydrate as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. Normal ferric
+  arsenate, FeAsO4·2H2O, constitutes the mineral scorodite;
+  pharmacosiderite is the basic arsenate 2FeAsO4·Fe(OK)3·5H2O. An acid
+  arsenate, 2Fe2(HAsO4)3·9H2O, is obtained as a white precipitate by
+  mixing solutions of ferric chloride and ordinary sodium phosphate. It
+  readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
+
+  _Carbides, Carbonates._--The carbides of iron play an important part
+  in determining the properties of the different modifications of the
+  commercial metal, and are discussed under IRON AND STEEL.
+
+  Ferrous carbonate, FeCO3, or spathic iron ore, may be obtained as
+  microscopic rhombohedra by adding sodium bicarbonate to ferrous
+  sulphate and heating to 150° for 36 hours. Ferrous sulphate and sodium
+  carbonate in the cold give a flocculent precipitate, at first white
+  but rapidly turning green owing to oxidation. A soluble carbonate and
+  a ferric salt give a precipitate which loses carbon dioxide on drying.
+  Of great interest are the carbonyl compounds. Ferropentacarbonyl,
+  Fe(CO)5, obtained by L. Mond, Quincke and Langer (_Jour. Chem. Soc._,
+  1891; see also ibid. 1910, p. 798) by treating iron from ferrous
+  oxalate with carbon monoxide, and heating at 150°, is a pale yellow
+  liquid which freezes at about -20°, and boils at 102.5°. Air and
+  moisture decompose it. The halogens give ferrous and ferric haloids
+  and carbon monoxide; hydrochloric and hydrobromic acids have no
+  action, but hydriodic decomposes it. By exposure to sunlight, either
+  alone or dissolved in ether or ligroin, it gives lustrous orange
+  plates of diferrononacarbonyl, Fe2(CO)9. If this substance be heated
+  in ethereal solution to 50°, it deposits lustrous dark-green tablets
+  of ferrotetracarbonyl, Fe(CO)4, very stable at ordinary temperatures,
+  but decomposing at 140°-150° into iron and carbon monoxide (J. Dewar
+  and H. O. Jones, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii. 266). For the cyanides see
+  PRUSSIC ACID.
+
+  Ferrous salts give a greenish precipitate with an alkali, whilst
+  ferric give a characteristic red one. Ferrous salts also give a bluish
+  white precipitate with ferrocyanide, which on exposure turns to a dark
+  blue; ferric salts are characterized by the intense purple coloration
+  with a thiocyanate. (See also CHEMISTRY, § _Analytical_). For the
+  quantitative estimation see ASSAYING.
+
+  A recent atomic weight determination by Richards and Baxter (_Zeit.
+  anorg. Chem._, 1900, 23, p. 245; 1904, 38, p. 232), who found the
+  amount of silver bromide given by ferrous bromide, gave the value
+  55.44 [O = 16].
+
+
+  _Pharmacology._
+
+  All the official salts and preparations of iron are made directly or
+  indirectly from the metal. The pharmacopoeial forms of iron are as
+  follow:--
+
+  1. _Ferrum_, annealed iron wire No. 35 or wrought iron nails free from
+  oxide; from which we have the preparation _Vinum ferri_, iron wine,
+  iron digested in sherry wine for thirty days. (Strength, 1 in 20.)
+
+  2. _Ferrum redactum_, reduced iron, a powder containing at least 75%
+  of metallic iron and a variable amount of oxide. A preparation of it
+  is _Trochiscus ferri redacti_ (strength, 1 grain of reduced iron in
+  each).
+
+  3. _Ferri sulphas_, ferrous sulphate, from which is prepared _Mistura
+  ferri composita_, "Griffiths' mixture," containing ferrous sulphate 25
+  gr., potassium carbonate 30 gr., myrrh 60 gr., sugar 60 gr., spirit of
+  nutmeg 50 m., rose water 10 fl. oz.
+
+  4. _Ferri sulphas exsiccatus_, which has two subpreparations: (a)
+  _Pilula ferri_, "Blaud's pill" (exsiccated ferrous sulphate 150,
+  exsiccated sodium carbonate 95, gum acacia 50, tragacanth 15, glycerin
+  10, syrup 150, water 20, each to contain about 1 grain of ferrous
+  carbonate); (b) _Pilula aloes et ferri_ (Barbadoes aloes 2, exsiccated
+  ferrous sulphate 1, compound powder of cinnamon 3, syrup of glucose
+  3).
+
+  5. _Ferri carbonas saccharatus_, saccharated iron carbonate. The
+  carbonate forms about one-third and is mixed with sugar into a greyish
+  powder.
+
+  6. _Ferri arsenas_, iron arsenate, ferrous and ferric arsenates with
+  some iron oxides, a greenish powder.
+
+  7. _Ferri phosphas_, a slate-blue powder of ferrous and ferric
+  phosphates with some oxide. Its preparations are: (a) _Syrupus ferri
+  phosphatis_ (strength, 1 gr. of ferrous phosphate in each fluid
+  drachm); (b) _Syrupus ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina_,
+  "Easton's syrup" (iron wire 75 grs., concentrated phosphoric acid 10
+  fl. dr., powdered strychnine 5 gr., quinine sulphate 130 gr., syrup 14
+  fl. oz., water to make 20 fl. oz.), in which each fluid drachm
+  represents 1 gr. of ferrous phosphate, 4/5 gr. of quinine sulphate,
+  and 1/32 gr. of strychnine.
+
+  8. _Syrupus ferri iodidi_, iron wire, iodine, water and syrup
+  (strength, 5.5 gr. of ferrous iodide in one fl. dr.).
+
+  9. _Liquor ferri perchloridi fortis_, strong solution of ferric
+  chloride (strength, 22.5% of iron); its preparations only are
+  prescribed, viz. _Liquor ferri perchloridi_ and _Tinctura ferri
+  perchloridi_.
+
+  10. _Liquor ferri persulphatis_, solution of ferric sulphate.
+
+  11. _Liquor ferri pernitratus_, solution of ferric nitrate (strength,
+  3.3% of iron).
+
+  12. _Liquor ferri acetatis_, solution of ferric acetate.
+
+  13. The scale preparations of iron, so called because they are dried
+  to form scales, are three in number, the base of all being ferric
+  hydrate:
+
+  (a) _Ferrum tartaratum_, dark red scales, soluble in water.
+
+  (b) _Ferri et quininae citratis_, greenish yellow scales soluble in
+  water.
+
+  (c) _Ferri et ammonii citratis_, red scales soluble in water, from
+  which is prepared _Vinum ferri citratis_ (ferri et ammonii citratis 1
+  gr., orange wine 1 fl. dr.).
+
+  Substances containing tannic or gallic acid turn black when compounded
+  with a ferric salt, so it cannot be used in combination with vegetable
+  astringents except with the infusion of quassia or calumba. Iron may,
+  however, be prescribed in combination with digitalis by the addition
+  of dilute phosphoric acid. Alkalis and their carbonates, lime water,
+  carbonate of calcium, magnesia and its carbonate give green
+  precipitates with ferrous and brown with ferric salts.
+
+  Unofficial preparations of iron are numberless, and some of them are
+  very useful. Ferri hydroxidum (U.S.P.), the hydrated oxide of iron,
+  made by precipitating ferric sulphate with ammonia, is used solely as
+  an antidote in arsenical poisoning. The Syrupus ferri phosphatis Co.
+  is well known as "Parrish's" syrup or chemical food, and the Pilulae
+  ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina, known as Easton's pills,
+  form a solid equivalent to Easton's syrup.
+
+  There are numerous organic preparations of iron. Ferratin is a reddish
+  brown substance which claims to be identical with the iron substance
+  found in pig's liver. Carniferrin is another tasteless powder
+  containing iron in combination with the phosphocarnic acid of muscle
+  preparations, and contains 35% of iron. Ferratogen is prepared from
+  ferric nuclein. Triferrin is a paranucleinate of iron, and contains
+  22% of iron and 2˝% of organically combined phosphorus, prepared from
+  the casein of cow's milk. Haemoglobin is extracted from the blood of
+  an ox and may be administered in bolus form. Dieterich's solution of
+  peptonated iron contains about 2 gr. of iron per oz. Vachetta has used
+  the albuminate of iron with striking success in grave cases of
+  anaemia. Succinate of iron has been prepared by Hausmann. Haematogen,
+  introduced by Hommel, claims to contain the albuminous constituents of
+  the blood serum and all the blood salts as well as pure haemoglobin.
+  Sicco, the name given to dry haematogen, is a tasteless powder.
+  Haemalbumen, introduced by Dahmen, is soluble in warm water.
+
+
+  _Therapeutics._
+
+  Iron is a metal which is used both as a food and as a medicine and has
+  also a definite local action. Externally, it is not absorbed by the
+  unbroken skin, but when applied to the broken skin, sores, ulcers and
+  mucous surfaces, the ferric salts are powerful astringents, because
+  they coagulate the albuminous fluids in the tissues themselves. The
+  salts of iron quickly cause coagulation of the blood, and the clot
+  plugs the bleeding vessels. They thus act locally as haemostatics or
+  styptics, and will often arrest severe haemorrhage from parts which
+  are accessible, such as the nose. They were formerly used in the
+  treatment of _post partum_ haemorrhage. The perchloride, sulphate and
+  pernitrate are strongly astringent; less extensively they are used in
+  chronic discharges from the vagina, rectum and nose, while injected
+  into the rectum they destroy worms.
+
+  Internally, a large proportion of the various articles of ordinary
+  diet contains iron. When given medicinally preparations of iron have
+  an astringent taste, and the teeth and tongue are blackened owing to
+  the formation of sulphide of iron. It is therefore advisable to take
+  liquid iron preparations through a glass tube or a quill.
+
+  In the stomach all salts of iron, whatever their nature, are converted
+  into ferric chloride. If iron be given in excess, or if the
+  hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice be deficient, iron acts
+  directly as an astringent upon the mucous membrane of the stomach
+  wall. Iron, therefore, may disorder the digestion even in healthy
+  subjects. Acid preparations are more likely to do this, and the acid
+  set free after the formation of the chloride may act as an irritant.
+  Iron, therefore, must not be given to subjects in whom the gastric
+  functions are disturbed, and it should always be given after meals.
+  Preparations which are not acid, or are only slightly acid, such as
+  reduced iron, dialysed iron, the carbonate and scale preparations, do
+  not disturb the digestion. If the sulphate is prescribed in the form
+  of a pill, it may be so coated as only to be soluble in the intestinal
+  digestive fluid. In the intestine the ferric chloride becomes changed
+  into an oxide of iron; the sub-chloride is converted into a ferrous
+  carbonate, which is soluble. Lower down in the bowel these compounds
+  are converted into ferrous sulphide and tannate, and are eliminated
+  with the faeces, turning them black. Iron in the intestine causes an
+  astringent or constipating effect. The astringent salts are therefore
+  useful occasionally to check diarrhoea and dysentery. Thus most salts
+  of iron are distinctly constipating, and are best used in combination
+  with a purgative. The pill of iron and aloes (B.P.) is designed for
+  this purpose. Iron is certainly absorbed from the intestinal canal. As
+  the iron in the food supplies all the iron in the body of a healthy
+  person, there is no doubt that it is absorbed in the organic form.
+  Whether inorganic salts are directly absorbed has been a matter of
+  much discussion; it has, however, been directly proved by the
+  experiments of Kunkel (_Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des
+  Menschen und der Tiere_, lxi.) and Gaule. The amount of iron existing
+  in the human blood is only 38 gr.; therefore, when an excess of iron
+  is absorbed, part is excreted immediately by the bowel and kidneys,
+  and part is stored in the liver and spleen.
+
+  Iron being a constituent part of the blood itself, there is a direct
+  indication for the physician to prescribe it when the amount of
+  haemoglobin in the blood is lowered or the red corpuscles are
+  diminished. In certain forms of anaemia the administration of iron
+  rapidly improves the blood in both respects. The exact method in which
+  the prescribed iron acts is still a matter of dispute. Ralph Stockman
+  points out that there are three chief theories as to the action of
+  iron in anaemia. The first is based on the fact that the iron in the
+  haemoglobin of the blood must be derived from the food, therefore iron
+  medicinally administered is absorbed. The second theory is that there
+  is no absorption of iron given by the mouth, but it acts as a local
+  stimulant to the mucous membrane, and so improves anaemia by
+  increasing the digestion of the food. The third theory is that of
+  Bunge, who says that in chlorotic conditions there is an excess of
+  sulphuretted hydrogen in the bowel, changing the food iron into
+  sulphide of iron, which Bunge states cannot be absorbed. He believes
+  that inorganic iron saves the organic iron of the food by combining
+  with the sulphur, and improves anaemia by protecting the organic food
+  iron. Stockman's own experiments are, however, directly opposed to
+  Bunge's view. Wharfinger states that in chlorosis the specific action
+  of iron is only obtained by administering those inorganic preparations
+  which give a reaction with the ordinary reagents; the iron ions in a
+  state of dissociation act as a catalytic agent, destroying the
+  hypothetical toxin which is the cause of chlorosis. Practical
+  experience teaches every clinician that, whatever the mode of action,
+  iron is most valuable in anaemia, though in many cases, where there is
+  well-marked toxaemia from absorption of the intestinal products, not
+  only laxatives in combination with iron but intestinal antiseptics are
+  necessary. That form of neuralgia which is associated with anaemia
+  usually yields to iron.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] By solution in concentrated hydrochloric acid, a yellow liquid is
+    obtained, which on concentration over sulphuric acid gives yellow
+    deliquescent crusts of ferroso-ferric chloride, Fe3Cl8·18H2O.
+
+
+
+
+IRON AGE, the third of the three periods, Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages,
+into which archaeologists divide prehistoric time; the weapons, utensils
+and implements being as a general rule made of iron (see ARCHAEOLOGY).
+The term has no real chronological value, for there has been no
+universal synchronous sequence of the three epochs in all quarters of
+the world. Some countries, such as the islands of the South Pacific, the
+interior of Africa, and parts of North and South America, have passed
+direct from the Stone to the Iron Age. In Europe the Iron Age may be
+said to cover the last years of the prehistoric and the early years of
+the historic periods. In Egypt, Chaldaea, Assyria, China, it reaches far
+back, to perhaps 4000 years before the Christian era. In Africa, where
+there has been no Bronze Age, the use of iron succeeded immediately the
+use of stone. In the Black Pyramid of Abusir (VIth Dynasty), at least
+3000 B.C., Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron, and in the funeral
+text of Pepi I. (about 3400 B.C.) the metal is mentioned. The use of
+iron in northern Europe would seem to have been fairly general long
+before the invasion of Caesar. But iron was not in common use in Denmark
+until the end of the 1st century A.D. In the north of Russia and Siberia
+its introduction was even as late as A.D. 800, while Ireland enters upon
+her Iron Age about the beginning of the 1st century. In Gaul, on the
+other hand, the Iron Age dates back some 800 years B.C.; while in
+Etruria the metal was known some six centuries earlier. Homer represents
+Greece as beginning her Iron Age twelve hundred years before our era.
+The knowledge of iron spread from the south to the north of Europe. In
+approaching the East from the north of Siberia or from the south of
+Greece and the Troad, the history of iron in each country eastward is
+relatively later; while a review of European countries from the north
+towards the south shows the latter becoming acquainted with the metal
+earlier than the former It is suggested that these facts support the
+theory that it is from Africa that iron first came into use. The finding
+of worked iron in the Great Pyramids seems to corroborate this view. The
+metal, however, is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian
+antiquities. The explanation of this would seem to lie in the fact that
+the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funereal
+vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the
+ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for
+any religious purposes. This idea of impurity would seem a further proof
+of the African origin of iron. It was attributed to Seth, the spirit of
+evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of
+Africa. The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of
+designs in weapons, implements and utensils. These are no longer cast
+but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather
+than simple rectilinear, the forms and character of the ornamentation
+of the northern European weapons resembling in some respects Roman arms,
+while in others they are peculiar and evidently representative of
+northern art. The dead were buried in an extended position, while in the
+preceding Bronze Age cremation had been the rule.
+
+  See Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_ (1865; 1900); Sir J. Evans,
+  _Ancient Stone Implements_ (1897); _Horae Ferales, or Studies in the
+  Archaeology of Northern Nations_, by Kemble (1863); Gaston C. C.
+  Maspero, _Guide du Musée de Boulaq_, 296; _Scotland in Pagan
+  Times--The Iron Age_, by Joseph Anderson (1883).
+
+
+
+
+IRON AND STEEL.[1] 1. Iron, the most abundant and the cheapest of the
+heavy metals, the strongest and most magnetic of known substances, is
+perhaps also the most indispensable of all save the air we breathe and
+the water we drink. For one kind of meat we could substitute another;
+wool could be replaced by cotton, silk or fur; were our common silicate
+glass gone, we could probably perfect and cheapen some other of the
+transparent solids; but even if the earth could be made to yield any
+substitute for the forty or fifty million tons of iron which we use each
+year for rails, wire, machinery, and structural purposes of many kinds,
+we could not replace either the steel of our cutting tools or the iron
+of our magnets, the basis of all commercial electricity. This usefulness
+iron owes in part, indeed, to its abundance, through which it has led us
+in the last few thousands of years to adapt our ways to its properties;
+but still in chief part first to the single qualities in which it
+excels, such as its strength, its magnetism, and the property which it
+alone has of being made at will extremely hard by sudden cooling and
+soft and extremely pliable by slow cooling; second, to the special
+combinations of useful properties in which it excels, such as its
+strength with its ready welding and shaping both hot and cold; and
+third, to the great variety of its properties. It is a very Proteus. It
+is extremely hard in our files and razors, and extremely soft in our
+horse-shoe nails, which in some countries the smith rejects unless he
+can bend them on his forehead; with iron we cut and shape iron. It is
+extremely magnetic and almost non-magnetic; as brittle as glass and
+almost as pliable and ductile as copper; extremely springy, and
+springless and dead; wonderfully strong, and very weak; conducting heat
+and electricity easily, and again offering great resistance to their
+passage; here welding readily, there incapable of welding; here very
+infusible, there melting with relative ease. The coincidence that so
+indispensable a thing should also be so abundant, that an iron-needing
+man should be set on an iron-cored globe, certainly suggests design. The
+indispensableness of such abundant things as air, water and light is
+readily explained by saying that their very abundance has evolved a
+creature dependent on them. But the indispensable qualities of iron did
+not shape man's evolution, because its great usefulness did not arise
+until historic times, or even, as in case of magnetism, until modern
+times.
+
+These variations in the properties of iron are brought about in part by
+corresponding variations in mechanical and thermal treatment, by which
+it is influenced profoundly, and in part by variations in the
+proportions of certain foreign elements which it contains; for, unlike
+most of the other metals, it is never used in the pure state. Indeed
+pure iron is a rare curiosity. Foremost among these elements is carbon,
+which iron inevitably absorbs from the fuel used in extracting it from
+its ores. So strong is the effect of carbon that the use to which the
+metal is put, and indeed its division into its two great classes, the
+malleable one, comprising steel and wrought iron, with less than 2.20%
+of carbon, and the unmalleable one, cast iron, with more than this
+quantity, are based on carbon-content. (See Table I.)
+
+TABLE 1.--_General Classification of Iron and Steel according (1) to
+Carbon-Content and (2) to Presence or Absence of Inclosed Slag._
+
+  +---------------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                     | Containing very little | Containing an Inter- |Containing much Carbon |
+  |                     | Carbon (say, less than | mediate Quantity of  | Carbon (say, from 2.2 |
+  |                     |          0.30%).       | Carbon (say, between |       2.2 to 5%).     |
+  |                     |                        | 0.30 and 2.2%).      |                       |
+  +---------------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------|
+  |   Slag-bearing or   |     WROUGHT IRON.      |      WELD STEEL.     |                       |
+  | "Weld-metal" Series.|  Puddled and bloomary, | Puddled and blister  |                       |
+  |                     |   or Charcoal-hearth   |  steel belong here.  |                       |
+  |                     |    iron belong here.   |                      |                       |
+  +---------------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                     |  LOW-CARBON or MILD    | HALF-HARD and HIGH-  |      CAST IRON.       |
+  |                     |STEEL, sometimes called | CARBON STEELS, some- |                       |
+  |                     |     "ingot-iron."      | times called "ingot- |                       |
+  |                     |                        |        steel."       |                       |
+  |                     |    It may be either    | They may be either   | Normal cast iron,     |
+  |                     | Bessemer, open-hearth, |  Bessemer, open-     |  "washed" metal, and  |
+  | Slagless or "Ingot- |   or crucible steel.   |  hearth, or crucible |  and most "malleable  |
+  |    Metal" Series.   |                        |  steel. Malleable    |  cast iron" belong    |
+  |                     |                        |  cast iron also often|  here.                |
+  |                     |                        |  belongs here.       |                       |
+  |                     +------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                     |                        |     ALLOY STEELS.    |  ALLOY CAST IRONS.*   |
+  |                     |                        |  Nickel, manganese,  | Spiegeleisen, ferro-  |
+  |                     |                        | tungsten, and chrome | manganese, and silico-|
+  |                     |                        |  steels belong here. |  spiegel belong here. |
+  +---------------------+------------------------+------------------ ---+-----------------------+
+    * The term "Alloy Cast Irons" is not actually in frequent use, not
+    because of any question as to its fitness or meaning, but because
+    the need of such a generic term rarely arises in the industry.
+
+2. _Nomenclature._--Until about 1860 there were only three important
+classes of iron--wrought iron, steel and cast iron. The essential
+characteristic of wrought iron was its nearly complete freedom from
+carbon; that of steel was its moderate carbon-content (say between 0.30
+and 2.2%), which, though great enough to confer the property of being
+rendered intensely hard and brittle by sudden cooling, yet was not so
+great but that the metal was malleable when cooled slowly; while that of
+cast iron was that it contained so much carbon as to be very brittle
+whether cooled quickly or slowly. This classification was based on
+carbon-content, or on the properties which it gave. Beyond this, wrought
+iron, and certain classes of steel which then were important,
+necessarily contained much slag or "cinder," because they were made by
+welding together pasty particles of metal in a bath of slag, without
+subsequent fusion. But the best class of steel, crucible steel, was
+freed from slag by fusion in crucibles; hence its name, "cast steel."
+Between 1860 and 1870 the invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth
+processes introduced a new class of iron to-day called "mild" or
+"low-carbon steel," which lacked the essential property of steel, the
+hardening power, yet differed from the existing forms of wrought iron in
+freedom from slag, and from cast iron in being very malleable. Logically
+it was wrought iron, the essence of which was that it was (1) "iron" as
+distinguished from steel, and (2) malleable, i.e. capable of being
+"wrought." This name did not please those interested in the new product,
+because existing wrought iron was a low-priced material. Instead of
+inventing a wholly new name for the wholly new product, they
+appropriated the name "steel," because this was associated in the public
+mind with superiority. This they did with the excuse that the new
+product resembled one class of steel--cast steel--in being free from
+slag; and, after a period of protest, all acquiesced in calling it
+"steel," which is now its firmly established name. The old varieties of
+wrought iron, steel and cast iron preserve their old names; the new
+class is called steel by main force. As a result, certain varieties,
+such as blister steel, are called "steel" solely because they have the
+hardening power, and others, such as low-carbon steel, solely because
+they are free from slag. But the former lack the essential quality,
+slaglessness, which makes the latter steel, and the latter lack the
+essential quality, the hardening power, which makes the former steel.
+"Steel" has come gradually to stand rather for excellence than for any
+specific quality. These anomalies, however confusing to the general
+reader, in fact cause no appreciable trouble to important makers or
+users of iron and steel, beyond forming an occasional side-issue in
+litigation.
+
+3. _Definitions._--_Wrought iron_ is slag-bearing malleable iron,
+containing so little carbon (0.30% or less), or its equivalent, that it
+does not harden greatly when cooled suddenly.
+
+_Steel_ is iron which is malleable at least in some one range of
+temperature, and also is either (a) cast into an initially malleable
+mass, or (b) is capable of hardening greatly by sudden cooling, or (c)
+is both so cast and so capable of hardening. (Tungsten steel and certain
+classes of manganese steel are malleable only when red-hot.) Normal or
+carbon steel contains between 0.30 and 2.20% of carbon, enough to make
+it harden greatly when cooled suddenly, but not enough to prevent it
+from being usefully malleable when hot.
+
+_Cast iron_ is, generically, iron containing so much carbon (2.20% or
+more) or its equivalent that it is not usefully malleable at any
+temperature. Specifically, it is cast iron in the form of castings other
+than pigs, or remelted cast iron suitable for such castings, as
+distinguished from pig iron, i.e. the molten cast iron as it issues from
+the blast furnace, or the pigs into which it is cast.
+
+_Malleable cast iron_ is iron which has been cast in the condition of
+cast iron, and made malleable by subsequent treatment without fusion.
+
+_Alloy steels_ and _cast irons_ are those which owe their properties
+chiefly to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon.
+
+_Ingot iron_ is slagless steel with less than 0.30% of carbon.
+
+_Ingot steel_ is slagless steel containing more than 0.30% of carbon.
+
+_Weld steel_ is slag-bearing iron malleable at least at some one
+temperature, and containing more than 0.30% of carbon.
+
+4. _Historical Sketch._--The iron oxide of which the ores of iron
+consist would be so easily deoxidized and thus brought to the metallic
+state by the carbon, i.e. by the glowing coals of any primeval savage's
+wood fire, and the resulting metallic iron would then differ so
+strikingly from any object which he had previously seen, that its very
+early use by our race is only natural. The first observing savage who
+noticed it among his ashes might easily infer that it resulted from the
+action of burning wood on certain extremely heavy stones. He could pound
+it out into many useful shapes. The natural steps first of making it
+intentionally by putting such stones into his fire, and next of
+improving his fire by putting it and these stones into a cavity on the
+weather side of some bank with an opening towards the prevalent wind,
+would give a simple forge, differing only in size, in lacking forced
+blast, and in details of construction, from the Catalan forges and
+bloomaries of to-day. Moreover, the coals which deoxidized the iron
+would inevitably carburize some lumps of it, here so far as to turn it
+into the brittle and relatively useless cast iron, there only far enough
+to convert it into steel, strong and very useful even in its unhardened
+state. Thus it is almost certain that much of the earliest iron was in
+fact steel. How soon after man's discovery, that he could beat iron and
+steel out while cold into useful shapes, he learned to forge it while
+hot is hard to conjecture. The pretty elaborate appliances, tongs or
+their equivalent, which would be needed to enable him to hold it
+conveniently while hot, could hardly have been devised till a very much
+later period; but then he may have been content to forge it
+inconveniently, because the great ease with which it mashes out when
+hot, perhaps pushed with a stout stick from the fire to a neighbouring
+flat stone, would compensate for much inconvenience. However this may
+be, very soon after man began to practise hot-forging he would
+inevitably learn that sudden cooling, by quenching in water, made a
+large proportion of his metal, his steel, extremely hard and brittle,
+because he would certainly try by this very quenching to avoid the
+inconvenience of having the hot metal about. But the invaluable and
+rather delicate art of tempering the hardened steel by a very careful
+and gentle reheating, which removes its extreme brittleness though
+leaving most of its precious hardness, needs such skilful handling that
+it can hardly have become known until very long after the art of
+hot-forging.
+
+The oxide ores of copper would be deoxidized by the savage's wood fire
+even more easily than those of iron, and the resulting copper would be
+recognized more easily than iron, because it would be likely to melt and
+run together into a mass conspicuous by its bright colour and its very
+great malleableness. From this we may infer that copper and iron
+probably came into use at about the same stage in man's development,
+copper before iron in regions which had oxidized copper ores, whether
+they also had iron ores or not, iron before copper in places where there
+were pure and easily reduced ores of iron but none of copper. Moreover,
+the use of each metal must have originated in many different places
+independently. Even to-day isolated peoples are found with their own
+primitive iron-making, but ignorant of the use of copper.
+
+If iron thus preceded copper in many places, still more must it have
+preceded bronze, an alloy of copper and tin much less likely than either
+iron or copper to be made unintentionally. Indeed, though iron ores
+abound in many places which have neither copper nor tin, yet there are
+but few places which have both copper and tin. It is not improbable
+that, once bronze became known, it might replace iron in a measure,
+perhaps even in a very large measure, because it is so fusible that it
+can be cast directly and easily into many useful shapes. It seems to be
+much more prominent than iron in the Homeric poems; but they tell us
+only of one region at one age. Even if a nation here or there should
+give up the use of iron completely, that all should is neither probable
+nor shown by the evidence. The absence of iron and the abundance of
+bronze in the relics of a prehistoric people is a piece of evidence to
+be accepted with caution, because the great defect of iron, its
+proneness to rust, would often lead to its complete disappearance, or
+conversion into an unrecognizable mass, even though tools of bronze
+originally laid down beside it might remain but little corroded. That
+the ancients should have discovered an art of hardening bronze is
+grossly improbable, first because it is not to be hardened by any simple
+process like the hardening of steel, and second because, if they had,
+then a large proportion of the ancient bronze tools now known ought to
+be hard, which is not the case.
+
+Because iron would be so easily made by prehistoric and even by primeval
+man, and would be so useful to him, we are hardly surprised to read in
+Genesis that Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent from Adam, discovered it;
+that the Assyrians had knives and saws which, to be effective, must have
+been of hardened steel, i.e. of iron which had absorbed some carbon from
+the coals with which it had been made, and had been quenched in water
+from a red heat; that an iron tool has been found embedded in the
+ancient pyramid of Kephron (probably as early as 3500 B.C.); that iron
+metallurgy had advanced at the time of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. (about
+1500 B.C.) so far that bellows were used for forcing the forge fire;
+that in Homer's time (not later than the 9th century B.C.) the delicate
+art of hardening and tempering steel was so familiar that the poet used
+it for a simile, likening the hissing of the stake which Ulysses drove
+into the eye of Polyphemus to that of the steel which the smith quenches
+in water, and closing with a reference to the strengthening effect of
+this quenching; and that at the time of Pliny (A.D. 23-79) the relative
+value of different baths for hardening was known, and oil preferred for
+hardening small tools. These instances of the very early use of this
+metal, intrinsically at once so useful and so likely to disappear by
+rusting away, tell a story like that of the single foot-print of the
+savage which the waves left for Robinson Crusoe's warning. Homer's
+familiarity with the art of tempering could come only after centuries of
+the wide use of iron.
+
+3. _Three Periods._--The history of iron may for convenience be divided
+into three periods: a first in which only the direct extraction of
+wrought iron from the ore was practised; a second which added to this
+primitive art the extraction of iron in the form of carburized or cast
+iron, to be used either as such or for conversion into wrought iron; and
+a third in which the iron worker used a temperature high enough to melt
+wrought iron, which he then called molten steel. For brevity we may call
+these the periods of wrought iron, of cast iron, and of molten steel,
+recognizing that in the second and third the earlier processes continued
+in use. The first period began in extremely remote prehistoric times;
+the second in the 14th century; and the third with the invention of the
+Bessemer process in 1856.
+
+  6. _First Period._--We can picture to ourselves how in the first
+  period the savage smith, step by step, bettered his control over his
+  fire, at once his source of heat and his deoxidizing agent. Not
+  content to let it burn by natural draught, he would blow it with his
+  own breath, would expose it to the prevalent wind, would urge it with
+  a fan, and would devise the first crude valveless bellows, perhaps the
+  pigskin already familiar as a water-bottle, of which the psalmist
+  says: "I am become as a bottle in the smoke." To drive the air out of
+  this skin by pressing on it, or even by walking on it, would be easy;
+  to fill it again with air by pulling its sides apart with his fingers
+  would be so irksome that he would soon learn to distend it by means of
+  strings. If his bellows had only a single opening, that through which
+  they delivered the blast upon the fire, then in inflating them he
+  would draw back into them the hot air and ashes from the fire. To
+  prevent this he might make a second or suction hole, and thus he would
+  have a veritable engine, perhaps one of the very earliest of all.
+  While inflating the bellows he would leave the suction port open and
+  close the discharge port with a pinch of his finger; and while blowing
+  the air against the fire he would leave the discharge port open and
+  pinch together the sides of the suction port.
+
+  The next important step seems to have been taken in the 4th century
+  when some forgotten Watt devised valves for the bellows. But in spite
+  of the activity of the iron manufacture in many of the Roman
+  provinces, especially England, France, Spain, Carinthia and near the
+  Rhine, the little forges in which iron was extracted from the ore
+  remained, until the 14th century, very crude and wasteful of labour,
+  fuel, and iron itself: indeed probably not very different from those
+  of a thousand years before. Where iron ore was found, the local smith,
+  the _Waldschmied_, converted it with the charcoal of the surrounding
+  forest into the wrought iron which he worked up. Many farmers had
+  their own little forges or smithies to supply the iron for their
+  tools.
+
+  The fuel, wood or charcoal, which served both to heat and to deoxidize
+  the ore, has so strong a carburizing action that it would turn some of
+  the resultant metal into "natural steel," which differs from wrought
+  iron only in containing so much carbon that it is relatively hard and
+  brittle in its natural state, and that it becomes intensely hard when
+  quenched from a red heat in water. Moreover, this same carburizing
+  action of the fuel would at times go so far as to turn part of the
+  metal into a true cast iron, so brittle that it could not be worked at
+  all. In time the smith learnt how to convert this unwelcome product
+  into wrought iron by remelting it in the forge, exposing it to the
+  blast in such a way as to burn out most of its carbon.
+
+  7. _Second Period._--With the second period began, in the 14th
+  century, the gradual displacement of the direct extraction of wrought
+  iron from the ore by the intentional and regular use of this indirect
+  method of first carburizing the metal and thus turning it into cast
+  iron, and then converting it into wrought iron by remelting it in the
+  forge. This displacement has been going on ever since, and it is not
+  quite complete even to-day. It is of the familiar type of the
+  replacing of the simple but wasteful by the complex and economical,
+  and it was begun unintentionally in the attempt to save fuel and
+  labour, by increasing the size and especially the height of the forge,
+  and by driving the bellows by means of water-power. Indeed it was the
+  use of water-power that gave the smith pressure strong enough to force
+  his blast up through a longer column of ore and fuel, and thus enabled
+  him to increase the height of his forge, enlarge the scale of his
+  operations, and in turn save fuel and labour. And it was the
+  lengthening of the forge, and the length and intimacy of contact
+  between ore and fuel to which it led, that carburized the metal and
+  turned it into cast iron. This is so fusible that it melted, and,
+  running together into a single molten mass, freed itself mechanically
+  from the "gangue," as the foreign minerals with which the ore is mixed
+  are called. Finally, the improvement in the quality of the iron which
+  resulted from thus completely freeing it from the gangue turned out to
+  be a great and unexpected merit of the indirect process, probably the
+  merit which enabled it, in spite of its complexity, to drive out the
+  direct process. Thus we have here one of these cases common in the
+  evolution both of nature and of art, in which a change, made for a
+  specific purpose, has a wholly unforeseen advantage in another
+  direction, so important as to outweigh that for which it was made and
+  to determine the path of future development.
+
+  With this method of making molten cast iron in the hands of a people
+  already familiar with bronze founding, iron founding, i.e. the casting
+  of the molten cast iron into shapes which were useful in spite of its
+  brittleness, naturally followed. Thus ornamental iron castings were
+  made in Sussex in the 14th century, and in the 16th cannons weighing
+  three tons each were cast.
+
+  The indirect process once established, the gradual increase in the
+  height and diameter of the high furnace, which has lasted till our own
+  days, naturally went on and developed the gigantic blast furnaces of
+  the present time, still called "high furnaces" in French and German.
+  The impetus which the indirect process and the acceleration of
+  civilization in the 15th and 16th centuries gave to the iron industry
+  was so great that the demands of the iron masters for fuel made
+  serious inroads on the forests, and in 1558 an act of Queen
+  Elizabeth's forbade the cutting of timber in certain parts of the
+  country for iron-making. Another in 1584 forbade the building of any
+  more iron-works in Surrey, Kent, and Sussex. This increasing scarcity
+  of wood was probably one of the chief causes of the attempts which the
+  iron masters then made to replace charcoal with mineral fuel. In 1611
+  Simon Sturtevant patented the use of mineral coal for iron-smelting,
+  and in 1619 Dud Dudley made with this coal both cast and wrought iron
+  with technical success, but through the opposition of the charcoal
+  iron-makers all of his many attempts were defeated. In 1625 Stradda's
+  attempts in Hainaut had no better success, and it was not till more
+  than a century later that iron-smelting with mineral fuel was at last
+  fully successful. It was then, in 1735, that Abraham Darby showed how
+  to make cast iron with coke in the high furnace, which by this time
+  had become a veritable blast furnace.
+
+  The next great improvement in blast-furnace practice came in 1811,
+  when Aubertot in France used for heating steel the furnace gases rich
+  in carbonic oxide which till then had been allowed to burn uselessly
+  at the top of the blast furnace. The next was J. B. Neilson's
+  invention in 1828 of heating the blast, which increased the production
+  and lessened the fuel-consumption of the furnace wonderfully. Very
+  soon after this, in 1832, the work of heating the blast was done by
+  means of the waste gases, at Wasseralfingen in Bavaria.
+
+  Meanwhile Henry Cort had in 1784 very greatly simplified the
+  conversion of cast iron into wrought iron. In place of the old forge,
+  in which the actual contact between the iron and the fuel, itself an
+  energetic carburizing agent, made decarburization difficult, he
+  devised the reverberatory puddling furnace (see fig. 14 below), in
+  which the iron lies in a chamber apart from the fire-place, and is
+  thus protected from the carburizing action of the fuel, though heated
+  by the flame which that fuel gives out.
+
+  The rapid advance in mechanical engineering in the latter part of this
+  second period stimulated the iron industry greatly, giving it in 1728
+  Payn and Hanbury's rolling mill for rolling sheet iron, in 1760 John
+  Smeaton's cylindrical cast-iron bellows in place of the wooden and
+  leather ones previously used, in 1783 Cort's grooved rolls for rolling
+  bars and rods of iron, and in 1838 James Nasmyth's steam hammer. But
+  even more important than these were the advent of the steam engine
+  between 1760 and 1770, and of the railroad in 1825, each of which gave
+  the iron industry a great impetus. Both created a great demand for
+  iron, not only for themselves but for the industries which they in
+  turn stimulated; and both directly aided the iron master: the steam
+  engine by giving him powerful and convenient tools, and the railroad
+  by assembling his materials and distributing his products.
+
+  About 1740 Benjamin Huntsman introduced the "crucible process" of
+  melting steel in small crucibles, and thus freeing it from the slag,
+  or rich iron silicate, with which it, like wrought iron, was
+  mechanically mixed, whether it was made in the old forge or in the
+  puddling furnace. This removal of the cinder very greatly improved the
+  steel; but the process was and is so costly that it is used only for
+  making steel for purposes which need the very best quality.
+
+  8. _Third Period._--The third period has for its great distinction the
+  invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes, which are like
+  Huntsman's crucible process in that their essence is their freeing
+  wrought iron and low carbon steel from mechanically entangled cinder,
+  by developing the hitherto unattainable temperature, rising to above
+  1500° C., needed for melting these relatively infusible products.
+  These processes are incalculably more important than Huntsman's, both
+  because they are incomparably cheaper, and because their products are
+  far more useful than his.
+
+  Thus the distinctive work of the second and third periods is freeing
+  the metal from mechanical impurities by fusion. The second period, by
+  converting the metal into the fusible cast iron and melting this, for
+  the first time removed the gangue of the ore; the third period by
+  giving a temperature high enough to melt the most infusible forms of
+  iron, liberated the slag formed in deriving them from cast iron.
+
+  In 1856 Bessemer not only invented his extraordinary process of making
+  the heat developed by the rapid oxidation of the impurities in pig
+  iron raise the temperature above the exalted melting-point of the
+  resultant purified steel, but also made it widely known that this
+  steel was a very valuable substance. Knowing this, and having in the
+  Siemens regenerative gas furnace an independent means of generating
+  this temperature, the Martin brothers of Sireuil in France in 1864
+  developed the open-hearth process of making steel of any desired
+  carbon-content by melting together in this furnace cast and wrought
+  iron. The great defect of both these processes, that they could not
+  remove the baneful phosphorus with which all the ores of iron are
+  associated, was remedied in 1878 by S. G. Thomas, who showed that, in
+  the presence of a slag rich in lime, the whole of the phosphorus could
+  be removed readily.
+
+  9. After the remarkable development of the blast furnace, the
+  Bessemer, and the open-hearth processes, the most important work of
+  this, the third period of the history of iron, is the birth and growth
+  of the science and art of iron metallography. In 1868 Tschernoff
+  enunciated its chief fundamental laws, which were supplemented in 1885
+  by the laws of Brinell. In 1888 F. Osmond showed that the wonderful
+  changes which thermal treatment and the presence of certain foreign
+  elements cause were due to allotropy, and from these and like
+  teachings have come a rapid growth of the use of the so-called "alloy
+  steels" in which, thanks to special composition and treatment, the
+  iron exists in one or more of its remarkable allotropic states. These
+  include the austenitic or gamma non-magnetic manganese steel, already
+  patented by Robert Hadfield in 1883, the first important known
+  substance which combined great malleableness with great hardness, and
+  the martensitic or beta "high speed tool steel" of White and Taylor,
+  which retains its hardness and cutting power even at a red heat.
+
+10. _Constitution of Iron and Steel._--The constitution of the various
+classes of iron and steel as shown by the microscope explains readily
+the great influence of carbon which was outlined in §§ 2 and 3. The
+metal in its usual slowly cooled state is a conglomerate like the
+granitic rocks. Just as a granite is a conglomerate or mechanical
+mixture of distinct crystalline grains of three perfectly definite
+minerals, mica, quartz, and felspar, so iron and steel in their usual
+slowly cooled state consist of a mixture of microscopic particles of
+such definite quasi-minerals, diametrically unlike. These are cementite,
+a definite iron carbide, Fe3C, harder than glass and nearly as brittle,
+but probably very strong under gradually and axially applied stress; and
+ferrite, pure or nearly pure metallic [alpha]-iron, soft, weak, with
+high electric conductivity, and in general like copper except in colour.
+In view of the fact that the presence of 1% of carbon implies that 15%
+of the soft ductile ferrite is replaced by the glass-hard cementite, it
+is not surprising that even a little carbon influences the properties of
+the metal so profoundly.
+
+But carbon affects the properties of iron not only by giving rise to
+varying proportions of cementite, but also both by itself shifting from
+one molecular state to another, and by enabling us to hold the iron
+itself in its unmagnetic allotropic forms, [beta]- and [gamma]-iron, as
+will be explained below. Thus, sudden cooling from a red heat leaves the
+carbon not in definite combination as cementite, but actually dissolved
+in [beta]- and [gamma]-allotropic iron, in the conditions known as
+martensite and austenite, not granitic but glass-like bodies, of which
+the "hardened" and "tempered" steel of our cutting tools in large part
+consists. Again, if more than 2% of carbon is present, it passes readily
+into the state of pure graphitic carbon, which, in itself soft and weak,
+weakens and embrittles the metal as any foreign body would, by breaking
+up its continuity.
+
+11. The _Roberts-Austen_ or _carbon-iron diagram_ (fig. 1), in which
+vertical distances represent temperatures and horizontal ones the
+percentage of carbon in the iron, aids our study of these constituents
+of iron. If, ignoring temporarily and for simplicity the fact that part
+of the carbon may exist in the state of graphite, we consider the
+behaviour of iron in cooling from the molten state, AB and BC give the
+temperature at which, for any given percentage of carbon, solidification
+begins, and A_a_, _a_B, and B_c_ that at which it ends. But after
+solidification is complete and the metal has cooled to a much lower
+range of temperature, usually between 900° and 690° C., it undergoes a
+very remarkable series of transformations. GHSa gives the temperature at
+which, for any given percentage of carbon, these transformations begin,
+and PSP´ that at which they end.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Roberts-Austen or Carbon-Iron diagram. The
+Cementite-Austenite or Metastable form.]
+
+These freezing-point curves and transformation curves thus divide the
+diagram into 8 distinct regions, each with its own specific state or
+constitution of the metal, the molten state for region 1, a mixture of
+molten metal and of solid austenite for region 2, austenite alone for
+region 4 and so on. This will be explained below. If the metal followed
+the laws of equilibrium, then whenever through change of temperature it
+entered a new region, it would forthwith adopt the constitution normal
+to that region. But in fact the change of constitution often lags
+greatly, so that the metal may have the constitution normal to a region
+higher than that in which it is, or even a patchwork constitution,
+representing fragments of those of two or more regions. It is by taking
+advantage of this lagging that thermal treatment causes such wonderful
+changes in the properties of the cold metal.
+
+12. With these facts in mind we may now study further these different
+constituents of iron.
+
+  _Austenite, gamma_ ([gamma]) _iron._--Austenite is the name of the
+  solid solution of an iron carbide in allotropie [gamma]-iron of which
+  the metal normally consists when in region 4. In these solid
+  solutions, as in aqueous ones, the ratios in which the different
+  chemical substances are present are not fixed or definite, but vary
+  from case to case, not _per saltum_ as between definite chemical
+  compounds, but by infinitesimal steps. The different substances are as
+  it were dissolved in each other in a state which has the
+  indefiniteness of composition, the absolute merging of identity, and
+  the weakness of reciprocal chemical attraction, characteristic of
+  aqueous solutions.
+
+  On cooling into region 6 or 8 austenite should normally split up into
+  ferrite and cementite, after passing through the successive stages of
+  martensite, troostite and sorbite, Fe_xC = Fe3C + Fe_(x-3). But this
+  change may be prevented so as to preserve the austenite in the cold,
+  either very incompletely, as when high-carbon steel is "hardened,"
+  i.e. is cooled suddenly by quenching in water, in which case the
+  carbon present seems to act as a brake to retard the change; or
+  completely, by the presence of a large quantity of manganese, nickel,
+  tungsten or molybdenum, which in effect sink the lower boundary GHS_a_
+  of region 4 to below the atmospheric temperature. The important
+  manganese steels of commerce and certain nickel steels are
+  manganiferous and niccoliferous austenite, unmagnetic and hard but
+  ductile.
+
+  Austenite may contain carbon in any proportion up to about 2.2%. It is
+  non-magnetic, and, when preserved in the cold either by quenching or
+  by the presence of manganese, nickel, &c., it has a very remarkable
+  combination of great malleability with very marked hardness, though it
+  is less hard than common carbon steel is when hardened, and probably
+  less hard than martensite. When of eutectoid composition, it is called
+  "hardenite." Suddenly cooled carbon steel, even if rich in austenite,
+  is strongly magnetic because of the very magnetic [alpha]-iron which
+  inevitably forms even in the most rapid cooling from region 4. Only in
+  the presence of much manganese, nickel, or their equivalent can the
+  true austenite be preserved in the cold so completely that the steel
+  remains non-magnetic.
+
+  13. _Beta_ ([beta]) _iron_, an unmagnetic, intensely hard and brittle
+  allotropic form of iron, though normal and stable only in the little
+  triangle GHM, is yet a state through which the metal seems always to
+  pass when the austenite of region 4 changes into the ferrite and
+  cementite of regions 6 and 8. Though not normal below MHSP´, yet like
+  [gamma]-iron it can be preserved in the cold by the presence of about
+  5% of manganese, which, though not enough to bring the lower boundary
+  of region 4 below the atmospheric temperature and thus to preserve
+  austenite in the cold, is yet enough to make the transformation of
+  [beta] into [alpha] iron so sluggish that the former remains
+  untransformed even during slow cooling.
+
+  Again, [beta]-iron may be preserved incompletely as in the "hardening
+  of steel," which consists in heating the steel into the austenite
+  state of region 4, and then cooling it so rapidly, e.g. by quenching
+  it in cold water, that, for lack of the time needed for the completion
+  of the change from austenite into ferrite and cementite, much of the
+  iron is caught in transit in the [beta] state. According to our
+  present theory, it is chiefly to beta iron, preserved in one of these
+  ways, that all of our tool steel proper, i.e. steel used for cutting
+  as distinguished from grinding, seems to owe its hardness.
+
+  14. _Martensite_, _Troostite_ and _Sorbite_ are the successive stages
+  through which the metal passes in changing from austenite into ferrite
+  and cementite. _Martensite_, very hard because of its large content of
+  [beta]-iron, is characteristic of hardened steel, but the two others,
+  far from being definite substances, are probably only roughly bounded
+  stages of this transition. _Troostite_ and _sorbite_, indeed, seem to
+  be chiefly very finely divided mixtures of ferrite and cementite, and
+  it is probably because of this fineness that sorbitic steel has its
+  remarkable combination of strength and elasticity with ductility which
+  fits it for resisting severe vibratory and other dynamic stresses,
+  such as those to which rails and shafting are exposed.
+
+  15. _Alpha_ ([alpha]) _iron_ is the form normal and stable for regions
+  5, 6 and 8, i.e. for all temperatures below MHSP´. It is the common,
+  very magnetic form of iron, in itself ductile but relatively soft and
+  weak, as we know it in wrought iron and mild or low-carbon steel.
+
+  16. _Ferrite_ and _cementite_, already described in § 10, are the
+  final products of the transformation of austenite in slow-cooling.
+  [beta]-ferrite and austenite are the normal constituents for the
+  triangle GHM, [alpha]-ferrite (i.e. nearly pure [alpha]-iron) with
+  austenite for the space MHSP, cementite with austenite for region 7,
+  and [alpha]-ferrite and cementite jointly for regions 6 and 8. Ferrite
+  and cementite are thus the normal and usual constituents of slowly
+  cooled steel, including all structural steels, rail steel, &c., and of
+  white cast iron (see § 18).
+
+  17. _Pearlite._--The ferrite and cementite present interstratify
+  habitually as a "eutectoid"[2] called "pearlite" (see ALLOYS, Pl.,
+  fig. 11), in the ratio of about 6 parts of ferrite to 1 of cementite,
+  and hence containing about 0.90% of carbon. Slowly cooled steel
+  containing just 0.90% of carbon (S in fig. 1) consists of pearlite
+  alone. Steel and white cast iron with more than this quantity of
+  carbon consist typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
+  envelopes of free cementite (see ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 13) sufficient in
+  quantity to represent their excess of carbon over the eutectoid ratio;
+  they arc called "hyper-eutectoid," and are represented by region 8 of
+  Fig. 1. Steel containing less than this quantity of carbon consists
+  typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite
+  (see ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 12) sufficient in quantity to represent their
+  excess of iron over this eutectoid ratio; is called "hypo-eutectoid";
+  and is represented by region 6 of Fig. 1. This typical "envelope and
+  kernel" structure is often only rudimentary.
+
+  The percentage of pearlite and of free ferrite or cementite in these
+  products is shown in fig. 2, in which the ordinates of the line ABC
+  represent the percentage of pearlite corresponding to each percentage
+  of carbon, and the intercept ED, MN or KF, of any point H, P or L,
+  measures the percentage of the excess of ferrite or cementite for
+  hypo- and hyper-eutectic steel and white cast iron respectively.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Relation between the carbon-content and the
+  percentage of the several constituents of slowly cooled steel and
+  white cast iron.]
+
+  18. _The Carbon-Content, i.e. the Ratio of Ferrite to Cementite, of
+  certain typical Steels._--Fig. 3 shows how, as the carbon-content
+  rises from 0 to 4.5%, the percentage of the glass-hard cementite,
+  which is 15 times that of the carbon itself, rises, and that of the
+  soft copper-like ferrite falls, with consequent continuous increase of
+  hardness and loss of malleableness and ductility. The tenacity or
+  tensile strength increases till the carbon-content reaches about
+  1.25%, and the cementite about 19%, and then in turn falls, a result
+  by no means surprising. The presence of a small quantity of the hard
+  cementite ought naturally to strengthen the mass, by opposing the
+  tendency of the soft ferrite to flow under any stress applied to it;
+  but more cementite by its brittleness naturally weakens the mass,
+  causing it to crack open under the distortion which stress inevitably
+  causes. The fact that this decrease of strength begins shortly after
+  the carbon-content rises above the eutectoid or pearlite ratio of
+  0.90% is natural, because the brittleness of the cementite which, in
+  hyper-eutectoid steels, forms a more or less continuous skeleton
+  (ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 13) should be much more effective in starting
+  cracks under distortion than that of the far more minute particles of
+  cementite which lie embedded, indeed drowned, in the sixfold greater
+  mass of ferrite with which they are associated in the pearlite itself.
+  The large massive plates of cementite which form the network or
+  skeleton in hyper-eutectoid steels should, under distortion, naturally
+  tend to cut, in the softer pearlite, chasms too serious to be healed
+  by the inflowing of the plastic ferrite, though this ferrite flows
+  around and immediately heals over any cracks which form in the small
+  quantity of cementite interstratified with it in the pearlite of
+  hypo-eutectoid steels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Physical properties and assumed microscopic
+  constitution of the pearlite series, graphiteless steel slowly cooled
+  and white cast iron. By "total ferrite" is meant both that which forms
+  part of the pearlite and that which is in excess of the pearlite,
+  taken jointly. So with the "total cementite."]
+
+  As the carbon-content increases the welding power naturally decreases
+  rapidly, because of the rapid fall of the "solidus curve" at which
+  solidification is complete (Aa of fig. 1), and hence of the range in
+  which the steel is coherent enough to be manipulated, and, finally, of
+  the attainable pliancy and softness of the metal. Clearly the mushy
+  mixture of solid austenite and molten iron of which the metal in
+  region 2 consists cannot cohere under either the blows or the pressure
+  by means of which welding must be done. Rivet steel, which above all
+  needs extreme ductility to endure the distortion of being driven home,
+  and tube steel which must needs weld easily, no matter at what
+  sacrifice of strength, are made as free from carbon, i.e. of as nearly
+  pure ferrite, as is practicable. The distortion which rails undergo in
+  manufacture and use is incomparably less than that to which rivets are
+  subjected, and thus rail steel may safely be much richer in carbon and
+  hence in cementite, and therefore much stronger and harder, so as to
+  better endure the load and the abrasion of the passing wheels. Indeed,
+  its carbon-content is made small quite as much because of the violence
+  of the shocks from these wheels as because of any actual distortion to
+  be expected, since, within limits, as the carbon-content increases
+  the shock-resisting power decreases. Here, as in all cases, the
+  carbon-content must be the result of a compromise, neither so small
+  that the rail flattens and wears out like lead, nor so great that it
+  snaps like glass. Boiler plates undergo in shaping and assembling an
+  intermediate degree of distortion, and therefore they must be given an
+  intermediate carbon-content, following the general rule that the
+  carbon-content and hence the strength should be as great as is
+  consistent with retaining the degree of ductility and the
+  shock-resisting power which the object will need in actual use. Thus
+  the typical carbon-content may be taken as about 0.05% for rivets and
+  tubes, 0.20% for boiler plates, and 0.50 to 0.75% for rails, implying
+  the presence of 0.75% of cementite in the first two, 3% in the third
+  and 7.5% to 11.25% in the last.
+
+  19. _Carbon-Content of Hardened Steels._--Turning from these cases in
+  which the steel is used in the slowly cooled state, so that it is a
+  mixture of pearlite with ferrite or cementite, i.e. is pearlitic, to
+  those in which it is used in the hardened or martensitic state, we
+  find that the carbon-content is governed by like considerations.
+  Railway car springs, which are exposed to great shock, have typically
+  about 0.75% of carbon; common tool steel, which is exposed to less
+  severe shock, has usually between 0.75 and 1.25%; file steel, which is
+  subject to but little shock, and has little demanded of it but to bite
+  hard and stay hard, has usually from 1.25 to 1.50%. The carbon-content
+  of steel is rarely greater than this, lest the brittleness be
+  excessive. But beyond this are the very useful, because very fusible,
+  cast irons with from 3 to 4% of carbon, the embrittling effect of
+  which is much lessened by its being in the state of graphite.
+
+  20. _Slag or Cinder_, a characteristic component of wrought iron,
+  which usually contains from 0.20 to 2.00% of it, is essentially a
+  silicate of iron (ferrous silicate), and is present in wrought iron
+  simply because this product is made by welding together pasty granules
+  of iron in a molten bath of such slag, without ever melting the
+  resultant mass or otherwise giving the envelopes of slag thus
+  imprisoned a chance to escape completely.
+
+  21. _Graphite_, nearly pure carbon, is characteristic of "gray cast
+  iron," in which it exists as a nearly continuous skeleton of very thin
+  laminated plates or flakes (fig. 27), usually curved, and forming from
+  2.50% to 3.50% of the whole. As these flakes readily split open, when
+  a piece of this iron is broken rupture passes through them, with the
+  result that, even though the graphite may form only some 3% of the
+  mass by weight (say 10% by volume), practically nothing but graphite
+  is seen in the fracture. Hence the weakness and the dark-grey fracture
+  of this iron, and hence, by brushing this fracture with a wire brush
+  and so detaching these loosely clinging flakes of graphite, the colour
+  can be changed nearly to the very light-grey of pure iron. There is
+  rarely any important quantity of graphite in commercial steels. (See §
+  26.)
+
+  22. _Further Illustration of the Iron-Carbon Diagram._--In order to
+  illustrate further the meaning of the diagram (fig. 1), let us follow
+  by means of the ordinate QUw the undisturbed slow cooling of molten
+  hyper-eutectoid steel containing 1% of carbon, for simplicity assuming
+  that no graphite forms and that the several transformations occur
+  promptly as they fall due. When the gradually falling temperature
+  reaches 1430° (q), the mass begins to freeze as [gamma]-iron or
+  austenite, called "primary" to distinguish it from that which forms
+  part of the eutectic. But the freezing, instead of completing itself
+  at a fixed temperature as that of pure water does, continues until the
+  temperature sinks to r on the line Aa. Thus the iron has rather a
+  freezing-range than a freezing-point. Moreover, the freezing is
+  "selective." The first particles of austenite to freeze contain about
+  0.33% of carbon (p). As freezing progresses, at each successive
+  temperature reached the frozen austenite has the carbon-content of the
+  point on Aa which that temperature abscissa cuts, and the still molten
+  part or "mother-metal" has the carbon-content horizontally opposite
+  this on the line AB. In other words, the composition of the frozen
+  part and that of the mother-metal respectively are p and q at the
+  beginning of the freezing, and r and t´ at the end; and during
+  freezing they slide along Aa and AB from p to r and from q to t´.
+  This, of course, brings the final composition of the frozen austenite
+  when freezing is complete exactly to that which the molten mass had
+  before freezing began.
+
+  The heat evolved by this process of solidification retards the fall of
+  temperature; but after this the rate of cooling remains regular until
+  T (750°) on the line Sa (Ar3) is reached, when a second retardation
+  occurs, due to the heat liberated by the passage within the pasty mass
+  of part of the iron and carbon from a state of mere solution to that
+  of definite combination in the ratio Fe3C, forming microscopic
+  particles of cementite, while the remainder of the iron and carbon
+  continue dissolved in each other as austenite. This formation of
+  cementite continues as the temperature falls, till at about 690° C.,
+  (U, called Ar_(2-1)) so much of the carbon (in this case about 0.10%)
+  and of the iron have united in the form of cementite, that the
+  composition of the remaining solid-solution or "mother-metal" of
+  austenite has reached that of the eutectoid, hardenite; i.e. it now
+  contains 0.90 % of carbon. The cementite which has thus far been
+  forming may be called "pro-eutectoid" cementite, because it forms
+  before the remaining austenite reaches the eutectoid composition. As
+  the temperature now falls past 690°, this hardenite mother-metal in
+  turn splits up, after the fashion of eutectics, into alternate layers
+  of ferrite and cementite grouped together as pearlite, so that the
+  mass as a whole now becomes a mixture of pearlite with cementite. The
+  iron thus liberated, as the ferrite of this pearlite, changes
+  simultaneously to [alpha]-ferrite. The passage of this large quantity
+  of carbon and iron, 0.90% of the former and 12.6 of the latter, from a
+  state of mere solution as hardenite to one of definite chemical union
+  as cementite, together with the passage of the iron itself from the
+  [gamma] to the [alpha] state, evolves so much heat as actually to heat
+  the mass up so that it brightens in a striking manner. This phenomenon
+  is called the "recalescence."
+
+  This change from austenite to ferrite and cementite, from the [gamma]
+  through the [beta] to the [alpha] state, is of course accompanied by
+  the loss of the "hardening power," i.e. the power of being hardened by
+  sudden cooling, because the essence of this hardening is the retention
+  of the [beta] state. As shown in ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 13, the slowly
+  cooled steel now consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
+  envelopes of the cementite which was born of the austenite in cooling
+  from T to U.
+
+  23. To take a second case, molten hypo-eutectoid steel of 0.20% of
+  carbon on freezing from K to x passes in the like manner to the state
+  of solid austenite, [gamma]-iron with this 0.20% of carbon dissolved
+  in it. Its further cooling undergoes three spontaneous retardations,
+  one at K´ (Ar3 about 820°), at which part of the iron begins to
+  isolate itself within the austenite mother-metal in the form of
+  envelopes of [beta]-ferrite, i.e. of free iron of the [beta]
+  allotropic modification, which surrounds the kernels or grains of the
+  residual still undecomposed part of the austenite. At the second
+  retardation, K´´ (Ar2, about 770°) this ferrite changes to the normal
+  magnetic [alpha]-ferrite, so that the mass as a whole becomes
+  magnetic. Moreover, the envelopes of ferrite which began forming at
+  Ar3 continue to broaden by the accession of more and more ferrite born
+  from the austenite progressively as the temperature sinks, till, by
+  the time when Ar1 (about 690°) is reached, so much free ferrite has
+  been formed that the remaining mother-metal has been enriched to the
+  composition of hardenite, i.e. it now contains 0.90% of carbon. Again,
+  as the temperature in turn falls past Ar1 this hardenite mother-metal
+  splits up into cementite and ferrite grouped together as pearlite,
+  with the resulting recalescence, and the mass, as shown in Alloys,
+  Pl., fig. 12, then consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
+  envelopes of ferrite. All these phenomena are parallel with those of
+  1.00% carbon steel at this same critical point Ar1. As such steel
+  cools slowly past Ar3, Ar2 and Ar1, it loses its hardening power
+  progressively.
+
+  In short, from Ar3 to Ar1 the excess substance ferrite or cementite,
+  in hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels respectively, progressively
+  crystallizes out as a network or skeleton within the austenite
+  mother-metal, which thus progressively approaches the composition of
+  hardenite, reaching it at Ar1, and there splitting up into ferrite and
+  cementite interstratified as pearlite. Further, any ferrite liberated
+  at Ar3 changes there from [gamma] to [beta], and any present at Ar2
+  changes from [beta] to [alpha]. Between H and S, Ar3 and Ar2 occur
+  together, as do Ar2 and Ar1 between S and P´ and Ar3, Ar2 and Ar1 at S
+  itself; so that these critical points in these special cases are
+  called Ar_(3-2), Ar_(2-1) and Ar_(3-2-1) respectively. The
+  corresponding critical points which occur during rise of temperature,
+  with the reverse transformations, are called Ac1, Ac2, Ac3, &c. A
+  (Tschernoff) is the generic name, r refers to falling temperature
+  (_refroidissant_) and c to rising temperature (_chauffant_, Osmond).
+
+  24. The freezing of molten cast iron of 2.50% of carbon goes on
+  selectively like that of these steels which we have been studying,
+  till the enrichment of the molten mother-metal in carbon brings its
+  carbon-contents to B, 4.30%, the eutectic[3] carbon-content, i.e. that
+  of the greatest fusibility or lowest melting-point. At this point
+  selection ceases; the remaining molten metal freezes as a whole, and
+  in freezing splits up into a conglomerate eutectic of (1) austenite of
+  about 2.2 % of carbon, and therefore saturated with that element, and
+  (2) cementite; and with this eutectic is mixed the "primary" austenite
+  which froze out as the temperature sank from v to v´. The white-hot,
+  solid, but soft mass is now a conglomerate of (1) "primary" austenite,
+  (2) "eutectic" austenite and (3) "eutectic" cementite. As the
+  temperature sinks still farther, pro-eutectoid cementite (see § 22)
+  forms progressively in the austenite both primary and eutectic, and
+  this pro-eutectoid cementite as it comes into existence tends to
+  assemble in the form of a network enveloping the kernels or grains of
+  the austenite from which it springs. The reason for its birth, of
+  course, is that the solubility of carbon in austenite progressively
+  decreases as the temperature falls, from about 2.2% at 1130° (a), to
+  0.90% at 690° (Ar1), as shown by the line aS, with the consequence
+  that the austenite keeps rejecting in the form of this pro-eutectoid
+  cementite all carbon in excess of its saturation-point for the
+  existing temperature. Here the mass consists of (1) primary austenite,
+  (2) eutectic austenite and cementite interstratified and (3)
+  pro-eutectoid cementite.
+
+  This formation of cementite through the rejection of carbon by both
+  the primary and the eutectic austenite continues quite as in the case
+  of 1.00% carbon steel, with impoverishment of the austenite to the
+  hardenite or eutectoid ratio, and the splitting up of that hardenite
+  into pearlite at Ar1, so that the mass when cold finally consists of
+  (1) the primary austenite now split up into kernels of pearlite
+  surrounded by envelopes of pro-eutectoid cementite, (2) the eutectic
+  of cementite plus austenite, the latter of which has in like manner
+  split up into a mixture of pearlite plus cementite. Such a mass is
+  shown in fig. 4. Here the black bat-like patches are the masses of
+  pearlite plus pro-eutectoid cementite resulting from the splitting up
+  of the primary austenite. The magnification is too small to show the
+  zebra striping of the pearlite. In the black-and-white ground mass the
+  white is the eutectic cementite, and the black the eutectic austenite,
+  now split up into pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, which cannot
+  here be distinguished from each other.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The constitution of hypo-eutectic white or
+  cementitiferous cast iron (washed metal), W. Campbell. The black
+  bat-like areas are the primary austenite, the zebra-marked ground mass
+  the eutectic, composed of white stripes of cementite and black stripes
+  of austenite. Both the primary and eutectic austenite have changed in
+  cooling into a mixture of pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, too
+  fine to be distinguished here.]
+
+  25. As we pass to cases with higher and higher carbon-content, the
+  primary austenite which freezes in cooling across region 2 forms a
+  smaller and smaller proportion of the whole, and the
+  austenite-cementite eutectic which forms at the eutectic
+  freezing-point, 1130° (aB), increases in amount until, when the
+  carbon-content reaches the eutectic ratio, 4.30%, there is but a
+  single freezing-point, and the whole mass when solid is made up of
+  this eutectic. If there is more than 4.30% of carbon, then in cooling
+  through region 3 the excess of carbon over this ratio freezes out as
+  "primary" cementite. But in any event the changes which have just been
+  described for cast iron of 2.50% of carbon occur in crossing region 7,
+  and at Ar1 (PSP´).
+
+  Just as variations in the carbon-content shift the temperature of the
+  freezing-range and of the various critical points, so do variations in
+  the content of other elements, notably silicon, phosphorus, manganese,
+  chromium, nickel and tungsten. Nickel and manganese lower these
+  critical points, so that with 25% of nickel Ar3 lies below the common
+  temperature 20° C. With 13% of manganese Ar3 is very low, and the
+  austenite decomposes so slowly that it is preserved practically intact
+  by sudden cooling. These steels then normally consist of [gamma]-iron,
+  modified by the large amount of nickel or manganese with which it is
+  alloyed. They are non-magnetic or very feebly magnetic. But the
+  critical points of such nickel steel though thus depressed, are not
+  destroyed; and if it is cooled in liquid air below its Ar2, it passes
+  to the [alpha] state and becomes magnetic.
+
+  26. _Double Nature of the Carbon-Iron Diagram._--The part played by
+  graphite in the constitution of the iron-carbon compounds, hitherto
+  ignored for simplicity, is shown in fig. 5. Looking at the matter in a
+  broad way, in all these carbon-iron alloys, both steel and cast irons,
+  part of the carbon may be dissolved in the iron, usually as austenite,
+  e.g. in regions 2, 4, 5 and 7 of Fig. 1; the rest, i.e. the carbon
+  which is not dissolved, or the "undissolved carbon," forms either the
+  definite carbide, cementite, Fe3C, or else exists in the free state as
+  graphite. Now, just as fig. 1 shows the constitution of these
+  iron-carbon alloys for all temperatures and all percentages of carbon
+  when the undissolved carbon exists as cementite, so there should be a
+  diagram showing this constitution when all the undissolved carbon
+  exists as graphite. In short, there are two distinct carbon-iron
+  diagrams, the iron-cementite one shown in fig. 1 and studied at length
+  in §§ 22 to 25, and the iron-graphite one shown in fig. 5 in unbroken
+  lines, with the iron-cementite diagram reproduced in broken lines for
+  comparison. What here follows represents our present rather
+  ill-established theory. These two diagrams naturally have much the
+  same general shape, but though the boundaries of the several regions
+  in the iron-cementite diagram are known pretty accurately, and though
+  the relative positions of the boundaries of the two diagrams are
+  probably about as here shown, the exact topography of the
+  iron-graphite diagram is not yet known. In it the normal constituents
+  are, for region II., molten metal + primary austenite; for region
+  III., molten metal + primary graphite; for region IV., primary
+  austenite; for region VII., eutectic austenite, eutectic graphite, and
+  a quantity of pro-eutectoid graphite which increases as we pass from
+  the upper to the lower part of the region, together with primary
+  austenite at the left of the eutectic point B´ and primary graphite at
+  the right of that point. Thus when iron containing 2.50% of carbon (v.
+  fig. 1) solidifies, its carbon may form cementite following the
+  cementite-austenite diagram so that white, i.e. cementitiferous, cast
+  iron results; or graphite, following the graphite-austenite diagram,
+  so that ultra-grey, i.e. typical graphitic cast iron results; or, as
+  usually happens, certain molecules may follow one diagram while the
+  rest follow the other diagram, so that cast iron which has both
+  cementite and graphite results, as in most commercial grey cast iron,
+  and typically in "mottled cast iron," in which there are distinct
+  patches of grey and others of white cast iron.
+
+  Though carbon passes far more readily under most conditions into the
+  state of cementite than into that of graphite, yet of the two graphite
+  is the more stable and cementite the less stable, or the "metastable"
+  form. Thus cementite is always tending to change over into graphite by
+  the reaction Fe3C = 3Fe + Gr, though this tendency is often held in
+  check by different causes; but graphite never changes back directly
+  into cementite, at least according to our present theory. The fact
+  that graphite may dissolve in the iron as austenite, and that when
+  this latter again breaks up it is more likely to yield cementite than
+  graphite, is only an apparent and not a real exception to this law of
+  the greater stability of graphite than of cementite.
+
+  Slow cooling, slow solidification, the presence of an abundance of
+  carbon, and the presence of silicon, all favour the formation of
+  graphite; rapid cooling, the presence of sulphur, and in most cases
+  that of manganese, favour the formation of cementite. For instance,
+  though in cast iron, which is rich in carbon, that carbon passes
+  comparatively easily into the state of graphite, yet in steel, which
+  contains much less carbon, but little graphite forms under most
+  conditions. Indeed, in the common structural steels which contain only
+  very little carbon, hardly any of that carbon exists as graphite.
+
+  27. _Thermal Treatment._--The hardening, tempering and annealing of
+  steel, the chilling and annealing of cast iron, and the annealing of
+  malleable cast iron are explained readily by the facts just set forth.
+
+  28. _The hardening of steel_ consists in first transforming it into
+  austenite by heating it up into region 4 of fig. 1, and then quenching
+  it, usually in cold water, so as to cool it very suddenly, and thus to
+  deny the time which the complete transformation of the austenite into
+  ferrite and cementite requires, and thereby to catch much of the iron
+  in transit in the hard brittle [beta] state. In the cold this
+  transformation cannot take place, because of molecular rigidity or
+  some other impediment. The suddenly cooled metal is hard and brittle,
+  because the cold [beta]-iron which it contains is hard and brittle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Graphite-austenite or stable carbon-iron,
+  diagram.]
+
+  The degree of hardening which the steel undergoes increases with its
+  carbon-content, chiefly because, during sudden cooling, the presence
+  of carbon acts like a brake to impede the transformations, and thus to
+  increase the quantity of [beta]-iron caught in transit, but probably
+  also in part because the hardness of this [beta]-iron increases with
+  its carbon-content. Thus, though sudden cooling has very little effect
+  on steel of 0.10% of carbon, it changes that of 1.50% from a somewhat
+  ductile body to one harder and more brittle than glass.
+
+  29. _The Tempering and Annealing of Steel._--But this sudden cooling
+  goes too far, preserving so much [beta]-iron as to make the steel too
+  brittle for most purposes. This brittleness has therefore in general
+  to be mitigated or "tempered," unfortunately at the cost of losing
+  part of the hardness proper, by reheating the hardened steel slightly,
+  usually to between 200° and 300° C., so as to relax the molecular
+  rigidity and thereby to allow the arrested transformation to go on a
+  little farther, shifting a little of the [beta]-iron over into the
+  [alpha] state. The higher the tempering-temperature, i.e. that to
+  which the hardened steel is thus reheated, the more is the molecular
+  rigidity relaxed, the farther on does the transformation go, and the
+  softer does the steel become; so that, if the reheating reaches a
+  dull-red heat, the transformation from austenite into ferrite and
+  cementite completes itself slowly, and when now cooled the steel is as
+  soft and ductile as if it had never been hardened. It is now said to
+  be "annealed."
+
+  30. _Chilling cast iron_, i.e. hastening its cooling by casting it in
+  a cool mould, favours the formation of cementite rather than of
+  graphite in the freezing of the eutectic at aBc, and also, in case of
+  hyper-eutectic iron, in the passage through region 3. Like the
+  hardening of steel, it hinders the transformation of the austenite,
+  whether primary or eutectic, into pearlite + cementite, and thus
+  catches part of the iron in transit in the hard [beta] state. The
+  annealing of such iron may occur in either of two degrees--a small
+  one, as in making common chilled cast iron objects, such as railway
+  car wheels, or a great one, as in making malleable cast iron. In the
+  former case, the objects are heated only to the neighbourhood of Ac1,
+  say to 730° C., so that the [beta]-iron may slip into the a state, and
+  the transformation of the austenite into pearlite and cementite may
+  complete itself. The joint effect of such chilling and such annealing
+  is to make the metal much harder than if slowly cooled, because for
+  each 1% of graphite which the chilling suppresses, 15% of the
+  glass-hard cementite is substituted. Thus a cast iron which, if cooled
+  slowly, would have been "grey," i.e. would have consisted chiefly of
+  graphite with pearlite and ferrite (which are all relatively soft
+  bodies), if thus chilled and annealed consists of cementite and
+  pearlite. But in most such cases, in spite of the annealing, this
+  hardness is accompanied by a degree of brittleness too great for most
+  purposes. The process therefore is so managed that only the outer
+  shell of the casting is chilled, and that the interior remains
+  graphitic, i.e. grey cast iron, soft and relatively malleable.
+
+  31. In making _malleable castings_ the annealing, i.e. the change
+  towards the stable state of ferrite + graphite, is carried much
+  farther by means of a much longer and usually a higher heating than in
+  the manufacture of chilled castings. The castings, initially of white
+  cast iron, are heated for about a week, to a temperature usually above
+  730° C. and often reaching 900° C. (1346° and 1652° F.). For about 60
+  hours the heat is held at its highest point, from which it descends
+  extremely slowly. The molecular freedom which this high temperature
+  gives enables the cementite to change gradually into a mixture of
+  graphite and austenite with the result that, after the castings have
+  been cooled and their austenite has in cooling past Ac1 changed into
+  pearlite and ferrite, the mixture of cementite and pearlite of which
+  they originally consisted has now given place to one of fine or
+  "temper" graphite and ferrite, with more or less pearlite according to
+  the completeness of the transfer of the carbon to the state of
+  graphite.
+
+  Why, then, is this material malleable, though the common grey cast
+  iron, which is made up of about the same constituents and often in
+  about the same proportion, is brittle? The reason is that the
+  particles of temper graphite which are thus formed within the solid
+  casting in its long annealing are so finely divided that they do not
+  break up the continuity of the mass in a very harmful way; whereas in
+  grey cast iron both the eutectic graphite formed in solidifying, and
+  also the primary graphite which, in case the metal is hyper-eutectic,
+  forms in cooling through region 3 of fig. 1, surrounded as it is by
+  the still molten mother-metal out of which it is growing, form a
+  nearly continuous skeleton of very large flakes, which do break up in
+  a most harmful way the continuity of the mass of cast iron in which
+  they are embedded.
+
+  In carrying out this process the castings are packed in a mass of iron
+  oxide, which at this temperature gradually removes the fine or
+  "temper" graphite by oxidizing that in the outer crust to carbonic
+  oxide, whereon the carbon farther in begins diffusing outwards by
+  "molecular migration," to be itself oxidized on reaching the crust.
+  This removal of graphite doubtless further stimulates the formation of
+  graphite, by relieving the mechanical and perhaps the osmotic
+  pressure. Thus, first, for the brittle glass-hard cementite there is
+  gradually substituted the relatively harmless temper graphite; and,
+  second, even this is in part removed by surface oxidation.
+
+  32. _Fineness of Structure._--Each of these ancient processes thus
+  consists essentially in so manipulating the temperature that, out of
+  the several possible constituents, the metal shall actually consist of
+  a special set in special proportions. But in addition there is another
+  very important principle underlying many of our thermal processes,
+  viz. that the state of aggregation of certain of these constituents,
+  and through it the properties of the metal as a whole, are profoundly
+  affected by temperature manipulations. Thus, prior exposure to a
+  temperature materially above Ac3 coarsens the structure of most steel,
+  in the sense of giving it when cold a coarse fracture, and enlarging
+  the grains of pearlite, &c., later found in the slowly cooled metal.
+  This coarsening and the brittleness which accompanies it increase with
+  the temperature to which the metal has been exposed. Steel which after
+  a slow cooling from about 722° C. will bend 166° before breaking,
+  will, after slow cooling from about 1050° C., bend only 18° before
+  breaking. This injury fortunately can be cured either by _reheating_
+  the steel to Ac3 when it "refines," i.e. returns spontaneously to its
+  fine-grained ductile state (_cooling_ past Ar3 does not have this
+  effect); or by breaking up the coarse grains by _mechanical
+  distortion_, e.g. by forging or rolling. For instance, if steel has
+  been coarsened by heating to 1400° C., and if, when it has cooled to a
+  lower temperature, say 850° C. we forge it, its grain-size and
+  ductility when cold will be approximately those which it would have
+  had if heated only to 850°. Hence steel which has been heated very
+  highly, whether for welding, or for greatly softening it so that it
+  can be rolled to the desired shape with but little expenditure of
+  power, ought later to be refined, either by reheating it from below
+  Ar3 to slightly above Ac3 or by rolling it after it has cooled to a
+  relatively low temperature, i.e. by having a low "finishing
+  temperature." Steel castings have initially the extremely coarse
+  structure due to cooling without mechanical distortion from their very
+  high temperature of solidification; they are "annealed," i.e. this
+  coarseness and the consequent brittleness are removed, by reheating
+  them much above Ac3, which also relieves the internal stresses due to
+  the different rates at which different layers cool, and hence
+  contract, during and after solidification. For steel containing less
+  than about 0.13% of carbon, the embrittling temperature is in a
+  different range, near 700° C., and such steel refines at temperatures
+  above 900° C.
+
+33. _The Possibilities of Thermal Treatment._--When we consider the
+great number of different regions in fig. 1, each with its own set of
+constitutents, and remember that by different rates of cooling from
+different temperatures we can retain in the cold metal these different
+sets of constituents in widely varying proportions; and when we further
+reflect that not only the proportion of each constituent present but
+also its state of aggregation can be controlled by thermal treatment, we
+see how vast a field is here opened, how great a variety of different
+properties can be induced in any individual piece of steel, how enormous
+the variety of properties thus attainable in the different varieties
+collectively, especially since for each percentage of carbon an
+incalculable number of varieties of steel may be made by alloying it
+with different proportions of such elements as nickel, chromium, &c. As
+yet there has been only the roughest survey of certain limited areas in
+this great field, the further exploration of which will enormously
+increase the usefulness of this wonderful metal.
+
+34. _Alloy steels_ have come into extensive use for important special
+purposes, and a very great increase of their use is to be expected. The
+chief ones are nickel steel, manganese steel, chrome steel and
+chrome-tungsten steel. The general order of merit of a given variety or
+specimen of iron or steel may be measured by the degree to which it
+combines strength and hardness with ductility. These two classes of
+properties tend to exclude each other, for, as a general rule, whatever
+tends to make iron and steel hard and strong tends to make it
+correspondingly brittle, and hence liable to break treacherously,
+especially under shock. Manganese steel and nickel steel form an
+important exception to this rule, in being at once very strong and hard
+and extremely ductile. _Nickel steel_, which usually contains from 3 to
+3.50% of nickel and about 0.25% of carbon, combines very great tensile
+strength and hardness, and a very high limit of elasticity, with great
+ductility. Its combination of ductility with strength and hardening
+power has given it very extended use for the armour of war-vessels. For
+instance, following Krupp's formula, the side and barbette armour of
+war-vessels is now generally if not universally made of nickel steel
+containing about 3.25% of nickel, 0.40% of carbon, and 1.50% of
+chromium, deeply carburized on its impact face. Here the merit of nickel
+steel is not so much that it resists perforation, as that it does not
+crack even when deeply penetrated by a projectile. The combination of
+ductility, which lessens the tendency to break when overstrained or
+distorted, with a very high limit of elasticity, gives it great value
+for shafting, the merit of which is measured by its endurance of the
+repeated stresses to which its rotation exposes it whenever its
+alignment is not mathematically straight. The alignment of marine
+shafting, changing with every passing wave, is an extreme example. Such
+an intermittently applied stress is far more destructive to iron than a
+continuous one, and even if it is only half that of the limit of
+elasticity, its indefinite repetition eventually causes rupture. In a
+direct competitive test the presence of 3.25% of nickel increased nearly
+sixfold the number of rotations which a steel shaft would endure before
+breaking.
+
+35. As actually made, _manganese steel_ contains about 12% of manganese
+and 1.50% of carbon. Although the presence of 1.50% of manganese makes
+steel relatively brittle, and although a further addition at first
+increases this brittleness, so that steel containing between 4 and 5.5%
+can be pulverized under the hammer, yet a still further increase gives
+very great ductility, accompanied by great hardness--a combination of
+properties which was not possessed by any other known substance when
+this remarkable alloy, known as Hadfield's manganese steel, was
+discovered. Its ductility, to which it owes its value, is profoundly
+affected by the rate of cooling. Sudden cooling makes the metal
+extremely ductile, and slow cooling makes it brittle. Its behaviour in
+this respect is thus the opposite of that of carbon steel. But its great
+hardness is not materially affected by the rate of cooling. It is used
+extensively for objects which require both hardness and ductility, such
+as rock-crushing machinery, railway crossings, mine-car wheels and
+safes. The burglar's blow-pipe locally "draws the temper," i.e. softens
+a spot on a hardened carbon steel or chrome steel safe by simply heating
+it, so that as soon as it has again cooled he can drill through it and
+introduce his charge of dynamite. But neither this nor any other
+procedure softens manganese steel rapidly. Yet this very fact that it is
+unalterably hard has limited its use, because of the great difficulty of
+cutting it to shape, which has in general to be done with emery wheels
+instead of the usual iron-cutting tools. Another defect is its
+relatively low elastic limit.
+
+36. _Chrome steel_, which usually contains about 2% of chromium and 0.80
+to 2% of carbon, owes its value to combining, when in the "hardened" or
+suddenly cooled state, intense hardness with a high elastic limit, so
+that it is neither deformed permanently nor cracked by extremely violent
+shocks. For this reason it is the material generally if not always used
+for armour-piercing projectiles. It is much used also for certain
+rock-crushing machinery (the shoes and dies of stamp-mills) and for
+safes. These are made of alternate layers of soft wrought iron and
+chrome steel hardened by sudden cooling. The hardness of the hardened
+chrome steel resists the burglar's drill, and the ductility of the
+wrought iron the blows of his sledge.
+
+Vanadium in small quantities, 0.15 or 0.20%, is said to improve steel
+greatly, especially in increasing its resistance to shock and to
+often-repeated stress. But the improvement may be due wholly to the
+considerable chromium content of these so-called vanadium steels.
+
+37. _Tungsten steel_, which usually contains from 5 to 10% of tungsten
+and from 1 to 2% of carbon, is used for magnets, because of its great
+retentivity.
+
+38. _Chrome-tungsten or High-speed Steel._--Steel with a large content
+of both chromium and tungsten has the very valuable property of
+"red-hardness," i.e. of retaining its hardness and hence its power of
+cutting iron and other hard substances, even when it is heated to dull
+redness, say 600° C. (1112° F.) by the friction of the work which it is
+doing. Hence a machinist can cut steel or iron nearly six times as fast
+with a lathe tool of this steel as with one of carbon steel, because
+with the latter the cutting speed must be so slow that the cutting tool
+is not heated by the friction above say 250° C. (482° F.), lest it be
+unduly softened or "tempered" (§ 29). This effect of chromium, tungsten
+and carbon jointly consists essentially in raising the "tempering
+temperature," i.e. that to which the metal, in which by suitable thermal
+treatment the iron molecules have been brought to the allotropic [gamma]
+or [beta] state or a mixture of both, can be heated without losing its
+hardness through the escape of that iron into the [alpha] state. In
+short, these elements seem to impede the allotropic change of the iron
+itself. The composition of this steel is as follows:--
+
+               The usual limits.   Apparently the best.
+  Carbon        0.32 to  1.28         0.68 to  0.67
+  Manganese     0.03  "  0.30         0.07  "  0.11
+  Chromium      2.23  "  7.02         5.95  "  5.47
+  Tungsten      9.25  " 25.45        17.81  " 18.19
+
+39. _Impurities._--The properties of iron and steel, like those of most
+of the metals, are profoundly influenced by the presence of small and
+sometimes extremely small quantities of certain impurities, of which the
+most important are phosphorus and sulphur, the former derived chiefly
+from apatite (phosphate of lime) and other minerals which accompany the
+iron ore itself, the latter from the pyrite found not only in most iron
+ores but in nearly all coal and coke. All commercial iron and steel
+contain more or less of both these impurities, the influence of which is
+so strong that a variation of 0.01%, i.e. of one part in 10,000, of
+either of them has a noticeable effect. The best tool steel should not
+contain more than 0.02% of either, and in careful practice it is often
+specified that the phosphorus and sulphur respectively shall not exceed
+0.04 and 0.05% in the steel for important bridges, or 0.06 and 0.07% in
+rail steel, though some very prudent engineers allow as much as .085% or
+even 0.10% of phosphorus in rails.
+
+40. The specific effect of _phosphorus_ is to make the metal cold-short,
+i.e. brittle in the cold, apparently because it increases the size and
+the sharpness of demarcation of the crystalline grains of which the mass
+is made up. The specific effect of _sulphur_ is to make the metal
+red-short, i.e. brittle, when at a red heat, by forming a network of
+iron sulphide which encases these crystalline grains and thus plays the
+part of a weak link in a strong chain.
+
+41. _Oxygen_, probably dissolved in the iron as ferrous oxide FeO, also
+makes the metal red-short.
+
+42. _Manganese_ by itself rather lessens than increases the
+malleableness and, indeed, the general merit of the metal, but it is
+added intentionally, in quantities even as large as 1.5% to palliate the
+effects of sulphur and oxygen. With sulphur it forms a sulphide which
+draws together into almost harmless drops, instead of encasing the
+grains of iron. With oxygen it probably forms manganous oxide, which is
+less harmful than ferrous oxide. (See § 35.)
+
+43. _Ores of Iron._--Even though the earth seems to be a huge iron
+meteor with but a thin covering of rocks, the exasperating proneness of
+iron to oxidize explains readily why this metal is only rarely found
+native, except in the form of meteorites. They are four important iron
+ores, magnetite, haematite, limonite and siderite, and one of less but
+still considerable importance, pyrite or pyrites.
+
+  44. _Magnetite_, Fe3O4, contains 72.41% of iron. It crystallizes in
+  the cubical system, often in beautiful octahedra and rhombic
+  dodecahedra. It is black with a black streak. Its specific gravity is
+  5.2, and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5. It is very magnetic, and sometimes
+  polar.
+
+  45. _Haematite_, or red haematite, Fe2O3, contains 70% of iron. It
+  crystallizes in the rhombohedral system. Its colour varies from
+  brilliant bluish-grey to deep red. Its streak is always red. Its
+  specific gravity is 5.3 and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5.
+
+  46. _Limonite_, 2Fe2O3, 3H2O, contains 59.9% of iron. Its colour
+  varies from light brown to black. Its streak is yellowish-black, its
+  specific gravity 3.6 to 4.0, and its hardness 5 to 5.5. Limonite and
+  the related minerals, turgite, 2Fe2O3 + H2O, and göthite, Fe2O3 + H2O,
+  are grouped together under the term "brown haematite."
+
+  47. _Siderite_, or spathic iron ore, FeCO3, crystallizes in the
+  rhombohedral system and contains 48.28% of iron. Its colour varies
+  from yellowish-brown to grey. Its specific gravity is 3.7 to 3.9, and
+  its hardness 3.5 to 4.5. The clayey siderite of the British coal
+  measures is called "clay band," and that containing bituminous matter
+  is called "black band."
+
+  48. _Pyrite_, FeS2, contains 46.7% of iron. It crystallizes in the
+  cubic system, usually in cubes, pentagonal dodecahedra or octahedra,
+  often of great beauty and perfection. It is golden-yellow, with a
+  greenish or brownish-black streak. Its specific gravity is 4.83 to
+  5.2, its hardness 6 to 6.5. Though it contains far too much sulphur to
+  be used in iron manufacture without first being desulphurized, yet
+  great quantities of slightly cupriferous pyrite, after yielding nearly
+  all their sulphur in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and most of
+  the remainder in the wet extraction of their copper, are then used
+  under the name of "blue billy" or "purple ore," as an ore of iron, a
+  use which is likely to increase greatly in importance with the gradual
+  exhaustion of the richest deposits of the oxidized ores.
+
+49. _The Ores actually Impure._--As these five minerals actually exist
+in the earth's crust they are usually more or less impure chemically,
+and they are almost always mechanically mixed with barren mineral
+matter, such as quartz, limestone and clay, collectively called "the
+gangue." In some cases the iron-bearing mineral, such as magnetite or
+haematite, can be separated from the gangue after crashing, either
+mechanically or magnetically, so that the part thus enriched or
+"concentrated" alone need be smelted.
+
+50. _Geological Age._--The Archaean crystalline rocks abound in deposits
+of magnetite and red haematite, many of them very large and rich. These
+of course are the oldest of our ores, and from deposits of like age,
+especially those of the more readily decomposed silicates, has come the
+iron which now exists in the siderites and red and brown haematites of
+the later geological formations.
+
+51. _The World's Supply of Iron Ore._--The iron ores of the earth's
+crust will probably suffice to supply our needs for a very long period,
+perhaps indeed for many thousand years. It is true that an official
+statement, which is here reproduced, given in 1905 by Professor
+Tornebohm to the Swedish parliament, credited the world with only
+10,000,000,000 tons of ore, and that, if the consumption of iron should
+continue to increase hereafter as it did between 1893 and 1906, this
+quantity would last only until 1946. How then can it be that there is a
+supply for thousands of years? The two assertions are not to be
+reconciled by pointing out that Professor Tornebohm underestimated, for
+instance crediting the United States with only 1.1 billion tons, whereas
+the United States Geological Survey's expert credits that country with
+from ten to twenty times this quantity; nor by pointing out that only
+certain parts of Europe and a relatively small part of North America
+have thus far been carefully explored for iron ore, and that the rest of
+these two continents and South America, Asia and Africa may reasonably
+be expected to yield very great stores of iron, and that pyrite, one of
+the richest and most abundant of ores, has not been included. Important
+as these considerations are, they are much less important than the fact
+that a very large proportion of the rocks of the earth's crust contain
+more or less iron, and therefore are potential iron ores.
+
+  TABLE II.--_Professor Tornebohm's Estimate of the World's Ore Supply._
+
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |      Country.      |   Workable    |   Annual   |   Annual   |
+  |                    |   Deposits.   |   Output.  |Consumption.|
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |                    |     tons.     |    tons.   |    tons.   |
+  | United States      | 1,100,000,000 | 35,000,000 | 35,000,000 |
+  | Great Britain      | 1,000,000,000 | 14,000,000 | 20,000,000 |
+  | Germany            | 2,200,000,000 | 21,000,000 | 24,000,900 |
+  | Spain              |   500,000,000 |  8,000,000 |  1,000,000 |
+  | Russia and Finland | 1,500,000,000 |  4,000,000 |  6,000,000 |
+  | France             | 1,500,000,000 |  6,000,000 |  8,000,000 |
+  | Sweden             | 1,000,000,000 |  4,000,000 |  1,000,000 |
+  | Austria-Hungary    | 1,200,000,000 |  3,000,000 |  4,000,000 |
+  | Other countries    |               |  5,000,000 |  1,000,000 |
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |   Total            |10,000,000,000 |100,000,000 |100,000,000 |
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+
+  _Note to Table._--Though this estimate seems to be near the truth as
+  regards the British ores, it does not credit the United States with
+  one-tenth, if indeed with one-twentieth, of their true quantity as
+  estimated by that country's Geological Survey in 1907.
+
+52. _What Constitutes an Iron Ore._--Whether a ferruginous rock is or is
+not ore is purely a question of current demand and supply. That is ore
+from which there is reasonable hope that metal can be extracted with
+profit, if not to-day, then within a reasonable length of time. Rock
+containing 2˝% of gold is ah extraordinarily rich gold ore; that with
+2˝% of copper is a profitable one to-day; that containing 2˝% of iron is
+not so to-day, for the sole reason that its iron cannot be extracted
+with profit in competition with the existing richer ores. But it will
+become a profitable ore as soon as the richer ore shall have been
+exhausted. Very few of the ores which, are mined to-day contain less
+than 25% of iron, and some of them contain over 60%. As these richest
+ores are exhausted, poorer and poorer ones will be used, and the cost of
+iron will increase progressively if measured either in units of the
+actual energy used in mining and smelting it, or in its power of
+purchasing animal and vegetable products, cotton, wool, corn, &c., the
+supply of which is renewable and indeed capable of very great increase,
+but probably not if measured in its power of purchasing the various
+mineral products, e.g. the other metals, coal, petroleum and the
+precious stones, of which the supply is limited. This is simply one
+instance of the inevitable progressive increase in cost of the
+irrecreatable mineral relatively to the recreatable animal and
+vegetable. When, in the course of centuries, the exhaustion of richer
+ores shall have forced us to mine, crush and concentrate mechanically or
+by magnetism the ores which contain only 2 or 3% of iron, then the cost
+of iron in the ore, measured in terms of the energy needed to mine and
+concentrate it, will be comparable with the actual cost of the copper in
+the ore of the copper-mines of to-day. But, intermediate in richness
+between these two extremes, the iron ores mined to-day and these 2 and
+3% ores, there is an incalculably great quantity of ore capable of
+mechanical concentration, and another perhaps vaster store of ore which
+we do not yet know how to concentrate mechanically, so that the day when
+a pound of iron in the ore will cost as much as a pound of copper in the
+ore costs to-day is immeasurably distant.
+
+53. _Future Cost of Ore._--The cost of iron ore is likely to rise much
+less rapidly than that of coal, because the additions to our known
+supply are likely to be very much greater in the case of ore than in
+that of coal, for the reason that, while rich and great iron ore beds
+may exist anywhere, those of coal are confined chiefly to the
+Carboniferous formation, a fact which has led to the systematic survey
+and measurement of this formation in most countries. In short, a very
+large part of the earth's coal supply is known and measured, but its
+iron ore supply is hardly to be guessed. On the other hand, the cost of
+iron ore is likely to rise much faster than that of the potential
+aluminium ores, clay and its derivatives, because of the vast extent and
+richness of the deposits of this latter class. It is possible that, at
+some remote day, aluminium, or one of its alloys, may become the great
+structural material, and iron be used chiefly for those objects for
+which it is especially fitted, such as magnets, springs and cutting
+tools.
+
+  In passing, it may be noted that the cost of the ore itself forms a
+  relatively small part of the cost even of the cruder forms of steel,
+  hardly a quarter of the cost of such simple products as rails, and an
+  insignificant part of the cost of many most important finished
+  objects, such as magnets, cutting tools, springs and wire, for which
+  iron is almost indispensable. Thus, if the use of ores very much
+  poorer than those we now treat, and the need of concentrating them
+  mechanically, were to double the cost of a pound of iron in the
+  concentrated ore ready for smelting, that would increase the cost of
+  rails by only one quarter. Hence the addition to the cost of finished
+  steel objects which is due to our being forced to use progressively
+  poorer and poorer ores is likely to be much less than the addition due
+  to the progressive rise in the cost of coal and in the cost of labour,
+  because of the ever-rising scale of living. The effect of each of
+  these additions will be lessened by the future improvements in
+  processes of manufacture, and more particularly by the progressive
+  replacement of that ephemeral source of energy, coal, by the secular
+  sources, the winds, waves, tides, sunshine, the earth's heat and,
+  greatest of all, its momentum.
+
+54. _Ore Supply of the Chief Iron-making Countries._--The United States
+mine nearly all of their iron ores, Austria-Hungary, Russia and France
+mine the greater part of theirs, but none of these countries exports
+much ore. Great Britain and Germany, besides mining a great deal of ore,
+still have to import much from Spain, Sweden and in the case of Germany
+from Luxemburg, although, because of the customs arrangement between
+these last two countries, this importation is not usually reported.
+Belgium imports nearly all of its ore, while Sweden and Spain export
+most of the ore which they mine.
+
+  55. _Great Britain_ has many valuable ore beds, some rich in iron,
+  many of them near to beds of coal and to the sea-coast, to canals or
+  to navigable rivers. They extend from Northamptonshire to near
+  Glasgow. About two-thirds of the ore mined is clayey siderite. In 1905
+  the Cleveland district in North Yorkshire supplied 41% of the total
+  British product of iron ores; Lincolnshire, 14.8%; Northamptonshire,
+  13.9%; Leicestershire, 4.7%; Cumberland, 8.6%; North Lancashire, 2.7%;
+  Staffordshire, 6.1%; and Scotland, 5.7%. The annual production of
+  British iron ore reached 18,031,957 tons in 1882, but in 1905 it had
+  fallen to 14,590,703 tons, valued at Ł3,482,184. In addition
+  7,344,786 tons, or about half as much as was mined in Great Britain,
+  were imported, 78.5% of it from Spain. The most important British ore
+  deposit is the Lower Cleveland bed of oolitic siderite in the Middle
+  Lias, near Middlesborough. It is from 10 to 17 ft. thick, and its ore
+  contains about 30% of iron.
+
+  56. _Geographical Distribution of the British Works._--Most of the
+  British iron works lie in and near the important coal-fields in
+  Scotland between the mouth of the Clyde and the Forth, in Cleveland
+  and Durham, in Cumberland and Lancashire, in south Yorkshire,
+  Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire, in Staffordshire and Northamptonshire,
+  and in south Wales in spite of its lack of ore.
+
+  The most important group is that of Cleveland and Durham, which makes
+  about one-third of all the British pig iron. It has the great
+  Cleveland ore bed and the excellent Durham coal near tidewater at
+  Middlesbrough. The most important seat of the manufacture of cutlery
+  and the finer kinds of steel is at Sheffield.
+
+  57. The _United States_ have great deposits of ore in many different
+  places. The rich beds near Lake Superior, chiefly red haematite,
+  yielding at present about 55% of iron, are thought to contain between
+  1˝ and 2 billion tons, and the red and brown haematites of the
+  southern states about 10 billion tons. The middle states, New York,
+  New Jersey and Pennsylvania, are known to have many great deposits of
+  rich magnetite, which supplied a very large proportion of the American
+  ores till the discovery of the very cheaply mined ores of Lake
+  Superior. In 1906 these latter formed 80% of the American production,
+  and the southern states supplied about 13% of it, while the rich
+  deposits of the middle states are husbanded in accordance with the law
+  that ore bodies are drawn on in the order of their apparent
+  profitableness.
+
+  The most important American iron-making district is in and about
+  Pittsburg, to whose cheap coal the rich Lake Superior ores are brought
+  nearly 1000 m., about four-fifths of the distance in the large ore
+  steamers of the Great Lakes. Chicago, nearer to the Lake ores, though
+  rather far from the Pittsburg coal-field, is a very important centre
+  for rail-making for the railroads of the western states. Ohio, the
+  Lake Erie end of New York State, eastern Pennsylvania and Maryland
+  have very important works, the ore for which comes in part from Lake
+  Superior and in part from Pennsylvania, New York and Cuba, and the
+  fuel from Pennsylvania and its neighbourhood. Tennessee and Alabama in
+  the south rely on southern ore and fuel.
+
+  58. _Germany_ gets about two-thirds of her total ore supply from the
+  great Jurassic "Minette" ore deposit of Luxemburg and Lorraine, which
+  reaches also into France and Belgium. In spite of its containing only
+  about 36% of iron, this deposit is of very great value because of its
+  great size, and of the consequent small cost of mining. It stretches
+  through an area of about 8 m. wide and 40 m. long, and in some places
+  it is nearly 60 ft. thick. There are valuable deposits also in
+  Siegerland and in many other parts of the country.
+
+  59. _Sweden_ has abundant, rich and very pure iron ores, but her lack
+  of coal has restricted her iron manufacture chiefly to the very purest
+  and best classes of iron and steel, in making which her thrifty and
+  intelligent people have developed very rare skill. The magnetite ore
+  bodies which supply this industry lie in a band about 180 m. long,
+  reaching from a little north of Stockholm westerly toward the
+  Norwegian frontier, between the latitudes 59° and 61° N. In Swedish
+  Lapland, near the Arctic circle, are the great Gellivara, Kirunavara
+  and Luossavara magnetite beds, among the largest in Europe. From these
+  beds, which in some parts are about 300 ft. thick, much ore is sent to
+  Germany and Great Britain.
+
+  60. _Other Countries._--Spain has large, rich and pure iron ore beds,
+  near both her northern and her southern sea coast. She exports about
+  90% of all the iron ore which she mines, most of it to England. France
+  draws most of her iron ore from her own part of the great Minette ore
+  deposit, and from those parts of it which were taken from her when she
+  lost Alsace and Lorraine. Russia's most valuable ore deposit is the
+  very large and easily mined one of Krivoi Rog in the south, from which
+  comes about half of the Russian iron ore. It is near the Donetz
+  coal-field, the largest in Europe. There are also important ore beds
+  in the Urals, near the border of Finland, and at the south of Moscow.
+  In Austria-Hungary, besides the famous Styrian Erzberg, with its
+  siderite ore bed about 450 ft. thick, there are cheaply mined but poor
+  and impure ores near Prague, and important ore beds in both northern
+  and southern Hungary. Algeria, Canada, Cuba and India have valuable
+  ore bodies.
+
+  61. _Richness of Iron Ores._--The American ores now mined are
+  decidedly richer than those of most European countries. To make a ton
+  of pig iron needs only about 1.9 tons of ore in the United States, 2
+  tons in Sweden and Russia, 2.4 tons in Great Britain and Germany, and
+  about 2.7 tons in France and Belgium, while about 3 tons of the native
+  British ores are needed per ton of pig iron.
+
+62. _The general scheme of iron manufacture_ is shown diagrammatically
+in fig. 6. To put the iron contained in iron ore into a state in which
+it can be used as a metal requires essentially, first its deoxidation,
+and second its separation from the other mineral matter, such as clay,
+quartz, &c. with which it is found associated. These two things are done
+simultaneously by heating and melting the ore in contact with coke,
+charcoal or anthracite, in the iron blast furnace, from which issue
+intermittently two molten streams, the iron now deoxidized and
+incidentally carburized by the fuel with which it has been in contact,
+and the mineral matter, now called "slag." This crude cast iron, called
+"pig iron," may be run from the blast furnace directly into moulds,
+which give the metal the final shape in which it is to be used in the
+arts; but it is almost always either remelted, following path 1 of fig.
+6, and then cast into castings of cast iron, or converted into wrought
+iron or steel by purifying it, following path 2.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--General Scheme of Iron Manufacture.]
+
+  If it is to follow path 1, the castings into which it is made may be
+  either (a) grey or (b) chilled or (c) malleable. Grey iron castings
+  are made by remelting the pig iron either in a small shaft or "cupola"
+  furnace, or in a reverberatory or "air" furnace, with very little
+  change of chemical composition, and then casting it directly into
+  suitable moulds, usually of either "baked," i.e. oven-dried, or
+  "green," i.e. moist undried, sand, but sometimes of iron covered with
+  a refractory coating to protect it from being melted or overheated by
+  the molten cast iron. The general procedure in the manufacture of
+  chilled and of malleable castings has been described in §§ 30 and 31.
+
+  If the pig iron is to follow path 2, the purification which converts
+  it into wrought iron or steel consists chiefly in oxidizing and
+  thereby removing its carbon, phosphorus and other impurities, while it
+  is molten, either by means of the oxygen of atmospheric air blown
+  through it as in the Bessemer process, or by the oxygen of iron ore
+  stirred into it as in the puddling and Bell-Krupp processes, or by
+  both together as in the open hearth process.
+
+  On its way from the blast furnace to the converter or open hearth
+  furnace the pig iron is often passed through a great reservoir called
+  a "mixer," which acts also as an equalizer, to lessen the variation in
+  composition of the cast iron, and as a purifier, removing part of the
+  sulphur and silicon.
+
+63. _Shaping and Adjusting Processes._--Besides these extraction and
+purification processes there are those of adjustment and shaping. The
+_adjusting processes_ adjust either the ultimate composition, e.g.
+carburizing wrought iron by long heating in contact with charcoal
+(cementation), or the proximate composition or constitution, as in the
+hardening, tempering and annealing of steel already described (§§ 28,
+29), or both, as in the process of making malleable cast iron (§ 31).
+The _shaping processes_ include the _mechanical_ ones, such as rolling,
+forging and wire-drawing, and the _remelting_ ones such as the crucible
+process of melting wrought iron or steel in crucibles and casting it in
+ingots for the manufacture of the best kinds of tool steel. Indeed, the
+remelting of cast iron to make grey iron castings belongs here. This
+classification, though it helps to give a general idea of the subject,
+yet like most of its kind cannot be applied rigidly. Thus the crucible
+process in its American form both carburizes and remelts, and the open
+hearth process is often used rather for remelting than for purifying.
+
+64. The _iron blast furnace_, a crude but very efficient piece of
+apparatus, is an enormous shaft usually about 80 ft. high and 20 ft.
+wide at its widest part. It is at all times full from top to bottom,
+somewhat as sketched in figs. 7 and 8, of a solid column of lumps of
+fuel, ore and limestone, which are charged through a hopper at the top,
+and descend slowly as the lower end of the column is eaten off through
+the burning away of its coke by means of very hot air or "blast" blown
+through holes or "tuyeres" near the bottom or "hearth," and through the
+melting away, by the heat thus generated, both of the iron itself which
+has been deoxidized in its descent, and of the other minerals of the
+ore, called the "gangue," which unite with the lime of the limestone and
+the ash of the fuel to form a complex molten silicate called the
+"cinder" or "slag."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section of Duquesne Blast Furnace.
+
+  GG, Flanges on the ore bucket;
+  HH, Fixed flanges on the top of the furnace;
+  J,  Counterweighted false bell;
+  K,  Main bell;
+  O,  Tuyere;
+  P,  Cinder notch;
+  RR´, Water cooled boxes;
+  S,  Blast pipe;
+  T,  Cable for allowing conical bottom of bucket to drop.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Lower Part of the Blast Furnace.
+
+  Lumps of Coke          [symbol]
+  Lumps* of Iron Ore     [symbol]
+  Lumps* of Lime         [symbol]
+  Drops of Slag          [symbol]
+  Drops of Iron          [symbol]
+  Layer of Molten Slag   [symbol]
+  Layer of Molten Iron   [symbol]
+
+    * The ore and lime actually exist here in powder. They are shown in
+    lump form because of the difficulty of presenting to the eye their
+    powdered state.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Method of transferring charge from bucket to
+main charging bell, without permitting escape of furnace gas (lettering
+as in fig. 7).]
+
+Interpenetrating this descending column of solid ore, limestone and
+coke, there is an upward rushing column of hot gases, the atmospheric
+nitrogen of the blast from the tuyeres, and the carbonic oxide from the
+combustion of the coke by that blast. The upward ascent of the column of
+gases is as swift as the descent of the solid charge is slow. The former
+occupies but a very few seconds, the latter from 12 to 15 hours.
+
+In the upper part of the furnace the carbonic oxide deoxidizes the iron
+oxide of the ore by such reactions as xCO + FeO_x = Fe + xCO2. Part of
+the resultant carbonic acid is again deoxidized to carbonic oxide by the
+surrounding fuel, CO2 + C = 2CO, and the carbonic oxide thus formed
+deoxidizes more iron oxide, &c. As indicated in fig. 7, before the iron
+ore has descended very far it has given up nearly the whole of its
+oxygen, and thus lost its power of oxidizing the rising carbonic oxide,
+so that from here down the atmosphere of the furnace consists
+essentially of carbonic oxide and nitrogen.
+
+But the transfer of heat from the rising gases to the sinking solids,
+which has been going on in the upper part of the furnace, continues as
+the solid column gradually sinks downward to the hearth, till at the
+"fusion level" (A in fig. 7) the solid matter has become so hot that the
+now deoxidized iron melts, as does the slag as fast as it is formed by
+the union of its three constituents, the gangue, the lime resulting from
+the decomposition of the limestone and the ash of the fuel. Hence from
+this level down the only solid matter is the coke, in lumps which are
+burning rapidly and hence shrinking, while between them the molten iron
+and slag trickle, somewhat as sketched in fig. 8, to collect in the
+hearth in two layers as distinct as water and oil, the iron below, the
+slag above.
+
+As they collect, the molten iron is drawn off at intervals through a
+hole A (fig. 8), temporarily stopped with clay, at the very bottom, and
+the slag through another hole a little higher up, called the "cinder
+notch." Thus the furnace may be said to have four zones, those of (1)
+deoxidation, (2) heating, (3) melting, and (4) collecting, though of
+course the heating is really going on in all four of them.
+
+In its slow descent the deoxidized iron nearly saturates itself with
+carbon, of which it usually contains between 3.5 and 4%, taking it in
+part from the fuel with which it is in such intimate contact, and in
+part from the finely divided carbon deposited within the very lumps of
+ore, by the reaction 2CO = C + CO2. This carburizing is an indispensable
+part of the process, because through it alone can the iron be made
+fusible enough to melt at the temperature which can be generated in the
+furnace, and only when liquid can it be separated readily and completely
+from the slag. In fact, the molten iron is heated so far above its
+melting point that, instead of being run at once into pigs as is usual,
+it may, without solidifying, be carried even several miles in large
+clay-lined ladles to the mill where it is to be converted into steel.
+
+65. The _fuel_ has, in addition to its duties of deoxidizing and
+carburizing the iron and yielding the heat needed for melting both the
+iron and slag, the further task of desulphurizing the iron, probably by
+the reaction FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO.
+
+  The desulphurizing effect of this transfer of the sulphur from union
+  with iron to union with calcium is due to the fact that, whereas iron
+  sulphide dissolves readily in the molten metallic iron, calcium
+  sulphide, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, does not, but by
+  preference enters the slag, which may thus absorb even as much as 3%
+  of sulphur. This action is of great importance whether the metal is to
+  be used as cast iron or is to be converted into wrought iron or steel.
+  In the former case there is no later chance to remove sulphur, a
+  minute quantity of which does great harm by leading to the formation
+  of cementite instead of graphite and ferrite, and thus making the
+  cast-iron castings too hard to be cut to exact shape with steel tools;
+  in the latter case the converting or purifying processes, which are
+  essentially oxidizing ones, though they remove the other impurities,
+  carbon, silicon, phosphorus and manganese, are not well adapted to
+  desulphurizing, which needs rather deoxidizing conditions, so as to
+  cause the formation of calcium sulphide, than oxidizing ones.
+
+66. The _duty of the limestone_ (CaCO3) is to furnish enough lime to
+form with the gangue of the ore and the ash of the fuel a lime silicate
+or slag of such a composition (1) that it will melt at the temperature
+which it reaches at about level A, of fig. 7, (2) that it will be fluid
+enough to run out through the cinder notch, and (3) that it will be rich
+enough in lime to supply that needed for the desulphurizing reaction FeS
++ CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO. In short, its duty is to "flux" the gangue
+and ash, and wash out the sulphur.
+
+67. In order that the _slag_ shall have these properties its composition
+usually lies between the following limits: silica, 26 to 35%; lime,
+_plus_ 1.4 times the magnesia, 45 to 55%; alumina, 5 to 20%. Of these
+the silica and alumina are chiefly those which the gangue of the ore and
+the ash of the fuel introduce, whereas the lime is that added
+intentionally to form with these others a slag of the needed physical
+properties.
+
+  Thus the more gangue the ore contains, i.e. the poorer it is in iron,
+  the more limestone must in general be added, and hence the more slag
+  results, though of course an ore the gangue of which initially
+  contains much lime and little silica needs a much smaller addition of
+  limestone than one of which the gangue is chiefly silica. Further, the
+  more sulphur there is to remove, the greater must be the quantity of
+  slag needed to dissolve it as calcium sulphide. In smelting the rich
+  Lake Superior ores the quantity of slag made was formerly as small as
+  28% of that of the pig iron, whereas in smelting the Cleveland ores of
+  Great Britain it is usually necessary to make as much as 1˝ tons of
+  slag for each ton of iron.
+
+68. _Shape and Size of the Blast-Furnace._--Large size has here, as in
+most metallurgical operations, not only its usual advantage of economy
+of installation, labour and administration per unit of product, but the
+further very important one that it lessens the proportion which the
+outer heat-radiating and hence heat-wasting surface bears to the whole.
+The limits set to the furnace builder's natural desire to make his
+furnace as large as possible, and its present shape (an obtuse inverted
+cone set below an acute upright one, both of them truncated), have been
+reached in part empirically, and in part by reasoning which is open to
+question, as indeed are the reasons which will now be offered reservedly
+for both size and shape.
+
+First the width at the tuyeres (fig. 7) has generally been limited to
+about 12˝ ft. by the fear that, if it were greater, the blast would
+penetrate so feebly to the centre that the difference in conditions
+between centre and circumference would be so great as to cause serious
+unevenness of working. Of late furnaces have been built even as wide as
+17 ft. in the hearth, and it may prove that a width materially greater
+than 12˝ ft. can profitably be used. With the width at the bottom thus
+limited, the furnace builder naturally tries to gain volume as rapidly
+as possible by flaring or "battering" his walls outwards, i.e. by making
+the "bosh" or lower part of his furnace an inverted cone as obtuse as is
+consistent with the free descent of the solid charge. In practice a
+furnace may be made to work regularly if its boshes make an angle of
+between 73° and 76° with the horizontal, and we may assume that one
+element of this regularity is the regular easy sliding of the charge
+over this steep slope. A still steeper one not only gives less available
+room, but actually leads to irregular working, perhaps because it unduly
+favours the passage of the rising gas along the walls instead of up and
+through the charge, and thus causes the deoxidation of the central core
+to lag behind that of the periphery of the column, with the consequence
+that this central core arrives at the bottom incompletely deoxidized.
+
+In the very swift-running furnaces of the Pittsburg type this outward
+flare of the boshes ceases at about 12 ft. above the tuyeres, and is
+there reversed, as in fig. 7, so that the furnace above this is a very
+acute upright cone, the walls of which make an angle of about 4° with
+the vertical, instead of an obtuse inverted cone.
+
+  In explanation or justification of this it has been said that a much
+  easier descent must be provided above this level than is needed below
+  it. Below this level the solid charge descends easily, because it
+  consists of coke alone or nearly alone, and this in turn because the
+  temperature here is so high as to melt not only the iron now
+  deoxidized and brought to the metallic state, but also the gangue of
+  the ore and the limestone, which here unite to form the molten slag,
+  and run freely down between the lumps of coke. This coke descends
+  freely even through this fast-narrowing space, because it is perfectly
+  solid and dry without a trace of pastiness. But immediately above this
+  level the charge is relatively viscous, because here the temperature
+  has fallen so far that it is now at the melting or formation point of
+  the slag, which therefore is pasty, liable to weld the whole mass
+  together as so much tar would, and thus to obstruct the descent of the
+  charge, or in short to "scaffold."
+
+  The reason why at this level the walls must form an upright instead of
+  an inverted cone, why the furnace must widen downward instead of
+  narrowing, is, according to some metallurgists, that this shape is
+  needed in order that, in spite of the pastiness of the slag in this
+  formative period of incipient fusion, this layer may descend freely as
+  the lower part of the column is gradually eaten away. To this very
+  plausible theory it may be objected that in many slow-running
+  furnaces, which work very regularly and show no sign of scaffolding,
+  the outward flare of the boshes continues (though steepened) far above
+  this region of pastiness, indeed nearly half-way to the top of the
+  furnace. This proves that the regular descent of the material in its
+  pasty state can take place even in a space which is narrowing
+  downwards. To this objection it may in turn be answered that, though
+  this degree of freedom of descent may suffice for a slow-running
+  furnace, particularly if the slag is given such a composition that it
+  passes quickly from the solid state to one of decided fluidity, yet it
+  is not enough for swift-running ones, especially if the composition of
+  the slag is such that, in melting, it remains long in a very sticky
+  condition. In limiting the diameter at the tuyeres to 12˝ ft., the
+  height of the boshes to one which will keep their upper end below the
+  region of pastiness, and their slope to one over which the burning
+  coke will descend freely, we limit the width of the furnace at the top
+  of the boshes and thus complete the outline of the lower part of the
+  furnace.
+
+The height of the furnace is rarely as great as 100 ft., and in the
+belief of many metallurgists it should not be much more than 80 ft.
+There are some very evident disadvantages of excessive height; for
+instance, that the weight of an excessively high column of solid coke,
+ore and limestone tends to crush the coke and jam the charge in the
+lower and narrowing part of the furnace, and that the frictional
+resistance of a long column calls for a greater consumption of power for
+driving the blast up through it. Moreover, this resistance increases
+much more rapidly than the height of the furnace, even if the rapidity
+with which the blast is forced through is constant; and it still further
+increases if the additional space gained by lengthening the furnace is
+made useful by increasing proportionally the rate of production, as
+indeed would naturally be done, because the chief motive for gaining
+this additional space is to increase production.
+
+  The reason why the frictional resistance would be further increased is
+  the very simple one that the increase in the rate of production
+  implies directly a corresponding increase in the quantity of blast
+  forced through, and hence in the velocity of the rising gases, because
+  the chemical work of the blast furnace needs a certain quantity of
+  blast for each ton of iron made. In short, to increase the rate of
+  production by lengthening the furnace increases the frictional
+  resistance of the rising gases, both by increasing their quantity and
+  hence their velocity and by lengthening their path.
+
+  Indeed, one important reason for the difficulties in working very high
+  furnaces, e.g. those 100 ft. high, may be that this frictional
+  resistance becomes so great as actually to interrupt the even descent
+  of the charge, parts of which are at times suspended like a ball in
+  the rising jet of a fountain, to fall perhaps with destructive
+  violence when some shifting condition momentarily lessens the
+  friction. We see how powerful must be the lifting effect of the rising
+  gases when we reflect that their velocity in a 100 ft. furnace rapidly
+  driven is probably at least as great as 2000 ft. per minute, or that
+  of a "high wind." Conceive these gases passing at this great velocity
+  through the narrow openings between the adjoining lumps of coke and
+  ore. Indeed, the velocity must be far greater than this where the edge
+  or corner of one lump touches the side of another, and the only room
+  for the passage of this enormous quantity of gas is that left by the
+  roughness and irregularity of the individual lumps.
+
+The furnace is made rather narrow at the top or "stock line," in order
+that the entering ore, fuel and flux may readily be distributed evenly.
+But extreme narrowness would not only cause the escaping gases to move
+so swiftly that they would sweep much of the fine ore out of the
+furnace, but would also throw needless work on the blowing engines by
+throttling back the rising gases, and would lessen unduly the space
+available for the charge in the upper part of the furnace.
+
+From its top down, the walls of the furnace slope outward at an angle of
+between 3° and 8°, partly in order to ease the descent of the charge,
+here impeded by the swelling of the individual particles of ore caused
+by the deposition within them of great quantities of fine carbon, by the
+reaction of 2CO = C + CO2. To widen it more abruptly would indeed
+increase the volume of the furnace, but would probably lead to grave
+irregularities in the distribution of the gas and charge, and hence in
+the working of the furnace.
+
+When we have thus fixed the height of the furnace, its diameter at its
+ends, and the slope of its upper and lower parts, we have completed its
+outline closely enough for our purpose here.
+
+69. _Hot Blast and Dry Blast._--On its way from the blowing engine to
+the tuyeres of the blast-furnace, the blast, i.e. the air forced in for
+the purpose of burning the fuel, is usually pre-heated, and in some of
+the most progressive works is dried by Gayley's refrigerating process.
+These steps lead to a saving of fuel so great as to be astonishing at
+first sight--indeed in case of Gayley's blast-drying process incredible
+to most writers, who proved easily and promptly to their own
+satisfaction that the actual saving was impossible. But the explanation
+is really so very simple that it is rather the incredulity of these
+writers that is astonishing. In the hearth of the blast furnace the heat
+made latent by the fusion of the iron and slag must of course be
+supplied by some body which is itself at a temperature above the melting
+point of these bodies, which for simplicity of exposition we may call
+the critical temperature of the blast-furnace process, because heat will
+flow only from a hotter to a cooler object. Much the same is true of the
+heat needed for the deoxidation of the silica, SiO2 + 2C = Si + 2CO2.
+Now the heat developed by the combustion of coke to carbonic oxide with
+cold air containing the usual quantity of moisture, develops a
+temperature only slightly above this critical point; and it is only the
+heat represented by this narrow temperature-margin that is available for
+doing this critical work of fusion and deoxidation. That is the crux of
+the matter. If by pre-heating the blast we add to the sum of the heat
+available; or if by drying it we subtract from the work to be done by
+that heat the quantity needed for decomposing the atmospheric moisture;
+or if by removing part of its nitrogen we lessen the mass over which the
+heat developed has to be spread--if by any of these means we raise the
+temperature developed by the combustion of the coke, it is clear that we
+increase the proportion of the total heat which is available for this
+critical work in exactly the way in which we should increase the
+proportion of the water of a stream, initially 100 in. deep, which
+should flow over a waste weir initially 1 in. beneath the stream's
+surface, by raising the upper surface of the water 10 in. and thus
+increasing the depth of the water to 110 in. Clearly this raising the
+level of the water by 10% increases tenfold, or by 1000%, the volume of
+water which is above the level of the weir.
+
+  The special conditions of the blast-furnace actually exaggerate the
+  saving due to this widening of the available temperature-margin, and
+  beyond this drying the blast does great good by preventing the serious
+  irregularities in working the furnace caused by changes in the
+  humidity of the air with varying weather.
+
+70. _Means of Heating the Blast._--After the ascending column of gases
+has done its work of heating and deoxidizing the ore, it still
+necessarily contains so much carbonic oxide, usually between 20 and 26%
+by weight, that it is a very valuable fuel, part of which is used for
+raising steam for generating the blast itself and driving the rolling
+mill engines, &c., or directly in gas engines, and the rest for heating
+the blast. This heating was formerly done by burning part of the gases,
+after their escape from the furnace top, in a large combustion chamber,
+around a series of cast iron pipes through which the blast passed on its
+way from the blowing engine to the tuyeres. But these "iron pipe stoves"
+are fast going out of use, chiefly because they are destroyed quickly if
+an attempt is made to heat the blast above 1000° F. (538° C.), often a
+very important thing. In their place the regenerative stoves of the
+Whitwell and Cowper types (figs. 10 and 11) are used. With these the
+regular temperature of the blast at some works is about 1400° F. (760°
+C.), and the usual blast temperature lies between 900° and 1200° F.
+(480° and 650° C.).
+
+Like the Siemens furnace, described in § 99, they have two distinct
+phases: one, "on gas," during which part of the waste gas of the
+blast-furnace is burnt within the stove, highly heating the great
+surface of brickwork which for that purpose is provided within it; the
+other, "on wind," during which the blast is heated by passing it back
+over these very surfaces which have thus been heated. They are
+heat-filters or heat-traps for impounding the heat developed by the
+combustion of the furnace gas, and later returning it to the blast. Each
+blast-furnace is now provided with three or even four of these stoves,
+which collectively may be nearly thrice as large as the furnace itself.
+At any given time one of these is "on wind" and the others "on gas."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Whitwell Hot-Blast Stove, as modified by H.
+Kennedy. When "on wind," the cold blast is forced in at A, and passes
+four times up and down, as shown by means of unbroken arrows, escaping
+as hot-blast at B. When "on gas," the gas and air enter at the bottom of
+each of the three larger vertical chambers, pass once up through the
+stove, and escape at the top, as shown by means of broken arrows. Hence
+this is a four-pass stove when on wind, but a one-pass stove when on
+gas.]
+
+  The Whitwell stove (fig. 10), by means of the surface of several
+  fire-brick walls, catches in one phase the heat evolved by the burning
+  gas as it sweeps through, and in the other phase returns that heat to
+  the entering blast as it sweeps through from left to right. In the
+  original Whitwell stove, which lacks the chimneys shown at the top of
+  fig. 10, both the burning gas and the blast pass up and down
+  repeatedly. In the H. Kennedy modification, shown in fig. 10, the gas
+  and air in one phase enter at the bottom of all three of the large
+  vertical chambers, burn in passing upwards, and escape at once at the
+  top, as shown by the broken arrows. In the other phase the cold blast,
+  forced in at A, passes four times up and down, as shown by the
+  unbroken arrows, and escapes as hot blast at B. This, then, is a
+  "one-pass" stove when on gas but a "four-pass" one when on wind.
+
+  The Cowper stove (Fig. 11) differs from the Whitwell (1) in having not
+  a series of flat smooth walls, but a great number of narrow vertical
+  flues, E, for the alternate absorption and emission of the heat, with
+  the consequence that, for given outside dimensions, it offers about
+  one-half more heating surface than the true Whitwell stove; and (2) in
+  that the gas and the blast pass only once up and once down through it,
+  instead of twice up and twice down as in the modern true Whitwell
+  stoves. As regards frictional resistance, this smaller number of
+  reversals of direction compensates in a measure for the smaller area
+  of the Cowper flues. The large combustion chamber B permits thorough
+  combustion of the gas.
+
+71. _Preservation of the Furnace Walls._--The combined fluxing and
+abrading action of the descending charge tends to wear away the lining
+of the furnace where it is hottest, which of course is near its lower
+end, thus changing its shape materially, lessening its efficiency, and
+in particular increasing its consumption of fuel. The walls, therefore,
+are now made thin, and are thoroughly cooled by water, which circulates
+through pipes or boxes bedded in them. James Gayley's method of cooling,
+shown in fig. 7, is to set in the brickwork walls several horizontal
+rows of flat water-cooled bronze boxes, RR', extending nearly to the
+interior of the furnace, and tapered so that they can readily be
+withdrawn and replaced in case they burn through. The brickwork may wear
+back to the front edges of these boxes, or even, as is shown at R´, a
+little farther. But in the latter case their edges still determine the
+effective profile of the furnace walls because the depressions at the
+back of these edges become filled with carbon and scoriaceous matter
+when the furnace is in normal working. Each of these rows, of which five
+are shown in fig. 7, consists of a great number of short segmental
+boxes.
+
+72. _Blast-furnace Gas Engines._--When the gas which escapes from the
+furnace top is used in gas engines it generates about four times as much
+power as when it is used for raising steam. It has been calculated that
+the gas from a pair of old-fashioned blast-furnaces making 1600 tons of
+iron per week would in this way yield some 16,000 horse-power in excess
+of their own needs, and that all the available blast-furnace gas in the
+United States would develop about 1,500,000 horse-power, to develop
+which by raising steam would need about 20,000,000 tons of coal a year.
+Of this power about half would be used at the blast-furnaces themselves,
+leaving 750,000 horse-power available for driving the machinery of the
+rolling mills, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagram of Cowper Hot-Blast Stove at Duquesne.
+(After J. Kennedy.) Broken arrows show the path of the gas and air while
+the stove is "on gas," and solid arrows that of the blast while it is
+"on wind."
+
+  A, Entrance for blast-furnace gas.
+  B, B, Combustion chamber.
+  C, Chimney valve.
+  D, Cold blast main.
+  E, Hollow bricks.]
+
+  This use of the gas engine is likely to have far-reaching results. In
+  order to utilize this power, the converting mill, in which the pig
+  iron is converted into steel, and the rolling mills must adjoin the
+  blast-furnace. The numerous converting mills which treat pig iron made
+  at a distance will now have the crushing burden of providing in other
+  ways the power which their rivals get from the blast-furnace, in
+  addition to the severe disadvantage under which they already suffer,
+  of wasting the initial heat of the molten cast iron as it runs from
+  the blast-furnace. Before its use in the gas engine, the blast-furnace
+  gas has to be freed carefully from the large quantity of fine ore dust
+  which it carries in suspension.
+
+73. _Mechanical Appliances._--Moving the raw materials and the products:
+In order to move economically the great quantity of materials which
+enter and issue from each furnace daily, mechanical appliances have at
+many works displaced hand labour wholly, and indeed that any of the
+materials should be shovelled by hand is not to be thought of in
+designing new works.
+
+  The arrangement at the Carnegie Company's Duquesne works (fig. 12) may
+  serve as an example of modern methods of handling. The standard-gauge
+  cars which bring the ore and coke to Duquesne pass over one of three
+  very long rows of bins, A, B, and C (fig. 12), of which A and B
+  receive the materials (ore, coke and limestone) for immediate use,
+  while C receives those to be stored for winter use. From A and B the
+  materials are drawn as they are needed into large buckets D standing
+  on cars, which carry them to the foot of the hoist track EE, up which
+  they are hoisted to the top of the furnace. Arrived here, the material
+  is introduced into the furnace by an ingenious piece of mechanism
+  which completely prevents the furnace gas from escaping into the air.
+  The hoist-engineer in the house F at the foot of the furnace, when
+  informed by means of an indicator that the bucket has arrived at the
+  top, lowers it so that its flanges GG (fig. 7) rest on the
+  corresponding fixed flanges HH, as shown in fig. 9. The farther
+  descent of the bucket being thus arrested, the special cable T is now
+  slackened, so that the conical bottom of the bucket drops down,
+  pressing down by its weight the counter-weighted false cover J of the
+  furnace, so that the contents of the bucket slide down into the space
+  between this false cover and the true charging bell, K. The special
+  cable T is now tightened again, and lifts the bottom of the bucket so
+  as both to close it and to close the space between J and K, by
+  allowing J to rise back to its initial place. The bucket then descends
+  along the hoist-track to make way for the next succeeding one, and K
+  is lowered, dropping the charge into the furnace. Thus some 1700 tons
+  of materials are charged daily into each of these furnaces without
+  being shovelled at all, running by gravity from bin to bucket and from
+  bucket to furnace, and being hoisted and charged into the furnace by a
+  single engineer below, without any assistance or supervision at the
+  furnace-top.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram of the Carnegie Blast-Furnace Plant
+  at Duquesne, Pa.
+
+    A  and B, Bins for stock for immediate use.
+    C, Receiving bin for winter stock pile.
+    D, D, Ore bucket.
+    EE, Hoist-track.
+    F,  Hoist-engine house.
+    LL, Travelling crane commanding stock pile.
+    M,  Ore bucket receiving ore for stock pile.
+    M', Bucket removing ore from stock pile.
+    N, N, N, Ladles carrying the molten cast iron to the works, where
+      it is converted into steel by the open hearth process.]
+
+  The winter stock of materials is drawn from the left-hand row of bins,
+  and distributed over immense stock piles by means of the great crane
+  LL (fig. 12), which transfers it as it is needed to the row A of bins,
+  whence it is carried to the furnace, as already explained.
+
+74. _Casting the Molten Pig Iron._--The molten pig iron at many works is
+still run directly from the furnace into sand or iron moulds arranged in
+a way which suggests a nursing litter of pigs; hence the name "pig
+iron." These pigs are then usually broken by hand. The Uehling casting
+machine (fig. 13) has displaced this method in many works. It consists
+essentially of a series of thin-walled moulds, BB, carried by endless
+chains past the lip of a great ladle A. This pours into them the molten
+cast iron which it has just received directly from the blast-furnace. As
+the string of moulds, each thus containing a pig, moves slowly forward,
+the pigs solidify and cool, the more quickly because in transit they are
+sprayed with water or even submerged in water in the tank EE. Arrived at
+the farther sheave C, the now cool pigs are dumped into a railway car.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagram of Pig-Casting Machine.
+
+  A,  Ladle bringing the cast iron from the blast-furnace.
+  BB, The moulds.
+  C, D, Sheaves carrying the endless chain of moulds.
+  EE, Tank in which the moulds are submerged.
+  F,  Car into which the cooled pigs are dropped.
+  G,  Distributing funnel.]
+
+  Besides a great saving of labour, only partly offset by the cost of
+  repairs, these machines have the great merit of making the management
+  independent of a very troublesome set of labourers, the hand
+  pig-breakers, who were not only absolutely indispensable for every
+  cast and every day, because the pig iron must be removed promptly to
+  make way for the next succeeding cast of iron, but very difficult to
+  replace because of the great physical endurance which their work
+  requires.
+
+75. _Direct Processes for making Wrought Iron and Steel._--The present
+way of getting the iron of the ore into the form of wrought iron and
+steel by first making cast iron and then purifying it, i.e. by first
+putting carbon and silicon into the iron and then taking them out again
+at great expense, at first sight seems so unreasonably roundabout that
+many "direct" processes of extracting the iron without thus charging it
+with carbon and silicon have been proposed, and some of them have at
+times been important. But to-day they have almost ceased to exist.
+
+  That the blast-furnace process must be followed by a purifying one,
+  that carburization must at once be undone by decarburization, is
+  clearly a disadvantage, but it is one which is far out weighed by five
+  important incidental advantages. (1) The strong deoxidizing action
+  incidental to this carburizing removes the sulphur easily and cheaply,
+  a thing hardly to be expected of any direct process so far as we can
+  see. (2) The carburizing incidentally carburizes the brickwork of the
+  furnace, and thus protects it against corrosion by the molten slag.
+  (3) It protects the molten iron against reoxidation, the greatest
+  stumbling block in the way of the direct processes hitherto. (4) This
+  same strong deoxidizing action leads to the practically complete
+  deoxidation and hence extraction of the iron. (5) In that carburizing
+  lowers the melting point of the iron greatly, it lowers somewhat the
+  temperature to which the mineral matter of the ore has to be raised in
+  order that the iron may be separated from it, because this separation
+  requires that both iron and slag shall be very fluid. Indeed, few if
+  any of the direct processes have attempted to make this separation, or
+  to make it complete, leaving it for some subsequent operation, such as
+  the open hearth process.
+
+  In addition, the blast-furnace uses a very cheap source of energy,
+  coke, anthracite, charcoal, and even certain kinds of raw bituminous
+  coal, and owing first to the intimacy of contact between this fuel and
+  the ore on which it works, and second to the thoroughness of the
+  transfer of heat from the products of that fuel's combustion in their
+  long upward journey through the descending charge, even this cheap
+  energy is used most effectively.
+
+  Thus we have reasons enough why the blast-furnace has displaced all
+  competing processes, without taking into account its further advantage
+  in lending itself easily to working on an enormous scale and with
+  trifling consumption of labour, still further lessened by the general
+  practice of transferring the molten cast iron in enormous ladles into
+  the vessels in which its conversion into steel takes place.
+  Nevertheless, a direct process may yet be made profitable under
+  conditions which specially favour it, such as the lack of any fuel
+  suitable for the blast-furnace, coupled with an abundance of cheap
+  fuel suitable for a direct process and of cheap rich ore nearly free
+  from sulphur.
+
+76. The chief difficulty in the way of modifying the blast-furnace
+process itself so as to make it accomplish what the direct processes aim
+at, by giving its product less carbon and silicon than pig iron as now
+made contains, is the removal of the sulphur. The processes for
+converting cast iron into steel can now remove phosphorus easily, but
+the removal of sulphur in them is so difficult that it has to be
+accomplished for the most part in the blast-furnace itself. As
+desulphurizing seems to need the direct and energetic action of carbon
+on the molten iron itself, and as molten iron absorbs carbon most
+greedily, it is hard to see how the blast-furnace is to desulphurize
+without carburizing almost to saturation, i.e. without making cast iron.
+
+77. _Direct Metal and the Mixer._--Until relatively lately the cast iron
+for the Bessemer and open-hearth processes was nearly always allowed to
+solidify in pigs, which were next broken up by hand and remelted at
+great cost. It has long been seen that there would be a great saving if
+this remelting could be avoided and "direct metal," i.e. the molten cast
+iron direct from the blast-furnace, could be treated in the conversion
+process. The obstacle is that, owing to unavoidable irregularities in
+the blast-furnace process, the silicon- and sulphur-content of the cast
+iron vary to a degree and with an abruptness which are inconvenient for
+any conversion process and intolerable for the Bessemer process. For the
+acid variety of this process, which does not remove sulphur, this most
+harmful element must be held below a limit which is always low, though
+it varies somewhat with the use to which the steel is to be put.
+Further, the point at which the process should be arrested is recognized
+by the appearance of the flame which issues from the converter's mouth,
+and variations in the silicon-content of the cast iron treated alter
+this appearance, so that the indications of the flame become confusing,
+and control over the process is lost. Moreover, the quality of the
+resultant steel depends upon the temperature of the process, and this in
+turn depends upon the proportion of silicon, the combustion of which is
+the chief source of the heat developed. Hence the importance of having
+the silicon-content constant. In the basic Bessemer process, also,
+unforeseen variations in the silicon-content are harmful, because the
+quantity of lime added should be just that needed to neutralize the
+resultant silica and the phosphoric acid and no more. Hence the
+importance of having the silicon-content uniform. This uniformity is now
+given by the use of the "mixer" invented by Captain W. R. Jones.
+
+This "mixer" is a great reservoir into which successive lots of molten
+cast iron from all the blast-furnaces available are poured, forming a
+great molten mass of from 200 to 750 tons. This is kept molten by a
+flame playing above it, and successive lots of the cast iron thus mixed
+are drawn off, as they are needed, for conversion into steel by the
+Bessemer or open-hearth process. An excess of silicon or sulphur in the
+cast iron from one blast-furnace is diluted by thus mixing this iron
+with that from the other furnaces. Should several furnaces
+simultaneously make iron too rich in silicon, this may be diluted by
+pouring into the mixer some low-silicon iron melted for this purpose in
+a cupola furnace. This device not only makes the cast iron much more
+uniform, but also removes much of its sulphur by a curious slow
+reaction. Many metals have the power of dissolving their own oxides and
+sulphides, but not those of other metals. Thus iron, at least highly
+carburetted, i.e. cast iron, dissolves its own sulphide freely, but not
+that of either calcium or manganese. Consequently, when we deoxidize
+calcium in the iron blast-furnace, it greedily absorbs the sulphur which
+has been dissolved in the iron as iron sulphide, and the sulphide of
+calcium thus formed separates from the iron. In like manner, if the
+molten iron in the mixer contains manganese, this metal unites with the
+sulphur present, and the manganese sulphide, insoluble in the iron,
+slowly rises to the surface, and as it reaches the air, its sulphur
+oxidizes to sulphurous acid, which escapes. Further, an important part
+of the silicon may be removed in the mixer by keeping it very hot and
+covering the metal with a rather basic slag. This is very useful if the
+iron is intended for either the basic Bessemer or the basic open-hearth
+process, for both of which silicon is harmful.
+
+78. _Conversion or Purifying Processes for converting Cast Iron into
+Steel or Wrought Iron._--As the essential difference between cast iron
+on one hand and wrought iron and steel on the other is that the former
+contains necessarily much more carbon, usually more silicon, and often
+more phosphorus that are suitable or indeed permissible in the latter
+two, the chief work of all these conversion processes is to remove the
+excess of these several foreign elements by oxidizing them to carbonic
+oxide CO, silica SiO2, and phosphoric acid P2O5, respectively. Of these
+the first escapes immediately as a gas, and the others unite with iron
+oxide, lime, or other strong base present to form a molten silicate or
+silico-phosphate called "cinder" or "slag," which floats on the molten
+or pasty metal. The ultimate source of the oxygen may be the air, as in
+the Bessemer process, or rich iron oxide as in the puddling process, or
+both as in the open-hearth process; but in any case iron oxide is the
+chief immediate source, as is to be expected, because the oxygen of the
+air would naturally unite in much greater proportion with some of the
+great quantity of iron offered to it than with the small quantity of
+these impurities. The iron oxide thus formed immediately oxidizes these
+foreign elements, so that the iron is really a carrier of oxygen from
+air to impurity. The typical reactions are something like the following:
+Fe3O4 + 4C = 4CO + 3Fe; Fe3O4 + C = 3FeO + CO; 2P + 5Fe3O4 = 12FeO +
+3FeO,P2O5; Si + 2Fe3O4 = 3FeO,SiO2 + 3FeO. Beside this their chief and
+easy work of oxidizing carbon, silicon and phosphorus, the conversion
+processes have the harder task of removing sulphur, chiefly by
+converting it into calcium sulphide, CaS, or manganous sulphide, MnS,
+which rise to the top of the molten metal and there enter the overlying
+slag, from which the sulphur may escape by oxidizing to the gaseous
+compound, sulphurous acid, SO2.
+
+79. In the _puddling process_ molten cast iron is converted into wrought
+iron, i.e. low-carbon slag-bearing iron, by oxidizing its carbon,
+silicon and phosphorus, by means of iron oxide stirred into it as it
+lies in a thin shallow layer in the "hearth" or flat basin of a
+reverberatory furnace (fig. 14), itself lined with iron ore. As the iron
+oxide is stirred into the molten metal laboriously by the workman or
+"puddler" with his hook or "rabble," it oxidizes the silicon to silica
+and the phosphorus to phosphoric acid, and unites with both these
+products, forming with them a basic iron silicate rich in phosphorus,
+called "puddling" or "tap cinder." It oxidizes the carbon also, which
+escapes in purple jets of burning carbonic oxide. As the melting point
+of the metal is gradually raised by the progressive decarburization, it
+at length passes above the temperature of the furnace, about 1400° C.,
+with the consequence that the metal, now below its melting point,
+solidifies in pasty grains, or "comes to nature." These grains the
+puddler welds together by means of his rabble into rough 80-lb. balls,
+each like a sponge of metallic iron particles with its pores filled with
+the still molten cinder. These balls are next worked into merchantable
+shape, and the cinder is simultaneously expelled in large part, first by
+hammering them one at a time under a steam hammer (fig. 37) or by
+squeezing them, and next by rolling them. The squeezing is usually done
+in the way shown in fig. 15.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Puddling Furnace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Plan of Burden's Excentric Revolving Squeezer
+for Puddled Balls.]
+
+  Here BB is a large fixed iron cylinder, corrugated within, and C an
+  excentric cylinder, also corrugated, which, in turning to the right,
+  by the friction of its corrugated surface rotates the puddled ball D
+  which has just entered at A, so that, turning around its own axis, it
+  travels to the right and is gradually changed from a ball into a
+  bloom, a rough cylindrical mass of white hot iron, still dripping with
+  cinder. This bloom is immediately rolled down into a long flat bar,
+  called "muck bar," and this in turn is cut into short lengths which,
+  piled one on another, are reheated and again rolled down, sometimes
+  with repeated cutting, piling and re-rolling, into the final shape in
+  which it is actually to be used. But, roll and re-roll as often as we
+  like, much cinder remains imbedded in the iron, in the form of threads
+  and rods drawn out in the direction of rolling, and of course
+  weakening the metal in the transverse direction.
+
+80. _Machine Puddling._--The few men who have, and are willing to
+exercise, the great strength and endurance which the puddler needs when
+he is stirring the pasty iron and balling it up, command such high
+wages, and with their little 500-lb. charges turn out their iron so
+slowly, that many ways of puddling by machinery have been tried. None
+has succeeded permanently, though indeed one offered by J. P. Roe is not
+without promise. The essential difficulty has been that none of them
+could subdivide the rapidly solidifying charge into the small balls
+which the workman dexterously forms by hand, and that if the charge is
+not thus subdivided but drawn as a single ball, the cinder cannot be
+squeezed out of it thoroughly enough.
+
+81. _Direct Puddling._--In common practice the cast iron as it runs from
+the blast-furnace is allowed to solidify and cool completely in the form
+of pigs, which are then graded by their fracture, and remelted in the
+puddling furnace itself. At Hourpes, in order to save the expense of
+this remelting, the molten cast iron as it comes from the blast-furnace
+is poured directly into the puddling furnace, in large charges of about
+2200 lb., which are thus about four times as large as those of common
+puddling furnaces. These large charges are puddled by two gangs of four
+men each, and a great saving in fuel and labour is effected.
+
+  Attractive as are these advances in puddling, they have not been
+  widely adopted, for two chief reasons: First, owners of puddling works
+  have been reluctant to spend money freely in plant for a process of
+  which the future is so uncertain, and this unwillingness has been the
+  more natural because these very men are in large part the more
+  conservative fraction, which has resisted the temptation to abandon
+  puddling and adopt the steel-making processes. Second, in puddling
+  iron which is to be used as a raw material for making very fine steel
+  by the crucible process, quality is the thing of first importance.
+  Now in the series of operations, the blast-furnace, puddling and
+  crucible processes, through which the iron passes from the state of
+  ore to that of crucible tool steel, it is so difficult to detect just
+  which are the conditions essential to excellence in the final product
+  that, once a given procedure has been found to yield excellent steel,
+  every one of its details is adhered to by the more cautious
+  ironmasters, often with surprising conservatism. Buyers of certain
+  excellent classes of Swedish iron have been said to object even to the
+  substitution of electricity for water-power as a means of driving the
+  machinery of the forge. In case of direct puddling and the use of
+  larger charges this conservatism has some foundation, because the
+  established custom of allowing the cast iron to solidify gives a
+  better opportunity of examining its fracture, and thus of rejecting
+  unsuitable iron, than is afforded in direct puddling. So, too, when
+  several puddlers are jointly responsible for the thoroughness of their
+  work, as happens in puddling large charges, they will not exercise
+  such care (nor indeed will a given degree of care be so effective) as
+  when responsibility for each charge rests on one man.
+
+82. The _removal of phosphorus_, a very important duty of the puddling
+process, requires that the cinder shall be "basic," i.e. that it shall
+have a great excess of the strong base, ferrous oxide, FeO, for the
+phosphoric acid to unite with, lest it be deoxidized by the carbon of
+the iron as fast as it forms, and so return to the iron, following the
+general rule that oxidized bodies enter the slag and unoxidized ones the
+metallic iron. But this basicity implies that for each part of the
+silica or silicic acid which inevitably results from the oxidation of
+the silicon of the pig iron, the cinder shall contain some three parts
+of iron oxide, itself a valuable and expensive substance. Hence, in
+order to save iron oxide the pig iron used should be nearly free from
+silicon. It should also be nearly free from sulphur, because of the
+great difficulty of removing this element in the puddling process. But
+the strong deoxidizing conditions needed in the blast-furnace to remove
+sulphur tend strongly to deoxidize silica and thus to make the pig iron
+rich in silicon.
+
+83. The _"refinery process"_ of fitting pig iron for the puddling
+process by removing the silicon without the carbon, is sometimes used
+because of this difficulty in making a pig iron initially low in both
+sulphur and silicon. In this process molten pig iron with much silicon
+but little sulphur has its silicon oxidized to silica and thus slagged
+off, by means of a blast of air playing on the iron through a blanket of
+burning coke which covers it. The coke thus at once supplies by its
+combustion the heat needed for melting the iron and keeping it hot, and
+by itself dissolving in the molten metal returns carbon to it as fast as
+this element is burnt out by the blast, so that the "refined" cast iron
+which results, though still rich in carbon and therefore easy to melt in
+the puddling process, has relatively little silicon.
+
+84. In the _Bessemer or "pneumatic" process_, which indeed might be
+called the "fuel-less" process, molten pig iron is converted into steel
+by having its carbon, silicon and manganese, and often its phosphorus
+and sulphur, oxidized and thus removed by air forced through it in so
+many fine streams and hence so rapidly that the heat generated by the
+oxidation of these impurities suffices in and by itself, unaided by
+burning any other fuel, not only to keep the iron molten, but even to
+raise its temperature from a point initially but little above the
+melting point of cast iron, say 1150° to 1250° C., to one well above the
+melting point of the resultant steel, say 1500° C. The "Bessemer
+converter" or "vessel" (fig. 16) in which this wonderful process is
+carried out is a huge retort, lined with clay, dolomite or other
+refractory material, hung aloft and turned on trunnions, DD, through the
+right-hand one of which the blast is carried to the gooseneck E, which
+in turn delivers it to the tuyeres Q at the bottom.
+
+There are two distinct varieties of this process, the original
+undephosphorizing or "acid" Bessemer process, so called because the
+converter is lined with acid materials, i.e. those rich in silicic acid,
+such as quartz and clay, and because the slag is consequently acid, i.e.
+siliceous; and the dephosphorizing or "Thomas" or "basic Bessemer"
+process, so called because the converter is lined with basic materials,
+usually calcined dolomite, a mixture of lime and magnesia, bound
+together with tar, and because the slag is made very basic by adding
+much lime to it. In the basic Bessemer process phosphorus is readily
+removed by oxidation, because the product of its oxidation, phosphoric
+acid, P2O5, in the presence of an excess of base forms stable phosphates
+of lime and iron which pass into the slag, making it valuable as an
+artificial manure. But this dephosphorization by oxidation can be
+carried out only in the case slag is basic. If it is acid, i.e. if it
+holds much more than 20% of so powerful an acid as silica, then the
+phosphoric acid has so feeble a hold on the base in the slag that it is
+immediately re-deoxidized by the carbon of the metal, or even by the
+iron itself, P2O5 + 5Fe = 2P + 5FeO, and the resultant deoxidized
+phosphorus immediately recombines with the iron. Now in an acid-lined
+converter the slag is necessarily acid, because even an initially basic
+slag would immediately corrode away enough of the acid lining to make
+itself acid. Hence phosphorus cannot be removed in an acid-lined
+converter. Though all this is elementary to-day, not only was it
+unknown, indeed unguessed, at the time of the invention of the Bessemer
+process, but even when, nearly a quarter of a century later, a young
+English metallurgical chemist, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas (1850-1885),
+offered to the British Iron and Steel Institute a paper describing his
+success in dephosphorizing by the Bessemer process with a basic-lined
+converter and a basic slag, that body rejected it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--12-15 ton Bessemer Converter.
+
+  A, Trunnion-ring.        O, Tuyere-plate.
+  B, Main shell.           P, False plate.
+  C, Upper part of shell.  Q, Tuyeres.
+  D, Trunnions.            R, Keys holding lid of tuyere-box.
+  E, Goose-neck.           S, Refractory lining.
+  F, Tuyere-box.           U, Key-link holding bottom.
+  N, Lid of tuyere-box.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Bessemer Converter, turned down in position to
+receive and discharge the molten metal.]
+
+85. In carrying out the acid Bessemer process, the converter, preheated
+to about 1200° C. by burning coke in it, is turned into the position
+shown in fig. 17, and the charge of molten pig iron, which sometimes
+weighs as much as 20 tons, is poured into it through its mouth. The
+converter is then turned upright into the position shown in fig. 16, so
+that the blast, which has been let on just before this, entering through
+the great number of tuyere holes in the bottom, forces its way up
+through the relatively shallow layer of iron, throwing it up within the
+converter as a boiling foam, and oxidizing the foreign elements so
+rapidly that in some cases their removal is complete after 5 minutes.
+The oxygen of the blast having been thus taken up by the molten metal,
+its nitrogen issues from the mouth of the converter as a pale
+spark-bearing cone. Under normal conditions the silicon oxidizes first.
+Later, when most of it has been oxidized, the carbon begins to oxidize
+to carbonic oxide, which in turn burns to carbonic acid as it meets the
+outer air on escaping from the mouth of the converter, and generates a
+true flame which grows bright, then brilliant, then almost blinding, as
+it rushes and roars, then "drops," i.e. shortens and suddenly grows
+quiet when the last of the carbon has burnt away, and no flame-forming
+substance remains. Thus may a 20-ton charge of cast iron be converted
+into steel in ten minutes.[4] It is by the appearance of the flame that
+the operator or "blower" knows when to end the process, judging by its
+brilliancy, colour, sound, sparks, smoke and other indications.
+
+86. _Recarburizing._--The process may be interrupted as soon as the
+carbon-content has fallen to that which the final product is to have, or
+it may be continued till nearly the whole of the carbon has been burned
+out, and then the needed carbon may be added by "recarburizing." The
+former of these ways is followed by the very skilful and intelligent
+blowers in Sweden, who, with the temperature and all other conditions
+well under control, and with their minds set on the quality rather than
+on the quantity of their product, can thus make steel of any desired
+carbon-content from 0.10 to 1.25%. But even with all their skill and
+care, while the carbon-content is still high the indications of the
+flame are not so decisive as to justify them in omitting to test the
+steel before removing it from the converter, as a check on the accuracy
+of their blowing. The delay which this test causes is so unwelcome that
+in all other countries the blower continues the blow until
+decarburization is nearly complete, because of the very great accuracy
+with which he can then read the indications of the flame, an accuracy
+which leaves little to be desired. Then, without waiting to test the
+product, he "recarburizes" it, i.e. adds enough carbon to give it the
+content desired, and then immediately pours the steel into a great
+clay-lined casting ladle by turning the converter over, and through a
+nozzle in the bottom of this ladle pours the steel into its ingot
+moulds. In making very low-carbon steel this recarburizing proper is not
+needed; but in any event a considerable quantity of manganese must be
+added unless the pig iron initially contains much of that metal, in
+order to remove from the molten steel the oxygen which it has absorbed
+from the blast, lest this make it redshort. If the carbon-content is not
+to be raised materially, this manganese is added in the form of
+preheated lumps of "ferro-manganese," which contains about 80% of
+manganese, 5% of carbon and 15% of iron, with a little silicon and other
+impurities. If, on the other hand, the carbon-content is to be raised,
+then carbon and manganese are usually added together in the form of a
+manganiferous molten pig iron, called spiegeleisen, i.e. "mirror-iron,"
+from the brilliancy of its facets, and usually containing somewhere
+about 12% of manganese and 4% of carbon, though the proportion between
+these two elements has to be adjusted so as to introduce the desired
+quantity of each into the molten steel. Part of the carbon of this
+spiegeleisen unites with the oxygen occluded in the molten iron to form
+carbonic oxide, and again a bright flame, greenish with manganese,
+escapes from the converter.
+
+87. _Darby's Process._--Another way of introducing the carbon is Darby's
+process of throwing large paper bags filled with anthracite, coke or
+gas-carbon into the casting ladle as the molten steel is pouring into
+it. The steel dissolves the carbon of this fuel even more quickly than
+water would dissolve salt under like conditions.
+
+88. _Bessemer and Mushet._--Bessemer had no very wide knowledge of
+metallurgy, and after overcoming many stupendous difficulties he was
+greatly embarrassed by the brittleness or "redshortness" of his steel,
+which he did not know how to cure. But two remedies were quickly
+offered, one by the skilful Swede, Göransson, who used a pig iron
+initially rich in manganese and stopped his blow before much oxygen had
+been taken up; and the other by a British steel maker, Robert Mushet,
+who proposed the use of the manganiferous cast iron called spiegeleisen,
+and thereby removed the only remaining serious obstacle to the rapid
+spread of the process.
+
+  From this many have claimed for Mushet a part almost or even quite
+  equal to Bessemer's in the development of the Bessemer process, even
+  calling it the "Bessemer-Mushet process." But this seems most unjust.
+  Mushet had no such exclusive knowledge of the effects of manganese
+  that he alone could have helped Bessemer; and even if nobody had then
+  proposed the use of spiegeleisen, the development of the Swedish
+  Bessemer practice would have gone on, and, the process thus
+  established and its value and great economy thus shown in Sweden, it
+  would have been only a question of time how soon somebody would have
+  proposed the addition of manganese. Mushet's aid was certainly
+  valuable, but not more than Göransson's, who, besides thus offering a
+  preventive of redshortness, further helped the process on by raising
+  its temperature by the simple expedient of further subdividing the
+  blast, thus increasing the surface of contact between blast and metal,
+  and thus in turn hastening the oxidation. The two great essential
+  discoveries were first that the rapid passage of air through molten
+  cast iron raised its temperature above the melting point of low-carbon
+  steel, or as it was then called "malleable iron," and second that this
+  low-carbon steel, which Bessemer was the first to make in important
+  quantities, was in fact an extraordinarily valuable substance when
+  made under proper conditions.
+
+89. _Source of Heat._--The carbon of the pig iron, burning as it does
+only to carbonic oxide within the converter, does not by itself generate
+a temperature high enough for the needs of the process. The oxidation of
+manganese is capable of generating a very high temperature, but it has
+the very serious disadvantage of causing such thick clouds of smoky
+oxide of manganese as to hide the flame from the blower, and prevent him
+from recognizing the moment when the blow should be ended. Thus it comes
+about that the temperature is regulated primarily by adjusting the
+quantity of silicon in the pig iron treated, 1(1/4)% of this element
+usually sufficing. If any individual blow proves to be too hot, it may
+be cooled by throwing cold "scrap" steel such as the waste ends of rails
+and other pieces, into the converter, or by injecting with the blast a
+little steam, which is decomposed by the iron by the endothermic
+reaction H2O + Fe = 2H + FeO. If the temperature is not high enough, it
+is raised by managing the blast in such a way as to oxidize some of the
+iron itself permanently, and thus to generate much heat.
+
+90. The _basic_ or dephosphorizing variety of the Bessemer process,
+called in Germany the "Thomas" process, differs from the acid process in
+four chief points: (1) that its slag is made very basic and hence
+dephosphorizing by adding much lime to it; (2) that the lining is basic,
+because an acid lining would quickly be destroyed by such a basic slag;
+(3) that the process is arrested not at the "drop of the flame" (§85)
+but at a predetermined length of time after it; and (4) that phosphorus
+instead of silicon is the chief source of heat. Let us consider these in
+turn.
+
+91. The _slag_, in order that it may have such an excess of base that
+this will retain the phosphoric acid as fast as it is formed by the
+oxidation of the phosphorus of the pig iron, and prevent it from being
+re-deoxidized and re-absorbed by the iron, should, according to von
+Ehrenwerth's rule which is generally followed, contain enough lime to
+form approximately a tetra-calcic silicate, 4CaO,SiO2 with the silica
+which results from the oxidation of the silicon of the pig iron and
+tri-calcic phosphate, 3CaO,P2O5, with the phosphoric acid which forms.
+The danger of this "rephosphorization" is greatest at the end of the
+blow, when the recarburizing additions are made. This lime is charged in
+the form of common quicklime, CaO, resulting from the calcination of a
+pure limestone, CaCO3, which should be as free as possible from silica.
+The usual composition of this slag is iron oxide, 10 to 16%; lime, 40 to
+50%; magnesia, 5%; silica, 6 to 9%; phosphoric acid, 16 to 20%. Its
+phosphoric acid makes it so valuable as a fertilizer that it is a most
+important by-product. In order that the phosphoric acid may be the more
+fully liberated by the humic acid, &c., of the earth, a little silicious
+sand is mixed with the still molten slag after it has been poured off
+from the molten steel. The slag is used in agriculture with no further
+preparation, save very fine grinding.
+
+92. The _lining of the converter_ is made of 90% of the mixture of lime
+and magnesia which results from calcining dolomite, (Ca,Mg)CO3, at a
+very high temperature, and 10% of coal tar freed from its water by
+heating. This mixture may be rammed in place, or baked blocks of it may
+be laid up like a masonry wall. In either case such a lining is
+expensive, and has but a short life, in few works more than 200 charges,
+and in some only 100, though the silicious lining of the acid converter
+lasts thousands of charges. Hence, for the basic process, spare
+converters must be provided, so that there may always be some of them
+re-lining, either while standing in the same place as when in use, or,
+as in Holley's arrangement, in a separate repair house, to which these
+gigantic vessels are removed bodily.
+
+93. _Control of the Basic Bessemer Process._--The removal of the greater
+part of the phosphorus takes place after the carbon has been oxidized
+and the flame has consequently "dropped," probably because the lime,
+which is charged in solid lumps, is taken up by the slag so slowly that
+not until late in the operation does the slag become so basic as to be
+retentive of phosphoric acid. Hence in making steel rich in carbon it is
+not possible, as in the acid Bessemer process, to end the operation as
+soon as the carbon in the metal has fallen to the point sought, but it
+is necessary to remove practically all of the carbon, then the
+phosphorus, and then "recarburize," i.e. add whatever carbon the steel
+is to contain. The quantity of phosphorus in the pig iron is usually
+known accurately, and the dephosphorization takes place so regularly
+that the quantity of air which it needs can be foretold closely. The
+blower therefore stops the process when he has blown a predetermined
+quantity of air through, counting from the drop of the flame; but as a
+check on his forecast he usually tests the blown metal before
+recarburizing it.
+
+94. _Source of Heat._--Silicon cannot here be used as the chief source
+of heat as it is in the acid Bessemer process, because most of the heat
+which its oxidation generates is consumed in heating the great
+quantities of lime needed for neutralizing the resultant silica.
+Fortunately the phosphorus, turned from a curse into a blessing,
+develops by its oxidation the needed temperature, though the fact that
+this requires at least 1.80% of phosphorus limits the use of the
+process, because there are few ores which can be made to yield so
+phosphoric a pig iron. Further objections to the presence of silicon are
+that the resultant silica (1) corrodes the lining of the converter, (2)
+makes the slag froth so that it both throws much of the charge out and
+blocks up the nose of the converter, and (3) leads to rephosphorization.
+These effects are so serious that until very lately it was thought that
+the silicon could not safely be much in excess of 1%. But Massenez and
+Richards, following the plan outlined by Pourcel in 1879, have found
+that even 3% of silicon is permissible if, by adding iron ore, the
+resultant silica is made into a fluid slag, and if this is removed in
+the early cool part of the process, when it attacks the lining of the
+converter but slightly. Manganese to the extent of 1.80% is desired as a
+means of preventing the resultant steel from being redshort, i.e.
+brittle at a red or forging heat. The pig iron should be as nearly free
+as possible from sulphur, because the removal of any large quantity of
+this injurious element in the process itself is both difficult and
+expensive.
+
+  95. The _car casting_ system deserves description chiefly because it
+  shows how, when the scale of operations is as enormous as it is in the
+  Bessemer process, even a slight simplification and a slight
+  heat-saving may be of great economic importance.
+
+  Whatever be the form into which the steel is to be rolled, it must in
+  general first be poured from the Bessemer converter in which it is
+  made into a large clay-lined ladle, and thence cast in vertical
+  pyramidal ingots. To bring them to a temperature suitable for rolling,
+  these ingots must be set in heating or soaking furnaces (§ 125), and
+  this should be done as soon as possible after they are cast, both to
+  lessen the loss of their initial heat, and to make way for the next
+  succeeding lot of ingots, a matter of great importance, because the
+  charges of steel follow each other at such very brief intervals. A
+  pair of working converters has made 4958 charges of 10 tons each, or a
+  total of 50,547 tons, in one month, or at an average rate of a charge
+  every seven minutes and twenty-four seconds throughout every working
+  day. It is this extraordinary rapidity that makes the process so
+  economical and determines the way in which its details must be carried
+  out. Moreover, since the mould acts as a covering to retard the loss
+  of heat, it should not be removed from the ingot until just before the
+  latter is to be placed in its soaking furnace. These conditions are
+  fulfilled by the car casting system of F. W. Wood, of Sparrows Point,
+  Md., in which the moulds, while receiving the steel, stand on a train
+  of cars, which are immediately run to the side of the soaking furnace.
+  Here, as soon as the ingots have so far solidified that they can be
+  lifted without breaking, their moulds are removed and set on an
+  adjoining train of cars, and the ingots are charged directly into the
+  soaking furnace. The mould-train now carries its empty moulds to a
+  cooling yard, and, as soon as they are cool enough to be used again,
+  carries them back to the neighbourhood of the converters to receive a
+  new lot of steel. In this system there is for each ingot and each
+  mould only one handling in which it is moved as a separate unit, the
+  mould from one train to the other, the ingot from its train into the
+  furnace. In the other movements, all the moulds and ingots of a given
+  charge of steel are grouped as a train, which is moved as a unit by a
+  locomotive. The difficulty in the way of this system was that, in
+  pouring the steel from ladle to mould, more or less of it occasionally
+  spatters, and these spatterings, if they strike the rails or the
+  running gear of the cars, obstruct and foul them, preventing the
+  movement of the train, because the solidified steel is extremely
+  tenacious. But this cannot be tolerated, because the economy of the
+  process requires extreme promptness in each of its steps. On account
+  of this difficulty the moulds formerly stood, not on cars, but
+  directly on the floor of a casting pit while receiving the molten
+  steel. When the ingots had so far solidified that they could be
+  handled, the moulds were removed and set on the floor to cool, the
+  ingots were set on a car and carried to the soaking furnace, and the
+  moulds were then replaced in the casting pit. Here each mould and each
+  ingot was handled as a separate unit twice, instead of only once as in
+  the car casting system; the ingots radiated away great quantities of
+  heat in passing naked from the converting mill to the soaking
+  furnaces, and the heat which they and the moulds radiated while in the
+  converting mill was not only wasted, but made this mill, open-doored
+  as it was, so intolerably hot, that the cost of labour there was
+  materially increased. Mr Wood met this difficulty by the simple device
+  of so shaping the cars that they completely protect both their own
+  running gear and the track from all possible spattering, a device
+  which, simple as it is, has materially lessened the cost of the steel
+  and greatly increased the production. How great the increase has been,
+  from this and many other causes, is shown in Table III.
+
+  TABLE III.--_Maximum Production of Ingots by a Pair of American
+  Converters._
+
+                             Gross Tons per Week.
+    1870                              254
+    1880                            3,433
+    1889                            8,549
+    1899 (average for a month)     11,233
+    1903                           15,704
+
+  Thus in thirty-three years the rate of production per pair of vessels
+  increased more than sixty-fold. The production of European Bessemer
+  works is very much less than that of American. Indeed, the whole
+  German production of acid Bessemer steel in 1899 was at a rate but
+  slightly greater than that here given for one pair of American
+  converters; and three pairs, if this rate were continued, would make
+  almost exactly as much steel as all the sixty-five active British
+  Bessemer converters, acid and basic together, made in 1899.
+
+  96. _Range in Size of Converters._--In the Bessemer process, and
+  indeed in most high-temperature processes, to operate on a large scale
+  has, in addition to the usual economies which it offers in other
+  industries, a special one, arising from the fact that from a large hot
+  furnace or hot mass in general a very much smaller proportion of its
+  heat dissipates through radiation and like causes than from a smaller
+  body, just as a thin red-hot wire cools in the air much faster than a
+  thick bar equally hot. Hence the progressive increase which has
+  occurred in the size of converters, until now some of them can treat a
+  20-ton charge, is not surprising. But, on the other hand, when only a
+  relatively small quantity of a special kind of steel is needed, very
+  much smaller charges, in some cases weighing even less than half a
+  ton, have been treated with technical success.
+
+  97. _The Bessemer Process for making Steel Castings._--This has been
+  particularly true in the manufacture of steel castings, i.e. objects
+  usually of more or less intricate shape, which are cast initially in
+  the form in which they are to be used, instead of being forged or
+  rolled to that form from steel cast originally in ingots. For making
+  castings, especially those which are so thin and intricate that, in
+  order that the molten steel may remain molten long enough to run into
+  the thin parts of the mould, it must be heated initially very far
+  above its melting-point, the Bessemer process has a very great
+  advantage in that it can develop a much higher temperature than is
+  attainable in either of its competitors, the crucible and the
+  open-hearth processes. Indeed, no limit has yet been found to the
+  temperature which can be reached, if matters are so arranged that not
+  only the carbon and silicon of the pig iron, but also a considerable
+  part of the metallic iron which is the iron itself, are oxidized by
+  the blast; or if, as in the Walrand-Legenisel modification, after the
+  combustion of the initial carbon and silicon of the pig iron has
+  already raised the charge to a very high temperature, a still further
+  rise of temperature is brought about by adding more silicon in the
+  form of ferro-silicon, and oxidizing it by further blowing. But in the
+  crucible and the open-hearth processes the temperature attainable is
+  limited by the danger of melting the furnace itself, both because some
+  essential parts of it, which, unfortunately, are of a destructible
+  shape, are placed most unfavourably in that they are surrounded by the
+  heat on all sides, and because the furnace is necessarily hotter than
+  the steel made within it. But no part of the Bessemer converter is of
+  a shape easily affected by the heat, no part of it is exposed to the
+  heat on more than one side, and the converter itself is necessarily
+  cooler than the metal within it, because the heat is generated within
+  the metal itself by the combustion of its silicon and other calorific
+  elements. In it the steel heats the converter, whereas in the
+  open-hearth and crucible processes the furnace heats the steel.
+
+98. The _open-hearth process_ consists in making molten steel out of pig
+or cast iron and "scrap," i.e. waste pieces of steel and iron melted
+together on the "open hearth," i.e. the uncovered basin-like bottom of a
+reverberatory furnace, under conditions of which fig. 18 may give a
+general idea. The conversion of cast iron into steel, of course,
+consists in lessening its content of the several foreign elements,
+carbon, silicon, phosphorus, &c. The open-hearth process does this by
+two distinct steps: (1) by oxidizing and removing these elements by
+means of the flame of the furnace, usually aided by the oxygen of light
+charges of iron ore, and (2) by diluting them with scrap steel or its
+equivalent. The "pig and ore" or "Siemens" variety of the process works
+chiefly by oxidation, the "pig and scrap" or "Siemens-Martin" variety
+chiefly by dilution, sometimes indeed by extreme dilution, as when 10
+parts of cast iron are diluted with 90 parts of scrap. Both varieties
+may be carried out in the basic and dephosphorizing way, i.e. in
+presence of a basic slag and in a basic- or neutral-lined furnace; or in
+the acid and undephosphorizing way, in presence of an acid, i.e.
+silicious slag, and in a furnace with a silicious lining.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Open-Hearth Process.
+
+  Half Section showing condition of charge when boiling very gently.
+
+  Half Section showing condition of charge when boiling violently during
+  oreing.]
+
+The charge may be melted down on the "open hearth" itself, or, as in the
+more advanced practice, the pig iron may be brought in the molten state
+from the blast furnace in which it is made. Then the furnaceman,
+controlling the decarburization and purification of the molten charge by
+his examination of test ingots taken from time to time, gradually
+oxidizes and so removes the foreign elements, and thus brings the metal
+simultaneously to approximately the composition needed and to a
+temperature far enough above its present melting-point to permit of its
+being cast into ingots or other castings. He then pours or taps the
+molten charge from the furnace into a large clay-lined casting ladle,
+giving it the final additions of manganese, usually with carbon and
+often with silicon, needed to give it exactly the desired composition.
+He then casts it into its final form through a nozzle in the bottom of
+the casting ladle, as in the Bessemer process.
+
+The oxidation of the foreign elements must be very slow, lest the
+effervescence due to the escape of carbonic oxide from the carbon of the
+metal throw the charge out of the doors and ports of the furnace, which
+itself must be shallow in order to hold the flame down close to the
+charge. It is in large part because of this shallowness, which contrasts
+so strongly with the height and roominess of the Bessemer converter,
+that the process lasts hours where the Bessemer process lasts minutes,
+though there is the further difference that in the open-hearth process
+the transfer of heat from flame to charge through the intervening layer
+of slag is necessarily slow, whereas in the Bessemer process the heat,
+generated as it is in and by the metallic bath itself, raises the
+temperature very rapidly. The slowness of this rise of the temperature
+compels us to make the removal of the carbon slow for a very simple
+reason. That removal progressively raises the melting-point of the
+metal, after line Aa of Fig. 1, i.e. makes the charge more and more
+infusible; and this progressive rise of the melting-point of the charge
+must not be allowed to outrun the actual rise of temperature, or in
+other words the charge must always be kept molten, because once
+solidified it is very hard to remelt. Thus the necessary slowness of the
+heating up of the molten charge would compel us to make the removal of
+the carbon slow, even if this slowness were not already forced on us by
+the danger of having the charge froth so much as to run out of the
+furnace.
+
+The general plan of the open-hearth process was certainly conceived by
+Josiah Marshall Heath in 1845, if not indeed by Réaumur in 1722, but for
+lack of a furnace in which a high enough temperature could be generated
+it could not be carried out until the development of the Siemens
+regenerative gas furnace about 1860. It was in large part through the
+efforts of Le Chatelier that this process, so long conceived, was at
+last, in 1864, put into actual use by the brothers Martin, of Sireuil in
+France.
+
+  99. _Siemens Open-Hearth Furnace._--These furnaces are usually
+  stationary, but in that shown in figs. 19 to 22 the working chamber or
+  furnace body, G of fig. 22, rotates about its own axis, rolling on the
+  rollers M shown in fig. 21. In this working chamber, a long
+  quasi-cylindrical vessel of brickwork, heated by burning within it
+  pre-heated gas with pre-heated air, the charge is melted and brought
+  to the desired composition and temperature. The working chamber indeed
+  is the furnace proper, in which the whole of the open-hearth process
+  is carried out, and the function of all the rest of the apparatus,
+  apart from the tilting mechanism, is simply to pre-heat the air and
+  gas, and to lead them to the furnace proper and thence to the chimney.
+  How this is done may be understood more easily if figs. 19 and 20 are
+  regarded for a moment as forming a single diagrammatic figure instead
+  of sections in different planes. The unbroken arrows show the
+  direction of the incoming gas and air, the broken ones the direction
+  of the escaping products of their combustion. The air and gas, the
+  latter coming from the gas producers or other source, arrive through H
+  and J respectively, and their path thence is determined by the
+  position of the reversing valves K and K´. In the position shown in
+  solid lines, these valves deflect the air and gas into the left-hand
+  pair of "regenerators" or spacious heat-transferring chambers. In
+  these, bricks in great numbers are piled loosely, in such a way that,
+  while they leave ample passage for the gas and air, yet they offer to
+  them a very great extent of surface, and therefore readily transfer to
+  them the heat which they have as readily sucked out of the escaping
+  products of combustion in the last preceding phase. The gas and air
+  thus separately pre-heated to about 1100° C. (2012° F.) rise thence as
+  two separate streams through the uptakes (fig. 22), and first mix at
+  the moment of entering the working chamber through the ports L and L´
+  (fig. 19). As they are so hot at starting, their combustion of course
+  yields a very much higher temperature than if they had been cold
+  before burning, and they form an enormous flame, which fills the great
+  working chamber. The products of combustion are sucked by the pull of
+  the chimney through the farther or right-hand end of this chamber, out
+  through the exit ports, as shown by the dotted arrows, down through
+  the right-hand pair of regenerators, heating to perhaps 1300° C. the
+  upper part of the loosely-piled masses of brickwork within them, and
+  thence past the valves K and K´ to the chimney-flue O. During this
+  phase the incoming gas and air have been withdrawing heat from the
+  left-hand regenerators, which have thus been cooling down, while the
+  escaping products of combustion have been depositing heat in the
+  right-hand pair of regenerators, which have thus been heating up.
+  After some thirty minutes this condition of things is reversed by
+  turning the valves K and K´ 90° into the positions shown in dotted
+  lines, when they deflect the incoming gas and air into the right-hand
+  regenerators, so that they may absorb in passing the heat which has
+  just been stored there; thence they pass up through the right-hand
+  uptakes and ports into the working chamber, where as before they mix,
+  burn and heat the charge. Thence they are sucked out by the
+  chimney-draught through the left-hand ports, down through the uptakes
+  and regenerators, here again meeting and heating the loose mass of
+  "regenerator" brickwork, and finally escape by the chimney-flue O.
+  After another thirty minutes the current is again reversed to its
+  initial direction, and so on. These regenerators are the essence of
+  the Siemens or "regenerative furnace"; they are heat-traps, catching
+  and storing by their enormous surface of brickwork the heat of the
+  escaping products of combustion, and in the following phase restoring
+  the heat to the entering air and gas. At any given moment one pair of
+  regenerators is storing heat, while the other is restoring it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Section on EF through Furnace and Port Ends.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Plan through Regenerators, Flues and
+  Reversing Valves.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Section on CD through Body of Furnace.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Section on AB through Uptake, Slag Pocket and
+  Regenerator.
+
+    Figs. 19 to 22.--Diagrammatic Sections of Tilting Siemens Furnace.
+    G,  Furnace body.
+    H,  Air supply.
+    J,  Gas supply.
+    K,  Air reversing valve.
+    K´, Gas reversing valve.
+    L,  Air port.
+    L´, Gas port.
+    M,  Rollers on which the furnace tilts.
+    N,  Hydraulic cylinder for tilting the furnace.
+    O,  Flue leading to chimney.
+    P,  Slag pockets.
+    R,  Charging boxes.
+    W,  Water-cooled joints between furnace proper, G, and ports L, L´.]
+
+  The tilting working chamber is connected with the stationary ports L
+  and L´ by means of the loose water-cooled joint W in Campbell's
+  system, which is here shown. The furnace, resting on the rollers M, is
+  tilted by the hydraulic cylinder N. The slag-pockets P (fig. 22),
+  below the uptakes, are provided to catch the dust carried out of the
+  furnace proper by the escaping products of combustion, lest it enter
+  and choke the regenerators. Wellman's tilting furnace rolls on a fixed
+  rack instead of on rollers. By his charging system a charge of as much
+  as fifty tons is quickly introduced. The metal is packed by unskilled
+  labourers in iron boxes, R (fig. 21), standing on cars in the
+  stock-yard. A locomotive carries a train of these cars to the track
+  running beside a long line of open-hearth furnaces. Here the charging
+  machine lifts one box at a time from its car, pushes it through the
+  momentarily opened furnace door, and empties the metal upon the hearth
+  of the furnace by inverting the box, which it then replaces on its
+  car.
+
+  100. The proportion of pig to scrap used depends chiefly on the
+  relative cost of these two materials, but sometimes in part also on
+  the carbon content which the resultant steel is to have. Thus part at
+  least of the carbon which a high-carbon steel is to contain may be
+  supplied by the pig iron from which it is made. The length of the
+  process increases with the proportion of pig used. Thus in the
+  Westphalian pig and scrap practice, scrap usually forms 75 or even 80%
+  of the charge, and pig only from 20 to 25%, indeed only enough to
+  supply the carbon inevitably burnt out in melting the charge and
+  heating it up to a proper casting temperature; and here the charge
+  lasts only about 6 hours. In some British and Swedish "pig and ore"
+  practice (§ 98), on the other hand, little or no scrap is used, and
+  here the removal of the large quantity of carbon, silicon and
+  phosphorus prolongs the process to 17 hours. The common practice in
+  the United States is to use about equal parts of pig and scrap, and
+  here the usual length of a charge is about ll˝ hours. The pig and ore
+  process is held back, first by the large quantity of carbon, and
+  usually of silicon and phosphorus, to be removed, and second by the
+  necessary slowness of their removal. The gangue of the ore increases
+  the quantity of slag, which separates the metal from the source of its
+  heat, the flame, and thus delays the rise of temperature; and the
+  purification by "oreing," i.e. by means of the oxygen of the large
+  lumps of cold iron ore thrown in by hand, is extremely slow, because
+  the ore must be fed in very slowly lest it chill the metal both
+  directly and because the reaction by which it removes the carbon of
+  the metal, Fe2O3 + C = 2FeO + CO, itself absorbs heat. Indeed, this
+  local cooling aggravates the frothing. A cold lump of ore chills the
+  slag immediately around it, just where its oxygen, reacting on the
+  carbon of the metal, generates carbonic oxide; the slag becomes cool,
+  viscous, and hence easily made to froth, just where the froth-causing
+  gas is evolved.
+
+  The length of these varieties of the process just given refers to the
+  basic procedure. The acid process goes on much faster, because in it
+  the heat insulating layer of slag is much thinner. For instance it
+  lasts only about 8˝ hours when equal parts of pig and scrap are used,
+  instead of the 11˝ hours of the basic process. Thus the actual cost of
+  conversion by the acid process is materially less than by the basic,
+  but this difference is more than outweighed in most places by the
+  greater cost of pig and scrap free enough from phosphorus to be used
+  in the undephosphorizing acid process.
+
+  101. _Three special varieties of the open-hearth process_, the
+  Bertrand-Thiel, the Talbot and the Monell, deserve notice. Bertrand
+  and Thiel oxidize the carbon of molten cast iron by pouring it into a
+  bath of molten iron which has first been oxygenated, i.e. charged with
+  oxygen, and superheated, in an open-hearth furnace. The two metallic
+  masses coalesce, and the reaction between the oxygen of one and the
+  carbon of the other is therefore extremely rapid because it occurs
+  throughout their depth, whereas in common procedure oxidation occurs
+  only at the upper surface of the bath of cast iron at its contact with
+  the overlying slag. Moreover, since local cooling, with its consequent
+  viscosity and tendency to froth, are avoided, the frothing is not
+  excessive in spite of the rapidity of the reaction. The oxygenated
+  metal is prepared by melting cast iron diluted with as much scrap
+  steel as is available, and oxidizing it with the flame and with iron
+  ore as it lies in a thin molten layer on the hearth of a large
+  open-hearth furnace; the thinness of the layer hastens the oxidation,
+  and the large size of the furnace permits considerable frothing. But
+  the oxygenated metal might be prepared easily in a Bessemer converter.
+
+  To enlarge the scale of operations makes strongly for economy in the
+  open-hearth process as in other high temperature ones. Yet the use of
+  an open-hearth furnace of very great capacity, say of 200 tons per
+  charge, has the disadvantage that such very large lots of steel,
+  delivered at relatively long intervals, are less readily managed in
+  the subsequent operations of soaking and rolling down to the final
+  shape, than smaller lots delivered at shorter intervals. To meet this
+  difficulty Mr B. Talbot carries on the process as a quasi-continuous
+  instead of an intermittent one, operating on 100-ton or 200-ton lots
+  of cast iron in such a way as to draw off his steel in 20-ton lots at
+  relatively short intervals, charging a fresh 20-ton lot of cast iron
+  to replace each lot of steel thus drawn off, and thus keeping the
+  furnace full of metal from Monday morning till Saturday night. Besides
+  minor advantages, this plan has the merit of avoiding an ineffective
+  period which occurs in common open-hearth procedure just after the
+  charge of cast iron has been melted down. At this time the slag is
+  temporarily rich in iron oxide and silica, resulting from the
+  oxidation of the iron and of its silicon as the charge slowly melts
+  and trickles down. Such a slag not only corrodes the furnace lining,
+  but also impedes dephosphorization, because it is irretentive of
+  phosphorus. Further, the relatively low temperature impedes
+  decarburization. Clearly, no such period can exist in the continuous
+  process.
+
+  At a relatively low temperature, say 1300° C., the phosphorus of cast
+  iron oxidizes and is removed much faster than its carbon, while at a
+  higher temperature, say 1500° C., carbon oxidizes in preference to
+  phosphorus. It is well to remove this latter element early, so that
+  when the carbon shall have fallen to the proportion which the steel is
+  to contain, the steel shall already be free from phosphorus, and so
+  ready to cast. In common open-hearth procedure, although the
+  temperature is low early in the process, viz. at the end of the
+  melting down, dephosphorization is then impeded by the temporary
+  acidity of the slag, as just explained. At the Carnegie works Mr
+  Monell gets the two dephosphorizing conditions, low temperature and
+  basicity of slag, early in the process, by pouring his molten but
+  relatively cool cast iron upon a layer of pre-heated lime and iron
+  oxide on the bottom of the open-hearth furnace. The lime and iron
+  oxide melt, and, in passing up through the overlying metal, the iron
+  oxide very rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus and thus drags it into the
+  slag as phosphoric acid. The ebullition from the formation of carbonic
+  oxide puffs up the resultant phosphoric slag enough to make most of it
+  run out of the furnace, thus both removing the phosphorus permanently
+  from danger of being later deoxidized and returned to the steel, and
+  partly freeing the bath of metal from the heat-insulating blanket of
+  slag. Yet frothing is not excessive, because the slag is not, as in
+  common practice, locally chilled and made viscous by cold lumps of
+  ore.
+
+  102. In the _duplex process_ the conversion of the cast iron into
+  steel is begun in the Bessemer converter and finished in the
+  open-hearth furnace. In the most promising form of this process an
+  acid converter and a basic open-hearth furnace are used. In the former
+  the silicon and part of the carbon are moved rapidly, in the latter
+  the rest of the carbon and the phosphorus are removed slowly, and the
+  metal is brought accurately to the proper temperature and composition.
+  The advantage of this combination is that, by simplifying the
+  conditions with which the composition of the pig iron has to comply,
+  it makes the management of the blast furnace easier, and thus lessens
+  the danger of making "misfit" pig iron, i.e. that which, because it is
+  not accurately suited to the process for which it is intended, offers
+  us the dilemma of using it in that process at poor advantage or of
+  putting it to some other use, a step which often implies serious loss.
+
+  For the acid Bessemer process the sulphur-content must be small and
+  the silicon-content should be constant; for the basic open-hearth
+  process the content of both silicon and sulphur should be small, a
+  thing difficult to bring about, because in the blast furnace most of
+  the conditions which make for small sulphur-content make also for
+  large silicon-content. In the acid Bessemer process the reason why the
+  sulphur-content must be small is that the process removes no sulphur;
+  and the reason why the silicon-content should be constant is that,
+  because silicon is here the chief source of heat, variations in its
+  content cause corresponding variations in the temperature, a most
+  harmful thing because it is essential to the good quality of the steel
+  that it shall be finished and cast at the proper temperature. It is
+  true that the use of the "mixer" (§ 77) lessens these variations, and
+  that there are convenient ways of mitigating their effects.
+  Nevertheless, their harm is not completely done away with. But if the
+  conversion is only begun in the converter and finished on the
+  open-hearth, then there is no need of regulating the temperature in
+  the converter closely, and variations in the silicon-content of the
+  pig iron thus become almost harmless in this respect. In the basic
+  open-hearth process, on the other hand, silicon is harmful because the
+  silica which results from its oxidation not only corrodes the lining
+  of the furnace but interferes with the removal of the phosphorus, an
+  essential part of the process. The sulphur-content should be small,
+  because the removal of this element is both slow and difficult. But if
+  the silicon of the pig iron is removed by a preliminary treatment in
+  the Bessemer converter, then its presence in the pig iron is harmless
+  as regards the open-hearth process. Hence the blast furnace process,
+  thus freed from the hampering need of controlling accurately the
+  silicon-content, can be much more effectively guided so as to prevent
+  the sulphur from entering the pig iron.
+
+  Looking at the duplex process in another way, the preliminary
+  desilicidizing in the Bessemer converter should certainly be an
+  advantage; but whether it is more profitable to give this treatment in
+  the converter than in the mixer remains to be seen.
+
+103. In the _cementation process_ bars of wrought iron about ˝ in. thick
+are carburized and so converted into high carbon "blister steel," by
+heating them in contact with charcoal in a closed chamber to about
+1000° C. (1832° F.) for from 8 to 11 days. Low-carbon steel might thus
+be converted into high-carbon steel, but this is not customary. The
+carbon dissolves in the hot but distinctly solid [gamma]-iron (compare
+fig. 1) as salt dissolves in water, and works its way towards the centre
+of the bar by diffusion. When the mass is cooled, the carbon changes
+over into the condition of cementite as usual, partly interstratified
+with ferrite in the form of pearlite, partly in the form of envelopes
+enclosing kernels of this pearlite (see ALLOYS, Pl. fig. 13). Where the
+carbon, in thus diffusing inwards, meets particles of the slag, a basic
+ferrous silicate which is always present in wrought iron, it forms
+carbonic oxide, FeO + C = Fe + CO, which puffs the pliant metal up and
+forms blisters. Hence the name "blister steel." It was formerly sheared
+to short lengths and formed into piles, which were then rolled out,
+perhaps to be resheared and rerolled into bars, known as "single shear"
+or "double shear" steel according to the number of shearings. But now
+the chief use for blister steel is for remelting in the crucible
+process, yielding a product which is asserted so positively, so
+universally and by such competent witnesses to be not only better but
+very much better than that made from any other material, that we must
+believe that it is so, though no clear reason can yet be given why it
+should be. For long all the best high-carbon steel was made by remelting
+this blister steel in crucibles (§ 106), but in the last few years the
+electric processes have begun to make this steel (§ 108).
+
+104. _Case Hardening._--The many steel objects which need an extremely
+hard outer surface but a softer and more malleable interior may be
+carburized superficially by heating them in contact with charcoal or
+other carbonaceous matter, for instance for between 5 and 48 hours at a
+temperature of 800° to 900° C. This is known as "case hardening." After
+this carburizing these objects are usually hardened by quenching in cold
+water (see § 28).
+
+105. _Deep Carburizing; Harvey and Krupp Processes._--Much of the heavy
+side armour of war-vessels (see ARMOUR-PLATE) is made of nickel steel
+initially containing so little carbon that it cannot be hardened, i.e.
+that it remains very ductile even after sudden cooling. The impact face
+of these plates is given the intense hardness needed by being converted
+into high-carbon steel, and then hardened by sudden cooling. The impact
+face is thus carburized to a depth of about 1Ľ in. by being held at a
+temperature of 1100° for about a week, pressed strongly against a bed of
+charcoal (Harvey process). The plate is then by Krupp's process heated
+so that its impact face is above while its rear is below the hardening
+temperature, and the whole is then cooled suddenly with sprays of cold
+water. Under these conditions the hardness, which is very extreme at the
+impact face, shades off toward the back, till at about quarter way from
+face to back all hardening ceases, and the rest of the plate is in a
+very strong, shock-resisting state. Thanks to the glass-hardness of this
+face, the projectile is arrested so abruptly that it is shattered, and
+its energy is delivered piecemeal by its fragments; but as the face is
+integrally united with the unhardened, ductile and slightly yielding
+interior and back, the plate, even if it is locally bent backwards
+somewhat by the blow, neither cracks nor flakes.
+
+106. The _crucible process_ consists essentially in melting one or
+another variety of iron or steel in small 80-lb. charges in closed
+crucibles, and then casting it into ingots or other castings, though in
+addition the metal while melting may be carburized. Its chief, indeed
+almost its sole use, is for making tool steel, the best kinds of spring
+steel and other very excellent kinds of high-carbon and alloy steel.
+After the charge has been fully melted, it is held in the molten state
+from 30 to 60 minutes. This enables it to take up enough silicon from
+the walls of the crucible to prevent the evolution of gas during
+solidification, and the consequent formation of blowholes or internal
+gas bubbles. In Great Britain the charge usually consists of blister
+steel, and is therefore high in carbon, so that the crucible process has
+very little to do except to melt the charge. In the United States the
+charge usually consists chiefly of wrought iron, and in melting in the
+crucible it is carburized by mixing with it either charcoal or "washed
+metal," a very pure cast iron made by the Bell-Krupp process (§ 107).
+
+  Compared with the Bessemer process, which converts a charge of even as
+  much as 20 tons of pig iron into steel in a few minutes, and the
+  open-hearth process which easily treats charges of 75 tons, the
+  crucible process is, of course, a most expensive one, with its little
+  80-lb. charges, melted with great consumption of fuel because the heat
+  is kept away from the metal by the walls of the crucible, themselves
+  excellent heat insulators. But it survives simply because crucible
+  steel is very much better than either Bessemer or open-hearth steel.
+  This in turn is in part because of the greater care which can be used
+  in making these small lots, but probably in chief part because the
+  crucible process excludes the atmospheric nitrogen, which injures the
+  metal, and because it gives a good opportunity for the suspended slag
+  and iron oxide to rise to the surface. Till Huntsman developed the
+  crucible process in 1740, the only kinds of steel of commercial
+  importance were blister steel made by carburizing wrought iron without
+  fusion, and others which like it were greatly injured by the presence
+  of particles of slag. Huntsman showed that the mere act of freeing
+  these slag-bearing steels from their slag by melting them in closed
+  crucibles greatly improved them. It is true that Réaumur in 1722
+  described his method of making molten steel in crucibles, and that the
+  Hindus have for centuries done this on a small scale, though they let
+  the molten steel resolidify in the crucible. Nevertheless, it is to
+  Huntsman that the world is immediately indebted for the crucible
+  process. He could make only high-carbon steel, because he could not
+  develop within his closed crucibles the temperature needed for melting
+  low-carbon steel. The crucible process remained the only one by which
+  slagless steel could be made, till Bessemer, by his astonishing
+  invention, discovered at once low-carbon steel and a process for
+  making both it and high-carbon steel extremely cheaply.
+
+107. In the _Bell-Krupp_ or "pig-washing" process, invented
+independently by the famous British iron-master, Sir Lowthian Bell, and
+Krupp of Essen, advantage is taken of the fact that, at a relatively low
+temperature, probably a little above 1200° C., the phosphorus and
+silicon of molten cast iron are quickly oxidized and removed by contact
+with molten iron oxide, though carbon is thus oxidized but slowly. By
+rapidly stirring molten iron oxide into molten pig iron in a furnace
+shaped like a saucer, slightly inclined and turning around its axis, at
+a temperature but little above the melting-point of the metal itself,
+the phosphorus and silicon are removed rapidly, without removing much of
+the carbon, and by this means an extremely pure cast iron is made. This
+is used in the crucible process as a convenient source of the carbon
+needed for high-carbon steel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Heroult Double-arc Electric Steel Purifying
+Furnace.]
+
+108. _Electric steel-making processes_, or more accurately processes in
+which electrically heated furnaces are used, have developed very
+rapidly. In steel-making, electric furnaces are used for two distinct
+purposes, first for making steel sufficiently better than Bessemer and
+open-hearth steels to replace these for certain important purposes, and
+second for replacing the very expensive crucible process for making the
+very best steel. The advantages of the electric furnaces for these
+purposes can best be understood after examining the furnaces themselves
+and the way in which they are used. The most important ones are either
+"arc" furnaces, i.e. those heated by electric arcs, or "induction" ones,
+i.e. those in which the metal under treatment is heated by its own
+resistance to a current of electricity induced in it from without. The
+Heroult furnace, the best known in the arc class, and the Kjellin and
+Roechling-Rodenhauser furnaces, the best known of the induction class,
+will serve as examples.
+
+  The Heroult furnace (fig. 23) is practically a large closed crucible,
+  ABCA, with two carbon electrodes, E and F, "in series" with the bath,
+  H, of molten steel. A pair of electric arcs play between these
+  electrodes and the molten steel, passing through the layer of slag, G,
+  and generating much heat. The lining of the crucible may be of either
+  magnesite (MgO) or chromite (FeO·Cr2O3). The whole furnace, electrodes
+  and all, rotates about the line KL for the purpose of pouring out the
+  molten slag and purified metal through the spout J at the end of the
+  process. This spout and the charging doors A, A are kept closed except
+  when in actual use for pouring or charging.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Kjellin Induction Electric Steel Melting
+  Furnace.]
+
+  The Kjellin furnace consists essentially of an annular trough, AA
+  (fig. 24), which contains the molten charge. This charge is heated,
+  like the filaments of a common household electric lamp, by the
+  resistance which it offers to the passage of a current of electricity
+  induced in it by means of the core C and the frame EEE. The ends of
+  this core are connected above, below and at the right of the trough A,
+  by means of that frame, so that the trough and this core and frame
+  stand to each other in a position like that of two successive links of
+  a common oval-linked chain. A current of great electromotive force
+  (intensity or voltage) passed through the coil D, induces, by means of
+  the core and frame, a current of enormous quantity (volume or
+  amperage), but very small electromotive force, in the metal in the
+  trough. Thus the apparatus is analogous to the common transformers
+  used for inducing from currents of great electromotive force and small
+  quantity, which carry energy through long distances, currents of great
+  quantity and small electromotive force for incandescent lights and for
+  welding. The molten metal in the Kjellin trough forms the "secondary"
+  circuit. Like the Heroult furnace, the Kjellin furnace may be lined
+  with either magnesite or chromite, and it may be tilted for the
+  purpose of pouring off slag and metal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Plan of Roechling-Rodenhauser Induction
+  Electric Furnace.]
+
+  The shape which the molten metal under treatment has in the Kjellin
+  furnace, a thin ring of large diameter, is evidently bad, inconvenient
+  for manipulation and with excessive heat-radiating surface. In the
+  Roechling-Rodenhauser induction furnace (fig. 25), the molten metal
+  lies chiefly in a large compact mass A, heated at three places on its
+  periphery by the current induced in it there by means of the three
+  coils and cores CCC. The molten metal also extends round each of these
+  three coils, in the narrow channels B. It is in the metal in these
+  channels and in that part of the main mass of metal which immediately
+  adjoins the coils that the current is induced by means of the coils
+  and cores, as in the Kjellin furnace.
+
+  When the Heroult furnace is used for completing the purification of
+  molten steel begun in the Bessemer or open-hearth process, and this is
+  its most appropriate use, the process carried out in it may be divided
+  into two stages, first dephosphorization, and second deoxidation and
+  desulphurization.
+
+  In the first stage the phosphorus is removed from the molten steel by
+  oxidizing it to phosphoric acid, P2O5, by means of iron oxide
+  contained in a molten slag very rich in lime, and hence very basic and
+  retentive of that phosphoric acid. This slag is formed by melting lime
+  and iron oxide, with a little silica sand if need be. Floating on top
+  of the molten metal, it rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus, and the
+  resultant phosphoric acid combines with the lime in the overlying slag
+  as phosphate of lime. When the removal of the phosphorus is
+  sufficiently complete, this slag is withdrawn from the furnace.
+
+  Next comes the deoxidizing and desulphurizing stage, of which the
+  first step is to throw some strongly deoxidizing substance, such as
+  coke or ferro-silicon, upon the molten metal, in order to remove thus
+  the chief part of the oxygen which it has taken up during the
+  oxidation of the phosphorus in the preceding stage. Next the metal is
+  covered with a very basic slag, made by melting lime with a little
+  silica and fluor spar. Coke now charged into this slag first
+  deoxidizes any iron oxide contained in either slag or metal, and next
+  deoxidizes part of the lime of the slag and thus forms calcium, which,
+  uniting with the sulphur present in the molten metal, forms calcium
+  sulphide, CaO + FeS + C = CaS + Fe + CO. This sulphide is nearly
+  insoluble in the metal, but is readily soluble in the overlying basic
+  slag, into which it therefore passes. The thorough removal of the
+  sulphur is thus brought about by the deoxidation of the calcium. It is
+  by forming calcium sulphide that sulphur is removed in the manufacture
+  of pig iron in the iron blast furnace, in the crucible of which, as in
+  the electric furnaces, the conditions are strongly deoxidizing. But in
+  the Bessemer and open-hearth processes this means of removing sulphur
+  cannot be used, because in each of them there is always enough oxygen
+  in the atmosphere to re-oxidize any calcium as fast as it is
+  deoxidized. Here sulphur may indeed be removed to a very important
+  degree in the form of manganese sulphide, which distributes itself
+  between metal and slag in rough accord with the laws of equilibrium.
+  But if we rely on this means we have difficulty in reducing the
+  sulphur content of the metal to 0.03% and very great difficulty in
+  reducing it to 0.02%, whereas with the calcium sulphide of the
+  electric furnaces we can readily reduce it to less than 0.01%.
+
+  When the desulphurization is sufficiently complete, the
+  sulphur-bearing slag is removed, the final additions needed to give
+  the metal exactly the composition aimed at are made, and the molten
+  steel is tapped out of the furnace into its moulds. If the initial
+  quantity of phosphorus or sulphur is large, or if the removal of these
+  impurities is to be made very thorough, the dephosphorizing or the
+  desulphurizing slagging off may be repeated. While the metal lies
+  tranquilly on the bottom of the furnace, any slag mechanically
+  suspended in it has a chance to rise to the surface and unite with the
+  slag layer above.
+
+  In addition to this work of purification, the furnace may be used for
+  melting down the initial charge of cold metal, and for beginning the
+  purification--in short not only for finishing but also for roughing.
+  But this is rarely expedient, because electricity is so expensive that
+  it should be used for doing only those things which cannot be
+  accomplished by any other and cheaper means. The melting can be done
+  much more cheaply in a cupola or open-hearth furnace, and the first
+  part of the purification much more cheaply in a Bessemer converter or
+  open-hearth furnace.
+
+  The normal use of the Kjellin induction furnace is to do the work
+  usually done in the crucible process, i.e. to melt down very pure iron
+  for the manufacture of the best kinds of steel, such as fine tool and
+  spring steel, and to bring the molten metal simultaneously to the
+  exact composition and temperature at which it should be cast into its
+  moulds. This furnace may be used also for purifying the molten metal,
+  but it is not so well suited as the arc furnaces for dephosphorizing.
+  The reason for this is that in it the slag, by means of which all the
+  purification must needs be done, is not heated effectively; that hence
+  it is not readily made thoroughly liquid; that hence the removal of
+  the phosphoric slag made in the early dephosphorizing stage of the
+  process is liable to be incomplete; and that hence, finally, the
+  phosphorus of any of this slag which is left in the furnace becomes
+  deoxidized during the second or deoxidizing stage, and is thereby
+  returned to befoul the underlying steel. The reason why the slag is
+  not heated effectively is that the heat is developed only in the layer
+  of metal itself, by its resistance to the induced current, and hence
+  the only heat which the slag receives is that supplied to its lower
+  surface by the metal, while its upper side is constantly radiating
+  heat away towards the relatively cool roof above.
+
+  The Roechling-Rodenhauser furnace is unfitted, by the vulnerability of
+  its interior walls, for receiving charges of cold metal to be melted
+  down, but it is used to good advantage for purifying molten basic
+  Bessemer steel sufficiently to fit it for use in the form of railway
+  rails.
+
+We are now in a position to understand why electricity should be used as
+a source of heat in making molten steel. Electric furnaces are at an
+advantage over others as regards the removal of sulphur and of iron
+oxide from the molten steel, because their atmosphere is free from the
+sulphur always present in the flame of coal-fired furnaces, and almost
+free from oxygen, because this element is quickly absorbed by the carbon
+and silicon of the steel, and in the case of arc furnaces by the carbon
+of the electrodes themselves, and is replaced only very slowly by
+leakage, whereas through the Bessemer converter and the open-hearth
+furnace a torrent of air is always rushing. As we have seen, the removal
+of sulphur can be made complete only by deoxidizing calcium, and this
+cannot be done if much oxygen is present. Indeed, the freedom of the
+atmosphere of the electric furnaces from oxygen is also the reason
+indirectly why the molten metal can be freed from mechanically
+suspended slag more perfectly in them than in the Bessemer converter or
+the open-hearth furnace. In order that this finely divided slag shall
+rise to the surface and there coalesce with the overlying layer, the
+metal must be tranquil. But tranquillity is clearly impossible in the
+Bessemer converter, in which the metal can be kept hot only by being
+torn into a spray by the blast. It is practically unattainable in the
+open-hearth furnace, because here the oxygen of the furnace atmosphere
+indirectly oxidizes the carbon of the metal which is kept boiling by the
+escape of the resultant carbonic oxide. In short the electric furnaces
+can be used to improve the molten product of the Bessemer converter and
+open-hearth furnace, essentially because their atmosphere is free from
+sulphur and oxygen, and because they can therefore remove sulphur, iron
+oxide and mechanically suspended slag, more thoroughly than is possible
+in these older furnaces. They make a better though a dearer steel.
+
+Further, the electric furnaces, e.g. the Kjellin, can be used to replace
+the crucible melting process (§ 106), chiefly because their work is
+cheaper for two reasons. First, they treat a larger charge, a ton or
+more, whereas the charge of each crucible is only about 80 pounds.
+Second, their heat is applied far more economically, directly to the
+metal itself, whereas in the crucible process the heat is applied most
+wastefully to the outside of the non-conducting walls of a closed
+crucible within which the charge to be heated lies. Beyond this sulphur
+and phosphorus can be removed in the electric furnace, whereas in the
+crucible process they cannot. In short electric furnaces replace the old
+crucible furnace primarily because they work more cheaply, though in
+addition they may be made to yield a better steel than it can.
+
+  Thus we see that the purification in these electric furnaces has
+  nothing to do with electricity. We still use the old familiar
+  purifying agents, iron oxide, lime and nascent calcium. The
+  electricity is solely a source of heat, free from the faults of the
+  older sources which for certain purposes it now replaces. The electric
+  furnaces are likely to displace the crucible furnaces completely,
+  because they work both more cheaply and better. They are not likely to
+  displace either the open-hearth furnace or the Bessemer converter,
+  because their normal work is only to improve the product of these
+  older furnaces. Here their use is likely to be limited by its
+  costliness, because for the great majority of purposes the superiority
+  of the electrically purified steel is not worth the cost of the
+  electric purification.
+
+109. _Electric Ore-smelting Processes._--Though the electric processes
+which have been proposed for extracting the iron from iron ore, with the
+purpose of displacing the iron blast furnace, have not become important
+enough to deserve description here, yet it should be possible to devise
+one which would be useful in a place (if there is one) which has an
+abundance of water power and iron ore and a local demand for iron, but
+has not coke, charcoal or bituminous coal suitable for the blast
+furnace. But this ancient furnace does its fourfold work of deoxidizing,
+melting, removing the gangue and desulphurizing, so very economically
+that it is not likely to be driven out in other places until the
+exhaustion of our coal-fields shall have gone so far as to increase the
+cost of coke greatly.
+
+110. _Comparison of Steel-making Processes._--When Bessemer discovered
+that by simply blowing air through molten cast iron rapidly he could
+make low-carbon steel, which is essentially wrought iron greatly
+improved by being freed from its essential defect, its necessarily
+weakening and embrittling slag, the very expensive and exhausting
+puddling process seemed doomed, unable to survive the time when men
+should have familiarized themselves with the use of Bessemer steel, and
+should have developed the evident possibilities of cheapness of the
+Bessemer process. Nevertheless the use of wrought iron actually
+continued to increase. The first of the United States decennial censuses
+to show a decrease in the production of wrought iron was that in 1890,
+35 years after the invention of the Bessemer process. It is still in
+great demand for certain normal purposes for which either great ease in
+welding or resistance to corrosion by rusting is of great importance;
+for purposes requiring special forms of extreme ductility which are not
+so confidently expected in steel; for miscellaneous needs of many users,
+some ignorant, some very conservative; and for remelting in the
+crucible process. All the best cutlery and tool steel is made either by
+the crucible process or in electric furnaces, and indeed all for which
+any considerable excellence is claimed is supposed to be so made, though
+often incorrectly. But the great mass of the steel of commerce is made
+by the Bessemer and the open-hearth processes. Open-hearth steel is
+generally thought to be better than Bessemer, and the acid variety of
+each of these two processes is thought to yield a better product than
+the basic variety. This may not necessarily be true, but the acid
+variety lends itself more readily to excellence than the basic. A very
+large proportion of ores cannot be made to yield cast iron either free
+enough from phosphorus for the acid Bessemer or the acid open-hearth
+process, neither of which removes that most injurious element, or rich
+enough in phosphorus for the basic Bessemer process, which must rely on
+that element as its source of heat. But cast iron for the basic
+open-hearth process can be made from almost any ore, because its
+requirements, comparative freedom from silicon and sulphur, depend on
+the management of the blast-furnace rather than on the composition of
+the ore, whereas the phosphorus-content of the cast iron depends solely
+on that of the ore, because nearly all the phosphorus of the ore
+necessarily passes into the cast iron. Thus the basic open-hearth
+process is the only one which can make steel from cast iron containing
+more than 0.10% but less than 1.80% of phosphorus.
+
+The restriction of the basic Bessemer process to pig iron containing at
+least 1.80% of phosphorus has prevented it from getting a foothold in
+the United States; the restriction of the acid Bessemer process to pig
+iron very low in phosphorus, usually to that containing less than 0.10%
+of that element, has almost driven it out of Germany, has of late
+retarded, indeed almost stopped, the growth of its use in the United
+States, and has even caused it to be displaced at the great Duquesne
+works of the Carnegie Steel Company by the omnivorous basic open-hearth
+process, the use of which has increased very rapidly. Under most
+conditions the acid Bessemer process is the cheapest in cost of
+conversion, the basic Bessemer next, and the acid open-hearth next,
+though the difference between them is not great. But the crucible
+process is very much more expensive than any of the others.
+
+  Until very lately the Bessemer process, in either its acid or its
+  basic form, made all of the world's rail steel; but even for this work
+  it has now begun to be displaced by the basic open-hearth process,
+  partly because of the fast-increasing scarcity of ores which yield pig
+  iron low enough in phosphorus for the acid Bessemer process, and
+  partly because the increase in the speed of trains and in the loads on
+  the individual engine- and car-wheels has made a demand for rails of a
+  material better than Bessemer steel.
+
+111. _Iron founding_, i.e. the manufacture of castings of cast iron,
+consists essentially in pouring the molten cast iron into moulds, and,
+as preparatory steps, melting the cast iron itself and preparing the
+moulds. These are usually made of sand containing enough clay to give it
+the needed coherence, but of late promising attempts have been made to
+use permanent iron moulds. In a very few places the molten cast iron as
+it issues from the blast furnace is cast directly in these moulds, but
+in general it is allowed to solidify in pigs, and then remelted either
+in cupola furnaces or in air furnaces. The cupola furnace (fig. 26) is a
+shaft much like a miniature blast furnace, filled from top to bottom by
+a column of lumps of coke and of iron. The blast of air forced in
+through the tuyeres near the bottom of the furnace burns the coke there,
+and the intense heat thus caused melts away the surrounding iron, so
+that this column of coke and iron gradually descends; but it is kept at
+its full height by feeding more coke and iron at its top, until all the
+iron needed for the day's work has thus been charged. As the iron melts
+it runs out through a tap hole and spout at the bottom of the furnace,
+to be poured into the moulds by means of clay-lined ladles. The air
+furnace is a reverberatory furnace like that used for puddling (fig.
+14), but larger, and in it the pigs of iron, lying on the bottom or
+hearth, are melted down by the flame from the coal which burns in the
+firebox. The iron is then held molten till it has grown hot enough for
+casting and till enough of its carbon has been burnt away to leave just
+the carbon-content desired, and it is then tapped out and poured into
+the moulds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Cupola Furnace for Remelting Pig Iron.]
+
+  Of the two the cupola is very much the more economical of fuel, thanks
+  to the direct transfer of heat from the burning coke to the pig iron
+  with which it is in contact. But this contact both causes the iron to
+  absorb sulphur from the coke to its great harm, and prevents it from
+  having any large part of its carbon burnt away, which in many cases
+  would improve it very greatly by strengthening it. Thus it comes about
+  that the cupola, because it is so economical, is used for all but the
+  relatively few cases in which the strengthening of the iron by the
+  removal of part of its carbon and the prevention of the absorption of
+  sulphur are so important as to compensate for the greater cost of the
+  air-furnace melting.
+
+112. _Cast iron for foundry purposes_, i.e. for making castings of cast
+iron. Though, as we have seen in § 19, steel is rarely given a
+carbon-content greater than 1.50% lest its brittleness should be
+excessive, yet cast iron with between 3 and 4% of carbon, the usual cast
+iron of the foundry, is very useful. Because of the ease and cheapness
+with which, thanks to its fluidity and fusibility (fig. 1), it can be
+melted and run even into narrow and intricate moulds, castings made of
+it are very often more economical, i.e. they serve a given purpose more
+cheaply, in the long run, than either rolled or cast steel, in spite of
+their need of being so massive that the brittleness of the material
+itself shall be endurable. Indeed this high carbon-content, 3 to 4%, in
+practice actually leads to less brittleness than can readily be had with
+somewhat less carbon, because with it much of the carbon can easily be
+thrown into the relatively harmless state of graphite, whereas if the
+carbon amounts to less than 3% it can be brought to this state only with
+difficulty. For crushing certain kinds of rock, the hardness of which
+cast iron is capable really makes it more valuable, pound for pound,
+than steel.
+
+113. _Qualities needed in Cast Iron Castings._--Different kinds of
+castings need very different sets of qualities, and the composition of
+the cast iron itself must vary from case to case so as to give each the
+qualities needed. The iron for a statuette must first of all be very
+fluid, so that it will run into every crevice in its mould, and it must
+expand in solidifying, so that it shall reproduce accurately every
+detail of that mould. The iron for most engineering purposes needs
+chiefly to be strong and not excessively brittle. That for the
+thin-walled water mains must combine strength with the fluidity needed
+to enable it to run freely into its narrow moulds; that for most
+machinery must be soft enough to be cut easily to an exact shape; that
+for hydraulic cylinders must combine strength with density lest the
+water leak through; and that for car-wheels must be intensely hard in
+its wearing parts, but in its other parts it must have that
+shock-resisting power which can be had only along with great softness.
+Though all true cast iron is brittle, in the sense that it is not
+usefully malleable, i.e. that it cannot be hammered from one shape into
+another, yet its degree of brittleness differs as that of soapstone does
+from that of glass, so that there are the intensely hard and brittle
+cast irons, and the less brittle ones, softer and unhurt by a shock
+which would shiver the former.
+
+Of these several qualities which cast iron may have, fluidity is given
+by keeping the sulphur-content low and phosphorus-content high; and this
+latter element must be kept low if shock is to be resisted; but
+strength, hardness, endurance of shock, density and expansion in
+solidifying are controlled essentially by the distribution of the carbon
+between the states of graphite and cementite, and this in turn is
+controlled chiefly by the proportion of silicon, manganese and sulphur
+present, and in many cases by the rate of cooling.
+
+  114. _Constitution of Cast Iron._--Cast iron naturally has a high
+  carbon-content, usually between 3 and 4%, because while molten it
+  absorbs carbon greedily from the coke with which it is in contact in
+  the iron blast furnace in which it is made, and in the cupola furnace
+  in which it is remelted for making most castings. This carbon may all
+  be present as graphite, as in typical grey cast iron; or all present
+  as cementite, Fe3C, as in typical white cast iron; or, as is far more
+  usual, part of it may be present as graphite and part as cementite.
+  Now how does it come about that the distribution of the carbon between
+  these very unlike states determines the strength, hardness and many
+  other valuable properties of the metal as a whole? The answer to this
+  is made easy by a careful study of the effect of this same
+  distribution on the constitution of the metal, because it is through
+  controlling this constitution that the condition of the carbon
+  controls these useful properties. To fix our ideas let us assume that
+  the iron contains 4% of carbon. If this carbon is all present as
+  graphite, so that in cooling the graphite-austenite diagram has been
+  followed strictly (§ 26), the constitution is extremely simple;
+  clearly the mass consists first of a metallic matrix, the carbonless
+  iron itself with whatever silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur
+  happen to be present, in short an impure ferrite, encased in which as
+  a wholly distinct foreign body is the graphite. The primary graphite
+  (§ 26) generally forms a coarse, nearly continuous skeleton of curved
+  black plates, like those shown in fig. 27; the eutectic graphite is
+  much finer; while the pro-eutectoid and eutectoid graphite, if they
+  exist, are probably in very fine particles. We must grasp clearly this
+  conception of metallic matrix and encased graphite skeleton if we are
+  to understand this subject.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Graphite in Grey Cast Iron.]
+
+  Now this matrix itself is equivalent to a very low-carbon steel,
+  strictly speaking to a carbonless steel, because it consists of pure
+  ferrite, which is just what such a steel consists of; and the cast
+  iron as a whole is therefore equivalent to a matrix of very low-carbon
+  steel in which is encased a skeleton of graphite plates, besides some
+  very fine scattered particles of graphite.
+
+  Next let us imagine that, in a series of cast irons all containing 4%
+  of carbon, the graphite of the initial skeleton changes gradually into
+  cementite and thereby becomes part of the matrix, a change which of
+  course has two aspects, first, a gradual thinning of the graphite
+  skeleton and a decrease of its continuity, and second, a gradual
+  introduction of cementite into the originally pure ferrite matrix. By
+  the time that 0.4% of graphite has thus changed, and in changing has
+  united with 0.4 × 14 = 5.6% of the iron of the original ferrite
+  matrix, it will have changed this matrix from pure ferrite into a
+  mixture of
+
+    Cementite                             0.4 + 5.6 =  6.0
+    Ferrite                              96.0 - 5.6 = 90.4
+                                                      ----
+                                                      96.4
+    The residual graphite skeleton forms  4   - 0.4 =  3.6
+                                                      ----
+                                                     100.0
+
+  But this matrix is itself equivalent to a steel of about 040% of
+  carbon (more accurately 0.40 × 100 ÷ 96.4 = 0.415%), a rail steel,
+  because it is of just such a mixture of ferrite and cementite in the
+  ratio of 90.4 : 6 or 94% and 6%, that such a rail steel consists. The
+  mass as a whole, then, consists of 96.4 parts of metallic matrix,
+  which itself is in effect a 0.415% carbon rail steel, weakened and
+  embrittled by having its continuity broken up by this skeleton of
+  graphite forming 3.6% of the whole mass by weight, or say 12% by
+  volume.
+
+  As, in succeeding members of this same series of cast irons, more of
+  the graphite of the initial skeleton changes into cementite and
+  thereby becomes part of the metallic matrix, so the graphite skeleton
+  becomes progressively thinner and more discontinuous, and the matrix
+  richer in cementite and hence in carbon and hence equivalent first to
+  higher and higher carbon steel, such as tool steel of 1% carbon, file
+  steel of 1.50%, wire-die steel of 2% carbon and then to white cast
+  iron, which consists essentially of much cementite with little
+  ferrite. Eventually, when the whole of the graphite of the skeleton
+  has changed into cementite, the mass as a whole becomes typical or
+  ultra white cast iron, consisting of nothing but ferrite and
+  cementite, distributed as follows (see fig. 2):--
+
+    Eutectoid ferrite                                  40.0
+        "     cementite                                 6.7
+                                                       ----
+        "     Interstratified as pearlite              46.7
+    Cementite, primary, eutectoid and pro-eutectoid    53.3
+                                                       ----
+                                                      100.0
+    Total ferrite                                      40.0
+    Total cementite                                    60.0
+                                                       ----
+                                                      100.0
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Physical Properties and assumed Microscopic
+  Constitution of Cast Iron containing 4% of carbon, as affected by the
+  distribution of that carbon between the combined and graphitic
+  states.]
+
+  The constitution and properties of such a series of cast irons, all
+  containing 4% of carbon but with that carbon shifting progressively
+  from the state of graphite to that of cementite as we pass from
+  specimen to specimen, may, with the foregoing picture of a
+  skeleton-holding matrix clearly in our minds be traced by means of
+  fig. 28. The change from graphite into cementite is supposed to take
+  place as we pass from left to right. BC and OH give the proportion of
+  ferrite and cementite respectively in the matrix, DEF, KS and TU
+  reproduced from fig. 3 give the consequent properties of the matrix,
+  and GAF, RS and VU give, partly from conjecture, the properties of the
+  cast iron as a whole. Above the diagram are given the names of the
+  different classes of cast iron to which different stages in the change
+  from graphite to cementite correspond, and above these the names of
+  kinds of steel or cast iron, to which at the corresponding stages the
+  constitution of the matrix corresponds, while below the diagram are
+  given the properties of the cast iron as a whole corresponding to
+  these stages, and still lower the purposes for which these stages fit
+  the cast iron, first because of its strength and shock-resisting
+  power, and second because of its hardness.
+
+  115. _Influence of the Constitution of Cast Iron on its
+  Properties._--How should the hardness, strength and ductility, or
+  rather shock-resisting power, of the cast iron be affected by this
+  progressive change from graphite into cementite? First, the hardness
+  (VU) should increase progressively as the soft ferrite and graphite
+  are replaced by the glass-hard cementite. Second, though the
+  brittleness should be lessened somewhat by the decrease in the extent
+  to which the continuity of the strong matrix is broken up by the
+  graphite skeleton, yet this effect is outweighed greatly by that of
+  the rapid substitution in the matrix of the brittle cementite for the
+  very ductile copper-like ferrite, so that the brittleness increases
+  continuously (RS), from that of the very grey graphitic cast irons,
+  which, like that of soapstone, is so slight that the metal can endure
+  severe shock and even indentation without breaking, to that of the
+  pure white cast iron which is about as brittle as porcelain. Here let
+  us recognize that what gives this transfer of carbon from graphite
+  skeleton to metallic matrix such very great influence on the
+  properties of the metal is the fact that the transfer of each 1% of
+  carbon means substituting in the matrix no less than 15% of the
+  brittle, glass-hard cementite for the soft, very ductile ferrite.
+  Third, the tensile strength of steel proper, of which the matrix
+  consists, as we have already seen (fig. 3), increases with the
+  carbon-content till this reaches about 1.25%, and then in turn
+  decreases (fig. 28, DEF). Hence, as with the progressive transfer of
+  the carbon from the graphitic to the cementite state in our imaginary
+  series of cast irons, the combined carbon present in the matrix
+  increases, so does the tensile strength of the mass as a whole for two
+  reasons; first, because the strength of the matrix itself is
+  increasing (DE), and second, because the discontinuity is decreasing
+  with the decreasing proportion of graphite. With further transfer of
+  the carbon from the graphitic to the combined state, the matrix itself
+  grows weaker (EF); but this weakening is offset in a measure by the
+  continuing decrease of discontinuity due to the decreasing proportion
+  of graphite. The resultant of these two effects has not yet been well
+  established; but it is probable that the strongest cast iron has a
+  little more than 1% of carbon combined as cementite, so that its
+  matrix is nearly equivalent to the strongest of the steels. As regards
+  both tensile strength and ductility not only the quantity but the
+  distribution of the graphite is of great importance. Thus it is
+  extremely probable that the primary graphite, which forms large
+  sheets, is much more weakening and embrittling than the eutectic and
+  other forms, and therefore that, if either strength or ductility is
+  sought, the metal should be free from primary graphite, i.e. that it
+  should not be hyper-eutectic.
+
+  The presence of graphite has two further and very natural effects.
+  First, if the skeleton which it forms is continuous, then its planes
+  of junction with the metallic matrix offer a path of low resistance to
+  the passage of liquids or gases, or in short they make the metal so
+  porous as to unfit it for objects like the cylinders of hydraulic
+  presses, which ought to be gas-tight and water-tight. For such
+  purposes the graphite-content should be low. Second, the very genesis
+  of so bulky a substance as the primary and eutectic graphite while the
+  metal is solidifying (fig. 5) causes a sudden and permanent expansion,
+  which forces the metal into even the finest crevices in its mould, a
+  fact which is taken advantage of in making ornamental castings and
+  others which need great sharpness of detail, by making them rich in
+  graphite.
+
+  To sum this up, as graphite is replaced by carbon combined as
+  cementite, the hardness, brittleness and density increase, and the
+  expansion in solidification decreases, in both cases continuously,
+  while the tensile strength increases till the combined carbon-content
+  rises a little above 1%, and then in turn decreases. That strength is
+  good and brittleness bad goes without saying; but here a word is
+  needed about hardness. The expense of cutting castings accurately to
+  shape, cutting on them screw threads and what not, called "machining"
+  in trade parlance, is often a very large part of their total cost; and
+  it increases rapidly with the hardness of the metal. On the other
+  hand, the extreme hardness of nearly graphiteless cast iron is of
+  great value for objects of which the chief duty is to resist abrasion,
+  such as parts of crushing machinery. Hence objects which need much
+  machining are made rich in graphite, so that they may be cut easily,
+  and those of the latter class rich in cementite so that they may not
+  wear out.
+
+  116. _Means of controlling the Constitution of Cast Iron._--The
+  distribution of the carbon between these two states, so as to give the
+  cast iron the properties needed, is brought about chiefly by
+  adjusting the silicon-content, because the presence of this element
+  favours the formation of graphite. Beyond this, rapid cooling and the
+  presence of sulphur both oppose the formation of graphite, and hence
+  in cast iron rich in sulphur, and in thin and therefore rapidly
+  cooling castings, the silicon-content must be greater than in thick
+  ones and in those freer from sulphur. Thus thick machinery castings
+  usually contain between 1.50 and 2.25% of silicon, whereas thin
+  castings and ornamental ones which must reproduce the finest details
+  of the mould accurately may have as much as 3 or even 3.40% of it.
+  Castings which, like hydraulic press cylinders and steam radiators,
+  must be dense and hence must have but little graphite lest their
+  contents leak through their walls, should not have more than 1.75% of
+  silicon and may have even as little as 1% if impenetrability is so
+  important that softness and consequent ease of machining must be
+  sacrificed to it. Cast iron railroad car-wheels, the tread or rim of
+  which must be intensely hard so as to endure the grinding action of
+  the brakeshoe while their central parts must have good shock-resisting
+  power, are given such moderate silicon-content, preferably between
+  0.50 and 0.80%, as in and by itself leaves the tendencies toward
+  graphite-forming and toward cementite-forming nearly in balance, so
+  that they are easily controlled by the rate of cooling. The "tread" or
+  circumferential part of the mould itself is made of iron, because
+  this, by conducting the heat away from the casting rapidly, makes it
+  cool quickly, and thus causes most of the carbon here to form
+  cementite, and thus in turn makes the tread of the wheel intensely
+  hard; while those parts of the mould which come in contact with the
+  central parts of the wheel are made of sand, which conducts the heat
+  away from the molten metal so slowly that it solidifies slowly, with
+  the result that most of its carbon forms graphite, and here the metal
+  is soft and shock-resisting.
+
+  117. _Influence of Sulphur._--Sulphur has the specific harmful effects
+  of shifting the carbon from the state of graphite to that of
+  cementite, and thus of making the metal hard and brittle; of making it
+  thick and sluggish when molten, so that it does not run freely in the
+  moulds; and of making it red short, i.e. brittle at a red heat, so
+  that it is very liable to be torn by the aeolotachic contraction in
+  cooling from the molten state; and it has no good effects to offset
+  these. Hence the sulphur present is, except in certain rare cases,
+  simply that which the metallurgist has been unable to remove. The
+  sulphur-content should not exceed 0.12%, and it is better that it
+  should not exceed 0.08 % in castings which have to be soft enough to
+  be machined, nor 0.05% in thin castings the metal for which must be
+  very fluid.
+
+  118. _Influence of Manganese._--Manganese in many cases, but not in
+  all, opposes the formation of graphite and thus hardens the iron, and
+  it lessens the red shortness (§ 40), which sulphur causes, by leading
+  to the formation of the less harmful manganese sulphide instead of the
+  more harmful iron sulphide. Hence the manganese-content needed
+  increases with the sulphur-content which has to be endured. In the
+  better classes of castings it is usually between 0.40 and 0.70%, and
+  in chilled railroad car-wheels it may well be between 0.15 and 0.30%;
+  but skilful founders, confronted with the task of making use of cast
+  iron rich in manganese, have succeeded in making good grey iron
+  castings with even as much as 2.20% of this element.
+
+  119. _Influence of Phosphorus._--Phosphorus has, along with its great
+  merit of giving fluidity, the grave defect of causing brittleness,
+  especially under shock. Fortunately its embrittling effect on cast
+  iron is very much less than on steel, so that the upper limit or
+  greatest tolerable proportion of phosphorus, instead of being 0.10 or
+  better 0.08% as in the case of rail steel, may be put at 0.50% in case
+  of machinery castings even if they are exposed to moderate shocks; at
+  1.60% for gas and water mains in spite of the gravity of the disasters
+  which extreme brittleness here might cause; and even higher for
+  castings which are not exposed to shock, and are so thin that the iron
+  of which they are made must needs be very fluid. The permissible
+  phosphorus-content is lessened by the presence of either much sulphur
+  or much manganese, and by rapid cooling, as for instance in case of
+  thin castings, because each of these three things, by leading to the
+  formation of the brittle cementite, in itself creates brittleness
+  which aggravates that caused by phosphorus.
+
+120. _Defects in Steel Ingots._--Steel ingots and other steel castings
+are subject to three kinds of defects so serious as to deserve notice
+here. They are known as "piping," "blowholes" and "segregation."
+
+  121. _Piping._--In an early period of the solidification of a molten
+  steel ingot cast in a cold iron mould we may distinguish three parts:
+  (1) the outer layers, i.e. the outermost of the now solid metal; (2)
+  the inner layers, i.e. the remainder of the solid metal; and (3) the
+  molten lake, i.e. the part which still is molten. At this instant the
+  outer layers, because of their contact with the cold mould, are
+  cooling much faster than the inner ones, and hence tend to contract
+  faster. But this excess of their contraction is resisted by the almost
+  incompressible inner layers so that the outer layers are prevented
+  from contracting as much as they naturally would if unopposed, and
+  they are thereby virtually stretched. Later on the cooling of the
+  inner layers becomes more rapid than that of the outer ones, and on
+  this account their contraction tends to become greater than that of
+  the outer ones. Because the outer and inner layers are integrally
+  united, this excess of contraction of the inner layers makes them draw
+  outward towards and against the outer layers, and because of their
+  thus drawing outward the molten lake within no longer suffices to fill
+  completely the central space, so that its upper surface begins to
+  sink. This ebb continues, and, combined with the progressive narrowing
+  of the molten lake as more and more of it solidifies and joins the
+  shore layers, gives rise to the pipe, a cavity like an inverted pear,
+  as shown at C in fig. 29. Because this pipe is due to the difference
+  in the rates of contraction of interior and exterior, it may be
+  lessened by retarding the cooling of the mass as a whole, and it may
+  be prevented from stretching down deep by retarding the solidification
+  of the upper part of the ingot, as, for instance, by preheating the
+  top of the mould, or by covering the ingot with a mass of burning fuel
+  or of molten slag. This keeps the upper part of the mass molten, so
+  that it continues to flow down and feed the pipe during the early part
+  of its formation in the lower and quicker-cooling part of the ingot.
+  In making castings of steel this same difficulty arises; and much of
+  the steel-founder's skill consists either in preventing these pipes,
+  or in so placing them that they shall not occur in the finished
+  casting, or at least not in a harmful position. In making
+  armour-plates from steel ingots, as much as 40% of the metal may be
+  rejected as unsound from this cause. An ingot should always stand
+  upright while solidifying, so that the unsound region due to the pipe
+  may readily be cut off, leaving the rest of the ingot solid. If the
+  ingot lay on its side while solidifying, the pipe would occur as shown
+  in fig. 30, and nearly the whole of the ingot would be unsound.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram showing how a Pipe is formed.
+
+    A, Superficial blowholes.
+    B, Deep-seated blowholes.
+    C, Pipe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Diagram showing a Pipe so formed as to render
+  Ingot unsound.]
+
+  122. _Blowholes._--Iron, like water and many other substances, has a
+  higher solvent power for gases, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, when
+  molten, i.e. liquid, than when frozen, i.e. solid. Hence in the act of
+  solidifying it expels any excess of gas which it has dissolved while
+  liquid, and this gas becomes entangled in the freezing mass, causing
+  gas bubbles or _blowholes_, as at A and B in fig. 29. Because the
+  volume of the pipe represents the excess of the contraction of the
+  inner walls and the molten lake jointly over that of the outer walls,
+  between the time when the lake begins to ebb and the time when even
+  the axial metal is too firm to be drawn further open by this
+  contraction, the space occupied by blowholes must, by compensating for
+  part of this excess, lessen the size of the pipe, so that the more
+  abundant and larger the blowholes are, the smaller will the pipe be.
+  The interior surface of a blowhole which lies near the outer crust of
+  the ingot, as at A in fig. 29, is liable to become oxidized by the
+  diffusion of the atmospheric oxygen, in which case it can hardly be
+  completely welded later, since welding implies actual contact of metal
+  with metal; it thus forms a permanent flaw. But deep-seated blowholes
+  like those at B are relatively harmless in low-carbon easily welding
+  steel, because the subsequent operation of forging or rolling usually
+  obliterates them by welding their sides firmly together.
+
+  Blowholes may be lessened or even wholly prevented by adding to the
+  molten metal shortly before it solidifies either silicon or aluminium,
+  or both; even as little as 0.002% of aluminium is usually sufficient.
+  These additions seem to act in part by deoxidizing the minute quantity
+  of iron oxide and carbonic oxide present, in part by increasing the
+  solvent power of the metal for gas, so that even after freezing it can
+  retain in solution the gas which it had dissolved when molten. But,
+  because preventing blowholes increases the volume of the pipe, it is
+  often better to allow them to form, but to control their position, so
+  that they shall be deep-seated. This is done chiefly by casting the
+  steel at a relatively low temperature, and by limiting the quantity of
+  manganese and silicon which it contains. Brinell finds that, for
+  certain normal conditions, if the sum of the percentage of manganese
+  plus 5.2 times that of the silicon equals 1.66, there will be no
+  blowholes; if this sum is less, blowholes will occur, and will be
+  injuriously near the surface unless this sum is reduced to 0.28. He
+  thus finds that this sum should be either as great as 1.66, so that
+  blowholes shall be absent; or as low as 0.28, so that they shall be
+  harmlessly deep-seated. These numbers must be varied with the
+  variations in other conditions, such as casting temperature, rapidity
+  of solidification, &c.
+
+  123. _Segregation._--The solidification of an ingot of steel takes
+  place gradually from without inwards, and each layer in solidifying
+  tends to expel into the still molten interior the impurities which it
+  contains, especially the carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur, which by
+  this process are in part concentrated or _segregated_ in the
+  last-freezing part of the ingot. This is in general around the lower
+  part of the pipe, so that here is a second motive for rejecting the
+  piped part of the ingot. While segregation injures the metal here,
+  often fatally, by giving it an indeterminate excess of phosphorus and
+  sulphur, it clearly purifies the remainder of the ingot, and on this
+  account it ought, under certain conditions, to be promoted rather than
+  restrained. The following is an extreme case:--
+
+    +------------------+---------+----------+------------+-------------+----------+
+    |                  | Carbon. | Silicon. | Manganese. | Phosphorus. | Sulphur. |
+    +------------------+---------+----------+------------+-------------+----------+
+    | Composition of   |         |          |            |             |          |
+    |   the initial    |         |          |            |             |          |
+    |   metal per cent |   0.24  |  0.336   |    0.97    |    0.089    |   0.074  |
+    | Composition of   |         |          |            |             |          |
+    |   the segregate  |   1.27  |  0.41    |    1.08    |    0.753    |   0.418  |
+    +------------------+---------+----------+------------+-------------+----------+
+
+  The surprising fact that the degree of segregation does not increase
+  greatly either with the slowness of solidification or with the size of
+  the ingot, at least between the limits of 5 in. sq. and 16 in. sq.,
+  has been explained by the theory that the relative quiet due to the
+  gentleness of the convection currents in a slowly cooling mass favours
+  the formation of far outshooting pine-tree crystals, and that the
+  tangled branches of these crystals landlock much of the littoral
+  molten mother metal, and thus mechanically impede that centreward
+  diffusion and convection of the impurities which is the essence of
+  segregation.
+
+124. _Castings and Forgings._--There are two distinct ways of making the
+steel objects actually used in the arts, such as rails, gear wheels,
+guns, beams, &c., out of the molten steel made by the Bessemer, open
+hearth, or crucible process, or in an electric furnace. The first is by
+"steel founding," i.e. casting the steel as a "steel casting" in a mould
+which has the exact shape of the object to be made, e.g. a gear wheel,
+and letting it solidify there. The second is by casting it into a large
+rough block called an "ingot," and rolling or hammering this out into
+the desired shape. Though the former certainly seems the simpler way,
+yet its technical difficulties are so great that it is in fact much the
+more expensive, and therefore it is in general used only in making
+objects of a shape hard to give by forging or rolling. These technical
+difficulties are due chiefly to the very high melting point of the
+metal, nearly 1500° C (2732° F.), and to the consequent great
+contraction which it undergoes in cooling through the long range between
+this temperature and that of the room. The cooling of the thinner, the
+outer, and in general the more exposed parts of the casting outruns that
+of the thicker and less exposed parts, with the consequence that, at any
+given instant, the different parts are contracting at very different
+rates, i.e. aeolotachically; and this aeolotachic contraction is very
+likely to concentrate severe stress on the slowest cooling parts at the
+time when they are passing from the molten to the solid state, when the
+steel is mushy, with neither the fluidity of a liquid nor the strength
+and ductility of a solid, and thus to tear it apart. Aeolotachic
+contraction further leads to the "pipes" or contraction cavities already
+described in § 121, and the procedure must be carefully planned first so
+as to reduce these to a minimum, and second so as to induce them to form
+either in those parts of the casting which are going to be cut off and
+re-melted, or where they will do little harm. These and kindred
+difficulties make each new shape or size a new problem, and in
+particular they require that for each and every individual casting a new
+sand or clay mould shall be made with care by a skilled workman. If a
+thousand like gears are to be cast, a thousand moulds must be made up,
+at least to an important extent by hand, for even machine moulding
+leaves something for careful manipulation by the moulder. It is a
+detail, one is tempted to say a retail, manufacture.
+
+In strong contrast with this is the procedure in making rolled products
+such as rails and plates. The steel is cast in lots, weighing in some
+cases as much as 75 tons, in enduring cast iron moulds into very large
+ingots, which with their initial heat are immediately rolled down by a
+series of powerful roll trains into their final shape with but slight
+wear and tear of the moulds and the machinery. But in addition to the
+greater cost of steel founding as compared with rolling there are two
+facts which limit the use of steel castings: (1) they are not so good as
+rolled products, because the kneading which the metal undergoes in
+rolling improves its quality, and closes up its cavities; and (2) it
+would be extremely difficult and in most cases impracticable to cast the
+metal directly into any of the forms in which the great bulk of the
+steel of commerce is needed, such as rails, plates, beams, angles, rods,
+bars, and wire, because the metal would become so cool as to solidify
+before running far in such thin sections, and because even the short
+pieces which could thus be made would pucker or warp on account of their
+aeolotachic contraction.
+
+125. _Heating Furnaces_ are used in iron manufacture chiefly for
+bringing masses of steel or wrought iron to a temperature proper for
+rolling or forging. In order to economize power in these operations, the
+metal should in general be as soft and hence as hot as is consistent
+with its reaching a low temperature before the rolling or forging is
+finished, because, as explained in § 32, undisturbed cooling from a high
+temperature injures the metal. Many of the furnaces used for this
+heating are in a general way like the puddling furnace shown in fig. 14,
+except that they are heated by gas, that the hearth or bottom of the
+chamber in which they are heated is nearly flat, and that it is usually
+very much larger than that of a puddling furnace. But in addition there
+are many special kinds of furnaces arranged to meet the needs of each
+case. Of these two will be shown here, the Gjers soaking pit for steel
+ingots, and the Eckman or continuous furnace, as modified by C. H.
+Morgan for heating billets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Section of Gjers Soaking Pit.]
+
+126. _Gjers Soaking Pit._--When the outer crust of a large ingot in
+which a lot of molten steel has been cast has so far cooled that it can
+be moved without breaking, the temperature of the interior is still far
+above that suitable for rolling or hammering--so far above that the
+surplus heat of the interior would more than suffice to reheat the now
+cool crust to the rolling temperature, if we could only arrest or even
+greatly retard the further escape of heat from that crust. Bringing such
+an ingot, then, to the rolling temperature is not really an operation of
+heating, because its average temperature is already above the rolling
+temperature, but one of equalizing the temperature, by allowing the
+internal excess of heat to "soak" through the mass. Gjers did this by
+setting the partly-solidified ingot in a well-closed "pit" of brickwork,
+preheated by the excess heat of previous lots of ingots. The
+arrangement, shown in fig. 31, has three advantages--(1) that the
+temperature is adjusted with absolutely no consumption of fuel; (2) that
+the waste of iron due to the oxidation of the outer crust of the ingot
+is very slight, because the little atmospheric oxygen initially in the
+pit is not renewed, whereas in a common heating furnace the flame brings
+a constant fresh supply of oxygen; and (3) that the ingot remains
+upright during solidification, so that its pipe is concentrated at one
+end and is thus removable. (See § 121.) In this form the system is
+rather inflexible, for if the supply of ingots is delayed the pits grow
+unduly cool, so that the next ensuing lot of ingots either is not heated
+hot enough or is delayed too long in soaking. This defect is usually
+remedied by heating the pits by the Siemens regenerative system (see §
+99); the greater flexibility thus gained outweighs the cost of the fuel
+used and the increased loss of iron by oxidation by the Siemens gas
+flame.
+
+127. _Continuous Heating Furnace._--The Gjers system is not applicable
+to small ingots or "billets,"[5] because they lack the inner surplus
+heat of large ingots; indeed, they are now allowed to cool completely.
+To heat these on the intermittent plan for further rolling, i.e. to
+charge a lot of them as a whole in a heating furnace, bring them as a
+whole to rolling temperature, and then withdraw them as a whole for
+rolling, is very wasteful of heat, because it is only in the first part
+of the heating that the outside of the ingots is cool enough to abstract
+thoroughly the heat from the flame. During all the latter part of the
+heating, when the temperature of the ingot has approached that of the
+flame, only an ever smaller and smaller part of the heat of that flame
+can be absorbed by the ingots. Hence in the intermittent system most of
+the heat generated within the furnace escapes from it with the products
+of combustion. The continuous heating system (fig. 32) recovers this
+heat by bringing the flame into contact with successively cooler and
+cooler billets, A-F, and finally with quite cold ones, of consequently
+great heat-absorbing capacity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Diagram of C. H. Morgan's Continuous Heating
+Furnace for 2-inch billets 30 ft. long.
+
+  A, Hottest billet ready for rolling.
+  B, Exit door.
+  C, Pusher, for forcing billets forward.
+  D, Water-cooled pipe on which billets are pushed forward.
+  E, Magnesite bricks on which the hot billets slide forward.
+  F, The billet last entered.
+  G, The suspended roof.
+  H, The incoming air preheated by G and by the pipes N and brought from
+      above G to between N by a flue not shown.
+  J, The incoming gas.
+  L, The flame.
+  M, The escaping products of combustion.
+  N, Pipes through which the products of combustion pass.]
+
+  As soon as a hot billet A is withdrawn by pushing it endwise out of
+  the exit door B, the whole row is pushed forward by a set of
+  mechanical pushers C, the billets sliding on the raised water-cooled
+  pipes D, and, in the hotter part of the furnace, on the magnesite
+  bricks E, on which iron slides easily when red-hot. A new cold billet
+  is then charged at the upper end of the hearth, and the new cycle
+  begins by pushing out through B a second billet, and so forth. To
+  lessen the loss in shape of "crop ends," and for general economy,
+  these billets are in some cases 30 ft. long, as in the furnace shown
+  in fig. 32. It is to make it wide enough to receive such long billets
+  that its roof is suspended, as here shown, by two sets of iron
+  tie-rods. As the foremost end of the billet emerges from the furnace
+  it enters the first of a series of roll-trains, and passes immediately
+  thence to others, so that before half of the billet has emerged from
+  the furnace its front end has already been reduced by rolling to its
+  final shape, that of merchant-bars, which are relatively thin, round
+  or square rods, in lengths of 300 ft.
+
+  In the intermittent system the waste heat can, it is true, be utilized
+  either for raising steam (but inefficiently and inconveniently,
+  because of the intermittency), or by a regenerative method like the
+  Siemens, fig. 19; but this would probably recover less heat than the
+  continuous system, first, because it transfers the heat from flame to
+  metal indirectly instead of directly; and, second, because the
+  brickwork of the Siemens system is probably a poorer heat-catcher than
+  the iron billets of the continuous system, because its disadvantages
+  of low conductivity and low specific heat probably outweigh its
+  advantages of roughness and porosity.
+
+128. _Rolling, Forging, and Drawing._--The three chief processes for
+shaping iron and steel, rolling, forging (i.e. hammering, pressing or
+stamping) and drawing, all really proceed by squeezing the metal into
+the desired shape. In forging, whether under a hammer or under a press,
+the action is evidently a squeeze, however skilfully guided. In drawing,
+the pull of the pincers (fig. 33) upon the protruding end, F, of the
+rod, transmitted to the still undrawn part, E, squeezes the yielding
+metal of the rod against the hard unyielding die, C. As when a
+half-opened umbrella is thrust ferrule-foremost between the balusters of
+a staircase, so when the rod is drawn forward, its yielding metal is
+folded and forced backwards and centrewards by the resistance of the
+unyielding die, and thus it is reduced in diameter and simultaneously
+lengthened proportionally, without material change of volume or density.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Wire undergoing Reduction in the Die.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Two-high Rolling Mill.]
+
+129. _Methods of Rolling._--Of rolling much the same is true. The
+rolling mill in its simplest form is a pair of cylindrical rollers, BB
+(figs. 34 and 35) turning about their axes in opposite directions as
+shown by the arrows, and supported at their ends in strong frames called
+"housings," CC (fig. 35). The skin of the object, D, which is undergoing
+rolling, technically called "the piece," is drawn forward powerfully by
+the friction of the revolving rolls, and especially of that part of
+their surface which at any given instant is moving horizontally (HH in
+fig. 34), much as, the rod is drawn through the die in fig. 33, while
+the vertical component of the motion of the rear part JJ of the rolls
+forces the plastic metal of that part of "the piece" with which they are
+in contact backwards and centrewards, reducing its area and
+simultaneously lengthening it proportionally, here again as in drawing
+through a die. The rolls thus both draw the piece forward like the
+pincers of a wire die, and themselves are a die which like a river ever
+renews or rather maintains its fixed shape and position, though its
+particles themselves are moving constantly forward with "the piece"
+which is passing between them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Two-high Rolling Mill.]
+
+After the piece has been reduced in thickness by its first passage or
+"pass" between the rolls, it may be given a second reduction and then a
+third and so on, either by bringing the two rolls nearer together, as in
+case of the plain rolls BB at the left in fig. 35, or by passing the
+piece through an aperture, F´, smaller than the first F, as in case of
+the grooved rolls, AA, shown at the right, or by both means jointly. If,
+as sketched in fig. 34, the direction in which each of the rolls turns
+is constant, then after the piece has passed once through the rolls to
+the right, it cannot undergo a second pass till it has been brought back
+to its initial position at the left. But bringing it back wastes power
+and, still worse, time, heat, and metal, because the yellow- or even
+white-hot piece is rapidly cooling down and oxidizing. In order to
+prevent this waste the direction in which the rolls move may be
+reversed, so that the piece may be reduced a second time in passing to
+the left, in which case the rolls are usually driven by a pair of
+reversing engines; or the rolls may be "three high," as shown in fig.
+36, with the upper and the lower roll moving constantly to the right and
+the middle roll constantly to the left, so that the piece first passes
+to the right between the middle and lower rolls, and then to the left
+between the middle and upper rolls. The advantage of the "reversing"
+system is that it avoids lifting the piece from below to above the
+middle roll, and again lowering it, which is rather difficult because
+the white-hot piece cannot be guided directly by hand, but must be moved
+by means of hooks, tongs, or even complex mechanism. The advantage of
+the three-high mill is that, because each of its moving parts is always
+moving in the same direction, it may be driven by a relatively small and
+hence cheap engine, the power delivered by which between the passes is
+taken up by a powerful fly-wheel, to be given up to the rolls during the
+next pass. (See also ROLLING MILL.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Three-high Rolling Mill.]
+
+130. _Advantages and Applicability of Rolling._--Rolling uses very much
+less power than drawing, because the friction against the fixed die in
+the latter process is very great. For much the same reason rolling
+proceeds much faster than drawing, and on both these accounts it is
+incomparably the cheaper of the two. It is also very much cheaper than
+forging, in large part because it works so quickly. The piece travels
+through the rolls very rapidly, so that the reduction takes place over
+its whole length in a very few seconds, whereas in forging, whether
+under hammer or press, after one part of the piece has been compressed
+the piece must next be raised, moved forward, and placed so that the
+hammer or press may compress the next part of its length. This moving is
+expensive, because it has to be done, or at least guided, by hand, and
+it takes up much time, during which both heat and iron are wasting. Thus
+it comes about that rolling is so very much cheaper than either forging
+or drawing that these latter processes are used only when rolling is
+impracticable. The conditions under which it is impracticable are (1)
+when the piece has either an extremely large or an extremely small cross
+section, and (2) when its cross section varies materially in different
+parts of its length. The number of great shafts for marine engines,
+reaching a diameter of 22(1/8) in. in the case of the "Lusitania," is so
+small that it would be wasteful to instal for their manufacture the
+great and costly rolling mill needed to reduce them from the gigantic
+ingots from which they must be made, with its succession of decreasing
+passes, and its mechanism for rotating the piece between passes and for
+transferring it from pass to pass. Great armour plates can indeed be
+made by rolling, because in making such flat plates the ingot is simply
+rolled back and forth between a pair of plain cylindrical rolls, like BB
+of fig. 35, instead of being transferred from one grooved pass to
+another and smaller one. Moreover, a single pair of rolls suffices for
+armour plates of any width or thickness, whereas if shafts of different
+diameters were to be rolled, a special final groove would be needed for
+each different diameter, and, as there is room for only a few large
+grooves in a single set of rolls, this would imply not only providing
+but installing a separate set of rolls for almost every diameter of
+shaft. Finally the quantity of armour plate needed is so enormous that
+it justifies the expense of installing a great rolling mill. Krupp's
+armour-plate mill, with rolls 4 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. long, can
+roll an ingot 4 ft. thick.
+
+Pieces of very small cross section, like wire, are more conveniently
+made by drawing through a die than by rolling, essentially because a
+single draft reduces the cross section of a wire much more than a single
+pass between rolls can. This in turn is because the direct pull of the
+pincers on the protruding end of the wire is much stronger than the
+forward-drawing pull due to the friction of the cold rolls on the wire,
+which is necessarily cold because of its small section.
+
+Pieces which vary materially in cross section from point to point in
+their length cannot well be made by rolling, because the cross section
+of the piece as it emerges from the rolls is necessarily that of the
+aperture between the rolls from which it is emerging, and this aperture
+is naturally of constant size because the rolls are cylindrical. Of
+course, by making the rolls eccentric, and by varying the depth and
+shape of the different parts of a given groove cut in their surface, the
+cross section of the piece made in this groove may vary somewhat from
+point to point. But this and other methods of varying the cross section
+have been used but little, and they do not seem capable of wide
+application.
+
+The fact that rolling is so much cheaper than forging has led engineers
+to design their pieces so that they can be made by rolling, i.e. to make
+them straight and of uniform cross section. It is for this reason, for
+instance, that railroad rails are of constant uniform section throughout
+their length, instead of having those parts of their length which come
+between the supporting ties deeper and stronger than the parts which
+rest on the ties. When, as in the case of eye bars, it is imperative
+that one part should differ materially in section from the rest, this
+part may be locally thickened or thinned, or a special part may here be
+welded on. When we come to pieces of very irregular shape, such as
+crank-shafts, anchors, trunnions, &c., we must resort to forging, except
+for purposes for which unforged castings are good enough.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Steam Hammer.
+
+  A, Round bar to be hammered.
+  B, Anvil.
+  C, Anvil block or foundation.
+  D, Falling tup.
+  E, Steam piston.
+  F, Piston-rod for lifting tup and driving it down.
+  G, Steam cylinder.]
+
+131. _Forging_ proceeds by beating or squeezing the piece under
+treatment from its initial into its final shape, as for instance by
+hammering a square ingot or bloom first on one corner and then on
+another until it is reduced to a cylindrical shape as shown at A in fig.
+37. As the ingot is reduced in section, it is of course lengthened
+proportionally. Much as in the smith's forge the object forged rests on
+a massive anvil and anvil block, B and C, and is struck by the tup D of
+the hammer. This tup is raised and driven down by steam pressure applied
+below or above the piston E of the steam cylinder mounted aloft, and
+connected with the tup by means of the strong piston-rod F. The demand
+for very large forgings, especially for guns and armour plate, led to
+the building of enormous steam hammers. The falling parts of the largest
+of these, that at Bethlehem, Pa., weigh 125 tons.
+
+The first cost of a hammer of moderate size is much less than that of a
+hydraulic press of like capacity, as is readily understood when we stop
+to reflect what powerful pressure, if gradually applied, would be needed
+to drive the nail which a light blow from our hand hammer forces easily
+into the woodwork. Nevertheless the press uses much less power than the
+hammer, because much of the force of the latter is dissipated in setting
+up useless--indeed harmful, and at times destructive--vibrations in the
+foundations and the surrounding earth and buildings. Moreover, the
+effect of the sharp blow of the hammer is relatively superficial, and
+does not penetrate to the interior of a large piece as the slowly
+applied pressure of the hydraulic press does. Because of these facts the
+great hammers have given place to enormous forging presses, the 125-ton
+Bethlehem hammer, for instance, to a 14,000-ton hydraulic press, moved
+by water under a pressure of 7000 lb. per square inch, supplied by
+pumps of 16,000 horse power.
+
+    TABLE IV.--_Reduction in Cost of Iron Manufacture in America--C.
+    Kirchoff._
+
+    +-------------------+------------------------+-------------+----------------------------------------------------+
+    |                   |                        |    Period   |  Cost, Profit and Production, at End of Period in  |
+    |                   |                        |   covered.  |      Percentage of that at Beginning of Period.    |
+    |                   |                        +------+------+------------------------------------+------+--------+
+    |                   |                        |      |      |                Cost.               |      |        |
+    | Place represented.| Operation represented. |      |      +------+------+-------+------+-------+      | Produc-|
+    |                   |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      | Total |Profit|tion per|
+    |                   |                        | From |  To  |      |      |       |      |exclu- | per  |Furnace |
+    |                   |                        |      |      | Ore. | Fuel.|Labour.|Total.| ding  | Ton. |&c., per|
+    |                   |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |raw Ma-|      |  Day   |
+    |                   |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |terial.|      |        |
+    +-------------------+------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+-------+------+--------+
+    | A large Southern  |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |       |      |        |
+    |   Establishment   | Manufacture of Pig Iron| 1889 | 1898 | 79   | 64.1 | 51.9  | 63.4 |  ..   | 47.9 | 167.7  |
+    | North-eastern     |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |       |      |        |
+    |   District        |       "           "    | 1890 | 1898 |103.7 | 97   | 61.1  | 65.8 |  ..   | 33.9 | 163.3  |
+    | Pittsburg District|       "           "    | 1887 | 1897 |  ..  |  ..  | 46    |  ..  |  44   |  ..  |   ..   |
+    | Eastern District  | Manufacture of Bessemer|      |      |      |      |       |      |       |      |        |
+    |                   |   Steel Ingots         | 1891 | 1898 |  ..  |  ..  | 75    | 64.39|  ..   |  ..  | 107    |
+    | Pittsburg         |       "           "    | 1887 | 1897 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..   |  ..  |  52   |  ..  |   ..   |
+    | Not stated        | Rolling Wire Rods      | 1888 | 1898 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..   | 63.6 |  ..   |  ..  | 325    |
+    +-------------------+------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+-------+------+--------+
+
+  132. _Statistics._--The cheapening of manufacture by improvements in
+  processes and machinery, and by the increase in the scale of
+  operations, has been very great. The striking examples of it shown in
+  Table IV. are only typical of what has been going on continuously
+  since 1868. Note, for instance, a reduction of some 35% in the total
+  cost, and an even greater reduction in the cost of labour, reaching in
+  one case 54%, in a period of between seven and ten years. This great
+  economy is not due to reduction in wages. According to Mr Carnegie, in
+  one of the largest American steel works the average wages in 1900 for
+  all persons paid by the day, including labourers, mechanics and boys,
+  were more than $4 (say, 16s. 6d.) a day for the 311 working days. How
+  economical the methods of mining, transportation and manufacture have
+  become is shown by the fact that steel billets have been sold at
+  $13.96 (Ł2, 17s. 8d.) per ton, and in very large quantities at $15
+  (Ł3, 2s.) per ton in the latter case, according to Mr Carnegie,
+  without further loss than that represented by interest, although the
+  cost of each ton includes that of mining 2 tons of ore and carrying
+  them 1000 miles, mining and coking 1.3 tons of coal and carrying its
+  coke 50 m., and quarrying one-third of a ton of limestone and carrying
+  it 140 m., besides the cost of smelting the ore, converting the
+  resultant cast iron into steel, and rolling that steel into rails.
+
+    TABLE V.--_Reduction in Price of Certain Products._
+
+    +-------+-----------------------------------------------------+
+    |       |  Yearly average Price in Pennsylvania, gross tons.  |
+    |       +-----------------------------------------------------+
+    | Date. |   Bar (Wrought)  |Wrought Iron|   Steel   |  No. 1  |
+    |       |       Iron.      |   Rails.   |   Rails.  | Foundry |
+    |       |                  |            |           |Pig Iron.|
+    +-------+------------------+------------+-----------+---------+
+    |  1800 |$100.50 \         |            |           |         |
+    |  1815 | 144.50 | Hammered|            |           |         |
+    |  1824 |  82.50 |         |            |           |         |
+    |  1837 | 111.00 /         |            |           |         |
+    |       |                  |            |           |         |
+    |  1850 |  59.54 \         |  $47.88    |           | $20.88  |
+    |  1865 | 106.46 |         |   98.62    | $158.46^3 |  46.08  |
+    |  1870 |  78.96 |         |   72.25    |  106.79   |  33.23  |
+    |  1880 |  62.04 | Best    |   49.25    |   67.52   |  28.48  |
+    |  1890 |  45.83 | refined |   25.18^2  |   31.78   |  18.41  |
+    |  1898 |  28.65 | rolled  |   12.39^2  |   17.62   |  11.66  |
+    |  1900 |  44.00 |         |   19.51^2  |   32.29   |  19.98  |
+    |  1906 |    ..  |         |   23.03^2  |   28.00   |  20.98  |
+    | 1908^1|  31.00 /         |   18.25^2  |   28.00   |  17.25  |
+    +-------+------------------+------------+-----------+---------+
+      ^1 July 1st.
+      ^2 Old. i.e. second-hand wrought iron rails.
+      ^3 1868.
+
+  Table V. shows the reduction in prices. The price of wrought iron in
+  Philadelphia reached $155 (Ł32, 0s. 8d.) in 1815, and, after declining
+  to $80 (Ł16, 10s. 8d.), again reached $115 (Ł23, 15s. 4d.) in 1837.
+  Bessemer steel rails sold at $174 in the depreciated currency of 1868
+  (equivalent to about Ł25, 17s. 4d. in gold), and at $17 (Ł3, 10s. 3d.)
+  in 1898.
+
+  133. _Increase in Production._--In 1810 the United States made about
+  7%, and in 1830, 1850 and 1860 not far from 10% of the world's
+  production of pig iron, though, indeed, in 1820 their production was
+  only about one-third as great as in 1810. But after the close of the
+  Civil War the production increased by leaps and bounds, till in 1907
+  it was thirty-one times as great as in 1865; and the percentage which
+  it formed of the world's production rose to some 14% in 1870, 21% in
+  1880, 35% in 1900 and 43% in 1907. In this last year the United States
+  production of pig iron was nearly 7 times, and that of Germany and
+  Luxemburg nearly 5 times, that of 1880. In this same period the
+  production of Great Britain increased 28%, and that of the world more
+  than tripled. The corresponding changes in the case of steel are even
+  more striking. The United States production in 1907 was 1714 times
+  that of 1865, and the proportion which it formed of the world's steel
+  rose from 3% in 1865 to 10% in 1870, 30% in 1880; 36% in 1890, 40% in
+  1899 and 46% in 1907. In 1907 the British steel production was nearly
+  five times, that of the United States, nearly nineteen times as great
+  as in 1880. Of the combined wrought iron and steel of the United
+  States, steel formed only 2% in 1865, but 37% in 1880, 85% in 1899 and
+  91% in 1907. Thus in the nineteen years between 1880 and 1899 the age
+  of iron gave place to that of steel.
+
+  The _per capita_ consumption of iron in Great Britain, excluding
+  exports, has been calculated as 144 lb. in 1855 and 250 lb. in 1890,
+  that of the United States as 117 lb. for 1855, 300 lb. for 1890 and
+  some 378 lb. for 1899, and that of the United Kingdom, the United
+  States and Germany for 1906 as about a quarter of a ton, so that the
+  British _per capita_ consumption is about four-fold and the American
+  about five-fold that of 1855. This great increase in the _per capita_
+  consumption of iron by the human race is of course but part of the
+  general advance in wealth and civilization. Among the prominent causes
+  of this increase is the diversion of mankind from agricultural to
+  manufacturing, i.e. machinery-using work, nearly all machinery being
+  necessarily made of iron. This diversion may be unwelcome, but it is
+  inevitable for the two simple reasons that the wonderful improvements
+  in agriculture decrease the number of men needed to raise a given
+  quantity of food, i.e. to feed the rest of the race; and that with
+  every decade our food forms a smaller proportion of our needs, so
+  rapidly do these multiply and diversify. Among the other causes of the
+  increase of the _per capita_ consumption of iron are the displacement
+  of wood by iron for ships and bridge-building; the great extension of
+  the use of iron beams, columns and other pieces in constructing
+  buildings of various kinds; the growth of steam and electric railways;
+  and the introduction of iron fencing. The increased importance of
+  Germany and Luxemburg may be referred in large part to the invention
+  of the basic Bessemer and open-hearth processes by Thomas, who by them
+  gave an inestimable value to the phosphoric ores of these countries.
+  That of the United States is due in part to the growth of its
+  population; to the introduction of labour-saving machinery in iron
+  manufacture; to the grand scale on which this manufacture is carried
+  on; and to the discovery of the cheap and rich ores of the Mesabi
+  region of Lake Superior. But, given all these, the 1000 m. which
+  separate the ore fields of Lake Superior from the cheap coal of
+  Pennsylvania would have handicapped the American iron industry most
+  seriously but for the remarkable cheapening of transportation which
+  has occurred. As this in turn has been due to the very men who have
+  developed the iron industry, it can hardly be questioned that, on
+  further analysis, this development must in considerable part be
+  referred to racial qualities. The same is true of the German iron
+  development. We may note with interest that the three great iron
+  producers so closely related by blood--Great Britain, the United
+  States and Germany and Luxemburg--made in 1907 81% of the world's pig
+  iron and 83% of its steel; and that the four great processes by which
+  nearly all steel and wrought iron are made--the puddling, crucible and
+  both the acid and basic varieties of the Bessemer and open-hearth
+  processes, as well as the steam-hammer and grooved rolls for rolling
+  iron and steel--were invented by Britons, though in the case of the
+  open-hearth process Great Britain must share with France the credit of
+  the invention.
+
+  Tables VI., VII., VIII. and IX. are compiled mainly from figures given
+  in J. M. Swank's _Reports_ (American Iron and Steel Association).
+  Other authorities are indicated as follows: ^a, _The Mineral Industry_
+  (1892); ^b, _Idem_ (1899); ^c, _Idem_ (1907); ^e, _Journal Iron and
+  Steel Institute_ (1881), 2; ^i, Eckel in _Mineral Resources of the
+  United States_, (published by the United States Geological Survey
+  (1906), pp. 92-93.
+
+    TABLE VI.--_Production of Pig Iron (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +------+--------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Year.|United States.| Great  |Germany and| The World.|
+    |      |              |Britain.| Luxemburg.|           |
+    +------+--------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+    | 1800 |      ..      |   ..   |    ..     |     825   |
+    | 1810 |        54    |   ..   |    ..     |     ..    |
+    | 1830 |       165    |   677  |    ..     |   1,825   |
+    | 1850 |       565    |   ..   |    ..     |   4,750   |
+    | 1865 |       832    |  4825  |     972   |   9,250   |
+    | 1870 |     1,665    |  5964  |   1,369   |  11,900   |
+    | 1880 |     3,835    |  7749  |   2,685   |  17,950   |
+    | 1890 |     9,203    |  7904  |   4,583   |  27,157   |
+    | 1900 |    13,789    |  8960  |   8,386   |  38,973^c |
+    | 1907 |    25,781    |  9924  |  12,672   |  59,721^c |
+    +------+--------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+
+    TABLE VII.--_Production of Pig Iron in the United States (in
+    thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
+    | Year.|Anthracite.|Charcoal.| Coke and  | Total. |
+    |      |           |         |Bituminous.|        |
+    +------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
+    | 1880 |   1614    |   480   |   1,741   |  3,835 |
+    | 1885 |   1299    |   357   |   2,389   |  4,045 |
+    | 1890 |   2186    |   628   |   6,388   |  9,203 |
+    | 1895 |   1271    |   225   |   7,950   |  9,446 |
+    | 1900 |   1677    |   384   |  11,728   | 13,789 |
+    | 1907 |   1372    |   437   |  23,972   | 25,781 |
+    +------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
+
+  "Anthracite" here includes iron made with anthracite and coke mixed,
+  "Bituminous" includes iron made with coke, with raw bituminous coal,
+  or with both, and "Charcoal" in 1900 and 1907 includes iron made
+  either with charcoal alone or with charcoal mixed with coke.
+
+    TABLE VIII.--_Production of Wrought Iron, also that of Bloomary
+    Iron (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +---------------+-------------+--------------------+
+    |               |Wrought Iron.|   Bloomary Iron    |
+    |               |             |direct from the Ore.|
+    +---------------+-------------+--------------------+
+    |     1870.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    1153     |         ..         |
+    | Great Britain |      ..     |         ..         |
+    |     1880.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    2083(^1) |         36         |
+    | Great Britain |      ..     |         ..         |
+    |     1890.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    2518(^1) |          7         |
+    | Great Britain |    1894     |         ..         |
+    |     1899.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |      ..     |          3         |
+    | Great Britain |    1202     |         ..         |
+    |     1900.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |      ..     |          4         |
+    | Great Britain |      ..     |         ..         |
+    |     1907.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    2200     |         ..         |
+    | Great Britain |     975     |         ..         |
+    +---------------+-------------+--------------------+
+      ^1 Hammered products are excluded.
+
+    TABLE IX.--_Production of Steel (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +----------------------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+                                            | Crucible  |           |
+    |                      |Bessemer. |   Open-  | and Mis-  |   Total.  |
+    |                      |          |  Hearth. |cellaneous.|           |
+    +----------------------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |     1870.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States        |    37    |      1   |    31     |      69   |
+    | Great Britain        |   215    |     78   |    ..     |     292^a |
+    |                      |(for 1873)|          |           |           |
+    | The World            |    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |     692^a |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1880.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States        | 1,074    |    101   |    72     |   1,247   |
+    | Great Britain        | 1,044    |    251   |    80     |   1,375   |
+    | Germany and          |          |          |           |           |
+    |   Luxemburg          |   608^a  |     87^a |    33     |     728   |
+    | The World            |    ..         ..    |    ..     |   4,205^a |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1890.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States        | 3,689    |    513   |    75     |   4,277   |
+    | Great Britain        | 2,015    |  1,564   |   100     |   3,679   |
+    | Germany and Luxemburg|    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |   2,127   |
+    | The World            |    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |  11,902^a |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1900.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States /Acid  | 6,685    |    853\  |   105     |  10,188   |
+    |               \Basic |     0    |  2,545/  |           |           |
+    | Great Britain /Acid  | 1,254\   |  3,156   |   149     |   5,050   |
+    |               \Basic |   491/   |          |           |           |
+    | Germany and Luxemburg|    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |   6,541   |
+    | The World            |   ..     |    ..    |    ..     |  28,273   |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1907.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States /Acid  |11,668    |  1,270\  |   145     |  23,363   |
+    |               \Basic |     0    | 10,279/  |           |           |
+    | Great Britain /Acid  | 1,280    |  3,385\  |    ..     |   6,523^2 |
+    |               \Basic |   579    |  1,279/  |           |           |
+    | Germany and   /Acid  |   381^1  |    209^1\|   208^3   |  11,873   |
+    |   Luxemburg   \Basic | 7,098^1  |  3,976^1/|           |           |
+    | The World            |          |          |           |  50,375   |
+    +----------------------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+
+      ^1 Ingots only.
+      ^2 Bessemer and open hearth only.
+      ^3 Castings.
+
+    TABLE X.--_Tonnage (gross register) of Iron and Steel Vessels built
+    under Survey of Lloyd's Registry (in thousands of tons)._
+
+    +--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |              |1877.|1880.|1885.|1890.|1895.|1900.|1906.|
+    +--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Wrought Iron | 443 | 460 | 304 |  50 |   8 |  14 |   0 |
+    | Steel        |   0 |  35 | 162 |1079 | 863 |1305 |1492 |
+    +--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+
+    TABLE XI.--_Production of Iron Ore (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +----------------+-------------------+-------------------+------------+
+    |                |       1905.       |       1906.       |    1907.   |
+    |                +------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+    |                |Thousands of| Per  |Thousands of| Per  |Thousands of|
+    |                | Long Tons. | Cent.| Long Tons. | Cent.| Long Tons. |
+    +----------------+------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+    | United States  |   42,526   | 37.4 |  47,750    | 38.6 |   51,721   |
+    | Germany and    |            |      |            |      |            |
+    |   Luxemburg    |   23,074   | 20.3 |  26,312    | 21.3 |   27,260   |
+    | Great Britain  |   14,591   | 12.8 |  15,500    | 12.5 |   15,732   |
+    | Spain          |    8,934   |  7.9 |   9,299    |  7.5 |     ..     |
+    | France         |    7,279   |  6.4 |   8,347    |  6.7 |     ..     |
+    | Russia         |    5,954^1 |  5.2 |   3,812    |  3.1 |   4,330^2  |
+    | Sweden         |    4,297   |  3.8 |   4,431    |  3.6 |     ..     |
+    | Austria-Hungary|    3,639   |  3.2 |   4,024    |  3.3 |     ..     |
+    | Other Countries|    3,457   |  3.0 |   4,297    |  3.5 |     ..     |
+    +----------------+------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+    |     Total      |  113,751   |100.0 | 123,773    |100.1 |            |
+    +----------------+------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+      ^1 Calculated from the production of pig iron.
+      ^2 Approximately.
+
+     (H. M. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word "iron" was in O. Eng. _iren_, _isern_ or _isen_, cf.
+    Ger. _Eisen_, Dut. _ysen_, Swed. _järn_, Dan. _jern_; the original
+    Teut. base is _isarn_, and cognates are found in Celtic, Ir. _iarun_,
+    Gael, _iarunn_, Breton, _houarn_, &c. The ulterior derivation is
+    unknown; connexion has been suggested without much probability with
+    _is_, ice, from its hard bright surface, or with Lat. _ars_, _aeris_,
+    brass. The change from _isen_ to _iren_ (in 16th cent. _yron_) is due
+    to rhotacism, but whether direct from _isen_ or through _isern_,
+    _irern_ is doubtful. "Steel" represents the O. Eng. _stél_ or _stéle_
+    (the true form; only found, however, with spelling _stýle_, cf.
+    _stýl-ecg_, steel-edged), cognate with Ger. _Stahl_, Dut. and Dan.
+    _staal_, &c.; the word is not found outside Teutonic. Skeat (_Etym.
+    Dict._, 1898) finds the ultimate origin in the Indo-European base
+    _stak_-, to be firm or still, and compares Lat. _stagnum_,
+    standing-water.
+
+  [2] A "eutectic" is the last-freezing part of an alloy, and
+    corresponds to what the mother-liquor of a saline solution would
+    become if such a solution, after the excess of saline matter had been
+    crystallized out, were finally completely frozen. It is the
+    mother-liquor or "bittern" frozen. Its striking characteristics are:
+    (1) that for given metals alloyed together its composition is fixed,
+    and does not vary with the proportions in which those metals are
+    present, because any "excess metal," i.e. so much of either metal as
+    is present in excess over the eutectic ratio, freezes out before the
+    eutectic; (2) that though thus constant, its composition is not in
+    simple atomic proportions; (3) that its freezing-point is constant;
+    and (4) that, when first formed, it habitually consists of
+    interstratified plates of the metals which compose it. If the alloy
+    has a composition very near that of its own eutectic, then when
+    solidified it of course contains a large proportion of the eutectic,
+    and only a small proportion of the excess metal. If it differs widely
+    from the eutectic in composition, then when solidified it consists of
+    only a small quantity of eutectic and a very large quantity of the
+    excess metal. But, far below the freezing-point, transformations may
+    take place in the solid metal, and follow a course quite parallel
+    with that of freezing, though with no suggestion of liquidity. A
+    "eutectoid" is to such a transformation in solid metal what a
+    eutectic is to freezing proper. It is the last part of the metal to
+    undergo this transformation and, when thus transformed, it is of
+    constant though not atomic composition, and habitually consists of
+    interstratified plates of its component metals.
+
+  [3] Note the distinction between the "eutectic" or alloy of lowest
+    freezing-point, 1130°, B, with 4.30% of carbon, and the "eutectoid,"
+    hardenite and pearlite, or alloy of lowest transformation-point, 690°
+    S, with 0.90% of carbon. (See § 17.)
+
+  [4] The length of the blow varies very greatly, in general increasing
+    with the proportion of silicon and with the size of charge. Thus the
+    small Swedish charges with but little silicon may be blown in 5
+    minutes, but for a 20-ton charge the time is more likely to reach, or
+    exceed 10 minutes, and sometimes reaches 20 minutes or even more.
+
+  [5] A "billet" is a bar, 5 in. sq. or smaller, drawn down from a
+    bloom, ingot, or pile for further manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+IRON MASK (_masque de fer_). The identity of the "man in the iron mask"
+is a famous historical mystery. The person so called was a political
+prisoner under Louis XIV., who died in the Bastille in 1703. To the mask
+itself no real importance attaches, though that feature of the story
+gave it a romantic interest; there is no historical evidence that the
+mask he was said always to wear was made of anything but black velvet
+(_velours_), and it was only afterwards that legend converted its
+material into iron. As regards the "man," we have the contemporary
+official journals of Étienne du Junca (d. 1706), the king's lieutenant
+at the Bastille, from which we learn that on the 18th of September 1698
+a new governor, Bénigne D'Auvergne de Saint-Mars, arrived from the
+fortress of the Isles Ste Marguerite (in the bay of Cannes), bringing
+with him "un ancien prisonnier qu'il avait ŕ Pignerol" (Pinerolo, in
+Piedmont), whom he kept always masked and whose name remained untold.
+(Saint-Mars, it may here be noted, had been commandant at Pignerol from
+the end of 1664 till 1681; he was in charge there of such important
+prisoners as Fouquet, from 1665 to his death in 1680, and Lauzun, from
+1671 till his release in 1681; he was then in authority at Exiles from
+1681 to 1687, and at Ste Marguerite from 1687 to 1698). Du Junca
+subsequently records that "on Monday the 19th of November 1703, the
+unknown prisoner, always masked with a black velvet mask, whom M. de
+Saint-Mars had brought with him from the islands of Ste Marguerite, and
+had kept for a long time,... died at about ten o'clock in the evening."
+He adds that "this unknown prisoner was buried on the 20th in the parish
+cemetery of Saint Paul, and was registered under a name also
+unknown"--noting in the margin that he has since learnt that the name in
+the register was "M. de Marchiel." The actual name in the register of
+the parish cemetery of Saint Paul (now destroyed, but a facsimile is
+still in existence) was "Marchioly"; and the age of the deceased was
+there given as "about 45."
+
+The identity of this prisoner was already, it will be observed, a
+mystery before he died in 1703, and soon afterwards we begin to see the
+fruit of the various legends concerning him which presumably started as
+early as 1670, when Saint-Mars himself (see below) found it necessary to
+circulate "fairy tales" (_contes jaunes_). In 1711 the Princess Palatine
+wrote to the Electress Sophia of Hanover, and suggested that he was an
+English nobleman who had taken part in a plot of the duke of Berwick
+against William III. Voltaire, in his _Sičcle de Louis XIV_ (1751), told
+the story of the mysterious masked prisoner with many graphic details;
+and, under the heading of "Ana" in the _Questions sur l'encyclopédie_
+(Geneva, 1771), he asserted that he was a bastard brother of Louis XIV.,
+son of Mazarin and Anne of Austria. Voltaire's influence in creating
+public interest in the "man in the mask" was indeed enormous; he had
+himself been imprisoned in the Bastille in 1717 and again in 1726; as
+early as 1745 he is found hinting that he knows something; in the
+_Sičcle de Louis XIV_ he justifies his account on the score of
+conversations with de Bernaville, who succeeded Saint-Mars (d. 1708) as
+governor of the Bastille, and others; and after Heiss in 1770 had
+identified the "mask" with Mattioli (see below), Voltaire was not above
+suggesting that he really knew more than he had said, but thought it
+sufficient to have given the clue to the enigma. According to the Abbé
+Soulavie, the duke of Richelieu's advice was to reflect on Voltaire's
+"last utterances" on the subject. In Soulavie's _Mémoires_ of Richelieu
+(London, 1790) the masked man becomes (on the authority of an apocryphal
+note by Saint-Mars himself) the legitimate twin brother of Louis XIV. In
+1801 the story went that this scion of the royal house of France had a
+son born to him in prison, who settled in Corsica under the name of "De
+Buona Parte," and became the ancestor of Napoleon! Dumas's _Vicomte de
+Bragelonne_ afterwards did much to popularize the theory that he was the
+king's brother. Meanwhile other identifications, earlier or later, were
+also supported, in whose case the facts are a sufficient refutation. He
+was Louis, count of Vermandois, son of Louise de la Valličre (_Mémoires
+secrets pour servir ŕ l'histoire de Perse_, Amsterdam, 1745);
+Vermandois, however, died in 1683. He was the duke of Monmouth (_Lettre
+de Sainte Foy_ ... Amsterdam, 1768), although Monmouth was beheaded in
+1685. He was François de Vendôme, duke of Beaufort, who disappeared (and
+pretty certainly died) at the siege of Candia (1669); Avedick, an
+Armenian patriarch seized by the Jesuits, who was not imprisoned till
+1706 and died in 1711; Fouquet, who undoubtedly died at Pignerol in
+1680; and even, according to A. Loquin (1883), Moličre!
+
+Modern criticism, however, has narrowed the issue. The "man in the mask"
+was either (1) Count Mattioli, who became the prisoner of Saint-Mars at
+Pignerol in 1679, or (2) the person called Eustache Dauger, who was
+imprisoned in July 1669 in the same fortress. The evidence shows
+conclusively that these two were the only prisoners under Saint-Mars at
+Pignerol who could have been taken by him to the Bastille in 1698. The
+arguments in favour of Mattioli (first suggested by Heiss, and strongly
+supported by Topin in 1870) are summed up, with much weight of critical
+authority, by F. Funck-Brentano in vol. lvi. of the _Revue historique_
+(1894); the claims of Eustache Dauger were no less ably advocated by J.
+Lair in vol. ii. of his _Nicolas Foucquet_ (1890). But while we know who
+Mattioli was, and why he was imprisoned, a further question still
+remains for supporters of Dauger, because his identity and the reason
+for his incarceration are quite obscure.
+
+  It need only be added, so far as other modern theories are concerned,
+  that in 1873 M. Jung (_La Vérité sur la masque de fer_) had brought
+  forward another candidate, with the attractive name of "Marechiel," a
+  soldier of Lorraine who had taken part in a poisoning plot against
+  Louis XIV., and was arrested at Peronne by Louvois in 1673, and said
+  to be lodged in the Bastille and then sent to Pignerol. But Jung's
+  arguments, though strong destructively against the Mattioli theory,
+  break down as regards any valid proof either that the prisoner
+  arrested at Peronne was a Bastille prisoner in 1673 or that he was
+  ever at Pignerol, where indeed we find no trace of him. Another
+  theory, propounded by Captain Bazeries (_La Masque de fer_, 1883),
+  identified the prisoner with General du Bulonde, punished for
+  cowardice at the siege of Cuneo; but Bulonde only went to Pignerol in
+  1691, and has been proved to be living in 1705.
+
+_The Mattioli Theory._--Ercole Antonio Mattioli (born at Bologna on the
+1st of December 1640) was minister of Charles IV., duke of Mantua, who
+as marquess of Montferrat was in possession of the frontier fortress of
+Casale, which was coveted by Louis XIV. He negotiated the sale of Casale
+to the French king for 100,000 crowns, and himself received valuable
+presents from Louis. But on the eve of the occupation of Casale by the
+French, Mattioli--actuated by a tardy sense of patriotism or by the hope
+of further gain--betrayed the transaction to the governments of Austria,
+Spain, Venice and Savoy. Louis, in revenge, had him kidnapped (1679) by
+the French envoy, J. F. d'Estrades, abbé of Moissac, and Mattioli was
+promptly lodged in the fortress of Pignerol. This kidnapping of
+Mattioli, however, was no secret, and it was openly discussed in _La
+Prudenza trionfante di Casale_ (Cologne, 1682), where it was stated that
+Mattioli was masked when he was arrested. In February 1680 he is
+described as nearly mad, no doubt from the effects of solitary
+confinement. When Saint-Mars was made governor of Exiles in 1681 we know
+from one of his letters that Mattioli was left at Pignerol; but in March
+1694, Pignerol being about to be given up by France to Savoy, he and two
+other prisoners were removed with much secrecy to Ste Marguerite, where
+Saint-Mars had been governor since 1687. Funck-Brentano emphasizes the
+fact that, although Eustache Dauger was then at Ste Marguerite, the
+king's minister Barbezieux, writing to Saint-Mars (March 20, 1694) about
+the transfer of these prisoners, says: "You know that they are of more
+consequence (_plus de conséquence_), at least one" (presumably
+Mattioli), "than those who are at present at the island." From this
+point, however, the record is puzzling. A month after his arrival at Ste
+Marguerite, a prisoner who had a valet died there.[1] Now Mattioli
+undoubtedly had a valet at Pignerol, and nobody else at Ste Marguerite
+is known at this time to have had one; so that he may well have been the
+prisoner who died. In that case he was clearly not "the mask" of 1698
+and 1703. Funck-Brentano's attempt to prove that Mattioli did _not_ die
+in 1604 is far from convincing; but the assumption that he did is
+inferential, and to that extent arguable. "Marchioly" in the burial
+register of Saint Paul naturally suggests indeed at first that the
+"ancien prisonnier" taken by Saint-Mars to the Bastille in 1698 was
+Mattioli, Saint-Mars himself sometimes writing the name "Marthioly" in
+his letters; but further consideration leaves this argument decidedly
+weak. In any case the age stated in the burial register, "about 45," was
+fictitious, whether for Mattioli (63) or Dauger (at least 53); and, as
+Lair points out, Saint-Mars is known to have given false names at the
+burial of other prisoners. Monsignor Barnes, in _The Man of the Mask_
+(1908), takes the entry "Marchioly" as making it certain that the
+prisoner was not Mattioli, on the ground (1) that the law[2] explicitly
+ordered a false name to be given, and (2) that after hiding his identity
+so carefully the authorities were not likely to give away the secret by
+means of a burial register.
+
+In spite of Funck-Brentano it appears practically certain that Mattioli
+must be ruled out. If he was the individual who died in 1703 at the
+Bastille, the obscurity which gathered round the nameless masked
+prisoner is almost incomprehensible, for there was no real secret about
+Mattioli's incarceration. The existence of a "legend" as to Dauger can,
+however, be traced, as will be seen below, from the first. Any one who
+accepts the Mattioli theory must be driven, as Lang suggests, to suppose
+that the mystery which grew up about the unknown prisoner was somehow
+transferred to Mattioli from Dauger.
+
+_The Dauger Theory._--What then was Dauger's history? Unfortunately it
+is only in his capacity as a prisoner that we can trace it. On the 19th
+of July 1669 Louvois, Louis XIV.'s minister, writes to Saint-Mars at
+Pignerol that he is sending him "le nommé Eustache Dauger" (Dauger,
+D'Angers--the spelling is doubtful),[3] whom it is of the last
+importance to keep with special closeness; Saint-Mars is to threaten him
+with death if he speaks about anything except his actual needs. On the
+same day Louvois orders Vauroy, major of the citadel of Dunkirk, to
+seize Dauger and conduct him to Pignerol. Saint-Mars writes to Louvois
+(Aug. 21) that Vauroy had brought Dauger, and that people "believe him
+to be a marshal of France." Louvois (March 26, 1670) refers to a report
+that one of Fouquet's valets--there was constant trouble about them--had
+spoken to Dauger, who asked to be left in peace, and he emphasizes the
+importance of there being no communication. Saint-Mars (April 12, 1670)
+reports Dauger as "resigné ŕ la volonté de Dieu et du Roy," and (again
+the legend grows) says that "there are persons who are inquisitive about
+my prisoner, and I am obliged to tell _contes jaunes pour me moquer
+d'eux._" In 1672 Saint-Mars proposes--the significance of this action is
+discussed later--to allow Dauger to act as "valet" to Lauzun; Louvois
+firmly refuses, but in 1675 allows him to be employed as valet to
+Fouquet, and he impresses upon Saint-Mars the importance of nobody
+learning about Dauger's "past." After Fouquet's death (1680) Dauger and
+Fouquet's other (old-standing) valet La Rivičre are put together, by
+Louvois's special orders, in one lower dungeon; Louvois evidently fears
+their knowledge of things heard from Fouquet, and he orders Lauzun (who
+had recently been allowed to converse freely with Fouquet) to be told
+that they are released. When Saint-Mars is transferred to Exiles, he is
+ordered to take these two with him, as too important to be in other
+hands; Mattioli is left behind. At Exiles they are separated and guarded
+with special precautions; and in January 1687 one of them (all the
+evidence admittedly pointing to La Rivičre) dies. When Saint-Mars is
+again transferred, in May 1687, to Ste Marguerite, he takes his
+"prisoner" (apparently he now has only one--Dauger) with great show of
+caution; and next year (Jan. 8, 1688) he writes to Louvois that "mon
+prisonnier" is believed "in all this province" to be a son of Oliver
+Cromwell, or else the duke of Beaufort (a point which at once rules out
+Beaufort). In 1691 Louvois's successor, Barbezieux, writes to him about
+his "prisonnier de vingt ans" (Dauger was first imprisoned in 1669,
+Mattioli in 1679), and Saint-Mars replies that "nobody has seen him but
+myself." Subsequently Barbezieux and the governor continue to write to
+one another about their "ancien prisonnier" (Jan. 6, 1696; Nov. 17,
+1697). When, therefore, we come to Saint-Mars's appointment to the
+Bastille in 1698, Dauger appears almost certainly to be the "ancien
+prisonnier" he took with him.[4] There is at least good ground for
+supposing Mattioli's death to have been indicated in 1694, but nothing
+is known that would imply Dauger's, unless it was he who died in 1703.
+
+_Theories as to Dauger's Identity._--Here we find not only sufficient
+indication of the growth of a legend as to Dauger, but also the
+existence in fact of a real mystery as to who he was and what he had
+done, two things both absent in Mattioli's case. The only "missing link"
+is the want of any precise allusion to a mask in the references to
+Dauger. But in spite of du Junca's emphasis on the mask, it is in
+reality very questionable whether the wearing of a mask was an unusual
+practice. It was one obvious way of enabling a prisoner to appear in
+public (for exercise or in travelling) without betrayal of identity.
+Indeed three years before the arrival of Saint-Mars we hear (_Gazette
+d'Amsterdam_, March 14, 1695) of another masked man being brought to the
+Bastille, who eventually was known to be the son of a Lyons banker.
+
+Who then was Dauger, and what was his "past"? We will take first a
+theory propounded by Andrew Lang in _The Valet's Tragedy_ (1903). As the
+result of research in the diplomatic correspondence at the Record Office
+in London[5] Mr Lang finds a clue in the affairs of the French Huguenot,
+Roux de Marsilly, the secret agent for a Protestant league against
+France between Sweden, Holland, England and the Protestant cantons of
+Switzerland, who in February 1669 left London, where he had been
+negotiating with Arlington (apparently with Charles II.'s knowledge),
+for Switzerland, his confidential valet Martin remaining behind. On the
+14th of April 1669 Marsilly was kidnapped for Louis XIV. in Switzerland,
+in defiance of international right, taken to Paris and on the 22nd of
+June tortured to death on a trumped-up charge of rape. The duke of York
+is said to have betrayed him to Colbert, the French ambassador in
+London. The English intrigue was undoubtedly a serious matter, because
+the shifty Charles II. was at the same time negotiating with Louis XIV.
+a secret alliance against Holland, in support of the restoration of
+Roman Catholicism in England. It would therefore be desirable for both
+parties to remove anybody who was cognizant of the double dealing. Now
+Louvois's original letter to Saint-Mars concerning Dauger (July 19,
+1669), after dealing with the importance of his being guarded with
+special closeness, and of Saint-Mars personally taking him food and
+threatening him with death if he speaks, proceeds as follows (in a
+second paragraph, as printed in Delort, i. 155, 156):--
+
+  "Je mande au Sieur Poupart de faire incessamment travailler ŕ ce que
+  vous désirerez, et vous ferez préparer les meubles qui sont
+  nécessaires pour la vie de celui que l'on vous aménera, observant que
+  comme ce n est qu'un valet, il ne lui en faut pas de bien
+  considérables, et je vous ferai rembourser tant de la déspenses des
+  meubles, que de ce que vous désirerez pour sa nourriture."
+
+Assuming the words here, "as he is only a valet," to refer to Dauger,
+and taking into account the employment of Dauger from 1675 to 1680 as
+Fouquet's valet, Mr Lang now obtains a solution of the problem of why a
+mere valet should be a political prisoner of so much concern to Louis
+XIV. at this time. He points out that Colbert, on the 3rd, 10th and 24th
+of June, writes from London to Louis XIV. about his efforts to get
+Martin, Roux de Marsilly's valet, to go to France, and on the 1st of
+July expresses a hope that Charles II. will surrender "the valet." Then,
+on the 19th of July, Dauger is arrested at Dunkirk, the regular port
+from England. Mr Lang regards his conclusion as to the identity between
+these valets as irresistible. It is true that what is certainly known
+about Martin hardly seems to provide sufficient reason for Eustache
+Dauger being regarded for so long a time as a specially dangerous
+person. But Mr Lang's answer on that point is that this humble
+supernumerary in Roux de Marsilly's conspiracy simply became one more
+wretched victim of the "red tape" of the old French absolute monarchy.
+
+Unfortunately for this identification, it encounters at once a
+formidable, if not fatal, objection. Martin, the Huguenot conspirator
+Marsilly's valet, must surely have been himself a Huguenot. Dauger, on
+the other hand, was certainly a Catholic; indeed Louvois's second letter
+to Saint-Mars about him (Sept. 10, 1669) gives precise directions as to
+his being allowed to attend mass at the same time as Fouquet. It may
+perhaps be argued that Dauger (if Martin) simply did not make bad worse
+by proclaiming his creed; but against this, Louvois must have _known_
+that Martin was a Huguenot. Apart from that, it will be observed that
+the substantial reason for connecting the two men is simply that both
+were "valets." The identification is inspired by the apparent necessity
+of an explanation why Dauger, being a valet, should be a political
+prisoner of importance. The assumption, however, that Dauger was a valet
+when he was arrested is itself as unnecessary as the fact is
+intrinsically improbable. Neither Louvois's letter of July 19, 1669, nor
+Dauger's employment as valet to Fouquet in 1675 (six years later)--and
+these are the only grounds on which the assumption rests--prove anything
+of the sort.
+
+Was Dauger a valet? If Dauger was the "mask," it is just as well to
+remove a misunderstanding which has misled too many commentators.
+
+1. If Louvois's letter of July 19 be read in connexion with the
+preceding correspondence it will be seen that ever since Fouquet's
+incarceration in 1665 Saint-Mars had had trouble over his valets. They
+fall ill, and there is difficulty in replacing them, or they play the
+traitor. At last, on the 12th of March 1669, Louvois writes to
+Saint-Mars to say (evidently in answer to some suggestion from
+Saint-Mars in a letter which is not preserved): "It is annoying that
+both Fouquet's valets should have fallen ill at the same time, but you
+have so far taken such good measures for avoiding inconvenience that I
+leave it to you to adopt whatever course is necessary." There are then
+no letters in existence from Saint-Mars to Louvois up to Louvois's
+letter of July 19, in which he first refers to Dauger; and for three
+months (from April 22 to July 19) there is a gap in the correspondence,
+so that the sequence is obscure. The portion, however, of the letter of
+the 19th of July, cited above, in which Louvois uses the words "ce n'est
+qu'un valet," does not, in the present writer's judgment, refer to
+Dauger at all, but to something which had been mooted in the meanwhile
+with a view to obtaining a valet for Fouquet. This is indeed the natural
+reading of the letter as a whole. If Louvois had meant to write that
+Dauger was "only a valet" he would have started by saying so. On the
+contrary, he gives precise and apparently comprehensive directions in
+the first part of the letter about how he is to be treated: "Je vous en
+donne advis par advance, afin que vous puissiez faire accomoder un
+cachot oů vous le mettrez surement, observant de faire en sorte que les
+jours qu'aura le lieu oů il sera ne donnent point sur les lieux qui
+puissent estre abordez de personne, et qu'il y ayt assez de portes
+fermées, les unes sur les autres, pour que vos sentinelles ne puissent
+bien entendre," &c. Having finished his instructions about Dauger, he
+then proceeds in a fresh paragraph to tell Saint-Mars that orders have
+been given to "Sieur Poupart" to do "whatever you shall desire." He is
+here dealing with a different question; and it is unreasonable to
+suppose. and indeed contrary to the style in which Louvois corresponds
+with Saint-Mars, that he devotes the whole letter to the one subject
+with which he started. The words "et vous ferez préparer les meubles qui
+sont nécessaires pour la vie de celui que l'on vous aménera" are not at
+all those which Louvois would use with regard to Dauger, after what he
+has just said about him. Why "celui que l'on vous aménera," instead of
+simply "Dauger," who was being brought, as he has said, by Vauroy? The
+clue to the interpretation of this phrase may be found in another letter
+from Louvois not six months later (Jan. 1, 1670), when he writes: "Le
+roy se remet ŕ vous d'en uzer comme vous le jugerez ŕ propos ŕ l'esgard
+des valets de Monsieur Foucquet; il faut seulement observer que si vous
+luy donnez des valets que l'on vous aménera d'icy, il pourra bien
+arriver qu'ils seront gaignez par avance, et qu'ainsy ils feroient pis
+que ceux que vous en osteriez présentement." Here we have the identical
+phrase used of valets whom it is contemplated to bring in from outside
+for Fouquet; though it does not follow that any such valet was in fact
+brought in. The whole previous correspondence (as well as a good deal
+afterwards) is full of the valet difficulty; and it is surely more
+reasonable to suppose that when Louvois writes to Saint-Mars on the 19th
+of July that he is sending Dauger, a new prisoner of importance, as to
+whom "il est de la derničre importance qu'il soit gardé avec une grande
+seureté," his second paragraph as regards the instructions to "Sieur
+Poupart" refers to something which Saint-Mars had suggested about
+getting a valet from outside, and simply points out that in preparing
+furniture for "celui que l'on vous aménera" he need not do much, "comme
+ce n'est qu'un valet."
+
+2. But this is not all. If Dauger had been originally a valet, he might
+as well have been used as such at once, when one was particularly
+wanted. On the contrary, Louvois flatly refused Saint-Mars's request in
+1672 to be allowed to do so, and was exceedingly chary of allowing it in
+1675 (only "en cas de nécessité," and "vous pouvez donner le dit
+prisonnier ŕ M. Foucquet, si son valet venoit ŕ luy manquer et non
+autrement"). The words used by Saint-Mars in asking Louvois in 1672 if
+he might use Dauger as Lauzun's valet are themselves significant to the
+point of conclusiveness: "Il ferait, ce me semble, un bon valet."
+Saint-Mars could not have said this if Dauger had all along been _known_
+to be a valet. The terms of his letter to Louvois (Feb 20, 1672) show
+that Saint-Mars wanted to use Dauger as a valet simply because he was
+_not_ a valet. That a person might be used as a valet who was not really
+a valet is shown by Louvois having told Saint-Mars in 1666 (June 4) that
+Fouquet's old doctor, Pecquet, was not to be allowed to serve him "soit
+dans sa profession, soit dans le mestier d'un simple valet." The fact
+was that Saint-Mars was hard put to it in the prison for anybody who
+could be trusted, and that he had convinced himself by this time that
+Dauger (who had proved a quiet harmless fellow) would give no trouble.
+Probably he wanted to give him some easy employment, and save him from
+going mad in confinement. It is worth noting that up to 1672 (when
+Saint-Mars suggested utilizing Dauger as valet to Lauzun) none of the
+references to Dauger in letters after that of July 19, 1669, suggests
+his being a valet; and their contrary character makes it all the more
+clear that the second part of the letter of July 19 does not refer to
+Dauger.
+
+In this connexion it may be remarked (and this is a point on which
+Funck-Brentano entirely misinterprets the allusion) that, even in his
+capacity as valet to Fouquet, Dauger was still regarded an as
+exceptional sort of prisoner; for in 1679 when Fouquet and Lauzun were
+afterwards allowed to walk freely all over the citadel, Louvois
+impresses on Saint-Mars that "_le nommé Eustache_" is never to be
+allowed to be in Fouquet's room when Lauzun or any other stranger, or
+anybody but Fouquet and the "_ancien valet_," La Rivičre, is there, and
+that he is to stay in Fouquet's room when the latter goes out to walk in
+the citadel, and is only to go out walking with Fouquet and La Rivičre
+when they promenade in the special part of the fortress previously set
+apart for them (Louvois's letter to Saint-Mars, Jan. 30, 1670).
+
+_Was Dauger James de la Cloche?_ In _The Man of the Mask_ (1908)
+Monsignor Barnes, while briefly dismissing Mr Lang's identification with
+Martin, and apparently not realizing the possibility of reading
+Louvois's letter of July 19, 1669, as indicated above[6] deals in detail
+with the history of James de la Cloche, the natural son of Charles II.
+(acknowledged privately as such by the king) in whom he attempts to
+unmask the personality of Dauger. Mr Lang, in _The Valet's Tragedy_, had
+some years earlier ironically wondered why nobody made this suggestion,
+which, however, he regarded as untenable. The story of James de la
+Cloche is indeed itself another historical mystery; he abruptly vanishes
+as such at Rome at the end of 1668, and thus provides a disappearance of
+convenient date; but the question concerning him is complicated by the
+fact that a James Henry de Bovere Roano Stuardo, who married at Naples
+early in 1669 and undoubtedly died in the following August, claiming to
+be a son of Charles II., makes just afterwards an equally abrupt
+appearance; in many respects the two men seem to be the same, but
+Monsignor Barnes, following Lord Acton, here regards James Stuardo as an
+impostor who traded on a knowledge of James de la Cloche's secret. If
+the latter then did _not_ die in 1669, what became of him? According to
+Monsignor Barnes's theory, James de la Cloche, who had been brought up
+to be a Jesuit and knew his royal father's secret profession of Roman
+Catholicism, was being employed by Charles II. as an intermediary with
+the Catholic Church and with the object of making him his own private
+confessor; he returned from Rome at the beginning of 1669, and is then
+identified by Monsignor Barnes with a certain Abbé Pregnani, an
+"astrologer" sent by Louis in February 1669 to influence Charles II.
+towards the French alliance. Pregnani, however, made a bad start by
+"tipping winners" at Newmarket with disastrous results, and was quickly
+recalled to France, actually departing on July 5th (French 15th). But he
+too now disappears, though a letter from Lionne (the French foreign
+secretary) to Colbert of July 17 (two days before Louvois's letter to
+Saint-Mars about Dauger) says that he is expected in Paris. Monsignor
+Barnes's theory is that Pregnani _alias_ James de la Cloche, without the
+knowledge of Charles II., was arrested by order of Louis and imprisoned
+as Dauger on account of his knowing too much about the French schemes in
+regard to Charles II. This identification of Pregnani with James de la
+Cloche is, however, intrinsically incredible. We are asked to read into
+the Pregnani story a deliberate intrigue on Charles's part for an excuse
+for having James de la Cloche in England. But this does not at all seem
+to square with the facts given in the correspondence, and it is hard to
+understand why Charles should have allowed Pregnani to depart, and
+should not have taken any notice of his son's "disappearance." There
+would still remain, no doubt, the possibility that Pregnani, though not
+James de la Cloche, was nevertheless the "man in the mask." But even
+then the dates will not suit; for Lionne wrote to Colbert on July 27,
+saying, "Pregnani has been so slow on his voyage that he has only given
+me (_m'a rendu_) your despatch of July 4 several days after I had
+already received those of the 8th and the 11th." Allowing for the French
+style of dating this means that instead of arriving in Paris by July 18,
+Pregnani only saw Lionne there at earliest on July 25. This seems to
+dispose of his being sent to Pignerol on the 19th. Apart altogether,
+however, from such considerations, it now seems fairly certain, from Mr
+Lang's further research into the problem of James de la Cloche (see LA
+CLOCHE), that the latter _was_ identical with the "Prince" James Stuardo
+who died in Naples in 1669, and that he hoaxed the general of the
+Jesuits and forged a number of letters purporting to be from Charles II.
+which were relied on in Monsignor Barnes's book; so that the theory
+breaks down at all points.
+
+The identification of Dauger thus still remains the historical problem
+behind the mystery of the "man in the mask." He was not the valet
+Martin; he was not a valet at all when he was sent to Pignerol; he was
+not James de la Cloche. The fact nevertheless that he was employed as a
+valet, even in special circumstances, for Fouquet, makes it difficult to
+believe that Dauger was a man of any particular social standing. We may
+be forced to conclude that the interest of the whole affair, so far as
+authentic history is concerned, is really nugatory, and that the
+romantic imagination has created a mystery in a fact of no importance.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The correspondence between Saint-Mars and Louvois is
+  printed by J. Delort in _Histoire de la détention des philosophes_
+  (1829). Apart from the modern studies by Lair, Funck-Brentano, Lang
+  and Barnes, referred to above, there is valuable historical matter in
+  the work of Roux-Fazaillac, _Recherches historiques sur l'homme au
+  masque de fer_ (1801); see also Marius Topin, _L'Homme au masque de
+  fer_ (Paris, 1870), and Loiseleur, _Trois Énigmes historiques_ (1882).
+       (H. Ch.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Barbezieux to Saint-Mars, May 10, 1694: "J'ai reçu la lettre que
+    vous avez pris la peine de m'écrire le 29 du mois passé; vous pouvez,
+    suivant que vous le proposez, faire mettre dans la prison voűtée le
+    valet du prisonnier qui est mort." It may be noted that Barbezieux
+    had recently told Saint-Mars to designate his prisoners by
+    circumlocutions in his correspondence, and not by name.
+
+  [2] He cites Bingham's _Bastille_, i. 27.
+
+  [3] It was the common practice to give pseudonyms to prisoners, and
+    this is clearly such a case. Mattioli's prison name was Lestang.
+
+  [4] Funck-Brentano argues that "un ancien prisonnier qu'il avait ŕ
+    Pignerol" (du Junca's words) cannot apply to Dauger, because then du
+    Junca would have added "et ŕ Exiles." But this is decidedly
+    far-fetched; du Junca would naturally refer specially to Pignerol,
+    the fortress with which Saint-Mars had been originally and
+    particularly associated. Funck-Brentano also insists that the
+    references to the "ancien prisonnier" in 1696 and 1697 must be to
+    Mattioli, giving _ancien_ the meaning of "late" or "former" (as in
+    the phrase "ancien ministre"), and regarding it as an expression
+    pertinent to Mattioli, who had been at Pignerol with Saint-Mars but
+    not at Exiles, and not to Dauger, who had always been with
+    Saint-Mars. But when he attempts to force du Junca's phrase "un
+    ancien prisonnier qu'il avait ŕ Pignerol" into this sense, he is
+    straining language. The natural interpretation of the word _ancien_
+    is simply "of old standing," and Barbezieux's use of it, coming after
+    Louvois's phrase in 1691, clearly points to Dauger being meant.
+
+  [5] This identification had been previously suggested by H. Montaudon
+    in _Revue de la société des études historiques_ for 1888, p. 452, and
+    by A. le Grain in _L'Intermédiaire des chercheurs_ for 1891, col.
+    227-228.
+
+  [6] The view taken by Monsignor Barnes of the phrase "_Ce n'est qu'un
+    valet_" in Louvois's letter of July 19, is that (reading this part of
+    the letter as a continuation of what precedes) the mere fact of
+    Louvois's saying that Dauger is only a valet means that that was just
+    what he was not! Monsignor Barnes is rather too apt to employ the
+    method of interpretation by contraries, on the ground that in such
+    letters the writer always concealed the real facts.
+
+
+
+
+IRON MOUNTAIN, a city and the county-seat of Dickinson county, Michigan,
+U.S.A., about 50 m. W. by N. of Escanaba, in the S.W. part of the Upper
+Peninsula. Pop. (1900) 9242, of whom 4376 were foreign-born; (1904)
+8585; (1910) 9216. It is served by the Chicago & North Western and the
+Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul railways. The city is situated about
+1160 ft. above sea-level in an iron-mining district, and the mining of
+iron ore (especially at the Great Chapin Iron Mine) is its principal
+industry. Iron Mountain was settled in 1879, and was chartered in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+IRONSIDES, a nickname given to one of great bravery, strength or
+endurance, particularly as exhibited in a soldier. In English history
+Ironside or Ironsides first appears as the name of Edmund II., king of
+the English. In the Great Rebellion it was first given by Prince Rupert
+to Cromwell, after the battle of Marston Moor in 1644 (see S. R.
+Gardiner's _History of the Great Civil War_, 1893, vol. ii. p. 1, and
+_Mercurius civicus_, September 19-26, 1644, quoted there). From Cromwell
+it was transferred to the troopers of his cavalry, those "God-fearing
+men," raised and trained by him in an iron discipline, who were the main
+instrument of the parliamentary victories in the field. This (see S. R.
+Gardiner, _op. cit._ iv. 179) was first given at the raising of the
+siege of Pontefract 1648, but did not become general till later.
+
+
+
+
+IRONTON, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the Ohio river, about 142 m. E.S.E. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 10,939;
+(1900) 11,868, of whom 924 were negroes and 714 foreign-born; (1910
+census) 13,147. It is served by the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Cincinnati,
+Hamilton and Dayton, the Norfolk and Western, and the Detroit, Toledo
+and Ironton railways, and by river steamboats. The city is built on a
+plain at the base of hills rising from the river bottom and abounding in
+iron ore and bituminous coal; fire and pottery clay also occur in the
+vicinity. Besides mining, Ironton has important lumber interests,
+considerable river traffic, and numerous manufactures, among which are
+iron, wire, nails, machinery, stoves, fire-brick, pressed brick,
+terra-cotta, cement, carriages and wagons, and furniture. The total
+value of its factory product in 1905 was $4,755,304; in 1900,
+$5,410,528. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Ironton
+was first settled in 1848, and in 1851 was incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+IRONWOOD, a city of Gogebic county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Montreal
+river, in the N.W. part of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1890) 7745; (1900)
+9705, of whom 4615 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,821. It is served
+by the Chicago and Northwestern and the Wisconsin Central railways. The
+city is situated about 1500 ft. above sea-level in the Gogebic
+iron-district, and is principally a mining town; some of the largest
+iron mines in the United States are within the city limits. Ironwood was
+settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+IRON-WOOD, the name applied to several kinds of timber, the produce of
+trees from different parts of the tropics, and belonging to very
+different natural families. Usually the wood is extremely hard, dense
+and dark-coloured, and sinks in water. Several species of _Sideroxylon_
+(_Sapotaceae_) yield iron-wood, _Sideroxylon cinereum_ or _Bojerianum_
+being the _bois de fer blanc_ of Africa and Mauritius, and the name is
+also given to species of _Metrosideros_ (_Myrtaceae_) and _Diospyros_
+(_Ebenaceae_).
+
+West Indian iron-wood is the produce of _Colubrina reclinata_ (and _C.
+ferruginosa_ (_Rhamnaceae_), and of _Aegiphila martinicensis
+Verbenacae_). _Ixora_ (_Siderodendron_) _triflorum_ (_Rubiaceae_) is the
+_bois de fer_ of Martinique, and Zanthoxylum _Pterota_ (_Rutaceae_) is
+the iron-wood of Jamaica, while _Robinia Ponacoco_ (_Leguminosae_) is
+described as the iron-wood of Guiana. The iron-wood of India and Ceylon
+is the produce of _Mesua ferrea_ (_Guttiferae_). The iron-wood tree of
+Pegu and Arracan is _Xylia dolabriformis_ (_Leguminosae_), described as
+the most important timber-tree of Burma after teak, and known as
+_pyingado_. The endemic _bois de fer_ of Mauritius, once frequent in the
+primeval woods, but now becoming very scarce, is _Stadtmannia
+Sideroxylon_ (_Sapindaceae_), while _Cossignya pinnata_ is known as the
+_bois de fer de Judas_. In Australia species of _Acacia_, _Casuarina_,
+_Eucalyptus_, _Melaleuca_, _Myrtus_, and other genera are known more or
+less widely as iron-wood. Tasmanian iron-wood is the produce of
+_Notelaea ligustrina_ (_Oleaceae_), and is chiefly used for making
+ships' blocks. The iron-wood or lever-wood of North America is the
+timber of the American hop hornbeam, _Ostrya virginica_ (_Cupuliferae_).
+In Brazil _Apuleia ferrea_ and _Caesalpinia ferrea_ yield a kind of
+iron-wood, called, however, the _Pao ferro_ or false iron-wood.
+
+IRON-WORK, as an ornament in medieval architecture, is chiefly confined
+to the hinges, &c., of doors and of church chests, &c. Specimens of
+Norman iron-work are very rare. Early English specimens are numerous and
+very elaborate. In some instances not only do the hinges become a mass
+of scroll work, but the surface of the doors is covered by similar
+ornaments. In both these periods the design evidently partakes of the
+feeling exhibited in the stone or wood carving. In the Decorated period
+the scroll work is more graceful, and, like the foliage of the time,
+more natural. As styles progressed, there was a greater desire that the
+framing of the doors should be richer, and the ledges were chamfered or
+raised, then panelled, and at last the doors became a mass of scroll
+panelling. This, of course, interfered with the design of the hinges,
+the ornamentation of which gradually became unusual. In almost all
+styles the smaller and less important doors had merely plain
+strap-hinges, terminating in a few bent scrolls, and latterly in
+_fleurs-de-lis_. Escutcheon and ring handles, and the other furniture,
+partook more or less of the character of the time. On the continent of
+Europe the knockers are very elaborate. At all periods doors have been
+ornamented with nails having projecting heads, sometimes square,
+sometimes polygonal, and sometimes ornamented with roses, &c. The iron
+work of windows is generally plain, and the ornament confined to simple
+_fleur-de-lis_ heads to the stanchions. For the iron-work of screens
+enclosing tombs and chapels see GRILLE; and generally see METAL-WORK.
+
+
+
+
+IRONY (Gr. [Greek: eirôneia], from [Greek: eirôn], one who says less
+than he means, [Greek: eirein], to speak), a form of speech in which the
+real meaning is concealed or contradicted by the words used; it is
+particularly employed for the purpose of ridicule, mockery or contempt,
+frequently taking the form of sarcastic phrase. The word is frequently
+used figuratively, especially in such phrases as "the irony of fate," of
+an issue or result that seems to contradict the previous state or
+condition. The Greek word was particularly used of an under-statement in
+the nature of dissimulation. It is especially exemplified in the assumed
+ignorance which Socrates adopted as a method of dialectic, the "Socratic
+irony" (see SOCRATES). In tragedy, what is called "tragic irony" is a
+device for heightening the intensity of a dramatic situation. Its use is
+particularly characteristic of the drama of ancient Greece, owing to the
+familiarity of the spectators with the legends on which so many of the
+plays were based. In this form of irony the words and actions of the
+characters belie the real situation, which the spectators fully realize.
+It may take several forms; the character speaking may be conscious of
+the irony of his words while the rest of the actors may not, or he may
+be unconscious and the actors share the knowledge with the spectators,
+or the spectators may alone realize irony. The _Oedipus Tyrannus_ of
+Sophocles is the classic example of tragic irony at its fullest and
+finest.
+
+
+
+
+IROQUOIS, or SIX NATIONS, a celebrated confederation of North American
+Indians. The name is that given them by the French. It is suggested that
+it was formed of two ceremonial words constantly used by the tribesmen,
+meaning "real adders," with the French addition of _ois_. The league was
+originally composed of five tribes or nations, viz. Mohawks, Oneidas,
+Onondagas, Senecas and Cayugas. The confederation probably took place
+towards the close of the 16th century and in 1722 the Tuscaroras were
+admitted, the league being then called that of "the Six Nations." At
+that time their total number was estimated at 11,650, including 2150
+warriors. They were unquestionably the most powerful confederation of
+Indians on the continent. Their home was the central and western parts
+of New York state. In the American War of Independence they fought on
+the English side, and in the repeated battles their power was nearly
+destroyed. They are now to the number of 17,000 or more scattered about
+on various reservations in New York state, Oklahoma, Wisconsin and
+Canada. The _Iroquoian stock_, the larger group of kindred tribes, of
+which the five nations were the most powerful, had their early home in
+the St Lawrence region. Besides the five nations, the Neutral nation,
+Huron, Erie, Conestoga, Nottoway, Meherrin, Tuscarora and Cherokee were
+the most important tribes of the stock. The hostility of the Algonquian
+tribes seems to have been the cause of the southward migration of the
+Iroquoian peoples. In 1535 Jacques Cartier found an Iroquoian tribe in
+possession of the land upon which now stand Montreal and Quebec; but
+seventy years later it was in the hands of Algonquians.
+
+  See L. H. Morgan, _League of the Hodeno Swanee or Iroquois_
+  (Rochester, N.Y., 1854); _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington,
+  1907). Also INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.
+
+
+
+
+IRRAWADDY, or IRAWADI, the principal river in the province of Burma,
+traversing the centre of the country, and practically running throughout
+its entire course in British territory. It is formed by the confluence
+of the Mali and N'mai rivers (usually called Mali-kha and N'mai-kha, the
+_kha_ being the Kachin word for river) in 25° 45´ N. The N'mai is the
+eastern branch. The definite position of its source is still uncertain,
+and it seems to be made up of a number of considerable streams, all
+rising within a short distance of each other in about 28° 30´ N. It is
+shown on some maps as the Lu river of Tibet; but it is now quite certain
+that the Tibetan Lu river is the Salween, and that the N'mai has its
+source or sources near the southern boundary of Tibet, to the north-east
+or east of the source of the Mali. At the confluence the N'mai is larger
+than the Mali. The general width of its channel seems to be 350 or 400
+yds. during this part of its course. In the rains this channel is filled
+up, but in the cold weather the average breadth is from 150 to 200 yds.
+The N'mai is practically unnavigable. The Mali is the western branch.
+Like the main river, it is called Nam Kiu by the Shans. It rises in the
+hills to the north of the Hkamti country, probably in about 28° 30´ N.
+Between Hkamti and the country comparatively close to the confluence
+little or nothing is known of it, but it seems to run in a narrow
+channel through continuous hills. The highest point on the Mali reached
+from the south by Major Hobday in 1891 was Ting Sa, a village a little
+off the river, in 26° 15´ N. About 1 m. above the confluence it is 150
+yds. wide in January and 17 ft. deep, with a current of 3ľ m. an hour.
+Steam launches can only ascend from Myitkyina to the confluence in the
+height of the rains. Native boats ascend to Laikaw or Sawan 26° 2´ N.,
+all the year around, but can get no farther at any season. From the
+confluence the river flows in a southerly direction as far as Bhamo,
+then turns west as far as the confluence of the Kaukkwe stream, a little
+above Katha, where it again turns in a southerly direction, and
+maintains this in its general course through Upper and Lower Burma,
+though it is somewhat tortuous immediately below Mandalay. Just below
+the confluence of the Mali and N'mai rivers the Irrawaddy is from 420 to
+450 yds. wide and about 30 ft. deep in January at its deepest point.
+Here it flows between hills, and after passing the Manse and Mawkan
+rapids, reaches plain country and expands to nearly 500 yds. at Sakap.
+At Myitkyina it is split into two channels by Naungtalaw island, the
+western channel being 600 yds. wide and the eastern 200. The latter is
+quite dry in the hot season. At Kat-kyo, 5 or 6 m. below Myitkyina, the
+width is 1000 yds., and below this it varies from 600 yds. to ľ m. at
+different points. Three miles below Sinbo the third defile is entered by
+a channel not more than 50 yds. wide, and below this, throughout the
+defile, it is never wider than 250 yds., and averages about 100. At the
+"Gates of the Irrawaddy" at Poshaw two prism-shaped rocks narrow the
+river to 50 yds., and the water banks up in the middle with a whirlpool
+on each side of the raised pathway. All navigation ceases here in the
+floods. The defile ends at Hpatin, and below this the river widens out
+to a wet-season channel of 2 m., and a breadth in the dry season of
+about 1 m. At Sinkan, below Bhamo, the second defile begins. It is not
+so narrow nor is the current so strong as in the third defile. The
+narrowest place is more than 100 yds. wide. The hills are higher, but
+the defile is much shorter. At Shwegu the river leaves the hills and
+becomes a broad stream, flowing through a wide plain. The first defile
+is tame compared with the others. The river merely flows between low
+hills or high wooded banks. The banks are covered at this point with
+dense vegetation, and slope down to the water's edge. Here and there are
+places which are almost perpendicular, but are covered with forest
+growth. The course of the Irrawaddy after receiving the waters of the
+Myit-nge at Sagaing, as far as 17° N. lat., is exceedingly tortuous; the
+line of Lower Burma is crossed in 19° 29´ 3´´ N. lat., 95° 15´ E. long.,
+the breadth of the river here being ľ m.; about 11 m. lower down it is
+nearly 3 m. broad. At Akauk-taung, where a spur of the Arakan hills end
+in a precipice 300 ft. high, the river enters the delta, the hills
+giving place to low alluvial plains, now protected on the west by
+embankments. From 17° N. lat. the Irrawaddy divides and subdivides,
+converting the lower portion of its valley into a network of
+intercommunicating tidal creeks. It reaches the sea in 15° 50´ N. lat.
+and 95° 8´ E. long., by nine principal mouths. The only ones used by
+sea-going ships are the Bassein and Rangoon mouths. The area of the
+catchment basin of the Irrawaddy is 158,000 sq. m.; its total length
+from its known source to the sea is about 1300 m. As far down as
+Akauk-taung in Henzada district its bed is rocky, but below this sandy
+and muddy. It is full of islands and sandbanks; its waters are extremely
+muddy, and the mud is carried far out to sea. The river commences to
+rise in March; about June it rises rapidly, and attains its maximum
+height about September. The total flood discharge is between four and
+five hundred million metre tons of 37 cub. ft. From Mandalay up to Bhamo
+the river is navigable a distance of nearly 1000 m. for large steamers
+all the year round; but small launches and steamers with weak engines
+are often unable to get up the second defile in the months of July,
+August and September, owing to the strong current. The Irrawaddy
+Flotilla Company's steamers go up and down twice a week all through the
+rains, and the mails are carried to Bhamo on intermediate days by a
+ferry-boat from the railway terminus at Katha. During the dry season the
+larger boats are always liable to run on sandbanks, more especially in
+November and December, when new channels are forming after the river has
+been in flood. From Bhamo up to Sinbo no steamers can ply during the
+rains, that is to say, usually from June to November. From November to
+June small steamers can pass through the third defile from Bhamo to
+Sinbo. Between Sinbo and Myitkyina small launches can run all the year
+round. Above Myitkyina small steamers can reach the confluence at the
+height of the flood with some difficulty, but when the water is lower
+they cannot pass the Mawkan rapid, just above Mawme, and the navigation
+of the river above Myitkyina is always difficult. The journey from
+Bhamo to Sinbo can be made during the rains in native boats, but it is
+always difficult and sometimes dangerous. It is never done in less than
+five days and often takes twelve or more. As a natural source of
+irrigation the value of the Irrawaddy is enormous, but the river
+supplies no artificial systems of irrigation. It is nowhere bridged,
+though crossed by two steam ferries to connect the railway system on
+either bank.     (J. G. Sc.)
+
+
+
+
+IRREDENTISTS, an Italian patriotic and political party, which was of
+importance in the last quarter of the 19th century. The name was formed
+from the words _Italia Irredenta_--Unredeemed Italy--and the party had
+for its avowed object the emancipation of all Italian lands still
+subject to foreign rule. The Irredentists took language as the test of
+the alleged Italian nationality of the countries they proposed to
+emancipate, which were South Tirol (Trentino), Görz, Istria, Trieste,
+Tessino, Nice, Corsica and Malta. The test was applied in the most
+arbitrary manner, and in some cases was not applicable at all. Italian
+is not universally spoken in South Tirol, Görz or Istria. Malta has a
+dialect of its own though Italian is used for literary and judicial
+purposes, while Dalmatia is thoroughly non-Italian though it was once
+under the political dominion of the ancient Republic of Venice. The
+party was of little note before 1878. In that year it sprang into
+prominence because the Italians were disappointed by the result of the
+conference at Berlin summoned to make a European settlement after the
+Russo-Turkish War of 1877. The Italians had hoped to share in the
+plunder of Turkey, but they gained nothing, while Austria was endowed
+with the protectorate of Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, the vitally
+important hinterland of her possessions on the Adriatic. Under the sting
+of this disappointment the cry of Italia Irredenta became for a time
+loud and apparently popular. It was in fact directed almost wholly
+against Austria, and was also used as a stalking-horse by discontented
+parties in Italian domestic politics--the Radicals, Republicans and
+Socialists. In addition to the overworked argument from language, the
+Irredentists made much of an unfounded claim that the Trentino had been
+conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the war of 1866, and they
+insisted that the district was an "enclave" in Italian territory which
+would give Austria a dangerous advantage in a war of aggression. It
+would be equally easy and no less accurate to call the Trentino an
+exposed and weak spot of the frontier of Austria. On the 21st of July
+1878 a noisy public meeting was held at Rome with Menotti Garibaldi, the
+son of the famous Giuseppe, in the chair, and a clamour was raised for
+the formation of volunteer battalions to conquer the Trentino. Signor
+Cairoli, then prime minister of Italy, treated the agitation with
+tolerance. It was, however, mainly superficial, for the mass of the
+Italians had no wish to launch on a dangerous policy of adventure
+against Austria, and still less to attack France for the sake of Nice
+and Corsica, or Great Britain for Malta. The only practical consequences
+of the Irredentist agitation outside of Italy were such things as the
+assassination plot organized against the emperor Francis Joseph in
+Trieste in 1882 by Oberdank, which was detected and punished. When the
+Irredentist movement became troublesome to Italy through the activity of
+Republicans and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control
+by Signor Depretis. It sank into insignificance when the French
+occupation of Tunis in 1881 offended the Italians deeply, and their
+government entered into those relations with Austria and Germany which
+took shape by the formation of the Triple Alliance. In its final stages
+it provided a way in which Italians who sympathized with French
+republicanism, and who disliked the monarchical governments of Central
+Europe, could agitate against their own government. It also manifested
+itself in periodical war scares based on affected fears of Austrian
+aggression in northern Italy. Within the dominions of Austria
+Irredentism has been one form of the complicated language question which
+has disturbed every portion of the Austro-Hungarian empire.
+
+  See Colonel von Haymerle, _Italicae res_ (Vienna, 1879) for the early
+  history of the Irredentists.
+
+
+
+
+IRRIGATION (Lat. _in_, and _rigare_, to water or wet), the artificial
+application of water to land in order to promote vegetation; it is
+therefore the converse of "drainage" (q.v.), which is the artificial
+withdrawal of water from lands that are over-saturated. In both cases
+the object is to promote vegetation.
+
+I. _General._--Where there is abundance of rainfall, and when it falls
+at the required season, there is in general no need for irrigation. But
+it often happens that, although there is sufficient rainfall to raise an
+inferior crop, there is not enough to raise a more valuable one.
+
+Irrigation is an art that has been practised from very early times. Year
+after year fresh discoveries are made that carry back our knowledge of
+the early history of Egypt. It is certain that, until the cultivator
+availed himself of the natural overflow of the Nile to saturate the
+soil, Egypt must have been a desert, and it is a very small step from
+that to baling up the water from the river and pouring it over lands
+which the natural flood has not touched. The sculptures and paintings of
+ancient Egypt bear no trace of anything approaching scientific
+irrigation, but they often show the peasant baling up the water at least
+as early as 2000 B.C. By means of this simple plan of raising water and
+pouring it over the fields thousands of acres are watered every year in
+India, and the system has many advantages in the eyes of the peasant.
+Though there is great waste of labour, he can apply his labour when he
+likes; no permission is required from a government official; no one has
+to be bribed. The simplest and earliest form of water-raising machinery
+is the pole with a bucket suspended from one end of a crossbeam and a
+counterpoise at the other. In India this is known as the _denkli_ or
+_paecottah_; in Egypt it is called the _shadúf_. All along the Nile
+banks from morning to night may be seen brown-skinned peasants working
+these _shadúfs_, tier above tier, so as to raise the water 15 or 16 ft.
+on to their lands. With a _shadúf_ it is only possible to keep about 4
+acres watered, so that a great number of hands are required to irrigate
+a large surface. Another method largely used is the shallow basket or
+bucket suspended to strings between two men, who thus bail up the water.
+A step higher than these is the rude water-wheel, with earthen pots on
+an endless chain running round it, worked by one or two bullocks. This
+is used everywhere in Egypt, where it is known as the _sakya_. In
+Northern India it is termed the _harat_, or Persian wheel. With one such
+water-wheel a pair of oxen can raise water any height up to 18 ft., and
+keep from 5 to 12 acres irrigated throughout an Egyptian summer. A very
+familiar means in India of raising water from wells in places where the
+spring level is as much sometimes as 100 ft. below the surface of the
+field is the _churras_, or large leather bag, suspended to a rope
+passing over a pulley, and raised by a pair of bullocks which go up and
+down a slope as long as the depth of the well. All these primitive
+contrivances are still in full use throughout India.
+
+It is not improbable that Assyria and Babylon, with their splendid
+rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, may have taken the idea from the Nile,
+and that Carthage and Phoenicia as well as Greece and Italy may have
+followed the same example. In spite of a certain amount of
+investigation, the early history of irrigation in Persia and China
+remains imperfectly known. In Spain irrigation may be traced directly to
+the Moorish occupation, and almost everywhere throughout Asia and Africa
+where the Moslem penetrated is to be found some knowledge of irrigation.
+
+
+  Spain.
+
+  India.
+
+Reservoirs are familiar everywhere for the water-supply of towns, but as
+the volume necessary, even for a large town, does not go far in
+irrigating land, many sites which would do admirably for the former
+would not contain water sufficient to be worth applying to the latter
+purpose. In the Mediterranean provinces of Spain there are some very
+remarkable irrigation dams. The great masonry dam of Alicante on the
+river Monegre, which dates from 1579, is situated in a narrow gorge, so
+that while 140 ft. high, it is only 190 ft. long at the crest. The
+reservoir is said to contain 130 million cub. ft. of water, and to serve
+for the irrigation of 9000 acres, but unless it refills several times a
+year, it is hardly possible that so much land can be watered in any one
+season. The Elche reservoir, in the same province, has a similar dam 55
+ft. high. In neither case is there a waste-weir, the surplus water being
+allowed to pour over the crest of the dam. South of Elche is the
+province of Murcia, watered by the river Segura, on which there is a dam
+25 ft. high, said to be 800 years old, and to serve for the irrigation
+of 25,000 acres. The Lorca dam in the same neighbourhood irrigates
+27,000 acres. In the jungles of Ceylon are to be found remains of
+gigantic irrigation dams, and on the neighbouring mainland of Southern
+India, throughout the provinces of Madras and Mysore, the country is
+covered with irrigation reservoirs, or, as they are locally termed,
+tanks. These vary from village ponds to lakes 14 or 15 m. long. Most of
+them are of old native construction, but they have been greatly improved
+and enlarged within the last half century. The casual traveller in
+southern India constantly remarks the ruins of old dams, and the
+impression is conveyed that at one time, before British rule prevailed,
+the irrigation of the country was much more perfect than it is now. That
+idea, however, is mistaken. An irrigation reservoir, like a human being,
+has a certain life. Quicker or slower, the water that fills it will wash
+in sand and mud, and year by year this process will go on till
+ultimately the whole reservoir is filled up. The embankment is raised,
+and raised again, but at last it is better to abandon it and make a new
+tank elsewhere, for it would never pay to dig out the silt by manual
+labour. It may safely be said that at no time in history were there more
+tanks in operation than at present. The ruins which are seen are the
+ruins of long centuries of tanks that once flourished and became silted
+up. But they did not all flourish at once.
+
+In the countries now being considered, the test of an irrigation work is
+how it serves in a season of drought and famine. It is evident that if
+there is a long cessation of rain, there can be none to fill the
+reservoirs. In September 1877 there were very few in all southern India
+that were not dry. But even so, they helped to shorten the famine
+period; they stored up the rain after it had ceased to fall, and they
+caught up and husbanded the first drops when it began again.
+
+
+  Irrigation canals.
+
+Irrigation effected by river-fed canals naturally depends on the regimen
+of the rivers. Some rivers vary much in their discharge at different
+seasons. In some cases this variation is comparatively little. Sometimes
+the flood season recurs regularly at the same time of the year;
+sometimes it is uncertain. In some rivers the water is generally pure;
+in others it is highly charged with fertilizing alluvium, or, it may be,
+with barren silt. In countries nearly rainless, such as Egypt or Sind,
+there can be no cultivation without irrigation. Elsewhere the rainfall
+may be sufficient for ordinary crops, but not for the more valuable
+kinds. In ordinary years in southern India the maize and the millet,
+which form so large a portion of the peasants' food, can be raised
+without irrigation, but it is required for the more valuable rice or
+sugar-cane. Elsewhere in India the rainfall is usually sufficient for
+all the cultivation of the district, but about every eleven years comes
+a season of drought, during which canal water is so precious as to make
+it worth while to construct costly canals merely to serve as a
+protection against famine. When a river partakes of the nature of a
+torrent, dwindling to a paltry stream at one season and swelling into an
+enormous flood at another, it is impossible to construct a system of
+irrigation canals without very costly engineering works, sluices, dams,
+waste-weirs, &c., so as to give the engineer entire control of the
+water. Such may be seen on the canals of Cuttack, derived from the
+Mahanadi, a river of which the discharge does not exceed 400 cub. ft.
+per second in the dry season, and rises to 1,600,000 cub. ft. per second
+in the rainy season.
+
+Very differently situated are the great canals of Lombardy, drawn from
+the Ticino and Adda rivers, flowing from the Maggiore and Como lakes.
+The severest drought never exhausts these reservoirs, and the heaviest
+rain can never convert these rivers into the resistless floods which
+they would be but for the moderating influence of the great lakes. The
+Ticino and Adda do not rise in floods more than 6 or 7 ft. above their
+ordinary level or fall in droughts more than 4 or 5 ft. below it, and
+their water is at all seasons very free from silt or mud. Irrigation
+cannot be practised in more favourable circumstances than these. The
+great lakes of Central Africa, Victoria and Albert Nyanza, and the vast
+swamp tract of the Sudan, do for the Nile on a gigantic scale what Lakes
+Maggiore and Como do for the rivers Ticino and Adda. But for these great
+reservoirs the Nile would decrease in summer to quite an insignificant
+stream. India possesses no great lakes from which to draw rivers and
+canals, but through the plains of northern India flow rivers which are
+fed from the glaciers of the Himalaya; and the Ganges, the Indus, and
+their tributaries are thus prevented from diminishing very much in
+volume. The greater the heat, the more rapidly melts the ice, and the
+larger the quantity of water available for irrigation. The canal system
+of northern India is the most perfect the world has yet seen, and
+contains works of hydraulic engineering which can be equalled in no
+other country. In the deltas of southern India irrigation is only
+practised during the monsoon season. The Godaveri, Kistna and Kaveri all
+take their rise on the Western Ghats, a region where the rainfall is
+never known to fail in the monsoon season. Across the apex of the deltas
+are built great weirs (that of the Godaveri being 2˝ m. long), at the
+ends and centre of which is a system of sluices feeding a network of
+canals. For this monsoon irrigation there is always abundance of water,
+and so long as the canals and sluices are kept in repair, there is
+little trouble in distributing it over the fields. Similar in character
+was the ancient irrigation of Egypt practised merely during the Nile
+flood--a system which still prevails in part of Upper Egypt. A detailed
+description of it will be found below.
+
+
+  Distribution of the water.
+
+Where irrigation is carried on throughout the whole year, even when the
+supply of the river is at its lowest, the distribution of the water
+becomes a very delicate operation. It is generally considered sufficient
+in such cases if during any one crop one-third of the area that can be
+commanded is actually supplied with water. This encourages a rotation of
+crops and enables the precious liquid to be carried over a larger area
+than could be done otherwise. It becomes then the duty of the engineer
+in charge to use every effort to get its full value out of every cubic
+foot of water. Some crops of course require water much oftener than
+others, and much depends on the temperature at the time of irrigation.
+During the winter months in northern India magnificent wheat crops can
+be produced that have been watered only twice or thrice. But to keep
+sugar-cane, or indigo, or cotton alive in summer before the monsoon sets
+in in India or the Nile rises in Egypt the field should be watered every
+ten days or fortnight, while rice requires a constant supply of water
+passing over it.
+
+Experience in these sub-tropical countries shows the absolute necessity
+of having, for successful irrigation, also a system of thorough
+drainage. It was some time before this was discovered in India, and the
+result has been the deterioration of much good land.
+
+In Egypt, prior to the British occupation in 1883, no attempt had been
+made to take the water off the land. The first impression of a great
+alluvial plain is that it is absolutely flat, with no drainage at all.
+Closer examination, however, shows that if the prevailing slopes are not
+more than a few inches in the mile, yet they do exist, and scientific
+irrigation requires that the canals should be taken along the crests and
+drains along the hollows. In the diagram (fig. 1) is shown to the right
+of the river a system of canals branching out and afterwards rejoining
+one another so as to allow of no means for the water that passes off the
+field to escape into the sea. Hence it must either evaporate or sink
+into the soil. Now nearly all rivers contain some small percentage of
+salt, which forms a distinct ingredient in alluvial plains. The result
+of this drainless irrigation is an efflorescence of salt on the surface
+of the field. The spring level rises, so that water can be reached by
+digging only a few feet, and the land, soured and water-logged, relapses
+into barrenness. Of this description was the irrigation of Lower Egypt
+previous to 1883. To the left of the diagram is shown (by firm lines) a
+system of canals laid out scientifically, and of drains (by dotted
+lines) flowing between them. It is the effort of the British engineers
+in Egypt to remodel the surface of the fields to this type.
+
+  Further information may be found in Sir C. C. Scott-Moncrieff,
+  _Irrigation in Southern Europe_ (London, 1868); Moncrieff, "Lectures
+  on Irrigation in Egypt," _Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal
+  Engineers_, vol. xix. (London, 1893); W. Willcocks, _Egyptian
+  Irrigation_ (2nd ed., London, 1899).
+
+II. _Water Meadows._--Nowhere in England can it be said that irrigation
+is necessary to ordinary agriculture, but it is occasionally employed in
+stimulating the growth of grass and meadow herbage in what are known as
+water-meadows. These are in some instances of very early origin. On the
+Avon in Wiltshire and the Churn in Gloucestershire they may be traced
+back to Roman times. This irrigation is not practised in the drought of
+summer, but in the coldest and wettest months of the year, the water
+employed being warmer than the natural moisture of the soil and proving
+a valuable protection against frost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram showing irrigation properly combined
+with drainage (_to left_), and laid out regardless of drainage required
+later (_to right_).]
+
+Before the systematic conversion of a tract into water-meadows can be
+safely determined on, care must be taken to have good drainage, natural
+or artificial, a sufficient supply of water, and water of good quality.
+It might indeed have been thought that thorough drainage would be
+unnecessary, but it must be noted that porous subsoils or efficient
+drains do not act merely by carrying away stagnant water which would
+otherwise cool the earth, incrust the surface, and retard plant growth.
+They cause the soil to perform the office of a filter. Thus the earth
+and the roots of grasses absorb the useful matters not only from the
+water that passes over it, but from that which passes through it. These
+fertilizing materials are found stored up in the soil ready for the use
+of the roots of the plants. Stagnation of water is inimical to the
+action of the roots, and does away with the advantageous processes of
+flowing and percolating currents. Some of the best water-meadows in
+England have but a thin soil resting on gravel and flints, this
+constituting a most effectual system of natural drainage. The fall of
+the water supply must suffice for a fairly rapid current, say 10 in. or
+1 ft. in from 100 to 200 yds. If possible the water should be taken so
+far above the meadows as to have sufficient fall without damming up the
+river. If a dam be absolutely necessary, care must be taken so to build
+it as to secure the fields on both sides from possible inundation; and
+it should be constructed substantially, for the cost of repairing
+accidents to a weak dam is very serious.
+
+
+  Quantity of water.
+
+Even were the objects of irrigation always identical, the conditions
+under which it is carried on are so variable as to preclude calculations
+of quantity. Mere making up of necessary water in droughty seasons is
+one thing, protection against frost is another, while the addition of
+soil material is a third. Amongst causes of variation in the quantity of
+water needed will be its quality and temperature and rate of flow, the
+climate, the season, the soil, the subsoil, the artificial drainage, the
+slope, the aspect and the crop. In actual practice the amount of water
+varies from 300 gallons per acre in the hour to no less than 28,000
+gallons. Where water is used, as in dry and hot countries, simply as
+water, less is generally needed than in cold, damp and northerly
+climates, where the higher temperature and the action of the water as
+manure are of more consequence. But it is necessary to be thoroughly
+assured of a good supply of water before laying out a water-meadow.
+Except in a few places where unusual dryness of soil and climate
+indicate the employment of water, even in small quantity, merely to
+avoid the consequences of drought, irrigation works are not to be
+commenced upon a large area, if only a part can ever be efficiently
+watered. The engineer must not decide upon the plan till he has gauged
+at different seasons the stream which has to supply the water, and has
+ascertained the rain-collecting area available, and the rainfall of the
+district, as well as the proportion of storable to percolating and
+evaporating water. Reservoirs for storage, or for equalizing the flow,
+are rarely resorted to in England; but they are of absolute necessity in
+those countries in which it is just when there is least water that it is
+most wanted. It is by no means an injudicious plan before laying out a
+system of water-meadows, which is intended to be at all extensive, to
+prepare a small trial plot, to aid in determining a number of questions
+relating to the nature and quantity of the water, the porosity of the
+soil, &c.
+
+
+  Quality of water.
+
+The quality of the water employed for any of the purposes of irrigation
+is of much importance. Its dissolved and its suspended matters must both
+be taken into account. Clear water is usually preferable for grass land,
+thick for arable land. If it is to be used for warping, or in any way
+for adding to the solid material of the irrigated land, then the nature
+and amount of the suspended material are necessarily of more importance
+than the character of the dissolved substances, provided the latter are
+not positively injurious. For use on ordinary water-meadows, however,
+not only is very clear water often found to be perfectly efficient, but
+water having no more than a few grains of dissolved matter per gallon
+answers the purposes in view satisfactorily. Water from moors and
+peat-bogs or from gravel or ferruginous sandstone is generally of small
+utility so far as plant food is concerned. River water, especially that
+which has received town sewage, or the drainage of highly manured land,
+would naturally be considered most suitable for irrigation, but
+excellent results are obtained also with waters which are uncontaminated
+with manurial matters, and which contain but 8 or 10 grains per gallon
+of the usual dissolved constituents of spring water. Experienced English
+irrigators generally commend as suitable for water-meadows those streams
+in which fish and waterweeds abound. But the particular plants present
+in or near the water-supply afford further indications of quality.
+Water-cress, sweet flag, flowering rush, several potamogetons, water
+milfoil, water ranunculus, and the reedy sweet watergrass (_Glyceria
+aquatica_) rank amongst the criteria of excellence. Less favourable
+signs are furnished by such plants as _Arundo Donax_ (in Germany),
+_Cicuta virosa_ and _Typha latifolia_, which are found in stagnant and
+torpid waters. Water when it has been used for irrigation generally
+becomes of less value for the same purpose. This occurs with clear water
+as well as with turbid, and obviously arises mainly from the loss of
+plant food which occurs when water filters through or trickles over poor
+soil. By passing over or through rich soil the water may, however,
+actually be enriched, just as clear water passed through a charcoal
+filter which has been long used becomes impure. It has been contended
+that irrigation water suffers no change in composition by use, since by
+evaporation of a part of the pure water the dissolved matters in the
+remainder would be so increased as to make up for any matters removed.
+But it is forgotten that both the plant and the soil enjoy special
+powers of selective absorption, which remove and fix the better
+constituents of the water and leave the less valuable.
+
+
+  Seeds for water-meadows.
+
+Of the few leguminous plants which are in any degree suitable for
+water-meadows, _Lotus corniculatus major_, _Trifolium hybridum_, and _T.
+pratense_ are those which generally flourish best; _T. repens_ is less
+successful. Amongst grasses the highest place must be assigned to
+ryegrass, especially to the Italian variety, commonly called _Lolium
+italicum_. The mixture of seeds for sowing a water-meadow demands much
+consideration, and must be modified according to local circumstances of
+soil, aspect, climate and drainage. From the peculiar use which is made
+of the produce of an irrigated meadow, and from the conditions to which
+it is subjected, it is necessary to include in our mixture of seeds some
+that produce an early crop, some that give an abundant growth, and some
+that impart sweetness and good flavour, while all the kinds sown must be
+capable of flourishing on irrigated soil.
+
+The following mixtures of seeds (stated in pounds per acre) have been
+recommended for sowing on water-meadows, Messrs Sutton of Reading, after
+considerable experience, regarding No. I. as the more suitable:
+
+                           I. II.|                              I. II.
+                                 |
+  _Lolium perenne_         8  12 |  _Festuca pratensis_         0   2
+  _Lolium italicum_        0   8 |  _Festuca loliacea_          3   2
+  _Poa trivialis_          6   3 |  _Anthoxanthum odoratum_     0   1
+  _Glyceria fluitans_      6   2 |  _Phleum pratense_           4   2
+  _Glyceria aquatica_      4   1 |  _Phalaris arundinacea_      3   2
+  _Agrostis alba_          0   1 |  _Lotus corniculatus major_  3   2
+  _Agrostis stolonifera_   6   2 |  _Trifolium hybridum_        0   1
+  _Alopecurus pratensis_   0   2 |  _Trifolium pratense_        0   1
+  _Festuca elatior_        3   2 |
+
+
+  Changes in irrigated herbage.
+
+In irrigated meadows, though in a less degree than on sewaged land, the
+reduction of the amount or even the actual suppression of certain
+species of plants is occasionally well marked. Sometimes this action is
+exerted upon the finer grasses, but happily also upon some of the less
+profitable constituents of the miscellaneous herbage. Thus _Ranunculus
+bulbosus_ has been observed to become quite rare after a few years'
+watering of a meadow in which it had been most abundant, _R. acris_
+rather increasing by the same treatment; _Plantago media_ was
+extinguished and _P. lanceolata_ reduced 70%. Amongst the grasses which
+may be spared, _Aira caespitosa_, _Briza media_ and _Cynosurus
+cristatus_ are generally much reduced by irrigation. Useful grasses
+which are increased are _Lolium perenne_ and _Alopecurus pratensis_, and
+among those of less value _Avena favescens_, _Dactylis glomerata_ and
+_Poa pratensis_.
+
+
+  Methods.
+
+Four ways of irrigating land with water are practised in England: (1)
+bedwork irrigation, which is the most efficient although it is also the
+most costly method by which currents of water can be applied to level
+land; (2) catchwork irrigation, in which the same water is caught and
+used repeatedly; (3) subterraneous or rather upward irrigation, in which
+the water in the drains is sent upwards through the soil towards the
+surface; and (4) warping, in which the water is allowed to stand over a
+level field until it has deposited the mud suspended in it.
+
+There are two things to be attended to most carefully in the
+construction of a water-meadow on the first or second of these plans.
+First, no portion of them whatever should be on a dead level, but every
+part should belong to one or other of a series of true inclined planes.
+The second point of primary importance is the size and slope of the main
+conductor, which brings the water from the river to the meadow. The size
+of this depends upon the quantity of water required, but whatever its
+size its bottom at its origin should be as low as the bed of the river,
+in order that it may carry down as much as possible of the river mud.
+Its course should be as straight and as near a true inclined plane as
+possible. The stuff taken out of the conductor should be employed in
+making up its banks or correcting inequalities in the meadow.
+
+
+    Bedwork.
+
+  In bedwork irrigation, which is eminently applicable to level ground,
+  the ground is thrown into beds or ridges. Here the conductor should be
+  led along the highest end or side of the meadow in an inclined plane;
+  should it terminate in the meadow, its end should be made to taper
+  when there are no feeders, or to terminate in a feeder. The main drain
+  to carry off the water from the meadow should next be formed. It
+  should be cut in the lowest part of the ground at the lower end or
+  side of the meadow. Its dimensions should be capable of carrying off
+  the whole water used so quickly as to prevent the least stagnation,
+  and discharge it into the river. The next process is the forming of
+  the ground intended for a water-meadow into beds or ridges. That
+  portion of the ground which is to be watered by one conductor should
+  be made into beds to suit the circumstances of that conductor; that
+  is, instead of the beds over the meadow being all reduced to one
+  common level, they should be formed to suit the different swells in
+  the ground, and, should any of these swells be considerable, it will
+  be necessary to give each side of them its respective conductor. The
+  beds should run at or nearly at right angles to the line of the
+  conductor. The breadth of the beds is regulated by the nature of the
+  soil and the supply of water. Tenacious soils and subsoils, with a
+  small supply of water, require beds as narrow as 30 ft. Porous soils
+  and a large supply of water may have beds of 40 ft. The length of the
+  beds is regulated by the supply of water and the fall from the
+  conductor to the main drain. If the beds fall only in one direction
+  longitudinally, their crowns should be made in the middle; but, should
+  they fall laterally as well as longitudinally, as is usually the case,
+  then the crowns should be made towards the upper sides, more or less
+  according to the lateral slope of the ground. The crowns should rise 1
+  ft. above the adjoining furrows. The beds thus formed should slope in
+  an inclined plane from the conductor to the main drain, that the water
+  may flow equably over them.
+
+  The beds are watered by "feeders," that is, channels gradually
+  tapering to the lower extremities, and their crowns cut down, wherever
+  these are placed. The depth of the feeders depends on their width, and
+  the width on their length. A bed 200 yds. in length requires a feeder
+  of 20 in. in width at its junction with the conductor, and it should
+  taper gradually to the extremity, which should be 1 ft. in width. The
+  taper retards the motion of the water, which constantly decreases by
+  overflow as it proceeds, whilst it continues to fill the feeder to the
+  brim. The water overflowing from the feeders down the sides of the
+  beds is received into small drains formed in the furrows between the
+  beds. These small drains discharge themselves into the main drain, and
+  are in every respect the reverse of the feeders. The depth of the
+  small drain at the junction is made about as great as that of the main
+  drain, and it gradually lessens towards the taper to 6 in. in
+  tenacious and to less in porous soils. The depth of the feeders is the
+  same in relation to the conductor. For the more equal distribution of
+  the water over the surface of the beds from the conductor and feeders,
+  small masses, such as stones or solid portions of earth or turf
+  fastened with pins, are placed in them, in order to retard the
+  momentum which the water may have acquired. These "stops," as they are
+  termed, are generally placed at regular intervals, or rather they
+  should be left where any inequality of the current is observed. Heaps
+  of stones answer very well for stops in the conductor, particularly
+  immediately below the points of junction with the feeders. The small
+  or main drains require no stops. The descent of the water in the
+  feeders will no doubt necessarily increase in rapidity, but the
+  inclination of the beds and the tapering of the feeders should be so
+  adjusted as to counteract the increasing rapidity. The distribution of
+  the water over the whole meadow is regulated by the sluices, which
+  should be placed at the origin of every conductor. By means of these
+  sluices any portion of the meadow that is desired can be watered,
+  whilst the rest remains dry; and alternate watering must be adopted
+  when there is a scarcity of water. All the sluices should be
+  substantially built at first with stones and mortar, to prevent the
+  leakage of water; for, should water from a leak be permitted to find
+  its way into the meadow, that portion of it will stagnate and produce
+  coarse grasses. In a well-formed water-meadow it is as necessary to
+  keep it perfectly dry at one time as it is to place it under water at
+  another. A small sluice placed in the side of the conductor opposite
+  to the meadow, and at the upper end of it, will drain away the leakage
+  that may have escaped from the head sluice.
+
+  To obtain a complete water-meadow, the ground will often require to be
+  broken up and remodelled. This will no doubt be attended with cost;
+  but it should be considered that the first cost is the least, and
+  remodelling the only way of having a complete water-meadow which will
+  continue for years to give satisfaction. To effect a remodelling when
+  the ground is in stubble, let it be ploughed up, harrowed, and cleaned
+  as in a summer fallow, the levelling-box employed when required, the
+  stuff from the conductors and main drains spread abroad, and the beds
+  ploughed into shape--all operations that can be performed at little
+  expense. The meadow should be ready by August for sowing with one of
+  the mixtures of grass-seeds already given. But though this plan is
+  ultimately better, it is attended with the one great disadvantage that
+  the soft ground cannot be irrigated for two or three years after it is
+  sown with grass-seeds. This can only be avoided where the ground is
+  covered with old turf which will bear to be lifted. On ground in that
+  state a water-meadow may be most perfectly formed. Let the turf be
+  taken off with the spade, and laid carefully aside for relaying. Let
+  the stript ground then be neatly formed with the spade and barrow,
+  into beds varying in breadth and shape according to the nature of the
+  soil and the dip of the ground--the feeders from the conductor and the
+  small drains to the main drain being formed at the same time. Then let
+  the turf be laid down again and beaten firm, when the meadow will be
+  complete at once, and ready for irrigation. This is the most beautiful
+  and most expeditious method of making a complete water-meadow where
+  the ground is not naturally sufficiently level to begin with.
+
+  The water should be let on, and trial made of the work, whenever it is
+  finished, and the motion of the water regulated by the introduction of
+  a stop in the conductors and feeders where a change in the motion of
+  the current is observed, beginning at the upper end of the meadow.
+  Should the work be finished as directed by August, a good crop of hay
+  may be reaped in the succeeding summer. There are few pieces of land
+  where the natural descent of the ground will not admit of the water
+  being collected a second time, and applied to the irrigation of a
+  second and lower meadow. In such a case the main drain of a watered
+  meadow may form the conductor of the one to be watered, or a new
+  conductor may be formed by a prolongation of the main drain; but
+  either expedient is only advisable where water is scarce. Where it is
+  plentiful, it is better to supply the second meadow directly from the
+  river, or by a continuation of the first main conductor.
+
+
+    Catchwork.
+
+  In the ordinary catch work water-meadow, the water is used over and
+  over again. On the steep sides of valleys the plan is easily and
+  cheaply carried out, and where the whole course of the water is not
+  long the peculiar properties which give it value, though lessened, are
+  not exhausted when it reaches that part of the meadow which it
+  irrigates last. The design of any piece of catchwork will vary with
+  local conditions, but generally it may be stated that it consists in
+  putting each conduit save the first to the double use of a feeder or
+  distributor and of a drain or collector.
+
+
+    Upward or subterranean.
+
+  In upward or subterranean irrigation the water used rises upward
+  through the soil, and is that which under ordinary circumstances would
+  be carried off by the drains. The system has received considerable
+  development in Germany, where the elaborate method invented by
+  Petersen is recommended by many agricultural authorities. In this
+  system the well-fitting earthenware drain-pipes are furnished at
+  intervals with vertical shafts terminating at the surface of the
+  ground in movable caps. Beneath each cap, and near the upper end of
+  the shaft, are a number of vertical slits through which the drainage
+  water which rises passes out into the conduit or trench from which the
+  irrigating streams originate. In the vertical shaft there is first of
+  all a grating which intercepts solid matters, and then, lower down, a
+  central valve which can be opened and closed at pleasure from the top
+  of the shaft. In the ordinary English system of upward or drainage
+  irrigation, ditches are dug all round the field. They act the part of
+  conductors when the land is to be flooded, and of main drains when it
+  is to be laid dry. The water flows from the ditches as conductors into
+  built conduits formed at right angles to them in parallel lines
+  through the fields; it rises upwards in them as high as the surface of
+  the ground, and again subsides through the soil and the conduits into
+  the ditches as main drains, and thence it passes at a lower level
+  either into a stream or other suitable outfall. The ditches may be
+  filled in one or other of several different ways. The water may be
+  drainage-water from lands at a higher level; or it may be water from a
+  neighbouring river; or it may be drainage-water accumulated from a
+  farm and pumped up to the necessary level. But it may also be the
+  drainage-water of the field itself. In this case the mouths of the
+  underground main pipe-drains are stopped up, and the water in them and
+  the secondary drains thus caused to stand back until it has risen
+  sufficiently near the surface. Of course it is necessary to build the
+  mouths of such main drains of very solid masonry, and to construct
+  efficient sluices for the retention of the water in the drains.
+  Irrigation of the kind now under discussion may be practised wherever
+  a command of water can be secured, but the ground must be level. It
+  has been successfully employed in recently drained morasses, which are
+  apt to become too dry in summer. It is suitable for stiffish soils
+  where the subsoil is fairly open, but is less successful in sand. The
+  water used may be turbid or clear, and it acts, not only for
+  moistening the soil, but as manure. For if, as is commonly the case,
+  the water employed be drainage-water from cultivated lands, it is sure
+  to contain a considerable quantity of nitrates, which, not being
+  subject to retention by the soil, would otherwise escape. These coming
+  into contact with the roots of plants during their season of active
+  growth, are utilized as direct nourishment for the vegetation. It is
+  necessary in upward or subterranean irrigation to send the water on
+  and to take it off very gently, in order to avoid the displacement and
+  loss of the finer particles of the soil which a forcible current would
+  cause.
+
+
+    Warping.
+
+  In warping the suspended solid matters are of importance, not merely
+  for any value they may have as manure, but also as a material addition
+  to the ground to be irrigated. The warping which is practised in
+  England is almost exclusively confined to the overflowing of level
+  ground within tide mark, and is conducted mostly within the districts
+  commanded by estuaries or tidal rivers. The best notion of the process
+  of warping may be gained by sailing up the Trent from the Humber to
+  Gainsborough. Here the banks of the river were constructed centuries
+  ago to protect the land within them from the encroachments of the
+  tide. A great tract of country was thus laid comparatively dry. But
+  while the wisdom of one age thus succeeded in restricting within
+  bounds the tidal water of the river, it was left to the greater wisdom
+  of a succeeding age to improve upon this arrangement by admitting
+  these muddy waters to lay a fresh coat of rich silt on the exhausted
+  soils. The process began more than a century ago, but has become a
+  system in recent times. Large sluices of stone, with strong doors, to
+  be shut when it is wished to exclude the tide, may be seen on both
+  banks of the river, and from these great conduits are carried miles
+  inward through the flat country to the point previously prepared by
+  embankment over which the muddy waters are allowed to spread. These
+  main conduits, being very costly, are constructed for the warping of
+  large adjoining districts, and openings are made at such points as are
+  then undergoing the operation. The mud is deposited and the waters
+  return with the falling tide to the bed of the river. Spring-tides are
+  preferred, and so great is the quantity of mud in these rivers that
+  from 10 to 15 acres have been known to be covered with silt from 1 to
+  3 ft. in thickness during one spring of ten or twelve tides. Peat-moss
+  of the most sterile character has been by this process covered with
+  soil of the greatest fertility, and swamps which used to be resorted
+  to for leeches are now, by the effects of warping, converted into firm
+  and fertile fields. The art is now so well understood that, by careful
+  attention to the currents, the expert warp farmer can temper his soil
+  as he pleases. When the tide is first admitted the heavier particles,
+  which are pure sand, are first deposited; the second deposit is a
+  mixture of sand and fine mud, which, from its friable texture, forms
+  the most valuable soil; while lastly the pure mud subsides, containing
+  the finest particles of all, and forms a rich but very tenacious soil.
+  The great effort, therefore, of the warp farmer is to get the second
+  or mixed deposit as equally over the whole surface as he can and to
+  prevent the deposit of the last. This he does by keeping the water in
+  constant motion, as the last deposit can only take place when the
+  water is suffered to be still. Three years may be said to be spent in
+  the process, one year warping, one year drying and consolidating, and
+  one year growing the first crop, which is generally seed-hoed in by
+  hand, as the mud at this time is too soft to admit of horse labour.
+
+  The immediate effect, which is highly beneficial, is the deposition of
+  silt from the tide. To ensure this deposition, it is necessary to
+  surround the field to be warped with a strong embankment, in order to
+  retain the water as the tide recedes. The water is admitted by valved
+  sluices, which open as the tide flows into the field and shut by the
+  pressure of the confined water when the tide recedes. These sluices
+  are placed on as low a level as possible to permit the most turbid
+  water at the bottom of the tide to pass through a channel in the base
+  of the embankment. The silt deposited after warping is exceedingly
+  rich and capable of carrying any species of crop. It may be admitted
+  in so small a quantity as only to act as a manure to arable soil, or
+  in such a large quantity as to form a new soil. This latter
+  acquisition is the principal object of warping, and it excites
+  astonishment to witness how soon a new soil may be formed. From June
+  to September a soil of 3 ft. in depth may be formed under the
+  favourable circumstances of a very dry season and long drought. In
+  winter and in floods warping ceases to be beneficial. In ordinary
+  circumstances on the Trent and Humber a soil from 6 to 16 in. in depth
+  may be obtained and inequalities of 3 ft. filled up. But every tide
+  generally leaves only 1/8 in. of silt, and the field which has only
+  one sluice can only be warped every other tide. The silt, as deposited
+  in each tide, does not mix into a uniform mass, but remains in
+  distinct layers. The water should be made to run completely off and
+  the ditches should become dry before the influx of the next tide,
+  otherwise the silt will not incrust and the tide not have the same
+  effect. Warp soil is of surpassing fertility. The expense of forming
+  canals, embankments and sluices for warping land is from Ł10 to Ł20 an
+  acre. A sluice of 6 ft. in height and 8 ft. wide will warp from 60 to
+  80 acres, according to the distance of the field from the river. The
+  embankments may be from 3 to 7 ft. in height, as the field may stand
+  in regard to the level of the highest tides. After the new land has
+  been left for a year or two in seeds and clover, it produces great
+  crops of wheat and potatoes.
+
+  Warping is practised only in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, on the
+  estuary of the Humber, and in the neighbourhood of the rivers which
+  flow into it--the Trent, the Ouse and the Don. The silt and mud
+  brought down by these rivers is rich in clay and organic matter, and
+  sometimes when dry contains as much as 1% of nitrogen.
+
+
+  Management and advantages.
+
+Constant care is required if a water-meadow is to yield quite
+satisfactory results. The earliness of the feed, its quantity and its
+quality will all depend in very great measure upon the proper management
+of the irrigation. The points which require constant attention are--the
+perfect freedom of all carriers, feeders and drains from every kind of
+obstruction, however minute; the state and amount of water in the river
+or stream, whether it be sufficient to irrigate the whole area properly
+or only a part of it; the length of time the water should be allowed to
+remain on the meadow at different periods of the season; the regulation
+of the depth of the water, its quantity and its rate of flow, in
+accordance with the temperature and the condition of the herbage; the
+proper times for the commencing and ending of pasturing and of shutting
+up for hay; the mechanical condition of the surface of the ground; the
+cutting out of any very large and coarse plants, as docks; and the
+improvement of the physical and chemical conditions of the soil by
+additions to it of sand, silt, loam, chalk, &c.
+
+Whatever may be the command of water, it is unwise to attempt to
+irrigate too large a surface at once. Even with a river supply fairly
+constant in level and always abundant, no attempt should be made to
+force on a larger volume of water than the feeders can properly
+distribute and the drains adequately remove, or one part of the meadow
+will be deluged and another stinted. When this inequality of irrigation
+once occurs, it is likely to increase from the consequent derangement of
+the feeders and drains. And one result on the herbage will be an
+irregularity of composition and growth, seriously detrimental to its
+food-value. The adjustment of the water by means of the sluices is a
+delicate operation when there is little water and also when there is
+much; in the latter case the fine earth may be washed away from some
+parts of the meadow; in the former case, by attempting too much with a
+limited water current, one may permit the languid streams to deposit
+their valuable suspended matters instead of carrying them forward to
+enrich the soil. The water is not to be allowed to remain too long on
+the ground at a time. The soil must get dry at stated intervals in order
+that the atmospheric air may come in contact with it and penetrate it.
+In this way as the water sinks down through the porous subsoil or into
+the subterranean drains oxygen enters and supplies an element which is
+needed, not only for the oxidation of organic matters in the earth, but
+also for the direct and indirect nutrition of the roots. Without this
+occasional drying of the soil the finer grasses and the leguminous
+plants will infallibly be lost; while a scum of confervae and other
+algae will collect upon the surface and choke the higher forms of
+vegetation. The water should be run off thoroughly, for a little
+stagnant water lying in places upon the surface does much injury. The
+practice of irrigating differs in different places with differences in
+the quality of the water, the soil, the drainage, &c. As a general rule,
+when the irrigating season begins in November the water may flow for a
+fortnight continuously, but subsequent waterings, especially after
+December, should be shortened gradually in duration till the first week
+in April, when irrigation should cease. It is necessary to be very
+careful in irrigating during frosty weather. For, though grass will grow
+even under ice, yet if ice be formed under and around the roots of the
+grasses the plants may be thrown out by the expansion of the water at
+the moment of its conversion into ice. The water should be let off on
+the morning of a dry day, and thus the land will be dry enough at night
+not to suffer from the frost; or the water may be taken off in the
+morning and let on again at night. In spring the newly grown and tender
+grass will be easily destroyed by frost if it be not protected by water,
+or if the ground be not made thoroughly dry.
+
+
+  Theory.
+
+Although in many cases it is easy to explain the reasons why water
+artificially applied to land brings crops or increases their yield, the
+theory of our ordinary water-meadow irrigation is rather obscure. For we
+are not dealing in these grass lands with a semi-aquatic plant like
+rice, nor are we supplying any lack of water in the soil, nor are we
+restoring the moisture which the earth cannot retain under a burning
+sun. We irrigate chiefly in the colder and wetter half of the year, and
+we "saturate" with water the soil in which are growing such plants as
+are perfectly content with earth not containing more than one-fifth of
+its weight of moisture. We must look in fact to a number of small
+advantages and not to any one striking beneficial process in explaining
+the aggregate utility of water-meadow irrigation. We attribute the
+usefulness of water-meadow irrigation, then, to the following causes:
+(1) the temperature of the water being rarely less than 10° Fahr. above
+freezing, the severity of frosts in winter is thus obviated, and the
+growth, especially of the roots of grasses, is encouraged; (2)
+nourishment or plant food is actually brought on to the soil, by which
+it is absorbed and retained, both for the immediate and for the future
+use of the vegetation, which also itself obtains some nutrient material
+directly; (3) solution and redistribution of the plant food already
+present in the soil occur mainly through the solvent action of the
+carbonic acid gas present in a dissolved state in the irrigation-water;
+(4) oxidation of any excess of organic matter in the soil, with
+consequent production of useful carbonic acid and nitrogen compounds,
+takes place through the dissolved oxygen in the water sent on and
+through the soil where the drainage is good; and (5) improvement of the
+grasses, and especially of the miscellaneous herbage, of the meadow is
+promoted through the encouragement of some at least of the better
+species and the extinction or reduction of mosses and of the
+innutritious weeds.
+
+To the united agency of the above-named causes may safely be attributed
+the benefits arising from the special form of water-irrigation which is
+practised in England. Should it be thought that the traces of the more
+valuable sorts of plant food (such as compounds of nitrogen, phosphates,
+and potash salts) existing in ordinary brook or river water can never
+bring an appreciable amount of manurial matter to the soil, or exert an
+appreciable effect upon the vegetation, yet the quantity of water used
+during the season must be taken into account. If but 3000 gallons hourly
+trickle over and through an acre, and if we assume each gallon to
+contain no more than one-tenth of a grain of plant food of the three
+sorts just named taken together, still the total, during a season
+including ninety days of actual irrigation, will not be less than 9 lb.
+per acre. It appears, however, that a very large share of the benefits
+of water-irrigation is attributable to the mere contact of abundance of
+moving water, of an even temperature, with the roots of the grass. The
+growth is less checked by early frosts; and whatever advantages to the
+vegetation may accrue by occasional excessive warmth in the atmosphere
+in the early months of the year are experienced more by the irrigated
+than by the ordinary meadow grasses by reason of the abundant
+development of roots which the water has encouraged.
+
+III. _Italian Irrigation._--The most highly developed irrigation in the
+world is probably that practised in the plains of Piedmont and Lombardy,
+where every variety of condition is to be found. The engineering works
+are of a very high class, and from long generations of experience the
+farmer knows how best to use his water. The principal river of northern
+Italy is the Po, which rises to the west of Piedmont and is fed not from
+glaciers like the Swiss torrents, but by rain and snow, so that the
+water has a somewhat higher temperature, a point to which much
+importance is attached for the valuable meadow irrigation known as
+_marcite_. This is only practised in winter when there is abundance of
+water available, and it much resembles the water-meadow irrigation of
+England. The great Cavour canal is drawn from the left bank of the Po a
+few miles below Turin, and it is carried right across the drainage of
+the country. Its full discharge is 3800 cub. ft. per second, but it is
+only from October to May, when the water is least required, that it
+carries anything like this amount. For the summer irrigation Italy
+depends on the glaciers of the Alps; and the great torrents of the Dora
+Baltea and Sesia can be counted on for a volume exceeding 6000 cub. ft.
+per second. Lombardy is quite as well off as Piedmont for the means of
+irrigation and, as already said, its canals have the advantage that
+being drawn from the lakes Maggiore and Como they exercise a moderating
+influence on the Ticino and Adda rivers, which is much wanted in the
+Dora Baltea. The Naviglio Grande of Lombardy is a very fine work drawn
+from the left bank of the Ticino and useful for navigation as well as
+irrigation. It discharges between 3000 and 4000 cub. ft. per second, and
+probably nowhere is irrigation carried on with less expense. Another
+canal, the Villoresi, drawn from the same bank of the Ticino farther
+upstream, is capable of carrying 6700 cub. ft. per second. Like the
+Cavour canal, the Villoresi is taken across the drainage of the country,
+entailing a number of very bold and costly works.
+
+Interesting as these Italian works are, the administration and
+distribution of the water is hardly less so. The system is due to the
+ability of the great Count Cavour; what he originated in Piedmont has
+been also carried out in Lombardy. The Piedmontese company takes over
+from the government the control of all the irrigation within a triangle
+between the left bank of the Po and the right bank of the Sesia. It
+purchases from government about 1250 cub. ft. per second, and has also
+obtained the control of all private canals. Altogether it distributes
+about 2275 cub. ft. of water and irrigates about 141,000 acres, on which
+rice is the most important crop. The association has 14,000 members and
+controls nearly 10,000 m. of distributary channels. In each parish is a
+council composed of all landowners who irrigate. Each council sends two
+deputies to what may be called a water parliament. This assembly elects
+three small committees, and with them rests the whole management of the
+irrigation. An appeal may be made to the civil courts from the decision
+of these committees, but so popular are they that such appeals are never
+made. The irrigated area is divided into districts, in each of which is
+an overseer and a staff of watchmen to see to the opening and shutting
+of the _modules_ (see HYDRAULICS, §§ 54 to 56) which deliver the water
+into the minor channels. In the November of each year it is decided how
+much water is to be given to each parish in the year following, and this
+depends largely on the number of acres of each crop proposed to be
+watered. In Lombardy the irrigation is conducted on similar principles.
+Throughout, the Italian farmer sets a very high example in the loyal way
+he submits to regulations which there must be sometimes a strong
+temptation to break. A sluice surreptitiously opened during a dark night
+and allowed to run for six hours may quite possibly double the value of
+his crop, but apparently the law is not often broken.
+
+
+  Characteristics of the Nile Valley and flood.
+
+IV. _Egypt._--The very life of Egypt depends on its irrigation, and,
+ancient as this irrigation is, it was never practised on a really
+scientific system till after the British occupation. As every one knows,
+the valley of the Nile outside of the tropics is practically devoid of
+rainfall. Yet it was the produce of this valley that formed the chief
+granary of the Roman Empire. Probably nowhere in the world is there so
+large a population per square mile depending solely on the produce of
+the soil. Probably nowhere is there an agricultural population so
+prosperous, and so free from the risks attending seasons of drought or
+of flood. This wealth and prosperity are due to two very remarkable
+properties of the Nile. First, the regimen of the river is nearly
+constant. The season of its rise and its fall, and the height attained
+by its waters during the highest flood and at lowest Nile vary to a
+comparatively small extent. Year after year the Nile rises at the same
+period, it attains its maximum in September and begins to diminish first
+rapidly till about the end of December, and then more slowly and more
+steadily until the following June. A late rise is not more than about
+three weeks behind an early rise. From the lowest to the highest gauge
+of water-surface the rise is on an average 25.5 ft. at the First
+Cataract. The highest flood is 3.5 ft. above this average, and this
+means peril, if not disaster, in Lower Egypt. The lowest flood on record
+has risen only to 5.5 ft. below the average, or to 20 ft. above the mean
+water-surface of low Nile. Such a feeble Nile flood has occurred only
+four times in modern history: in 1877, when it caused widespread famine
+and death throughout Upper Egypt, 947,000 acres remained barren, and the
+land revenue lost Ł1,112,000; in 1899 and again in 1902 and 1907, when
+by the thorough remodelling of the whole system of canals since 1883 all
+famine and disaster were avoided and the loss of revenue was
+comparatively slight. In 1907, for instance, when the flood was nearly
+as low as in 1877, the area left unwatered was little more than 10% of
+the area affected in 1877.
+
+This regularity of flow is the first exceptional excellence of the river
+Nile. The second is hardly less valuable, and consists in the remarkable
+richness of the alluvium brought down the river year after year during
+the flood. The object of the engineer is so to utilize this flood-water
+that as little as possible of the alluvium may escape into the sea, and
+as much as possible may be deposited on the fields. It is the possession
+of these two properties that imparts to the Nile a value quite unique
+among rivers, and gives to the farmers of the Nile Valley advantages
+over those of any rain-watered land in the world.
+
+
+  Irrigation during high Nile.
+
+Until the 19th century irrigation in Egypt on a large scale was
+practised merely during the Nile flood. Along each edge of the river and
+following its course has been erected an earthen embankment high enough
+not to be topped by the highest floods. In Upper Egypt, the valley of
+which rarely exceeds 6 m. in width, a series of cross embankments have
+been constructed, abutting at the inner ends on those along the Nile,
+and at the outer ends on the ascending sides of the valley. The whole
+country has thus been divided into a series of oblongs, surrounded by
+embankments on three sides and by the desert slopes on the fourth. These
+oblong areas vary from 60,000 to 1500 or 2000 acres in extent.
+Throughout all Egypt the Nile is deltaic in character; that is, the
+slope of the country in the valley is away from the river and not
+towards it. It is easy, then, when the Nile is low, to cut short, deep
+canals in the river banks, which fill as the flood rises, and carry the
+precious mud-charged water into these great flats. There the water
+remains for a month or more, some 3 ft. deep, depositing its mud, and
+thence at the end of the flood the almost clear water may either be run
+off directly into the receding river, or cuts may be made in the cross
+embankments, and it may be allowed to flow from one flat to another and
+ultimately into the river. In November the waters have passed off; and
+whenever a man can walk over the mud with a pair of bullocks, it is
+roughly turned over with a wooden plough, or merely the branch of a
+tree, and the wheat or barley crop is immediately sown. So soaked is the
+soil after the flood, that the grain germinates, sprouts, and ripens in
+April, without a shower of rain or any other watering.
+
+In Lower Egypt this system was somewhat modified, but it was the same in
+principle. No other was known in the Nile Valley until the country fell,
+early in the 19th century, under the vigorous rule of Mehemet Ali Pasha.
+He soon recognized that with such a climate and soil, with a teeming
+population, and with the markets of Europe so near they might produce in
+Egypt something more profitable than wheat and maize. Cotton and
+sugar-cane would fetch far higher prices, but they could only be grown
+while the Nile was low, and they required water at all seasons.
+
+
+  Irrigation during low Nile.
+
+  The Nile Barrage.
+
+It has already been said that the rise of the Nile is about 25˝ ft., so
+that a canal constructed to draw water out of the river while at its
+lowest must be 25˝ ft. deeper than if it is intended to draw off only
+during the highest floods. Mehemet Ali began by deepening the canals of
+Lower Egypt by this amount, a gigantic and futile task; for as they had
+been laid out on no scientific principles, the deep channels became
+filled with mud during the first flood, and all the excavation had to be
+done over again, year after year. With a serf population even this was
+not impossible; but as the beds of the canals were graded to no even
+slope, it did not follow that if water entered the head it would flow
+evenly on. As the river daily fell, of course the water in the canals
+fell too, and since they were never dug deep enough to draw water from
+the very bottom of the river, they occasionally ran dry altogether in
+the month of June, when the river was at its lowest, and when, being the
+month of greatest heat, water was more than ever necessary for the
+cotton crop. Thus large tracts which had been sown, irrigated, weeded
+and nurtured for perhaps three months perished in the fourth, while all
+the time the precious Nile water was flowing useless to the sea. The
+obvious remedy was to throw a weir across each branch of the river to
+control the water and force it into canals taken from above it. The task
+of constructing this great work was committed to Mougel Bey, a French
+engineer of ability, who designed and constructed the great barrage
+across the two branches of the Nile at the apex of the delta, about 12
+m. north of Cairo (fig. 2). It was built to consist of two bridges--one
+over the eastern or Damietta branch of the river having 71 arches, the
+other, over the Rosetta branch, having 61 arches, each arch being of 5
+metres or 16.4 ft. span. The building was all of stone, the floors of
+the arches were inverts. The height of pier from edge of flooring to
+spring of arch was 28.7 ft., the spring of the arch being about the
+surface-level of maximum flood. The arches were designed to be fitted
+with self-acting drop gates; but they were not a success, and were only
+put into place on the Rosetta branch. The gates were intended to hold up
+the water 4.5 metres, or 14.76 ft., and to divert it into three main
+canals--the Behera on the west, the Menufia in the centre and the
+Tewfikia on the east. The river was thus to be emptied, and to flow
+through a whole network of canals, watering all Lower Egypt. Each
+barrage was provided with locks to pass Nile boats 160 by 28 ft. in
+area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Map showing the Damietta and Rosetta dams on the
+Nile.]
+
+Mougel's barrage, as it may now be seen, is a very imposing and stately
+work. Considering his want of experience of such rivers as the Nile, and
+the great difficulties he had to contend with under a succession of
+ignorant Turkish rulers, it would be unfair to blame him because, until
+it fell into the hands of British engineers in 1884, the work was
+condemned as a hopeless failure. It took long years to complete, at a
+cost which can never be estimated, since much of it was done by serf
+labour. In 1861 it was at length said to be finished; but it was not
+until 1863 that the gates of the Rosetta branch were closed, and they
+were reopened again immediately, as a settlement of the masonry took
+place. The experiment was repeated year after year till 1867, when the
+barrage cracked right across from foundation to top. A massive
+coffer-dam was then erected, covering the eleven arches nearest the
+crack; but the work was never trusted again, nor the water-surface
+raised more than about 3 ft.
+
+An essential part of the barrage project was the three canals, taking
+their water from just above it, as shown in fig. 2. The heads of the
+existing old canals, taken out of the river at intervals throughout the
+delta, were to be closed, and the canals themselves all put into
+connexion with the three high-level trunk lines taken from above the
+barrage. The central canal, or Menufia, was more or less finished, and,
+although full of defects, has done good service. The eastern canal was
+never dug at all until the British occupation. The western, or Behera,
+canal was dug, but within its first 50 m. it passes through desert, and
+sand drifted into it. _Corvées_ of 20,000 men used to be forced to clear
+it out year after year, but at last it was abandoned. Thus the whole
+system broke down, the barrage was pronounced a failure, and attention
+was turned to watering Lower Egypt by a system of gigantic pumps, to
+raise the water from the river and discharge it into a system of shallow
+surface-canals, at an annual cost of about Ł250,000, while the cost of
+the pumps was estimated at Ł700,000. Negotiations were on foot for
+carrying out this system when the British engineers arrived in Egypt.
+They soon resolved that it would be very much better if the original
+scheme of using the barrage could be carried out, and after a careful
+examination of the work they were satisfied that this could be done. The
+barrage rests entirely on the alluvial bed of the Nile. Nothing more
+solid than strata of sand and mud is to be found for more than 200 ft.
+below the river. It was out of the question, therefore, to think of
+founding on solid material, and yet it was desired to have a head of
+water of 13 or 14 ft. upon the work. Of course, with such a pressure as
+this, there was likely to be percolation under the foundations and a
+washing-out of the soil. It had to be considered whether this
+percolation could best be checked by laying a solid wall across the
+river, going down to 50 or 60 ft. below its bed, or by spreading out the
+foundations above and below the bridge, so as to form one broad
+water-tight flooring--a system practised with eminent success by Sir
+Arthur Cotton in Southern India. It was decided to adopt the latter
+system. As originally designed, the flooring of the barrage from
+up-stream to downstream face was 111.50 ft. wide, the distance which had
+to be travelled by water percolating under the foundations. This width
+of flooring was doubled to 223 ft., and along the upstream face a line
+of sheet piling was driven 16 ft. deep. Over the old flooring was
+superposed 15 in. of the best rubble masonry, an ashlar floor of blocks
+of close-grained trachyte being laid directly under the bridge, where
+the action was severest. The working season lasted only from the end of
+November to the end of June, while the Nile was low; and the difficulty
+of getting in the foundations was increased, as, in the interests of
+irrigation and to supply the Menufia canal, water was held up every
+season while the work was in progress to as much as 10 ft. The work was
+begun in 1886, and completed in June 1890. Moreover, in the meantime the
+eastern, or Tewfikia, canal was dug and supplied with the necessary
+masonry works for a distance of 23 m., to where it fed the network of
+old canals. The western, or Behera, canal was thoroughly cleared out and
+remodelled; and thus the whole delta irrigation was supplied from above
+the barrage.
+
+The outlay on the barrage between 1883 and 1891 amounted to about
+Ł460,000. The average cotton crop for the 5 years preceding 1884
+amounted to 123,000 tons, for the 5 years ending 1898 it amounted to
+251,200 tons. At the low rate of Ł40 per ton, this means an annual
+increase to the wealth of Lower Egypt of Ł5,128,000. Since 1890 the
+barrage has done its duty without accident, but a work of such vast
+importance to Lower Egypt required to be placed beyond all risk. It
+having been found that considerable hollow spaces existed below the
+foundations of some of the piers, five bore-holes from the top of the
+roadway were pierced vertically through each pier of both barrages, and
+similar holes were drilled at intervals along all the lock walls. Down
+these holes cement grout was injected under high pressure on the system
+of Mr Kinipple. The work was successfully carried out during the seasons
+1896 to 1898. During the summer of 1898 the Rosetta barrage was worked
+under a pressure of 14 ft. But this was looked on as too near the limit
+of safety to be relied on, and in 1899 subsidiary weirs were started
+across both branches of the river a short distance below the two
+barrages. These were estimated to cost Ł530,000 altogether, and were to
+stand 10.8 ft. above the river's bed, allowing the water-surface
+up-stream of the barrage to be raised 7.2 ft., while the pressure on
+that work itself would not exceed 10 ft. These weirs were satisfactorily
+completed in 1901.
+
+The barrage is the greatest, but by no means the only important masonry
+work in Lower Egypt. Numerous regulating bridges and locks have been
+built to give absolute control of the water and facilities for
+navigation; and since 1901 a second weir has been constructed opposite
+Zifta, across the Damietta branch of the Nile, to improve the irrigation
+of the Dakhilia province.
+
+In the earlier section of this article it is explained how necessary it
+is that irrigation should always be accompanied by drainage. This had
+been totally neglected in Egypt; but very large sums have been spent on
+it, and the country is now covered with a network of drains nearly as
+complete as that of the canals.
+
+
+  Basin irrigation of Upper Egypt.
+
+The ancient system of basin irrigation is still pursued in Upper Egypt,
+though by the end of 1907 over 320,000 feddans of land formerly under
+basin irrigation had been given, at a cost of over ŁE3,000,000,
+perennial irrigation. This conversion work was carried out in the
+provinces situated between Cairo and Assiut, a region sometimes
+designated Middle Egypt. The ancient system seems simple enough; but in
+order really to flood the whole Nile Valley during seasons of defective
+as well as favourable floods, a system of regulating sluices, culverts
+and syphons is necessary; and for want of such a system it was found, in
+the feeble flood of 1888, that there was an area of 260,000 acres over
+which the water never flowed. This cost a loss of land revenue of about
+Ł300,000, while the loss of the whole season's crop to the farmer was of
+course much greater. The attention of the British engineers was then
+called to this serious calamity; and fortunately for Egypt there was
+serving in the country Col. J. C. Ross, R.E., an officer who had devoted
+many years of hard work to the irrigation of the North-West Provinces of
+India, and who possessed quite a special knowledge as well as a glowing
+enthusiasm for the subject. Fortunately, too, it was possible to supply
+him with the necessary funds to complete and remodel the canal system.
+When the surface-water of a river is higher than the fields right and
+left, there is nothing easier than to breach the embankments and flood
+the fields--in fact, it may be more difficult to prevent their being
+flooded than to flood them--but in ordinary floods the Nile is never
+higher than all the bordering lands, and in years of feeble flood it is
+higher than none of them. To water the valley, therefore, it is
+necessary to construct canals having bed-slopes less than that of the
+river, along which the water flows until its surface is higher than that
+of the fields. If, for instance, the slope of the river be 4 in. per
+mile, and that of the canal 2 in. it is evident that at the end of a
+mile the water in the canal will be 2 in. higher than in the river; and
+if the surface of the land is 3 ft. higher than that of the river, the
+canal, gaining on it at 2 in. per mile, will reach the surface in 18 m.,
+and from thence onwards will be above the adjoining fields. But to
+irrigate this upper 18 m., water must either be raised artificially, or
+supplied from another canal taking its source 18 m. farther up. This
+would, however, involve the country in great lengths of canal between
+the river and the field, and circumstances are not so unfavourable as
+this. Owing to the deltaic nature of the Nile Valley, the fields on the
+banks are 3 ft. above the flood, at 2 m. away from the banks they may
+not be more than 1 ft. above that level, so that the canal, gaining 2
+in. per mile and receding from the river, will command the country in 6
+m. The slope of the river, moreover, is taken in its winding course; and
+if it is 4 in. per mile, the slope of the axis of the valley parallel to
+which the canals may be made to flow is at least 6 in. per mile, so that
+a canal with a slope of 2 in. gains 4 in. per mile.
+
+The system of having one canal overlapping another has one difficulty to
+contend with. Occasionally the desert cliffs and slopes come right down
+to the river, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to carry the
+higher-level canals past these obstructions. It should also be noticed
+that on the higher strip bordering the river it is the custom to take
+advantage of its nearness to raise water by pumps, or other machinery,
+and thereby to grow valuable crops of sugar-cane, maize or vegetables.
+When the river rises, these crops, which often form a very important
+part of the year's produce and are termed _Nabári_, are still in the
+ground, and they require water in moderate and regulated quantities, in
+contradistinction to the wholesale flooding of the flats beyond. Fig. 3
+will serve to explain this system of irrigation, the firm lines
+representing canals, the dotted lines embankments. It will be seen,
+beginning on the east or right bank of the river, that a high-level
+canal from an upper system is carried past a steep slope, where perhaps
+it is cut entirely out of rock, and it divides into two. The right
+branch waters all the desert slopes within its reach and level. The left
+branch passes, by a syphon aqueduct, under what is the main canal of the
+system, taken from the river close at hand (and therefore at a lower
+level). This left branch irrigates the _Nabári_ on the high lands
+bordering the river. In years of very favourable flood this high-level
+canal would not be wanted at all; the irrigation could be done from the
+main canal, and with this great advantage, that the main canal water
+would carry with it much more fertilizing matter than would be got from
+the tail of the high-level canal, which left the river perhaps 25 m. up.
+The main canal flows freely over the flats C and D, and, if the flood is
+good, over B and part of A. It is carried round the next desert point,
+and to the north becomes the high-level canal. The masonry works
+required for this system are a syphon to pass the high level under the
+main canal near its head, bridges fitted with sluices where each canal
+passes under an embankment, and an escape weir at the tail of the
+system, just south of the desert point, to return surplus water to the
+river. Turning to the left bank, there is the same high-level canal from
+the upper system irrigating the basins K, P and L, as well as the large
+basin E in such years as it cannot be irrigated from the main canal.
+Here there are two main canals--one following the river, irrigating a
+series of smaller basins, and throwing out a branch to its left, the
+other passing under the desert slopes and supplying the basins F, G, H
+and S. For this system two syphons will be required near the head,
+regulating bridges under all the embankments, and an escape weir back
+into the river.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Map of the Basin System of Irrigation.]
+
+In the years following 1888 about 100 new masonry works of this kind
+were built in Upper Egypt, nearly 400 m. of new canal were dug, and
+nearly 300 m. of old canal were enlarged and deepened. The result has
+been, as already stated, that with a complete failure of the Nile flood
+the loss to the country has been trifling compared with that of 1877.
+
+
+  Assiut Weir and Esna Barrage.
+
+The first exception in Upper Egypt to the basin system of irrigation was
+due to the Khedive Ismail. The khedive, having acquired vast estates in
+the provinces of Assiut, Miniah, Beni-Suef and the Fayúm, resolved to
+grow sugar-cane on a very large scale, and with this object constructed
+a very important perennial canal, named the Ibrahimia, taking out of the
+left bank of the Nile at the town of Assiut, and flowing parallel to the
+river for about 200 m., with an important branch which irrigates the
+Fayúm. This canal was badly constructed, and by entirely blocking the
+drainage of the valley did a great deal of harm to the lands. Most of
+its defects had been remedied, but one remained. There being at its
+head no weir across the Nile, the water in the Ibrahimia canal used to
+rise and fall with that of the river, and so the supply was apt to run
+short during the hottest months, as was the case with the canals of
+Lower Egypt before the barrage was built. To supply the Ibrahimia canal
+at all during low Nile, it had been necessary to carry on dredging
+operations at an annual cost of about Ł12,000. This has now been
+rectified, in the same way as in Lower Egypt, by the construction of a
+weir across the Nile, intended to give complete control over the river
+and to raise the water-surface 8.2 ft. The Assiut weir is constructed on
+a design very similar to that of the barrage in Lower Egypt. It consists
+of a bridge of 111 arches, each 5 metres span, with piers of 2 metres
+thickness. In each arch are fitted two gates. There is a lock 80 metres
+long and 16 metres wide at the left or western end of the weir, and
+adjoining it are the regulating sluices of the Ibrahimia canal. The
+Assiut weir across the Nile is just about half a mile long. The work was
+begun at the end of 1898 and finished early in 1902--in time to avert
+over a large area the disastrous effects which would otherwise have
+resulted from the low Nile of that year. The money value of the crops
+saved by the closing of the weir was not less than ŁE690,000. The
+conversion of the lands north of Assiut from basin to perennial
+irrigation began immediately after the completion of the Assiut weir and
+was finished by the end of 1908. To render the basin lands of the Kena
+province independent of the flood being bad or good, another barrage was
+built across the Nile at Esna at a cost of Ł1,000,000. This work was
+begun in 1906 and completed in 1909.
+
+
+  Storage.
+
+These works, as well as that in Lower Egypt, are intended to raise the
+water-surface above it, and to control the distribution of its supply,
+but in no way to store that supply. The idea of ponding up the
+superfluous flood discharge of the river is not a new one, and if
+Herodotus is to be believed, it was a system actually pursued at a very
+early period of Egyptian history, when Lake Moeris in the Fayúm was
+filled at each Nile flood, and drawn upon as the river ran down. When
+British engineers first undertook the management of Egyptian irrigation
+many representations were made to them of the advantage of storing the
+Nile water; but they consistently maintained that before entering on
+that subject it was their duty to utilize every drop of the water at
+their disposal. This seemed all the more evident, as at that time
+financial reasons made the construction of a costly Nile dam out of the
+question. Every year, however, between 1890 and 1902 the supply of the
+Nile during May and June was actually exhausted, no water at all flowing
+then out into the sea. In these years, too, owing to the extension of
+drainage works, the irrigable area of Egypt was greatly enlarged, so
+that if perennial cultivation was at all to be increased, it was
+necessary to increase the volume of the river, and this could only be
+done by storing up the flood supply. The first difficulty that presented
+itself in carrying this out, was that during the months of highest flood
+the Nile is so charged with alluvial matter that to pond it up then
+would inevitably lead to a deposit of silt in the reservoir, which would
+in no great number of years fill it up. It was found, however, that the
+flood water was comparatively free from deposit by the middle of
+November, while the river was still so high that, without injuring the
+irrigation, water might go on being stored up until March. Accordingly,
+when it was determined to construct a dam, it was decided that it should
+be supplied with sluices large enough to discharge unchecked the whole
+volume of the river as it comes down until the middle of November, and
+then to begin the storage.
+
+
+  The Assuan Dam.
+
+The site selected for the great Nile dam was at the head of the First
+Cataract above Assuan. A dyke of syenite granite here crosses the
+valley, so hard that the river had nowhere scoured a deep channel
+through it, and so it was found possible to construct the dam entirely
+in the open air, without the necessity of laying under-water
+foundations. The length of the dam is about 6400 ft.--nearly 1Ľ m. The
+greatest head of water in it is 65 ft. It is pierced by 140
+under-sluices of 150 sq. ft. each, and by 40 upper-sluices, each of 75
+sq. ft. These, when fully open, are capable of discharging the ordinary
+maximum Nile flood of 350,000 cub. ft. per second, with a velocity of
+15.6 ft. per second and a head of 6.6 ft. The top width of the dam is 23
+ft., the bottom width at the deepest part about 82 ft. On the left flank
+of the dam there is a canal, provided with four locks, each 262 by 31
+ft. in area, so that navigation is possible at all seasons. The storage
+capacity of the reservoir is about 3,750,000 millions of cub. ft., which
+creates a lake extending up the Nile Valley for about 200 m. The
+reservoir is filled yearly by March; after that the volume reaching the
+reservoir from the south is passed on through the sluices. In May, or
+earlier when the river is late in rising, when the demand for water
+increases, first the upper and then the under sluices are gradually
+opened, so as to increase the river supply, until July, when all the
+gates are open, to allow of the free passage of the flood. On the 10th
+of December 1902 this magnificent work was completed. The engineer who
+designed it was Sir W. Willcocks. The contractors were Messrs John Aird
+& Co., the contract price being Ł2,000,000. The financial treaties in
+which the Egyptian government were bound up prevented their ever paying
+so large a sum as this within five years; but a company was formed in
+London to advance periodically the sum due to the contractors, on
+receipt from the government of Egypt of promissory notes to pay sixty
+half-yearly instalments of Ł78,613, beginning on the 1st of July 1903.
+Protective works downstream of the dam were completed in 1906 at a cost
+of about ŁE304,000. It had been at first intended to raise the dam to a
+height which would have involved the submergence, for some months of
+every year, of the Philae temples, situated on an island just upstream
+of the dam. Had the natives of Egypt been asked to choose between the
+preservation of Ptolemy's famed temple and the benefit to be derived
+from a considerable additional depth of water storage, there can be no
+question that they would have preferred the latter; but they were not
+consulted, and the classical sentiment and artistic beauty of the place,
+skilfully pleaded by archaeologists and artists, prevailed. In 1907,
+however, it was decided to carry out the plan as originally proposed and
+raise the dam 26 ft. higher. This would increase the storage capacity 2˝
+times, or to about 9,375,000 millions of cubic feet.
+
+There is no middle course of farming in Egypt between irrigation and
+desert. No assessment can be levied on lands which have not been
+watered, and the law of Egypt requires that in order to render land
+liable to taxation the water during the Nile flood must have flowed
+naturally over it. It is not enough that it should be pumped on to the
+land at the expense of the landowner. The tax usually levied is from Ł1
+to Ł2 per acre.
+
+  See Sir W. Willcocks, _Egyptian Irrigation_ (2nd ed., 1899); Sir C. C.
+  Scott-Moncrieff, _Lectures on Irrigation in Egypt. Professional Papers
+  on the Corps of Royal Engineers_, vol. xix. (London, 1893); Sir W.
+  Garstin, _Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile_. Egypt No. 2
+  (1904).
+
+V. _India._--Allusion has already been made to the irrigation of India.
+The year 1878, which saw the end of a most disastrous famine, may be
+considered as the commencement of a new era as regards irrigation. It
+had at last been recognized that such famines must be expected to occur
+at no very long intervals of time, and that the cost of relief
+operations must not be met by increasing the permanent debt on the
+country, but by the creation of a famine relief and a famine insurance
+fund. For this purpose it was fixed that there should be an annual
+provision of [R]x. 1,500,000, to be spent on: (1) relief, (2) protective
+works, (3) reduction of debt. Among protective works the first place was
+given to works of irrigation. These works were divided into three
+classes: (i.) productive works; (ii.) protective works; (iii.) minor
+works.
+
+Productive works, as their name implies, are such as may reasonably be
+expected to be remunerative, and they include all the larger irrigation
+systems. Their capital cost is provided from loan funds, and not from
+the relief funds mentioned above. In the seventeen years ending
+1896-1897 the capital expenditure on such works was [R]x. 10,954,948,
+including a sum of [R]x. 1,742,246 paid to the Madras Irrigation Company
+as the price of the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal, a work which can never be
+financially productive, but which nevertheless did good service in the
+famine of 1896-1897 by irrigating 87,226 acres. In the famine year
+1877-1878 the area irrigated by productive canals was 5,171,497 acres.
+In the famine year 1896-1897 the area was 9,571,779 acres, including an
+area of 123,087 acres irrigated on the Swat river canal in the Punjab.
+The revenue of the year 1879-1880 was nearly 6% on the capital outlay.
+In 1897-1898 it was 7˝%. In the same seventeen years [R]x. 2,099,253
+were spent on the construction of protective irrigation works, not
+expected to be directly remunerative, but of great value during famine
+years. On four works of this class were spent [R]x. 1,649,823, which in
+1896-1897 irrigated 200,733 acres, a valuable return then, although in
+an ordinary year their gross revenue does not cover their working
+expenses. Minor works may be divided into those for which capital
+accounts have been kept and those where they have not. In the seventeen
+years ending 1896-1897, [R]x. 827,214 were spent on the former, and
+during that year they yielded a return of 9.13%. In the same year the
+irrigation effected by minor works of all sorts showed the large area of
+7,442,990 acres. Such are the general statistics of outlay, revenue and
+irrigated area up to the end of 1896-1897. The government might well be
+congratulated on having through artificial means ensured in that year of
+widespread drought and famine the cultivation of 27,326 sq. m., a large
+tract even in so large a country as India. And progress has been
+steadily made in subsequent years.
+
+Some description will now be given of the chief of these irrigation
+works. Beginning with the Punjab, the province in which most progress
+has been made, the great Sutlej canal, which irrigates the country to
+the left of that river, was opened in 1882, and the Western Jumna canal
+(perhaps the oldest in India) was extended into the dry Hissar and Sirsa
+districts, and generally improved so as to increase by nearly 50% its
+area of irrigation between 1878 and 1897. Perhaps this is as much as can
+well be done with the water at command for the country between the
+Sutlej and the Jumna, and it is enough to secure it for ever from
+famine. The Bari Doab canal, which irrigates the Gurdaspur, Amritsar and
+Lahore districts, has been enlarged and extended so as to double its
+irrigation since it was projected in 1877-1878. The Chenab canal, the
+largest in India and the most profitable, was only begun in 1889. It was
+designed to command an area of about 2˝ million acres, and to irrigate
+annually rather less than half that area. This canal flows through land
+that in 1889 was practically desert. From the first arrangements were
+made for bringing colonists in from the more congested parts of India.
+The colonization began in 1892. Nine years later this canal watered
+1,830,525 acres. The population of the immigrant colony was 792,666,
+consisting mainly of thriving and prosperous peasants with occupancy
+rights in holdings of about 28 acres each. The direct revenue of this
+canal in 1906 was 26% on the capital outlay. The Jhelum canal was opened
+on the 30th of October, 1901. It is a smaller work than the Chenab, but
+it is calculated to command 1,130,000 acres, of which at least half will
+be watered annually. A much smaller work, but one of great interest, is
+the Swat river canal in the Peshawar valley. It was never expected that
+this would be a remunerative work, but it was thought for political
+reasons expedient to construct it in order to induce turbulent frontier
+tribes to settle down into peaceful agriculture. This has had a great
+measure of success, and the canal itself has proved remunerative,
+irrigating 123,000 acres in 1896-1897. A much greater scheme than any of
+the above is that of the Sind Sagar canal, projected from the left bank
+of the Indus opposite Kalabagh, to irrigate 1,750,000 acres at a cost of
+[R]x. 6,000,000. Another great canal scheme for the Punjab proposed to
+take off from the right bank of the Sutlej, and to irrigate about
+600,000 acres in the Montgomery and Multan districts, at a cost of [R]x.
+2,500,000. These three last projects would add 2,774,000 acres to the
+irrigated area of the province, and as they would flow through tracts
+almost unpeopled, they would afford a most valuable outlet for the
+congested districts of northern India. In addition to these great
+perennial canals, much has been done since 1878 in enlarging and
+extending what are known as the "inundation canals" of the Punjab, which
+utilize the flood waters in the rivers during the monsoon season and are
+dry at other times. By these canals large portions of country throughout
+most of the Punjab are brought under cultivation, and the area thus
+watered has increased from about 180,000 to 500,000 acres since 1878.
+
+It is on inundation canals such as these that the whole cultivation of
+Sind depends. In 1878 the area was about 1,500,000 acres; in 1896-1897
+it had increased to 2,484,000 acres. This increase was not due to famine
+in Sind, for that rainless province depends always on the Indus, as
+Egypt does on the Nile, and where there is no rainfall there can be no
+drought. But the famine prices obtained for agricultural produce
+doubtless gave an impetus to cultivation. In Sind, too, there is room
+for much increase of irrigation. It has been proposed to construct two
+new canals, the Jamrao and the Shikárpur, and to improve and extend
+three existing canals--Nasrat, Naulakhi and Dad. The total cost of these
+five projects, some of which are now in progress, was estimated at [R]x.
+1,596,682, and the extension of irrigation at 660,563 acres.
+
+Turning from the basin of the Indus to that of the Ganges, the
+commissioners appointed to report on the famine of 1896-1897 found that
+in the country between the Ganges and the Jumna little was left to be
+done beyond the completion of some distributary channels. The East India
+Company's great work, the Ganges canal, constructed between 1840 and
+1854 before there was a mile of railway open in India, still holds its
+place unsurpassed among later irrigation work for boldness of design and
+completeness of execution, a lasting monument to the genius of Sir Proby
+Cautley, an officer of the Bengal Artillery, but a born engineer. Ever
+since 1870 consideration has been given to projects for irrigating the
+fertile province of Oudh by means of a great canal to be drawn from the
+river Sarda. The water is there in abundance, the land is well adapted
+for irrigation, but as there is a considerable rainfall, it is doubtful
+whether the scheme would prove remunerative, and a large section of the
+landowners have hitherto opposed it, as likely to waterlog the country.
+Among the four protective works of irrigation which were said above to
+have irrigated 200,733 acres in 1896-1897, one of the most important is
+the Betwa canal, in the parched district of Bundelkhand. This canal has
+cost [R]x. 428,086, and causes an annual loss to the state in interest
+and working expenses of about [R]x. 20,000. It irrigated, however, in
+1896-1897 an area of 87,306 acres, raising crops valued at [R]x.
+231,081, or half the cost of the canal, so it may be said to have
+justified its construction. A similar canal from the river Ken in the
+same district has been constructed. Proceeding farther east, we find
+very satisfactory progress in the irrigation of southern Behar, effected
+by the costly system of canals drawn from the river Sone. In 1877-1878
+these canals irrigated 241,790 acres. Rapid progress was not expected
+here, and 792,000 acres was calculated as being the maximum area that
+could be covered with the water supply available. In the five years
+preceding 1901-1902 the average irrigated area was 463,181 acres, and
+during that year the area was 555,156 acres, the maximum ever attained.
+
+The canal system of Orissa was never expected to be remunerative, since
+in five years out of six the local rainfall is sufficient for the rice
+crop. In 1878-1879 the area irrigated was 111,250 acres, and the outlay
+up to date was [R]x. 1,750,000. In 1900-1901 the area was 203,540 acres,
+the highest ever attained, and the capital outlay amounted to [R]x.
+2,623,703. It should be mentioned in favour of these canals that
+although the irrigation is not of yearly value, they supply very
+important water communication through a province which, from its natural
+configuration, is not likely to be soon intersected by railways. If,
+moreover, such a famine were again to occur in Orissa as that of
+1866-1867, there would be no doubt of the value of these fine canals.
+
+In the Madras presidency and in Mysore irrigation has long assumed a
+great importance, and the engineering works of the three great deltas of
+the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery, the outcome of the genius and
+indefatigable enthusiasm of Sir Arthur Cotton, have always been quoted
+as showing what a boon irrigation is to a country. In 1878 the total
+area of irrigation in the Madras presidency amounted to about 5,000,000
+acres. The irrigation of the eight productive systems was 1,680,178
+acres, and the revenue [R]x. 739,778. In 1898 there were ten of these
+systems, with an irrigation area, as shown by the accompanying table, of
+2,685,915 acres, and a revenue of [R]x. 1,163,268:
+
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |                       |          |          |         |          | Capital  |Percentage |
+  |    Irrigation.        |   Area   |   Total  |  Total  |   Net    |   and    |  of Net   |
+  |                       | Watered. | Revenue. | Expendi-| Revenue. | Indirect |  Revenue  |
+  |                       |          |          |  ture.  |          | Charges. |to Capital.|
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |   _Major Works._      |  Acres.  |   [R]x.  |  [R]x.  |   [R]x.  |   [R]x.  |           |
+  | 1. Godavari Delta     |  779,435 |  328,443 | 68,376  |  260,067 |1,297,807 |   19.15   |
+  | 2. Kistna Delta       |  520,373 |  254,579 | 74,142  |  180,437 |1,319,166 |   13.18   |
+  | 3. Pennar Weir System |   70,464 |   28,160 |  5,937  |   23,123 |  189,919 |    7.59   |
+  | 4. Sangam System      |   76,277 |   32,627 |  7,037  |   25,590 |  385,601 |    3.68   |
+  | 5. Kurnool Canal      |   47,008 |   15,622 | 12,404  |    3,218 |2,171,740 |     .15   |
+  | 6. Barur Tank System  |    4,421 |    1,162 |    385  |      777 |    4,250 |    1.39   |
+  | 7. Cauvery Delta      |  989,808 |  434,346 | 43,464  |  390,882 |  199,458 |   44.87   |
+  | 8. Srivaikuntam System|   41,668 |   19,349 |  4,680  |   14,669 |  147,192 |    5.45   |
+  | 9. Periyar Project    |   89,143 |   37,526 | 10,751  |   26,775 |  852,914 |     .27   |
+  |10. Rushikulya Canal   |   67,318 |   11,454 |  3,678  |    7,776 |  464,423 |     .54   |
+  |                       +----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |      Total            |2,685,915 |1,163,268 |229,954  |  933,314 |7,032,470 |  7.88     |
+  |                       |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |    _Minor Works._     |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |23 Works for which     |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  Capital and Revenue  |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  Accounts are kept    |  535,813 |  200,558 | 34,655  |  165,903 |1,693,878 |    4.44   |
+  |Minor Works for which  |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  such Accounts are    |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  not kept             |3,131,009 |  830,175 |193,295  |  636,880 |    ..    |     ..    |
+  |                       +----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |     Grand Total       |6,352,737 |2,194,001 |457,904  |1,736,097 |    ..    |     ..    |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+
+In the three great deltas, and the small southern one that depends on
+the Srivaikuntam weir over the river Tumbraparni, extension and
+improvement works have been carried on. The Sangam and Pennar systems
+depend on two weirs on the river Pennar in the Nellore district, the
+former about 18 m. above and the latter just below the town of Nellore.
+The former irrigates on the left, the latter on the right bank of the
+river. This district suffered severely in the famine of 1877-1878, and
+the irrigation works were started in consequence. The Barur tank system
+in the Salem district was also constructed after the famine of
+1877-1878. As yet it has not fulfilled expectations. The Periyar scheme
+has for its object both the addition of new irrigation and the
+safeguarding of that which exists in the district of Madura, a plain
+watered by means of a great number of shallow tanks drawing their supply
+from a very uncertain river, the Vaigai. This river takes its rise on
+the eastern slopes of the Ghat range of mountains, and just opposite to
+it, on the western face of the range, is the source of the river
+Periyar. The rainfall on the west very much exceeds that on the east,
+and the Periyar used to find its way by a short torrent course to the
+sea, rendering no service to mankind. Its upper waters are now stemmed
+by a masonry dam 178 ft. high, forming a large lake, at the eastern end
+of which is a tunnel 5700 ft. long, piercing the watershed and
+discharging 1600 cub. ft. per second down the eastern side of the
+mountains into the river Vaigai. No bolder or more original work of
+irrigation has been carried out in India, and the credit of it is due to
+Colonel J. Pennycuick, C.S.I. The dam and tunnel were works of unusual
+difficulty. The country was roadless and uninhabited save by wild
+beasts, and fever and cholera made sad havoc of the working parties; but
+it was successfully accomplished. The last of those given in the table
+above was not expected to be remunerative, but it should prove a
+valuable protective against famine. The system consists of weirs over
+the rivers Gulleri, Mahanadi and Rushikulya in the backward province of
+Ganjam, south of Orissa. From these weirs flow canals altogether about
+127 m. long, which, in connexion with two large reservoirs, are capable
+of irrigating 120,000 acres. In 1901 the works, though incomplete,
+already irrigated 67,318 acres.
+
+In addition to all these great engineering systems, southern India is
+covered with minor works of irrigation, some drawn from springs in the
+sandy beds of rivers, some from the rainfall of ˝ sq. m. ponded up in a
+valley. In other cases tanks are fed from neighbouring streams, and the
+greatest ingenuity is displayed in preventing the precious water from
+going to waste.
+
+Allusion has been already made to the canals of Sind. Elsewhere in the
+Bombay presidency, in the Deccan and Gujarat, there are fewer facilities
+for irrigation than in other parts of India. The rivers are generally of
+uncertain volume. The cost of storage works is very great. The
+population is backward, and the black soil is of a nature that in
+ordinary years can raise fair crops of cotton, millet and maize without
+artificial watering. Up to the end of 1896-1897 the capital spent on the
+irrigation works of the Deccan and Gujarat was [R]x. 2,616,959. The area
+irrigated that year was 262,830 acres. The most important works are the
+Mutha and Nira canals in the Poona district.
+
+In Upper Burma three productive irrigation works were planned at the
+opening of the century--the Mandalay, the Shwebo, and the Mon canals, of
+which the first was estimated to cost [R]x. 323,280, and to irrigate
+72,000 acres. The area estimated from the whole three projects is
+262,000 acres, situated in the only part of Burma that is considered
+liable to famine.
+
+In 1901, after years of disastrous drought and famine, the government of
+India appointed a commission to examine throughout all India what could
+be done by irrigation to alleviate the horrors of famine. Up to that
+time it had been the principle of the government not to borrow money for
+the execution of irrigation works unless there was a reasonable
+expectation that within a few years they would give a return of 4 or 5%
+on the capital outlay. In 1901 the government took larger views. It was
+found that although some irrigation works (especially in the Bombay
+Deccan) would never yield a direct return of 4 or 5%, still in a famine
+year they might be the means of producing a crop which would go far to
+do away with the necessity for spending enormous sums on famine relief.
+In the Sholapur district of Bombay, for instance, about three years'
+revenue was spent on relief during the famine of 1901. An expenditure of
+ten years' revenue on irrigation works might have done away for all
+future time with the necessity for the greater part of this outlay. The
+Irrigation Commission of 1901-1903 published a very exhaustive report
+after a careful study of every part of India. While emphatically
+asserting that irrigation alone could never prevent famine, they
+recommended an outlay of Ł45,000,000 spread over a period of 25 years.
+
+  See also _Annual Reports Irrigation Department Local Governments of
+  India_; _Reports of the Indian Famine Commissions of 1878, 1898 and
+  1901_; Sir Hanbury Brown, _Irrigation, its Principles and Practice_
+  (London, 1907).
+
+VI. _United States._--At the opening of the 20th century, during Mr
+Roosevelt's presidency, the new "Conservation" policy (i.e.
+conservation of natural resources by federal initiative and control), to
+which he gave so much impetus and encouragement, brought the extension
+of irrigation works in the United States to the front in American
+statecraft (see Vrooman, _Mr Roosevelt, Dynamic Geographer_, 1909).
+Though the carrying out of this policy on a large scale was hampered by
+many difficulties, the subject was made definitely one of national
+importance.
+
+On account of the aridity of the climate throughout the greater part of
+the western third of the United States, the practice of agriculture is
+dependent upon an artificial supply of water. On most of the country
+west of the 97th meridian and extending to the Pacific Ocean less than
+20 in. of rain falls each year. The most notable exceptions are in the
+case of a narrow strip west of the Cascade Range and of some of the
+higher mountain masses. In ordinary years the climate is too dry for
+successful cultivation of the field crops, although under favourable
+conditions of soil and cultivation there are certain areas where cereals
+are grown by what is known as "dry farming." The progress in irrigation
+up to the end of the 19th century was spasmodic but on the whole steady.
+The eleventh census of the United States, 1890, showed that 3,564,416
+acres were irrigated in 1889. This included only the lands from which
+crops were produced. Besides this, there were probably 10 million acres
+under irrigation systems constructed in whole or in part. In 1899 the
+irrigated area in the arid states and territories was more than twice as
+great as in 1889, the acreage being as follows:--
+
+  Arizona        185,936
+  California   1,445,872
+  Colorado     1,611,271
+  Idaho          602,568
+  Montana        951,154
+  Nevada         504,168
+  New Mexico     203,893
+  Oregon         388,310
+  Utah           629,293
+  Washington     135,470
+  Wyoming        605,878
+               ---------
+  Total        7,263,813
+
+In addition to the area above given, in 1899, 273,117 acres were under
+irrigation in the semi-arid region, east of the states above mentioned
+and including portions of the states of North and South Dakota,
+Nebraska, Kansas, Texas and Oklahoma. The greater part of these lands
+was irrigated by canals or ditches built by individuals acting singly or
+in co-operation with their neighbours, or by corporations. The national
+and state governments had not built any works of reclamation excepting
+where the federal government, through the Indian department, had
+constructed irrigation ditches for Indian tribes, notably the Crow
+Indians of Montana. A few of the state governments, such, for example,
+as Colorado, had built small reservoirs or portions of canals from
+internal improvement funds.
+
+The construction of irrigation canals and ditches was for the most part
+brought about by farmers joining to plough out or dig ditches from the
+rivers, descending on a gentle grade. Some of the corporations
+constructing works for the sale of water built structures of notable
+size, such, for example, as the Sweet-water and Hemet dams of southern
+California, the Bear river canal of Utah, and the Arizona canal, taking
+water from Salt river, Arizona. The cost of bringing water to the land
+averaged about $8 per acre where the ordinary ditches were built. The
+owners of extensive works were charged from $12 to $20 per acre and
+upwards for so-called "water rights," or the privilege to take water
+from the canal, this covering cost of construction. Besides the first
+cost of construction, the irrigator was usually called upon to pay
+annually a certain amount for maintenance, which might often be worked
+out by labour on the canal. The cost ranged from 50 cents to $1 per
+acre; or, with incorporated companies, from $1.50 to $2.50 per acre and
+upwards. The largest expense for water rights and for annual maintenance
+was incurred in southern California, where the character of the crops,
+such as citrus fruits, and the scarcity of the water make possible
+expensive construction and heavy charges. The legal expense for the
+maintenance of water rights was often large because of the interminable
+suits brought during the times of water scarcity. The laws regarding
+water in most of the arid states were indefinite or contradictory, being
+based partly on the common law regarding riparian rights, and partly
+upon the Spanish law allowing diversion of water from natural streams.
+Few fundamental principles were established, except in the case of the
+state of Wyoming, where an official was charged with the duty of
+ascertaining the amount of water in the streams and apportioning this to
+the claimants in the order of their priority of appropriation for
+beneficial use.
+
+It may be said that, up to the year 1900, irrigation progressed to such
+an extent that there remained few ordinary localities where water could
+not be easily or cheaply diverted from creeks and rivers for the
+cultivation of farms. The claims for the available supply from small
+streams, however, exceeded the water to be had in the latter part of the
+irrigating season. There remained large rivers and opportunities for
+water storage which could be brought under irrigation at considerable
+expense. The large canals and reservoirs built by corporations had
+rarely been successful from a financial standpoint, and irrigation
+construction during the latter part of the decade 1890-1899 was
+relatively small. Owing to the difficulty and expense of securing water
+from running streams by gravity systems, a great variety of methods were
+developed of pumping water by windmills, gasoline or hot-air engines,
+and steam. Ordinary reciprocating pumps were commonly employed, and also
+air lifts and similar devices for raising great quantities of water to a
+height of from 20 to 50 ft. For greater depths the cost was usually
+prohibitive. Throughout the Great Plains region, east of the Rocky
+Mountains, and in the broad valleys to the west, windmills were
+extensively used, each pumping water for from 1 to 5 acres of cultivated
+ground. In a few localities, notably in South Dakota, the Yakima valley
+of Washington, San Joaquin, and San Bernardino valleys of California,
+San Luis valley of Colorado, and Utah valley of Utah, water from
+artesian wells was also used for the irrigation of from 1 to 160 acres.
+The total acreage supplied by such means was probably less than 1% of
+that watered by gravity systems.
+
+The development of irrigation was in part retarded by the improper or
+wasteful use of water. On permeable soils, especially those of the
+terrace lands along the valleys, the soluble salts commonly known as
+alkali were gradually leached out and carried by the percolating waters
+towards the lower lands, where, reaching the surface, the alkali was
+left as a glistening crust or as pools of inky blackness. Farms adjacent
+to the rivers were for a time increased in richness by the alkaline
+salts, which in diffuse form might be valuable plant foods, and then
+suddenly become valueless when the concentration of alkali had reached a
+degree beyond that which the ordinary plants would endure.
+
+The situation as regards the further progress of irrigation on a large
+scale was however dominated in the early years of the 20th century by
+the new Conservation policy. Mr Roosevelt brought the whole subject
+before Congress in his message of the 3rd of December 1901, and thereby
+started what seemed likely to be a new sphere of Federal initiative and
+control. After referring to the effects of forests (see FORESTS AND
+FORESTRY) on water-supply, he went on as follows:--
+
+  "The forests alone cannot fully regulate and conserve the waters of
+  the arid regions. Great storage works are necessary to equalize the
+  flow of the streams and to save the flood waters. Their construction
+  has been conclusively shown to be an undertaking too vast for private
+  effort. Nor can it be best accomplished by the individual states
+  acting alone.
+
+  "Far-reaching interstate problems are involved, and the resources of
+  single states would often be inadequate. It is properly a national
+  function, at least in some of its features. It is as right for the
+  National Government to make the streams and rivers of the arid regions
+  useful by engineering works for water storage, as to make useful the
+  rivers and harbours of the humid regions by engineering works of
+  another kind. The storing of the floods in reservoirs at the
+  headquarters of our rivers is but an enlargement of our present policy
+  of river control, under which levees are built on the lower reaches
+  of the same streams.
+
+  "The government should construct and maintain these reservoirs as it
+  does other public works. Where their purpose is to regulate the flow
+  of streams, the water should be turned freely into the channels in the
+  dry season, to take the same course under the same laws as the natural
+  flow.
+
+  "The reclamation of the unsettled arid public lands presents a
+  different problem. Here it is not enough to regulate the flow of
+  streams. The object of the government is to dispose of the land to
+  settlers who will build homes upon it. To accomplish the object water
+  must be brought within their reach.
+
+  "The reclamation and settlement of the arid lands will enrich every
+  portion of our country, just as the settlement of the Ohio and
+  Mississippi valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic States. The
+  increased demand for manufactured articles will stimulate industrial
+  production, while wider home markets and the trade of Asia will
+  consume the larger food supplies and effectually prevent Western
+  competition with Eastern agriculture. Indeed, the products of
+  irrigation will be consumed chiefly in upbuilding local centres of
+  mining and other industries, which would otherwise not come into
+  existence at all. Our people as a whole will profit, for successful
+  home-making is but another name for the upbuilding of the nation."
+
+In 1902, by Act of Congress, a "reclamation fund" was created from
+moneys received from the sale of public lands; it was to be used under a
+"Reclamation Service" (part of the Department of the Interior) for the
+reclamation of arid lands. The "Truckee-Carson project" for irrigation
+in Nevada was immediately begun. About thirty other government projects
+were taken in hand under the new Reclamation Service, in some cases
+involving highly interesting engineering problems, as in the Uncompahgre
+Project in Colorado. Here the Uncompahgre and Gunnison rivers flowed
+parallel, about 10 m. apart, with a mountain range 2000 ft. high between
+them. The Uncompahgre, with only a small amount of water, flowed through
+a broad and fertile valley containing several hundred thousand acres of
+cultivable soil. The Gunnison, with far more water, flowed through a
+canyon with very little land. The problem was to get the water from the
+Gunnison over the mountain range into the Uncompahgre valley; and a
+tunnel, 6 m. long, was cut through, resulting in 1909 in 148,000 acres
+of land being irrigated and thrown open to settlers. Similarly, near
+Yuma in Arizona, a project was undertaken for carrying the waters of the
+main canal on the California side under the Colorado river by a siphon.
+In the report for 1907 of the Reclamation Service it was stated that it
+had dug 1881 m. of canals, some carrying whole rivers, like the Truckee
+river in Nevada and the North Platte in Wyoming, and had erected 281
+large structures, including the great dams in Nevada and the Minidoka
+dam (80 ft. high and 650 ft. long) in Idaho. As the result of the
+operations eight new towns had been established, 100 m. of branch
+railroads constructed, and 14,000 people settled in what had been the
+desert.
+
+  A White House conference of governors of states was held at Washington
+  in May 1909, which drew up a "declaration of principles" for the
+  conservation of natural resources, recommending the appointment of a
+  commission by each state to co-operate with one another and with the
+  Federal government; and by the end of the year thirty-six states had
+  appointed Conservation committees. Thus, in the first decade of the
+  20th century a great advance had been made in the way in which the
+  whole problem was being viewed in America, though the very immensity
+  of the problem of bringing the Federal power to bear on operations on
+  so vast a scale, involving the limitation of private land speculation
+  in important areas, still presented political difficulties of
+  considerable magnitude.
+
+
+
+
+IRULAS ("Benighted ones," from Tamil, _iral_, "darkness"), a
+semi-Hinduized forest-tribe of southern India, who are found mainly in
+North Arcot, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly, and the Malabar
+Wynaad. The typical Irulas of the Nilgiris live a wild life on the lower
+slopes of those hills. At the 1901 census this branch of the Irulas
+numbered 1915, while the total of so-called Irulas was returned at
+86,087.
+
+  See J. W. Breeks, _Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris_ (1873); _Nilgiri
+  Manual_, i. 214-217; _North Arcot Manual_, i. 248-249.
+
+
+
+
+IRUN, a frontier town of northern Spain, in the province of Guipúzcoa,
+on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, opposite the French village of
+Hendaye. Pop. (1900) 9912. Irun is the northern terminus of the Spanish
+Northern railway, and a thriving industrial town, with ironworks,
+tan-yards, potteries and paper mills. Its principal buildings are the
+fine Renaissance parish church and the fortress-like 17th-century town
+hall. It derives its prosperity from the fact that it is the most
+important custom-house in Spain for the overland trade with the rest of
+Europe. Irun is also on the chief highway for travellers and mails. It
+is the terminus of some important narrow-gauge mining railways and steam
+tramways, which place it in communication with the mining districts of
+Guipúzcoa and Navarre, and with the valuable oak, pine and beech forests
+of both provinces. There are hot mineral springs in the town.
+
+
+
+
+IRVINE, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of Ayrshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 9607. It is situated on the north bank of the
+estuary of the Irvine, 29˝ m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway,
+with a station also on the Glasgow & South Western railway. It is
+connected with the suburb of Fullarton on the south side of the river by
+a stone bridge, which was built in 1746 and widened in 1827. Alexander
+II. granted it a charter, which was confirmed by Robert Bruce. Towards
+the end of the 17th century it was reckoned the third shipping port in
+Scotland (Port Glasgow and Leith being the leaders), and though its
+importance in this respect declined owing to the partial silting-up of
+the harbour, its water-borne trade revived after 1875, the sandy bar
+having been removed and the wharfage extended and improved. The public
+buildings include the town hall, academy (1814) and fever hospital. The
+principal historical remains are the square tower of Stanecastle and the
+ancient Seagate Castle, which contains some good specimens of Norman
+architecture. The industries include engine-making, shipbuilding, iron-
+and brass-founding, the manufacture of chemicals, brewing and
+soap-making. Irvine unites with Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Oban in
+sending one member to parliament. The exports consist principally of
+coal, iron and chemical products, and the imports of grain, timber,
+limestone, ores and general produce. At DREGHORN, 2 m. to the S.E. (pop.
+1155) coal and iron are worked.
+
+
+
+
+IRVING, EDWARD (1792-1834), Scottish church divine, generally regarded
+as the founder of the "Catholic Apostolic Church" (q.v.), was born at
+Annan, Dumfriesshire, on the 4th of August 1792. By his father's side,
+who followed the occupation of a tanner, he was descended from a family
+long known in the district, and the purity of whose Scottish lineage had
+been tinged by alliance with French Protestant refugees; but it was from
+his mother's race, the Lowthers, farmers or small proprietors in
+Annandale, that he seems to have derived the most distinctive features
+of his personality. The first stage of his education was passed at a
+school kept by "Peggy Paine," a relation of the well-known author of the
+_Age of Reason_, after which he entered the Annan academy, taught by Mr
+Adam Hope, of whom there is a graphic sketch in the _Reminiscences_ of
+Thomas Carlyle. At the age of thirteen he entered the university of
+Edinburgh. In 1809 he graduated M.A.; and in 1810, on the recommendation
+of Sir John Leslie, he was chosen master of an academy newly established
+at Haddington, where he became the tutor of Jane Welsh, afterwards
+famous as Mrs Carlyle. He became engaged in 1812 to Isabella Martin,
+whom in 1823 he married; but it may be at once stated here that
+meanwhile he gradually fell in love with Jane Welsh, and she with him.
+He tried to get out of his engagement with Miss Martin, but was
+prevented by her family. If he had married Miss Welsh, his life, as well
+as hers, would have been very different. It was Irving who in 1821
+introduced Carlyle to her.
+
+His appointment at Haddington he exchanged for a similar one at
+Kirkcaldy in 1812. Completing his divinity studies by a series of
+partial sessions, he was "licensed" to preach in June 1815, but
+continued to discharge his scholastic duties for three years. He devoted
+his leisure, not only to mathematical and physical science, but to a
+course of reading in English literature, his bias towards the antique in
+sentiment and style being strengthened by a perusal of the older
+classics, among whom Richard Hooker was his favourite author. At the
+same time his love of the marvellous found gratification in the wonders
+of the _Arabian Nights_, and it is further characteristically related
+of him that he used to carry continually in his waistcoat pocket a
+miniature copy of _Ossian_, passages from which he frequently recited
+with "sonorous elocution and vehement gesticulation."
+
+In the summer of 1818 he resigned his mastership, and, in order to
+increase the probability of obtaining a permanent appointment in the
+church, took up his residence in Edinburgh. Although his exceptional
+method of address seems to have gained him the qualified approval of
+certain dignitaries of the church, the prospect of his obtaining a
+settled charge seemed as remote as ever, and he was meditating a
+missionary tour in Persia when his departure was arrested by steps taken
+by Dr Chalmers, which, after considerable delay, resulted, in October
+1819, in Irving being appointed his assistant and missionary in St
+John's parish, Glasgow. Except in the case of a select few, Irving's
+preaching awakened little interest among the congregation of Chalmers,
+Chalmers himself, with no partiality for its bravuras and flourishes,
+comparing it to "Italian music, appreciated only by connoisseurs"; but
+as a missionary among the poorer classes he wielded an influence that
+was altogether unique. The benediction "Peace be to this house," with
+which, in accordance with apostolic usage, he greeted every dwelling he
+entered, was not inappropriate to his figure and aspect, and it is said
+"took the people's attention wonderfully," the more especially after the
+magic of his personality found opportunity to reveal itself in close and
+homely intercourse. This half-success in a subordinate sphere was,
+however, so far from coinciding with his aspirations that he had again,
+in the winter of 1821, begun to turn his attention towards missionary
+labour in the East, when the possibility of fulfilling the dream of his
+life was suddenly revealed to him by an invitation from the Caledonian
+church, Hatton Garden, London, to "make trial and proof" of his gifts
+before the "remnant of the congregation which held together." Over that
+charge he was ordained in July 1822. Some years previously he had
+expressed his conviction that "one of the chief needs of the age was to
+make inroad after the alien, to bring in the votaries of fashion, of
+literature, of sentiment, of policy and of rank, who are content in
+their several idolatries to do without piety to God and love to Him whom
+He hath sent"; and, with an abruptness which must have produced on him
+at first an effect almost astounding, he now had the satisfaction of
+beholding these various votaries thronging to hear from his lips the
+words of wisdom which would deliver them from their several idolatries
+and remodel their lives according to the fashion of apostolic times.
+
+This sudden leap into popularity seems to have been occasioned in
+connexion with a veiled allusion to Irving's striking eloquence made in
+the House of Commons by Canning, who had been induced to attend his
+church from admiration of an expression in one of his prayers, quoted to
+him by Sir James Mackintosh. His commanding stature, the symmetry of his
+form, the dark and melancholy beauty of his countenance, rather rendered
+piquant than impaired by an obliquity of vision, produced an imposing
+impression even before his deep and powerful voice had given utterance
+to its melodious thunders; and harsh and superficial half-truths
+enunciated with surpassing ease and grace of gesture, and not only with
+an air of absolute conviction but with the authority of a prophetic
+messenger, in tones whose magical fascination was inspired by an
+earnestness beyond all imitation of art, acquired a plausibility and
+importance which, at least while the orator spoke, made his audience
+entirely forgetful of their preconceived objections against them. The
+subject-matter of his orations, and his peculiar treatment of his
+themes, no doubt also, at least at first, constituted a considerable
+part of his attractive influence. He had specially prepared himself, as
+he thought, for "teaching imaginative men, and political men, and legal
+men, and scientific men who bear the world in hand"; and he did not
+attempt to win their attention to abstract and worn-out theological
+arguments, but discussed the opinions, the poetry, the politics, the
+manners and customs of the time, and this not with philosophical
+comprehensiveness, not in terms of warm eulogy or measured blame, but
+of severe satire varied by fierce denunciation, and with a specific
+minuteness which was concerned primarily with individuals. A fire of
+criticism from pamphlets, newspapers and reviews opened on his volume of
+_Orations_, published in 1823; but the excitement produced was merely
+superficial and essentially evanescent. Though cherishing a strong
+antipathy to the received ecclesiastical formulas, Irving's great aim
+was to revive the antique style of thought and sentiment which had
+hardened into these formulas, and by this means to supplant the new
+influences, the accidental and temporary moral shortcomings of which he
+detected with instinctive certainty, but whose profound and real
+tendencies were utterly beyond the reach of his conjecture. Being thus
+radically at variance with the main current of the thought of his time,
+the failure of the commission he had undertaken was sooner or later
+inevitable; and shortly after the opening of his new church in Regent
+Square in 1827, he found that "fashion had taken its departure," and the
+church, "though always well filled," was "no longer crowded." By this
+desertion his self-esteem, one of his strongest passions, though
+curiously united with singular sincerity and humility, was doubtless
+hurt to the quick; but the wound inflicted was of a deeper and deadlier
+kind, for it confirmed him finally in his despair of the world's gradual
+amelioration, and established his tendency towards supernaturalism.
+
+For years the subject of prophecy had occupied much of his thoughts, and
+his belief in the near approach of the second advent had received such
+wonderful corroboration by the perusal of the work of a Jesuit priest,
+writing under the assumed Jewish name of Juan Josafat Ben-Ezra, that in
+1827 he published a translation of it, accompanied with an eloquent
+preface. Probably the religious opinions of Irving, originally in some
+respects more catholic and truer to human nature than generally
+prevailed in ecclesiastical circles, had gained breadth and
+comprehensiveness from his intercourse with Coleridge, but gradually his
+chief interest in Coleridge's philosophy centred round that which was
+mystical and obscure, and to it in all likelihood may be traced his
+initiation into the doctrine of millenarianism. The first stage of his
+later development, which resulted in the establishment of the
+"Irvingite" or "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church," in 1832, was associated
+with conferences at his friend Henry Drummond's seat at Albury
+concerning unfulfilled prophecy, followed by an almost exclusive study
+of the prophetical books and especially of the Apocalypse, and by
+several series of sermons on prophecy both in London and the provinces,
+his apocalyptic lectures in 1828 more than crowding the largest churches
+of Edinburgh in the early summer mornings. In 1830, however, there was
+opened up to his ardent imagination a new vista into spiritual things, a
+new hope for the age in which he lived, by the seeming actual revival in
+a remote corner of Scotland of those apostolic gifts of prophecy and
+healing which he had already in 1828 persuaded himself had only been
+kept in abeyance by the absence of faith. At once he welcomed the new
+"power" with an unquestioning evidence which could be shaken by neither
+the remonstrances or desertion of his dearest friends, the recantation
+of some of the principal agents of the "gifts," his own declension into
+a comparatively subordinate position, the meagre and barren results of
+the manifestations, nor their general rejection both by the church and
+the world. His excommunication by the presbytery of London, in 1830, for
+publishing his doctrines regarding the humanity of Jesus Christ, and the
+condemnation of these opinions by the General Assembly of the Church of
+Scotland in the following year, were secondary episodes which only
+affected the main issue of his career in so far as they tended still
+further to isolate him from the sympathy of the church; but the
+"irregularities" connected with the manifestation of the "gifts"
+gradually estranged the majority of his own congregation, and on the
+complaint of the trustees to the presbytery of London, whose authority
+they had formerly rejected, he was declared unfit to remain the minister
+of the National Scotch Church of Regent Square. After he and those who
+adhered to him (describing themselves as of the Holy Catholic Apostolic
+Church) had in 1832 removed to a new building in Newman Street, he was
+in March 1833 deposed from the ministry of the Church of Scotland by the
+presbytery of Annan on the original charge of heresy. With the sanction
+of the "power" he was now after some delay reordained "chief pastor of
+the church assembled in Newman Street," but unremitting labours and
+ceaseless spiritual excitement soon completely exhausted the springs of
+his vital energy. He died, worn out and wasted with labour and absorbing
+care, while still in the prime of life, on the 7th of December 1834.
+
+  The writings of Edward Irving published during his lifetime were _For
+  the Oracles of God, Four Orations_ (1823); _For Judgment to come_
+  (1823); _Babylon and Infidelity foredoomed_ (1826); _Sermons_, &c. (3
+  vols., 1828); _Exposition of the Book of Revelation_ (1831); an
+  introduction to a translation of Ben-Ezra; and an introduction to
+  Horne's _Commentary on the Psalms_. His collected works were published
+  in 5 volumes, edited by Gavin Carlyle. See also the article CATHOLIC
+  APOSTOLIC CHURCH.
+
+  The _Life of Edward Irving_, by Mrs Oliphant, appeared in 1862 in 2
+  vols. Among a large number of biographies published previously, that
+  by Washington Wilks (1854) has some merit. See also Hazlitt's _Spirit
+  of the Age_; Coleridge's _Notes on English Divines_; Carlyle's
+  _Miscellanies_, and Carlyle's _Reminiscences_, vol. i. (1881).
+
+
+
+
+IRVING, SIR HENRY (1838-1905), English actor, whose original name was
+John Brodribb, was born at Keinton-Mandeville, Somerset, on the 6th of
+February 1838. After a few years' schooling he became a clerk to a firm
+of East India merchants in London, but he soon gave up a commercial
+career and started as an actor. On the 29th of September 1856 he made
+his first appearance at Sunderland as Gaston, duke of Orleans, in Bulwer
+Lytton's _Richelieu_, billed as Henry Irving. This name he eventually
+assumed by royal licence. For ten years he went through an arduous
+training in various provincial stock companies, acting in more than five
+hundred parts. By degrees his ability gained recognition, and in 1866 he
+obtained an engagement at the St James's Theatre, London, to play
+Doricourt in _The Belle's Stratagem_. A year later he joined the company
+of the newly-opened Queen's Theatre, where he acted with Charles
+Wyndham, J. L. Toole, Lionel Brough, John Clayton, Mr and Mrs Alfred
+Wigan, Ellen Terry and Nelly Farren. This was followed by short
+engagements at the Haymarket, Drury Lane and Gaiety. At last he made his
+first conspicuous success as Digby Grant in James Albery's _The Two
+Roses_, which was produced at the Vaudeville on the 4th of June 1870 and
+ran for 300 nights. In 1871 he began his association with the Lyceum
+Theatre by an engagement under Bateman's management. The fortunes of the
+house were at a low ebb when the tide was turned by Irving's immediate
+success as Mathias in _The Bells_, a version of Erckmann-Chatrian's _Le
+Juif Polonais_ by Leopold Lewis. The play ran for 150 nights. With Miss
+Bateman, Irving was seen in W. G. Wills's _Charles I._ and _Eugene
+Aram_, in _Richelieu_, and in 1874 in _Hamlet_. The unconventionality of
+this last performance, during a run of 200 nights, aroused keen
+discussion, and singled him out as the most interesting English actor of
+his day. In 1875, still with Miss Bateman, he was seen as Macbeth; in
+1876 as Othello, and as Philip in Tennyson's _Queen Mary_; in 1877 in
+_Richard III._ and _The Lyons Mail_.
+
+In 1878 Irving opened the Lyceum under his own management. With Ellen
+Terry as Ophelia and Portia, he revived _Hamlet_ and produced _The
+Merchant of Venice_ (1879). His Shylock was as much discussed as his
+Hamlet had been, the dignity with which he invested the Jew marking a
+departure from the traditional interpretation of the rôle, and pleasing
+some as much as it offended others. After the production of Tennyson's
+_The Cup_, a revival of _Othello_ (in which Irving played Iago to the
+Othello of Edwin Booth) and of _Romeo and Juliet_, there began a period
+at the Lyceum which had a potent effect on the English stage. The Lyceum
+stage management, and the brilliancy of its productions in scenery,
+dressing and accessories, were revelations in the art of
+_mise-en-scčne_. _Much Ado about Nothing_ (1882) was followed by
+_Twelfth Night_ (1884), _Olivia_--an adaptation of Goldsmith's _Vicar of
+Wakefield_ by W. G. Wills (1885); _Faust_ (1886); _Macbeth_ (1888): _The
+Dead Heart_, by Watts Phillips (1889); and _Ravenswood_--Herman
+Merivale's dramatic version of Scott's _Bride of Lammermoor_ (1890).
+Fine assumptions in 1892 of the characters of Wolsey in _Henry VIII._
+and of King Lear were followed in 1893 by a striking and dignified
+performance of Becket in Tennyson's play of that name. During these
+years too, Irving, with the whole Lyceum company, paid several visits to
+America, which met with conspicuous success, and were repeated in
+succeeding years. The chief remaining novelties at the Lyceum during
+Irving's sole managership (the theatre passed, at the beginning of 1899,
+into the hands of a limited liability company) were Comyns Carr's _King
+Arthur_ in 1895; _Cymbeline_, in which Irving played Iachimo, in 1896;
+Sardou's _Madame Sans-Gęne_ in 1897; _Peter the Great_, a play by
+Laurence Irving, the actor's second son, in 1898; and Conan Doyle's
+_Waterloo_ (1894). The new _régime_ at the Lyceum was signalized by the
+production of Sardou's _Robespierre_ in 1899, in which Irving reappeared
+after a serious illness, and in 1901 by an elaborate revival of
+_Coriolanus_. Irving's only subsequent production in London was Sardou's
+_Dante_ (1903), a vast spectacular drama, staged at Drury Lane. He died
+"on tour" at Bradford on the 13th of October 1905, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+Both on and off the stage Irving always maintained a high ideal of his
+profession, and in 1895 he received the honour of knighthood, the first
+ever accorded an actor. He was also the recipient of honorary degrees
+from the universities of Dublin, Cambridge and Glasgow. His acting,
+apart from his genius as a presenter of plays, divided criticism,
+opinions differing as to the extent to which his mannerisms of voice and
+deportment interfered with or assisted the expression of his ideas. So
+strongly marked a personality as his could not help giving its own
+colouring to whatever part he might assume, but the richness and
+originality of this colouring at its best cannot be denied, any more
+than the spirit and intellect which characterized his renderings. At the
+least, extraordinary versatility must be conceded to an actor who could
+satisfy exacting audiences in rôles so widely different as Digby Grant
+and Louis XI., Richard III. and Becket, Benedick and Shylock, Mathias
+and Dr Primrose.
+
+Sir Henry Irving had two sons, Harry Brodribb (b. 1870) and Laurence (b.
+1872). They were educated for other walks of life, the former for the
+bar, and the latter for the diplomatic service; but both turned to the
+stage, and the elder, who had already established himself as the most
+prominent of the younger English actors at the time of his father's
+death, went into management on his own account.
+
+
+
+
+IRVING, WASHINGTON (1783-1859), American man of letters, was born at New
+York on the 3rd of April 1783. Both his parents were immigrants from
+Great Britain, his father, originally an officer in the merchant
+service, but at the time of Irving's birth a considerable merchant,
+having come from the Orkneys, and his mother from Falmouth. Irving was
+intended for the legal profession, but his studies were interrupted by
+an illness necessitating a voyage to Europe, in the course of which he
+proceeded as far as Rome, and made the acquaintance of Washington
+Allston. He was called to the bar upon his return, but made little
+effort to practise, preferring to amuse himself with literary ventures.
+The first of these of any importance, a satirical miscellany entitled
+_Salmagundi, or the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Launcelot Langstaff and
+others_, written in conjunction with his brother William and J. K.
+Paulding, gave ample proof of his talents as a humorist. These were
+still more conspicuously displayed in his next attempt, _A History of
+New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch
+Dynasty_, by "Diedrich Knickerbocker" (2 vols., New York, 1809). The
+satire of _Salmagundi_ had been principally local, and the original
+design of "Knickerbocker's" _History_ was only to burlesque a
+pretentious disquisition on the history of the city in a guidebook by Dr
+Samuel Mitchell. The idea expanded as Irving proceeded, and he ended by
+not merely satirizing the pedantry of local antiquaries, but by creating
+a distinct literary type out of the solid Dutch burgher whose phlegm had
+long been an object of ridicule to the mercurial Americans. Though far
+from the most finished of Irving's productions, "Knickerbocker"
+manifests the most original power, and is the most genuinely national in
+its quaintness and drollery. The very tardiness and prolixity of the
+story are skilfully made to heighten the humorous effect.
+
+Upon the death of his father, Irving had become a sleeping partner in
+his brother's commercial house, a branch of which was established at
+Liverpool. This, combined with the restoration of peace, induced him to
+visit England in 1815, when he found the stability of the firm seriously
+compromised. After some years of ineffectual struggle it became
+bankrupt. This misfortune compelled Irving to resume his pen as a means
+of subsistence. His reputation had preceded him to England, and the
+curiosity naturally excited by the then unwonted apparition of a
+successful American author procured him admission into the highest
+literary circles, where his popularity was ensured by his amiable temper
+and polished manners. As an American, moreover, he stood aloof from the
+political and literary disputes which then divided England. Campbell,
+Jeffrey, Moore, Scott, were counted among his friends, and the
+last-named zealously recommended him to the publisher Murray, who, after
+at first refusing, consented (1820) to bring out _The Sketch Book of
+Geoffrey Crayon, Gent._ (7 pts., New York, 1819-1820). The most
+interesting part of this work is the description of an English
+Christmas, which displays a delicate humour not unworthy of the writer's
+evident model Addison. Some stories and sketches on American themes
+contribute to give it variety; of these Rip van Winkle is the most
+remarkable. It speedily obtained the greatest success on both sides of
+the Atlantic. _Bracebridge Hall, or the Humourists_ (2 vols., New York),
+a work purely English in subject, followed in 1822, and showed to what
+account the American observer had turned his experience of English
+country life. The humour is, nevertheless, much more English than
+American. _Tales of a Traveller_ (4 pts.) appeared in 1824 at
+Philadelphia, and Irving, now in comfortable circumstances, determined
+to enlarge his sphere of observation by a journey on the continent.
+After a long course of travel he settled down at Madrid in the house of
+the American consul Rich. His intention at the time was to translate the
+_Coleccion de los Viajes y Descubrimientos_ (Madrid, 1825-1837) of
+Martin Fernandez de Navarrete; finding, however, that this was rather a
+collection of valuable materials than a systematic biography, he
+determined to compose a biography of his own by its assistance,
+supplemented by independent researches in the Spanish archives. His
+_History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus_ (London, 4
+vols.) appeared in 1828, and obtained a merited success. _The Voyages
+and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus_ (Philadelphia, 1831)
+followed; and a prolonged residence in the south of Spain gave Irving
+materials for two highly picturesque books, _A Chronicle of the Conquest
+of Granada from the MSS. of_ [an imaginary] _Fray Antonio Agapida_ (2
+vols., Philadelphia, 1829), and _The Alhambra: a series of tales and
+sketches of the Moors and Spaniards_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1832).
+Previous to their appearance he had been appointed secretary to the
+embassy at London, an office as purely complimentary to his literary
+ability as the legal degree which he about the same time received from
+the university of Oxford.
+
+Returning to the United States in 1832, after seventeen years' absence,
+he found his name a household word, and himself universally honoured as
+the first American who had won for his country recognition on equal
+terms in the literary republic. After the rush of fętes and public
+compliments had subsided, he undertook a tour in the western prairies,
+and returning to the neighbourhood of New York built for himself a
+delightful retreat on the Hudson, to which he gave the name of
+"Sunnyside." His acquaintance with the New York millionaire John Jacob
+Astor prompted his next important work--_Astoria_ (2 vols.,
+Philadelphia, 1836), a history of the fur-trading settlement founded by
+Astor in Oregon, deduced with singular literary ability from dry
+commercial records, and, without laboured attempts at word-painting,
+evincing a remarkable faculty for bringing scenes and incidents vividly
+before the eye. _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville_ (London and
+Philadelphia, 1837), based upon the unpublished memoirs of a veteran
+explorer, was another work of the same class. In 1842 Irving was
+appointed ambassador to Spain. He spent four years in the country,
+without this time turning his residence to literary account; and it was
+not until two years after his return that Forster's life of Goldsmith,
+by reminding him of a slight essay of his own which he now thought too
+imperfect by comparison to be included among his collected writings,
+stimulated him to the production of his _Life of Oliver Goldsmith, with
+Selections from his Writings_ (2 vols., New York, 1849). Without
+pretensions to original research, the book displays an admirable talent
+for employing existing material to the best effect. The same may be said
+of _The Lives of Mahomet and his Successors_ (New York, 2 vols.,
+1849-1850). Here as elsewhere Irving correctly discriminated the
+biographer's province from the historian's, and leaving the
+philosophical investigation of cause and effect to writers of Gibbon's
+calibre, applied himself to represent the picturesque features of the
+age as embodied in the actions and utterances of its most characteristic
+representatives. His last days were devoted to his _Life of George
+Washington_ (5 vols., 1855-1859, New York and London), undertaken in an
+enthusiastic spirit, but which the author found exhausting and his
+readers tame. His genius required a more poetical theme, and indeed the
+biographer of Washington must be at least a potential soldier and
+statesman. Irving just lived to complete this work, dying of heart
+disease at Sunnyside, on the 28th of November 1859.
+
+Although one of the chief ornaments of American literature, Irving is
+not characteristically American. But he is one of the few authors of his
+period who really manifest traces of a vein of national peculiarity
+which might under other circumstances have been productive.
+"Knickerbocker's" _History of New York_, although the air of mock
+solemnity which constitutes the staple of its humour is peculiar to no
+literature, manifests nevertheless a power of reproducing a distinct
+national type. Had circumstances taken Irving to the West, and placed
+him amid a society teeming with quaint and genial eccentricity, he might
+possibly have been the first Western humorist, and his humour might have
+gained in depth and richness. In England, on the other hand, everything
+encouraged his natural fastidiousness; he became a refined writer, but
+by no means a robust one. His biographies bear the stamp of genuine
+artistic intelligence, equally remote from compilation and disquisition.
+In execution they are almost faultless; the narrative is easy, the style
+pellucid, and the writer's judgment nearly always in accordance with the
+general verdict of history. Without ostentation or affectation, he was
+exquisite in all things, a mirror of loyalty, courtesy and good taste in
+all his literary connexions, and exemplary in all the relations of
+domestic life. He never married, remaining true to the memory of an
+early attachment blighted by death.
+
+  The principal edition of Irving's works is the "Geoffrey Crayon,"
+  published at New York in 1880 in 26 vols. His _Life and Letters_ was
+  published by his nephew Pierre M. Irving (London, 1862-1864, 4 vols.;
+  German abridgment by Adolf Laun, Berlin, 1870, 2 vols.) There is a
+  good deal of miscellaneous information in a compilation entitled
+  _Irvingiana_ (New York, 1860); and W. C. Bryant's memorial oration,
+  though somewhat too uniformly laudatory, may be consulted with
+  advantage. It was republished in _Studies of Irving_ (1880) along with
+  C. Dudley Warner's introduction to the "Geoffrey Crayon" edition, and
+  Mr G. P. Putnam's personal reminiscences of Irving, which originally
+  appeared in the _Atlantic Monthly_. See also _Washington Irving_
+  (1881), by C. D. Warner, in the "American Men of Letters" series; H.
+  R. Haweis, _American Humourists_ (London, 1883).     (R. G.)
+
+
+
+
+IRVINGTON, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., bordering on the
+S.W. side of Newark. Pop. (1900) 5255, of whom 993 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 7180; (1910) 11,877. Irvington is served by the Lehigh Valley
+railroad and by electric railway to Newark. It is principally a
+residential suburb of Newark, but it has a small smelter (for gold and
+silver), and various manufactures, including textile working machinery,
+measuring rules and artisans' tools. There are large strawberry farms
+here. Irvington was settled near the close of the 17th century, and was
+called Camptown until 1852, when the present name was adopted in honour
+of Washington Irving. It was incorporated as a village in 1874, and as a
+town in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC (Hebrew for "he laughs," on explanatory references to the name,
+see ABRAHAM), the only child of Abraham and Sarah, was born when his
+parents were respectively a hundred and ninety years of age (Gen. xvii.
+17). Like his father, Isaac lived a nomadic pastoral life, but within
+much narrower local limits, south of Beersheba (Gen. xxvi., on the
+incidents here recorded, see ABIMELECH). After the death of his mother,
+when he was forty years old, he married Rebekah the Aramaean, by whom
+after twenty years of married life he became the father of Esau and
+Jacob. He died at the age of one hundred and eighty.[1] "Isaac" is used
+as a synonym for "Israel" by Amos (vii. 9, 16), who also bears witness
+to the importance of Beersheba as a sanctuary. It was in this district,
+at the well Beer-Lahai-roi, that Isaac dwelt (Gen. xxiv. 62, xxv. 11),
+and the place was famous for an incident in the life of Hagar (xvi. 14).
+This was perhaps the original scene of the striking episode "in the land
+of Moriah," when at the last moment he was by angelic interposition
+released from the altar on which he was about to be sacrificed by his
+father in obedience to a divine command (Gen. xxii).[2] The narrative
+(which must be judged with due regard to the conditions of the age)
+shows that the sacrifice of the first-born, though not inconsistent with
+Yahweh's claims (Ex. xxii. 29), was neither required nor tolerated (cp.
+Micah vi. 6-8). See MOLOCH.
+
+  Isaac is by general consent of the Christian church taken as a
+  representative of the unobtrusive, restful, piously contemplative type
+  of human character. By later Judaism, which fixed its attention
+  chiefly on the altar scene, he was regarded as the pattern and
+  prototype of all martyrs. The Mahommedan legends regarding him are
+  curious, but trifling.
+
+  The resemblance between incidents in the lives of Isaac and Abraham is
+  noteworthy; in each case Isaac appears to be the more original. See
+  further ISHMAEL, and note that the pair Isaac and Ishmael correspond
+  to Abraham and Lot, Jacob and Esau. On general questions, see E.
+  Meyer, _Israeliten_ (_Index_, s.v.). For attempts to find a
+  mythological interpretation of Isaac's life, see Goldziher, _Mythology
+  of the Hebrews_; Winckler, _Gesch. Israels_ (vol. ii.).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The stories, including the delightful history of the courting of
+    Rebekah by proxy, are due to the oldest narrators. The jarring
+    chronological notices belong to the post-exilic framework of the book
+    (see GENESIS).
+
+  [2] The name is hopelessly obscure, and the identification with the
+    mountain of the temple in Jerusalem rests upon a late view (2 Chron.
+    iii. 1). It is otherwise called "Yahweh-yir'eh" ("Y. sees") which is
+    analogous to "El-ro'i" ("a God of Seeing") in xvi. 13. See further
+    the commentaries.
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC I. (COMNENUS), emperor of the East (1057-1059), was the son of an
+officer of Basil II. named Manuel Comnenus, who on his deathbed
+commended his two sons Isaac and John to the emperor's care. Basil had
+them carefully educated at the monastery of Studion, and afterwards
+advanced them to high official positions. During the disturbed reigns of
+Basil's seven immediate successors, Isaac by his prudent conduct won the
+confidence of the army; in 1057 he joined with the nobles of the capital
+in a conspiracy against Michael VI., and after the latter's deposition
+was invested with the crown, thus founding the new dynasty of the
+Comneni. The first care of the new emperor was to reward his noble
+partisans with appointments that removed them from Constantinople, and
+his next was to repair the beggared finances of the empire. He revoked
+numerous pensions and grants conferred by his predecessors upon idle
+courtiers, and, meeting the reproach of sacrilege made by the patriarch
+of Constantinople by a decree of exile, resumed a proportion of the
+revenues of the wealthy monasteries. Isaac's only military expedition
+was against the Hungarians and Petchenegs, who began to ravage the
+northern frontiers in 1059. Shortly after this successful campaign he
+was seized with an illness, and believing it mortal appointed as his
+successor Constantine Ducas, to the exclusion of his own brother John.
+Although he recovered Isaac did not resume the purple, but retired to
+the monastery of Studion and spent the remaining two years of his life
+as a monk, alternating menial offices with literary studies. His
+_Scholia_ to the _Iliad_ and other works on the Homeric poems are still
+extant in MS. He died in the year 1061. Isaac's great aim was to restore
+the former strict organization of the government, and his reforms,
+though unpopular with the aristocracy and the clergy, and not understood
+by the people, certainly contributed to stave off for a while the final
+ruin of the Byzantine empire.
+
+  See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. J.
+  Bury, London, 1896, vol. v.); G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed.
+  1877, Oxford, vols. ii. and iii.).
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC II. (ANGELUS), emperor of the East 1185-1195, and again 1203-1204,
+was the successor of Andronicus I. He inaugurated his reign by a
+decisive victory over the Normans in Sicily, but elsewhere his policy
+was less successful. He failed in an attempt to recover Cyprus from a
+rebellious noble, and by the oppressiveness of his taxes drove the
+Bulgarians and Vlachs to revolt (1186). In 1187 Alexis Branas, the
+general sent against the rebels, treacherously turned his arms against
+his master, and attempted to seize Constantinople, but was defeated and
+slain. The emperor's attention was next demanded in the east, where
+several claimants to the throne successively rose and fell. In 1189
+Frederick Barbarossa of Germany sought and obtained leave to lead his
+troops on the third crusade through the Byzantine territory; but he had
+no sooner crossed the border than Isaac, who had meanwhile sought an
+alliance with Saladin, threw every impediment in his way, and was only
+compelled by force of arms to fulfil his engagements. The next five
+years were disturbed by fresh rebellions of the Vlachs, against whom
+Isaac led several expeditions in person. During one of these, in 1195,
+Alexius, the emperor's brother, taking advantage of the latter's absence
+from camp on a hunting expedition, proclaimed himself emperor, and was
+readily recognised by the soldiers. Isaac was blinded and imprisoned in
+Constantinople. After eight years he was raised for six months from his
+dungeon to his throne once more (see CRUSADES). But both mind and body
+had been enfeebled by captivity, and his son Alexius IV. was the actual
+monarch. Isaac died in 1204, shortly after the usurpation of his
+general, Mourzouphles. He was one of the weakest and most vicious
+princes that occupied the Byzantine throne. Surrounded by a crowd of
+slaves, mistresses and flatterers, he permitted his empire to be
+administered by unworthy favourites, while he squandered the money wrung
+from his provinces on costly buildings and expensive gifts to the
+churches of his metropolis.
+
+  See Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_ (ed. J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. vi.);
+  G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. iii. and iv.).
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC OF ANTIOCH, "one of the stars of Syriac literature,"[1] the
+reputed author of a large number of metrical homilies,[2] many of which
+are distinguished by an originality and acumen rare among Syriac
+writers. As to the identity and history of the author considerable
+difficulty has arisen. The statements of ancient writers, Eastern and
+Western, were collected by Assemani (_B.O._ i. 207-214). According to
+these accounts Isaac flourished under Theodosius II. (408-450),[3] and
+was a native either of Amid (Diarbekr) or of Edessa. Several writers
+identify him with Isaac, the disciple of S. Ephraim, who is mentioned in
+the anonymous _Life_ of that father; but according to the patriarch Bar
+Shushan (d. 1073), who made a collection of his homilies, his master was
+Ephraim's disciple Zenobius. He is supposed to have migrated to Antioch,
+and to have become abbot of one of the convents in its neighbourhood.
+According to Zacharias Rhetor he visited Rome and other cities, and the
+chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre informs us that he composed
+poems on the secular games of 404, and wrote on the destruction of Rome
+by Alaric in 410. He also commemorated the destruction of Antioch by an
+earthquake in 459, so that he must have lived till about 460.
+Unfortunately these poems have perished. He is of course to be
+distinguished from Isaac of Nineveh, a Nestorian writer on the ascetic
+life who belongs to the second half of the 7th century.[4]
+
+  When we examine the collection of homilies attributed to Isaac, a
+  difficulty arises on two grounds. (1) The author of some of the poems
+  is fervently orthodox or Catholic (see especially Nos. 1-3 in
+  Bickell's edition = 62-64 in Bedjan), in other and more important
+  homilies (such as Bickell 6, 8 = Bedjan 59, 61, and especially Bedjan
+  60) the doctrine is monophysite, even though Eutyches and Nestorius
+  are equally condemned. (2) One of the monophysite homilies, the famous
+  poem of 2136 lines on the parrot which uttered the Trisagion in the
+  streets of Antioch (Bickell, 8 = Bedjan 61), appears to have been
+  written at Antioch after Peter the Fuller (patriarch 471-488) raised
+  the dispute about the addition to the doxology of the words _qui
+  crucifixus es pro nobis_. It is therefore scarcely possible that the
+  author of this homily should be the same who composed the lost poems
+  on the secular games in 404 and on the sack of Rome.
+
+  Moreover, Lamy (_S. Ephraemi hymni et sermones_, iv. 361-364) and
+  Bedjan (_Homiliae S. Isaaci_, i. pp. iv-ix) have recently called
+  attention to statements made by Jacob of Edessa (708) in a letter to
+  John the Stylite. He says there were three Isaacs who wrote in
+  Syriac:--two orthodox (i.e. monophysite), and one a Chalcedonian
+  heretic (i.e. orthodox or Catholic). (a) The first, he says, a native
+  of Amid, and pupil of S. Ephraim, visited Rome in the time of Arcadius
+  (395-408), on his return journey suffered imprisonment at Byzantium,
+  and afterwards became a priest in the church of Amid. (b) The second
+  was a priest of Edessa, and flourished in the reign of Zeno (474-491).
+  He went up to Antioch in the time of Peter the Fuller. Jacob then
+  tells the story of the parrot (see above). (c) The third was also an
+  Edessene. At first in the days of Bishop Paul (510-522) he was
+  orthodox (monophysite): but afterwards in the time of the Chalcedonian
+  (Catholic) bishop Asclepius he became Nestorian (Catholic) and wrote
+  poems setting forth Nestorian doctrine.
+
+  With such conflicting evidence it is impossible to arrive at a certain
+  result. But Jacob is an early witness: and on the whole it seems safe
+  to conclude with Bedjan (p. ix) that works by at least two authors
+  have been included in the collection attributed to Isaac of Antioch.
+  Still the majority of the poems are the work of one hand--the
+  5th-century monophysite who wrote the poem on the parrot.[5] A full
+  list[6] of the 191 poems existing in European MSS. is given by
+  Bickell, who copied out 181 with a view to publishing them all: the
+  other 10 had been previously copied by Zingerle. But the two volumes
+  published by Bickell in his lifetime (Giessen, 1873 and 1877) contain
+  only 37 homilies. Bedjan's edition, of which the first volume has
+  alone appeared (Paris, 1903) contains 67 poems, viz. 24 previously
+  published (18 by Bickell), and 43 that are new, though their titles
+  are all included in Bickell's list.
+
+The writer's main interest lies in the application of religion to the
+practical duties of life, whether in the church or in the world. He has
+a great command of forcible language and considerable skill in apt
+illustration. The zeal with which he denounces the abuses prevalent in
+the church of his day, and particularly in the monastic orders, is not
+unlike that of the Protestant reformers. He shows acquaintance with many
+phases of life. He describes the corruption of judges, the prevalence of
+usury and avarice, the unchastity which especially characterized the
+upper classes, and the general hypocrisy of so-called Christians. His
+doctrinal discussions are apt to be diffuse; but he seldom loses sight
+of the bearing of doctrine on practical life. He judges with extreme
+severity those who argue about religion while neglecting its practice,
+and those who though stupid and ignorant dare to pry into mysteries
+which are sealed to the angels. "Not newly have we found Him, that we
+should search and pry into God. As He was He is: He changeth not with
+the times.... Confess that He formed thee of dust: search not the mode
+of His being: Worship Him that He redeemed thee by His only Son: inquire
+not the manner of His birth."[7]
+
+  Some of Isaac's works have an interest for the historian of the 5th
+  century. In two poems (Bickell 11, 12 = Bedjan 48, 49), written
+  probably at Edessa, he commemorates the capture of Beth-Hur (a city
+  near Nisibis) by the Arabs. Although the historical allusions are far
+  from clear, we gather that Beth-Hur, which in zealous paganism had
+  been a successor to Haran, had been in earlier days devastated by the
+  Persians:[8] but for the last 34 years the Persians had themselves
+  suffered subjection.[9] And now had come a flood of Arab invaders,
+  "sons of Hagar," who had swept away the city and carried all its
+  inhabitants captive. From these two poems, and from the 2nd homily on
+  Fasting (Bickell 14 = Bedjan 17) we gain a vivid picture of the
+  miseries borne by the inhabitants of that frontier region during the
+  wars between Persia and the Romano-Greek empire. There are also
+  instructive references to the heathen practices and the worship of
+  pagan deities (such as Baalti, Uzzi, Gedlath and the planet Venus)
+  prevalent in Mesopotamia. Two other poems (Bickell 35, 36 = Bedjan 66,
+  67), written probably at Antioch,[10] describe the prevalence of
+  sorcery and the extraordinary influence possessed by "Chaldeans" and
+  enchanters over women who were nominally Christians.
+
+  The metre of all the published homilies is heptasyllabic.     (N. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] W. Wright, _Short Hist. of Syr. Lit._ p. 51.
+
+  [2] The fullest list, by G. Bickell, contains 191 which are extant in
+    MSS.
+
+  [3] The trustworthy _Chronicle of Edessa_ gives his date as 451-452
+    (Hallier, No. lxvii.); and the recently published _Chronicle_ of
+    Michael the Syrian makes him contemporary with Nonus, who became the
+    31st bishop of Edessa in 449.
+
+  [4] The date of Isaac of Nineveh is now known from the _Liber
+    fundatorum_ of Isho'-denah, an 8th-century writer; see Bedjan's
+    edition, and Chabót, _Livre de la chasteté_, p. 63. Assemani (_B.O._
+    i. 445) had placed him late in the 6th century, and Chabót (_De S.
+    Isaaci Ninivitae vita_, &c.) in the second half of the 5th.
+
+  [5] Lamy (_op. cit._ iv. 364-366) has pointed out that several of the
+    poems are in certain MSS. attributed to Ephraim. Possibly the author
+    of the orthodox poems was not named Isaac at all.
+
+  [6] Assemani's list of 104 poems (_B.O._ i. 214-234) is completely
+    covered by Bickell's.
+
+  [7] From a really noble poem (Bedjan 60) on the problem whether _God_
+    suffered and died on the cross.
+
+  [8] Possibly in the war at the beginning of the reign of Bahram V.:
+    but on the uncertainty see Nöldeke, _Gesch. d. Perser und Araber_,
+    117.
+
+  [9] Probably at the hands of the Hephthalites or White Huns of
+    Kushan: cf. Isaac's mention of the Huns in 1. 420 of the 1st poem.
+
+  [10] The author refers to the weeping for Tammuz (1. 125 of the 1st
+    poem), and speaks of his city as illustrious throughout the world
+    (ib. 1. 132).
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA (1451-1504), surnamed _la Catolica_, "the Catholic," queen of
+Castile, was the second child and only daughter of John II. of Castile
+by his second wife Isabella, granddaughter of John I. of Portugal (thus
+being through both parents a descendant of John of Gaunt), and was born
+at Madrigal on the 22nd of April 1451. On the death of her father, who
+was succeeded by her brother Henry IV. (1454), she was withdrawn by her
+mother to Arevalo, where her early education was conducted in the
+deepest seclusion; in 1462, however, along with her uterine brother
+Alphonso, she was removed by Henry to the court, where she showed a
+remarkable example of staidness and sobriety. Already more than one
+suitor had made application for her hand, Ferdinand of Aragon, who
+ultimately became her husband, being among the number; for some little
+time she was engaged to his elder brother Charles, who died in 1461. In
+her thirteenth year her brother promised her in marriage to Alphonso of
+Portugal, but she firmly refused to consent; her resistance seemed less
+likely to be effectual in the case of Pedro Giron, grand master of the
+order of Calatrava and brother of the marquis of Villena, to whom she
+was next affianced, when she was delivered from her fears by the sudden
+death of the bridegroom while on his way to the nuptials in 1466. After
+an offer of the crown of Castile, made by the revolutionary leaders in
+the civil war, had been declined by her, she was in 1468 formally
+recognized by her brother as lawful heir, after himself, to the united
+crowns of Castile and Leon. New candidates for her hand now appeared in
+the persons of a brother of Edward IV. of England (probably Richard,
+duke of Gloucester), and the duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XI., and
+heir presumptive of the French monarchy. Finally however, in face of
+very great difficulties, she was married to Ferdinand of Aragon at
+Valladolid on the 19th of October 1469. Thence forward the fortunes of
+Ferdinand and Isabella were inseparably blended. For some time they held
+a humble court at Dueńas, and afterwards they resided at Segovia, where,
+on the death of Henry, she was proclaimed queen of Castile and Leon
+(December 13, 1474). Spain undoubtedly owed to Isabella's clear
+intellect, resolute energy and unselfish patriotism much of that
+greatness which for the first time it acquired under "the Catholic
+sovereigns." The moral influence of the queen's personal character over
+the Castilian court was incalculably great; from the debasement and
+degradation of the preceding reign she raised it to being "the nursery
+of virtue and of generous ambition." She did much for letters in Spain
+by founding the palace school and by her protection of Peter Martyr
+d'Anghiera. The very sincerity of her piety and strength of her
+religious convictions led her more than once, however, into great errors
+of state policy, and into more than one act which offends the moral
+sense of a more refined age: her efforts for the introduction of the
+Inquisition into Castile, and for the proscription of the Jews, are
+outstanding evidences of what can only be called her bigotry. But not
+even the briefest sketch of her life can omit to notice that happy
+instinct or intuition which led her, when all others had heard with
+incredulity the scheme of Columbus, to recall the wanderer to her
+presence with the words, "I will assume the undertaking for my own crown
+of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray the expenses of it,
+if the funds in the treasury should be found inadequate." She died at
+Medina del Campo on the 24th of November 1504, and was succeeded by her
+daughter Joanna "la loca" (the "Crazy") and her husband, Philip of
+Habsburg.
+
+  See W. H. Prescott, _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_
+  (1837), where the original authorities are exhaustively enumerated;
+  and for later researches, Baron de Nervo, _Isabella the Catholic_,
+  translated by Lieut.-Col. Temple-West (1897).
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA II. (1830-1904), queen of Spain, was born in Madrid on the 10th
+of October 1830. She was the eldest daughter of Ferdinand VII., king of
+Spain, and of his fourth wife, Maria Christina, a Neapolitan Bourbon,
+who became queen-regent on 29th September 1833, when her daughter, at
+the age of three years, was proclaimed on the death of the king. Queen
+Isabella succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII. induced the
+Cortes to assist him in setting aside the Salic law, which the Bourbons
+had introduced since the beginning of the 18th century, and to
+re-establish the older succession law of Spain. The brother of
+Ferdinand, Don Carlos, the first pretender, fought seven years, during
+the minority of Isabella, to dispute her title, and her rights were only
+maintained through the gallant support of the army, the Cortes and the
+Liberals and Progressists, who at the same time established
+constitutional and parliamentary government, dissolved the religious
+orders, confiscated the property of the orders and of the Jesuits,
+disestablished the Church property, and attempted to restore order in
+finances. After the Carlist war the queen-regent, Christina, resigned to
+make way for Espartero, the most successful and most popular general of
+the Isabelline armies, who only remained regent two years. He was turned
+out in 1843 by a military and political _pronunciamiento_, led by
+Generals O'Donnell and Narvaez, who formed a cabinet, presided over by
+Joaquin Maria Lopez, and this government induced the Cortes to declare
+Isabella of age at thirteen. Three years later the Moderado party or
+Castilian Conservatives made their queen marry, at sixteen, her cousin,
+Prince Francisco de Assisi de Bourbon (1822-1902), on the same day (10th
+October 1846) on which her younger sister married the duke of
+Montpensier. These marriages suited the views of France and Louis
+Philippe, who nearly quarrelled in consequence with Great Britain; but
+both matches were anything but happy. Queen Isabella reigned from 1843
+to 1868, and that period was one long succession of palace intrigues,
+back-stairs and ante-chamber influences, barrack conspiracies, military
+_pronunciamientos_ to further the ends of the political
+parties--Moderados, who ruled from 1846 to 1854, Progressists from 1854
+to 1856, Union Liberal from 1856 to 1863; Moderados and Union Liberal
+quickly succeeding each other and keeping out the Progressists so
+steadily that the seeds were sown which budded into the revolution of
+1868. Queen Isabella II. often interfered in politics in a wayward,
+unscrupulous manner that made her very unpopular. She showed most favour
+to her reactionary generals and statesmen, to the Church and religious
+orders, and was constantly the tool of corrupt and profligate courtiers
+and favourites who gave her court a deservedly bad name. She went into
+exile at the end of September 1868, after her Moderado generals had made
+a slight show of resistance that was crushed at the battle of Alcolea by
+Marshals Serrano and Prim. The only redeeming traits of Queen Isabella's
+reign were a war against Morocco, which ended in an advantageous treaty
+and some cession of territory; some progress in public works, especially
+railways; a slight improvement in commerce and finance. Isabella was
+induced to abdicate in Paris on 25th June 1870 in favour of her son,
+Alphonso XII., and the cause of the restoration was thus much furthered.
+She had separated from her husband in the previous March. She continued
+to live in France after the restoration in 1874. On the occasion of one
+of her visits to Madrid during Alphonso XII.'s reign she began to
+intrigue with the politicians of the capital, and was peremptorily
+requested to go abroad again. She died on the 10th of April 1904.
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA, ISABEAU, or ELIZABETH OF BAVARIA (1370-1435), wife of Charles
+VI. of France, was the daughter of Stephen II., duke of Bavaria. She was
+born in 1370, was married to Charles VI. on the 17th of July 1385, and
+crowned at Paris on the 22nd of August 1389. After some years of happy
+married life she fell under the influence of the dissolute court in
+which she lived, and the king having become insane (August 1392) she
+consorted chiefly with Louis of Orleans. Frivolous, selfish, avaricious
+and fond of luxury, she used her influence, during the different periods
+when she was invested with the regency, not for the public welfare, but
+mainly in her own personal interest. After the assassination of the duke
+of Orleans (November 23, 1407) she attached herself sometimes to the
+Armagnacs, sometimes to the Burgundians, and led a scandalous life.
+Louis de Bosredon, the captain of her guards, was executed for
+complicity in her excesses; and Isabella herself was imprisoned at Blois
+and afterwards at Tours (1417). Having been set free towards the end of
+that year by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, whom she had called to
+her assistance, she went to Troyes and established her government there,
+returning afterwards to Paris when that city had capitulated to the
+Burgundians in July 1418. Once more in power, she now took up arms
+against her son, the dauphin Charles; and after the murder of John the
+Fearless she went over to the side of the English, into whose hands she
+surrendered France by the treaty of Troyes (May 21, 1420), at the same
+time giving her daughter Catherine in marriage to the king of England,
+Henry V. After her triumphal entry into Paris with the latter she soon
+became an object of loathing to the whole French nation. She survived
+her husband, her son-in-law, and eight out of her twelve children, and
+she passed the last miserable years of her life in poverty, solitude and
+ill-health. She died at the end of September 1435, and was interred
+without funeral honours in the abbey of St Denis, by the side of her
+husband, Charles VI.
+
+  See Vallet de Viriville, _Isabeau de Bavičre_ (1859); Marcel Thibault,
+  _Isabeau de Bavičre, Reine de France, La Jeunesse, 1370-1405_ (1903).
+       (J. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA OF HAINAUT (1170-1190), queen of France, was the daughter of
+Baldwin V., count of Hainaut, and Margaret, sister of Philip of Alsace,
+and was born in 1170 at Lille. She was married to Philip Augustus, and
+brought to him as her dowry the province of Artois. She was crowned at
+St Denis on the 29th of May 1180. As Baldwin V. claimed to be a
+descendant of Charlemagne, the chroniclers of the time saw in this
+marriage a union of the Carolingian and Capetian dynasties. Though she
+received extravagant praise from certain annalists, she failed to win
+the affections of Philip, who, in 1184, waging war against Flanders, was
+angered at seeing Baldwin support his enemies, and called a council at
+Sens for the purpose of repudiating her. Robert, the king's uncle,
+successfully interposed. She died in childbirth in 1190, and was buried
+in the church of Notre Dame in Paris. Her son became Louis VIII. of
+France.
+
+  See Cartellieri, "L'Avčnement de Phil. Aug." in _Rev. hist._ liii. 262
+  et seq.
+
+
+
+
+ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767-1855), French painter, was born at Nancy on
+the 11th of April 1767. At nineteen, after some lessons from Dumont,
+miniature painter to Marie Antoinette, he became a pupil of David.
+Employed at Versailles on portraits of the dukes of Angoulęme and Berry,
+he was given a commission by the queen, which opens the long list of
+those which he received, up to the date of his death in 1855, from the
+successive rulers of France. Patronized by Josephine and Napoleon, he
+arranged the ceremonies of their coronation and prepared drawings for
+the publication intended as its official commemoration, a work for which
+he was paid by Louis XVIII., whose portrait (engraved, Debucourt) he
+executed in 1814. Although Isabey did homage to Napoleon on his return
+from Elba, he continued to enjoy the favour of the Restoration, and took
+part in arrangements for the coronation of Charles X. The monarchy of
+July conferred on him an important post in connexion with the royal
+collections, and Napoleon III. granted him a pension, and the cross of
+commander of the Legion of Honour. "Review of Troops by the First
+Consul" was one of his most important compositions, and "Isabey's
+Boat,"--a charming drawing of himself and family--produced at a time
+when he was much occupied with lithography--had an immense success at
+the Salon of 1820 (engraved, Landon, _Annales_, i. 125). His portrait of
+"Napoleon at Malmaison" is held to be the best ever executed, and even
+his tiny head of the king of Rome, painted for a breast-pin, is
+distinguished by a decision and breadth which evidence the hand of a
+master.
+
+  A biography of Isabey was published by M. E. Taigny in 1859, and M. C.
+  Lenormant's article, written for Michaud's _Biog. univ._, is founded
+  on facts furnished by Isabey's family.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 14, Slice 7, by Various
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 14, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 7
+       "Ireland" to "Isabey, Jean Baptiste"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39775]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XIV SLICE VII<br /><br />
+Ireland to Isabey, Jean Baptiste</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">IRELAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">IRONWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">IRELAND, CHURCH OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">IRON-WOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">IRENAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">IRONY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">IRENE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">IROQUOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">IRETON, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">IRRAWADDY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">IRIARTE Y OROPESA, TOMÁS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">IRREDENTISTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">IRIDACEAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">IRRIGATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">IRIDIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">IRULAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">IRIGA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">IRUN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">IRIS</a> (Greek mythology)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">IRVINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">IRIS</a> (botany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">IRVING, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">IRISH MOSS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">IRVING, SIR HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">IRKUTSK</a> (government of Russia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">IRVING, WASHINGTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">IRKUTSK</a> (Russian town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">IRVINGTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">IRMIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ISAAC</a> (child of Abraham)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">IRNERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ISAAC I.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">IRON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ISAAC II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">IRON AGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ISAAC OF ANTIOCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">IRON AND STEEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ISABELLA</a> (queen of Castile)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">IRON MASK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ISABELLA II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">IRON MOUNTAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ISABELLA</a> (wife of Charles VI)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">IRONSIDES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ISABELLA OF HAINAUT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">IRONTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">IRELAND,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> an island lying west of Great Britain, and forming
+with it the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It
+extends from 51° 26&prime; to 55° 21&prime; N., and from 5° 25&prime; to 10° 30&prime; W.
+It is encircled by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the east is separated
+from Great Britain by narrow shallow seas, towards the north
+by the North Channel, the width of which at the narrowest part
+between the Mull of Cantire (Scotland) and Torr Head is only
+13˝ m.; in the centre by the Irish Sea, 130 m. in width, and in
+the south by St George&rsquo;s Channel, which has a width of 69 m.
+between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales) and of 47 m. at its
+southern extremity. The island has the form of an irregular
+rhomboid, the largest diagonal of which, from Torr Head in the
+north-east to Mizen Head in the south-west, measures 302 m.
+The greatest breadth due east and west is 174 m., from Dundrum
+Bay to Annagh Head, county Mayo; and the average breadth
+is about 110 m. The total area is 32,531 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span></p>
+
+<p>Ireland is divided territorially into four provinces and thirty-two
+counties:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) <i>Ulster</i> (northern division): Counties Antrim,
+Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry,
+Monaghan, Tyrone. (<i>b</i>) <i>Leinster</i> (eastern midlands and south-east):
+Counties Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King&rsquo;s
+County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen&rsquo;s County, Westmeath,
+Wexford, Wicklow. (<i>c</i>) <i>Connaught</i> (western midlands): Counties
+Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo. (<i>d</i>) <i>Munster</i> (south-western
+division): Counties Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick,
+Tipperary, Waterford.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>&mdash;Ireland stands on the edge of the
+European &ldquo;continental shelf.&rdquo; Off the peninsula of Mullet
+(county Mayo) there are 100 fathoms of water within 25 m. of
+the coast which overlooks the Atlantic; eastward, northward and
+southward, in the narrow seas, this depth is never reached.
+The average height of the island is about 400 ft., but the distribution
+of height is by no means equal. The island has no spinal
+range or dominating mountain mass. Instead, a series of small,
+isolated clusters of mountains, reaching from the coast to an
+extreme distance of some 70 m. inland, almost surrounds a great
+central plain which seldom exceeds 250 ft. in elevation. A
+physical description of Ireland, therefore, falls naturally under
+three heads&mdash;the coasts, the mountain rim and the central plain.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The capital city and port of Dublin lies a little south of the central
+point of the eastern coast, at the head of a bay which marks a
+sudden change in the coastal formation. Southward from
+its northern horn, the rocky headland of Howth, the coast
+<span class="sidenote">Coasts.</span>
+is generally steep, occasionally sheer, and the mountains of county
+Wicklow approach it closely. Northward (the direction first to be
+followed) it is low, sandy and fringed with shoals, for here is one
+point at which the central plain extends to the coast. This condition
+obtains from 53° 25&prime; N. until at 54° N. the mountains close
+down again, and the narrow inlet or fjord of Carlingford Lough
+separates the abrupt heights of the Carlingford and Mourne Mountains.
+Then the low and sandy character is resumed; the fine eastward
+sweep of Dundrum Bay is passed, the coast turns north again,
+and a narrow channel gives entry to the island-studded lagoon of
+Strangford Lough. Reaching county Antrim, green wooded hills
+plunge directly into the sea; the deep Belfast Lough strikes some
+10 m. inland, and these conditions obtain nearly to Fair Head, the
+north-eastern extremity of the island. Here the coast turns westward,
+changing suddenly to sheer cliffs, where the basaltic formation
+intrudes its strange regular columns, most finely developed in the
+famous Giant&rsquo;s Causeway.</p>
+
+<p>The low land surrounding the plain-track of the Bann intervenes
+between this and the beginning of a coastal formation which is
+common to the north-western and western coasts. From the oval
+indentation of Lough Foyle a bluff coast trends north-westward to
+Malin Head, the northernmost promontory of the island. Thence
+over the whole southward stretch to Mizen Head in county Cork
+is found that physical appearance of a cliff-bound coast fretted with
+deep fjord-like inlets and fringed with many islands, which throughout
+the world is almost wholly confined to western seaboards.
+Mountains impinge upon the sea almost over the whole length,
+sometimes, as in Slieve League (county Donegal), immediately
+facing it with huge cliffs. Eight dominant inlets appear. Lough
+Foyle is divided from Lough Swilly by the diamond-shaped peninsula
+of Inishowen. Following the coast southward, Donegal Bay is
+divided from Galway Bay by the hammer-like projection of county
+Mayo and Connemara, the square inlet of Clew Bay intervening.
+At Galway Bay the mountain barrier is broken, where the great
+central plain strikes down to the sea as it does on the east coast north
+of Dublin. After the stern coast of county Clare there follow the
+estuary of the great river Shannon, and then three large inlets
+striking deep into the mountains of Kerry and Cork&mdash;Dingle Bay,
+Kenmare river and Bantry Bay, separating the prongs of the forklike
+south-western projection of the island. The whole of this coast
+is wild and beautiful, and may be compared with the west coast of
+Scotland and even that of Norway, though it has a strong individuality
+distinct from either; and though for long little known to
+travellers, it now possesses a number of small watering-places, and
+is in many parts accessible by railway. The islands though numerous
+are not as in Scotland and Norway a dominant feature of the coast,
+being generally small and often mere clusters of reefs. Exceptions,
+however, are Tory Island and North Aran off the Donegal coast,
+Achill and Clare off Mayo, the South Arans guarding Galway Bay,
+the Blasquets and Valencia off the Kerry coast. On many of these
+desolate rocks, which could have afforded only the barest sustenance,
+there are remains of the dwellings and churches of early religious
+settlers who sought solitude here. The settlements on Inishmurray
+(Sligo), Aranmore in the South Arans, and Scattery in the Shannon
+estuary, had a fame as retreats of piety and learning far outside
+Ireland itself, and the significance of a pilgrimage to their sites is not
+yet wholly forgotten among the peasantry, while the preservation
+of their remains has come to be a national trust.</p>
+
+<p>The south coast strikes a mean between the east and the west.
+It is lower than the west though still bold in many places; the
+inlets are narrower and less deep, but more easily accessible, as
+appears from the commercial importance of the harbours of Cork
+and Waterford. Turning northward to the east of Waterford round
+Carnsore Point, the lagoon-like harbour of Wexford is passed, and
+then a sweeping, almost unbroken, line continues to Dublin Bay.
+But this coast, though differing completely from the western, is not
+lacking in beauty, for, like the Mournes in county Down, the mountains
+of Wicklow rise close to the sea, and sometimes directly from it.</p>
+
+<p>Every mountain group in Ireland forms an individual mass,
+isolated by complex systems of valleys in all directions. They
+seldom exceed 3000 ft. in height, yet generally possess a
+certain dignity, whether from their commanding position
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+or their bold outline. Every variety of form is seen, from steep
+flat-topped table-mountains as near Loughs Neagh and Erne, to
+peaks such as those of the Twelve Pins or Bens of Connemara.
+Unlike the Scottish Highlands no part of them was capable of
+sheltering a whole native race in opposition to the advance of
+civilization, though early customs, tradition and the common use of
+the Erse language yet survive in some strength in the wilder parts
+of the west. From the coasts there is almost everywhere easy access
+to the interior through the mountains by valley roads; and though
+the plain exists unbroken only in the midlands, its ramifications
+among the hills are always easy to follow. Plain and lowland of an
+elevation below 500 ft. occupy nearly four-fifths of the total area;
+and if the sea were to submerge these, four distinct archipelagos
+would appear, a northern, eastern, western and south-western.
+The principal groups, with their highest points, are the Mournes
+(Slieve Donard, 2796 ft.) and the Wicklow mountains (Lugnaquilla,
+3039) on the east; the Sperrins (Sawel, 2240) in the north; the
+Derryveagh group in the north-west (Errigal, 2466); the many
+groups or short ranges of Sligo, Mayo and Galway (reaching 1695 ft.
+in the Twelve Pins of Connemara); in the south-west those of
+Kerry and Cork, where in Carrantuohill or Carntual (3414) the
+famous Macgillicuddy Reeks which beautify the environs of Killarney
+include the highest point in the island; and north-east from these,
+the Galtees of Tipperary (3018) and Slieve Bloom, the farthest
+inland of the important groups. Nearer the south coast are the
+Knockmealdown (2609) and Commeragh Mountains (2470) of county
+Waterford.</p>
+
+<p>It will be realized from the foregoing description that it is impossible
+to draw accurate boundary lines to the great Irish plain,
+yet it rightly carries the epithet central because it distinctly
+divides the northern mountain groups from the
+<span class="sidenote">Central plain.</span>
+southern. The plain is closely correlated with the bogs
+which are the best known physical characteristic of Ireland, but the
+centre of Ireland is not wholly bog-land. Rather the bogs of the
+plain are intersected by strips of low-lying firm ground, and the
+central plain consists of these bright green expanses alternating
+with the brown of the bogs, of which the best known and (with its
+offshoots) one of the most extensive is the Bog of Allen in the
+eastern midlands. But the bogs are not confined to the plain.
+They may be divided into black and red according to the degree of
+moisture and the vegetable matter which formed them. The black
+bogs are those of the plain and the deeper valleys, while the red,
+firmer and less damp, occur on the mountains. The former supply
+most of the peat, and some of the tree-trunks dug out of them
+have been found so flexible from immersion that they might be
+twisted into ropes. Owing to the quantity of tannin they contain,
+no harmful miasma exhales from the Irish bogs.</p>
+
+<p>The central plain and its offshoots are drained by rivers to all
+the coasts, but chiefly eastward and westward, and the water-partings
+in its midst are sometimes impossible to define.
+The main rivers, however, have generally a mountain
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+source, and according as they are fed from bogs or springs may be
+differentiated as black and bright streams. In this connexion the
+frequent use of the name Blackwater is noticeable. The principal
+rivers are&mdash;from the Wicklow Mountains, the Slaney, flowing S. to
+Wexford harbour, and the Liffey, flowing with a tortuous course
+N. and E. to Dublin Bay; the Boyne, fed from the central plain
+and discharging into Drogheda Bay; from the mountains of county
+Down, the Lagan, to Belfast Lough, and the Bann, draining the
+great Lough Neagh to the northern sea; the Foyle, a collection of
+streams from the mountains of Tyrone and Donegal, flowing north
+to Lough Foyle. On the west the rivers are generally short and
+torrential, excepting the Erne, which drains the two beautiful
+loughs of that name in county Fermanagh, and the Shannon, the
+chief river of Ireland, which, rising in a mountain spring in county
+Cavan, follows a bow-shaped course to the south and south-west,
+and draws off the major part of the waters of the plain by tributaries
+from the east. In the south, the Lee and the Blackwater intersect
+the mountains of Kerry and Cork flowing east, and turn abruptly
+into estuaries opening south. Lastly, rising in the Slieve Bloom
+or neighbouring mountains, the Suir, Nore and Barrow follow
+widely divergent courses to the south to unite in Waterford
+harbour.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span></p>
+
+<p>The lakes (called loughs&mdash;pronounced <i>lochs</i>) of Ireland are innumerable,
+and (apart from their formation) are almost all contained
+in two great regions, (1) The central plain by its nature
+abounds in loughs&mdash;dark, peat-stained pools with low
+<span class="sidenote">Lakes</span>
+shores. The principal of these lie in county Westmeath, such as
+Loughs Ennel, Owel and Derravaragh, famed for their trout-fishing
+in the May-fly season. (2) The Shannon, itself forming several
+large loughs, as Allen, Ree and Derg; and the Erne, whose course
+lies almost wholly through loughs&mdash;Gowna, Oughter and the
+Loughs Erne, irregular of outline and studded with islands&mdash;separate
+this region from the principal lake-region of Ireland, coincident
+with the province of Connaught. In the north lie Loughs Melvin,
+close above Donegal Bay, and Gill near Sligo, Lough Gara, draining
+to the Shannon, and Lough Conn near Ballina (county Mayo), and
+in the south, the great expanses of Loughs Mask and Corrib, joined
+by a subterranean channel. To the west of these last, the mountains
+of Connemara and, to a more marked degree, the narrow plain of
+bog-land between them and Galway Bay, are sown with small lakes,
+nearly every hollow of this wild district being filled with water.
+Apart from these two regions the loughs of Ireland are few but
+noteworthy. In the south-west the lakes of Killarney are widely
+famed for their exquisite scenic setting; in the north-east Lough
+Neagh has no such claim, but is the largest lake in the British Isles,
+while in the south-east there are small loughs in some of the
+picturesque glens of county Wicklow.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate of Ireland is more equable than that
+of Great Britain as regards both temperature and rainfall.
+No district in Ireland has a rainfall so heavy as that of large
+portions of the Highlands of Scotland, or so light as that of several
+large districts in the east of Great Britain. In January the mean
+temperature scarcely falls below 40° F. in any part of Ireland,
+whereas over the larger part of the eastern slope of Great Britain
+it is some 3° lower; and in July the extremes in Ireland are
+59° in the north and 62° in Kilkenny. The range from north
+to south of Great Britain in the same month is some 10°, but
+the greater extent of latitude accounts only for a part of this
+difference, which is mainly occasioned by the physical configuration
+of the surface of Ireland in its relations to the prevailing
+moist W.S.W. winds. Ireland presents to these winds no
+unbroken mountain ridge running north and south, which would
+result in two climates as distinct as those of the east and west
+of Ross-shire; but it presents instead only a series of isolated
+groups, with the result that it is only a few limited districts which
+enjoy climates approaching in dryness the climates of the whole
+of the eastern side of Great Britain.</p>
+<div class="author">(O. J. R. H.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Ireland, rising from shallow seas on the margin of the
+submarine plateau of western Europe, records in its structure the
+successive changes that the continent itself has undergone. The
+first broad view of the country shows us a basin-shaped island
+consisting of a central limestone plain surrounded by mountains;
+but the diverse modes of origin of these mountains, and the differences
+in their trend, suggest at once that they represent successive
+epochs of disturbance. The north-west highlands of Donegal and
+the Ox Mountains, with their axes of folding running north-east and
+south-west, invite comparison with the great chain of Leinster,
+but also with the Grampians and the backbone of Scandinavia.
+The ranges from Kerry to Waterford, on the other hand, truncated
+by the sea at either end, are clearly parts of an east and west system,
+the continuation of which may be looked for in South Wales and
+Belgium. The hills of the north-east are mainly the crests of lava-plateaux,
+which carry the mind towards Skye and the volcanic
+province of the Faeroe Islands. The two most important points of
+contrast between the geology of Ireland and that of England are,
+firstly, the great exposure of Carboniferous rocks in Ireland,
+Mesozoic strata being almost absent; and, secondly, the presence
+of volcanic rocks in place of the marine Eocene of England.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that no Cambrian strata have been established by
+palaeontological evidence in the west of Ireland has made it equally
+difficult to establish any pre-Cambrian system. The great difference
+in character, however, between the Silurian strata at Pomeroy in
+county Tyrone and the adjacent metamorphic series makes it highly
+probable that the latter masses are truly Archean. They form an
+interesting and bleak moorland between Cookstown and Omagh,
+extending north-eastward into Slieve Gallion in county Londonderry,
+and consist fundamentally of mica-schist and gneiss, affected
+by earth-pressures, and invaded by granite near Lough Fee. The
+axis along which they have been elevated runs north-east and
+south-west, and on either flank a series of &ldquo;green rocks&rdquo; appears,
+consisting of altered amygdaloidal andesitic lavas, intrusive dolerites,
+coarse gabbros and diorites, and at Beagh-beg and Creggan in
+central Tyrone ancient rhyolitic tuffs. Red and grey cherts, which
+have not so far yielded undoubted organic remains occur in this
+series, and it has in consequence been compared with the Arenig
+rocks of southern Scotland. The granite invades this &ldquo;green-rock&rdquo;
+series at Slieve Gallion and elsewhere, but is itself pre-Devonian.
+Even if the volcanic and intrusive basic rocks prove
+to be Ordovician (Lower Silurian), which is very doubtful, the
+metamorphic series of the core is clearly distinct, and appears to be
+&ldquo;fundamental&rdquo; so far as Ireland is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The other metamorphic areas of the north present even greater
+difficulties, owing to the absence of any overlying strata older than
+the Old Red Sandstone. Their rocks have been variously held to
+be Archean, Cambrian and Silurian, and their general trend has
+undoubtedly been determined by post-Silurian earth-movements.
+Hence it is useful to speak of them merely as &ldquo;Dalradian,&rdquo; a convenient
+term invented by Sir A. Geikie for the metamorphic series
+of the old kingdom of Dalriada. They come out as mica-schists
+under the Carboniferous sandstones of northern Antrim, and disappear
+southward under the basaltic plateaux. The red gneisses
+near Torr Head probably represent intrusive granite; and this
+small north-eastern exposure is representative of the Dalradian series
+which covers so wide a field from central Londonderry to the coast
+of Donegal. The oldest rocks in this large area are a stratified series
+of mica-schists, limestones and quartzites, with numerous intrusive
+sheets of diorite, the whole having been metamorphosed by pressure,
+with frequent overfolding. Extensive subsequent metamorphism
+has been produced by the invasion of great masses of granite.
+Similar rocks come up along the Ox Mountain axis, and occupy the
+wild west of Mayo and Connemara. The quartzites here form bare
+white cones and ridges, notably in Errigal and Aghla Mt. in county
+Donegal, and in the group of the Twelve Bens in county Galway.</p>
+
+<p>Following on these rocks of unknown but obviously high antiquity,
+we find fossiliferous Ordovician (Lower Silurian) strata near
+Killary harbour on the west, graduating upwards into a complete
+Gotlandian (Upper Silurian) system. Massive conglomerates occur
+in these series, which are unconformable on the Dalradian rocks of
+Connemara. In the Wenlock beds of the west of the Dingle promontory
+there are contemporaneous tuffs and lavas. Here the
+Ludlow strata are followed by a thick series of barren beds (the
+Dingle Beds), which have been variously claimed as Upper Silurian
+and Lower Devonian. No certain representative of the Dingle
+Beds has been traced elsewhere throughout the south of Ireland,
+where the Old Red Sandstone succeeds the uptilted Silurian strata
+with striking unconformity. The Silurian rocks were indeed greatly
+folded before the Old Red Sandstone was laid down, the general
+trend of the folds being from south-west to north-east. The best
+example of these folds is the axis of Leinster, its core being occupied
+by granite which is now exposed continuously for 70 m., forming
+a moorland from Dublin to New Ross. On either flank the Silurian
+shales, slates and sandstones, which are very rarely fossiliferous,
+rise with steep dips. They are often contorted, and near the contact
+with the granite pass into mica-schists and quartzites. The foothills
+and lowlands throughout southern Wicklow and almost the whole
+of Wexford, and the corresponding country of western Wicklow
+and eastern Kildare, are thus formed of Silurian beds, in which
+numerous contemporaneous and also intrusive igneous rocks are
+intercalated, striking like the chain N.E. and S.W. In south-eastern
+Wexford, in northern Wicklow (from Ashford to Bray),
+and in the promontory of Howth on Dublin Bay, an apparently
+earlier series of green and red slates and quartzites forms an important
+feature. The quartzites, like those of the Dalradian series,
+weather out in cones, such as the two Sugarloaves south of Bray,
+or in knob-set ridges, such as the crest of Howth or Carrick Mt.
+in county Wicklow. The radial or fan-shaped markings known as
+<i>Oldhamia</i> were first detected in this series, but are now known
+from Cambrian beds in other countries; in default of other satisfactory
+fossils, the series of Bray and Howth has long been held
+to be Cambrian.</p>
+
+<p>All across Ireland, from the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border
+to the southern shore of Belfast Lough, slaty and sandy Silurian
+beds appear in the axes of the anticlinal folds, surrounded by Old
+Red Sandstone scarps or Carboniferous Limestone lowlands. These
+Silurian areas give rise to hummocky regions, where small hills
+abound, without much relation to the trend of the axis of elevation.
+The most important area appears north of the town of Longford, and
+extends thence to the coast of Down. In Slieve Glah it reaches a
+height of 1057 ft. above the sea. Granite is exposed along its axis
+from near Newry to Slieve Croob, and again appears at Crossdoney
+in county Cavan. These occurrences of granite, with that of
+Leinster, in connexion with the folding of the Silurian strata, make
+it highly probable that many of the granites of the Dalradian areas,
+which have a similar trend and which have invaded the schists so
+intimately as to form with them a composite gneiss, date also from
+a post-Silurian epoch of earth-movement. Certain western and
+northern granites are however older, since granite boulders occur
+in Silurian conglomerates derived from the Dalradian complex.</p>
+
+<p>This group of N.E. and S.W. ridges and hollows, so conspicuous
+in the present conformation of Donegal, Sligo and Mayo, in the
+axis of Newry, and in the yet bolder Leinster Chain, was impressed
+upon the Irish region at the close of Silurian times, and is clearly
+a part of the &ldquo;Caledonian&rdquo; system of folds, which gave to Europe
+the guiding lines of the Scottish Highlands and of Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:599px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img744a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<div><img style="width:850px; height:612px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img744c.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img744b.jpg">(Click to enlarge top section.)</a><br />
+<a href="images/img744d.jpg">(Click to enlarge bottom section.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2">On the land-surface thus formed the Devonian lakes gathered,
+while the rivers poured into them enormous deposits of sand and
+conglomerate. A large exposure of this Old Red Sandstone stretches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
+from Enniskillen to the Silurian beds at Pomeroy, and some contemporaneous
+andesites are included, reminding us of the volcanic
+activity at the same epoch in Scotland. The numerous &ldquo;felstone&rdquo;
+dikes, often lamprophyric, occurring in the north and west of
+Ireland, are probably also of Devonian age. The conglomerates
+appear at intervals through the limestone covering of central Ireland,
+and usually weather out as conspicuous scarps or &ldquo;hog&rsquo;s-backs.&rdquo;
+The Slieve Bloom Mountains are thus formed of a dome of Old
+Red Sandstone folded on a core of unconformable Silurian strata;
+while in several cases the domes are worn through, leaving rings of
+Old Red Sandstone hills, scarping inwards towards broad exposures
+of Silurian shales. The Old Red Sandstone is most fully manifest
+in the rocky or heather-clad ridges that run from the west of Kerry
+to central Waterford, rising to 3414 ft. in Carrantuohill in Macgillicuddy&rsquo;s
+Reeks, and 3015 ft. in Galtymore. In the Dingle Promontory
+the conglomerates of this period rest with striking unconformity
+on the Dingle Beds and Upper Silurian series. Here there
+may be a local break between Lower and Upper Devonian strata.
+The highest beds of Old Red Sandstone type pass up conformably
+in the south of Ireland into the Lower Carboniferous, through the
+&ldquo;Yellow Sandstone Series&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Coomhola Grits&rdquo; above it.
+The Yellow Sandstone contains <i>Archanodon</i>, the oldest known
+fresh-water mollusc, and plant-remains; the Coomhola Grits are
+marine, and are sometimes regarded as Carboniferous, sometimes as
+uppermost Devonian.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:527px; height:823px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img745.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the south, the Carboniferous deposits open with the Carboniferous
+Slate, in the base of which the Coomhola Grits occur. Its
+lower part represents the Lower Carboniferous Shales and Sandstones
+of the central and northern areas, while its upper part corresponds
+with a portion of the Carboniferous Limestone. The Carboniferous
+Limestone, laid down in a sea which covered nearly the whole
+Irish area, appears in the synclinal folds at Cork city and Kenmare,
+and is the prevalent rock from the north side of the Knockmealdown
+Mountains to Enniskillen and Donegal Bay. On the east it spreads to
+Drogheda and Dublin, and on the west to the heart of Mayo and of
+Clare. Loughs Mask and Corrib are thus bounded on the west by
+rugged Silurian and Dalradian highlands, and on the east appear as
+mere water-filled hollows in the great limestone plain.</p>
+
+<p>The Lower Carboniferous Sandstones are conspicuous in the
+region from Milltown near Inver Bay in southern Donegal to Ballycastle
+in county Antrim. In the latter place they contain workable
+coal-seams. The Carboniferous Limestone often contains black
+flint (chert), and at some horizons conglomerates occur, the pebbles
+being derived from the unconformable ridges of the &ldquo;Caledonian&rdquo;
+land. A black and often shaly type called &ldquo;calp&rdquo; contains much
+clay derived from the same land-surface. While the limestone has
+been mainly worn down to a lowland, it forms fine scarps and table-lands
+in county Sligo and other western regions. Subterranean
+rivers and water-worn caves provide a special type of scenery
+below the surface. Contemporaneous volcanic action is recorded
+by tuffs and lavas south-east of Limerick and north of Philipstown.
+The beds above the limestone are shales and sandstones, sometimes
+reaching the true Coal-Measures, but rarely younger than the English
+Millstone Grit. They are well seen in the high ground about Lough
+Allen, where the Shannon rises on them, round the Castlecomer and
+Killenaule coalfields, and in a broad area from the north of Clare
+to Killarney. Some coals occur in the Millstone Grit horizons. The
+Upper Coal-Measures, as a rule, have been lost by denudation, much
+of which occurred before Triassic times. South of the line between
+Galway and Dublin the coal is anthracitic, while north of this line it
+is bituminous. The northern coalfields are the L. Carboniferous one
+at Ballycastle, the high outliers of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures
+round Lough Allen, and the Dungannon and Coalisland field in
+county Tyrone. The last named is in part concealed by Triassic
+strata. The only important occurrences of coal in the south are in
+eastern Tipperary, near Killenaule, and in the Leinster coalfield
+(counties Kilkenny and Carlow and Queen&rsquo;s County), where there
+is a high synclinal field, including Lower and Middle Coal-Measures,
+and resembling in structure the Forest of Dean area in England.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Hercynian&rdquo; earth-movements, which so profoundly
+affected north-west and north-central Europe at the close of Carboniferous
+times, gave rise to a series of east and west folds in the Irish
+region. The Upper Carboniferous beds were thus lifted within easy
+reach of denuding forces, while the Old Red Sandstone, and the underlying
+&ldquo;Caledonian&rdquo; land-surface, were brought up from below in the
+cores of domes and anticlines. In the south, even the Carboniferous
+Limestone has been so far removed that it is found only in the floors
+of the synclinals. The effect of the structure of these folds on the
+courses of rivers in the south of Ireland is discussed in the paragraphs
+dealing with the geology of county Cork. The present central
+plain itself may be regarded as a vast shallow synclinal, including a
+multitude of smaller folds. The earth-wrinkles of this epoch were
+turned into a north-easterly direction by the pre-existing Leinster
+Chain, and the trend of the anticlinal from Limerick to the Slieve
+Bloom Mountains, and that of the synclinal of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measures
+from Cashel through the Leinster coalfield, bear witness
+to the resistance of this granite mass. The Triassic beds rest on the
+various Carboniferous series in turn, indicating, as in England, the
+amount of denudation that followed on the uplift of the Hercynian
+land. Little encouragement can therefore be given in Ireland to the
+popular belief in vast hidden coalfields.</p>
+
+<p>The Permian sea has left traces at Holywood on Belfast Lough and
+near Stewartstown in county Tyrone. Certain conglomeratic beds
+on which Armagh is built are also believed to be of Permian age.
+The Triassic sandstones and marls, with marine Rhaetic beds above,
+are preserved mainly round the basaltic plateaus of the north-east,
+and extend for some distance into county Down. An elongated
+outlier south of Carrickmacross indicates their former presence over
+a much wider area. Rock-salt occurs in these beds north of Carrickfergus.</p>
+
+<p>The Jurassic system is represented in Ireland by the Lower Lias
+alone, and it is probable that no marine beds higher than the Upper
+Lias were deposited during this period. From Permian times onward,
+in fact, the Irish area lay on the western margin of the seas
+that played so large a part in determining the geology of Europe.
+The Lower Lias appears at intervals under the scarp of the basaltic
+plateaus, and contributes, as in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, to the
+formation of landslips along the coast. The alteration of the fossiliferous
+Lias by dolerite at Portrush into a flinty rock that looked
+like basalt served at one time as a prop for the &ldquo;Neptunist&rdquo; theory
+of the origin of igneous rocks. Denudation, consequent on the
+renewed uplift of the country, affected the Jurassic beds until the
+middle of Cretaceous times. The sea then returned, in the north-east
+at any rate, and the first Cretaceous deposits indicate the nearness of
+a shore-line. Dark &ldquo;green-sands,&rdquo; very rich in glauconite, are
+followed by yellow sandstones with some flint. These two stages
+represent the Upper Greensand, or the sandy type of the English
+Gault. Further sands represent the Cenomanian. The Turonian
+is also sandy, but in most areas was not deposited, or has been denuded
+away during a local uplift that preceded Senonian times. The
+Senonian limestone itself, which rests in the extreme north on Trias
+or even on the schists, is often conglomeratic and glauconitic at the
+base, the pebbles being worn from the old metamorphic series.
+The term &ldquo;Hibernian Greensand&rdquo; was used by Tate for all the beds
+below the Senonian; the quarrymen know the conglomeratic
+Senonian as &ldquo;Mulatto-stone.&rdquo; The Senonian chalk, or &ldquo;White
+Limestone,&rdquo; is hard, with numerous bands of flint, and suffered from
+denudation in early Eocene times. Probably its original thickness
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+was not more than 150 ft., while now only from 40 to 100 ft.
+remain. This chalk appears to underlie nearly the whole basaltic
+plateaus, appearing as a fringe round them, and also in an inlier at
+Templepatrick. The western limit was probably found in the edge
+of the old continental land in Donegal. Chalk flints occur frequently
+in the surface-deposits of the south of Ireland, associated with rocks
+brought from the north during the glacial epoch, and probably also of
+northern origin. It is just possible, however, that here and there the
+Cretaceous sea that spread over Devonshire may have penetrated
+the Irish area.</p>
+
+<p>After the Irish chalk had been worn into rolling downs, on which
+flint-gravels gathered, the great epoch of volcanic activity opened,
+which was destined to change the character of the whole north-west
+European area. The critical time had arrived when the sea was to
+be driven away eastward, while the immense ridges due to the
+&ldquo;Alpine&rdquo; movements were about to emerge as the backbones of
+new continental lands. Fissure after fissure, running with remarkable
+constancy N.W. and S.E., broke through the region now occupied
+by the British Isles, and basalt was pressed up along these cracks,
+forming thousands of dikes, from the coast of Down to the Dalradian
+ridges of Donegal. One of these on the north side of Lough Erne
+is 15 m. long. The more deep-seated type of these rocks is seen in
+the olivine-gabbro mass of Carlingford Mountain; but most of the
+igneous region became covered with sheets of basaltic lava, which
+filled up the hollows of the downs, baked the gravels into a layer of
+red flints, and built up, pile upon pile, the great plateaus of the north.
+There was little explosive action, and few of the volcanic vents can
+now be traced. After a time, a quiet interval allowed of the formation
+of lakes, in which red iron-ores were laid down. The plant-remains
+associated with these beds form the only clue to the post-Cretaceous
+period in which the volcanic epoch opened, and they have
+been placed by Mr Starkie Gardner in recent years as early Eocene.
+During this time of comparative rest, rhyolites were extruded locally
+in county Antrim; and there is very strong evidence that the granite
+of the Mourne Mountains, and that which cuts the Carlingford gabbro,
+were added at the same time to the crust. The basalt again broke
+out, through dikes that cut even the Mourne granite, and some of the
+best-known columnar masses of lava overlie
+the red deposits of iron-ore and mark this
+second basaltic epoch. The volcanic plateaus
+clearly at one time extended far west and
+south of their present limits, and the denudation
+of the lava-flows has allowed a large
+area of Mesozoic strata also to disappear.</p>
+
+<p>Volcanic activity may have extended into
+Miocene times; but the only fossiliferous
+relics of Cainozoic periods later than the
+Eocene are the pale clays and silicified
+lignites on the south shore of Lough Neagh,
+and the shelly gravels of pre-glacial age in county Wexford.
+Both these deposits may be Pliocene. Probably before this period
+the movements of subsidence had set in which faulted the basalt
+plateaus, lowered them to form the basin of Lough Neagh, and
+broke up the continuity of the volcanic land of the North Atlantic
+area. As the Atlantic spread into the valleys on the west of Ireland,
+forming the well-known marine inlets, Europe grew, under the
+influence of the &ldquo;Alpine&rdquo; movements, upon the east; and Ireland
+was caught in, as it were, on the western edge of the new continent.
+It seems likely that it was separated from the British region shortly
+before the glacial epoch, and that some of the ice which then abutted
+on the country travelled across shallow seas. The glacial deposits
+profoundly modified the surface of the country, whether they
+resulted from the melting of the ice-sheets of the time of maximum
+glaciation, or from the movements of local glaciers. Boulder-clays
+and sands, and gravels rearranged by water, occur throughout the
+lowlands; while the eskers or &ldquo;green hills,&rdquo; characteristic grass-covered
+ridges of gravel, rise from the great plain, or run athwart
+valleys and over hill-sides, marking the courses of sub-glacial
+streams. When the superficial deposits are removed, the underlying
+rocks are found to be scored and smoothed by ice-action, and whole
+mountain-sides in the south and west have been similarly moulded
+during the Glacial epoch. In numerous cases, lakelets have gathered
+under rocky cirques behind the terminal moraines of the last surviving
+glaciers.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that at this epoch various movements of elevation
+and subsidence affected the north-west of Europe, and modern
+Ireland may have had extensions into warmer regions on the west
+and south, while the area now left to us was almost buried under ice.
+In post-Glacial times, a subsidence admitted the sea into the Lagan
+valley and across the eastern shore in several places; but elevation,
+in the days of early human occupation, brought these last marine
+deposits to light, and raised the beaches and shore-terraces some
+10 to 20 ft. along the coast. At Larne, Greenore and in the neck
+between Howth and Dublin, these raised beaches remain conspicuous.
+To sum up, then, while the main structural features of Ireland were
+impressed upon her before the opening of the Mesozoic era, her
+present outline and superficial contours date from an epoch of
+climatic and geographical change which falls within the human
+period.</p>
+
+<p>See maps and explanatory memoirs of the <i>Geological Survey of
+Ireland</i> (Dublin); G. Wilkinson, <i>Practical Geology and Ancient
+Architecture of Ireland</i> (London, 1845); R. Kane, <i>Industrial Resources
+of Ireland</i> (2nd ed., Dublin, 1845); G. H. Kinahan, <i>Manual of the
+Geology of Ireland</i> (London, 1878); E. Hull, <i>Physical Geology and
+Geography of Ireland</i> (2nd ed., London, 1891); G. H. Kinahan,
+<i>Economic Geology of Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1889); A. McHenry and W. W.
+Watts, <i>Guide to the Collection of Rocks and Fossils, Geol. Survey of
+Ireland</i> (2nd ed., Dublin, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. A. J. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Economics and Administration</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;Various computations are in existence of the
+population of Ireland prior to 1821, in which year the first government
+census was taken. According to Sir William Petty the
+number of inhabitants in 1672 was 1,320,000. About a century
+later the tax-collectors estimated the population at a little over
+2,500,000, and in 1791 the same officials calculated that the
+number had risen to over 4,200,000. The census commissioners
+returned the population in 1821 as 6,801,827, in 1831 as 7,767,401,
+and in 1841 as 8,196,597. It is undoubted that a great increase
+of population set in towards the close of the 18th century and
+continued during the first 40 years or so of the 19th. This
+increase was due to a variety of causes&mdash;the improvement in the
+political condition of the country, the creation of leaseholds
+after the abolition of the 40s. franchise, the productiveness and
+easy cultivation of the potato, the high prices during the war
+with France, and probably not least to the natural prolificness of
+the Irish people. But the census returns of 1851 showed a
+remarkable alteration&mdash;a decrease during the previous decade
+of over 1,500,000&mdash;and since that date, as the following table
+shows, the continuous decrease in the number of its inhabitants
+has been the striking feature in the vital statistics of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Decrease per cent. of Population 1841-1901.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1841-1851.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1851-1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1861-1871.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1871-1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1881-1891.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891-1901.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Leinster</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.86</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munster</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.98</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ulster</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Connaught</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9.59</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">Ireland</td> <td class="tcc allb">19.85</td> <td class="tcc allb">11.50</td> <td class="tcc allb">6.67</td> <td class="tcc allb">4.69</td> <td class="tcc allb">9.08</td> <td class="tcc allb">5.3</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The cause of the continuous though varying decrease which
+these figures reveal has been emigration. This movement of
+population took its first great impulse from the famine of 1846
+and has continued ever since. When that disaster fell upon the
+country it found a teeming population fiercely competing for a
+very narrow margin of subsistence; and so widespread and
+devastating were its effects that between 1847 and 1852 over
+1,200,000 of the Irish people emigrated to other lands. More
+than 1,000,000 of these went to the United States of America,
+and to that country the main stream has ever since been directed.
+Between 1851 and 1905 4,028,589 emigrants left Ireland&mdash;2,092,154
+males and 1,936,435 females, the proportion of females
+to males being extraordinarily high as compared with the
+emigration statistics of other countries. Between these years the
+numbers fluctuated widely&mdash;1852 showing the highest total,
+190,322 souls, and 1905 the lowest, 30,676 souls. Since 1892,
+however, the emigrants in any one year have never exceeded
+50,000, probably because the process of exhaustion has been so
+long in operation. As Ireland is mainly an agricultural country
+the loss of population has been most marked in the rural districts.
+The urban population, indeed, has for some years shown a
+tendency to increase. Thus in 1841 the rural population was
+returned as 7,052,923 and the urban as 1,143,674, while the
+corresponding figures in 1901 were respectively 3,073,846 and
+1,384,929. This is further borne out by the percentages
+given in the above table, from which it will be seen that
+the greatest proportional decrease of population has occurred
+in the two provinces of Munster and Connaught, which may
+be regarded as almost purely agricultural. That the United
+States remained the great centre of attraction for Irish emigrants
+is proved by the returns for 1905, which show that
+nearly 80% of the whole number for the year sailed for
+that country. Ireland does little to swell the rising tide of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span>
+emigration that now flows from England and Scotland to
+British North America.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to the census figures of 1901, we find that the
+population had diminished as compared with 1891 by 245,975.
+During the decade only three counties, Dublin, Down and
+Antrim, showed any increase, the increase being due to the
+growth of certain urban areas. Of the total population of
+4,458,775, 2,200,040 were males and 2,258,735 were females.
+The inhabitants of the rural districts (3,073,846) decreased
+during the decade by over 380,000; that of the urban districts,
+<i>i.e.</i> of all towns of not less than 2000 inhabitants (1,384,929)
+increased by over 140,000. This increase was mainly due to
+the growth of a few of the larger towns, notably of Belfast, the
+chief industrial centre of Ireland. Between 1891 and 1901
+Belfast increased from 273,079 to 349,180; Dublin from 268,587
+to 289,108; and Londonderry, another industrial centre in
+Ulster, from 33,200 to 39,873. On the other hand, towns like
+Cork (75,978), Waterford (26,743) and Limerick (38,085),
+remained almost stationary during the ten years, but the urban
+districts of Pembroke and of Rathmines and Rathgar, which
+are practically suburbs of Dublin, showed considerable
+increases.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>From the returns of occupation in 1901, it appears that the
+indefinite or non-productive class accounted for about 55% of the
+entire population. The next largest class was the agricultural,
+which numbered 876,062, a decrease of about 40,000 as compared
+with 1891. The industrial class fell from 656,410 to 639,413, but
+this represented a slight increase in the percentage of the population.
+The professional class was 131,035, the domestic 219,418, and the
+commercial had risen from 83,173 in 1891 to 97,889 in 1901. The
+following table shows the number of births and deaths registered
+in Ireland during the five years 1901-1905.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Births.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Deaths.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">100,976</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,119</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">101,863</td> <td class="tcc rb">77,676</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">101,831</td> <td class="tcc rb">77,358</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">103,811</td> <td class="tcc rb">79,513</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">102,832</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75,071</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The number of illegitimate births is always very small in proportion
+to the legitimate. In 1905 illegitimate births numbered 2710 or 2.6 of
+the whole, a percentage which has been very constant for a number
+of years.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Railways.</i>&mdash;The first act of parliament authorizing a railway
+in Ireland was passed in 1831. The railway was to run from
+Dublin to Kingstown, a distance of about 6 m., and was opened
+in 1834. In 1836 the Ulster railway to connect Belfast and
+Armagh, and the Dublin and Drogheda railway uniting these
+two towns were sanctioned. In the same year commissioners
+were nominated by the crown to inquire (<i>inter alia</i>) as to a
+general system for railways in Ireland, and as to the best mode
+of directing the development of the means of intercourse to the
+channels whereby the greatest advantage might be obtained by
+the smallest outlay. The commissioners presented a very
+valuable report in 1838, but its specific recommendations were
+never adopted by the government, though they ultimately
+proved of service to the directors of private enterprises. Railway
+development in Ireland progressed at first very slowly and by
+1845 only some 65 m. of railway were open. During the next
+ten years, however, there was a considerable advance, and in
+1855 the Irish railways extended to almost 1000 m. The total
+authorized capital of all Irish railways, exclusive of light railways,
+at the end of 1905 was Ł42,881,201, and the paid-up capital,
+including loans and debenture stock, amounted to Ł37,238,888.
+The total gross receipts from all sources of traffic in 1905 were
+Ł4,043,368, of which Ł2,104,108 was derived from passenger
+traffic and Ł1,798,520 from goods traffic. The total number of
+passengers carried (exclusive of season and periodical ticket-holders)
+was 27,950,150. Under the various acts passed to
+facilitate the construction of light railways in backward districts
+some 15 lines have been built, principally in the western part
+of the island from Donegal to Kerry. These railways are worked
+by existing companies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following table shows the principal Irish railways, their
+mileage and the districts which they serve.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Name of Railway.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Mileage.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Districts Served.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Great Southern &amp; Western</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">1083</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The southern half of Leinster, the whole of Munster, and part of Connaught,
+the principal towns served being Dublin, Cork, Waterford, Limerick and Sligo.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Midland Great Western</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">538</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The central districts of Ireland and a great part of Connaught, the principal
+towns served being Dublin, Athlone, Galway and Sligo.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Great Northern</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">533</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The northern half of Leinster and a great part of Ulster, the principal
+towns served being Dublin, Belfast, Londonderry, Dundalk, Drogheda,
+Armagh and Lisburn.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Northern Counties<span class="sp">1</span> (now owned by the Midland Railway of England)</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">249</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Antrim, Tyrone and Londonderry.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Dublin &amp; South Eastern<span class="sp">2</span></p></td> <td class="tcr rb">161</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford and Waterford.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Donegal</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Tyrone and Donegal.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Londonderry &amp; Lough Swilly</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Londonderry and Donegal.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><p>Cork, Bandon &amp; South Coast</p></td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb"><p>The counties of Cork and Kerry.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"><p>Belfast &amp; County Down</p></td> <td class="tcr rb bb">76</td>
+ <td class="tcl rb bb"><p>The county of Down.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<span class="sp">1</span> Formerly Belfast and Northern Counties.<br />
+
+&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<span class="sp">2</span> Formerly Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">There is no lack of cross-channel services between Ireland and
+Great Britain. Belfast is connected by daily sailings with Glasgow,
+Ardrossan, Liverpool, Feetwood, Barrow and Heysham Harbour,
+Dublin with Holyhead and Liverpool, Greenore (Co. Down) with
+Holyhead, Larne (Co. Antrim) with Stranraer, Rosslare (Co. Wexford)
+with Fishguard and Kingstown (Co. Dublin) with Holyhead.</p>
+
+<p><i>Navigable Waterways.</i>&mdash;Ireland is intersected by a network of
+canals and waterways, which if efficiently managed and developed
+would prove of immense service to the country by affording a cheap
+means for the carriage of goods, especially agricultural produce.
+Two canals&mdash;the Grand and the Royal&mdash;connect Dublin with the
+Shannon; the former leading from the south of Dublin to Shannon
+Harbour and thence on the other side of that river to Ballinasloe,
+with numerous branches; the latter from the north side of Dublin
+to Cloondera on the Shannon, with a branch to Longford. The
+Barrow Navigation connects a branch of the Grand canal with the
+tidal part of the river Barrow. In Ulster the Bann navigation
+connects Coleraine, by means of Lough Neagh, with the Lagan
+navigation which serves Belfast; and the Ulster canal connects
+Lough Neagh with Lough Erne. The river Shannon is navigable for
+a distance of 143 m. in a direct course and occupies almost a central
+position between the east and west coasts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;Ireland possesses as a whole a soil which is
+naturally fertile and easily cultivated. Strong heavy clay soils,
+sandy and gravelly soils, are almost entirely absent; and the
+mixture of soil arising from the various stratifications and from
+the detritus carried down to the plains has created many districts
+of remarkable richness. The &ldquo;Golden Vein&rdquo; in Munster, which
+stretches from Cashel in Tipperary to near Limerick, probably
+forms the most fertile part of the country. The banks of the
+rivers Shannon, Suir, Nore, Barrow and Bann are lined with long
+stretches of flat lands capable of producing fine crops. In the
+districts of the Old and New Red Sandstone, which include the
+greater part of Cork and portions of Kerry, Waterford, Tyrone,
+Fermanagh, Monaghan, Mayo and Tipperary, the soil in the
+hollows is generally remarkably fertile. Even in the mountainous
+districts which are unsuitable for tillage there is often sufficient
+soil to yield, with the aid of the moist atmosphere, abundant
+pasturage of good quality. The excessive moisture in wet
+seasons in however hostile to cereal crops, especially in the
+southern and western districts, though improved drainage has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span>
+done something to mitigate this evil, and might do a great deal
+more.</p>
+
+<p>Irish political history has largely affected the condition of
+agriculture. Confiscations and settlements, prohibitive laws
+(such as those which ruined the woollen industry), penal enactments
+against the Roman Catholics, absenteeism, the creation
+for political purposes of 40s. freeholders, and other factors have
+combined to form a story which makes painful reading from
+whatever point of view, social or political, it be regarded.
+Happily, however, at the beginning of the 20th century Irish
+agriculture presented two new features which can be described
+without necessarily arousing any party question&mdash;the work of
+the Department of Agriculture and the spread of the principle
+of co-operation. Another outstanding feature has been the effect
+of the Land Purchase Acts in transferring the ownership of the
+land from the landlords to the tenants. Before dealing with
+these three features, some general statistics may be given
+bearing upon the condition of Irish agriculture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Number of Holdings.</i>&mdash;Before 1846 the number of small holdings
+was inordinately large. In 1841, for example, there were no less than
+310,436 of between 1 and 5 acres in extent, and 252,799 of between
+5 and 15 acres. This condition of affairs was due mainly to two
+causes&mdash;to the 40s. franchise which prevailed between 1793 and
+1829, and after that date to the fierce competition for land by a
+rapidly increasing population which had no other source of livelihood
+than agriculture. But the potato famine and the repeal
+of the Corn Laws, occurring almost simultaneously,
+caused an immediate and startling diminution in the
+number of smaller holdings. In 1851 the number
+between 1 and 5 acres in extent had fallen to 88,033
+and the number between 5 and 15 acres had fallen
+to 191,854. Simultaneously the number between 15
+and 30 acres had increased from 79,342 to 141,311,
+and the number above 30 acres from 48,625 to 149,090.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1851 these tendencies have not been so
+marked. Thus in 1905 the number of holdings between
+1 and 5 acres was 62,126, the number between 5 and 15
+acres 154,560, the number between 15 and 30 acres 134,370 and
+the number above 30 acres 164,747. Generally speaking, however,
+it will be seen from the figures that since the
+middle of the 19th century holdings between
+1 and 30 acres have decreased and holdings
+over 30 acres have increased. Of the total
+holdings under 30 acres considerably more
+than one-third are in Ulster, and of the holdings
+over 30 acres more than one-third are in
+Munster. The number of holdings of over 500
+acres is only 1526, of which 475 are in Connaught.
+A considerable proportion, however, of these
+larger holdings, especially in Connaught, consist of more or less
+waste land, which at the best can only be used for raising a few
+sheep.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tillage and Pasturage.</i>&mdash;The fact that probably about 1,000,000
+acres formerly under potatoes went out of cultivation owing to the
+potato disease in 1847 makes a comparison between the figures for
+crops in that year with present figures somewhat fallacious. Starting,
+however, with that year as the most important in Irish economic
+history in modern times, we find that between 1847 and 1905 the
+total area under crops&mdash;cereals, green crops, flax, meadow and clover&mdash;decreased
+by 582,348 acres. Up to 1861, as the area formerly
+under potatoes came back gradually into cultivation, the acreage
+under crops increased; but since that year, when the total crop area
+was 5,890,536 acres, there has been a steady and gradual decline,
+the area in 1905 having fallen to 4,656,227 acres. An analysis of the
+returns shows that the decline has been most marked in the acreage
+under cereal crops, especially wheat. In 1847 the number of acres
+under wheat was 743,871 and there has been a steady and practically
+continuous decrease ever since, the wheat acreage in 1905 being only
+37,860 acres. In that year the wheat area, excluding less than 5000
+acres in Connaught, was pretty equally divided between the other
+three provinces. Oats has always been the staple cereal crop in
+Ireland, but since 1847 its cultivation has declined by over 50%.
+In that year 2,200,870 acres were under oats and in 1905 only
+1,066,806 acres. Nearly one-half of the area under oats is to be found
+in Ulster; Leinster and Munster are fairly equal; and Connaught has
+something over 100,000 acres under this crop. The area under
+barley and rye has also declined during the period under review by
+about one-half&mdash;from 345,070 acres in 1847 to 164,800 in 1905.
+The growing of these crops is confined almost entirely to Leinster
+and Munster. Taking all the cereal crops together, their cultivation
+during the last 60 years has gradually declined (from 3,313,579
+acres in 1847 to 1,271,190 in 1905) by over 50%. The area, however,
+under green crops&mdash;potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, beet, cabbage,
+&amp;c., shows during the same period a much less marked decline&mdash;only
+some 300,000 acres. There has been a very considerable decrease
+since about 1861 in the acreage under potatoes. This is probably
+due to two causes&mdash;the emigration of the poorer classes who subsisted
+on that form of food, and the gradual introduction of a more varied
+dietary. The total area under potatoes in 1905 was 616,755 acres as
+compared with 1,133,504 acres in 1861. Since about 1885 the
+acreage under turnips has remained fairly stationary in the neighbourhood
+of 300,000 acres, while the cultivation of mangel-wurzel
+has considerably increased. Outside the recognized cereal and
+green crops, two others may be considered, flax and meadow and
+clover. The cultivation of the former is practically confined to
+Ulster and as compared with 20 or 30 years ago has fallen off by
+considerably more than 50%, despite the proximity of the linen
+industry. The number of acres under flax in 1905 was only 46,158.
+The Department of Agriculture has made efforts to improve and
+foster its cultivation, but without any marked results as regards
+increasing the area sown. During the period under review the area
+under meadow and clover has increased by more than 50%, rising
+from 1,138,946 acres in 1847 to 2,294,506 in 1905. It would thus
+appear that a large proportion of the land which has ceased to bear
+cereal or green crops is now laid down in meadow and clover. The
+balance has become pasturage, and the total area under grass in
+Ireland has so largely increased that it now embraces more than
+one-half of the entire country. This increase of the pastoral lands,
+with the corresponding decrease of the cropped lands, has been the
+marked feature of Irish agricultural returns since 1847. It is attributable
+to three chief reasons, the dearth of labour owing to emigration,
+the greater fall in prices of produce as compared with live stock, and
+the natural richness of the Irish pastures. The following table shows
+the growth of pasturage and the shrinkage of the crop areas since
+1860.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Area.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cultivated<br />Area (Crops<br />and Grass).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crops (other<br />than Meadow<br />and Clover).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Meadow<br />and<br />Clover.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Grass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,284,893</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,453,773</td> <td class="tcc rb">4,375,621</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,594,518</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9,483,634</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,327,764</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,340,192</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,171,259</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,909,825</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,259,108</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">20,333,344</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,222,104</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,493,017</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,165,715</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,563,372</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20,350,725</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15,232,699</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,410,813</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,224,165</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10,597,721</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>One more table may be given showing the proportional areas
+under the various kinds of crops, grass, woods and plantations,
+fallow, bog, waste, &amp;c., over a series of years.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cereal<br />Crops.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Green<br />Crops.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Meadow<br />and<br />Clover.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Grass.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Agricultural<br />Land.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Woods.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Fallow.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Waste.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1851</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">43.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">50.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;6.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">52.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">23.5</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Produce and Live Stock.</i>&mdash;With the decrease of the area under
+cereal and green crops and the increase of pasturage there has
+naturally been a serious fall in the amount of agricultural produce
+and a considerable rise in the number of live stock since the middle
+of the 19th century. Thus in 1851 the number of cattle was returned
+as 2,967,461 and in 1905 as 4,645,215, the increase during the intervening
+period having been pretty gradual and general. Sheep in
+1851 numbered 2,122,128 and in 1905 3,749,352, but the increase
+in this case has not been so continuous, several of the intervening
+years showing a considerably higher total than 1905, and for a good
+many years past the number of sheep has tended to decline. The
+number of pigs has also varied considerably from year to year,
+1905 showing an increase of about 150,000 as compared with 1851.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Department of Agriculture.</i>&mdash;By an act of 1899 a Department
+of Agriculture and other industries and technical instruction
+was established in Ireland. To this department were transferred
+numerous powers and duties previously exercised by other
+authorities, including the Department of Science and Art. To
+assist the department the act also provided for the establishment
+of a council of agriculture, an agricultural board and a board
+of technical instruction, specifying the constitution of each
+of the three bodies. Certain moneys (exceeding Ł180,000 per
+annum) were placed by the act at the disposal of the department,
+provisions were made for their application, and it was enacted
+that local authorities might contribute funds. The powers
+and duties of the department are very wide, but under the present
+section its chief importance lies in its administrative work with
+regard to agriculture. In the annual reports of the department
+this work is usually treated under three heads: (1) agricultural
+instruction, (2) improvement of live stock, and (3) special
+investigations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The ultimate aim of the department&rsquo;s policy in the matter
+of agricultural instruction is, as defined by itself, to place within the
+reach of a large number of young men and young women the means
+of obtaining in their own country a good technical knowledge of all
+subjects relating to agriculture, an object which prior to the establishment
+of the department was for all practical purposes unattainable.
+Before such a scheme could be put into operation two things
+had to be done. In the first place, the department had to train
+teachers of agricultural subjects; and secondly, it had to demonstrate
+to farmers all over Ireland by a system of itinerant instruction some
+of the advantages of such technical instruction, in order to induce
+them to make some sacrifice to obtain a suitable education for their
+sons and daughters. In order to accomplish the first of these two
+preliminaries, the department established a Faculty of Agriculture
+at the Royal College of Science in Dublin, and offered a considerable
+number of scholarships the competition for which becomes increasingly
+keen. They also reorganized the Albert Agricultural
+College at Glasnevin for young men who have neither the time nor
+the means to attend the highly specialized courses at the Royal
+College of Science; and the Munster Institute at Cork is now devoted
+solely to the instruction of girls in such subjects as butter-making,
+poultry-keeping, calf-rearing, cooking, laundry-work, sewing and
+gardening. In addition to these three permanent institutions, local
+schools and classes have been established in different parts of the
+country where systematic instruction in technical agriculture is given
+to young men. In this and in other branches of its work the department
+is assisted by agricultural committees appointed by the county
+councils. The number of itinerant instructors is governed entirely
+by the available supply of qualified men. The services of every
+available student on completing his course at the Royal College of
+Science are secured by some county council committee. The work
+of the itinerant instructors is very varied. They hold classes and
+carry out field demonstrations and experiments, the results of which
+are duly published in the department&rsquo;s journal. The department has
+also endeavoured to encourage the fruit-growing industry in Ireland
+by the establishment of a horticultural school at Glasnevin, by efforts
+to secure uniformity in the packing and grading of fruit, by the
+establishment of experimental fruit-preserving factories, by the
+planting of orchards on a large scale in a few districts, and by pioneer
+lectures. As the result of all these efforts there has been an enormous
+increase in the demand for fruit trees of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>2. The marked tendency which has been visible for so many years
+in Ireland for pasturage to increase at the expense of tillage makes
+the improvement of live-stock a matter of vital importance to all
+concerned in agriculture. Elaborate schemes applicable to horse-breeding,
+cattle-breeding and swine-breeding, have been drawn up
+by the department on the advice of experts, but the working of the
+schemes is for the most part left to the various county council
+committees. The benefits arising from these schemes are being more
+and more realized by farmers, and the department is able to
+report an increase in the number of pure bred cattle and horses in
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>3. The special investigations carried out by the department
+naturally vary from year to year, but one of the duties of each
+instructor in agriculture is to conduct a number of field experiments,
+mainly on the influence of manures and seeds in the yield of crops.
+The results of these experiments are issued in the form of leaflets
+and distributed widely among farmers. One of the most interesting
+experiments, which may have far-reaching
+economic effects, has been
+in the cultivation of tobacco. So
+far it has been proved (1) that
+the tobacco plant can be grown
+successfully in Ireland, and (2)
+that the crop when blended with
+American leaf can be manufactured
+into a mixture suitable for
+smoking. But whether Irish tobacco
+can be made a profitable
+crop depends upon a good many
+other considerations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Agricultural Co-operation.</i>&mdash;In
+1894 the efforts of a number of
+Irishmen drawn from all political
+parties were successfully directed
+towards the formation of the
+Irish Agricultural Organization
+Society, which has for its object
+the organizing of groups of
+farmers on co-operative principles
+and the provision of instruction
+in proper technical
+methods. The society had at
+first many difficulties to confront,
+but after the first two or three years of its existence
+its progress became more rapid, and co-operation became
+beyond all question one of the most hopeful features in Irish
+agriculture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Perhaps the chief success of the society was seen in the establishment
+of creameries, which at the end of 1905 numbered 275&mdash;123 in
+Ulster, 102 in Munster, 20 in Leinster and 30 in Connaught. The
+members numbered over 42,000 and the trade turnover for the year
+was Ł1,245,000. Agricultural societies have been established for
+the purchase of seed, implements, &amp;c., on co-operative lines and of
+these there are 150, with a membership of some 14,000. The society
+was also successful in establishing a large number of credit societies,
+from which farmers can borrow at a low rate of interest. There are
+also societies for poultry-rearing, rural industries, bee-keeping,
+bacon-curing, &amp;c., in connexion with the central organization. The
+system is rounded off by a number of trade federations for the sale
+and purchase of various commodities. The Department of Agriculture
+encourages the work of the Organization Society by an annual
+grant.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Land Laws.</i>&mdash;The relations of landlord and tenant in Ireland
+have been a frequent subject of legislation (see <i>History</i> below).
+Under the act of 1881, down to the 31st of March 1906, the rents
+of 360,135 holdings, representing nearly 11,000,000 acres, had
+been fixed for the first statutory term of 15 years either by the
+land commissioners or by agreements between landlords and
+tenants, the aggregate reduction being over 20% as compared
+with the old rents. The rents of 120,515 holdings, representing
+over 3,500,000 acres, had been further fixed for the second
+statutory term, the aggregate reduction being over 19% as
+compared with the first term rents. Although the acts of 1870
+and 1881 provided facilities for the purchase of holdings by the
+tenants, it was only after the passing of the Ashbourne Act in
+1885 that the transfer of ownership to the occupying tenants
+began on an extended scale. Under this act between 1885 and
+1902, when further proceedings were suspended, the number
+of loans issued was 25,367 (4221 in Leinster; 5204 in Munster;
+12,954 in Ulster, and 2988 in Connaught) and the amount was
+Ł9,992,536. Between August 1891 and April 1906, the number
+of loans issued under the acts of 1891 and 1896 was 40,395
+(7838 in Leinster; 7512 in Munster; 14,955 in Ulster, and
+10,090 in Connaught) and the amount was Ł11,573,952.
+Under the Wyndham Act of 1903 the process was greatly
+extended.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following tables give summarized particulars, for the period
+from the 1st of November 1903 to the 31st of March 1906, of (1)
+estates for which purchase agreements were lodged in cases of sale
+direct from landlords to tenants; (2) estates for the purchase of
+which the Land Commission entered into agreements under sects.
+6 and 8 of the act; (3) estates in which the offers of the Land Commission
+to purchase under sect. 7 were accepted by the land judge;
+and (4) estates for the purchase of which, under sections 72 and 79,
+originating requests were transmitted by the Congested Districts
+Board to the Land Commission:&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Estates.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Purchasers.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Purchase Money.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Price.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Advances<br />applied for.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Proposed<br />Cash Payments.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Direct Sales</td> <td class="tcr rb">3446</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł32,811,564</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł32,692,066</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł119,498</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 6 and 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,567<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">1,231,014</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,226,832</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,182</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Section 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,174<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">383,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">381,722</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,666</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 72 and 79</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,606<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">975,211</td> <td class="tcr rb">975,211</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">3596</td> <td class="tcr allb">97,245</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł35,401,177</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł35,275,831</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł125,346</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="6">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Classification.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Estates.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">No. of<br />Purchasers.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Purchase Money.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Price.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Advances<br />made.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Amount of<br />Cash Payments.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Direct Sales</td> <td class="tcr rb">925</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,732</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł8,317,063</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł8,226,736</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł90,327</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 6 and 8</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,047</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,048,459</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,047,007</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,452</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Section 7</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,174</td> <td class="tcr rb">383,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">381,722</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,666</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sections 72 and 79</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">763</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,581</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,581</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">1006</td> <td class="tcr allb">21,716</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł9,948,491</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł9,855,046</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł93,445</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="6"><span class="sp">1</span> Estimated number of purchasers on resale.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It will be seen from these two tables that though the amount of
+advances applied for during the period dealt with amounted to over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span>
+Ł35,000,000 the actual advances made were less than Ł10,000,000.
+It will be seen further that the act operated almost entirely by means
+of direct sales by landlords to tenants. Of the total amount
+advanced up to March 31, 1906, almost one-half was in respect of
+estates in the province of Leinster, the balance being divided pretty
+equally between estates in the other three provinces.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fisheries.</i>&mdash;The deep-sea and coast fisheries of Ireland form
+a valuable national asset, which still admits of much development
+and improvement despite the fact that a considerable
+number of acts of parliament have been passed to promote and
+foster the fishing industry. In 1882 the Commissioners of Public
+Works were given further powers to lend money to fishermen
+on the recommendation of the inspectors of fisheries; and under
+an act of 1883 the Land Commission was authorized to pay
+from time to time such sums, not exceeding in all Ł250,000, as
+the Commissioners of Public Works might require, for the
+creation of a Sea Fishery Fund, such fund to be expended&mdash;a
+sum of about Ł240,000 has been expended&mdash;on the construction
+and improvement of piers and harbours. Specific acts have
+also been passed for the establishment and development of
+oyster, pollan and mussel fisheries. Under the Land Purchase
+Act 1891, a portion of the Sea Fisheries Fund was reserved for
+administration by the inspectors of fisheries in non-congested
+districts. Under this head over Ł36,000 had been advanced on
+loan up to December 31, 1905, the greater portion of which had
+been repaid. In 1900 the powers and duties of the inspectors of
+fisheries were vested in the Department of Agriculture and
+Technical Instruction. Under the Marine Works Act 1902,
+which was intended to benefit and develop industries where the
+people were suffering from congestion, about Ł34,000 was
+expended upon the construction and improvement of fishery
+harbours in such districts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For administrative purposes Ireland is divided into 31 deep-sea
+and coast fisheries and during 1905, 6190 vessels were engaged in
+these districts, giving employment to a total of 24,288 hands. Excluding
+salmon, nearly one million hundredweights of fish were
+taken, and including shell-fish the total money received by the
+fishermen exceeded Ł414,000. In the same year 13,436 hands were
+engaged in the 25 salmon fishing districts into which the country is
+divided. In addition to the organized industry which exists in these
+salmon districts, there is a good deal of ordinary rod and line fishing
+in the higher reaches of the larger rivers and good trout fishing is
+obtainable in many districts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Mining.</i>&mdash;The mineral produce of Ireland is very limited,
+and its mines and quarries in 1905 gave employment to only
+about 6000 persons. Coal-fields are found in all the provinces,
+but in 1905 the total output was less than 100,000 tons and its
+value at the mines was given as Ł43,000. Iron ore is worked in
+Co. Antrim, over 113,000 tons having been produced in 1905.
+Alum clay or bauxite, from which aluminium is manufactured,
+is found in the same county. Clays of various kinds, mainly fire
+and brick clay, are obtained in several places and there are
+quarries of marble (notably in Connemara), slate, granite,
+limestone and sandstone, the output of which is considerable.
+Silver is obtained in small quantities from lead ore in Co. Donegal,
+and hopes have been entertained of the re-discovery of gold in
+Co. Wicklow, where regular workings were established about
+1796 but were destroyed during the Rebellion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Woollen Manufacture.</i>&mdash;At an early period the woollen manufactures
+of Ireland had won a high reputation and were exported
+in considerable quantities to foreign countries. Bonifazio
+Uberti (d. <i>c.</i> 1367) refers in a posthumous poem called <i>Dita
+mundi</i> to the &ldquo;noble serge&rdquo; which Ireland sent to Italy, and
+fine mantles of Irish frieze are mentioned in a list of goods
+exported from England to Pope Urban VI. In later times, the
+establishment of a colony from the German Palatinate at
+Carrick-on-Suir in the reign of James I. served to stimulate the
+manufacture, but in the succeeding reign the lord-deputy
+Strafford adopted the policy of fostering the linen trade at the
+expense of the woollen in order to prevent the latter from
+competing with English products. An act of the reign of Charles
+II. prohibited the export of raw wool to foreign countries from
+Ireland as well as England, while at the same time Ireland was
+practically excluded by heavy duties from the English markets,
+and as the Navigation Act of 1663 did not apply to her the
+colonial market was also closed against Irish exports. The
+foreign market, however, was still open, and after the prohibition
+of the export of Irish cattle to England the Irish farmers turned
+their attention to the breeding of sheep, with such good effect
+that the woollen manufacture increased with great rapidity.
+Moreover the improved quality of the wool showed itself in the
+improvement of the finished article, to the great alarm of the
+English manufacturer. So much trade jealousy was aroused
+that both Houses of Parliament petitioned William III. to
+interfere. In accordance with his wishes the Irish parliament
+in 1698 placed heavy additional duties on all woollen clothing
+(except friezes) exported from Ireland, and in 1699 the English
+Parliament passed an act prohibiting the export from Ireland
+of all woollen goods to any country except England, to any port
+of England except six, and from any town in Ireland except six.
+The cumulative effect of these acts was practically to annihilate
+the woollen manufacture in Ireland and to reduce whole districts
+and towns, in which thousands of persons were directly or
+indirectly supported by the industry, to the last verge of poverty.
+According to Newenham&rsquo;s tables the annual average of new
+drapery exported from Ireland for the three years ending March
+1702 was only 20 pieces, while the export of woollen yarn,
+worsted yarn and wool, which to England was free, amounted
+to 349,410 stones. In his essay on the Trade of Ireland, published
+in 1729, Arthur Dobbs estimated the medium exports of
+wool, worsted and woollen yarn at 227,049 stones, and he valued
+the export of manufactured woollen goods at only Ł2353. On
+the other hand, the imports steadily rose. Between 1779 and
+1782 the various acts which had hampered the Irish woollen
+trade were either repealed or modified, but after a brief period
+of deceptive prosperity followed by failure and distress, the
+expansion of the trade was limited to the partial supply of the
+home market. According to evidence laid before the House of
+Commons in 1822 one-third of the woollen cloth used in Ireland
+was imported from England. A return presented to Parliament
+in 1837 stated that the number of woollen or worsted factories
+in Ireland was 46, employing 1321 hands. In 1879 the number
+of factories was 76 and the number of hands 2022. Since then
+the industry has shown some tendency to increase, though the
+number of persons employed is still comparatively very small,
+some 3500 hands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Linen Manufacture.</i>&mdash;Flax was cultivated at a very early
+period in Ireland and was both spun into thread and manufactured
+into cloth. In the time of Henry VIII. the manufacture
+constituted one of the principal branches of Irish trade, but it
+did not prove a very serious rival to the woollen industry until
+the policy of England was directed to the discouragement of the
+latter. Strafford, lord-deputy in the reign of Charles I., did
+much to foster the linen industry. He invested a large sum of
+his own money in it, imported great quantities of flax seed from
+Holland and induced skilled workmen from France and the
+Netherlands to settle in Ireland. A similar policy was pursued
+with even more energy by his successor in office, the duke of
+Ormonde, at whose instigation an Irish act was passed in 1665
+to encourage the growth of flax and the manufacture of linen.
+He also established factories and brought over families from
+Brabant and France to work in them. The English parliament
+in their desire to encourage the linen industry at the expense
+of the woollen, followed Ormonde&rsquo;s lead by passing an act inviting
+foreign workmen to settle in Ireland, and admitting all articles
+made of flax or hemp into England free of duty. In 1710, in
+accordance with an arrangement made between the two kingdoms,
+a board of trustees was appointed to whom a considerable
+sum was granted annually for the promotion of the linen manufacture;
+but the jealousy of English merchants interposed to
+check the industry whenever it threatened to assume proportions
+which might interfere with their own trade, and by an act of
+George II. a tax was imposed on Irish sail-cloth imported into
+England, which for the time practically ruined the hempen
+manufacture. Between 1700 and 1777 the board of trustees
+expended nearly Ł850,000 on the promotion of the linen trade,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span>
+and in addition parliamentary bounties were paid on a considerable
+scale. In 1727 Arthur Dobbs estimated the value of the
+whole manufacture at Ł1,000,000. In 1830 the Linen Board
+ceased to exist, the trade having been for some time in a very
+depressed condition owing to the importation of machine-made
+yarns from Scotland and England. A year or two later, however,
+machinery was introduced on a large scale on the river Bann.
+The experiment proved highly successful, and from this period
+may be dated the rise of the linen trade of Ulster, the only great
+industrial manufacture of which Ireland can boast. Belfast
+is the centre and market of the trade, but mills and factories
+are to be found dotted all over the eastern counties of Ulster.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1850 the number of spindles was 396,338 and of power looms
+58; in 1905 the corresponding figures were 826,528 and 34,498.
+In 1850 the number of persons employed in flax mills and factories
+was 21,121; in 1901 the number in flax, hemp and jute textile
+factories was 64,802.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Cotton Manufacture.</i>&mdash;This was introduced into Ireland in
+1777 and under the protection of import duties and bounties
+increased so rapidly that in 1800 it gave employment to several
+thousand persons, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Belfast. The
+trade continued to grow for several years despite the removal
+of the duties; and the value of cotton goods exported from
+Ireland to Great Britain rose from Ł708 in 1814 to Ł347,606 in
+1823. In 1822 the number of hands employed in the industry
+was stated to be over 17,000. The introduction of machinery,
+however, which led to the rise of the great cotton industry of
+Lancashire, had very prejudicial effects, and by 1839 the number
+of persons employed had fallen to 4622. The trade has dwindled
+ever since and is now quite insignificant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silk Manufacture.</i>&mdash;About the end of the 17th century French
+Huguenots settled in Dublin and started the manufacture of
+Irish poplin, a mixture of silk and wool. In 1823 between 3000
+and 4000 persons were employed. But with the abolition of the
+protective duties in 1826 a decline set in; and though Irish
+poplin is still celebrated, the industry now gives employment to a
+mere handful of people in Dublin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distilling and Brewing.</i>&mdash;Whisky has been extensively distilled
+in Ireland for several centuries. An excise duty was first imposed
+in 1661, the rate charged being 4d. a gallon. The imposition of
+a duty gave rise to a large amount of illicit distillation, a practice
+which still prevails to some extent, though efficient police
+methods have largely reduced it. During recent years the amount
+of whisky produced has shown a tendency to decrease. In
+1900 the number of gallons charged with duty was 9,589,571, in
+1903 8,215,355, and in 1906 7,337,928. There are breweries
+in most of the larger Irish towns, and Dublin is celebrated for the
+porter produced by the firm of Arthur Guinness &amp; Son, the
+largest establishment of the kind in the world. The number of
+barrels of beer&mdash;the inclusive term used by the Inland Revenue
+Department&mdash;charged with duty in 1906 was 3,275,309, showing
+an increase of over 200,000 as compared with 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following table shows the net annual amount of excise duties
+received in Ireland in a series of years:&mdash;</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Articles.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1906.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Beer</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł983,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,200,711</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,262,186</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,227,528</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Licences</td> <td class="tcr rb">209,577</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,092</td> <td class="tcr rb">213,964</td> <td class="tcr rb">214,247</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spirits</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,952,061</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,292,286</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,311,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,952,509</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other sources</td> <td class="tcr rb">502</td> <td class="tcr rb">436</td> <td class="tcr rb">508</td> <td class="tcr rb">798</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb">&ensp;Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł6,145,981</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł5,706,525</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł5,788,421</td> <td class="tcr allb">Ł5,395,082</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;Shipbuilding is practically confined to
+Belfast, where the firm of Harland and Wolff, the builders of the
+great &ldquo;White Star&rdquo; liners, have one of the largest yards in the
+world, giving employment to several thousand hands. There are
+extensive engineering works in the same city which supply the
+machinery and other requirements of the linen industry. Paper
+is manufactured on a considerable scale in various places, and
+Balbriggan is celebrated for its hosiery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce and Shipping.</i>&mdash;From allusions in ancient writers
+it would appear that in early times Ireland had a considerable
+commercial intercourse with various parts of Europe. When the
+merchants of Dublin fled from their city at the time of the Anglo-Norman
+invasion it was given by Henry II. to merchants from
+Bristol, to whom free trade with other portions of the kingdom
+was granted as well as other advantages. In the Staple Act of
+Edward III., Dublin, Waterford, Cork and Drogheda are mentioned
+as among the towns where staple goods could be purchased
+by foreign merchants. During the 15th century the trade of
+these and other towns increased rapidly. With the 17th century
+began the restrictions on Irish trade. In 1637 duties were imposed
+on the chief commodities to foreign nations not in league
+with England. Ireland was left out of the Navigation Act of
+1663 and in the same year was prohibited from exporting cattle
+to England in any month previous to July. Sir William Petty
+estimated the value of Irish exports in 1672 at Ł500,000 per
+annum, and owing principally to the prosperity of the woollen
+industry these had risen in value in 1698 to Ł996,000, the imports
+in the same year amounting to Ł576,000. A rapid fall in exports
+followed upon the prohibition of the export of woollen manufactures
+to foreign countries, but in about 20 years&rsquo; time a
+recovery took place, due in part to the increase of the linen trade.
+Statistics of exports and imports were compiled for various years
+by writers like Newenham, Arthur Young and César Moreau,
+but these are vitiated by being given in Irish currency which was
+altered from time to time, and by the fact that the method of
+rating at the custom-house also varied. Taking the figures,
+however, for what they are worth, it appears that between 1701
+and 1710 the average annual exports from Ireland to all parts of
+the world were valued at Ł553,000 (to Great Britain, Ł242,000)
+and the average annual imports at Ł513,000 (from Great Britain,
+Ł242,000). Between 1751 and 1760 the annual values had risen
+for exports to Ł2,002,000 (to Great Britain, Ł1,068,000) and for
+imports to Ł1,594,000 (from Great Britain, Ł734,000). Between
+1794 and 1803 the figures had further risen to Ł4,310,000 (to
+Great Britain, Ł3,667,000) and Ł4,572,000 (from Great Britain
+Ł3,404,000). It is clear, therefore, that during the 18th century
+the increase of commerce was considerable.</p>
+
+<p>In 1825 the shipping duties on the cross-Channel trade were
+abolished and since that date no official figures are available as
+to a large part of Irish trade with Great Britain. The export
+of cattle and other animals, however, is the most important part
+of this trade and details of this appear in the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Cattle.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sheep.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Swine.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Total.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">630,802</td> <td class="tcc rb">893,175</td> <td class="tcc rb">505,584</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,029,561</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">745,519</td> <td class="tcc rb">862,263</td> <td class="tcc rb">715,202</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,322,984</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">749,131</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">700,626</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">363,973</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1,813,730</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The value of the animals exported in 1905 was estimated (at
+certain standard rates) at about Ł14,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1870 the Board of Trade has ceased to give returns of the
+foreign and colonial trade for each of the separate kingdoms of
+England, Scotland and Ireland. Returns are given, however, for
+the principal ports of each kingdom. Between 1886 and 1905 these
+imports at the Irish ports rose from Ł6,802,000 in value to Ł12,394,000
+and the exports from Ł825,000 to Ł1,887,000.</p>
+
+<p>The following table shows the value of the total imports and
+exports of merchandise in the foreign and colonial trade at the
+ports of Dublin, Belfast and Limerick in each of the years
+1901-1905:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Ports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1903.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Dublin&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td> <td class="tcc rb">Ł</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,666,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,856,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,138,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,771,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,664,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">78,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belfast&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,626,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,999,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,773,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,033,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,671,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,442,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,344,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,122,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,332,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,780,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cork&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,062,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,114,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,193,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,156,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,010,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Limerick&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">826,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">913,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">855,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">935,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">854,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">400</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">600</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The Department of Agriculture published in 1906 a report on the
+imports and exports at Irish ports for the year 1904. In this report,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span>
+the compiling of which presented great difficulties in the absence
+of official returns, are included (1) the direct trade between Ireland
+and all countries outside of Great Britain, (2) the indirect trade of
+Ireland with those same countries via Great Britain, and (3) the
+local trade between Ireland and Great Britain. The value of imports
+in 1904 is put at Ł55,148,206, and of exports at Ł46,606,432.
+But it is pointed out in the report that while the returns as regards
+farm produce, food stuffs, and raw materials may be considered
+approximately complete, the information as to manufactured
+goods&mdash;especially of the more valuable grades&mdash;is rough and inadequate.
+It was estimated that the aggregate value of the actual
+import and export trade in 1904 probably exceeded a total of
+Ł105,000,000. The following table gives some details:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I. Farm Produce, Food and Drink Stuffs&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>a</i>) Live-stock, meat, bacon, fish and dairy produce</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł3,028,170</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł23,445,122</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>b</i>) Crops, fruit, meal, flour, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,859,201</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,721,753</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>c</i>) Spirits, porter, ale, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">919,161</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,222,194</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>d</i>) Tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,230,478</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,121,267</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">II. Raw Materials&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>a</i>) Coal</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,663,523</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>b</i>) Wood</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,880,095</td> <td class="tcr rb">235,479</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>c</i>) Mineral</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,012,822</td> <td class="tcr rb">282,081</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;(<i>d</i>) Animal and vegetable products</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,529,002</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,067,398</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">III. Goods, partly manufactured or  of simple manufacture</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,996,143</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,576,993</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">IV. Manufactured goods.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">17,059,611</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,934,145</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">From the figures given in the report it would appear that there was
+in 1904 an excess of imports amounting to over Ł8,500,000. But
+owing to the imperfect state of existing information, it is impossible
+to say with any certainty what is the real state of the balance of
+visible trade between Ireland and other countries.</p>
+
+<p>Shipping returns also throw some light upon the commercial
+condition of Ireland. Old figures are not of much value, but it may
+be stated that Arthur Dobbs gives the number of ships engaged
+in the Irish trade in 1721 as 3334 with a tonnage of 158,414. According
+to the statistics of César Moreau the number of ships belonging
+to Irish ports in 1788 was 1016 with a tonnage of over
+60,000, and in 1826 they had increased, according to the trade and
+navigation returns, to 1391 with a tonnage of over 90,000. In
+1905 the vessels registered at Irish ports numbered 934 with a
+tonnage of over 259,000. In the same year the vessels entering and
+clearing in the colonial and foreign trade numbered 1199 with a
+tonnage of over 1,086,000, and the vessels entering and clearing in
+the trade between Great Britain and Ireland numbered 41,983
+with a tonnage of over 9,776,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The executive government of Ireland is
+vested in a lord-lieutenant, assisted by a privy council and by a
+chief secretary, who is always a member of the House of Commons
+and generally of the cabinet. There are a large number of
+administrative departments and boards, some, like the Board
+of Trade, discharging the same duties as the similar department
+in England; others, like the Congested Districts Board, dealing
+with matters of purely Irish concern.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parliamentary Representation.</i>&mdash;The Redistribution of Seats
+Act 1885 entirely altered the parliamentary representation
+of Ireland. Twenty-two small boroughs were <span class="correction" title="amended from disfranchized">disenfranchised</span>.
+The towns of Galway, Limerick and Waterford lost one member
+each, while Dublin and Belfast were respectively divided into
+four divisions, each returning one member. As a result of these
+changes 85 members now represent the counties, 16 the boroughs,
+and 2 Dublin University&mdash;a total of 103. The total number
+of electors (exclusive of Dublin University) in 1906 was 686,661;
+113,595 for the boroughs and 573,066 for the counties. Ireland
+is represented in the House of Lords by 28 temporal peers
+elected for life from among the Irish peers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Local Government.</i>&mdash;Irish local government was entirely remodelled
+by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which conferred
+on Ireland the same system and measure of self-government
+enjoyed by Great Britain. The administrative and fiscal duties
+previously exercised by the grand jury in each county were
+transferred to a county council, new administrative counties
+being formed for the purposes of the act, in some cases by the
+alteration of existing boundaries. To the county councils were
+also assigned the power of assessing and levying the poor rate
+in rural districts, the management of lunatic asylums, and the
+administration of certain acts such as the Explosives Act, the
+Technical Education Act and the Diseases of Animals Act.
+Subordinate district councils, urban and rural, were also established
+as in England and Scotland to manage the various local
+areas within each county. The provisions made for the administration
+of the Poor Law by the act under consideration are very
+complicated, but roughly it may be said that it was handed over
+to these new subordinate local bodies. Six towns&mdash;Dublin,
+Belfast, Cork, Limerick, Londonderry and Waterford&mdash;were
+constituted county boroughs governed by separate county
+councils; and five boroughs&mdash;Kilkenny, Sligo, Clonmel, Drogheda
+and Wexford&mdash;retained their former corporations. The act
+provides facilities for the conversion into urban districts of (1)
+towns having town commissioners who are not sanitary
+authorities and (2) non-municipal towns with populations of
+over 1500 and entitled to petition for town commissioners.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;The Supreme Court of Judicature is constituted as
+follows: the court of appeal, which consists of the lord chancellor,
+the lord chief justice, and the master of the rolls and the chief
+baron of the exchequer as <i>ex-officio</i> members, and two lords
+justices of appeal; and the high court of justice which includes
+(1) the chancery division, composed of the lord chancellor, the
+master of the rolls and two justices, (2) the king&rsquo;s bench division
+composed of the lord chief justice, the chief baron of the exchequer
+and eight justices, and (3) the land commissions with two judicial
+commissioners. At the first vacancy the title and rank of chief
+baron of the exchequer will be abolished and the office reduced
+to a puisne judgeship. By the County Officers and Courts
+(Ireland) Act 1877, it was provided that the chairmen of quarter
+sessions should be called &ldquo;county court judges and chairmen
+of quarter sessions&rdquo; and that their number should be reduced
+to twenty-one, which was to include the recorders of Dublin,
+Belfast, Cork, Londonderry and Galway. At the same time
+the jurisdiction of the county courts was largely extended.
+There are 66 resident (stipendiary) magistrates, and four police
+magistrates in Dublin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Police.</i>&mdash;The Royal Irish Constabulary were established
+in 1822 and consisted at first of 5000 men under an inspector-general
+for each of the four provinces. In 1836 the entire force
+was amalgamated under one inspector-general. The force, at
+present consists of about 10,000 men of all ranks, and costs over
+Ł1,300,000 a year. Dublin has a separate metropolitan police
+force.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crime.</i>&mdash;The following table shows the number of persons
+committed for trial, convicted and acquitted in Ireland in
+1886, 1891, 1900 and 1905:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Committed.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Convicted.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Acquitted.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">3,028</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,619</td> <td class="tcc rb">1286</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">2,112</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,255</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;669</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,682</td> <td class="tcc rb">1,087</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;331</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2,060</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1,367</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;417</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the 1367 convicted in 1905, 375 were charged with offences
+against the person, 205 with offences against property with violence,
+545 with offences against property without violence, 52 with malicious
+injury to property, 44 with forgery and offences against the
+currency, and 146 with other offences. In 1904, 81,775 cases of
+drunkenness were brought before Irish magistrates as compared
+with 227,403 in England and 43,580 in Scotland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Poor Law.</i>&mdash;The following table gives the numbers in receipt
+of indoor and outdoor relief (exclusive of persons in institutions
+for the blind, deaf and dumb, and for idiots and imbeciles) in,
+the years 1902-1905, together with the total expenditure for
+relief of the poor:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Aggregate number relieved<br />during the year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total Annual<br />Expenditure.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Indoor.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Outdoor.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">363,483</td> <td class="tcr rb">105,501</td> <td class="tcc rb">468,984</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,026,691</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">363,091</td> <td class="tcr rb">99,150</td> <td class="tcc rb">452,241</td> <td class="tcr rb">986,301</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">390,047</td> <td class="tcr rb">98,607</td> <td class="tcc rb">488,654</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,033,168</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">434,117</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">124,697</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">558,814</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,066,733</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The average daily number in receipt of relief of all kinds (except
+outdoor relief) during the same years was as follows: 1902, 41,163;
+1903, 43,600; 1904, 43,721; 1905, 43,911. The percentage of
+indoor paupers to the estimated population in 1905 was 1.00.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Congested Districts Board.</i>&mdash;This body was constituted by the
+Purchase of Land Act 1891, and is composed of the chief
+secretary, a member of the Land Commission and five other
+members. A considerable sum of money was placed at its
+disposal for carrying out the objects for which it was created.
+It was provided that where more than 20% of the population
+of a county lived in electoral divisions of which the total rateable
+value, when divided by the number of the population, gave a
+sum of less than Ł1, 10s. for each individual, these divisions
+should, for the purposes of the act, form a separate county, called
+a congested districts county, and should be subject to the operations
+of the board. In order to improve the condition of affairs
+in congested districts, the board was empowered (1) to amalgamate
+small holdings either by directly aiding migration or
+emigration of occupiers, or by recommending the Land Commission
+to facilitate amalgamation, and (2) generally to aid and
+develop out of its resources agriculture, forestry, the breeding
+of live-stock, weaving, spinning, fishing and any other suitable
+industries. Further provisions regulating the operations of
+funds of the board were enacted in 1893, 1896, 1899 and 1903;
+and by its constituting act the Department of Agriculture was
+empowered to exercise, at the request of the board, any of its
+powers and duties in congested districts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The great majority of the Irish people belong
+to the Roman Catholic Church. In 1891 the Roman Catholics
+numbered 3,547,307 or 75% of the total population, and in
+1901 they numbered 3,308,661 or 74%. The adherents of the
+Church of Ireland come next in number (581,089 in 1901 or 13%
+of the population), then the Presbyterians (443,276 in 1901 or
+10% of the population), the only other denomination with a
+considerable number of members being the Methodists (62,006
+in 1901). As the result of emigration, which drains the Roman
+Catholic portion of the population more than any other, the
+Roman Catholics show a larger proportional decline in numbers
+than the Protestants; for example, between 1891 and 1901 the
+Roman Catholics decreased by over 6%, the Church of Ireland
+by a little over 3%, the Presbyterians by less than 1%, while
+the Methodists actually increased by some 11%. The only
+counties in which the Protestant religion predominates are
+Antrim, Down, Armagh and Londonderry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Roman Catholic Church is governed in Ireland by 4 archbishops,
+whose sees are in Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam,
+and 23 bishops, all nominated by the pope. The episcopal emoluments
+arise from the mensal parishes, the incumbency of which is
+retained by the bishops, from licences and from an annual contribution,
+varying in amount, paid by the clergy of the diocese. The
+clergy are supported by fees and the voluntary contributions of
+their flocks. At the census of 1901 there were 1084 parishes, and
+the clergy numbered 3711. In addition to the secular clergy there
+are several communities of regular priests scattered over the country,
+ministering in their own churches but without parochial jurisdiction.
+There are also numerous monasteries and convents, a
+large number of which are devoted to educational purposes. The
+great majority of the secular clergy are educated at Maynooth
+College (see below).</p>
+
+<p>The Protestants of Ireland belong mainly to the Church of Ireland
+(episcopalian) and the Presbyterian Church. (For the former see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland, Church of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The Presbyterian Church, whose adherents are found principally
+in Ulster and are the descendants of Scotch settlers, was originally
+formed in the middle of the 17th century, and in 1840 a reunion
+took place of the two divisions into which the Church had formerly
+separated. The governing body is the General Assembly, consisting
+of ministers and laymen. In 1906 there were 569 congregations,
+arranged under 36 presbyteries, with 647 ministers. The ministers
+are supported by a sustentation fund formed of voluntary contributions,
+the rents of seats and pews, and the proceeds of the
+commutation of the Regium Donum made by the commissioners
+under the Irish Church Act 1869. Two colleges are connected with
+the denomination, the General Assembly&rsquo;s College, Belfast, and the
+Magee College, Londonderry. In 1881 the faculty of the Belfast
+College and the theological professors of the Magee College were
+incorporated and constituted as a faculty with the power of granting
+degrees in divinity.</p>
+
+<p>The Methodist Church in Ireland was formed in 1878 by the
+Union of the Wesleyan with the Primitive Wesleyan Methodists.
+The number of ministers is over 250.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;The following table shows that the proportion per
+cent of the total population of five years old and upwards able to
+read and write has been steadily rising since 1861:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="5">Proportion per cent.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">1861.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1871.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1881.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Read and write</td> <td class="tcc rb">41</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">59</td> <td class="tcc rb">71</td> <td class="tcc rb">79</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Read only</td> <td class="tcc rb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">33</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Further details on the same subject, according to provinces and
+religious denominations in 1901, are subjoined:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Leinster.</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Munster.</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Ulster.</td> <td class="tcc f80 allb">Connaught.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Roman Catholics&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Protestant Episcopalians&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Presbyterians&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Methodists&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Others&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Total&mdash;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read and write</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Read only</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;Neither read nor write</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">21</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Language.</i>&mdash;The number of persons who speak Irish only continues
+to decrease. In 1881 they numbered 64,167; in 1891, 38,192;
+and in 1901, 20,953. If to those who spoke Irish only are added
+the persons who could speak both Irish and English, the total
+number who could speak Irish in 1901 was 641,142 or about
+14% of the population. The purely Irish-speaking population is
+to be found principally in the province of Connaught, where in
+1901 they numbered over 12,000. The efforts of the Gaelic League,
+founded to encourage the study of Gaelic literature and the Irish
+language, produced results seen in the census returns for 1901,
+which showed that the pupils learning Irish had very largely increased
+as compared with 1891.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The university of Dublin (<i>q.v.</i>), which is for practical purposes
+identical with Trinity College, Dublin, was incorporated in 1591.
+The government is in the hands of a board consisting
+of the provost and the senior fellows, assisted by
+<span class="sidenote">Universities and colleges.</span>
+a council in the election of professors and in the
+regulation of studies. The council is composed of the
+provost (and, in his absence, the vice-provost) and elected
+members. There is also a senate, composed of the chancellor
+or vice-chancellor and all doctors and masters who have kept
+their names on the books of Trinity College. Religious tests were
+abolished in 1873, and the university is now open to all; but, as
+a matter of fact, the vast majority of the students, even since
+the abolition of tests, have always belonged to the Church of
+Ireland, and the divinity school is purely Protestant.</p>
+
+<p>In pursuance of the University Education (Ireland) Act 1879,
+the Queen&rsquo;s University in Ireland was superseded in 1882 by
+the Royal University of Ireland, it being provided that the
+graduates and students of the former should have similar rank
+in the new university. The government of the Royal University
+was vested in a senate consisting of a chancellor and senators,
+with power to grant all such degrees as could be conferred by
+any university in the United Kingdom, except in theology.
+Female students had exactly the same rights as male students.
+The university was simply an examining body, no residence in
+any college nor attendance at lectures being obligatory. All
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span>
+appointments to the senate and to fellowships were made on the
+principle that one half of those appointed should be Roman
+Catholics and the other half Protestants; and in such subjects
+as history and philosophy there were two courses of study prescribed,
+one for Roman Catholics and the other for Protestants.
+In 1905 the number who matriculated was 947, of whom 218
+were females, and the number of students who passed the
+academic examinations was 2190. The university buildings
+are in Dublin and the fellows were mostly professors in the various
+colleges whose students were undergraduates.</p>
+
+<p>The three Queen&rsquo;s Colleges, at Belfast, Cork and Galway, were
+founded in 1849 and until 1882 formed the Queen&rsquo;s University.
+Their curriculum comprised all the usual courses of instruction,
+except theology. They were open to all denominations, but,
+as might be expected, the Belfast college (dissolved under the
+Irish Universities Act 1908; see below) was almost entirely
+Protestant. Its situation in a great industrial centre also made
+it the most important and flourishing of the three, its students
+numbering over 400. It possessed an excellent medical school,
+which was largely increased owing to private benefactions.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish Universities Act 1908 provided for the foundation
+of two new universities, having their seats respectively at
+Dublin and at Belfast. The Royal University of Ireland at
+Dublin and the Queen&rsquo;s College, Belfast, were dissolved. Provision
+was made for a new college to be founded at Dublin.
+This college and the existing Queen&rsquo;s Colleges at Cork and Galway
+were made constituent colleges of the new university at Dublin.
+Letters patent dated December 2, 1908, granted charters to
+these foundations under the titles of the National University
+of Ireland (Dublin), the Queen&rsquo;s University of Belfast and the
+University Colleges of Dublin, Cork and Galway. It was provided
+by the act that no test of religious belief should be imposed
+on any person as a condition of his holding any position in
+any foundation under the act. A body of commissioners
+was appointed for each of the new foundations to draw up
+statutes for its government; and for the purpose of dealing
+with any matter calling for joint action, a joint commission,
+half from each of the above commissions, was established.
+Regulations as to grants-in-aid were made by the act, with the
+stipulation that no sum from them should be devoted to the
+provision or maintenance of any building, or tutorial or other
+office, for religious purposes, though private benefaction for
+such purposes is not prohibited. Provisions were also made as
+to the transfer of graduates and students, so that they might
+occupy under the new régime positions equivalent to those
+which they occupied previously, in respect both of degrees
+and the keeping of terms. The commissioners were directed
+to work out schemes for the employment of officers already
+employed in the institutions affected by the new arrangements,
+and for the compensation of those whose employment
+could not be continued. A committee of the privy council
+in Ireland was appointed, to be styled the Irish Universities
+Committee.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Catholic University College in Dublin may be
+described as a survival of the Roman Catholic University, a
+voluntary institution founded in 1854. In 1882 the Roman
+Catholic bishops placed the buildings belonging to the university
+under the control and direction of the archbishop of Dublin,
+who undertook to maintain a college in which education would
+be given according to the regulations of the Royal University.
+In 1883 the direction of the college was entrusted to the Jesuits.
+Although the college receives no grant from public funds, it has
+proved very successful and attracts a considerable number of
+students, the great majority of whom belong to the Church of
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The Royal College of Science was established in Dublin in
+1867 under the authority of the Science and Art Department,
+London. Its object is to supply a complete course of instruction
+in science as applicable to the industrial arts. In 1900 the college
+was transferred from the Science and Art Department to the
+Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Maynooth (<i>q.v.</i>) College was founded by an Irish act of
+parliament in 1795 for the training of Roman Catholic students
+for the Irish priesthood. By an act of 1844 it was permanently
+endowed by a grant from the consolidated fund of over Ł26,000
+a year. This grant was withdrawn by the Irish Church Act
+1869, the college receiving as compensation a lump sum of over
+Ł372,000. The average number of students entering each year
+is about 100.</p>
+
+<p>There are two Presbyterian colleges, the General Assembly&rsquo;s
+College at Belfast, which is purely theological, and the Magee
+College, Londonderry, which has literary, scientific and theological
+courses. In 1881 the Assembly&rsquo;s College and the theological
+professors of Magee College were constituted a faculty
+with power to grant degrees in divinity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the foregoing, seven Roman Catholic institutions
+were ranked as colleges in the census of 1901:&mdash;All Hallows (Drumcondra),
+Holycross (Clonliffe), University College (Blackrock), St
+Patrick&rsquo;s (Carlow), St Kieran&rsquo;s (Kilkenny), St Stanislaus&rsquo;s (Tullamore)
+and St Patrick&rsquo;s (Thurles). In 1901 the aggregate number
+of students was 715, of whom 209 were returned as under the faculty
+of divinity.</p>
+
+<p>As regards secondary schools a broad distinction can be drawn
+according to religion. The Roman Catholics have diocesan schools,
+schools under religious orders, monastic and convent
+schools, and Christian Brothers&rsquo; schools, which were
+<span class="sidenote">Schools.</span>
+attended, according to the census returns in 1901, by nearly 22,000
+pupils, male and female. On the other hand are the endowed schools,
+which are almost exclusively Protestant in their government. Under
+this heading may be included royal and diocesan schools and schools
+upon the foundation of Erasmus Smith, and others privately endowed.
+In 1901 these schools numbered 55 and had an attendance of 2653
+pupils. To these must be added various private establishments,
+which in the same year had over 8000 pupils, mainly Protestants.
+Dealing with these secondary schools as a whole the census of 1901
+gives figures as to the number of pupils engaged upon what the
+commissioners call the &ldquo;higher studies,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> studies involving
+instruction in at least one foreign language. In 1881 the number
+of such pupils was 18,657; in 1891, 23,484; and in 1901, 28,484,
+of whom 17,103 were males and 11,381 females, divided as follows
+among the different religions&mdash;Roman Catholics 18,248, Protestant
+Episcopalians 5669, Presbyterians 3011, Methodists 760, and others
+567. This increase in the number of pupils engaged in the higher
+studies is probably due to a large extent to the scheme for the
+encouragement of intermediate education which was established by
+act of parliament in 1879. A sum of Ł1,000,000, part of the Irish
+Church surplus, was assigned by that act for the promotion of the
+intermediate secular education of boys and girls in Ireland. The
+administration of this fund was entrusted to a board of commissioners,
+who were to apply its revenue for the purposes of the
+act (1) by carrying on a system of public examinations, (2) by
+awarding exhibitions, prizes and certificates to students, and (3)
+by the payment of results fees to the manager of schools. An
+amending act was passed in 1900 and the examinations are now held
+under rules made in virtue of that act. The number of students who
+presented themselves for examination in 1905 was 9677; the
+amount expended in exhibitions and prizes was Ł8536; and the
+grants to schools amounted to over Ł50,000. The examinations were
+held at 259 centres in 99 different localities.</p>
+
+<p>Primary education in Ireland is under the general control of the
+commissioners of national education, who were first created in
+1831 to take the place of the society for the education of the poor,
+and incorporated in 1845. In the year of their incorporation the
+schools under the control of the commissioners numbered 3426,
+with 432,844 pupils, and the amount of the parliamentary grants
+was Ł75,000; while in 1905 there were 8659 schools, with 737,752
+pupils, and the grant was almost Ł1,400,000. Of the pupils attending
+in the latter year, 74% were Roman Catholics, 12% Protestant
+Episcopalians and 11% Presbyterians. The schools under the
+commissioners include national schools proper, model and workhouse
+schools and a number of monastic and convent schools. The Irish
+Education Act of 1892 provided that the parents of children of not
+less than 6 nor more than 14 years of age should cause them to
+attend school in the absence of reasonable excuse on at least 150
+days in the year in municipal boroughs and in towns or townships
+under commissioners; and provisions were made for the partial or
+total abolition of fees in specified circumstances, for a parliamentary
+school grant in lieu of abolished school fees, and for the augmentation
+of the salaries of the national teachers.</p>
+
+<p>There are 5 reformatory schools, 3 for boys and 2 for girls, and 68
+industrial schools, 5 Protestant and 63 Roman Catholic.</p>
+
+<p>By the constituting act of 1899 the control of technical education
+in Ireland was handed over to the Department of Agriculture and
+Technical Instruction and now forms an important part
+of its work. The annual sum of Ł55,000 was allocated
+<span class="sidenote">Technical instruction.</span>
+for the purpose, and this is augmented in various ways.
+The department has devoted itself to (1) promoting instruction
+in experimental science, drawing, manual instruction and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span>
+domestic economy in day secondary schools, (2) supplying funds to
+country and urban authorities for the organization of schemes for
+technical instruction in non-agricultural subjects&mdash;these subjects
+embracing not only preparation for the highly organized industries
+but the teaching of such rural industries as basket-making, (3) the
+training of teachers by classes held at various centres, (4)
+the provision of central institutions, and (5) the awarding of
+scholarships.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Revenue and Expenditure.</i>&mdash;The early statistics as to revenue
+and expenditure in Ireland are very fragmentary and afford
+little possibility of comparison. During the first 15 years
+of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign the expenses of Ireland, chiefly on account
+of wars, amounted, according to Sir James Ware&rsquo;s estimate, to
+over Ł490,000, while the revenue is put by some writers at
+Ł8000 per annum and by others at less. In the reign of James I.
+the customs increased from Ł50 to over Ł9000; but although
+he obtained from various sources about Ł10,000 a year and a
+considerable sum also accrued from the plantation of Ulster,
+the revenue is supposed to have fallen short of the expenditure
+by about Ł16,000 a year. During the reign of Charles I. the
+customs increased fourfold in value, but it was found necessary
+to raise Ł120,000 by yearly subsidies. According to the report
+of the committee appointed by Cromwell to investigate the
+financial condition of Ireland, the revenue in 1654 was Ł197,304
+and the expenditure Ł630,814. At the Restoration the Irish
+parliament granted an hereditary revenue to the king, an excise
+for the maintenance of the army, a subsidy of tonnage and
+poundage for the navy, and a tax on hearths in lieu of feudal
+burdens. &ldquo;Additional duties&rdquo; were granted shortly after the
+Revolution. &ldquo;Appropriate duties&rdquo; were imposed at different
+periods; stamp duties were first granted in 1773, and the post
+office first became a source of revenue in 1783. In 1706 the
+hereditary revenue with additional duties produced over
+Ł394,000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Returns of the ordinary revenue were first presented to the
+Irish parliament in 1730. From special returns to parliament the
+following table shows net income and expenditure over a series of
+years up to 1868:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Income.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Expenditure.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1731</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł405,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł407,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1741</td> <td class="tcr rb">441,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">441,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1761</td> <td class="tcr rb">571,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">773,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1781</td> <td class="tcr rb">739,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,015,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,017,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,615,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1834</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,814,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,439,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,332,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,120,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,851,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,331,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1868</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,176,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,621,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The amount of imperial revenue collected and expended in Ireland
+under various heads for the five years 1902-1906 appears in the
+following tables:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Revenue.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Customs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Excise.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estate, &amp;c.<br />Duties and<br />Stamps.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Property<br />and Income<br />Tax.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Post<br />Office.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Miscel-<br />laneous.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated<br />True<br />Revenue.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł2,244,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł5,822,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,072,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,143,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł923,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł149,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł11,353,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł9,784,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,717,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,011,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">922,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,244,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">960,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">148,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,002,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,205,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,545,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,904,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,033,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,038,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">980,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,646,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,748,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,575,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,584,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,016,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,013,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,002,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,340,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,753,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,524,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5,506,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">890,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">983,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,043,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">150,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,096,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,447,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Consolidated<br />Fund.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Voted.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Local Taxation Accounts.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total<br />Civil<br />Charges.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Collection<br />of Taxes.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Post Office.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Total<br />Expended.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Estimated<br />True<br />Revenue.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Local<br />Taxation<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exchequer<br />Revenue.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł169,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł4,271,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł389,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,055,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł5,884,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł243,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł1,087,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł7,214,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">Ł9,784,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">168,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,357,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">383,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,058,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,967,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">246,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,140,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,353,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,205,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">170,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,569,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">376,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,059,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,174,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">248,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,126,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,548,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,784,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">166,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,547,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">374,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,059,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,146,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">249,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,172,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,567,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,753,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">164,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4,582,500</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">385,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,059,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,191,500</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">245,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,199,000</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,635,500</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9,447,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Subtracting in each year the total expenditure from the estimated
+true revenue it would appear from the foregoing table that Ireland
+contributed to imperial services in the years under consideration the
+following sums: Ł2,570,000, Ł2,852,000, Ł2,200,500, Ł2,186,500
+and Ł1,811,500.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The financial relations between Great Britain and Ireland
+have long been a subject of controversy, and in 1894 a royal
+commission was appointed to consider them, which presented
+its report in 1896. The commissioners, though differing on
+several points, were practically agreed on the following five
+conclusions: (1) that Great Britain and Ireland must, for the
+purposes of a financial inquiry, be considered as separate entities;
+(2) that the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which,
+as events showed, she was unable to bear; (3) that the increase
+of taxation laid upon Ireland between 1853 and 1860 was not
+justified by the then existing circumstances; (4) that identity
+of rates of taxation did not necessarily involve equality of
+burden; (5) that, while the actual tax revenue of Ireland was
+about one-eleventh of that of Great Britain, the relative taxable
+capacity of Ireland was very much smaller, and was not estimated
+by any of the commissioners as exceeding one-twentieth. This
+report furnished the material for much controversy, but little
+practical outcome; it was avowedly based on the consideration
+of Ireland as a separate country, and was therefore inconsistent
+with the principles of Unionism.</p>
+
+<p>The public debt of Ireland amounted to over Ł134,000,000 in
+1817, in which year it was consolidated with the British national
+debt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Local Taxation.</i>&mdash;The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898
+effected considerable changes in local finance. The fiscal duties
+of the grand jury were abolished, and the county council which
+took the place of the grand jury for both fiscal and administrative
+purposes was given three sources of revenue: (1) the agricultural
+grant, (2) the licence duties and other imperial grants, and (3)
+the poor rate. These may be considered separately. (1) It was
+provided that the Local Government Board should ascertain the
+amount of county cess and poor rate levied off agricultural land in
+Ireland during the year ending (as regards the poor rate) on the
+29th of September, and (as regards the county cess) on the 21st of
+June 1897; and that half this amount, to be called the agricultural
+grant, should be paid annually without any variation from the
+original sum out of the consolidated fund to a local taxation account.
+The amount of the agricultural grant was ascertained to be over
+Ł727,000. Elaborate provisions were also made in the act for fixing
+the proportion of the grant to which each county should be entitled,
+and the lord-lieutenant was empowered to pay half-yearly the
+proportion so ascertained to the county council. (2) Before the
+passing of the act grants were made from the imperial exchequer
+to the grand juries in aid of the maintenance of lunatics and to
+boards of guardians for medical and educational purposes and for
+salaries under the Public Health (Ireland) Act. In 1897 these
+grants amounted to over Ł236,000. Under the Local Government
+Act they ceased, and in lieu thereof it was provided that there should
+be annually paid out of the consolidated fund to the local taxation
+account a sum equal to the duties collected in Ireland on certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page756" id="page756"></a>756</span>
+specified local taxation licences. In addition, it was enacted that
+a fixed sum of Ł79,000 should be forthcoming annually from the
+consolidated fund. (3) The county cess was abolished, and the
+county councils were empowered to levy a single rate for the rural
+districts and unions, called by the name of poor rate, for all the
+purposes of the act. This rate is made upon the occupier and not
+upon the landlord, and the occupier is not entitled, save in a few
+specified cases, to deduct any of the rate from his rent. For the year
+ending the 31st of March 1905, the total receipts of the Irish county
+councils, exclusive of the county boroughs, were Ł2,964,298 and
+their total expenditure was Ł2,959,961, the two chief items of
+expenditure being &ldquo;Union Charges&rdquo; Ł1,002,620 and &ldquo;Road
+Expenditure&rdquo; Ł779,174. During the same period the total receipts
+from local taxation in Ireland amounted to Ł4,013,303, and the
+amount granted from imperial sources in aid of local taxation was
+Ł1,781,143.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loans.</i>&mdash;The total amount issued on loan, exclusive of closed
+sources, by the Commissioners of Public Works, up to the 31st
+of March 1906, was Ł26,946,393, of which Ł15,221,913 had been
+repaid to the exchequer as principal and Ł9,011,506 as interest,
+and Ł1,609,694 had been remitted. Of the sums advanced, about
+Ł5,500,000 was under the Improvement of Lands Acts, nearly
+Ł3,500,000 under the Public Health Acts, over Ł3,000,000 for lunatic
+asylums, and over Ł3,000,000 under the various Labourers Acts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banking.</i>&mdash;The Bank of Ireland was established in Dublin in
+1783 with a capital of Ł600,000, which was afterwards enlarged at
+various times, and on the renewal of its charter in 1821 it was
+increased to Ł3,000,000. It holds in Ireland a position corresponding
+to the Bank of England in England. There are eight other joint-stock
+banks in Ireland. Including the Bank of Ireland, their subscribed
+capital amounts to Ł26,349,230 and their paid-up capital to
+Ł7,309,230. The authorized note circulation is Ł6,354,494 and
+the actual note circulation in June 1906 was Ł6,310,243, two of
+the banks not being banks of issue. The deposits in the joint-stock
+banks amounted in 1880 to Ł29,350,000; in 1890 to Ł33,061,000;
+in 1900 to Ł40,287,000; and in 1906 to Ł45,842,000. The deposits
+in the Post Office Savings Banks rose from Ł1,481,000 in 1880 to
+Ł10,459,000 in 1906, and the deposits in Trustee Savings Banks
+from Ł2,100,165 in 1880 to Ł2,488,740 in 1905.</p>
+
+<p><i>National Wealth.</i>&mdash;To arrive at any estimate of the national wealth
+is exceptionally difficult in the case of Ireland, since the largest
+part of its wealth is derived from agriculture, and many important
+factors, such as the amount of capital invested in the linen and
+other industries, cannot be included, owing to their uncertainty.
+The following figures for 1905-1906 may, however, be given: valuation
+of lands, houses, &amp;c., Ł15,466,000; value of principal crops,
+Ł35,362,000; value of cattle, &amp;c., Ł81,508,000; paid-up capital and
+reserve funds of joint-stock banks, Ł11,300,000; deposits in joint-stock
+and savings banks, Ł58,791,000; investments in government
+stock, transferable at Bank of Ireland, Ł36,952,000; paid-up capital
+and debentures of railway companies, Ł38,405,000; paid-up capital
+of tramway companies, Ł2,074,000.</p>
+
+<p>In 1906 the net value of property assessed to estate duty, &amp;c.,
+in Ireland was Ł16,016,000 as compared with Ł306,673,000 in
+England and Ł38,451,000 in Scotland; and in 1905 the net produce
+of the income tax in Ireland was Ł983,000, as compared with
+Ł27,423,000 in England and Ł2,888,000 in Scotland.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<b>Agriculture:</b> Accounts of the land systems of
+Ireland will be found in James Godkin&rsquo;s <i>Land War in Ireland</i>
+(1870); Sigerson&rsquo;s <i>History of Land Tenure in Ireland</i> (1871);
+Joseph Fisher&rsquo;s <i>History of Land Holding in Ireland</i> (1877); R. B.
+O&rsquo;Brien&rsquo;s <i>History of the Irish Land Question</i> (1880); A. G. Richey&rsquo;s
+<i>Irish Land Laws</i> (1880). General information will be found in J. P.
+Kennedy&rsquo;s Digest of the evidence given before the Devon Commission
+(Dublin, 1847-1848); the <i>Report</i> of the Bessborough
+Commission, 1881, and of the commission on the agriculture of the
+United Kingdom, 1881. The Department of Agriculture publishes
+several official annual reports, dealing very fully with Irish agriculture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">Manufactures and Commerce:</span> <i>Discourse on the Woollen Manufacture
+of Ireland</i> (1698); <i>An Inquiry into the State and Progress of
+the Linen Manufacture in Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1757); G. E. Howard,
+<i>Treatise on the Revenue of Ireland</i> (1776); John Hely Hutchinson,
+<i>Commercial Restraints of Ireland</i> (1779); Lord Sheffield, <i>Observations
+on the Manufactures, Trade and Present State of Ireland</i> (1785);
+R. B. Clarendon, <i>A Sketch of the Revenue and Finances of Ireland</i>
+(1791); the annual reports of the Flax Supply Association and other
+local bodies, published at Belfast; reports by the Department of
+Agriculture on Irish imports and exports (these are a new feature
+and contain much valuable information).</p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">Miscellaneous:</span> Sir William Petty, <i>Political Anatomy of Ireland</i>
+(1691); Arthur Dobbs, <i>Essay on the Trade of Ireland</i> (1729); <i>Abstract
+of the Number of Protestant and Popish Families in Ireland</i>
+(1726); Arthur Young, <i>Tour in Ireland</i> (1780); T. Newenham,
+<i>View of the Circumstances of Ireland</i> (1809), and <i>Inquiry into the
+Population of Ireland</i> (1805); César Moreau, <i>Past and Present
+State of Ireland</i> (1827); J. M. Murphy, <i>Ireland, Industrial, Political
+and Social</i> (1870); R. Dennis, <i>Industrial Ireland</i> (1887); Grimshaw,
+<i>Facts and Figures about Ireland</i> (1893); <i>Report of the Recess Committee</i>
+(1896, published in Dublin); <i>Report of the Financial Relations
+Commission</i> (1897); Sir H. Plunkett, <i>Ireland in the New Century</i>
+(London, 1905); Filson Young, <i>Ireland at the Cross-Roads</i> (London,
+1904); Thom&rsquo;s <i>Almanac</i>, published annually in Dublin, gives a
+very useful summary of statistics and other information.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. H. Po.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Early History</p>
+
+<p>On account of its isolated position we might expect to find
+Ireland in possession of a highly developed system of legends
+bearing on the origins of its inhabitants. Ireland
+remained outside the pale of the ancient Roman
+<span class="sidenote">Historical sources.</span>
+world, and a state of society which was peculiarly
+favourable to the preservation of national folk-lore survived
+in the island until the 16th century. The jealousy
+with which the hereditary antiquaries guarded the tribal
+genealogies naturally leads us to hope that the records which
+have come down to us may shed some light on the difficult
+problems connected with the early inhabitants of these islands
+and the west of Europe. Although innumerable histories of
+Ireland have appeared in print since the publication of Roderick
+O&rsquo;Flaherty&rsquo;s <i>Ogygia</i> (London, 1677), the authors have in almost
+every case been content to reproduce the legendary accounts
+without bringing any serious criticism to bear on the sources.
+This is partly to be explained by the fact that the serious study
+of Irish philology only dates from 1853 and much of the most
+important material has not yet appeared in print. In the
+middle of the 19th century O&rsquo;Donovan and O&rsquo;Curry collected
+a vast amount of undigested information about the early history
+of the island, but as yet J. B. Bury in his monograph on St
+Patrick is the only trained historian who has ever adequately
+dealt with any of the problems connected with ancient Ireland.
+Hence it is evident that our knowledge of the subject must
+remain extremely unsatisfactory until the chief sources have
+been properly sifted by competent scholars. A beginning has been
+made by Sir John Rhys in his &ldquo;Studies in Early Irish History&rdquo;
+(<i>Proceedings of the British Academy</i>, vol. i.), and by John MacNeill
+in a suggestive series of papers contributed to the <i>New Ireland
+Review</i> (March 1906-Feb. 1907). Much might reasonably be
+expected from the sciences of archaeology and anthropology.
+But although Ireland is as rich as, or even richer in monuments
+of the past than, most countries in Europe, comparatively little
+has been done owing in large measure to the lack of systematic
+investigation.</p>
+
+<p>It may be as well to specify some of the more important
+sources at the outset. Of the classical writers who notice
+Ireland Ptolemy is the only one who gives us any very definite
+information. The legendary origins first appear in Nennius
+and in a number of poems by such writers as Maelmura
+(d. 884), Cinaed Uah Artacáin (d. 975), Eochaid Ua Flainn
+(d. 984), Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056) and Gilla Coemgin (d.
+1072). They are also embodied in the <i>Leabhar Gabhála</i> or <i>Book
+of Invasions</i>, the earliest copy of which is contained in the
+<i>Book of Leinster</i>, a 12th-century MS., Geoffrey Keating&rsquo;s <i>History</i>,
+Dugald MacFirbis&rsquo;s <i>Genealogies</i> and various collections of annals
+such as those by the Four Masters. Of prime importance for
+the earlier period are the stories known collectively as the Ulster
+cycle, among which the lengthy epic the <i>Táin Bo Cúalnge</i> takes
+first place. Amongst the numerous chronicles the <i>Annals of
+Ulster</i>, which commence with the year 441, are by far the most
+trustworthy. The <i>Book of Rights</i> is another compilation which
+gives valuable information with regard to the relations of the
+various kingdoms to one another. Finally, there are the extensive
+collections of genealogies preserved in Rawlinson B 502, the
+<i>Books of Leinster</i> and <i>Ballymote</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Earliest Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;There is as yet no certain evidence to
+show that Ireland was inhabited during the palaeolithic period.
+But there are abundant traces of man in the neolithic state of
+culture (see Sir W. R. W. Wilde&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue</i> of the antiquities
+in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy). The use of bronze
+was perhaps introduced about 1450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The craniological
+evidence is unfortunately at present insufficient to show whether
+the introduction of metal coincided with any particular invasion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page757" id="page757"></a>757</span>
+either from Britain or the European continent. At any rate
+it was not until well on in the Bronze Age, perhaps about 600
+or 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, that the Goidels, the first invaders speaking a Celtic
+language, set foot in Ireland. The newcomers probably overran
+the whole island, subduing but not exterminating the older
+race with which they doubtless intermarried freely, as pre-Celtic
+types are frequent among the populations of Connaught and
+Munster at the present day. What the language was that was
+spoken by the neolithic aborigines is a question which will
+probably never be settled. The division into provinces or
+&ldquo;fifths&rdquo; (Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, E. Munster and W.
+Munster) appears to be older than the historical period, and
+may be due to the Goidels. Between 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+various Belgic and other Brythonic tribes established themselves
+in Britain bringing with them the knowledge of how to work
+in iron. Probably much about the same time certain Belgic
+tribes effected settlements in the S.E. of Ireland. Some time
+must have elapsed before any Brythonic people undertook to
+defy the powerful Goidelic states, as the supremacy of the
+Brythonic kingdom of Tara does not seem to have been acknowledged
+before the 4th century of our era. The early Belgic
+settlers constituted perhaps in the main trading states which
+acted as intermediaries of commerce between Ireland and Gaul.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+In addition to these Brythonic colonies a number of Pictish
+tribes, who doubtless came over from Scotland, conquered for
+themselves parts of Antrim and Down where they maintained
+their independence till late in the historical period. Picts are
+also represented as having settled in the county of Roscommon;
+but we have at present no means of ascertaining when this
+invasion took place.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classical Writers.</i>&mdash;Greek and Roman writers seem to have
+possessed very little definite information about the island, though
+much of what they relate corresponds to the state of society
+disclosed in the older epics. Strabo held the inhabitants
+to be mere savages, addicted to cannibalism and having no
+marriage ties. Solinus speaks of the luxurious pastures, but the
+natives he terms an inhospitable and warlike nation. The
+conquerors among them having first drunk the blood of their
+enemies, afterwards besmear their faces therewith; they regard
+right and wrong alike. Whenever a woman brings forth a male
+child, she puts his first food on the sword of her husband, and
+lightly introduces the first <i>auspicium</i> of nourishment into his
+little mouth with the point of the sword. Pomponius Mela
+speaks of the climate as unfit for ripening grain, but he, too,
+notices the luxuriance of the grass. However, it is not until we
+reach Ptolemy that we feel we are treading on firm ground.
+His description is of supreme importance for the study of early
+Irish ethnography. Ptolemy gives the names of sixteen peoples
+in Ireland, several of which can be identified. As we should
+expect from our knowledge of later Irish history scarcely any
+towns are mentioned. In the S.E., probably in Co. Wicklow,
+we find the Manapii&mdash;evidently a colony from N.E. Gaul. North
+of them, perhaps in Kildare, a similar people, the Cauci, are
+located. In Waterford and Wexford are placed the Brigantes,
+who also occur in Yorkshire. The territory to the west of the
+Brigantes is occupied by a people called by Ptolemy the Iverni.
+Their capital he gives as Ivernis, and in the extreme S.W.
+of the island he marks the mouth of the river Iernos, by which
+the top of Dingle Bay called Castlemaine Harbour is perhaps
+intended. The Iverni must have been a nation of considerable
+importance, as they play a prominent part in the historical
+period, where they are known as the Érnai or Éraind of Munster.
+It would seem that the Iverni were the first native tribe with
+whom foreign traders came in contact, as it is from them that
+the Latin name for the whole island is derived. The earliest
+form was probably <i>Iveriy&#333;</i> or <i>Iveriy&#363;</i>, genitive <i>Iveryonos</i>, from
+which come Lat. <i>Iverio</i>, <i>Hiverio</i> (Antonine Itinerary), <i>Hiberio</i>
+(Confession of St Patrick), Old Irish <i>Ériu</i>, <i>Hériu</i>, gen. <i>Hérenn</i>
+with regular loss of intervocalic <i>v</i>, <i>Welsh Iwerddon</i> (from the
+oblique cases). West of the Iverni in Co. Kerry Ptolemy mentions
+the Vellabori, and going in a northerly direction following the
+coast we find the Gangani, Autini (Autiri), Nagnatae (Magnatae).
+Erdini (cf. the name Lough Erne), Vennicnii, Rhobogdii, Darini
+and Eblanii, none of whom can be identified with certainty.
+In south Ulster Ptolemy locates a people called the Voluntii
+who seem to correspond to the Ulidians of a later period (Ir.
+<i>Ulaid</i>, in Irish Lat. <i>Uloti</i>). About Queen&rsquo;s county or Tipperary
+are situated the Usdiae, whose name is compared with the later
+Ossory (Ir. <i>Os-raige</i>). Lastly, in the north of Wexford we find
+the Coriondi who occur in Irish texts near the Boyne (Mid. Ir.
+<i>Coraind</i>). It would seem as if Ptolemy&rsquo;s description of Ireland
+answered in some measure to the state of affairs which we find
+obtaining in the older Ulster epic cycle.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Both are probably
+anterior to the foundation of a central state at Tara.</p>
+
+<p><i>Legendary Origins.</i>&mdash;We can unfortunately derive no further
+assistance from external sources and must therefore examine
+the native traditions. From the 9th century onwards we find
+accounts of various races who had colonized the island. These
+stories naturally become amplified as times goes on, and in what
+we may regard as the classical or standard versions to be found
+in Keating, the Four Masters, Dugald MacFirbis and elsewhere,
+no fewer than five successive invasions are enumerated. The
+first colony is represented as having arrived in Ireland in <span class="scs">A.M.</span>
+2520, under the leadership of an individual named Partholan
+who hailed from Middle Greece. His company landed in Kenmare
+Bay and settled in what is now Co. Dublin. After occupying
+the island for 300 years they were all carried off by a plague
+and were buried at Tallaght (Ir. <i>Tamlacht</i>, &ldquo;plague-grave&rdquo;),
+at which place a number of ancient remains (probably belonging,
+however, to the Viking period) have come to light. In <span class="scs">A.M.</span> 2850
+a warrior from Scythia called Nemed reached Ireland with 900
+fighting men. Nemed&rsquo;s people are represented as having to
+struggle for their existence with a race of sea-pirates known as
+the Fomorians. The latter&rsquo;s stronghold was Tory Island, where
+they had a mighty fortress. After undergoing great hardship the
+Nemedians succeeded in destroying the fortress and in slaying
+the enemies&rsquo; leaders, but the Fomorians received reinforcements
+from Africa. A second battle was fought in which both parties
+were nearly exterminated. Of the Nemedians only thirty
+warriors escaped, among them being three descendants of Nemed,
+who made their way each to a different country (<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3066).
+One of them, Simon Brec, proceeded to Greece, where his posterity
+multiplied to such an extent that the Greeks grew afraid and
+reduced them to slavery. In time their position became so
+intolerable that they resolved to escape, and they arrived in
+Ireland <span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3266. This third body of invaders is known collectively
+as Firbolgs, and is ethnologically and historically very
+important. They are stated to have had five leaders, all brothers,
+each of whom occupied one of the provinces or &ldquo;fifths.&rdquo; We
+find them landing in different places. One party, the Fir Galeoin,
+landed at Inber Slangi, the mouth of the Slaney, and occupied
+much of Leinster. Another, the Fir Domnand, settled in Mayo
+where their name survives in Irrus Domnand, the ancient name
+for the district of Erris. A third band, the Firbolg proper, took
+possession of Munster. Many authorities such as Keating and
+MacFirbis admit that descendants of the Firbolgs were still to be
+found in parts of Ireland in their own day, though they are
+characterized as &ldquo;tattling, guileful, tale-bearing, noisy, contemptible,
+mean, wretched, unsteady, harsh and inhospitable.&rdquo;
+The Firbolgs had scarcely established themselves in the island
+when a fresh set of invaders appeared on the scene. These were
+the Tuatha Dé Danann (&ldquo;tribes of the god Danu&rdquo;), who according
+to the story were also descended from Nemed. They came
+originally from Greece and were highly skilled in necromancy.
+Having to flee from Greece on account of a Syrian invasion they
+proceeded to Scandinavia. Under Nuadu Airgetláim they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page758" id="page758"></a>758</span>
+moved to Scotland, and finally arrived in Ireland (<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3303),
+bringing with them in addition to the celebrated Lia Fáil (&ldquo;stone
+of destiny&rdquo;) which they set up at Tara, the cauldron of the
+Dagda and the sword and spear of Lugaid Lámfada. Eochaid,
+son of Erc, king of the Firbolgs, having declined to surrender the
+sovereignty of Ireland, a great battle was fought on the plain
+of Moytura near Cong (Co. Mayo), the site of a prehistoric
+cemetery. In this contest the Firbolgs were overthrown with
+great slaughter, and the remnants of the race according to
+Keating and other writers took refuge in Arran, Islay, Rathlin
+and the Hebrides, where they dwelt until driven out by Picts.
+Twenty-seven years later the Tuatha Dé had to defend themselves
+against the Fomorians, who were almost annihilated at the battle
+of north Moytura near Sligo. The Tuatha Dé then enjoyed
+undisturbed possession of Ireland until the arrival of the Milesians
+in <span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3500.</p>
+
+<p>All the early writers dwell with great fondness on the origin
+and adventures of this race. The Milesians came primarily
+from Scythia and after sojourning for some time in Egypt,
+Crete and in Scythia again, they finally arrived in Spain. In
+the line of mythical ancestors which extends without interruption
+up to Noah, the names of Fenius Farsaid, Goedel Glas, Eber Scot
+and Breogan constantly recur in Irish story. At length eight
+sons of Miled (Lat. <i>Milesius</i>) set forth to conquer Ireland. The
+spells of the Tuatha Dé accounted for most of their number.
+However, after two battles the newcomers succeeded in overcoming
+the older race; and two brothers, Eber Find and Eremon,
+divided the island between them, Eber Find taking east and
+west Munster, whilst Eremon received Leinster and Connaught.
+Lugaid, son of the brother of Miled, took possession of south-west
+Munster. At the same time Ulster was left to Eber son of Ir son
+of Miled. The old historians agree that Ireland was ruled by
+a succession of Milesian monarchs until the reign of Roderick
+O&rsquo;Connor, the last native king. The Tuatha Dé are represented
+as retiring into the <i>síd</i> or fairy mounds. Eber Find and Eremon
+did not remain long in agreement. The historians place the
+beginnings of the antithesis between north and south at the
+very commencement of the Milesian domination. A battle was
+fought between the two brothers in which Eber Find lost his life.
+In the reign of Eremon the Picts are stated to have arrived in
+Ireland, coming from Scythia. It will have been observed that
+Scythia had a peculiar attraction for medieval Irish chroniclers
+on account of its resemblance to the name Scotti, Scots. The
+Picts first settled in Leinster; but the main body were forced
+to remove to Scotland, only a few remaining behind in Meath.
+Among the numerous mythical kings placed by the annalists
+between Eremon and the Christian era we may mention Tigernmas
+(<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3581), Ollam Fodla (<span class="scs">A.M.</span> 3922) who established the
+meeting of Tara, Cimbaeth (<i>c.</i> 305 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the reputed founder of
+Emain Macha, Ugaine Mór, Labraid Loingsech, and Eochaid
+Feidlech, who built Rath Cruachan for his celebrated daughter,
+Medb queen of Connaught. During the 1st century of our era
+we hear of the rising of the <i>aithech-tuatha</i>, <i>i.e.</i> subject or plebeian
+tribes, or in other words the Firbolgs, who paid <i>daer</i>- or base rent
+to the Milesians. From a resemblance in the name which is
+probably fortuitous these tribes have been identified with the
+Attecotti of Roman writers. Under Cairbre Cinnchait (&ldquo;cathead&rdquo;)
+the oppressed peoples succeeded in wresting the
+sovereignty from the Milesians, whose princes and nobles were
+almost exterminated (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 90). The line of Eremon was, however,
+restored on the accession of Tuathal Techtmar (&ldquo;the legitimate&rdquo;),
+who reigned <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130-160. This ruler took measures to consolidate
+the power of the <i>ardrí</i> (supreme king). He constructed a
+number of fortresses on the great central plain and carved out
+the kingdom of Meath to serve as his mensal land. The new
+kingdom was composed of the present counties of Meath, Westmeath
+and Longford together with portions of Monaghan, Cavan,
+King&rsquo;s Co. and Kildare. He was also the first to levy the famous
+Leinster tribute, the <i>boroma</i>, in consequence of an insult offered
+to him by one of the kings of that province. This tribute, which
+was only remitted in the 7th century at the instance of St Moling,
+must have been the source of constant war and oppression. A
+grandson of Tuathal&rsquo;s, the famous Conn Cétchathach (&ldquo;the
+hundred-fighter&rdquo;), whose death is placed in the year 177 after a
+reign of about twenty years, was constantly at war with the
+Munster ruler Eogan Mór, also called Mog Nuadat, of the race of
+Eber Find. Eogan had subdued the Érnai and the Corco Laigde
+(descendants of Lugaid son of Ith) in Munster, and even the
+supreme king was obliged to share the island with him. Hence
+the well-known names Leth Cuinn or &ldquo;Conn&rsquo;s half&rdquo; (north
+Ireland), and Leth Moga or &ldquo;Mug&rsquo;s half&rdquo; (south Ireland).
+The boundary line ran from the Bay of Galway to Dublin along
+the great ridge of gravel known as Eiscir Riada which stretches
+across Ireland. Mog Nuadat had a son Ailill Aulom who plays
+a prominent part in the Irish sagas and genealogies, and his sons
+Eogan, Cian and Cormac Cas, all became the ancestors of well-known
+families. Conn&rsquo;s grandson, Cormac son of Art, is represented
+as having reigned in great splendour (254-266) and as
+having been a great patron of learning. It was during this reign
+that the sept of the Dési were expelled from Meath. They
+settled in Munster where their name still survives in the barony
+of Decies (Co. Waterford). A curious passage in Cormac&rsquo;s
+<i>Glossary</i> connects one of the leaders of this sept, Cairpre Musc,
+with the settlements of the Irish in south Wales which may have
+taken place as early as the 3rd century. Of greater consequence
+was the invasion of Ulster by the three Collas, cousins of the
+ardrí Muredach. The stronghold of Emain Macha was destroyed
+and the Ulstermen were driven across the Newry River into
+Dalriada, which was inhabited by Picts.</p>
+
+<p>The old inhabitants of Ulster are usually termed Ulidians to
+distinguish them from the Milesian peoples who overran the
+province. With the advent of Niall Nóigiallach (&ldquo;N. of the nine
+hostages&rdquo; reigned 379-405) son of Eochaid Muigmedóin (358-366)
+we are treading safer ground. It was about this time that
+the Milesian kingdom of Tara was firmly established. Nor
+was Niall&rsquo;s activity confined to Ireland alone. Irish sources
+represent him as constantly engaged in marauding expeditions
+oversea, and it was doubtless on one of these that St Patrick
+was taken captive. These movements coincide with the inroads
+of the Picts and Scots recorded by Roman writers. It is probably
+from this period that the Irish colonies in south Wales, Somerset,
+Devon and Cornwall date. And the earliest migrations from
+Ulster to Argyll may also have taken place about this time.
+Literary evidence of the colonization of south Wales is preserved
+both in Welsh and Irish sources, and some idea of the extent
+of Irish oversea activity may be gathered from the distribution
+of the Ogam inscriptions in Wales, south-west England and the
+Isle of Man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Criticism of the Legendary Origins.</i>&mdash;It is only in recent years
+that the Irish legendary origins have been subjected to serious
+criticism. The fondly cherished theory which attributes Milesian
+descent to the bulk of the native population has at length been
+assailed. MacNeill asserts that in MacFirbis&rsquo;s genealogies the
+majority of the tribes in early Ireland do not trace their descent
+to Eremon and Eber Find; they are rather the descendants of
+the subject races, one of which figures in the list of conquests
+under the name of Firbolg. The stories of the Fomorians were
+doubtless suggested in part by the Viking invasions, but the
+origin of the Partholan legend has not been discovered. The
+Tuatha Dé do not appear in any of the earliest quasi-historical
+documents, nor in Nennius, and they scarcely correspond to
+any particular race. It seems more probable that a special
+invasion was assigned to them by later writers in order to explain
+the presence of mythical personages going by their name in
+the heroic cycles, as they were found inconvenient by the
+monkish historians. In the early centuries of our era Ireland
+would therefore have been occupied by the Firbolgs and kindred
+races and the Milesians. According to MacNeill the Firbolg
+tribal names are formed with the suffix -<i>raige</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Ciarraige</i>,
+Kerry, <i>Osraige</i>, Ossory, or with the obscure words <i>Corcu</i> and
+<i>mocu</i> (<i>maccu</i>), <i>e.g.</i> <i>Corco Duibne</i>, Corkaguiney, <i>Corco Mruad</i>,
+Corcomroe, <i>Macu Loegdae</i>, <i>Macu Teimne</i>. In the case of <i>corcu</i>
+and <i>mocu</i> the name which follows is frequently the name of an
+eponymous ancestor. The Milesians on the other hand named
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page759" id="page759"></a>759</span>
+themselves after an historical ancestor employing terms such
+as <i>ui</i>, &ldquo;descendants,&rdquo; <i>cland</i>, &ldquo;children,&rdquo; <i>dál</i>, &ldquo;division,&rdquo;
+<i>cinél</i>, &ldquo;kindred,&rdquo; or <i>síl</i>, &ldquo;seed.&rdquo; In this connexion it may be
+noted that practically all the Milesian pedigrees converge on
+three ancestors in the 2nd century&mdash;Conn Cétchathach king of
+Tara, Cathair Mór of Leinster, and Ailill Aulom of Munster,&mdash;whilst
+in scarcely any of them are mythological personages
+absent when we go farther back than <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300. Special genealogies
+were framed to link up other races, <i>e.g.</i> the Éraind and
+Corcu Loegdi of Munster and the Ulidians with the Milesians
+of Tara.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar characteristic of the Milesian conquest is the
+establishment of a central monarchy at Tara. No trace of such
+a state of affairs is to be found in the Ulster epic. In the <i>Táin
+Bó Cúalnge</i> we find Ireland divided into fifths, each ruled over
+by its own king. These divisions were: Ulster with Emain
+Macha as capital, Connaught with Cruachu as residence, north
+Munster from Slieve Bloom to north Kerry, south Munster from
+south Kerry to Waterford, and Leinster consisting of the two
+kingdoms of Tara and Ailinn. Moreover, the kings of Tara
+mentioned in the Ulster cycle do not figure in any list of Milesian
+kings. It would appear then that the central kingdom of Tara
+was an innovation subsequent to the state of society described
+in the oldest sagas and the political position reflected in Ptolemy&rsquo;s
+account. It was probably due to an invasion undertaken by
+Brythons<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> from Britain, but it is impossible to assign a precise
+date for their arrival. Until the end of the 3rd century the
+Milesian power must have been confined to the valley of the
+Boyne and the district around Tara. At the beginning of the
+4th century the three Collas founded the kingdom of Oriel
+(comprising the present counties of Armagh, Monaghan, north
+Louth, south Fermanagh) and drove the Ulidians into the
+eastern part of the province. Brian and Fiachra, sons of
+Eochaid Muigmedóin, conquered for themselves the country of
+the Ui Briuin (Roscommon, Leitrim, Cavan) and Tír Fiachrach,
+the territory of the Firbolg tribe the Fir Domnann in the valley
+of the Moy (Co. Mayo). Somewhat later south Connaught
+was similarly wrested from the older race and colonized by
+descendants of Brian and Fiachra, later known as Ui Fiachrach
+Aidni and Ui Briuin Seola. The north of Ulster is stated to have
+been conquered and colonized by Conall and Eogan, sons of
+Niall Nóigiallach. The former gave his name to the western
+portion, Tír Conaill (Co. Donegal), whilst Inishowen was called
+Tír Eogain after Eogan. The name Tír Eogain later became
+associated with south Ulster where it survives in the county
+name Tyrone. The whole kingdom of the north is commonly
+designated the kingdom of Ailech, from the ancient stronghold
+near Derry which the sons of Niall probably took over from
+the earlier inhabitants. At the end of the 5th century Maine, a
+relative of the king of Tara, was apportioned a tract of Firbolg
+territory to the west of the Suck in Connaught, which formed the
+nucleus of a powerful state known as Hy Maine (in English
+commonly called the &ldquo;O&rsquo;Kelly&rsquo;s country&rdquo;). Thus practically
+the whole of the north and west gradually came under the sway
+of the Milesian rulers. Nevertheless one portion retained its
+independence. This was Ulidia, consisting of Dalriada, Dal
+Fiatach, Dal Araide, including the present counties of Antrim
+and Down. The bulk of the population here was probably
+Pictish; but the Dal Fiatach, representing the old Ulidians
+or ancient population of Ulster, maintained themselves until
+the 8th century when they were subdued by their Pictish
+neighbours. The relationship of Munster and Leinster to the
+Tara dynasty is not so easy to define. The small kingdom of
+Ossory remained independent until a very late period. As for
+Leinster none of the Brythonic peoples mentioned by Ptolemy
+left traces of their name, although it is possible that the ruling
+family may have been derived from them. It would seem that
+the Fir Galeoin who play such a prominent part in the <i>Táin</i>
+had been crushed before authentic history begins. The king of
+Leinster was for centuries the most determined opponent of the
+<i>ardrí</i>, an antithesis which is embodied in the story of the <i>boroma</i>
+tribute. When we turn to Munster we find that Cashel was the
+seat of power in historical times. Now Cashel (a loanword from
+Lat. <i>castellum</i>) was not founded Until the beginning of the 5th
+century by Core son of Lugaid. The legendary account attributes
+the subjugation of the various peoples inhabiting Munster to
+Mog Nuadat, and the pedigrees are invariably traced up to his
+son Ailill Aulom. Rhys adopts the view that the race of Eber
+Find was not Milesian but a branch of the Érnai, and this theory
+has much in its favour. The allegiance of the rulers of Munster to
+Niall and his descendants can at the best of times only have
+been nominal.</p>
+
+<p>In this way we get a number of over-kingdoms acknowledging
+only the supremacy of the Tara dynasty. These were (1)
+Munster with Cashel as centre, (2) Connaught, (3) Ailech, (4)
+Oriel, (5) Ulidia, (6) Meath, (7) Leinster, (8) Ossory. Some of
+these states might be split up into various parts at certain
+periods, each part becoming for the time-being an over-kingdom.
+For instance, Ailech might be resolved into Tír Conaill and
+Tír Eogain according to political conditions. Hence the number
+of over-kingdoms is given variously in different documents.
+The supremacy was vested in the descendants of Niall Nóigiallach
+without interruption until 1002; but as Niall&rsquo;s descendants were
+represented by four reigning families, the high-kingship passed
+from one branch to another. Nevertheless after the middle
+of the 8th century the title of <i>ardrí</i> (high-king) was only held
+by the Cinél Eogain (northern Hy Neill) and the rulers of Meath
+(southern Hy Neill), as the kingdom of Oriel had dropped into
+insignificance. The supremacy of the <i>ardrí</i> was more often than
+not purely nominal. This must have been particularly the case
+in Leth Moga.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion in Early Ireland.</i>&mdash;Our knowledge of the beliefs of the
+pagan Irish is very slight. The oldest texts belonging to the
+heroic cycle are not preserved in any MS. before 1100, and
+though the sagas were certainly committed to writing several
+centuries before that date, it is evident that the monkish transcribers
+have toned down or omitted features that savoured too
+strongly of paganism. Supernatural beings play an important
+part in the <i>Táin Bó Cualgne</i>, <i>Cuchulinn&rsquo;s Sickbed</i>, the <i>Wooing
+of Emer</i> and similar stories, but the relations between ordinary
+mortals and such divine or semi-divine personages is not easy
+to establish. It seems unlikely that the ancient Irish had a
+highly developed pantheon. On the other hand there are
+abundant traces of animistic worship, which have survived in
+wells, often associated with a sacred tree (Ir. <i>bile</i>), bulláns,
+pillar stones, weapons. There are also traces of the worship of
+the elements, prominent among which are sun and fire. The
+belief in earth spirits or fairies (Ir. <i>aes</i> <i>síde</i>, <i>síd</i>) forms perhaps
+the most striking feature of Irish belief. The sagas teem with
+references to the inhabitants of the fairy mounds, who play such
+an important part in the mind of the peasantry of our own time.
+These supernatural beings are sometimes represented as immortal,
+but often they fall victims to the prowess of mortals. Numerous
+cases of marriage between fairies and mortals are recorded. The
+Tuatha Dé Danann is used as a collective name for the <i>aes síde</i>.
+The representatives of this race in the <i>Táin Bó Cualgne</i> play a
+somewhat similar part to the gods of the ancient Greeks in the
+<i>Iliad</i>, though they are of necessity of a much more shadowy
+nature. Prominent among them were Manannán mac Lir, who
+is connected with the sea and the Isle of Man, and the Dagda,
+the father of a numerous progeny. One of them, Bodb Derg, resided
+near Portumna on the shore of Lough Derg, whilst another,
+Angus Mac-in-óg, dwelt at the Brug of the Boyne, the well-known
+tumulus at New Grange. The Dagda&rsquo;s daughter Brigit transmitted
+many of her attributes to the Christian saint of the same
+name (d. 523). The ancient Brigit seems to have been the
+patroness of the arts and was probably also the goddess of fertility.
+At any rate it is with her that the sacred fire at Kildare which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page760" id="page760"></a>760</span>
+burnt almost uninterruptedly until the time of the Reformation
+was associated; and she was commonly invoked in the Hebrides,
+and until quite recently in Donegal, to secure good crops. Well-known
+fairy queens are Clidna (south Munster) and Aibell (north
+Munster). We frequently hear of three goddesses of war&mdash;Ana,
+Bodb and Macha, also generally called Morrígu and Badb.
+They showed themselves in battles hovering over the heads of
+the combatants in the form of a carrion crow. The name Bodb
+appears on a Gaulish stone as (<i>Cathu</i>-)<i>bodvae</i>. The <i>Geniti glinni</i>
+and <i>demna aeir</i> were other fierce spirits who delighted in carnage.</p>
+
+<p>When we come to treat of religious rites and worship, our
+sources leave us completely in the dark. We hear in several
+documents of a great idol covered with gold and silver named
+Cromm Cruach, or Cenn Cruaich, which was surrounded by
+twelve lesser idols covered with brass or bronze, and stood on
+Mag Slecht (the plain of prostrations) near Ballymagauran,
+Co. Cavan. In one text the Cromm Cruach is styled the chief
+idol of Ireland. According to the story St Patrick overthrew
+the idol, and one of the lives of the saint states that the mark
+of his crosier might still be seen on the stone. In the <i>Dindsenchus</i>
+we are told that the worshippers sacrificed their children to the
+idol in order to secure corn, honey and milk in plenty. On the
+occasion of famine the druids advised that the son of a sinless
+married couple should be brought to Ireland to be killed in front
+of Tara and his blood mixed with the soil of Tara. We might
+naturally expect to find the druids active in the capacity of
+priests in Ireland. D&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville maintains that in
+Gaul the three classes of druids, vates and gutuatri, corresponded
+more or less to the pontifices, augurs and flamens of ancient
+Rome. In ancient Irish literature the functions of the druids
+correspond fairly closely to those of their Gaulish brethren
+recorded by Caesar and other writers of antiquity. Had we
+contemporary accounts of the position of the druid in Ireland
+prior to the introduction of Christianity, it may be doubted if
+any serious difference would be discovered. In early Irish
+literature the druids chiefly appear as magicians and diviners,
+but they are also the repositaries of the learning of the time
+which they transmitted to the disciples accompanying them (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Druidism</a></span>). The Druids were believed to have the power to
+render a person insane by flinging a magic wisp of straw in his
+face, and they were able to raise clouds of mist, or to bring down
+showers of fire and blood. They claimed to be able to foretell
+the future by watching the clouds, or by means of divining-rods
+made of yew. They also resorted to sacrifice. They possessed
+several means for rendering a person invisible, and various
+peculiar and complicated methods of divination, such as <i>Imbas
+forosna</i>, <i>tein laegda</i>, and <i>díchetal do chennaib</i>, are described in
+early authorities. Whether or not the Irish druids taught that
+the soul was immortal is a question which it is impossible to
+decide. There is one passage which seems to support the view
+that they agreed with the Gaulish druids in this respect, but it is
+not safe to deny the possible influence of Christian teaching in
+the document in question. The Irish, however, possessed some
+more or less definite notions about an abode of everlasting
+youth and peace inhabited by fairies. The latter either dwell
+in the síd, and this is probably the earlier conception, or in
+islands out in the ocean where they live a life of never-ending
+delight. These happy abodes were known by various names,
+as Tír Tairngiri (Land of Promise), Mag Mell (Plain of Pleasures).
+Condla Caem son of Conn Cétchathach was carried in a boat of
+crystal by a fairy maiden to the land of youth, and among other
+mortals who went thither Bran, son of Febal, and Ossian are the
+most famous. The doctrine of metempsychosis seems to have
+been familiar in early Ireland. Mongan king of Dalriada in the
+7th century is stated to have passed after death into various
+shapes&mdash;a wolf, a stag, a salmon, a seal, a swan. Fintan, nephew
+of Partholan, is also reported to have survived the deluge and
+to have lived in various shapes until he was reborn as Tuan mac
+Cairill in the 6th century. This legend appears to have been
+worked up, if not manufactured, by the historians of the 9th
+to 11th centuries to support their fictions. It may, however, be
+mentioned that Giraldus Cambrensis and the <i>Speculum Regale</i>
+state in all seriousness that certain of the inhabitants of Ossory
+were able at will to assume the form of wolves, and similar
+stories are not infrequent in Irish romance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conversion to Christianity.</i>&mdash;In the beginning of the 4th century
+there was an organized Christian church in Britain; and in
+view of the intimate relations existing between Wales and
+Ireland during that century it is safe to conclude that there were
+Christians in Ireland before the time of St Patrick. Returned
+colonists from south Wales, traders and the raids of the Irish
+in Britain with the consequent influx of British captives sold
+into slavery must have introduced the knowledge of Christianity
+into the island considerably before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400. In this connexion
+it is interesting to find an Irishman named Fith (also called
+Iserninus) associated with St Patrick at Auxerre. Further,
+the earliest Latin words introduced into Irish show the influence
+of British pronunciation (<i>e.g.</i> O. Ir. <i>trindóit</i> from <i>trinit&#257;t-em</i>
+shows the Brythonic change of <i>&#257;</i> to <i>ó</i>). Irish records preserve
+the names of three shadowy pre-Patrician saints who were
+connected with south-east Ireland, Declan, Ailbe and Ciaran.</p>
+
+<p>In one source the great heresiarch Pelagius is stated to have
+been a Scot. He may have been descended from an Irish family
+settled in south Wales. We have also the statement of Prosper
+of Aquitaine that Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine as first
+bishop to the Scots that believe in Christ. But though we may
+safely assume that a number of scattered communities existed
+in Ireland, and probably not in the south alone, it is unlikely
+that there was any organization before the time of St Patrick.
+This mission arose out of the visit of St Germanus of Auxerre
+to Britain. The British bishops had grown alarmed at the rapid
+growth of Pelagianism in Britain and sought the aid of the Gaulish
+church. A synod summoned for the occasion commissioned
+Germanus and Lupus to go to Britain, which they accordingly
+did in 429; Pope Celestine, we are told, had given his sanction
+to the mission through the deacon Palladius. The heresy was
+successfully stamped out in Britain, but distinct traces of it
+are to be found some three centuries later in Ireland, and it is to
+Irish monks on the European continent that we owe the preservation
+of the recently discovered copies of Pelagius&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i>.
+Palladius&rsquo;s activity in Britain probably marked him out as the
+man to undertake the task of bringing Ireland into touch with
+Western Christianity. In any case Prosper and the Irish Annals
+represent him as arriving in Ireland in 431 with episcopal rank.
+His missionary activity unfortunately is extremely obscure.
+Tradition associates his name with Co. Wicklow, but Irish
+sources state that after a brief sojourn there he proceeded to
+the land of the Picts, among whom he was beginning to labour
+when his career was cut short by death.</p>
+
+<p><i>St Patrick.</i>&mdash;At this juncture Germanus of Auxerre decided
+to consecrate his pupil Patrick for the purpose of carrying on
+the work begun by Palladius. Patrick would possess several
+qualifications for the dignity of a missionary bishop to Ireland.
+Born in Britain about 389, he had been carried into slavery in
+Ireland when a youth of sixteen. He remained with his master
+for seven years, and must have had ample opportunity for
+observing the conditions, and learning the language, of the
+people around him; and such knowledge would have been
+indispensable to the Christian bishop in view of the peculiar
+state of Irish society (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Patrick, St</a></span>). The new bishop landed
+in Wicklow in 432. Leinster was probably the province in which
+Christianity was already most strongly represented, and Patrick
+may have entrusted this part of his sphere to two fellow-workers
+from Gaul, Auxilius and Iserninus. At any rate he seems rather
+to have addressed himself more especially to the task of founding
+churches in Meath, Ulster and Connaught. In Ireland the
+land nominally belonged to the tribe, but in reality a kind of
+feudal system existed. In order to succeed with the body of the
+tribe it was necessary to secure the adherence of the chief. The
+conversion in consequence was in large measure only apparent;
+and such pagan superstitions and practices as did not run
+directly counter to the new teaching were tolerated by the
+saint. Thus, whilst the mass of the people practically still
+continued in heathendom, the apostle was enabled to found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page761" id="page761"></a>761</span>
+churches and schools and educate a priesthood which should
+provide the most effective and certain means of conversion.
+It would be a mistake to suppose that his success was as rapid
+or as complete as is generally assumed. There can be no doubt
+that he met with great opposition both from the high-king
+Loigaire and from the druids. But though Loigaire refused
+to desert the faith of his ancestors we are told that a number
+of his nearest kinsmen accepted Christianity; and if there be
+any truth in the story of the codification of the Brehon Laws
+we gather that he realized that the future belonged to the new
+religion. St Patrick&rsquo;s work seems to fall under two heads. In
+the first place he planted the faith in parts of the north and west
+which had probably not yet heard the gospel. He also organized
+the already existing Christian communities, and with this in
+view founded a church at Armagh as his metropolitan see (444).
+It is further due to him that Ireland became linked up with
+Rome and the Christian countries of the Western church, and
+that in consequence Latin was introduced as the language of the
+church. It seems probable that St Patrick consecrated a
+considerable number of bishops with small but definite dioceses
+which doubtless coincided in the main with the territories of the
+<i>tuatha</i>. In any case the ideal of the apostle from Britain was
+almost certainly very different from the monastic system in vogue
+in Ireland in the 6th and 7th centuries.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Early Irish Church.</i>&mdash;The church founded by St Patrick
+was doubtless in the main identical in doctrine with the churches
+of Britain and Gaul and other branches of the Western church;
+but after the recall of the Roman legions from Britain the Irish
+church was shut off from the Roman world, and it is only natural
+that there should not have been any great amount of scruple
+with regard to orthodox doctrine. This would explain the
+survival of the writings of Pelagius in Ireland until the 8th
+century. Even Columba himself, in his Latin hymn <i>Altus
+prosator</i>, was suspected by Gregory the Great of favouring Arian
+doctrines. After the death of St Patrick there was apparently
+a relapse into paganism in many parts of the island. The church
+itself gradually became grafted on to the feudal organization,
+the result of which was the peculiar system which we find in the
+6th and 7th centuries. Wherever Roman law and municipal
+institutions had been in force the church was modelled on the
+civil society. The bishops governed ecclesiastical districts
+co-ordinate with the civil divisions. In Ireland there were no
+cities and no municipal institutions; the nation consisted of
+groups of tribes connected by kinship, and loosely held together
+by a feudal system which we shall examine later. Although
+St Patrick endeavoured to organize the Irish church on regular
+diocesan lines, after his death an approximation to the lay
+system was under the circumstances almost inevitable. When a
+chief became a Christian and bestowed lands on the church, he
+at the same time transferred all his rights as a chief; but these
+rights still remained with his sept, albeit subordinate to the
+uses of the church. At first all church offices were exclusively
+confined to members of the sept. In this new sept there was
+consequently a twofold succession. The religious sept or family
+consisted in the first instance not only of the ecclesiastical
+persons to whom the gift was made, but of all the <i>céli</i> or vassals,
+tenants and slaves, connected with the land bestowed. The
+head was the coarb (Ir. <i>comarba</i>, &ldquo;co-heir&rdquo;), <i>i.e.</i> the inheritor
+both of the spiritual and temporal rights and privileges of the
+founder; he in his temporal capacity exacted rent and tribute
+like other chiefs, and made war not on temporal chiefs only, the
+spectacle of two coarbs making war on each other not being
+unusual. The ecclesiastical colonies that went forth from a
+parent family generally remained in subordination to it, in the
+same way that the spreading branches of a ruling family remained
+in general subordinate to it. The heads of the secondary families
+were also called the coarbs of the original founder. Thus there
+were coarbs of Columba at Iona, Kells, Derry, Durrow and
+other places. The coarb of the chief spiritual foundation was
+called the high coarb (ard-chomarba). The coarb might be a
+bishop or only an abbot, but in either case all the ecclesiastics
+in the family were subject to him; in this way it frequently
+happened that bishops, though their superior functions were
+recognized, were in subjection to abbots who were only priests,
+as in the case of St Columba, or even to a woman, as in the case
+of St Brigit. This singular association of lay and spiritual
+powers was liable to the abuse of allowing the whole succession
+to fall into lay hands, as happened to a large extent in later
+times. The temporal chief had his steward who superintended
+the collection of his rents and tributes; in like manner the coarb
+of a religious sept had his <i>airchinnech</i> (Anglo-Irish <i>erenach</i>,
+<i>herenach</i>), whose office was generally, but not necessarily,
+hereditary. The office embodied in a certain sense the lay
+succession in the family.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning the life of the converts must have been
+in some measure coenobitic. Indeed it could hardly have been
+otherwise in a pagan and half-savage land. St Patrick himself
+in his Confession makes mention of monks in Ireland in connexion
+with his mission, but the few glimpses we get of the monastic
+life of the decades immediately following his death prove that
+the earliest type of coenobium differed considerably from that
+known at a later period. The coenobium of the end of the 5th
+century consisted of an ordinary sept or family whose chief
+had become Christian. After making a gift of his lands the chief
+either retired, leaving it in the hands of a coarb, or remained as
+the religious head himself. The family went on with their usual
+avocations, but some of the men and women, and in some cases
+all, practised celibacy, and all joined in fasting and prayer. It
+may be inferred from native documents that grave disorders
+were prevalent under this system. A severer and more exclusive
+type of monasticism succeeded this primitive one, but apart
+from the separation of the sexes the general character never
+entirely changed.</p>
+
+<p>Diocesan organization as understood in countries under Roman
+Law being unknown, there was not that limitation of the number
+of bishops which territorial jurisdiction renders necessary, and
+consequently the number of bishops increased beyond all proportions.
+Thus, St Mochta, abbot of Louth, and a reputed
+disciple of St Patrick, is stated to have had no less than 100
+bishops in his monastic family. All the bishops in a coenobium
+were subject to the abbot; but besides the bishop in the monastic
+families, every <i>tuath</i> or tribe had its own bishop. The church
+in Ireland having been evolved out of the monastic nuclei
+already described the tribe bishop was an episcopal development
+of a somewhat later period. He was an important personage,
+his status being fixed in the Brehon laws, from which we learn
+that his honour price was seven <i>cumals</i>, and that he had the
+right to be accompanied by the same number of followers as a
+petty king. The power of the bishops was considerable, as they
+were strong enough to resist the kings with regard to the right
+of sanctuary, ever a fertile source of dissension. The <i>tuath</i>
+bishop in later centuries corresponded to the diocesan bishop as
+closely as it was possible in two systems so different as tribal
+and municipal government. When diocesan jurisdiction was
+introduced into Ireland in the 12th century the <i>tuath</i> became a
+diocese. Many of the old dioceses represent ancient <i>tuatha</i>,
+and even enlarged modern dioceses coincide with the territories
+of ancient tribal states. Thus the diocese of Kilmacduagh was
+the territory of the Hui Fiachrach Aidne; that of Kilfenora
+was the tribe land of Corco-Mruad or Corcomroe. Many deaneries
+also represent tribe territories. Thus the deanery of Musgrylin
+(Co. Cork) was the ancient Muscraige Mitaine, and no doubt had
+its tribe bishop in ancient times. Bishops without dioceses and
+monastic bishops were not unknown outside Ireland in the Eastern
+and Western churches in very early times, but they had disappeared
+with rare exceptions in the 6th century when the Irish
+reintroduced the monastic bishops and the monastic church
+into Britain and the continent.</p>
+
+<p>In the 8th and 9th centuries, when the great emigration of
+Irish scholars and ecclesiastics took place, the number of wandering
+bishops without dioceses became a reproach to the Irish
+church; and there can be no doubt that it led to much inconvenience
+and abuse, and was subversive of the stricter discipline
+that the popes had succeeded in establishing in the Western
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page762" id="page762"></a>762</span>
+church. They were accused of ordaining serfs without the consent
+of their lords, consecrating bishops <i>per saltum</i>, <i>i.e.</i> of making
+men bishops who had not previously received the orders of
+priests, and of permitting bishops to be consecrated by a single
+bishop. This custom can hardly, however, be a reproach to the
+Irish church, as the practice was never held to be invalid; and
+besides, the Nicene canons of discipline were perhaps not known
+in Ireland until comparatively late times. The isolated position
+of Ireland, and the existence of tribal organization in full vigour,
+explain fully the anomalies of Irish discipline, many of which
+were also survivals of the early Christian practices before the
+complete organization of the church.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of St Patrick the bond between the numerous
+church families which his authority supplied was greatly relaxed;
+and the saint&rsquo;s most formidable opponents, the druids, probably
+regained much of their old power. The transition period which
+follows the loosening of a people&rsquo;s faith in its old religion and
+before the authority of the new is universally accepted is always
+a time of confusion and relaxation of morals. Such a period
+appears to have followed the fervour of St Patrick&rsquo;s time.
+To judge from the early literature the marriage-tie seems to
+have been regarded very lightly, and there can be little doubt that
+pagan marriage customs were practised long after the introduction
+of Christianity. The Brehon Laws assume the existence
+of married as well as unmarried clergy, and when St Patrick
+was seeking a bishop for the men of Leinster he asked for &ldquo;a
+man of one wife.&rdquo; Marriage among the secular clergy went on
+in Ireland until the 15th century. Like the Gaulish druids
+described by Caesar, the poet (<i>fili</i>) and the druid possessed a
+huge stock of unwritten native lore, probably enshrined in
+verse which was learnt by rote by their pupils. The exalted
+position occupied by the learned class in ancient Ireland perhaps
+affords the key to the wonderful outbursts of scholarly activity
+in Irish monasteries from the 6th to the 9th centuries. That
+some of the <i>filid</i> embraced Christianity from the outset is evident
+from the story of Dubthach. As early as the second half of the
+5th century Enda, a royal prince of Oriel (<i>c.</i> 450-540), after
+spending some time at Whithorn betook himself to Aranmore,
+off the coast of Galway, and founded a school there which
+attracted scholars from all over Ireland. The connexion between
+Ireland and Wales was strong in the 6th century, and it was from
+south Wales that the great reform movement in the Irish monasteries
+emanated. Findian of Clonard (<i>c.</i> 470-548) is usually
+regarded as the institutor of the type of monastery for which
+Ireland became so famous during the next few centuries. He
+spent some time in Wales, where he came under the influence of
+St David, Gildas and Cadoc; and on returning to Ireland he
+founded his famous monastery at Clonard (Co. Meath) about
+520. Here no less than 3000 students are said to have received
+instruction at the same time. Such a monastery consisted of
+countless tiny huts of wattles and clay (or, where stone was
+plentiful, of beehive cells) built by the pupils and enclosed by
+a fosse, or trench, like a permanent military encampment.
+The pupils sowed their own corn, fished in the streams, and
+milked their own cows. Instruction was probably given in the
+open air. Twelve of Findian&rsquo;s disciples became known as the
+twelve apostles of Ireland, the monastic schools they founded
+becoming the greatest centres of learning and religious instruction
+not only in Ireland, but in the whole of the west of Europe.
+Among the most famous were Moville (Co. Down), founded by
+another Findian, <i>c.</i> 540; Clonmacnoise, founded by Kieran,
+541; Derry, founded by Columba, 546; Clonfert, founded by
+Brendan, 552; Bangor, founded in 558 by Comgall; Durrow,
+founded by Columba, <i>c.</i> 553. The chief reform due to the
+influence of the British church<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> seems to have been the introduction
+of monastic life in the strict sense of the word, <i>i.e.</i>
+communities entirely separated from the laity with complete
+separation of the sexes.</p>
+
+<p>One almost immediate outcome of the reformation effected
+by Findian was that wonderful spirit of missionary enterprise
+which made the name of Scot and of Ireland so well known
+throughout Europe, while at the same time the Irish were
+being driven out of their colonies in Wales and south-west Britain
+owing to the advance of the Saxon power. In 563 Columba
+founded the monastery of Hí (Iona), which spread the knowledge
+of the Gospel among the Picts of the Scottish mainland. From
+this same solitary outpost went forth the illustrious Aidan to
+plant another Iona at Lindisfarne, which, &ldquo;long after the poor
+parent brotherhood had fallen to decay, expanded itself into the
+bishopric of Durham.&rdquo; And Lightfoot claims for Aidan &ldquo;the
+first place in the evangelization of the English race. Augustine
+was the apostle of Kent, but Aidan was the apostle of England.&rdquo;
+In 590 Columbanus, a native of Leinster (b. 543), went forth
+from Bangor, accompanied by twelve companions, to preach the
+Gospel on the continent of Europe. Columbanus was the first
+of the long stream of famous Irish monks who left their traces
+in Italy, Switzerland, Germany and France; amongst them
+being Gallus or St Gall, founder of St Gallen, Kilian of Würzburg,
+Virgil of Salzburg, Cathald of Tarentum and numerous others.
+At the beginning of the 8th century a long series of missionary
+establishments extended from the mouths of the Meuse and
+Rhine to the Rhône and the Alps, whilst many others founded by
+Germans are the offspring of Irish monks. Willibrord, the
+apostle of the Frisians, for instance, spent twelve years in
+Ireland. Other Irishmen seeking remote places wherein to lead
+the lives of anchorites, studded the numerous islands on the
+west coast of Scotland with their little buildings. Cormac ua
+Liathain, a disciple of St Columba, visited the Orkneys, and
+when the Northmen first discovered Iceland they found there
+books and other traces of the early Irish church. It may be
+mentioned that the geographer Dicuil who lived at the court
+of Charlemagne gives a description of Iceland which must have
+been obtained from some one who had been there. The peculiarities
+which owing to Ireland&rsquo;s isolation had survived were
+brought into prominence when the Irish missionaries came into
+contact with Roman ecclesiastics. The chief points of difference
+were the calculation of Easter and the form of the tonsure, in
+addition to questions of discipline such as the consecration of
+bishops <i>per saltum</i> and bishops without dioceses. With regard
+to tonsure it would seem that the druids shaved the front part of
+the head from ear to ear. St Patrick doubtless introduced
+the ordinary coronal tonsure, but in the period following his
+death the old druidical tonsure was again revived. In the
+calculation of Easter the Irish employed the old Roman and
+Jewish 84-years&rsquo; cycle which they may have received from
+St Patrick and which had once prevailed all over Europe. Shut
+off from the world, they were probably ignorant of the new
+cycle of 532 years which had been adopted by Rome in 463.
+This question aroused a controversy which waxed hottest in
+England, and as the Irish monks stubbornly adhered to their
+traditions they were vehemently attacked by their opponents.
+As early as 633 the church of the south of Ireland, which had
+been more in contact with Gaul, had been won over to the
+Roman method of computation. The north and Iona on the
+other hand refused to give in until Adamnán induced the north
+of Ireland to yield in 697, while Iona held out until 716, although
+by this time the monastery had lost its influence in Pictland.
+Owing to these controversies the real work of the early Irish
+missionaries in converting the pagans of Britain and central
+Europe, and sowing the seeds of culture there, is apt to be
+overlooked. Thus, when the Anglo-Saxon, Winfrid, surnamed
+Boniface, appeared in the kingdom of the Franks as papal
+legate in 723, to romanize the existing church of the time, neither
+the Franks, the Thuringians, the Alemanni nor the Bavarians
+could be considered as pagans. What Irish missionaries and
+their foreign pupils had implanted for more than a century
+quite independently of Rome, Winfrid organized and established
+under Roman authority partly by force of arms.</p>
+
+<p>During the four centuries which elapsed between the arrival
+of St Patrick and the establishment of a central state in Dublin
+by the Norsemen the history of Ireland is almost a blank as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page763" id="page763"></a>763</span>
+regards outstanding events. From the time that the Milesians
+of Tara had come to be recognized as suzerains of the whole
+island all political development ceases. The annals contain
+nothing save a record of intertribal warfare, which the high-king
+was rarely powerful enough to stay. The wonderful achievements
+of the Irish monks did not affect the body politic as a whole,
+and it may be doubted if there was any distinct advance in
+civilization in Ireland from the time of Niall Nóigiallach to the
+Anglo-Norman invasion. Niall&rsquo;s posterity held the position of
+<i>ardrí</i> uninterruptedly until 1002. Four of his sons, Loigaire,
+Conall Crimthand, Fiacc and Maine, settled in Meath and
+adjoining territories, and their posterity were called the southern
+Hy Neill. The other four, Eogan, Enna Find, Cairpre and
+Conall Gulban, occupied the northern part of Ulster. Their
+descendants were known as the northern Hy Neill.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The
+descendants of Eogan were the O&rsquo;Neills and their numerous
+kindred septs; the posterity of Conall Gulban were the O&rsquo;Donnells
+and their kindred septs. Niall died in 406 in the English Channel
+whilst engaged in a marauding expedition. He was succeeded
+by his nephew Dathi, son of Fiachra, son of Eochaid Muigmedóin,
+who is stated to have been struck by lightning at the foot of the
+Alps in 428. Loigaire, son of Niall (428-463), is identified with
+the story of St Patrick. According to tradition it was during
+his reign that the codification of the <i>Senchus Mór</i> took place.
+A well-known story represents him as constantly at war with
+the men of Leinster. His successor, Ailill Molt (463-483), son
+of Dathi, is remarkable as being the last high-king for 500 years
+who was not a direct descendant of Niall.</p>
+
+<p>In 503 a body of colonists under Fergus, son of Erc, moved
+from Dalriada to Argyll and effected settlements there. The
+circumstances which enabled the Scots to succeed in occupying
+Kintyre and Islay cannot now be ascertained. The little
+kingdom had great difficulty to maintain itself, and its varying
+fortunes are very obscure. Neither is it clear that bodies of
+Scots had not already migrated to Argyll. Diarmait, son of
+Fergus Cerbaill (544-565), of the southern Hy Neill, undoubtedly
+professed Christianity though he still clung to many pagan
+practices, such as polygamy and the use of druidical incantations
+in battle. The annals represent him as getting into trouble
+with the Church on account of his violation of the right of
+sanctuary. At an assembly held at Tara in 554 Curnan, son of the
+king of Connaught, slew a nobleman, a crime punishable with
+death. The author of the deed fled for sanctuary to St Columba.
+But Diarmait pursued him, and disregarding the opposition
+of the saint seized Curnan and hanged him. St Columba&rsquo;s
+kinsmen, the northern Hy Neill, took up the quarrel, and attacked
+and defeated the king at Culdreimne in 561. In this battle
+Diarmait is stated to have employed druids to form an <i>airbe
+druad</i> (fence of protection?) round his host. A few years later
+Diarmait seized by force the chief of Hy Maine, who had slain
+his herald and had taken refuge with St Ruadan of Lothra.
+According to the legend the saint, accompanied by St Brendan
+of Birr, followed the king to Tara and solemnly cursed it, from
+which time it was deserted. It has been suggested that Tara
+was abandoned during the plague of 548-549. Others have
+surmised that it was abandoned as a regular place of residence
+long before this, soon after the northern and southern branches
+of the Hy Neill had consolidated their power at Ailech and in
+Westmeath. Whatever truth there may be in the legend, it
+demonstrates conclusively the absence of a rallying point where
+the idea of a central government might have taken root. Aed,
+son of Ainmire (572-598) of the northern Hy Neill, figures
+prominently in the story of St Columba. It was during his
+reign that the famous assembly of Drumcet (near Newtown-limavaddy
+in Co. Derry) was held. The story goes that the
+<i>filid</i> had increased in number to such an extent that they included
+one-third of the freemen. There was thus quite an army of
+impudent swaggering idlers roaming about the country and
+quartering themselves on the chiefs and nobles during the winter
+and spring, story-telling, and lampooning those who dared to
+hesitate to comply with their demands.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the style of living of the learned professions
+in early Ireland may be gathered from the income enjoyed in
+later times by the literati of Tír Conaill (Co. Donegal). It has
+been computed that no less than Ł2000 was set aside yearly in
+this small state for the maintenance of the class. No wonder,
+then, that Aed determined to banish them from Ireland. At
+the convention of Drumcet the number of <i>filid</i> was greatly
+reduced, lands were assigned for their maintenance, the ollams
+were required to open schools and to support the inferior bards
+as teachers. This reform may have helped to foster the cultivation
+of the native literature, and it is possible that we owe to it
+the preservation of the Ulster epic. But the Irish were unfortunately
+incapable of rising above the saga, consisting of a
+mixture of prose and verse. Their greatest achievement in
+literature dates back to the dawn of history, and we find no
+more trace of development in the world of letters than in the
+political sphere. The Irishman, in his own language at any rate,
+seems incapable of a sustained literary effort, a consequence of
+which is that he invents the most intricate measures. Sense
+is thus too frequently sacrificed to sound. The influence of the
+professional literary class kept the clan spirit alive with their
+elaborate genealogies, and in their poems they only pandered
+to the vanity and vices of their patrons. That no new ideas
+came in may be gathered from the fact that the bulk of Irish
+literature so far published dates from before 800, though the
+MSS. which contain it are much later. Bearing in mind how
+largely the Finn cycle is modelled on the older Ulster epic, works
+of originality composed between 1000 and 1600 are with one or
+two exceptions conspicuously absent.</p>
+
+<p>At the convention of Drumcet the status of the Dalriadic
+settlement in Argyll was also regulated. The <i>ardrí</i> desired to
+make the colony an Irish state tributary to the high-king; but
+on the special pleading of St Columba it was allowed to remain
+independent. Aed lost his life in endeavouring to exact the
+<i>boroma</i> tribute from Brandub, king of Leinster, who defeated
+him at Dunbolg in 598. After several short reigns the throne
+was occupied by Aed&rsquo;s son Domnall (627-641). His predecessor,
+Suibne Menn, had been slain by the king of Dalaraide, Congal
+Claen. The latter was driven out of the country by Domnall,
+whereupon Congal collected an army of foreign adventurers made
+up of Saxons, Dalriadic Scots, Britons and Picts to regain his
+lands and to avenge himself on the high-king. In a sanguinary
+encounter at Mag Raith (Moira in Co. Down), which forms the
+subject of a celebrated romance, Congal was slain and the power
+of the settlement in Kintyre weakened for a considerable period.
+A curious feature of Hy Neill rule about this time was joint
+kingship. From 563 to 656 there were no less than five such
+pairs. In 681 St Moling of Ferns prevailed upon the <i>ardrí</i>
+Finnachta (674-690) to renounce for ever the <i>boroma</i>, tribute,
+which had always been a source of friction between the supreme
+king and the ruler of Leinster. This was, however, unfortunately
+not the last of the <i>boroma</i>. Fergal (711-722), in trying to enforce
+it again, was slain in a famous battle at Allen in Kildare. As
+a sequel Fergal&rsquo;s son, Aed Allan (734-743), defeated the men
+of Leinster with great slaughter at Ballyshannon (Co. Kildare)
+in 737. If there was so little cohesion among the various provinces
+it is small wonder that Ireland fell such an easy prey to
+the Vikings in the next century. In 697 an assembly was held
+at Tara in which a law known as <i>Cáin Adamnáin</i> was passed,
+at the instance of Adamnán, prohibiting women from taking
+part in battle; a decision that shows how far Ireland with its
+tribal system lagged behind Teutonic and Latin countries in
+civilization. A similar enactment exempting the clergy, known
+as <i>Cáin Patraic</i>, was agreed to in 803. The story goes that the
+<i>ardrí</i> Aed Oirdnigthe (797-819) made a hostile incursion into
+Leinster and forced the primate of Armagh and all his clergy to
+attend him. When representations were made to the king as to
+the impropriety of his conduct, he referred the matter to his
+adviser, Fothud, who was also a cleric. Fothud pronounced that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page764" id="page764"></a>764</span>
+the clergy should be exempted, and three verses purporting to
+be his decision are still extant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Invasion of the Northmen.</i>&mdash;The first incursion of the Northmen
+took place in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 795, when they plundered and burnt the church
+of Rechru, now Lambay, an island north of Dublin Bay. When
+this event occurred, the power of the over-king was a mere
+shadow. The provincial kingdoms had split up into more or
+less independent principalities, almost constantly at war with
+each other. The oscillation of the centre of power between
+Meath and Tír Eogain, according as the <i>ardrí</i> belonged to the
+southern or northern Hy Neill, produced corresponding perturbations
+in the balance of parties among the minor kings.
+The army consisted of a number of tribes, each commanded by
+its own chief, and acting as so many independent units without
+cohesion. The tribesmen owed fealty only to their chiefs, who
+in turn owed a kind of conditional allegiance to the over-king,
+depending a good deal upon the ability of the latter to enforce it.
+A chief might through pique or other causes withdraw his tribe
+even on the eve of a battle without such defection being deemed
+dishonourable. What the tribe was to the nation or the province,
+the <i>fine</i> or sept was to the tribe itself. The head of a sept had a
+voice not only in the question of war or peace, for that was
+determined by the whole tribe, but in all subsequent operations.
+However brave the individual soldiers of such an army might be,
+the army itself was unreliable against a well-organized and
+disciplined enemy. Again, such tribal forces were only levies
+gathered together for a few weeks at most, unprovided with
+military stores or the means of transport, and consequently
+generally unprepared to attack fortifications of any kind, and
+liable to melt away as quickly as they were gathered together.
+Admirably adapted for a sudden attack, such an army was
+wholly unfit to carry on a regular campaign or take advantage
+of a victory. These defects of the Irish military system were
+abundantly shown throughout the Viking period and also in
+Anglo-Norman times.</p>
+
+<p>The first invaders were probably Norwegians<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> from Hördaland
+in search of plunder and captives. Their attacks were not
+confined to the sea-coasts; they were able to ascend the rivers
+in their ships, and already in 801 they are found on the upper
+Shannon. At the outset the invaders arrived in small bodies,
+but as these met with considerable resistance large fleets commanded
+by powerful Vikings followed. With such forces it
+was possible to put fleets of boats on the inland lakes. Rude
+earthen or stockaded forts, serving as magazines and places of
+retreat, were erected; or in some cases use was made of strongholds
+already existing, such as Dun Almain in Kildare, Dunlavin
+in Wicklow and Fermoy in Cork. Some of these military posts
+in course of time became trading stations or grew into towns.
+During the first half of the 9th century attacks were incessant
+in most parts of the island. In 801 we find Norwegians on the
+upper Shannon; in 820 the whole of Ireland was harried; and
+five years later we hear of Vikings in Co. Dublin, Meath, Kildare,
+Wicklow, Queen&rsquo;s Co., Kilkenny and Tipperary. However,
+the invaders do not appear to have acted in concert until 830.
+About this time a powerful leader, named Turgeis (Turgesius),
+accompanied by two nobles, Saxolb and Domrair (Thorir),
+arrived with a &ldquo;royal fleet.&rdquo; Sailing up the Shannon they
+built strongholds on Lough Ree and devastated Connaught and
+Meath. Eventually Turgeis established himself in Armagh,
+whilst his wife Ota settled at Clonmacnoise and profaned the
+monastery church with pagan rites. Indeed, the numerous
+ecclesiastical establishments appear to have been quite as much
+the object of the invaders&rsquo; fury as the civil authorities. The
+monastery of Armagh was rebuilt ten times, and as often destroyed.
+It was sacked three times in one month. Turgeis
+himself is reported to have usurped the abbacy of Armagh.
+To escape from the continuous attacks on the monasteries, Irish
+monks and scholars fled in large numbers to the continent
+carrying with them their precious books. Among them were
+many of the greatest lights in the world of letters of the time,
+such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Scottus Erigena. The
+figure of Turgeis has given rise to considerable discussion, as
+there is no mention of him in Scandinavian sources. It seems
+probable that his Norwegian name was Thorgils and he was
+possibly related to Godfred, father of Olaf the White, who figures
+prominently in Irish history a little later. Turgeis apparently
+united the Viking forces, as he is styled the first king of
+the Norsemen in Ireland. A permanent sovereignty over the
+whole of Ireland, such as Turgeis seems to have aimed at, was
+then as in later times impossible because of the state of society.
+During his lifetime various cities were founded&mdash;the first on
+Irish soil. Dublin came into existence in 840, and Waterford
+and Limerick appear in history about the same time. Although
+the Norsemen were constantly engaged in conflict with the
+Irish, these cities soon became important commercial centres
+trading with England, France and Norway. Turgeis was
+captured and drowned by the <i>ardrí</i> Maelsechlainn in 844, and
+two years later Domrair was slain. However cruel and rapacious
+the Vikings may have been, the work of disorder and ruin was
+not all theirs. The condition of the country afforded full scope
+for the jealousy, hatred, cupidity and vanity which characterize
+the tribal state of political society. For instance, Fedilmid,
+king of Munster and archbishop of Cashel, took the opportunity
+of the misfortunes of the country to revive the claims of the
+Munster dynasty to be kings of Ireland. To enforce this claim
+he ravaged and plundered a large part of the country, took
+hostages from Niall Caille the over-king (833-845), drove out the
+<i>comarba</i> of St Patrick, or archbishop of Armagh, and for a whole
+year occupied his place as bishop. On his return he plundered
+the termon lands of Clonmacnoise &ldquo;up to the church door,&rdquo; an
+exploit which was repeated the following year. There is no
+mention of his having helped to drive out the foreigners.</p>
+
+<p>For some years after the death of Turgeis the Norsemen
+appear to have lacked a leader and to have been hard pressed.
+It was during this period that Dublin was chosen as the point
+of concentration for their forces. In 848 a Danish fleet from
+the south of England arrived in Dublin Bay. The Danes are
+called in Irish <i>Dubgaill</i>, or black foreigners, as distinguished
+from the <i>Findgaill</i><a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> or white foreigners, <i>i.e.</i> Norwegians. The
+origin of these terms, as also of the Irish name for Norway
+(<i>Lochlann</i>), is obscure. At first the Danes and Norwegians
+appear to have made common cause, but two years later the
+new city of Dublin was stormed by the Danes. In 851 the
+Dublin Vikings succeeded in vanquishing the Danes after a
+three days&rsquo; battle at Snaim Aignech (Carlingford Lough),
+whereupon the defeated party under their leader Horm took
+service with Cerball, king of Ossory. Even in the first half of
+the 9th century there must have been a great deal of intermarriage
+between the invaders and the native population, due
+in part at any rate to the number of captive women who were
+carried off. A mixed race grew up, recruited by many Irish
+of pure blood, whom a love of adventure and a lawless spirit
+led away. This heterogeneous population was called <i>Gallgoidel</i>
+or foreign Irish (whence the modern name Galloway), and like
+their northern kinsmen they betook themselves to the sea and
+practised piracy. The Christian element in this mixed society
+soon lapsed to a large extent, if not entirely, into paganism.
+The Scandinavian settlements were almost wholly confined to
+the seaport towns, and except Dublin included none of the
+surrounding territory. Owing to its position and the character
+of the country about it, especially the coast-land to the north of
+the Liffey which formed a kind of border-land between the
+territories of the kings of Meath and Leinster, a considerable
+tract passed into the possession of so powerful a city as Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>The social and political condition of Ireland, and the pastoral
+occupation of the inhabitants, were unfavourable to the development
+of foreign commerce, and the absence of coined money
+among them shows that it did not exist on an extensive scale.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page765" id="page765"></a>765</span>
+The foreign articles of luxury (dress, ornaments, wine, &amp;c.)
+required by them were brought to the great <i>oenachs</i> or fairs held
+periodically in various parts of the country. A flourishing
+commerce, however, soon grew up in the Scandinavian towns;
+mints were established, and many foreign traders&mdash;Flemings,
+Italians and others&mdash;settled there. It was through these
+Scandinavian trading communities that Ireland came into
+contact with the rest of Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries.
+If evidence were needed it is only necessary to point to the names
+of three of the Irish provinces, Ulster, Leinster, Munster, which
+are formed from the native names (<i>Ulaid</i>, <i>Laigin</i>, <i>Muma-n</i>)
+with the addition of Norse <i>stađr</i>; and the very name by which
+the island is now generally known is Scandinavian in form
+(<i>Ira-land</i>, the land of the Irish). The settlers in the Scandinavian
+towns early came to be looked upon by the native Irish as so
+many septs of a tribe added to the system of petty states forming
+the Irish political system. They soon mixed in the domestic
+quarrels of neighbouring tribes, at first selling their protection,
+but afterwards as vassals, sometimes as allies, like the septs and
+tribes of the Goidel among themselves. The latter in turn acted
+in similar capacities with the Irish-Norwegian chiefs, Irish
+tribes often forming part of the Scandinavian armies in Britain.
+This intercourse led to frequent intermarriage between the chiefs
+and nobility of the two peoples. As an instance, the case of
+Cerball, king of Ossory (d. 887), may be cited. Eyvindr, surnamed
+Austmađr, &ldquo;the east-man,&rdquo;<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> son of Björn, agreed to
+defend Cerball&rsquo;s territory on condition of receiving his daughter
+Raforta in marriage. Among the children of this marriage
+were Helgi Magri, one of the early settlers in Iceland, and
+Thurida, wife of Thorstein the Red. Three other daughters
+of Cerball married Scandinavians: Gormflaith (Kormlöđ)
+married Grimolf, who settled in Iceland, Fridgerda married
+Thorir Hyrna, and Ethne (Edna) married Hlöđver, father of
+Earl Sigurd Digri who fell at Clontarf. Cerball&rsquo;s son Domnall
+(Dufnialr) was the founder of an Icelandic family, whilst the
+names Raudi and Baugr occur in the same family. Hence the
+occurrence of such essentially Irish names as Konall, Kjaran,
+Njall, Kormakr, Brigit, Kađlin, &amp;c., among Icelanders and Norwegians
+cannot be a matter for surprise; nor that a number of
+Norse words were introduced into Irish, notably terms connected
+with trade and the sea.</p>
+
+<p>The obscure contest between the Norwegians and Danes
+for supremacy in Dublin appears to have made the former feel
+the need of a powerful leader. At any rate, in 851-852 the king
+of Lochlann (Norway) sent his son Amlaib (Olaf the White)
+to assume sovereignty over the Norsemen in Ireland and to
+receive tribute and vassals. From this time it is possible to
+speak of a Scandinavian kingdom of Dublin, a kingdom which
+lasted almost without interruption until the Norman Conquest.
+The king of Dublin exercised overlordship over the other Viking
+communities in the island, and thus became the most dangerous
+opponent of the <i>ardrí</i>, with whom he was constantly at variance.
+Amlaib was accompanied by Ivar, who is stated in one source
+to have been his brother. Some writers wish to identify this
+prince with the famous Ivar Beinlaus, son of Ragnar Lodbrok.
+Amlaib was opposed to the <i>ardrí</i> Maelsechlainn I. (846-863)
+who had overcome Turgeis. This brave ruler gained a number of
+victories over the Norsemen, but in true Irish fashion they were
+never followed up. Although his successor Aed Finnliath
+(863-879) gave his daughter in marriage to Amlaib, no better
+relations were established. The king of Dublin was certainly
+the most commanding figure in Ireland in his day, and during
+his lifetime the Viking power was greatly extended. In 870
+he captured the strongholds of Dumbarton and Dunseverick
+(Co. Antrim). He disappears from the scene in 873. One source
+represents him as dying in Ireland, but the circumstances are
+quite obscure. Ivar only survived Olaf two or three years, and
+it is stated that he died a Christian. During the ensuing period
+Dublin was the scene of constant family feuds, which weakened
+its power to such an extent that in 901 Dublin and Waterford
+were captured by the Irish and were obliged to acknowledge
+the supremacy of the high-king. The Irish Annals state that
+there were no fresh invasions of the Northmen for about forty
+years dating from 877. During this period Ireland enjoyed
+comparative rest notwithstanding the intertribal feuds in which
+the Norse settlers shared, including the campaigns of Cormac,
+son of Cuilennan, the scholarly king-bishop of Cashel.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of this interval of repose a certain Sigtrygg,
+who was probably a great-grandson of the Ivar mentioned above,
+addressed himself to the task of winning back the kingdom of his
+ancestor. Waterford was retaken in 914 by Ivar, grandson of
+Ragnall and Earl Ottir, and Sigtrygg won a signal victory over
+the king of Leinster at Cenn Fuait (Co. Kilkenny?) two years
+later. Dublin was captured, and the high-king Niall Glúndub
+(910-919) prepared to oppose the invaders. A battle of prime
+importance was gained by Sigtrygg over the <i>ardrí</i>, who fell
+fighting gallantly at Kilmashogue near Dublin in 919. Between
+920 and 970 the Scandinavian power in Ireland reached its zenith.
+The country was desolated and plundered by natives and
+foreigners alike. The lower Shannon was more thoroughly
+occupied by the Norsemen, with which fact the rise of Limerick
+is associated. Carlow, Kilkenny and the territory round Lough
+Neagh were settled, and after the capture of Lough Erne in 932
+much of Longford was colonized. The most prominent figures
+at this time were Muirchertach &ldquo;of the leather cloaks,&rdquo; son of
+Niall Glúndub, Cellachan of Cashel and Amlaib (Olaf) Cuarán.
+The first-named waged constant warfare against the foreigners
+and was the most formidable opponent the Scandinavians had
+yet met. In his famous circuit of Ireland (941) he took all the
+provincial kings, as well as the king of Dublin, as hostages, and
+after keeping them for five months at Ailech he handed them
+over to the feeble titular <i>ardrí</i>, showing that his loyalty was
+greater than his ambition. Unlike Muirchertach, Cellachan of
+Cashel, the hero of a late romance, was not particular whether
+he fought for or against the Norsemen. In 920 Sigtrygg (d. 927)
+was driven out of Dublin by his brother Godfred (d. 934) and
+retired to York, where he became king of Northumbria. His
+sons Olaf and Godfred were expelled by Ćthelstan. The former,
+better known as Amlaib (Olaf) Cuarán, married the daughter of
+Constantine, king of Scotland, and fought at Brunanburh (938).
+Born about 920, he perhaps became king of York in 941.
+Expelled in 944-945 he went to Dublin and drove out his cousin
+Blákáre, son of Godfred. At the same time he held sway over
+the kingdom of Man and the Isles. We find this romantic
+character constantly engaged on expeditions in England, Ireland
+and Scotland. In 956 Congalach, the high-king, was defeated
+and slain by the Norse of Dublin. In 973 his son Domnall,
+in alliance with Amlaib, defeated the high-king Domnall O&rsquo;Neill
+at Cell Mona (Kilmoon in Co. Meath). This Domnall O&rsquo;Neill,
+son of Muirchertach, son of Niall Glúndub, was the first to adopt
+the name O&rsquo;Neill (Ir. <i>ua</i>, <i>ó</i> = &ldquo;grandson&rdquo;). The tanists or heirs
+of the northern and southern Hy Neill having died, the throne
+fell to Maelsechlainn II., of the Cland Colmáin, the last of the
+Hy Neill who was undisputed king of Ireland. Maelsechlainn,
+who succeeded in 980, had already distinguished himself as king
+of Meath in war with the Norsemen. In the first year of his reign
+as high-king he defeated them in a bloody battle at Tara, in
+which Amlaib&rsquo;s son, Ragnall, fell. This victory, won over the
+combined forces of the Scandinavians of Dublin, Man and the
+Isles, compelled Amlaib to deliver up all his captives and
+hostages,&mdash;among whom were Domnall Claen, king of Leinster,
+and several notables&mdash;to forgo the tribute which he had imposed
+upon the southern Hy Neill and to pay a large contribution of
+cattle and money. Amlaib&rsquo;s spirit was so broken by this defeat
+that he retired to the monastery of Hí, where he died the same
+year.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Dalcais Dynasty.</i>&mdash;We have already seen that the dominant
+race in Munster traced descent from Ailill Aulom. The Cashel
+dynasty claimed to descend from his eldest son Eogan, whilst
+the Dalcassians of Clare derived their origin from a younger son
+Cormac Cas. Ailill Aulom is said to have ordained that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page766" id="page766"></a>766</span>
+succession to the throne should alternate between the two lines,
+as in the case of the Hy Neill. This, however, is perhaps a fiction
+of later poets who wished to give lustre to the ancestry of Brian
+Boruma, as very few of the Dalcais princes appear in the list
+of the kings of Cashel. The Dalcassians play no prominent part
+in history until, in the middle of the 10th century, they were
+ruled by Kennedy (Cennétig), son of Lorcan, king of Thomond
+(d. 954), by whom their power was greatly extended. He left
+two sons, Mathgamain (Mahon) and Brian, called Brian Boruma,
+probably from a village near Killaloe.<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> About the year 920 a
+Viking named Tomrair, son of Elgi, had seized the lower Shannon
+and established himself in Limerick, from which point constant
+incursions were made into all parts of Munster. After a period
+of guerrilla warfare in the woods of Thomond, Mathgamain
+concluded a truce with the foreigners, in which Brian refused to
+join. Thereupon Mathgamain crossed the Shannon and gained
+possession of the kingdom of Cashel, as Dunchad, the representative
+of the older line, had just died. Receiving the support
+of several of the native tribes, he felt himself in a position to
+attack the settlements of the foreigners in Munster. This aroused
+the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, who determined to carry the war
+into Thomond. He was supported by Maelmuad, king of
+Desmond, and Donoban, king of Hy Fidgeinte, and Hy Cairpri.
+Their army was met by Mathgamain at Sulchoit near Tipperary,
+where the Norsemen were defeated with great slaughter (968).
+This decisive victory gave the Dalcais Limerick, which they
+sacked and burnt, and Mathgamain then took hostages of all
+the chiefs of Munster. Ivar escaped to Britain, but returned
+after a year and entrenched himself at Inis Cathaig (Scattery
+Island in the lower Shannon). A conspiracy was formed between
+Ivar and his son Dubcenn and the two Munster chieftains
+Donoban and Maelmuad. Donoban was married to the daughter
+of a Scandinavian king of Waterford, and his own daughter was
+married to Ivar of Waterford.<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> In 976 Inis Cathaig was attacked
+and plundered by the Dalcais and the garrison, including Ivar
+and Dubcenn, slain. Shortly before this Mathgamain had been
+murdered by Donoban, and Brian thus became king of Thomond,
+whilst Maelmuad succeeded to Cashel. In 977 Brian made a
+sudden and rapid inroad into Donoban&rsquo;s territory, captured his
+fortress and slew the prince himself with a vast number of his
+followers. Maelmuad, the other conspirator, met with a like
+fate at Belach Lechta in Barnaderg (near Ballyorgan). After
+this battle Brian was acknowledged king of all Munster (978).
+After reducing the Dési, who were in alliance with the Northmen
+of Waterford and Limerick, in 984 he subdued Ossory and took
+hostages from the kings of East and West Leinster. In this
+manner he became virtually king of Leth Moga.</p>
+
+<p>This rapid rise of the Dalcassian leader was bound to bring
+him into conflict with the <i>ardrí</i>. Already in 982 Maelsechlainn
+had invaded Thomond and uprooted the venerable tree under
+which the Dalcais rulers were inaugurated. After the battle of
+Tara he had placed his half-brother Gluniarind, son of Amlaib
+Cuarán, in Dublin. This prince was murdered in 989 and was
+succeeded by Sigtrygg Silkiskeggi, son of Amlaib and Gormflaith,
+sister of Maelmorda, king of Leinster. In the same year Maelsechlainn
+took Dublin and imposed an annual tribute on the
+city. During these years there were frequent trials of strength
+between the <i>ardrí</i> and the king of Munster. In 992 Brian invaded
+Meath, and four years later Maelsechlainn defeated Brian in
+Munster. In 998 Brian ascended the Shannon with a large force,
+intending to attack Connaught, and Maelsechlainn, who received
+no support from the northern Hy Neill, came to terms with him.
+All hostages held by the over-king from the Northmen and Irish
+of Leth Moga were to be given up to Brian, which was a virtual
+surrender of all his rights over the southern half of Ireland;
+while Brian on his part recognized Maelsechlainn as sole king of
+Leth Cuinn. In 1000 Leinster revolted against Brian and
+entered into an alliance with the king of Dublin. Brian advanced
+towards the city, halting at a place called Glen Mama near
+Dunlavin (Co. Wicklow). He was attacked by the allied forces,
+who were repulsed with great slaughter. Maelmorda, king of
+Leinster, was taken prisoner, and Sigtrygg fled for protection to
+Ailech. The victor gave proof at once that he was not only a
+clever general but also a skilful diplomatist. Maelmorda was
+restored to his kingdom, Sigtrygg received Brian&rsquo;s daughter in
+marriage, whilst Brian took to himself the Dublin king&rsquo;s
+mother, the notorious Gormflaith, who had already been divorced
+by Maelsechlainn. After thus establishing peace and consolidating
+his power, Brian returned to his residence Cenn Corad and
+matured his plan of obtaining the high-kingship for himself.
+When everything was ready he entered Mag Breg with an army
+consisting of his own troops, those of Ossory, his South Connaught
+vassals and the Norsemen of Munster. The king of Dublin
+also sent a small force to his assistance. Maelsechlainn, taken
+by surprise and feeling himself unequal to the contest,
+endeavoured to gain time. An armistice was concluded, during
+which he was to decide whether he would give Brian hostages
+(<i>i.e.</i> abdicate) or not. He applied to the northern Hy Neill
+to come to his assistance, and even offered to abdicate in favour
+of the chief of the Cinél Eogain, but the latter refused unless
+Maelsechlainn undertook to cede to them half the territory
+of his own tribe, the Cland Colmáin. The attempt to unite the
+whole of the Eremonian against the Eberian race and preserve
+a dynasty that had ruled Ireland for 600 years, having failed,
+Maelsechlainn submitted to Brian, and without any formal
+act of cession the latter became <i>ardrí</i>. During a reign of twelve
+years (1002-1014) he is said to have effected much improvement
+in the country by the erection and repair of churches and schools,
+and the construction of bridges, causeways, roads and fortresses.
+We are also told that he administered rigid and impartial justice
+and dispensed royal hospitality. As he was liberal to the bards,
+they did not forget his merits.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of Brian&rsquo;s reign a conspiracy was entered
+into between Maelmorda, king of Leinster, and his nephew
+Sigtrygg of Dublin. The ultimate cause of this movement
+was an insult offered by Murchad, Brian&rsquo;s son, to the king of
+Leinster, who was egged on by his sister Gormflaith. Sigtrygg
+secured promises of assistance from Sigurd, earl of Orkney, and
+Brodir of Man. In the spring of 1014 Maelmorda and Sigtrygg
+had collected a considerable army in Dublin, consisting of
+contingents from all the Scandinavian settlements in the west in
+addition to Maelmorda&rsquo;s own Leinster forces, the whole being
+commanded by Sigurd, earl of Orkney. This powerful prince,
+whose mother was a daughter of Cerball of Ossory (d. 887),
+appears to have aimed at the supreme command of all the
+Scandinavian settlements of the west, and in the course of a
+few years conquered the kingdom of the Isles, Sutherland, Ross,
+Moray and Argyll. To meet such formidable opponents, Brian,
+now an old man unable to lead in person, mustered all the forces
+of Munster and Connaught, and was joined by Maelsechlainn
+in command of the forces of Meath. The northern Hy Neill
+and the Ulaid took no part in the struggle. Brian advanced
+into the plain of Fingall, north of Dublin, where a council of war
+was held. The longest account of the battle that followed
+occurs in a source very partial to Brian and the deeds of Munstermen,
+in which Maelsechlainn is accused of treachery, and of
+holding his troops in reserve. The battle, generally known as
+the battle of Clontarf, though the chief fighting took place
+close to Dublin, about the small river Tolka, was fought on Good
+Friday 1014. After a stout and protracted resistance the Norse
+forces were routed. Maelsechlainn with his Meathmen came
+down on the fugitives as they tried to cross the bridge leading
+to Dublin or to reach their ships. On both sides the slaughter
+was terrible, and most of the leaders lost their lives. Brian
+himself perished along with his son Murchad and Maelmorda.
+This great struggle finally disposed of the possibility of Scandinavian
+supremacy in Ireland, but in spite of this it can only be
+regarded as a national misfortune. The power of the kingdom
+of Dublin had been already broken by the defeat of Amlaib
+Cuarán at Tara in 980, and the main result of the battle of
+Clontarf was to weaken the central power and to throw the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page767" id="page767"></a>767</span>
+whole island into a state of anarchy. Although beaten on the
+field of battle the Norsemen still retained possession of their
+fortified cities, and gradually they assumed the position of
+native tribes. The Dalcassian forces had been so much weakened
+by the great struggle that Maelsechlainn was again recognized
+as king of Ireland. However, the effects of Brian&rsquo;s revolution
+were permanent; the prescriptive rights of the Hy Neill were
+disputed, and from the battle of Clontarf until the coming of the
+Normans the history of Ireland consisted of a struggle for
+ascendancy between the O&rsquo;Brians of Munster, the O&rsquo;Neills of
+Ulster and the O&rsquo;Connors of Connaught.</p>
+
+<p><i>From the Battle of Clontarf to the Anglo-Norman Invasion.</i>&mdash;The
+death of Maelsechlainn in 1022 afforded an opportunity
+for an able and ambitious man to subdue Ireland, establish a
+strong central government, break up the tribal system and
+further the gradual fusion of factions into a homogeneous
+nation. Such a man did not arise; those who afterwards
+claimed to be <i>ardrí</i> lacked the qualities of founders of strong
+dynasties, and are termed by the annalists &ldquo;kings with opposition.&rdquo;
+Brian was survived by two sons, Tadg and Donnchad,
+the elder of whom was slain in 1023. Donnchad (d. 1064) was
+certainly the most distinguished figure in Ireland in his day.
+He subdued more than half of Ireland, and almost reached the
+position once held by his father. His strongest opponent was
+his son-in-law Diarmait Mael-na-mBó, king of Leinster, who was
+also the foster-father of his brother Tadg&rsquo;s son, Tordelbach
+(Turlough) O&rsquo;Brian. On the death of Diarmait in 1072 Tordelbach
+(d. 1086) reigned supreme in Leth Moga; Meath and
+Connaught also submitted to him, but he failed to secure the
+allegiance of the northern Hy Neill. He was succeeded by his
+son Muirchertach (d. 1119), who spent most of his life contending
+against his formidable opponent Domnall O&rsquo;Lochlainn, king
+of Tír Eogain (d. 1121). The struggle for the sovereignty between
+these two rivals continued, with intervals of truce negotiated
+by the clergy, without any decisive advantage on either side.
+In 1102 Magnus Barefoot made his third and last expedition
+to the west with the express design of conquering Ireland.
+Muirchertach opposed him with a large force, and a conference
+was arranged at which a son of Magnus was betrothed to
+Biadmuin, daughter of the Irish prince. He was also mixed
+up in English affairs, and as a rule maintained cordial relations
+with Henry I. After the death of Domnall O&rsquo;Lochlainn there
+was an interregnum of about fifteen years with no <i>ardrí</i>, until
+Tordelbach (Turlough) O&rsquo;Connor, king of Connaught, resolved
+to reduce the other provinces. Munster and Meath were repeatedly
+ravaged, and in 1151 he crushed Tordelbach (Turlough)
+O&rsquo;Brian, king of Thomond, at Moanmor. O&rsquo;Connor&rsquo;s most
+stubborn opponent was Muirchertach O&rsquo;Lochlainn, with whom
+he wrestled for supremacy until the day of his death (1156).
+Tordelbach, who enjoyed a great reputation even after his death,
+was remembered as having thrown bridges over the Shannon,
+and as a patron of the arts. However, war was so constant in
+Ireland at this time that under the year 1145 the Four Masters
+describe the island as a &ldquo;trembling sod.&rdquo; Tordelbach was
+succeeded by his son Ruadri (Roderick, <i>q.v.</i>), who after some
+resistance had to acknowledge Muirchertach O&rsquo;Lochlainn&rsquo;s
+supremacy. The latter, however, was slain in 1166 in consequence
+of having wantonly blinded the king of Dal Araide.
+Ruadri O&rsquo;Connor, now without a serious rival, was inaugurated
+with great pomp at Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>Diarmait MacMurchada (Dermod MacMurrough), great-grandson
+of Diarmait Mael-na-mBó, as king of Leinster was by
+descent and position much mixed up with foreigners, and
+generally in a state of latent if not open hostility to the high-kings
+of the Hy Neill and Dalcais dynasties. He was a tyrant and
+a bad character. In 1152 Tigernan O&rsquo;Rourke, prince of Breifne,
+had been dispossessed of his territory by Tordelbach O&rsquo;Connor,
+aided by Diarmait, and the latter is accused also of carrying off
+Derbforgaill, wife of O&rsquo;Rourke. On learning that O&rsquo;Rourke
+was leading an army against him with the support of Ruadri,
+he burnt his castle of Ferns and went to Henry II. to seek
+assistance. The momentous consequences of this step belong
+to the next section, and it now remains for us to state the
+condition of the church and society in the century preceding the
+Anglo-Norman invasion.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Irish Church conformed to Roman usage in the
+matter of Easter celebration and tonsure in the 7th century, the
+bond between Ireland and Rome was only slight until several
+centuries later. Whatever co-ordination may have existed
+in the church of the 8th century was doubtless destroyed during
+the troubled period of the Viking invasions. It is probable that
+St Patrick established Armagh as a metropolitan see, but
+the history of the primacy, which during a long period can only
+have been a shadow, is involved in obscurity. Its supremacy
+was undoubtedly recognized by Brian Boruma in 1004, when
+he laid 20 oz. of gold upon the high altar. In the 11th century
+a competitor arose in the see of Dublin. The Norse rulers were
+bound to come under the influence of Christianity at an early
+date. For instance, Amlaib Cuarán was formally converted in
+England in 942 and was baptized by Wulfhelm of Canterbury.
+The antithesis between the king of Dublin and the <i>ardrí</i> seems
+to have had the effect of linking the Dublin Christian community
+rather with Canterbury than Armagh. King Sigtrygg founded
+the bishopric of Dublin in 1035, and the early bishops of Dublin,
+Waterford and Limerick were all consecrated by the English
+primate. As Lanfranc and Anselm were both anxious to extend
+their jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland, the submission of
+Dublin opened the way for Norman and Roman influences.
+At the beginning of the 12th century Gilbert, bishop of Limerick
+and papal legate, succeeded in winning over Celsus, bishop of
+Armagh (d. 1129), to the reform movement. Celsus belonged
+to a family which had held the see for 200 years; he was grandson
+of a previous primate and is said to have been himself a married
+man. Yet he became, in the skilful hands of Gilbert and Maelmaedóc
+O&rsquo;Morgair, the instrument of overthrowing the hereditary
+succession to the primatial see. In 1118 the important synod
+of Rathbressil was held, at which Ireland was divided into
+dioceses, this being the first formal attempt at getting rid of
+that anarchical state of church government which had hitherto
+prevailed. The work begun under Celsus was completed by his
+successor Maelmaedóc (Malachy). At a national synod held
+about 1134 Maelmaedóc, in his capacity as bishop of Armagh,
+was solemnly elected to the primacy; and armed with full
+power of church and state he was able to overcome all opposition.
+Under his successor Gelasius, Cardinal Paparo was despatched
+as supreme papal legate. At the synod of Kells (1152) there
+was established that diocesan system which has ever since continued
+without material alteration. Armagh was constituted
+the seat of the primacy, and Cashel, Tuam and Dublin were
+raised to the rank of archbishoprics. It was also ordained that
+tithes should be levied for the support of the clergy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Social Conditions.</i>&mdash;In the middle ages there were considerable
+forests in Ireland encompassing broad expanses of upland
+pastures and marshy meadows. It is traditionally stated that
+fences first came into general use in the 7th century. There were
+no cities or large towns before the arrival of the Norsemen;
+no stone bridges spanned the rivers; stepping stones or hurdle
+bridges at the fords or shallows offered the only mode of crossing
+the broadest streams, and connecting the unpaved roads or
+bridle paths which crossed the country over hill and dale from
+the principal <i>dúns</i>. The forests abounded in game, the red deer
+and wild boar were common, whilst wolves ravaged the flocks.
+Scattered over the country were numerous small hamlets,
+composed mainly of wicker cabins, among which were some
+which might be called houses; other hamlets were composed
+of huts of the rudest kind. Here and there were large villages
+that had grown up about groups of houses surrounded by an
+earthen mound or rampart; similar groups enclosed in this
+manner were also to be found without any annexed hamlet.
+Sometimes there were two or three circumvallations or even more,
+and where water was plentiful the ditch between was flooded.
+The simple rampart enclosed a space called <i>lis</i><a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> which contained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page768" id="page768"></a>768</span>
+the agricultural buildings and the groups of houses of the owners.
+The enclosed houses belonged to the free men (<i>aire</i>, pl. <i>airig</i>).
+The size of the houses and of the enclosing mound and ditch
+marked the wealth and rank of the <i>aire</i>. If his wealth consisted
+of chattels only, he was a <i>bó-aire</i> (cow-<i>aire</i>). When he possessed
+ancestral land he was a <i>flaith</i> or lord, and was entitled to let his
+lands for grazing, to have a hamlet in which lived labourers and
+to keep slaves. The larger fort with several ramparts was a <i>dún</i>,
+where the <i>rí</i> (chieftain) lived and kept his hostages if he had
+subreguli. The houses of all classes were of wood, chiefly wattles
+and wicker-work plastered with clay. In shape they were most
+frequently cylindrical, having conical roofs thatched with rushes
+or straw. The oratories were of the same form and material,
+but the larger churches and kingly banqueting halls were rectangular
+and made of sawn boards. Bede, speaking of a church
+built by Finan at Lindisfarne, says, &ldquo;nevertheless, after the
+manner of the Scots, he made it not of stone but of hewn oak
+and covered it with reeds.&rdquo; When St Maelmaedóc in the first
+half of the 12th century thought of building a stone oratory
+at Bangor it was deemed a novelty by the people, who exclaimed,
+&ldquo;we are Scotti not Galli.&rdquo; Long before this, however, stone
+churches had been built in other parts of Ireland, and many
+round towers. In some of the stone-forts of the south-west
+(Ir. <i>cathir</i>) the houses within the rampart were made of stone
+in the form of a beehive, and similar cloghans, as they are called,
+are found in the western isles of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Here and there in the neighbourhood of the hamlets were
+patches of corn grown upon allotments which were gavelled,
+or redistributed, every two or three years. Around the <i>dúns</i> and
+<i>raths</i>, where the corn land was the fixed property of the lord,
+the cultivation was better. Oats was the chief corn crop, but
+wheat, barley and rye were also grown. Much attention was
+paid to bee-keeping and market-gardening, which had probably
+been introduced by the church. The only industrial plants were
+flax and the dye-plants, chief among which were woad and rud,
+roid (a kind of bed-straw?). Portions of the pasture lands were
+reserved as meadows; the tilled land was manured. There
+are native names for the plough, so it may be assumed that some
+form of that implement, worked by oxen, yoked together with a
+simple straight yoke, was in use in early times. Wheeled carts
+were also known; the wheels were often probably only solid
+disks, though spoked wheels were used for chariots. Droves
+of swine under the charge of swineherds wandered through the
+forests; some belonged to the <i>rí</i>, others to lords (<i>flaith</i>) and
+others again to village communities. The house-fed pig was
+then as now an important object of domestic economy, and its
+flesh was much prized. Indeed, fresh pork was one of the
+inducements held out to visitors to the Irish Elysium. Horned
+cattle constituted the chief wealth of the country, and were
+the standard for estimating the worth of anything, for the Irish
+had no coined money and carried on all commerce by barter.
+The unit of value was called a <i>sét</i>, a word denoting a jewel or
+precious object of any kind. The normal <i>sét</i> was an average
+milch-cow. Gold, silver, bronze, tin, clothes and all other kinds
+of property were estimated in <i>séts</i>. Three <i>séts</i> were equal to a
+<i>cumal</i> (female slave). Sheep were kept everywhere for their
+flesh and their wool, and goats were numerous. Horses were
+extensively employed for riding, working in the fields and
+carrying loads. Irish horsemen rode without saddle or stirrups.
+So important a place did bee-culture hold in the rural economy
+of the ancient Irish that a lengthy section is devoted to the
+subject in the Brehon Laws. The honey was used both in cooking
+and for making mead, as well as for eating.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Irish were in the main a pastoral people. When
+they had sown their corn, they drove their herds and flocks to
+the mountains, where such existed, and spent the summer there,
+returning in autumn to reap their corn and take up their abode
+in their more sheltered winter residences. This custom of
+&ldquo;booleying&rdquo; (Ir. <i>buaile</i>, &ldquo;shieling&rdquo;) is not originally Irish,
+according to some writers, but was borrowed from the Scandinavians.
+Where the tribe had land on the sea-coast they also
+appear to have migrated thither in summer. The chase in the
+summer occupied the freemen, not only as a source of enjoyment
+but also as a matter of necessity, for wolves were very numerous.
+For this purpose they bred dogs of great swiftness, strength and
+sagacity, which were much admired by the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>The residences within enclosing ramparts did not consist of
+one house with several apartments, but every room was a separate
+house. Thus the buildings forming the residence of a well-to-do
+farmer of the <i>bó-aire</i> class as described in the Laws, consisted of
+a living-house in which he slept and took his meals, a cooking-house,
+a kiln for drying corn, a barn, a byre for calves, a sheep-fold
+and a pigsty. In the better classes the women had a separate
+house known as <i>grianán</i> (sun-chamber). The round houses were
+constructed in the following manner. The wall was formed of
+long stout poles placed in a circle close to one another, with
+their ends fixed firmly in the ground. The spaces between were
+closed in with rods (usually hazel) firmly interwoven. The
+poles were peeled and polished smooth. The whole surface of
+the wicker-work was plastered on the outside and made brilliantly
+white with lime, or occasionally striped in various colours,
+leaving the white poles exposed to view. There was no chimney;
+the fire was made in the centre of the house and the smoke
+escaped through a hole in the roof, or through the door as in
+Hebridean houses of the present day. Near the fire, fixed in a
+kind of holder, was a candle of tallow or raw beeswax. Around
+the wall in the houses of the wealthy were arranged the bedsteads,
+or rather compartments, with testers and fronts, sometimes
+made of carved yew. At the foot of each compartment, and
+projecting into the main room, there was a low fixed seat, often
+stuffed with some soft material, for use during the day. Besides
+these there were on the floor of the main apartment a number
+of detached movable couches or seats, all low, with one or more
+low tables of some sort. In the halls of the kings the position
+of each person&rsquo;s bed and seat, and the portion of meat which
+he was entitled to receive from the distributor, were regulated
+according to a rigid rule of precedence. Each person who had
+a seat in the king&rsquo;s house had his shield suspended over him.
+Every king had hostages for the fealty of his vassals; they sat
+unarmed in the hall, and those who had become forfeited by a
+breach of treaty or allegiance were placed along the wall in
+fetters. There were places in the king&rsquo;s hall for the judge, the
+poet, the harper, the various craftsmen, the juggler and the fool.
+The king had his bodyguard of four men always around him;
+these were commonly men whom he had saved from execution
+or redeemed from slavery. Among the miscellaneous body of
+attendants about the house of a king or noble were many Saxon
+slaves, in whom there was a regular trade until it was abolished
+by the action of the church in 1171. The slaves slept on the
+ground in the kitchen or in cabins outside the fort.</p>
+
+<p>The children of the upper classes in Ireland, both boys and
+girls, were not reared at home but were sent elsewhere to be
+fostered. It was usual for a chief to send his child to one of his
+own sub-chiefs, but the parents often chose a chief of their own
+rank. For instance, the <i>ollam fili</i>, or chief poet, who ranked in
+some respects with a tribe-king, sent his sons to be fostered by the
+king of his own territory. Fosterage might be undertaken out of
+affection or for payment. In the latter case the fee varied
+according to rank, and there are numerous laws extant fixing
+the cost and regulating the food and dress of the child according
+to his position. Sometimes a chief acted as foster-father to a
+large number of children. The cost of the fosterage of boys
+seems to have been borne by the mother&rsquo;s property, that of the
+daughters by the father&rsquo;s. The ties created by fosterage were
+nearly as close and as binding on children as those of blood.</p>
+
+<p>There is ample evidence that great laxity prevailed with regard
+to the marriage tie even after the introduction of Christianity,
+as marrying within the forbidden degrees and repudiation
+continued to be very frequent in spite of the efforts of the
+church. Marriage by purchase was universal, and the wealth
+of the contracting parties constituted the primary element of a
+legitimate union. The bride and bridegroom should be provided
+with a joint fortune proportionate to their rank. When they
+were of equal rank, and the family of each contributed an equal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page769" id="page769"></a>769</span>
+share to the marriage portion, the marriage was legal in the full
+sense and the wife was a wife of equal rank. The church endeavoured
+to make the wife of a first marriage the only true wife;
+but concubinage was known as an Irish institution until long
+after the Anglo-Norman invasion, and it is recognized in the
+Laws. If a concubine had sons her position did not differ
+materially in some respects from that of a chief wife. As the tie
+of the sept was blood, all the acknowledged children of a man,
+whether legitimate or illegitimate, belonged equally to his sept.
+Even adulterine bastardy was no bar to a man becoming chief
+of his tribe, as in the case of Hugh O&rsquo;Neill, earl of Tyrone. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">O&rsquo;Neill</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The food of the Irish was very simple, consisting in the main
+of oaten cakes, cheese, curds, milk, butter, and the flesh of
+domestic animals both fresh and salted. The better classes
+were acquainted with wheaten bread also. The food of the
+inhabitants of the Land of Promise consisted of fresh pork, new
+milk and ale. Fish, especially salmon, and game should of course
+be added to the list. The chief drinks were ale and mead.</p>
+
+<p>The dress of the upper classes was similar to that of a Scottish
+Highlander before it degenerated into the present conventional
+garb of a highland regiment. Next the skin came a shirt (<i>léine</i>)
+of fine texture often richly embroidered. Over this was a tightly
+fitting tunic (<i>inar</i>, <i>lend</i>) reaching below the hips with a girdle
+at the waist. In the case of women the <i>inar</i> fell to the feet.
+Over the left shoulder and fastened with a brooch hung the loose
+cloak (<i>brat</i>), to which the Scottish plaid corresponds. The kilt
+seems to have been commonly worn, especially by soldiers,
+whose legs were usually bare, but we also hear of tight-fitting
+trousers extending below the ankles. The feet were either
+entirely naked or encased in shoes of raw hide fastened with
+thongs. Sandals and shoes of bronze are mentioned in Irish
+literature, and quite a number are to be seen in museums. A
+loose flowing garment, intermediate between the <i>brat</i> and <i>lend</i>,
+usually of linen dyed saffron, was commonly worn in outdoor
+life, and was still used in the Hebrides about 1700. A modified
+form of this over-tunic with loose sleeves and made of frieze
+formed probably the general covering of the peasantry. Among
+the upper classes the garments were very costly and variously
+coloured. It would seem that the number of colours in the dress
+indicated the rank of the wearer. The hair was generally worn
+long by men as well as women, and ringlets were greatly admired.
+Women braided their hair into tresses, which they confined with a
+pin. The beard was also worn long. Like all ancient and semi-barbarous
+people, the Irish were fond of ornaments. Indeed
+the profusion of articles of gold which have been found is remarkable;
+in the Dublin Museum may be seen bracelets, armlets,
+finger-rings, torques, crescents, gorgets, necklets, fibulae and
+diadems, all of solid gold and most exquisite workmanship.</p>
+
+<p>The principal weapons of the Irish soldiers were a lance, a
+sword and a shield; though prior to the Anglo-Norman invasion
+they had adopted the battle-axe from the Scandinavians. The
+shields were of two kinds. One was the <i>sciath</i>, oval or oblong in
+shape, made of wicker-work covered with hide, and often large
+enough to cover the whole body. This was doubtless the form
+introduced by the Brythonic invaders. But round shields,
+smaller in size, were also commonly employed. These were
+made of bronze backed with wood, or of yew covered with hide.
+This latter type scarcely goes back to the round shield of the
+Bronze age. Armour and helmets were not generally employed
+at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion.</p>
+
+<p>In the Brehon Laws the land belongs in theory to the tribe,
+but this did not by any means correspond to the state of affairs.
+We find that the power of the petty king has made a very considerable
+advance, and that all the elements of feudalism are
+present, save that there was no central authority strong enough
+to organize the whole of Irish society on a feudal basis. The
+<i>tuath</i> or territory of a <i>rí</i> (represented roughly by a modern
+barony) was divided among the septs. The lands of a sept
+consisted of the estates in severally of the lords (<i>flathi</i>), and of
+the <i>ferand duthaig</i>, or common lands of the sept. The dwellers
+on each of these kinds of land differed materially from each other.
+On the former lived a motley population of slaves, horse-boys,
+and mercenaries composed of broken men of other clans, many
+of whom were fugitives from justice, possessing no rights either
+in the sept or tribe and entirely dependent on the bounty of the
+lord, and consequently living about his fortified residence. The
+poorer servile classes or cottiers, wood-cutters, swine-herds, &amp;c.,
+who had a right of domicile (acquired after three generations),
+lived here and there in small hamlets on the mountains and
+poorer lands of the estate. The good lands were let to a class of
+tenants called <i>fuidirs</i>, of whom there were several kinds, some
+grazing the land with their own cattle, others receiving both
+land and cattle from the lord. <i>Fuidirs</i> had no rights in the sept;
+some were true serfs, others tenants-at-will; they lived in
+scattered homesteads like the farmers of the present time. The
+lord was responsible before the law for the acts of all the servile
+classes on his estates, both new-comers and <i>senchleithe</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+descendants of <i>fuidirs</i>, slaves, &amp;c., whose families had lived on
+the estate during the time of three lords. He paid their blood-fines
+and received compensation for their slaughter, maiming
+or plunder. The <i>fuidirs</i> were the chief source of a lord&rsquo;s wealth,
+and he was consequently always anxious to increase them.</p>
+
+<p>The freemen were divided into freemen pure and simple,
+freemen possessing a quantity of stock, and nobles (<i>flathi</i>)
+having vassals. Wealth consisted in cattle. Those possessed
+of large herds of kine lent out stock under various conditions.
+In the case of a chief such an offer could not be refused. In
+return, a certain customary tribute was paid. Such a transaction
+might be of two kinds. By the one the freemen took <i>saer</i>-stock
+and retained his status. But if he accepted <i>daer</i>-stock he at once
+descended to the rank of a vassal. In this way it was possible
+for the chief to extend his power enormously. Rent was commonly
+paid in kind. As a consequence of this, in place of receiving
+the farm produce at his own home the chief or noble reserved
+to himself the right of quartering himself and a certain number
+of followers in the house of his vassal, a practice which must have
+been ruinous to the small farmers. Freemen who possessed
+twenty-one cows and upwards were called <i>airig</i> (sing, <i>aire</i>),
+or, as we should say, had the franchise, and might fulfil the
+functions of bail, witness, &amp;c. As the chief sought to extend his
+power in the <i>tuath</i>, he also endeavoured to aggrandize his position
+at the expense of other <i>tuatha</i> by compelling them to pay tribute
+to him. Such an aggregate of <i>tuatha</i> acknowledging one <i>rí</i> was
+termed a <i>mórthuath</i>. The ruler of a <i>mórthuath</i> paid tribute to
+the provincial king, who in his turn acknowledged at any rate
+in theory the overlordship of the <i>ardrí</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The privileges and tributes of the provincial kings are preserved
+in a remarkable 10th century document, the <i>Book of Rights</i>.
+The rules of succession were extraordinarily complicated.
+Theoretically the members of a sept claimed common descent
+from the same ancestor, and the land belonged to the freemen.
+The chief and nobles, however, from various causes had come
+to occupy much of the territory as private property: the remainder
+consisted of tribe-land and commons-land. The
+portions of the tribe-land were not occupied for a fixed term,
+as the land of the sept was liable to gavelkind or redistribution
+from time to time. In some cases, however, land which belonged
+originally to a <i>flaith</i> was owned by a family; and after a number
+of generations such property presented a great similarity to the
+gavelled land. A remarkable development of family ownership
+was the <i>geilfine</i> system, under which four groups of persons, all
+nearly related to each other, held four adjacent tracts of land
+as a sort of common property, subject to regulations now very
+difficult to understand.<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The king&rsquo;s mensal land, as also that
+of the tanist or successor to the royal office appointed during
+the king&rsquo;s lifetime, was not divided up but passed on in its
+entirety to the next individual elected to the position. When
+the family of an <i>aire</i> remained in possession of his estate in a
+corporate capacity, they formed a &ldquo;joint and undivided family,&rdquo;
+the head of which was an aire, and thus kept up the rank of the
+family. Three or four poor members of a sept might combine
+their property and agree to form a &ldquo;joint family,&rdquo; one of whom
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page770" id="page770"></a>770</span>
+as the head would be an <i>aire</i>. In consequence of this organization
+the homesteads of airig commonly included several families,
+those of his brothers, sons, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brehon Laws</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Irish never got beyond very primitive notions
+of justice. Retaliation for murder and other injuries was a
+common method of redress, although the church had endeavoured
+to introduce various reforms. Hence we find in the Brehon Laws
+a highly complicated system of compensatory payment; but
+there was no authority except public opinion to enforce the
+payment of the fines determined by the brehon in cases submitted
+to him.</p>
+
+<p>There were many kinds of popular assemblies in ancient
+Ireland. The sept had its special meeting summoned by its
+chief for purposes such as the assessment of blood-fines due from
+the sept, and the distribution of those due to it. At larger
+gatherings the question of peace and war would be deliberated.
+But the most important of all such assemblies was the fair
+(<i>oenach</i>), which was summoned by a king, those summoned by
+the kings of provinces having the character of national assemblies.
+The most famous places of meeting were Tara, Telltown and
+Carman. The <i>oenach</i> had many objects. The laws were publicly
+promulgated or rehearsed; there were councils to deal with
+disputes and matters of local interest; popular sports such as
+horse-racing, running and wrestling were held; poems and tales
+were recited, and prizes were awarded to the best performers of
+every <i>dán</i> or art; while at the same time foreign traders came
+with their wares, which they exchanged for native produce,
+chiefly skins, wool and frieze. At some of these assemblies
+match-making played a prominent part. Tradition connects
+the better known of these fairs with pagan rites performed round
+the tombs of the heroes of the race; thus the assembly of Telltown
+was stated to have been instituted by Lugaid Lámfada.
+Crimes committed at an <i>oenach</i> could not be commuted by
+payment of fines. Women and men assembled for deliberation
+in separate <i>airechta</i> or gatherings, and no man durst enter the
+women&rsquo;s <i>airecht</i> under pain of death.</p>
+
+<p>The noble professions almost invariably ran in families, so
+that members of the same household devoted themselves for
+generations to one particular science or art, such as poetry,
+history, medicine, law. The heads of the various professions in
+the <i>tuath</i> received the title of <i>ollam</i>. It was the rule for them
+to have paying apprentices living with them. The literary
+<i>ollam</i> or <i>fili</i> was a person of great distinction. He was provided
+with mensal land for the support of himself and his scholars,
+and he was further entitled to free quarters for himself and his
+retinue. The harper, the metal-worker (<i>cerd</i>), and the smith
+were also provided with mensal land, in return for which they
+gave to the chief their skill and the product of their labour as
+customary tribute (<i>béstigi</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>The Annals of the Four Masters</i>, ed. J. O&rsquo;Donovan
+(7 vols., Dublin, 1856); <i>Annals of Ulster</i> (4 vols., London, 1887-1892);
+Keating&rsquo;s <i>Forus Feasa ar Éirinn</i> (3 vols., ed. D. Comyn and
+P. Dinneen, London, 1902-1908); E. Windisch, <i>Táin Bó Cúalnge</i>
+(Leipzig, 1905), with a valuable introduction; P. W. Joyce, <i>A
+Social History of Ancient Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, 1903), also <i>A
+Short History of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1608</i> (London,
+1895); A. G. Richey, <i>A Short History of the Irish People</i> (Dublin,
+1887); W. F. Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i> (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876-1880);
+J. Rhys, &ldquo;Studies in Early Irish History,&rdquo; in <i>Proceedings
+of the British Academy</i>, vol. i.; John MacNeill, papers in <i>New
+Ireland Review</i> (March 1906-February 1907); <i>Leabhar na gCeart</i>,
+ed. O&rsquo;Donovan (Dublin, 1847); E. O&rsquo;Curry, <i>The Manners and
+Customs of the Ancient Irish</i>, ed. W. K. Sullivan (3 vols., London,
+1873); G. T. Stokes, <i>Ireland and the Celtic Church</i>, revised by
+H. J. Lawlor (London<span class="sp">6</span>, 1907); J. Healy, <i>Ireland&rsquo;s Ancient Schools
+and Scholars</i> (Dublin<span class="sp">3</span>, 1897); H. Zimmer, article &ldquo;Keltische
+Kirche&rdquo; in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie
+und Kirche</i> (trans. A. Meyer, London, 1902), cf. H. Williams, &ldquo;H.
+Zimmer on the History of the Celtic Church,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil.</i>
+iv. 527-574; H. Zimmer, &ldquo;Die Bedeutung des irischen Elements
+in der mittelalterlichen Kultur,&rdquo; <i>Preussische Jahrbücher</i>, vol. lix.,
+trans. J. L. Edmands, <i>The Irish Element in Medieval Culture</i> (New
+York, 1891); J. H. Todd, <i>St Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland</i> (Dublin,
+1864); J. B. Bury, <i>Life of St Patrick</i> (London, 1905); W. Reeves,
+<i>Adamnan&rsquo;s Life of Columba</i> (Dublin, 1857; also ed. with introd.
+by J. T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894); M. Roger, <i>L&rsquo;Enseignement des
+lettres classiques d&rsquo;Ausone ŕ Alcuin</i> (Paris, 1905); J. H. Todd, <i>The
+War of the Gćdhil with the Gall</i> (London, 1867); L. J. Vogt, <i>Dublin
+som Norsk By</i> (Christiania, 1897); J. Steenstrup, <i>Normannerne</i>,
+vols. ii., iii. (Copenhagen, 1878-1882); W. G. Collingwood, <i>Scandinavian
+Britain</i> (London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>History from the Anglo-Norman Invasion.</i></p>
+
+<p>According to the <i>Metalogus</i> of John of Salisbury, who in 1155
+went on a mission from King Henry II. to Pope Adrian IV.,
+the only Englishman who has ever occupied the
+papal chair, the pope in response to the envoy&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Bull&rdquo; of Adrian IV.</span>
+prayers granted to the king of the English the
+hereditary lordship of Ireland, sending a letter, with a ring as
+the symbol of investiture. Giraldus Cambrensis, in his <i>Expugnatio
+Hibernica</i>, gives what purports to be the text of this
+letter, known as &ldquo;the Bull Laudabiliter,&rdquo; and adds further a
+<i>Privilegium</i> of Pope Alexander III. confirming Adrian&rsquo;s grant.
+The <i>Privilegium</i> is undoubtedly spurious, a fact which lends
+weight to the arguments of those who from the 19th century
+onwards have attacked the genuineness of the &ldquo;Bull.&rdquo; This
+latter, indeed, appears to have been concocted by Gerald, an
+ardent champion of the English cause in Ireland, from genuine
+letters of Pope Alexander III., still preserved in the <i>Black Book
+of the Exchequer</i>, which do no more than commend King Henry
+for reducing the Irish to order and extirpating <i>tantae abominationis
+spurcitiam</i>, and exhort the Irish bishops and chiefs to be
+faithful to the king to whom they had sworn allegiance.<a name="fa13a" id="fa13a" href="#ft13a"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Henry was, indeed, at the outset in a position to dispense with
+the moral aid of a papal concession, of which even if it existed
+he certainly made no use. In 1156 Dermod MacMurrough
+(Diarmait MacMurchada), deposed for his tyranny from the
+kingdom of Leinster, repaired to Henry in Aquitaine (see <i>Early
+History</i> above). The king was busy with the French, but gladly
+seized the opportunity, and gave Dermod a letter authorizing
+him to raise forces in England. Thus armed, and provided with
+gold extorted from his former subjects in Leinster, Dermod
+went to Bristol and sought the acquaintance of Richard de Clare,
+earl of Pembroke, a Norman noble of great ability but broken
+fortunes. Earl Richard, whom later usage has named Strongbow,
+agreed to reconquer Dermod&rsquo;s kingdom for him. The stipulated
+consideration was the hand of Eva his only child, and according
+to feudal law his sole heiress, to whose issue lands and kingdoms
+would naturally pass. But Irish customs admitted no estates
+of inheritance, and Eva had no more right to the reversion of
+Leinster than she had to that of Japan. It is likely that Strongbow
+had no conception of this, and that his first collision with
+the tribal system was an unpleasant surprise. Passing through
+Wales, Dermod agreed with Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice
+Fitzgerald to invade Ireland in the ensuing spring.</p>
+
+<p>About the 1st of May 1169 Fitzstephen landed on the Wexford
+shore with a small force, and next day Maurice de Prendergast
+brought another band nearly to the same spot.
+Dermod joined them, and the Danes of Wexford soon
+<span class="sidenote">The invasion of Strongbow.</span>
+submitted. According to agreement Dermod granted
+the territory of Wexford, which had never belonged to
+him, to Robert and Maurice and their heirs for ever; and here
+begins the conflict between feudal and tribal law which was
+destined to deluge Ireland in blood. Maurice Fitzgerald soon
+followed with a fresh detachment. About a year after the first
+landing Raymond Le Gros was sent over by Earl Richard with
+his advanced guard, and Strongbow himself landed near Waterford
+on the 23rd of August 1170 with 200 knights and about
+1000 other troops.</p>
+
+<p>The natives did not understand that this invasion was quite
+different from those of the Danes. They made alliances with
+the strangers to aid them in their intestine wars, and the annalist
+writing in later years (<i>Annals of Lough Cé</i>) describes with pathetic
+brevity the change wrought in Ireland:&mdash;&ldquo;Earl Strongbow
+came into Erin with Dermod MacMurrough to avenge his expulsion
+by Roderick, son of Turlough O&rsquo;Connor; and Dermod gave
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page771" id="page771"></a>771</span>
+him his own daughter and a part of his patrimony, and Saxon
+foreigners have been in Erin since then.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Most of the Norman leaders were near relations, many being
+descended from Nesta, daughter of Rhys Ap Tudor, prince of
+South Wales, the most beautiful woman of her time, and mistress
+of Henry I. Her children by that king were called Fitzhenry.
+She afterwards married Gerald de Windsor, by whom she had
+three sons&mdash;Maurice, ancestor of all the Geraldines; William,
+from whom sprang the families of Fitzmaurice, Carew, Grace
+and Gerard; and David, who became bishop of St David&rsquo;s.
+Nesta&rsquo;s daughter, Angareth, married to William de Barri, bore
+the chronicler Giraldus Cambrensis, and was ancestress of the
+Irish Barries. Raymond le Gros, Hervey de Montmorency, and
+the Cogans were also descendants of Nesta, who, by her second
+husband, Stephen the Castellan, was mother of Robert Fitzstephen.</p>
+
+<p>While waiting for Strongbow&rsquo;s arrival, Raymond and Hervey
+were attacked by the Danes of Waterford, whom they overthrew.
+Strongbow himself took Waterford and Dublin, and the Danish
+inhabitants of both readily combined with their French-speaking
+kinsfolk, and became firm supporters of the Anglo-Normans
+against the native Irish.</p>
+
+<p>Alarmed at the principality forming near him, Henry invaded
+Ireland in person, landing near Waterford on the 18th of October
+1172. Giraldus says he had 500 knights and many other soldiers;
+Regan, the metrical chronicler, says he had 4000 men, of whom
+400 were knights; the <i>Annals of Lough Cé</i> that he had 240 ships.
+The Irish writers tell little about these great events, except
+that the king of the Saxons took the hostages of Munster at
+Waterford, and of Leinster, Ulster, Thomond and Meath at
+Dublin. They did not take in the grave significance of doing
+homage to a Norman king, and becoming his &ldquo;man.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Henry&rsquo;s farthest point westward was Cashel, where he received
+the homage of Donald O&rsquo;Brien, king of Thomond, but he does
+not appear to have been present at the famous synod.
+Christian O&rsquo;Conarchy, bishop of Lismore and papal
+<span class="sidenote">Henry II. in Ireland.</span>
+legate, presided, and the archbishops of Dublin,
+Cashel and Tuam attended with their suffragans, as did many
+abbots and other dignitaries. The primate of Armagh, the
+saintly Gelasius, was absent, and presumably his suffragans also,
+but Giraldus says he afterwards came to the king at Dublin,
+and favoured him in all things. Henry&rsquo;s sovereignty was
+acknowledged, and constitutions made which drew Ireland
+closer to Rome. In spite of the &ldquo;enormities and filthinesses,&rdquo;
+which Giraldus says defiled the Irish Church, nothing worse
+could be found to condemn than marriages within the prohibited
+degrees and trifling irregularities about baptism. Most of the
+details rest on the authority of Giraldus only, but the main
+facts are clear. The synod is not mentioned by the Irish annalists,
+nor by Regan, but it is by Hoveden and Ralph de Diceto. The
+latter says it was held at Lismore, an error arising from the
+president having been bishop of Lismore. Tradition says the
+members met in Cormac&rsquo;s chapel.</p>
+
+<p>Henry at first tried to be suzerain without displacing the
+natives, and received the homage of Roderick O&rsquo;Connor, the
+high king. But the adventurers were uncontrollable, and he
+had to let them conquer what they could, exercising a precarious
+authority over the Normans only through a viceroy. The early
+governors seemingly had orders to deal as fairly as possible
+with the natives, and this involved them in quarrels with the
+&ldquo;conquerors,&rdquo; whose object was to carve out principalities for
+themselves, and who only nominally respected the sovereign&rsquo;s
+wishes. The mail-clad knights were not uniformly successful
+against the natives, but they generally managed to occupy the
+open plains and fertile valleys. Geographical configuration
+preserved centres of resistance&mdash;the O&rsquo;Neills in Tyrone and
+Armagh, the O&rsquo;Donnells in Donegal, and the Macarthies in
+Cork being the largest tribes that remained practically unbroken.
+On the coast from Bray to Dundalk, and by the navigable rivers
+of the east and south coasts, the Norman put his iron foot firmly
+down.</p>
+
+<p>Prince John landed at Waterford in 1185, and the neighbouring
+chiefs hastened to pay their respects to the king&rsquo;s son. Prince
+and followers alike soon earned hatred, the former showing
+the incurable vices of his character, and pulling the beards of
+the chieftains. After eight disgraceful months he left the government
+to John de Courci, but retained the title &ldquo;Dominus
+Hiberniae.&rdquo; It was even intended to crown him; and Urban III.
+sent a licence and a crown of peacock&rsquo;s feathers, which was
+never placed on his head. Had Richard I. had children Ireland
+might have become a separate kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Henry II. had granted Meath, about 800,000 acres, to Hugh
+de Lacy (d. 1186), reserving scarcely any prerogative to the
+crown, and making his vassal almost independent. De Lacy
+sublet the land among kinsmen and retainers, and to his grants
+the families of Nugent, Tyrell, Nangle, Tuyt, Fleming and others
+owe their importance in Irish history. It is not surprising that
+the Irish bordering on Meath should have thought De Lacy the
+real king of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>During his brother Richard I.&rsquo;s reign, John&rsquo;s viceroy was
+William Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who married Strongbow&rsquo;s
+daughter, and thus succeeded to his claims in Leinster.
+John&rsquo;s reputation was no better in Ireland than in
+<span class="sidenote">King John.</span>
+England. He thwarted or encouraged the Anglo-Normans
+as best suited him, but on the whole they increased their possessions.
+In 1210 John, now king, visited Ireland again, and
+being joined by Cathal Crovderg O&rsquo;Connor, king of Connaught,
+marched from Waterford by Dublin to Carrickfergus
+without encountering any serious resistance from Hugh de Lacy
+(second son of the Hugh de Lacy mentioned above), who had
+been made earl of Ulster in 1205. John did not venture farther
+west than Trim, but most of the Anglo-Norman lords swore
+fealty to him, and he divided the partially obedient districts
+into twelve counties&mdash;Dublin (with Wicklow), Meath (with Westmeath),
+Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork,
+Limerick, Kerry and Tipperary. John&rsquo;s resignation of his
+kingdom to the pope in 1213 included Ireland, and thus
+for the second time was the papal claim to Ireland formally
+recorded.</p>
+
+<p>During Henry III.&rsquo;s long reign the Anglo-Norman power
+increased, but underwent great modifications. Richard Marshal,
+grandson of Strongbow, and to a great extent heir of
+his power, was foully murdered by his own feudatories&mdash;men
+<span class="sidenote">Henry III. (1216-1272).</span>
+of his own race; and the colony never quite
+recovered this blow. On the other hand, the De
+Burghs, partly by alliance with the Irish, partly by sheer hard
+fighting, made good their claims to the lordship of Connaught,
+and the western O&rsquo;Connors henceforth play a very subordinate
+part in Irish history. Tallage was first imposed on the colony
+in the first year of this reign, but yielded little, and tithes were
+not much better paid.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of January 1217 the king wrote from Oxford to his
+justiciary, Geoffrey de Marisco, directing that no Irishman should
+be elected or preferred in any cathedral in Ireland,
+&ldquo;since by that means our land might be disturbed,
+<span class="sidenote">Objections to Irish clergy.</span>
+which is to be deprecated.&rdquo; This order was annulled
+in 1224 by Honorius III., who declared it &ldquo;destitute
+of all colour of right and honesty.&rdquo; The pope&rsquo;s efforts failed,
+for in the 14th century several Cistercian abbeys excluded
+Irishmen, and as late as 1436 the monks of Abingdon complained
+bitterly that an Irish abbot had been imposed on them by lay
+violence. Parliament was not more liberal, for the statute of
+Kilkenny, passed in 1366, ordained that &ldquo;no Irishman be
+admitted into any cathedral or collegiate church, nor to any
+benefice among the English of the land,&rdquo; and also &ldquo;that no
+religious house situated among the English shall henceforth
+receive an Irishman to their profession.&rdquo; This was confirmed
+by the English parliament in 1416, and an Irish act of Richard
+III. enabled the archbishop of Dublin to collate Irish clerks for
+<span class="sidenote">Separation of the two races.</span>
+two years, an exception proving the rule. Many Irish
+monasteries admitted no Englishmen, and at least one
+attempt was made, in 1250, to apply the same rule to
+cathedrals. The races remained nearly separate, the
+Irish simply staying outside the feudal system. If an Englishman
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page772" id="page772"></a>772</span>
+slew an Irishman (except one of the five regal and privileged
+bloods) he was not to be tried for murder, for Irish law
+admitted composition (<i>eric</i>) for murder. In Magna Charta
+there is a proviso that foreign merchants shall be treated as
+English merchants are treated in the country whence the
+travellers came. Yet some enlightened men strove to fuse the
+two nations together, and the native Irish, or that section which
+bordered on the settlements and suffered great oppression,
+offered 8000 marks to Edward I. for the privilege of living under
+English law. The justiciary supported their petition, but the
+prelates and nobles refused to consent.</p>
+
+<p>There is a vague tradition that Edward I. visited Ireland
+about 1256, when his father ordained that the prince&rsquo;s seal
+should have regal authority in that country. A vast
+number of documents remain to prove that he did
+<span class="sidenote">Edward I. (1272-1307).</span>
+not neglect Irish business. Yet this great king cannot
+be credited with any specially enlightened views as to
+Ireland. Hearing with anger of enormities committed in his
+name, he summoned the viceroy, Robert de Ufford (d. 1298), to
+explain, who coolly said that he thought it expedient to wink
+at one knave cutting off another, &ldquo;whereat the king smiled and
+bade him return into Ireland.&rdquo; The colonists were strong
+enough to send large forces to the king in his Scottish wars,
+but as there was no corresponding immigration this really
+weakened the English, whose best hopes lay in agriculture and
+the arts of peace, while the Celtic race waxed proportionally
+numerous. Outwardly all seemed fair. The De Burghs were
+supreme in Connaught, and English families occupied eastern
+Ulster. The fertile southern and central lands were dominated
+by strong castles. But Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and the mountains
+everywhere, sheltered the Celtic race, which, having reached
+its lowest point under Edward I., began to recover under
+his son.</p>
+
+<p>In 1315, the year after Bannockburn, Edward Bruce landed
+near Larne with 6000 men, including some of the best knights
+in Scotland. Supported by O&rsquo;Neill and other chiefs,
+and for a time assisted by his famous brother, Bruce
+<span class="sidenote">Edward II. (1307-1327).</span>
+gained many victories. There was no general effort
+of the natives in their favour; perhaps the Irish
+thought one Norman no better than another, and their total
+incapacity for national organization forbade the idea of a native
+sovereign. The family quarrels of the O&rsquo;Connors at this time,
+and their alliances with the Burkes, or De Burghs, and the
+Berminghams, may be traced in great detail in the annalists&mdash;the
+general result being fatal to the royal tribe of Connaught,
+which is said to have lost 10,000 warriors in the battle of Templetogher.
+In other places the English were less successful, the
+Butlers being beaten by the O&rsquo;Carrolls in 1318, and Richard de
+Clare falling about the same time in the decisive battle of Dysert
+O&rsquo;Dea. The O&rsquo;Briens re-established their sway in Thomond
+and the illustrious name of Clare disappears from Irish history.
+Edward Bruce fell in battle near Dundalk, and most of his army
+recrossed the channel, leaving behind a reputation for cruelty
+and rapacity. The colonists were victorious, but their organization
+was undermined, and the authority of the crown, which had
+never been able to keep the peace, grew rapidly weaker. Within
+twenty years after the great victory of Dundalk, the quarrels
+of the barons allowed the Irish to recover much of the land they
+had lost.</p>
+
+<p>John de Bermingham, earl of Louth, the conqueror of Bruce,
+was murdered in 1329 by the Gernons, Cusacks, Everards and
+other English of that county, who disliked his firm
+government. They were never brought to justice.
+<span class="sidenote">Edward III. (1327-1377).</span>
+Talbot of Malahide and two hundred of Bermingham&rsquo;s
+relations and adherents were massacred at the same
+time. In 1333, William de Burgh, the young earl of Ulster, was
+murdered by the Mandevilles and others; in this case signal
+vengeance was taken, but the feudal dominion never recovered
+the blow, and on the north-east coast the English laws and
+language were soon confined to Drogheda and Dundalk. The
+earl left one daughter, Elizabeth, who was of course a royal ward.
+She married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and from her springs the
+royal line of England from Edward IV., as well as James V. of
+Scotland and his descendants.</p>
+
+<p>The two chief men among the De Burghs were loth to hold
+their lands of a little absentee girl. Having no grounds for
+opposing the royal title to the wardship of the heiress, they
+abjured English law and became Irish chieftains. As such they
+were obeyed, for the king&rsquo;s arm was short in Ireland. The one
+appropriated Mayo as the Lower (Oughter) M&lsquo;William, and the
+earldom of Mayo perpetuates the memory of the event. The
+other as the Upper (Eighter) M&lsquo;William took Galway, and from
+him the earls of Clanricarde afterwards sprung.</p>
+
+<p>Edward III. being busy with foreign wars had little time to
+spare for Ireland, and the native chiefs everywhere seized their
+opportunity. Perhaps the most remarkable of these aggressive
+chiefs was Lysaght O&rsquo;More, who reconquered Leix. Clyn the
+Franciscan annalist, whose Latinity is so far above the medieval
+level as almost to recall Tacitus, sums up Lysaght&rsquo;s career
+epigrammatically: &ldquo;He was a slave, he became a master;
+he was a subject, he became a prince (de servo dominus, de
+subjecto princeps effectus).&rdquo; The two great earldoms whose
+contests form a large part of the history of the south of Ireland
+were created by Edward III. James Butler, eldest son of
+Edmund, earl of Carrick, became earl of Ormonde and palatine
+of Tipperary in 1328. Next year Maurice Fitzgerald was
+made earl of Desmond, and from his three brethren descended
+the historic houses of the White Knight, the knight
+of Glin, and the knight of Kerry. The earldom of Kildare
+dates from 1316. In this reign too was passed the statute
+of Kilkenny (<i>q.v.</i>), a confession by the crown that obedient
+subjects were the minority. The enactments against Irish
+dress and customs, and against marriage and fostering proved
+a dead letter.</p>
+
+<p>In two expeditions to Ireland Richard II. at first overcame
+all opposition, but neither had any permanent effect. Art
+MacMurrough, the great hero of the Leinster Celts,
+practically had the best of the contest. The king in
+<span class="sidenote">Richard II. (1377-1399).</span>
+his despatches divided the population into Irish
+enemies, Irish rebels and English subjects. As he
+found them so he left them, lingering in Dublin long enough to
+lose his own crown. But for MacMurrough and his allies the
+house of Lancaster might never have reigned. No English king
+again visited Ireland until James II., declared by his English
+subjects to have abdicated, and by the more outspoken Scots
+to have forfeited the crown, appealed to the loyalty or piety
+of the Catholic Irish.</p>
+
+<p>Henry IV. had a bad title, and his necessities were conducive
+to the growth of the English constitution, but fatal to the Anglo-Irish.
+His son Thomas, duke of Clarence, was viceroy
+in 1401, but did very little. &ldquo;Your son,&rdquo; wrote the
+<span class="sidenote">Henry IV. (1399-1413).</span>
+Irish council to Henry, &ldquo;is so destitute of money that
+he has not a penny in the world, nor can borrow a
+single penny, because all his jewels and his plate that he can
+spare, and those which he must of necessity keep, are pledged
+to lie in pawn.&rdquo; The nobles waged private war unrestrained,
+and the game of playing off one chieftain against another was
+carried on with varying success. The provisions of the statute
+of Kilkenny against trading with the Irish failed, for markets
+cannot exist without buyers.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant reign of Henry V. was a time of extreme misery
+to the colony in Ireland. Half the English-speaking people
+fled to England, where they were not welcome. The
+<span class="sidenote">Henry V. (1413-1422).</span>
+disastrous reign of the third Lancastrian completed
+the discomfiture of the original colony in Ireland.
+Quarrels between the Ormonde and Talbot parties
+paralysed the government, and a &ldquo;Pale&rdquo; of 30 m. by 20 was
+all that remained. Even the walled towns, Kilkenny, Ross,
+Wexford, Kinsale, Youghal, Clonmel, Kilmallock,
+Thomastown, Fethard and Cashel, were almost starved
+<span class="sidenote">Henry VI. (1422-1461).</span>
+out; Waterford itself was half ruined and half deserted.
+Only one parliament was held for thirty years, but
+taxation was not remitted on that account. No viceroy even
+pretended to reside continuously. The north and west were still
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page773" id="page773"></a>773</span>
+worse off than the south. Some thoughtful men saw clearly the
+danger of leaving Ireland to be seized by the first chance comer,
+and the <i>Libel of English Policy</i>, written about 1436, contains a
+long and interesting passage declaring England&rsquo;s interests in
+protecting Ireland as &ldquo;a boterasse and a poste&rdquo; of her own
+power. Sir John Talbot, immortalized by Shakespeare, was
+several times viceroy; he was almost uniformly successful in
+the field, but feeble in council. He held a parliament at Trim
+which made one law against men of English race wearing
+moustaches, lest they should be mistaken for Irishmen, and
+another obliging the sons of agricultural labourers to follow their
+father&rsquo;s vocation under pain of fine and imprisonment. The
+earls of Shrewsbury are still earls of Waterford, and retain the
+right to carry the white staff as hereditary stewards, but the
+palatinate jurisdiction over Wexford was taken away by Henry
+VIII. The Ulster annalists give a very different estimate of
+the great Talbot from that of Shakespeare: &ldquo;A son of curses
+for his venom and a devil for his evils; and the learned say of
+him that there came not from the time of Herod, by whom Christ
+was crucified, any one so wicked in evil deeds&rdquo; (O&rsquo;Donovan&rsquo;s
+<i>Four Masters</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In 1449 Richard, duke of York, right heir by blood to the
+throne of Edward III., was forced to yield the regency of France
+to his rival Somerset, and to accept the Irish viceroyalty.
+He landed at Howth with his wife Cicely
+<span class="sidenote">Richard of York in Ireland.</span>
+Neville, and Margaret of Anjou hoped thus to get rid
+of one who was too great for a subject. The Irish
+government was given to him for ten years on unusually liberal
+terms. He ingratiated himself with both races, taking care to
+avoid identification with any particular family. At the baptism
+of his son George&mdash;&ldquo;false, fleeting, perjured Clarence&rdquo;&mdash;who
+was born in Dublin Castle, Desmond and Ormonde stood sponsors
+together. In legislation Richard fared no better than others.
+The rebellion of Jack Cade, claiming to be a Mortimer and cousin
+to the duke of York, took place at this time. This adventurer,
+at once ludicrous and formidable, was a native of Ireland, and
+was thought to be put forward by Richard to test the popularity
+of the Yorkist cause. Returning suddenly to England in 1450,
+Richard left the government to James, earl of Ormonde and
+Wiltshire, who later married Eleanor, daughter of Edmund
+Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and was deeply engaged on the
+Lancastrian side. This earl began the deadly feud with the
+house of Kildare, which lasted for generations. After Blore
+Heath Richard was attainted by the Lancastrian parliament,
+and returned to Dublin, where the colonial parliament acknowledged
+him and assumed virtual independence. A separate
+coinage was established, and the authority of the English
+parliament was repudiated. William Overy, a bold squire of
+Ormonde&rsquo;s, offered to arrest Richard as an attainted traitor,
+but was seized, tried before the man whom he had come to take,
+and hanged, drawn and quartered. The duke only maintained
+his separate kingdom about a year. His party triumphed in
+England, but he himself fell at Wakefield.</p>
+
+<p>Among the few prisoners taken on the bloody field of Towton
+was Ormonde, whose head long adorned London Bridge. He
+and his brothers were attainted in England and by
+the Yorkist parliament in Ireland, but the importance
+<span class="sidenote">Edward IV. (1461-1483).</span>
+of the family was hardly diminished by this. For
+the first six years of Edward&rsquo;s reign the two Geraldine
+earls engrossed official power. The influence of Queen Elizabeth
+Woodville, whom Desmond had offended, then made itself
+felt. Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, became deputy. He was an
+accomplished Oxonian, who made a speech at Rome in such
+good Latin as to draw tears from the eyes of that great patron
+of letters Pope Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius). But his Latinity
+did not soften his manners, and he was thought cruel even in
+that age. Desmond was beheaded, ostensibly for using Irish
+exactions, really, as the partisans of his family hold, to please
+Elizabeth. The remarkable lawlessness of this reign was increased
+by the practice of coining. Several mints had been
+established since Richard of York&rsquo;s time; the standards varied
+and imitation was easy.</p>
+
+<p>During Richard III.&rsquo;s short reign the earl of Kildare, head
+of the Irish Yorkists, was the strongest man in Ireland. He
+espoused the cause of Lambert Simnel (1487), whom
+the Irish in general seem always to have thought a
+<span class="sidenote">Richard III.<br />
+Henry VII. (1485-1509).</span>
+true Plantagenet. The Italian primate, Octavian
+de Palatio, knew better, and incurred the wrath of Kildare
+by refusing to officiate at the impostor&rsquo;s coronation. The local
+magnates and several distinguished visitors attended,
+and Lambert was shown to the people borne aloft
+on &ldquo;great D&rsquo;Arcy of Platten&rsquo;s&rdquo; shoulders. His
+enterprise ended in the battle of Stoke, near Newark,
+where the flower of the Anglo-Irish soldiery fell. &ldquo;The Irish,&rdquo;
+says Bacon, &ldquo;did not fail in courage or fierceness, but, being
+almost naked men, only armed with darts and skeins, it was
+rather an execution than a fight upon them.&rdquo; Conspicuous
+among Henry VII.&rsquo;s adherents in Ireland were the citizens of
+Waterford, who, with the men of Clonmel, Callan, Fethard
+and the Butler connexion generally, were prepared to take the
+field in his favour. Waterford was equally conspicuous some
+years later in resisting Perkin Warbeck, who besieged it unsuccessfully,
+and was chased by the citizens, who fitted out a
+fleet at their own charge. The king conferred honour and rewards
+on the loyal city, to which he gave the proud title of <i>urbs intacta</i>.
+Other events of this reign were the parliament of Drogheda,
+held by Sir Edward Poynings, which gave the control of Irish
+legislation to the English council (&ldquo;Poynings&rsquo;s Act&rdquo;&mdash;the
+great bone of contention in the later days of Flood and Grattan),
+and the battle of Knockdoe, in which the earl of Kildare used
+the viceregal authority to avenge a private quarrel.</p>
+
+<p>Occupied in pleasure or foreign enterprise, Henry VIII. at
+first paid little attention to Ireland. The royal power was
+practically confined to what in the previous century
+had become known as the &ldquo;Pale,&rdquo; that is Dublin,
+<span class="sidenote">Henry VIII. (1509-1547).</span>
+Louth, Kildare and a part of Meath, and within this
+narrow limit the earls of Kildare were really more
+powerful than the crown. Waterford, Drogheda, Dundalk,
+Cork, Limerick and Galway were not Irish, but rather free cities
+than an integral part of the kingdom; and many inland towns
+were in the same position. The house of Ormonde had created
+a sort of small Pale about Kilkenny, and part of Wexford had
+been colonized by men of English race. The Desmonds were
+Irish in all but pride of blood. The Barretts, Condons, Courcies,
+Savages, Arundels, Carews and others had disappeared or were
+merged in the Celtic mass. Anglo-Norman nobles became
+chiefs of pseudo-tribes, which acknowledged only the Brehon
+law, and paid dues and services in kind. These pseudo-tribes
+were often called &ldquo;nations,&rdquo; and a vast number of exactions
+were practised by the chiefs. &ldquo;Coyne and livery&rdquo;&mdash;the right
+of free-quarters for man and beast&mdash;arose among the Anglo-Normans,
+and became more oppressive than any native custom.
+When Henry took to business, he laid the foundation of reconquest.
+The house of Kildare, which had actually besieged
+Dublin (1534), was overthrown, and the Pale saved from a
+standing danger (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fitzgerald</a></span>). But the Pale scarcely
+extended 20 m. from Dublin, a march of uncertain width intervening
+between it and the Irish districts. Elsewhere, says an
+elaborate report, all the English folk were of &ldquo;Irish language
+and Irish condition,&rdquo; except in the cities and walled towns.
+Down and Louth paid black rent to O&rsquo;Neill, Meath and
+Kildare to O&rsquo;Connor, Wexford to the Kavanaghs, Kilkenny and
+Tipperary to O&rsquo;Carroll, Limerick to the O&rsquo;Briens, and Cork to
+the MacCarthies. MacMurrough Kavanagh, in Irish eyes the
+representative of King Dermod, received an annual pension
+from the exchequer. Henry set steadily to work to reassert the
+royal title. He assumed the style of king of Ireland, so as to get
+rid of the notion that he held the island of the pope. The Irish
+chiefs acknowledged his authority and his ecclesiastical supremacy,
+abjuring at the same time that of the Holy See. The
+lands of the earl of Shrewsbury and other absentees, who had
+performed no duties, were resumed; and both Celtic and feudal
+nobles were encouraged to come to court. Here begins the long
+line of official deputies, often men of moderate birth and fortune.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page774" id="page774"></a>774</span>
+Butler and Geraldine, O&rsquo;Neill and O&rsquo;Donnell, continued to
+spill each other&rsquo;s blood, but the feudal and tribal systems were
+alike doomed. In the names of these Tudor deputies and other
+officers we see the origin of many great Irish families&mdash;Skeffington,
+Brabazon, St Leger, Fitzwilliam, Wingfield, Bellingham, Carew,
+Bingham, Loftus and others. Nor were the Celts overlooked.
+O&rsquo;Neill and O&rsquo;Brien went to London to be invested as earls of
+Tyrone and Thomond respectively. O&rsquo;Donnell, whose descendants
+became earls of Tyrconnel, went to court and was well
+received. The pseudo-chief MacWilliam became earl of Clanricarde,
+and others reached lower steps in the peerage, or were
+knighted by the king&rsquo;s own hand. All were encouraged to look
+to the crown for redress of grievances, and thus the old order
+slowly gave place to the new.</p>
+
+<p>The moment when Protestantism and Ultramontanism are
+about to begin their still unfinished struggle is a fit time to
+notice the chief points in medieval Irish church history.
+Less than two years before Strongbow&rsquo;s arrival Pope
+<span class="sidenote">The Irish Church.</span>
+Eugenius had established an ecclesiastical constitution
+in Ireland depending on Rome, but the annexation was
+very imperfectly carried out, and the hope of fully asserting
+the Petrine claims was a main cause of Adrian&rsquo;s gift to Henry II.
+Hitherto the Scandinavian section of the church in Ireland had
+been most decidedly inclined to receive the hierarchical and
+diocesan as distinguished from the monastic and quasi-tribal
+system. The bishops or abbots of Dublin derived their succession
+from Canterbury from 1038 to 1162, and the bishops of
+Waterford and Limerick also sought consecration there. But
+both Celt and Northman acknowledged the polity of Eugenius,
+and it was chiefly in the matters of tithe, Peter&rsquo;s pence, canonical
+degrees and the observance of festivals that Rome had still
+victories to gain. Between churchmen of Irish and English
+race there was bitter rivalry; but the theory that the ancient
+Celtic church remained independent, and as it were Protestant,
+while the English colony submitted to the Vatican, is a mere
+controversial figment. The crown was weak and papal aggression
+made rapid progress. It was in the Irish church, about the
+middle of the 13th century, that the system of giving jurisdiction
+to the bishops &ldquo;in temporalibus&rdquo; was adopted by Innocent IV.
+The vigour of Edward I. obtained a renunciation in particular
+cases, but the practice continued unabated. The system of
+provisions was soon introduced at the expense of free election,
+and was acknowledged by the statute of Kilkenny. In the
+more remote districts it must have been almost a matter of
+necessity. Many Irish parishes grew out of primitive monasteries,
+but other early settlements remained monastic, and were compelled
+by the popes to adopt the rule of authorized orders,
+generally that of the Augustinian canons. That order became
+much the most numerous in Ireland, having not less than three
+hundred houses. Of other sedentary orders the Cistercians were
+the most important, and the mendicants were very numerous.
+Both Celtic chiefs and Norman nobles founded convents after
+Henry II. &rsquo;s time, but the latter being wealthier were most
+distinguished in this way. Religious houses were useful as
+abodes of peace in a turbulent country, and the lands attached
+were better cultivated than those of lay proprietors. Attempts
+to found a university at Dublin (1311) or Drogheda (1465)
+failed for want of funds. The work of education was partially
+done by the great abbeys, boys of good family being brought
+up by the Cistercians of Dublin and Jerpoint, and by the
+Augustinians of Dublin, Kells and Connel, and girls by the
+canonesses of Gracedieu. A strong effort was made to save
+these six houses, but Henry VIII. would not hear of it, and there
+was no Irish Wolsey partially to supply the king&rsquo;s omissions.</p>
+
+<p>Ample evidence exists that the Irish church was full of abuses
+before the movement under Henry VIII. We have detailed
+accounts of three sees&mdash;Clonmacnoise, Enaghdune and Ardagh.
+Ross, also in a wild district, was in rather better case. But
+even in Dublin strange things happened; thus the archiepiscopal
+crozier was in pawn for eighty years from 1449. The morals of
+the clergy were no better than in other countries, and we have
+evidence of many scandalous irregularities. But perhaps the most
+severe condemnation is that of the report to Henry VIII. in 1515.
+&ldquo;There is,&rdquo; says the document, &ldquo;no archbishop, ne bishop, abbot,
+ne prior, parson, ne vicar, ne any other person of the church,
+high or low, great or small, English or Irish, that useth to preach
+the word of God, saving the poor friars beggars ... the church
+of this land use not to learn any other science, but the law of
+canon, for covetise of lucre transitory.&rdquo; Where his hand reached
+Henry had little difficulty in suppressing the monasteries or
+taking their lands, which Irish chiefs swallowed as greedily as
+men of English blood. But the friars, though pretty generally
+turned out of doors, were themselves beyond Henry&rsquo;s power,
+and continued to preach everywhere among the people. Their
+devotion and energy may be freely admitted; but the mendicant
+orders, especially the Carmelites, were not uniformly distinguished
+for morality. Monasticism was momentarily suppressed under
+Oliver Cromwell, but the Restoration brought the monks back
+to their old haunts. The Jesuits, placed by Paul III. under
+the protection of Conn O&rsquo;Neill, &ldquo;prince of the Irish of Ulster,&rdquo;
+came to Ireland towards the end of Henry&rsquo;s reign, and helped
+to keep alive the Roman tradition. Anglicanism was regarded
+as a symbol of conquest and intrusion. The <i>Four Masters</i> thus
+describes the Reformation: &ldquo;A heresy and new error arising
+in England, through pride, vain glory, avarice, and lust, and
+through many strange sciences, so that the men of England
+went into opposition to the pope and to Rome.&rdquo; The destruction
+of relics and images and the establishment of a schismatic
+hierarchy is thus recorded: &ldquo;Though great was the persecution
+of the Roman emperors against the church, scarcely had there
+ever come so great a persecution from Rome as this.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The able opportunist Sir Anthony St Leger, who was accused
+by one party of opposing the Reformation and by the other of
+lampooning the Sacrament, continued to rule during
+the early days of Edward VI. To him succeeded
+<span class="sidenote">Edward VI. (1547-1553).</span>
+Sir Edward Bellingham, a Puritan soldier whose
+hand was heavy on all who disobeyed the king. He
+bridled Connaught by a castle at Athlone, and Munster by a
+garrison at Leighlin Bridge. The O&rsquo;Mores and O&rsquo;Connors
+were brought low, and forts erected where Maryborough and
+Philipstown now stand. Both chiefs and nobles were forced
+to respect the king&rsquo;s representative, but Bellingham was not
+wont to flatter those in power, and his administration found
+little favour in England. Sir Francis Bryan, Henry VIII.&rsquo;s
+favourite, succeeded him, and on his death St Leger was again
+appointed. Neither St Leger nor his successor Sir James Croft
+could do anything with Ulster, where the papal primate Wauchop,
+a Scot by birth, stirred up rebellion among the natives and
+among the Hebridean invaders. But little was done under
+Edward VI. to advance the power of the crown, and that little
+was done by Bellingham.</p>
+
+<p>The English government long hesitated about the official
+establishment of Protestantism, and the royal order to that
+effect was withheld until 1551. Copies of the new
+liturgy were sent over, and St Leger had the communion
+<span class="sidenote">The Reformation.</span>
+service translated into Latin, for the use of
+priests and others who could read, but not in English. The
+popular feeling was strong against innovation, as Edward
+Staples, bishop of Meath, found to his cost. The opinions of
+Staples, like those of Cranmer, advanced gradually until at
+last he went to Dublin and preached boldly against the mass.
+He saw men shrink from him on all sides. &ldquo;My lord,&rdquo; said a
+beneficed priest, whom he had himself promoted, and who
+wept as he spoke, &ldquo;before ye went last to Dublin ye were the
+best beloved man in your diocese that ever came in it, now ye
+are the worst beloved.... Ye have preached against the sacrament
+of the altar and the saints, and will make us worse than
+Jews.... The country folk would eat you.... Ye have more
+curses than ye have hairs of your head, and I advise you for
+Christ&rsquo;s sake not to preach at Navan.&rdquo; Staples answered
+that preaching was his duty, and that he would not fail; but
+he feared for his life. On the same prelate fell the task of
+conducting a public controversy with the archbishop of Armagh,
+George Dowdall, which of course ended in the conversion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page775" id="page775"></a>775</span>
+of neither. Dowdall fled; his see was treated as vacant,
+and Cranmer cast about him for a Protestant to fill St Patrick&rsquo;s
+chair. His first nominee, Dr Richard Turner, resolutely declined
+the honour, declaring that he would be unintelligible to the
+people; and Cranmer could only answer that English was
+spoken in Ireland, though he did indeed doubt whether it was
+spoken in the diocese of Armagh. John Bale, a man of great
+learning and ability, became bishop of Ossory. There is no
+reason to doubt his sincerity, but he was coarse and intemperate&mdash;Froude
+roundly calls him a foul-mouthed ruffian&mdash;without
+the wisdom of the serpent or the harmlessness of the dove.
+His choice rhetoric stigmatized the dean of St Patrick&rsquo;s as ass-headed,
+a blockhead who cared only for his kitchen and his
+belly.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation having made no real progress, Mary found
+it easy to recover the old ways. Dowdall was restored; Staples
+and others were deprived. Bale fled for bare life,
+and his see was treated as vacant. Yet the queen
+<span class="sidenote">Mary (1553-1558).</span>
+found it impossible to restore the monastic lands,
+though she showed some disposition to scrutinize
+the titles of grantees. She was Tudor enough to declare her
+intention of maintaining the old prerogatives of the crown
+against the Holy See, and assumed the royal title without
+papal sanction. Paul IV. was fain to curb his fiery temper,
+and to confer graciously what he could not withhold. English
+Protestants fled to Ireland to escape the Marian persecution;
+but had the reign continued a little longer, Dublin would probably
+have been no safe place of refuge.</p>
+
+<p>Mary scarcely varied the civil policy of her brother&rsquo;s ministers.
+Gerald of Kildare, who had been restored to his estates by
+Edward VI., was created earl of Kildare. The plan of settling
+Leix and Offaly by dividing the country between colonists and
+natives holding by English tenure failed, owing to the unconquerable
+love of the people for their own customs. But resistance
+gradually grew fainter, and we hear little of the O&rsquo;Connors
+after this. The O&rsquo;Mores, reduced almost to brigandage, gave
+trouble till the end of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign, and a member of the
+clan was chief contriver of the rebellion of 1641. Maryborough
+and Philipstown, King&rsquo;s county and Queen&rsquo;s county, commemorate
+Mary&rsquo;s marriage.</p>
+
+<p>Anne Boleyn&rsquo;s daughter succeeded quietly, and Sir Henry
+Sidney was sworn lord-justice with the full Catholic ritual.
+When Thomas Radclyffe, earl of Sussex, superseded
+him as lord-lieutenant, the litany was chanted in
+<span class="sidenote">Elizabeth (1558-1603).</span>
+English, both cathedrals having been painted, and
+scripture texts substituted for &ldquo;pictures and popish
+fancies.&rdquo; At the beginning of 1560 a parliament was held
+which restored the ecclesiastical legislation of Henry and Edward.
+In two important points the Irish Church was made more dependent
+on the state than in England: <i>congés d&rsquo;élire</i> were abolished
+and heretics made amenable to royal commissioners or to parliament
+without reference to any synod or convocation. According
+to a contemporary list, this parliament consisted of 3 archbishops,
+17 bishops, 23 temporal peers, and members returned
+by 10 counties and 28 cities and boroughs. Some of the Irish
+bishops took the oath of supremacy, some were deprived. In
+other cases Elizabeth connived at what she could not prevent,
+and hardly pretended to enforce uniformity except in the Pale
+and in the large towns.</p>
+
+<p>Ulster demanded the immediate attention of Elizabeth.
+Her father had conferred the earldom of Tyrone on Conn Bacach
+O&rsquo;Neill, with remainder to his supposed son Matthew,
+created baron of Dungannon, the offspring of a
+<span class="sidenote">Rebellion of Shane O&rsquo;Neill.</span>
+smith&rsquo;s wife at Dundalk, who in her husband&rsquo;s lifetime
+brought the child to Conn as his own. When the
+chief&rsquo;s legitimate son Shane grew up he declined to be bound
+by this arrangement, which the king may have made in partial
+ignorance of the facts. &ldquo;Being a gentleman,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;my
+father never refusid no child that any woman namyd to be his.&rdquo;
+When Tyrone died, Matthew&rsquo;s son, Brian O&rsquo;Neill, baron of
+Dungannon, claimed his earldom under the patent. Shane
+being chosen O&rsquo;Neill by his tribe claimed to be chief by election,
+and earl as Conn&rsquo;s lawful son. Thus the English government
+was committed to the cause of one who was at best an adulterine
+bastard, while Shane appeared as champion of hereditary right
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">O&rsquo;Neill</a></span>). Shane maintained a contest which had begun
+under Mary until 1567, with great ability and a total absence
+of morality, in which Sussex had no advantage over him. The
+lord-lieutenant twice tried to have Shane murdered; once
+he proposed to break his safe-conduct; and he held out hopes
+of his sister&rsquo;s hand as a snare. Shane was induced to visit
+London, where the government detained him for some time.
+On his return to Ireland, Sussex was outmatched both in war
+and diplomacy; the loyal chiefs were crushed one by one;
+and the English suffered checks of which the moral effect was
+ruinous. Shane diplomatically acknowledged Elizabeth as his
+sovereign, and sometimes played the part of a loyal subject,
+wreaking his private vengeance under colour of expelling the
+Scots from Ulster. At last, in 1566, the queen placed the sword
+of state in Sidney&rsquo;s strong grasp. Shane was driven helplessly
+from point to point, and perished miserably at the hands of the
+MacDonnells, whom he had so often oppressed and insulted.</p>
+
+<p>Peace was soon broken by disturbances in the south. The
+earl of Desmond having shown rebellious tendencies was detained
+for six years in London. Treated leniently, but
+grievously pressed for money, he tried to escape, and,
+<span class="sidenote">First Desmond Rebellion, 1574.</span>
+the attempt being judged treasonable, he was persuaded
+to surrender his estates&mdash;to receive them back or
+not at the queen&rsquo;s discretion. Seizing the opportunity, English
+adventurers proposed to plant a military colony in the western
+half of Munster, holding the coast from the Shannon to Cork
+harbour. Some who held obsolete title-deeds were encouraged
+to go to work at once by the example of Sir Peter Carew, who
+had established his claims in Carlow. Carew&rsquo;s title had been
+in abeyance for a century and a half, yet most of the Kavanaghs
+attorned to him. Falling foul of Ormonde&rsquo;s brothers, seizing
+their property and using great cruelty and violence, Sir Peter
+drove the Butlers, the only one among the great families really
+loyal, into rebellion. Ormonde, who was in London, could
+alone restore peace; all his disputes with Desmond were at
+once settled in his favour, and he was even allowed to resume
+the exaction of coyne and livery, the abolition of which had
+been the darling wish of statesmen. The Butlers returned to
+their allegiance, but continued to oppose Carew, and great
+atrocities were committed on both sides. Sir Peter had great
+but undefined claims in Munster also, and the people there took
+warning. His imitators in Cork were swept away. Sidney
+first, and after him Humphrey Gilbert, could only circumscribe
+the rebellion. The presidency of Munster, an office the creation
+of which had long been contemplated, was then conferred on
+Sir John Perrot, who drove James &ldquo;Fitzmaurice&rdquo; Fitzgerald
+into the mountains, reduced castles everywhere, and destroyed
+a Scottish contingent which had come from Ulster to help
+the rebels. Fitzmaurice came in and knelt in the mud at the
+president&rsquo;s feet, confessing his sins; but he remained the real
+victor. The colonizing scheme was dropped, and the first
+presidency of Munster left the Desmonds and their allies in
+possession. Similar plans were tried unsuccessfully in Ulster, first
+by a son of Sir Thomas Smith, afterwards by Walter Devereux,
+earl of Essex, a knight-errant rather than a statesman, who
+was guilty of many bloody deeds. He treacherously captured
+Sir Brian O&rsquo;Neill and massacred his followers. The Scots in
+Rathlin were slaughtered wholesale. Essex struggled on for
+more than three years, seeing his friends gradually drop away,
+and dying ruined and unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of 1575 Sidney was again persuaded to
+become viceroy. The Irish recognized his great qualities, and
+he went everywhere without interruption. Henceforth presidencies
+became permanent institutions. Sir William Drury in
+Munster hanged four hundred persons in one year, Sir Nicholas
+Malby in reducing the Connaught Burkes spared neither young
+nor old, and burned all corn and houses. The Desmonds determined
+on a great effort. A holy war was declared. Fitzmaurice
+landed in Kerry with a few followers, and accompanied by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page776" id="page776"></a>776</span>
+famous Nicholas Sanders, who was armed with a legate&rsquo;s commission
+and a banner blessed by the pope. Fitzmaurice fell
+soon after in a skirmish near Castleconnell, but Sanders and
+Desmond&rsquo;s brothers still kept the field. When it was too late
+to act with effect, Desmond himself, a vain man, neither frankly
+loyal nor a bold rebel, took the field. He surprised Youghal,
+then an English town, by night, sacked it, and murdered the
+people. Roused at last, Elizabeth sent over Ormonde as general
+of Munster, and after long delay gave him the means of conducting
+a campaign. It was as much a war of Butlers against Geraldines
+as of loyal subjects against rebels, and Ormonde did his work
+only too well.  Lord Baltinglass raised a hopeless subsidiary
+revolt in Wicklow (1580), which was signalized by a crushing
+defeat of the lord deputy, Lord Grey de Wilton (Arthegal) in
+Glenmalure. A force of Italians and Spaniards landing at
+Smerwick in Kerry, Grey hurried thither, and the foreigners,
+who had no commission, surrendered at discretion, and were
+put to the sword. Neither Grey nor the Spanish ambassador
+seems to have seen anything extraordinary in thus disposing
+of inconvenient prisoners. Spenser and Raleigh were present.
+Sanders perished obscurely in 1581, and in 1583 Desmond
+himself was hunted down and killed in the Kerry mountains.
+More than 500,000 Irish acres were forfeited to the crown.
+The horrors of this war it is impossible to exaggerate. The
+<i>Four Masters</i> says that the lowing of a cow or the voice of
+a ploughman could scarcely be heard from Cashel to the farthest
+point of Kerry; Ormonde, who, with all his severity, was
+honourably distinguished by good faith, claimed to have killed
+5000 men in a few months. Spenser, an eye-witness, says
+famine slew far more than the sword. The survivors were unable
+to walk, but crawled out of the woods and glens. &ldquo;They looked
+like anatomies of death; they did eat the dead carrion and
+one another soon after, insomuch as the very carcasses they
+spared not to scrape out of their graves; ... to a plot of
+watercresses or shamrocks they flocked as to a feast.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1584 Sir John Perrot, the ablest man available after
+Sidney&rsquo;s retirement, became lord-deputy. Sir John Norris,
+famed in the Netherland wars, was president of Munster, and
+so impressed the Irish that they averred him to be in league
+with the devil. Perrot held a parliament in 1585 in which the
+number of members was considerably increased. He made a
+strenuous effort to found a university in Dublin, and proposed
+to endow it with the revenues of St Patrick&rsquo;s, reasonably arguing
+that one cathedral was enough for any city. Here he was
+opposed by Adam Loftus, archbishop of Dublin and chancellor,
+who had expressed his anxiety for a college, but had no idea of
+endowing it at his own expense. The colonization of the Munster
+forfeitures was undertaken at this time. It failed chiefly from
+the grants to individuals who neglected to plant English farmers,
+and were often absentees themselves. Raleigh obtained 42,000
+acres. The quit rents reserved to the crown were less than
+one penny per acre. Racked with the stone, hated by the
+official clique, thwarted on all sides, Perrot was goaded into
+using words capable of a treasonable interpretation. Archbishop
+Loftus pursued him to the end. He died in the Tower of London
+under sentence for treason, and we may charitably hope that
+Elizabeth would have pardoned him. In his will, written
+after sentence, he emphatically repudiates any treasonable
+intention&mdash;&ldquo;I deny my Lord God if ever I proposed the same.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1584 Hugh O&rsquo;Neill, if O&rsquo;Neill he was (being second son
+of Matthew, mentioned above), became chief of part of Tyrone;
+in 1587 he obtained the coveted earldom, and in
+1593 was the admitted head of the whole tribe. A
+<span class="sidenote">Last Desmond Rebellion.</span>
+quarrel with the government was inevitable, and,
+Hugh Roe O&rsquo;Donnell having joined him, Ulster
+was united against the crown. In 1598 James Fitzthomas
+Fitzgerald assumed the title of Desmond, to which he had
+some claims by blood, and which he pretended to hold as Tyrone&rsquo;s
+gift. Tyrone had received a crown of peacock&rsquo;s feathers from
+the pope, who was regarded by many as king of Ireland. The
+title of <i>Sugan</i> or straw-rope earl has been generally given to
+the Desmond pretender. Both ends of the island were soon
+in a blaze, and the <i>Four Masters</i> says that in seventeen days
+there was not one son of a Saxon left alive in the Desmond
+territories. Edmund Spenser lost his all, escaping only to die
+of misery in a London garret. Tyrone more than held his own
+in the north, completely defeated Sir Henry Bagnal in the
+battle of the Yellow Ford (1598), invaded Munster, and ravaged
+the lands of Lord Barrymore, who had remained true to his
+allegiance. Tyrone&rsquo;s ally, Hugh Roe O&rsquo;Donnell, overthrew
+the president of Connaught, Sir Conyers Clifford. &ldquo;The Irish
+of Connaught,&rdquo; says the <i>Four Masters</i>, &ldquo;were not pleased
+at Clifford&rsquo;s death; ... he had never told them a falsehood.&rdquo;
+Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, came over in 1599 with a great
+army, but did nothing of moment, was outgeneralled and outwitted
+by Tyrone, and threw up his command to enter on the
+mad and criminal career which led to the scaffold. In 1600
+Sir George Carew became president of Munster, and, as always
+happened when the crown was well served, the rebellion was
+quickly put down. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy (afterwards
+earl of Devonshire), who succeeded Essex, joined Carew, and a
+Spanish force which landed at Kinsale surrendered. The
+destruction of their crops starved the people into submission,
+and the contest was only less terrible than the first Desmond
+war because it was much shorter. In Ulster Mountjoy was
+assisted by Sir Henry Docwra, who founded the second settlement
+at Derry, the first under Edward Randolph having been
+abandoned. Hugh O&rsquo;Donnell sought help in Spain, where he
+died. Tyrone submitted at last, craving pardon on his knees,
+renouncing his Celtic chiefry, and abjuring all foreign powers;
+but still retaining his earldom, and power almost too great for
+a subject. Scarcely was the compact signed when he heard
+of the great queen&rsquo;s death. He burst into tears, not of grief,
+but of vexation at not having held out for better terms.</p>
+
+<p>In reviewing the Irish government of Elizabeth we shall
+find much to blame, a want of truth in her dealings and of
+steadiness in her policy. Violent efforts of coercion
+were succeeded by fits of clemency, of parsimony
+<span class="sidenote">Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland.<br /><br />
+Religious policy.</span>
+or of apathy. Yet it is fair to remember that she was
+surrounded by enemies, that her best energies were
+expended in the death-struggle with Spain, and that she was
+rarely able to give undivided attention to the Irish problem.
+After all she conquered Ireland, which her predecessors had failed
+to do, though many of them were as crooked in action and less
+upright in intention. Considering the times, Elizabeth cannot
+be called a persecutor. &ldquo;Do not,&rdquo; she said to the
+elder Essex, &ldquo;seek too hastily to bring people that
+have been trained in another religion from that in
+which they have been brought up.&rdquo; Elizabeth saw that the
+Irish could only be reached through their own language. But
+for that harvest the labourers were necessarily few. The fate
+of Bishop Daly of Kildare, who preached in Irish, and who thrice
+had his house burned over his head, was not likely to encourage
+missionaries. In all wild parts divine service was neglected,
+and wandering friars or subtle Jesuits, supported by every
+patriotic or religious feeling of the people, kept Ireland faithful
+to Rome. Against her many shortcomings we must set the
+queen&rsquo;s foundation of the university of Dublin, which has been
+the most successful English institution in Ireland, and which
+has continually borne the fairest fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Great things were expected of James I. He was Mary Stuart&rsquo;s
+son, and there was a curious antiquarian notion afloat that,
+because the Irish were the original &ldquo;Scoti,&rdquo; a Scottish
+king would sympathize with Ireland. Corporate
+<span class="sidenote">James I. (1603-1625).</span>
+towns set up the mass, and Mountjoy, who could
+argue as well as fight, had to teach them a sharp lesson.
+Finding Ireland conquered and in no condition to rise again,
+James established circuits and a complete system of shires.
+Sir John Davies was sent over as solicitor-general. His famous
+book (<i>Discoverie of the State of Ireland</i>) in which he glorifies
+his own and the king&rsquo;s exploits gives far too much credit to
+the latter and far too little to his great predecessor.</p>
+
+<p>Two legal decisions swept away the customs of tanistry
+and of Irish gavelkind, and the English land system was violently
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page777" id="page777"></a>777</span>
+substituted. The earl of Tyrone was harassed by sheriffs and
+other officers, and the government, learning that he was engaged
+in an insurrectionary design, prepared to seize him. The information
+was probably false, but Tyrone was growing old and perhaps
+despaired of making good his defence. By leaving Ireland he
+played into his enemies&rsquo; hands. Rory O&rsquo;Donnell, created earl
+of Tyrconnel, accompanied him. Cuconnaught Maguire had
+already gone. The &ldquo;flight of the earls,&rdquo; as it is called, completed
+the ruin of the Celtic cause. Reasons or pretexts for
+declaring forfeitures against O&rsquo;Cahan were easily found.
+O&rsquo;Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, and foreman of the grand jury
+which found a bill for treason against the earls of Tyrone and
+Tyrconnel, was insulted by Sir George Paulet, the governor
+of Derry. O&rsquo;Dogherty rose, Derry was sacked, and Paulet
+murdered. O&rsquo;Dogherty having been killed and O&rsquo;Hanlon and
+others being implicated, the whole of northern Ulster was at
+<span class="sidenote">Plantation of Ulster.</span>
+the disposal of the government. Tyrone, Donegal,
+Armagh, Cavan, Fermanagh and Derry were parcelled
+out among English and Scottish colonists, portions
+being reserved to the natives. The site of Derry was
+granted to the citizens of London, who fortified and armed it,
+and Londonderry became the chief bulwark of the colonists
+in two great wars. Whatever may have been its morality,
+in a political point of view the plantation of Ulster was successful.
+The northern province, which so severely taxed the energies
+of Elizabeth, has since been the most prosperous and loyal
+part of Ireland. But the conquered people remained side by
+side with the settlers; and Sir George Carew, who reported on
+the plantation in 1611, clearly foresaw that they would rebel
+again. Those natives who retained land were often oppressed
+by their stronger neighbours, and sometimes actually swindled
+out of their property. It is probable that in the neglect of the
+grantees to give proper leases to their tenants arose the Ulster
+tenant-right custom which attracted so much notice in more
+modern times.</p>
+
+<p>The parliamentary history of the English colony in Ireland
+corresponds pretty closely to that of the mother country. First
+there are informal meetings of eminent persons;
+then, in 1295, there is a parliament of which some
+<span class="sidenote">The Irish Parliament.</span>
+acts remain, and to which only knights of the shire
+were summoned to represent the commons. Burgesses
+were added as early as 1310. The famous parliament of Kilkenny
+in 1366 was largely attended, but the details of its composition
+are not known. That there was substantial identity in the
+character of original and copy may be inferred from the fact
+that the well-known tract called <i>Modus tenendi parliamentum</i>
+was exemplified under the Great Seal of Ireland in 6 Hen. V.
+The most ancient Irish parliament remaining on record was
+held in 1374, twenty members in all being summoned to the
+House of Commons, from the counties of Dublin, Louth, Kildare
+and Carlow, the liberties and crosses of Meath, the city of Dublin,
+and the towns of Drogheda and Dundalk. The liberties were
+those districts in which the great vassals of the crown exercised
+palatinate jurisdiction, and the crosses were the church lands,
+where alone the royal writ usually ran. Writs for another parliament
+in the same year were addressed in addition to the counties
+of Waterford, Cork and Limerick; the liberties and crosses
+of Ulster, Wexford, Tipperary and Kerry; the cities of Waterford,
+Cork and Limerick; and the towns of Youghal, Kinsale,
+Ross, Wexford and Kilkenny. The counties of Clare and Longford,
+and the towns of Galway and Athenry, were afterwards
+added, and the number of popular representatives does not appear
+to have much exceeded sixty during the later middle ages.
+In the House of Lords the temporal peers were largely outnumbered
+by the bishops and mitred abbots. In the parliament
+which conferred the royal title on Henry VIII. it was finally
+decided that the proctors of the clergy had no voice or votes.
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s first parliament, held in 1559, was attended by 76
+members of the Lower House, which increased to 122 in 1585.
+In 1613 James I. by a wholesale creation of new boroughs,
+generally of the last insignificance, increased the House of
+Commons to 232, and thus secured an Anglican majority to
+carry out his policy. He told those who remonstrated to mind
+their own business. &ldquo;What is it to you if I had created 40
+noblemen and 400 boroughs? The more the merrier, the
+fewer the better cheer.&rdquo; In 1639 the House of Commons had
+274 members, a number which was further increased to 300
+at the Revolution, and so it remained until the Union.</p>
+
+<p>Steeped in absolutist ideas, James was not likely to tolerate
+religious dissent. He thought he could &ldquo;mak what liked
+him law and gospel.&rdquo; A proclamation for banishing
+Romish priests issued in 1605, and was followed
+<span class="sidenote">Religious policy of James I.</span>
+by an active and general persecution, which was so
+far from succeeding that they continued to flock
+in from abroad, the lord-deputy Arthur Chichester admitting
+that every house and hamlet was to them a sanctuary. The
+most severe English statutes against the Roman Catholic laity
+had never been re-enacted in Ireland, and, in the absence of
+law, illegal means were taken to enforce uniformity. Privy
+seals addressed to men of wealth and position commanded their
+attendance at church before the deputy or the provincial president,
+on pain of unlimited fine and imprisonment by the Irish Star
+Chamber. The Roman Catholic gentry and lawyers, headed
+by Sir Patrick Barnewall, succeeded in proving the flagrant
+illegality of these mandates, and the government had to yield.
+On the whole Protestantism made little progress, though the
+number of Protestant settlers increased. As late as 1622, when
+Sir Henry Cary, Viscount Falkland, was installed as deputy,
+the illustrious James Ussher, then bishop of Meath, preached
+from the text &ldquo;he beareth not the sword in vain,&rdquo; and descanted
+on the over-indulgence shown to recusants. The primate,
+Christopher Hampton, in a letter which is a model of Christian
+eloquence, mildly rebuked his eminent suffragan.</p>
+
+<p>The necessities of Charles I. induced his ministers to propose
+that a great part of Connaught should be declared forfeited,
+owing to mere technical flaws in title, and planted like
+Ulster. Such was the general outcry that the scheme
+<span class="sidenote">Charles I. (1625-1649).<br /><br />
+Administration of Strafford.</span>
+had to be given up; and, on receiving a large
+grant from the Irish parliament, the king promised
+certain graces, of which the chief were security for titles, free
+trade, and the substitution of an oath of allegiance for that of
+supremacy. Having got the money, Charles as usual broke
+his word; and in 1635 the lord-deputy Strafford
+began a general system of extortion. The Connaught
+and Munster landowners were shamelessly forced to
+pay large fines for the confirmation of even recent
+titles. The money obtained by oppressing the Irish nation was
+employed to create an army for the oppression of the Scottish
+and English nations. The Roman Catholics were neither awed
+nor conciliated. Twelve bishops, headed by the primate Ussher,
+solemnly protested that &ldquo;to tolerate popery is a grievous sin.&rdquo;
+The Ulster Presbyterians were rigorously treated. Of the
+prelates employed by Strafford in this persecution the ablest
+was John Bramhall (1594-1663) of Derry, who not only oppressed
+the ministers but insulted them by coarse language.
+The &ldquo;black oath,&rdquo; which bound those who took it never to
+oppose Charles in anything, was enforced on all ministers, and
+those who refused it were driven from their manses and often
+stripped of their goods.</p>
+
+<p>Strafford was recalled to expiate his career on the scaffold;
+the army was disbanded; and the helm of the state remained
+in the hands of a land-jobber and of a superannuated
+soldier. Disbanded troops are the ready weapons
+<span class="sidenote">Rebellion of 1641.</span>
+of conspiracy, and the opportunity was not lost. The
+Roman Catholic insurgents of 1641 just failed to seize Dublin,
+but quickly became masters of nearly the whole country. That
+there was no definite design of massacring the Protestants is
+likely, but it was intended to drive them out of the country.
+Great numbers were killed, often in cold blood and with circumstances
+of great barbarity. The English under Sir Charles
+Coote and others retaliated. In 1642 a Scottish army under
+General Robert Monro landed in Ulster, and formed a rallying
+point for the colonists. Londonderry, Enniskillen, Coleraine,
+Carrickfergus and some other places defied Sir Phelim O&rsquo;Neill&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page778" id="page778"></a>778</span>
+tumultuary host. Trained in foreign wars, Owen Roe O&rsquo;Neill
+gradually formed a powerful army among the Ulster Irish,
+and showed many of the qualities of a skilful general. But
+like other O&rsquo;Neills, he did little out of Ulster, and his great
+victory over Monro at Benburb on the Blackwater (June 5, 1646)
+had no lasting results. The English of the Pale were forced into
+rebellion, but could never get on with the native Irish, who
+hated them only less than the new colonists. Ormonde throughout
+maintained the position of a loyal subject, and, as the king&rsquo;s
+representative, played a great but hopeless part. The Celts
+cared nothing for the king except as a weapon against the
+Protestants; the old Anglo-Irish Catholics cared much, but
+the nearer Charles approached them the more completely he
+alienated the Protestants. In 1645 Rinuccini reached Ireland
+as papal legate. He could never co-operate with the Roman
+Catholic confederacy at Kilkenny, which was under old English
+influence, and by throwing in his lot with the Celts only widened
+the gulf between the two sections. The state of parties at this
+period in Ireland has been graphically described by Carlyle.
+&ldquo;There are,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;Catholics of the Pale, demanding freedom
+of religion, under my lord this and my lord that. There are
+Old-Irish Catholics, under pope&rsquo;s nuncios, under Abba O&rsquo;Teague
+of the excommunications, and Owen Roe O&rsquo;Neill, demanding
+not religious freedom only, but what we now call &lsquo;repeal of the
+union,&rsquo; and unable to agree with Catholics of the English Pale.
+Then there are Ormonde Royalists, of the Episcopalian and
+mixed creeds, strong for king without covenant; Ulster and
+other Presbyterians strong for king <i>and</i> covenant; lastly,
+Michael Jones and the Commonwealth of England, who want
+neither king nor covenant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In all their negotiations with Ormonde and Glamorgan,
+Henrietta Maria and the earl of Bristol, the pope and Rinuccini
+stood out for an arrangement which would have destroyed the
+royal supremacy and established Romanism in Ireland, leaving
+to the Anglicans bare toleration, and to the Presbyterians not
+even that. Charles behaved with his usual weakness. Ormonde
+was forced to surrender Dublin to the Parliamentarians (July
+1647), and the inextricable knot awaited Cromwell&rsquo;s sword.</p>
+
+<p>Cromwell&rsquo;s campaign (1640-1650) showed how easily a good
+general with an efficient army might conquer Ireland. Resistance
+in the field was soon at an end; the starving-out
+policy of Carew and Mountjoy was employed
+<span class="sidenote">Cromwell.</span>
+against the guerrillas, and the soldiers were furnished with
+scythes to cut down the green corn. Bibles were also regularly
+served out to them. Oliver&rsquo;s severe conduct at Drogheda
+and elsewhere is not morally defensible, but such methods were
+common in the wars of the period, and much may be urged in
+his favour. Strict discipline was maintained, soldiers being
+hanged for stealing chickens; faith was always kept; and
+short, sharp action was more merciful in the long run than a
+milder but less effective policy. Cromwell&rsquo;s civil policy, to use
+Macaulay&rsquo;s words, was &ldquo;able, straightforward, and cruel.&rdquo;
+He thinned the disaffected population by allowing foreign
+enlistment, and 40,000 are said to have been thus got rid of.
+Already Irish Catholics of good family had learned to offer their
+swords to foreign princes. In Spain, France and the Empire
+they often rose to the distinction which they were denied at home.
+About 9000 persons were sent to the West Indies, practically
+into slavery. Thus, and by the long war, the population was
+reduced to some 850,000, of whom 150,000 were English and
+Scots. Then came the transplantation beyond the Shannon.
+The Irish Catholic gentry were removed bodily with their servants
+and such tenants as consented to follow them, and with what
+remained of their cattle. They suffered dreadful hardships.
+To exclude foreign influences, a belt of 1 m. was reserved to
+soldiers on the coast from Sligo to the Shannon, but the idea
+was not fully carried out. The derelict property in the other
+provinces was divided between adventurers who had advanced
+money and soldiers who had fought in Ireland. Many of the
+latter sold their claims to officers or speculators, who were thus
+enabled to form estates. The majority of Irish labourers stayed
+to work under the settlers, and the country gradually became
+peaceful and prosperous. Some fighting Catholics haunted
+woods and hills under the name of tories, afterwards given
+in derision to a great party, and were hunted down with as little
+compunction as the wolves to which they were compared.
+Measures of great severity were taken against Roman Catholic
+priests; but it is said that Cromwell had great numbers in
+his pay, and that they kept him well informed. All classes
+of Protestants were tolerated, and Jeremy Taylor preached
+unmolested. Commercial equality being given to Ireland, the
+woollen trade at once revived, and a shipping interest sprang
+up. A legislative union was also effected, and Irish members
+attended at Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>Charles II. was bound in honour to do something for such
+Irish Catholics as were innocent of the massacres of 1641,
+and the claims were not scrutinized too severely. It
+was found impossible to displace the Cromwellians, but
+<span class="sidenote">Charles II. (1660-1685).</span>
+they were shorn of about one-third of their lands.
+When the Caroline settlement was complete it was
+found that the great rebellion had resulted in reducing the
+Catholic share of the fertile parts of Ireland from two-thirds
+to one-third. Ormonde, whose wife had been allowed by Cromwell&rsquo;s
+clemency to make him some remittances from the wreck
+of his estate, was largely and deservedly rewarded. A revenue
+of Ł30,000 was settled on the king, in consideration of which
+Ireland was in 1663 excluded from the benefit of the Navigation
+Act, and her nascent shipping interest ruined. In 1666 the
+importation of Irish cattle and horses into England was forbidden,
+the value of the former at once falling five-fold, of the latter
+twenty-fold. Dead meat, butter and cheese were also excluded,
+yet peace brought a certain prosperity. The woollen manufacture
+grew and flourished, and Macaulay is probably warranted
+in saying that under Charles II. Ireland was a pleasanter place
+of residence than it has been before or since. But it was pleasant
+only for those who conformed to the state religion. Roman
+Catholicism was tolerated, or rather connived at; but its
+professors were subject to frequent alarms, and to great severities
+during the ascendancy of Titus Oates. Bramhall became
+primate, and his hand was heavy against the Ulster Presbyterians.
+Jeremy Taylor began a persecution which stopped the influx
+of Scots into Ireland. Deprived of the means of teaching, the
+Independents and other sectaries soon disappeared. In a
+military colony women were scarce, and the &ldquo;Ironsides&rdquo; had
+married natives. Roman Catholicism held its own. The Quakers
+became numerous during this reign, and their peaceful industry
+was most useful. They venerate as their founder William
+Edmundson (1627-1712), a Westmorland man who had borne
+arms for the Parliament, and who settled in Antrim in 1652.</p>
+
+<p>The duke of Ormonde was lord-lieutenant at the death of
+Charles II. At seventy-five his brain was as clear as ever,
+and James saw that he was no fit tool for his purpose.
+&ldquo;See, gentlemen,&rdquo; said the old chief, lifting his glass
+<span class="sidenote">James II. (1685-1689).</span>
+at a military dinner-party, &ldquo;they say at court I am
+old and doting. But my hand is steady, nor doth
+my heart fail.... To the king&rsquo;s health.&rdquo; Calculating on his
+loyal subservience, James appointed his brother-in-law, Lord
+Clarendon, to succeed Ormonde. Monmouth&rsquo;s enterprise made
+no stir, but gave an excuse for disarming the Protestant militia.
+The tories at once emerged from their hiding-places, and
+Clarendon found Ireland in a ferment. It was now the turn
+of the Protestants to feel persecution. Richard Talbot, one of
+the few survivors of Drogheda, governed the king&rsquo;s Irish policy,
+while the lord-lieutenant was kept in the dark. Finally Talbot,
+created earl of Tyrconnel, himself received the sword of state.
+Protestants were weeded out of the army, Protestant officers
+in particular being superseded by idle Catholics of gentle blood,
+where they could be found, and in any case by Catholics. Bigotry
+rather than religion was Tyrconnel&rsquo;s ruling passion, and he
+filled up offices with Catholics independently of character. Sir
+Alexander Fitton, a man convicted of forgery, became chancellor,
+and but three Protestant judges were left on the bench. The
+outlawries growing out of the affairs of 1641 were reversed as
+quickly as possible. Protestant corporations were dissolved by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page779" id="page779"></a>779</span>
+&ldquo;quo warrantos&rdquo;; but James was still Englishman enough
+to refuse an Irish parliament, which might repeal Poyning&rsquo;s
+Act and the Act of Settlement.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of 1688 James was a fugitive in France. By
+this time Londonderry and Enniskillen had closed their gates,
+and the final struggle had begun. In March 1689 James reached
+Ireland with some French troops, and summoned a parliament
+which repealed the Act of Settlement. The estates of absentees
+were vested in the crown, and, as only two months law was given,
+this was nearly equivalent to confiscating the property of all
+Protestants. Between 2000 and 3000 Protestants were attainted
+by name, and moreover the act was not published. The appalling
+list may be read in the <i>State of the Protestants</i> by William King,
+archbishop of Dublin, one of many divines converted by the
+logic of events to believe in the lawfulness of resistance. Interesting
+details may be gleaned from Edmundson&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>. The
+dispossessed Protestants escaped by sea or flocked into Ulster,
+where a gallant stand was made. The glories of Londonderry
+and Enniskillen will live as long as the English language. The
+Irish cause produced one great achievement&mdash;the defence of
+Limerick, and one great leader&mdash;Patrick Sarsfield. The Roman
+Catholic Celts aided by France were entirely beaten, the Protestant
+colonists aided by England were entirely victorious
+<span class="sidenote">William III.</span>
+at the battle of the Boyne, on the 1st of July 1690;
+and at the battle of Aughrim on the 12th of July
+1691. Even the siege of Limerick showed the irreconcilable
+divisions which had nullified the efforts of 1641.
+Hugh Baldearg O&rsquo;Donnell, last of Irish chiefs, sold his services
+to William for Ł500 a year. But it was their king that condemned
+the Irish to hopeless failure. He called them cowards, whereas
+the cowardice was really his own, and he deserted them in their
+utmost need. They repaid him with the opprobrious nickname
+of &ldquo;Sheemas-a-Cacagh,&rdquo; or dirty James.</p>
+
+<p>Irish rhetoric commonly styles Limerick &ldquo;the city of the
+violated treaty.&rdquo; The articles of capitulation (Oct. 3, 1691)
+may be read in Thomas Leland&rsquo;s <i>History of Ireland</i> (1773)
+or in F. P. Plowden&rsquo;s <i>History of Ireland</i> (1809); from the first
+their interpretation was disputed. Hopes of religious liberty
+were held out, but were not fulfilled. Lords Justices Porter
+and Coningsby promised to do their utmost to obtain a parliamentary
+ratification, but the Irish parliament would not be
+persuaded. There was a paragraph in the original draft which
+would have protected the property of the great majority of
+Roman Catholics, but this was left out in the articles actually
+signed. William thought the omission accidental, but this is
+hardly possible. At all events he ratified the treaty in the sense
+most favourable to the Catholics, while the Irish parliament
+adhered to the letter of the document. Perhaps no breach of
+faith was intended, but the sorrowful fact remains that the
+modern settlement of Ireland has the appearance of resting on
+a broken promise. More than 1,000,000 Irish acres were forfeited,
+and, though some part returned to Catholic owners, the
+Catholic interest in the land was further diminished. William III.
+was the most liberally minded man in his dominions; but
+the necessities of his position, such is the awful penalty of
+greatness, forced him into intolerance against his will, and he
+promised to discourage the Irish woollen trade. His manner
+of disposing of the Irish forfeitures was inexcusable. The lands
+were resumed by the English parliament, less perhaps from a sense
+of justice than from a desire to humiliate the deliverer of England,
+and were resold to the highest bidder. Nevertheless it became
+the fashion to reward nameless English services at the expense
+of Ireland. Pensions and sinecures which would not bear the
+light in England were charged on the Irish establishment, and
+even bishoprics were given away on the same principle. The
+tremendous uproar raised by Swift about Wood&rsquo;s halfpence
+was heightened by the fact that Wood shared his profits
+with the duchess of Kendal, the mistress of George I.</p>
+
+<p>From the first the victorious colonists determined to make
+another 1641 impossible, and the English government failed to
+moderate their severity. In 1708 Swift declared that the Papists
+were politically as inconsiderable as the women and children.
+In despair of effecting anything at home, the young and strong
+enlisted in foreign armies, and the almost incredible number of
+450,000 are said to have emigrated for this purpose between
+1691 and 1745. This and the hatred felt towards James II.
+prevented any rising in 1715 or 1745. The panic-stricken
+severity of minorities is proverbial, but it is not to be forgotten
+that the Irish Protestants had been turned out of house and
+home twice within fifty years. The restrictions on Irish commerce
+provoked Locke&rsquo;s friend William Molyneux (1656-1698)
+to write his famous plea for legislative independence (1698).
+Much of the learning contained in it now seems obsolete, but the
+question is less an antiquarian one than he supposed. Later
+events have shown that a mother country must have supreme
+authority, or must relax the tie with self-governing colonies
+merely into a close alliance. In the case of Ireland the latter
+plan has always been impossible. In 1703 the Irish parliament
+begged for a legislative union, but as that would have involved
+at least partial free trade the English monopolists prevented
+it. By Poynings&rsquo;s law (see above) England had control of all
+Irish legislation, and was therefore an accomplice in the penal
+<span class="sidenote">Penal laws.</span>
+laws. These provided that no Papist might teach
+a school or any child but his own, or send children
+abroad, the burden of proof lying on the accused, and
+the decision being left to magistrates without a jury. Mixed
+marriages were forbidden between persons of property, and
+the children might be forcibly brought up Protestants. A
+Catholic could not be a guardian, and all wards in chancery
+were brought up Protestants. The Protestant eldest son of
+a Catholic landed proprietor might make his father tenant for
+life and secure his own inheritance. Among Catholic children
+land went in compulsory gavelkind. Catholics could not take
+longer leases than <span class="correction" title="amended from thiry">thirty</span>-one years at two-thirds of a rack
+rent; they were even required to conform within six months
+of an inheritance accruing, on pain of being ousted by the next
+Protestant heir. Priests from abroad were banished, and their
+return declared treason. All priests were required to register
+and to remain in their own parishes, and informers were to be
+rewarded at the expense of the Catholic inhabitants. No
+Catholic was allowed arms, two justices being empowered to
+search; and if he had a good horse any Protestant might claim
+it on tendering Ł5.</p>
+
+<p>These laws were of course systematically evaded. The property
+of Roman Catholics was often preserved through Protestant
+trustees, and it is understood that faith was generally kept.
+Yet the attrition if slow was sure, and by the end of the century
+the proportion of land belonging to Roman Catholics was probably
+not more than one-tenth of the whole. We can see now that
+if the remaining Roman Catholic landlords had been encouraged
+they would have done much to reconcile the masses to the
+settlement. Individuals are seldom as bad as corporations,
+and the very men who made the laws against priests practically
+shielded them. The penal laws put a premium on hypocrisy,
+and many conformed only to preserve their property or to enable
+them to take office. Proselytizing schools, though supported by
+public grants, entirely failed.</p>
+
+<p>The restraints placed by English commercial jealousy on
+Irish trade destroyed manufacturing industry in the south
+and west (see the section <i>Economics</i> above). Driven
+by the Caroline legislation against cattle into breeding
+<span class="sidenote">Commercial restraints.</span>
+sheep, Irish graziers produced the best wool in Europe.
+Forbidden to export it, or to work it up profitably
+at home, they took to smuggling, for which the indented coast
+gave great facilities. The enormous profits of the contraband
+trade with France enabled Ireland to purchase English goods
+to an extent greater than her whole lawful traffic. The moral
+effect was disastrous. The religious penal code it was thought
+meritorious to evade; the commercial penal code was ostentatiously
+defied; and both tended to make Ireland the least
+law-abiding country in Europe. The account of the smugglers
+is the most interesting and perhaps the most valuable part of
+J. A. Froude&rsquo;s work in Ireland, and should be compared with
+the Irish and Scottish chapters of Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page780" id="page780"></a>780</span></p>
+
+<p>When William III. promised to depress the Irish woollen
+trade, he promised to do all he could for Irish linen. England
+did not fulfil the second promise; still the Ulster
+weavers were not crushed, and their industry flourished.
+<span class="sidenote">Ulster prosperous.</span>
+Some Huguenot refugees, headed by Louis Crommelin
+(1652-1727), were established by William III. at
+Lisburn, and founded the manufacturing prosperity of Ulster.
+Other Huguenots attempted other industries, but commercial
+restraints brought them to nought. The peculiar character
+of the flax business has prevented it from crossing the mountains
+which bound the northern province. Wool was the natural
+staple of the south.</p>
+
+<p>The Scottish Presbyterians who defended Londonderry
+were treated little better than the Irish Catholics who besieged
+it&mdash;the sacramental test of 1704 being the work
+of the English council rather than of the Irish parliament.
+<span class="sidenote">Dissenters.</span>
+In 1715 the Irish House of Commons resolved
+that any one who should prosecute a Presbyterian for accepting
+a commission in the army without taking the test was an enemy
+to the king and to the Protestant interest. Acts of indemnity
+were regularly passed throughout the reign of George II., and
+until 1780, when the Test Act was repealed. A bare toleration
+had been granted in 1720. Various abuses, especially forced
+labour on roads which were often private jobs, caused the
+Oakboy Insurrection in 1764. Eight years later the Steelboys
+rose against the exactions of absentee landlords, who often
+turned out Protestant yeomen to get a higher rent from Roman
+Catholic cottiers. The dispossessed men carried to America
+an undying hatred of England which had much to say to the
+American revolution, and that again reacted on Ireland. Lawless
+Protestant associations, called Peep o&rsquo; Day Boys, terrorized
+the north and were the progenitors of the Orangemen (1789).
+Out of the rival &ldquo;defenders&rdquo; Ribbonism in part sprung, and
+the United Irishmen drew from both sources (1791).</p>
+
+<p>The Ulster peasants were never as badly off as those of the
+south and west. Writers the most unlike each other&mdash;Swift
+and Hugh Boulter, George Berkeley and George
+Stone, Arthur Young and Dr Thomas Campbell&mdash;all
+<span class="sidenote">Poverty of the peasantry.</span>
+tell the same tale. Towards the end of the 17th
+century Raleigh&rsquo;s fatal gift had already become the
+food of the people. When Sir Stephen Rice (1637-1715), chief
+baron of the Irish exchequer, went to London in 1688 to urge
+the Catholic claims on James II., the hostile populace escorted
+him in mock state with potatoes stuck on poles. Had manufactures
+been given fair play in Ireland, population might have
+preserved some relation to capital. As it was, land became
+almost the only property, and the necessity of producing wool
+for smuggling kept the country in grass. The poor squatted
+where they could, receiving starvation wages, and paying
+exorbitant rents for their cabins, partly with their own labour.
+Unable to rise, the wretched people multiplied on their potato
+plots with perfect recklessness. During the famine which began
+in the winter of 1739 one-fifth of the population is supposed
+to have perished; yet it is hardly noticed in literature, and seems
+not to have touched the conscience of that English public which
+in 1755 subscribed Ł100,000 for the sufferers by the Lisbon
+earthquake. As might be expected where men were allowed
+to smuggle and forbidden to work, redress was sought in illegal
+combinations and secret societies. The dreaded name of Whiteboy
+was first heard in 1761; and agrarian crime has never since
+been long absent. Since the Union we have had the Threshers,
+the Terry Alts, the Molly Maguires, the Rockites, and many others.
+Poverty has been the real cause of all these disturbances, which
+were often aggravated by the existence of factions profoundly
+indicative of barbarism. Communism, cupidity, scoundrelism of
+all kinds have contributed to every disturbance. The tendency
+shown to screen the worst criminals is sometimes the result of
+sympathy, but more often of fear. The cruelties which have
+generally accompanied Whiteboyism is common to servile
+insurrections all over the world. No wonder if Irish landlords
+were formerly tyrannical, for they were in the position of slave-owners.
+The steady application of modern principles, by extending
+legal protection to all, has altered the slavish character of
+the oppressed Irish. The cruelty has not quite died out, but
+it is much rarer than formerly; and, generally speaking, the
+worst agrarianism has of late years been seen in the districts
+which retain most of the old features.</p>
+
+<p>The medieval colony in Ireland was profoundly modified
+by the pressure of the surrounding tribes. While partially
+adopting their laws and customs, the descendants of the conquerors
+often spoke the language of the natives, and in so doing
+nearly lost their own. The <i>Book of Howth</i> and many documents
+composed in the Pale during the 16th century show this clearly.
+Those who settled in Ireland after 1641 were in a very different
+mood. They hated, feared and despised the Irish, and took
+pride in preserving their pure English speech. Molyneux and
+Petty, who founded the Royal Society of Dublin in 1683, were
+equally Englishmen, though the former was born in Ireland.
+Swift and Berkeley did not consider themselves Irishmen at all.
+Burke and Goldsmith, coming later, though they might not
+call themselves Englishmen, were not less free from provincialism.
+It would be hard to name <span class="correction" title="amended from other four">four other</span> men who, within the same
+period, used Shakespeare&rsquo;s language with equal grace and force.
+They were all educated at Trinity College, Dublin. The Sheridans
+were men of Irish race, but with the religion they adopted the
+literary tone of the dominant caste, which was small and exclusive,
+with the virtues and the vices of an aristocracy.
+Systematic infringement of English copyright was discreditable
+in itself, but sure evidence of an appetite for reading. &ldquo;The
+bookseller&rsquo;s property,&rdquo; says Gibbon of his first volume, &ldquo;was
+twice invaded by the pirates of Dublin.&rdquo; The oratory of the
+day was of a high order, and incursions into the wide field of
+pamphlet literature often repay the student. Handel was
+appreciated in Dublin at a time when it was still the fashion
+to decry him in London. The public buildings of the Irish capital
+have great architectural merit, and private houses still preserve
+much evidence of a refined taste. Angelica Kauffmann worked
+long in Ireland; James Barry and Sir Martin Archer Shee
+were of Irish birth; and on the whole, considering the
+small number of educated inhabitants, it must be admitted
+that the Ireland of Flood and Grattan was intellectually
+fertile.</p>
+
+<p>The volunteers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flood, Henry</a></span>) extorted partial free
+trade (1779), but manufacturing traditions had perished, and
+common experience shows how hard these are to recover.
+The demand for union was succeeded by a craving
+<span class="sidenote">Struggle for independence.</span>
+for independence. Poynings&rsquo;s law was repealed, and
+in 1782, in Grattan&rsquo;s opinion, Ireland was at last a
+nation. The ensuing period of eighteen years is the best known
+in Irish history. The quarrel and reconciliation of Flood and
+Grattan (<i>q.v.</i>), the kindly patriotism of Lord Charlemont, the
+eloquence, the devotion, the corruption, are household words.
+(Details will be found in the biographical articles on these and
+other men of the period.) In the parliament of 1784, out of
+300 members 82 formed the regular opposition, of whom 30
+were the nominees of Whig potentates and 52 were really elected.
+The majority contained 29 members considered independent,
+44 who expected to be bought, 44 placemen, 12 sitting for
+regular government boroughs, and 12 who were supposed to
+support the government on public grounds. The remaining
+seats were proprietary, and were let to government for valuable
+consideration. The House of Lords, composed largely of borough
+mongers and controlled by political bishops, was even less
+independent. Only Protestant freeholders had votes, which
+encouraged leases for lives, about the worst kind of tenure,
+and the object of each proprietor was to control as many votes
+as possible. The necessity of finding Protestants checked subdivision
+for a time, but in 1793 the Roman Catholics received
+the franchise, and it became usual to make leases in common,
+so that each lessee should have a freehold interest of 40s. The
+landlord indeed had little choice, for his importance depended
+on the poll-book. Salaries, sinecures, even commissions in the
+army were reserved for those who contributed to the return of
+some local magnate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page781" id="page781"></a>781</span></p>
+
+<p>But no political cause swelled the population as much as
+the potato. Introduced by Raleigh in 1610, the cultivation
+of this important tuber developed with extraordinary
+rapidity. The Elizabethan wars were most injurious
+<span class="sidenote">Dependence on the potato.</span>
+to industry, for men will not sow unless they hope to
+reap, and the very essence of military policy had been
+to deprive a recalcitrant people of the means of living. The
+Mantuan peasant was grieved at the notion of his harvest being
+gathered by barbarian soldiers, and the Irishman could not
+be better pleased to see his destroyed. There was no security
+for any one, and every one was tempted to live from hand
+to mouth. The decade of anarchy which followed 1641 stimulated
+this tendency fearfully. The labour of one man could
+plant potatoes enough to feed forty, and they could neither
+be destroyed nor carried away easily. When Petty wrote,
+early in Charles II.&rsquo;s reign, this demoralizing esculent was
+already the national food. Potatoes cannot be kept very long,
+but there was no attempt to keep them at all; they were left
+in the ground, and dug as required. A frost which penetrated
+deep caused the famine of 1739. Even with the modern system
+of storing in pits the potato does not last through the summer,
+and the &ldquo;meal months&rdquo;&mdash;June, July and August&mdash;always
+brought great hardship. The danger increased as the growing
+population pressed ever harder upon the available land. Between
+1831 and 1842 there were six seasons of dearth, approaching
+in some places to famine.</p>
+
+<p>The population increased from 2,845,932 in 1785 to 5,356,594
+in 1803. They married and were given in marriage. Wise
+men foresaw the deluge, but people who were already half-starved
+every summer did not think their case could well be
+worse. In 1845 the population had swelled to 8,295,061, the
+greater part of whom depended on the potato only. There
+was no margin, and when the &ldquo;precarious exotic&rdquo; failed an
+awful famine was the result.</p>
+
+<p>Great public and private efforts were made to meet the case,
+and relief works were undertaken, on which, in March 1847,
+734,000 persons, representing a family aggregate of not less
+than 3,000,000, were employed. It was found that labour and
+exposure were not good for half-starved men. The jobbing was
+frightful, and is probably inseparable from wholesale operations
+of this kind. The policy of the government was accordingly
+changed, and the task of feeding a whole people was undertaken.
+More than 3,000,000 rations, generally cooked, were at one time
+distributed, but no exertions could altogether avert death
+in a country where the usual machinery for carrying, distributing
+and preparing food was almost entirely wanting. From 200,000
+to 300,000 perished of starvation or of fever caused by insufficient
+food. An exodus followed which, necessary as it was,
+caused dreadful hardship, and among the Roman Catholic
+Irish in America Fenianism took its rise. One good result
+of the famine was thoroughly to awaken Englishmen to their
+duty towards Ireland. Since then, purse-strings have been
+even too readily untied at the call of Irish distress.</p>
+
+<p>Great brutalities disgraced the rebellion of 1798, but the
+people had suffered much and had French examples before
+them. The real originator of the movement was
+Theobald Wolfe Tone (<i>q.v.</i>), whose proffered services
+<span class="sidenote">Rebellion of 1798.</span>
+were rejected by Pitt, and who founded the United
+Irishmen. His Parisian adventures detailed by himself are most
+interesting, and his tomb is still the object of an annual pilgrimage.
+Tone was a Protestant, but he had imbibed socialist ideas,
+and hated the priests whose influence counteracted his own. In
+Wexford, where the insurrection went farthest, the ablest leaders
+were priests, but they acted against the policy of their church.</p>
+
+<p>The inevitable union followed (1st January 1801). From
+this period the history of Ireland naturally becomes intermingled
+with English politics (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English History</a></span>), and
+much of the detail will also be found in the biographical
+<span class="sidenote">Union of Great Britain and Ireland.</span>
+articles on prominent Irishmen and other politicians.
+Pitt had some time before (1785) offered a commercial
+partnership, which had been rejected on the ground
+that it involved the ultimate right of England to tax Ireland.
+He was not less liberally inclined in religious matters, but
+George III. stood in the way, and like William III. the minister
+would not risk his imperial designs. Carried in great measure
+by means as corrupt as those by which the constitution of
+&rsquo;82 had been worked, the union earned no gratitude. But it
+was a political necessity, and Grattan never gave his countrymen
+worse advice than when he urged them to &ldquo;keep knocking
+at the union.&rdquo; The advice has, however, been taken. Robert
+<span class="sidenote">Catholic Emancipation.</span>
+Emmet&rsquo;s insurrection (1803) was the first emphatic
+protest. Then came the struggle for emancipation.
+It was proposed to couple the boon with a veto on
+the appointment of Roman Catholic bishops. It was
+the ghost of the old question of investitures. The remnant
+of the Roman Catholic aristocracy would have granted it;
+even Pius VII. was not invincibly opposed to it; but Daniel
+O&rsquo;Connell took the lead against it. Under his guidance the
+Catholic association became a formidable body. At last the
+priests gained control of the elections; the victor of Waterloo
+was obliged to confess that the king&rsquo;s government could no
+longer be carried on, and Catholic emancipation had to be
+granted in 1829. The tithe war followed, and this most oppressive
+of all taxes was unfortunately commuted (1838) only in
+deference to clamour and violence. The repeal agitation was
+<span class="sidenote">Repeal agitation.</span>
+unsuccessful, but let us not be extreme to mark
+the faults of O&rsquo;Connell&rsquo;s later years. He doubtless
+believed in repeal at first; probably he ceased to
+believe in it, but he was already deeply committed, and
+had abandoned a lucrative profession for politics. With some
+help from Father Mathew he kept the monster meetings
+in order, and his constant denunciations of lawless violence
+distinguish him from his imitators. His trial took place in
+1844. There is a sympathetic sketch of O&rsquo;Connell&rsquo;s career in
+Lecky&rsquo;s <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i> (1871); Sir Thomas
+Wyse&rsquo;s <i>Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association</i>
+(1829) gives the best account of the religious struggle,
+and much may be learned from W. J. Fitzpatrick&rsquo;s <i>Life of
+Bishop Doyle</i> (1880).</p>
+
+<p>The national system of education introduced in 1833 was
+the real recantation of intolerant opinions, but the economic
+state of Ireland was fearful. The famine, emigration and the
+new poor law nearly got rid of starvation, but the people never
+became frankly loyal, feeling that they owed more to their own
+importunity and to their own misfortunes than to the wisdom
+of their rulers. The literary efforts of young Ireland eventuated
+in another rebellion (1848); a revolutionary wave could not
+roll over Europe without touching the unlucky island. After
+the failure of that outbreak there was peace until the close
+of the American civil war released a number of adventurers
+trained to the use of arms and filled with hatred to England.</p>
+
+<p>Already in 1858 the discovery of the Phoenix conspiracy
+had shown that the policy of John Mitchel (1815-1875) and
+his associates was not forgotten. John O&rsquo;Mahony, one of the
+men of &rsquo;48, organized a formidable secret society in America,
+which his historical studies led him to call the Fenian brotherhood
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fenians</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The Fenian movement disclosed much discontent, and was
+attended by criminal outrages in England. The disestablishment
+of the Irish Church, the privileged position of which had long
+been condemned by public opinion, was then decreed (1869)
+and the land question was next taken in hand (1870). These
+reforms did not, however, put an end to Irish agitation. The
+Home Rule party which demanded the restoration of a
+separate Irish  parliament, showed increased activity, and
+the general election of 1874 gave it a strong representation
+at Westminster, where one section of the party developed
+into the &ldquo;obstructionists&rdquo; (see the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Isaac Butt</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">C. S. Parnell</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Isaac Butt, who died in May 1879, led a parliamentary party
+of fifty-four, but the Conservatives were strong enough to outvote
+them and the Liberals together. His procedure was
+essentially lawyer-like, for he respected the House of Commons
+and dreaded revolutionary violence. His death left the field
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page782" id="page782"></a>782</span>
+clear for younger and bolder men. William Shaw succeeded him
+as chairman of the Irish party in Parliament; but after the
+election of 1880, Parnell, who had the Land League at his back,
+ousted him by 23 votes to 18.</p>
+
+<p>The Land Law of 1860, known as Deasy&rsquo;s Act, had been
+based on the principle that every tenancy rested on contract
+either expressed or implied. The act of 1870, admitting
+the divergence between theory and practice,
+<span class="sidenote">The Land League.</span>
+protected the tenants&rsquo; improvements and provided
+compensation for disturbance within certain limits, but not
+where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent. In good
+times this worked well enough, but foreign competition began
+to tell, and 1879 was the worst of several bad seasons. A succession
+of wet summers told against all farmers, and in mountainous
+districts it was difficult to dry the turf on which the people
+depended for fuel. A famine was feared, and in the west there
+was much real distress. The Land League, of which Michael
+Davitt (<i>q.v.</i>) was the founder, originated in Mayo in August,
+and at a meeting in Dublin in October the organization was
+extended to all Ireland, with Parnell as president. The country
+was thickly covered with branches before the end of the year,
+and in December Parnell went to America to collect money.
+He was absent just three months, visiting over sixty cities
+and towns; and 200,000 dollars were subscribed. Parnell
+had to conciliate the Clan-na-Gael and the Fenians generally,
+both in Ireland and America, while abstaining from action
+which would make his parliamentary position untenable. He
+did not deny that he would like an armed rebellion, but acknowledged
+that it was an impossibility. Speaking at Cincinnati
+on the 23rd of February 1880, he declared that the first thing
+necessary was to undermine English power by destroying the
+Irish landlords. Ireland might thus become independent.
+&ldquo;And let us not forget,&rdquo; he added, &ldquo;that that is the ultimate
+goal at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether we be
+in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be satisfied
+until we have destroyed the last link which keeps Ireland bound
+to England.&rdquo; At Galway in October of the same year he said
+that he &ldquo;would not have taken off his coat&rdquo; to help the tenant
+farmers had he not known that that was the way to legislative
+independence. Fenianism and agrarianism, essentially different
+as they are, might be worked to the same end.</p>
+
+<p>To meet the partial failure of the potatoes in Connaught
+and Donegal, very large sums were subscribed and administered
+by two committees, one under the duchess of Marlborough
+and the other under the lord mayor of Dublin. When Lord
+Beaconsfield appealed to the country in March 1880, he reminded
+the country in a letter to the viceroy, the duke of Marlborough,
+that there was a party in Ireland &ldquo;attempting to sever the
+constitutional tie which unites it to Great Britain in that bond
+which has favoured the power and prosperity of both,&rdquo; and that
+such an agitation might in the end be &ldquo;scarcely less disastrous
+than pestilence and famine.&rdquo; But the general election did
+not turn mainly upon Ireland, and the result gave Gladstone
+a majority of 50 over Conservatives and Home Rulers combined.
+Earl Cowper became lord-lieutenant, with W. E. Forster (<i>q.v.</i>)
+as chief secretary, and Parnell remained chairman of his
+own party in parliament. The Compensation for Disturbance
+Bill, even where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent,
+passed the House of Commons, but the Lords threw it out, and
+this has often been represented as the great cause of future
+trouble. Probably it made little real difference, for the extreme
+party in Ireland were resolved to stop at nothing. It is not
+easy to defend the principle that a landlord who has already
+lost his rent should also have to pay the defaulter before getting
+a new tenant or deriving a profit from the farm by working it
+<span class="sidenote">Boycotting.</span>
+himself. Speaking at Ennis on the 19th of September,
+Parnell told the people to punish a man for taking
+a farm from which another had been evicted &ldquo;by
+isolating him from his kind as if he was a leper of old.&rdquo; The
+advice was at once taken and its scope largely extended. For
+refusing to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants, Captain
+Boycott (1832-1897), Lord Erne&rsquo;s agent in Mayo, was severely
+&ldquo;boycotted,&rdquo; the name of the first victim being given to the
+new system. His servants were forced to leave him, his crops
+were left unsaved, even the post and telegraph were interfered
+with. The Ulster Orangemen resolved to get in the crops,
+and to go in armed force sufficient for the purpose. The government
+allowed 50 of them to go under the protection of about
+900 soldiers. The cost seemed great, but the work was done
+and the law vindicated. In Cork William Bence-Jones (1812-1882)
+was attacked. The men in the service of the steam-packet
+companies refused to put his cattle on board, and they were
+eventually smuggled across the Channel in small lots. Several
+associations were formed which had more or less success against
+the League, and at last a direct attack was made. Parnell with
+four other members of parliament and the chief officers of
+the Land League were indicted for conspiracy in the Queen&rsquo;s
+Bench. No means of intimidating the jurors was neglected,
+and in the then state of public feeling a verdict was hardly
+to be expected. On the 25th of January 1881 the jury disagreed,
+and Parnell became stronger than ever.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed a reign of terror which lasted for years. No
+one was safe, and private spite worked freely in the name of
+freedom. The system originated by Parnell&rsquo;s Ennis speech
+became an all-devouring tyranny. In the House of Commons,
+on the 24th of May 1882, Gladstone said that boycotting required
+a sanction like every other creed, and that the sanction which
+alone made it effective &ldquo;is the murder which is not to be
+denounced.&rdquo; The following description by a resident in Munster
+was published in <i>The Times</i> of the 5th of November 1885:
+&ldquo;Boycotting means that a peaceable subject of the queen
+is denied food and drink, and that he is ruined in his business;
+that his cattle are unsaleable at fairs; that the smith will
+not shoe his horse, nor the carpenter mend his cart; that old
+friends pass him by on the other side, making the sign of the
+cross; that his children are hooted at the village school; that
+he sits apart like an outcast in his usual place of public worship:
+all for doing nothing but what the law says he has a perfect
+right to do. I know of a man who is afraid to visit his own son.
+A trader who is even suspected of dealing with such a victim
+of tyranny may be ruined by the mere imputation; his customers
+shun him from fear, and he is obliged to get a character from
+some notorious leaguer. Membership of the National League
+is, in many cases, as necessary a protection as ever was a certificate
+of civism under Robespierre. The real Jacobins are few,
+but the masses groan and submit.&rdquo; Medicine was refused
+by a shopkeeper even for the sick child of a boycotted person.
+A clergyman was threatened for visiting a parishioner who
+was under the ban of the League. Sometimes no one could be
+found to dig a grave. The League interfered in every relation
+of life, and the mere fact of not belonging to it was often severely
+punished. &ldquo;The people,&rdquo; says the report of the Cowper Commission,
+&ldquo;are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for
+its success on the probability of outrage, than they are of the
+judgments of the courts of justice. This unwritten law in some
+districts is supreme.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The session of parliament of 1881 was chiefly occupied with
+Ireland. &ldquo;With fatal and painful precision,&rdquo; Gladstone told
+the House of Commons on the 28th of January,
+&ldquo;the steps of crime dogged the steps of the Land
+<span class="sidenote">Coercion.</span>
+League,&rdquo; and the first thing was to restore the supremacy of
+the law. In 1871 there had been an agrarian war in Westmeath,
+and an act had been passed authorizing the arrest of suspected
+persons and their detention without trial. The ringleaders
+disappeared and the county became quiet again. It was now
+proposed to do the same thing for the whole of Ireland, the power
+of detention to continue until the 30th of September 1882.
+Parnell cared nothing for the dignity of the House of Commons.
+His leading idea was that no concession could be got from
+England by fair means, and he made himself as disagreeable
+as possible. Parliamentary forms were used with great success
+to obstruct parliamentary action. The &ldquo;Coercion Bill&rdquo; was
+introduced on the 24th of January 1881. There was a sitting
+of 22 hours and another of 41 hours, and on the 2nd of February
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page783" id="page783"></a>783</span>
+the debate was closured by the Speaker on his own responsibility
+and the bill read a first time. The Speaker&rsquo;s action was approved
+by the House generally, but acrimonious debates were
+raised by Irish members. Parnell and 35 of his colleagues were
+suspended, and the bill became law on the 2nd of March, but
+not before great and permanent changes were made in parliamentary
+procedure. An Arms Bill, which excited the same sort
+of opposition, was also passed into law.</p>
+
+<p>That a Land Act should be passed was a foregone conclusion
+as soon as the result of the general election was known. There
+were many drafts and plans which never saw the
+light, but it was at last resolved to adopt the policy
+<span class="sidenote">Land Act, 1881.</span>
+known as the &ldquo;Three F&rsquo;s&rdquo;&mdash;free sale, fixity of tenure
+and fair rents. By the first tenants at will were empowered
+to sell their occupation interests, the landlord retaining a right
+of pre-emption. By the second the tenant was secured from
+eviction except for non-payment of rent. By the third the
+tenant was given the right to have a &ldquo;fair rent&rdquo; fixed by
+a newly formed Land Commission Court, the element of competition
+being entirely excluded. There were several exceptions
+and qualifying clauses, but most of them have been swept
+away by later acts. The act of 1881 can scarcely be said to have
+worked well or smoothly, but it is not easy to see how any
+sort of settlement could have been reached without accepting
+the principle of having the rent fixed by a third party. Drastic
+as the bill was, Parnell refused to be a party to it, and on the
+second reading, which was carried by 352 to 176, he walked
+out of the House with 35 of his followers. When the bill became
+law in August he could not prevent the tenants from using
+it, but he did what he could to discourage them in order to
+please his American paymasters, who repudiated all parliamentary
+remedies. In September a convention was held in
+Dublin, and Parnell reported its action to the American Land
+League: &ldquo;Resolutions were adopted for national self-government,
+the unconditional liberation of the land for the people,
+tenants not to use the rent-fixing clauses of the Land Act, but
+follow old Land League lines, and rely on the old methods to
+reach justice. The executive of the League is empowered to
+select test cases, in order that tenants in surrounding districts
+may realize, by the results of cases decided, the hollowness
+of the act&rdquo; (Barry O&rsquo;Brien, <i>Life of C. S. Parnell</i>, i. 306). His
+organ <i>United Ireland</i> declared that the new courts must be
+cowed into giving satisfactory decisions. The League, however,
+could not prevent the farmers from using the fair-rent clauses.
+It was more successful in preventing free sale, maintaining the
+doctrine that, rent or no rent, no evictions were to be allowed.
+At the first sitting of the Land Commission in Dublin the crier,
+perhaps by accident, declared &ldquo;the court of the Land League
+to be open.&rdquo; Speaking at Leeds on the 7th of October, Gladstone
+said &ldquo;the resources of civilization were not exhausted,&rdquo; adding
+that Parnell &ldquo;stood between the living and the dead, not
+like Aaron to stay the plague, but to spread the plague.&rdquo; Two
+days later Parnell called the prime minister a &ldquo;masquerading
+knight-errant,&rdquo; ready to oppress the unarmed, but submissive
+to the Boers as soon as he found &ldquo;that they were able to shoot
+straighter than his own soldiers.&rdquo; Four days after this Parnell
+was arrested under the Coercion Act and lodged in Kilmainham
+<span class="sidenote">Kilmainham &ldquo;Treaty.&rdquo;</span>
+gaol. The Land League having retorted by ordering
+the tenants to pay no rent, it was declared illegal,
+and suppressed by proclamation. Parnell is said to
+have disapproved of the no-rent manifesto, as also
+Mr John Dillon, who was in Kilmainham with him, but both
+of them signed it (<i>ib.</i> i. 319). At Liverpool on the 27th of
+October Gladstone described Parnell and his party as &ldquo;marching
+through rapine to the disintegration and dismemberment of
+the empire.&rdquo; In 1881, 4439 agrarian outrages were reported;
+nothing attracted more attention in England than the cruel
+mutilations of cattle, which became very frequent. The Ladies&rsquo;
+Land League tried to carry on the work of the suppressed
+organization and there was even an attempt at a Children&rsquo;s
+League. Sex had no effect in softening the prevalent style
+of oratory, but the government thought it better to take no
+notice. The imprisonment of suspects under the Coercion
+Act had not the expected result, and outrages were incessant,
+the agitation being supported by constant supplies of money
+from America. Gladstone resolved on a complete change of
+policy. It was decided to check evictions by an Arrears Bill,
+and the three imprisoned members of parliament&mdash;Messrs
+Parnell, Dillon and O&rsquo;Kelly&mdash;were released on the 2nd of May
+1882, against the wishes of the Irish government. This was
+known as the Kilmainham Treaty. Lord Cowper and Forster
+at once resigned, and were succeeded by Lord Spencer and
+Lord Frederick Cavendish, who entered Dublin on the 6th of
+May.</p>
+
+<p>That same evening Lord Frederick and the permanent under-secretary
+Thomas Henry Burke were murdered in the Phoenix
+Park in broad daylight. The weapons were amputating
+knives imported for the purpose. The assassins drove
+<span class="sidenote">Phoenix Park murders.</span>
+rapidly away; no one, not even those who saw the
+deed from a distance, knew what had been done.
+A Dublin tradesman named Field, who had been a juror in a
+murder trial, was attacked by the same gang and stabbed in
+many places. He escaped with life, though with shattered
+health, and it was the identification of the man who drove his
+assailants&rsquo; car that afterwards led to the discovery of the whole
+conspiracy. The clue was obtained by a private examination
+of suspected persons under the powers given by the Crimes
+Act. To obtain convictions the evidence of an informer was
+wanted, and the person selected was James Carey, a member
+of the Dublin Corporation and a chief contriver of the murders.
+He swore that they had been ordered immediately after the
+appearance of an article in the <i>Freeman&rsquo;s Journal</i> which declared
+that a &ldquo;clean sweep&rdquo; should be made of Dublin Castle officials.
+The evidence disclosed the fact that several abortive attempts
+had been previously made to murder Forster. Out of twenty
+persons, subsequently arraigned, five were hanged, and others
+sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Carey embarked
+for South Africa in the following July, and was murdered on
+board ship by Patrick O&rsquo;Donnell, who was brought to
+England, convicted, and hanged on the 17th of December
+1883.</p>
+
+<p>Mr (afterwards Sir) G. O. Trevelyan had been appointed
+chief secretary in May 1882, and in July the Crimes Prevention
+Act was passed for three years on lines indicated by
+Lord Cowper. In the first six months of the year
+<span class="sidenote">National League.</span>
+2597 agrarian outrages were reported, and in the last
+six months 836. They fell to 834 in 1883, and to 744 in 1884.
+The Arrears Bill also became law. Money enough was advanced
+out of the surplus property of the Irish Church to pay for tenants
+of holdings under Ł30 one year&rsquo;s rent upon all arrears accruing
+before November 1880, giving them a clear receipt to that
+date on condition of their paying another year themselves;
+of the many reasons against the measure the most important
+was that it was a concession to agrarian violence. But the
+same could be and was said of the Land Act of 1881. That
+had been passed, and it was probably impossible to make it
+work at all smoothly without checking evictions by dealing
+with old arrears. The Irish National League was, however,
+founded in October to take up the work of the defunct Land
+League, and the country continued to be disturbed. The
+law was paralysed, for no jury could be trusted to convict
+even on the clearest evidence, and the National League branches
+assumed judicial functions. Men were openly tried all over
+the country for disobeying the revolutionary decrees, and
+private spite was often the cause of their being accused.
+&ldquo;Tenants,&rdquo; to quote the Cowper Commission again, &ldquo;who
+have paid even the judicial rents have been summoned to appear
+before self-constituted tribunals, and if they failed to do so,
+or on appearing failed to satisfy those tribunals, have been
+fined or boycotted.&rdquo; In February 1883 Mr Trevelyan gave
+an account of his stewardship at Hawick, and said that all
+law-abiding Irishmen, whether Conservative or Liberal, were
+on one side, while on the other were those who &ldquo;planned and
+executed the Galway and Dublin murders, the boycotting and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page784" id="page784"></a>784</span>
+firing into houses, the mutilation of cattle and intimidation
+of every sort.&rdquo; In this year the campaign of outrage in Ireland
+<span class="sidenote">Dynamite.</span>
+was reinforced by one of dynamite in Great Britain.
+The home secretary, Sir W. Harcourt, brought in an
+Explosives Bill on the 9th of April, which was passed through
+all its stages in one day and received the royal assent on the
+next. The dynamiters were for the most part Irish-Americans,
+who for obvious reasons generally spared Ireland, but one
+land-agent&rsquo;s house in Kerry was shaken to its foundations in
+November 1884. At Belfast in the preceding June Lord Spencer,
+who afterwards became a Home Ruler, had announced that
+the secret conspirators would &ldquo;not terrify the English nation.&rdquo;
+On the 22nd of February 1883 Forster made his great attack
+on Parnell in the House of Commons, accusing him of moral
+complicity with Irish crime. A detailed answer was never
+attempted, and public attention was soon drawn to the trial
+of the &ldquo;Invincibles&rdquo; who contrived the Phoenix Park murders.
+On the 11th of December Parnell received a present of Ł37,000
+from his followers in Ireland. The tribute, as it was called,
+was raised in spite of a papal prohibition. As a complement
+<span class="sidenote">Labourers Act.</span>
+to the Land Act and Arrears Act, boards of guardians
+were this year empowered to build labourers&rsquo; cottages
+with money borrowed on the security of the rates
+and repayable out of them. Half an acre of land went with the
+cottage, and by a later act this was unwisely extended to one
+acre. That the labourers had been badly housed was evident,
+and there was little chance of improvement by private capitalists,
+for cottage property is not remunerative. But the working
+of the Labourers Acts was very costly, cottages being often
+assigned to people who were not agricultural labourers at all.
+In many districts the building was quite overdone, and the rent
+obtainable being far less than enough to recoup the guardians,
+the system operated as out-door relief for the able-bodied and
+as a rate in aid of wages.</p>
+
+<p>The Explosives Act, strong as it was, did not at once effect
+its object. In February 1884 there was a plot to blow up four
+London railway stations by means of clockwork infernal machines
+containing dynamite, brought from America. Three Irish-Americans
+were convicted, of whom one, John Daly, who was
+sentenced to penal servitude for life, lived to be mayor of Limerick
+in 1899. In January 1885 Parnell visited Thurles, where he
+gave a remarkable proof of his power by breaking down local
+opposition to his candidate for Tipperary. In April the prince
+and princess of Wales visited Ireland. At Dublin they were
+well received, and at Belfast enthusiastically, but there were
+hostile demonstrations at Mallow and Cork. In May it was
+intended to renew the Crimes Prevention Act, but before that
+was done the government was beaten on a financial question
+by 264 to 252, Parnell and 39 of his followers voting with the
+Conservatives. The Crimes Prevention Act expired on the
+12th of July, and the want of it was at once felt. The number
+of agrarian outrages reported in the first six months of the year
+was 373; in the last six months they rose to 543, and the number
+of persons boycotted was almost trebled. Lord Salisbury
+came into office, with Lord Carnarvon as lord-lieutenant and
+Sir W. Hart Dyke as chief secretary. The lord-lieutenant
+had an interview with Parnell, of which very conflicting accounts
+were given, but the Irish leader issued a manifesto advising
+his friends to vote against the Liberals as oppressors and
+coercionists, who promised everything and did nothing. The
+constitutional Liberal party in Ireland was in fact annihilated
+by the extension of the franchise to agricultural labourers and
+very small farmers. The most important Irish measure of
+<span class="sidenote">Ashbourne Act.</span>
+the session was the Ashbourne Act, by which Ł5,000,000
+was allotted on the security of the land for the creation
+of an occupying proprietary. Later the same sum
+was again granted, and there was still a good deal unexpended
+when the larger measure of 1891 became law. In December
+1885, when the general election was over, an anonymous scheme
+of Home Rule appeared in some newspapers, and in spite of
+disclaimers it was at once believed that Gladstone had made
+up his mind to surrender. In October 1884, only fourteen
+months before, he had told political friends that he had a sneaking
+regard for Parnell, and that Home Rule might be a matter for
+serious consideration within ten years (Sir A. West&rsquo;s <i>Recollections</i>,
+1899, ii. 206). The shortening of the time was perhaps
+accounted for by the fact that the new House of Commons
+consisted of 331 Liberals, 249 Conservatives, 86 Home Rulers
+and Independents, Parnell thus holding the balance of parties.
+In Ireland there had been 66 elections contested, and out
+of 451,000 voters 93,000 were illiterates. Such were the
+constituencies to whom it was proposed to hand Ireland
+over. On the 26th of January 1886 the government were
+defeated by a combination of Liberal and Nationalists on an
+issue not directly connected with Ireland, and their resignation
+<span class="sidenote">Home Rule Bill, 1886.</span>
+immediately followed. Gladstone became prime
+minister, with Lord Aberdeen as lord-lieutenant
+and Mr John Morley as chief secretary. Lord Hartington
+and Mr Goschen were not included in this administration.
+In February Parnell again showed his power by
+forcing Captain O&rsquo;Shea upon the unwilling electors of Galway.
+He introduced a Land Bill to relieve tenants from legal process
+if they paid half their rent, and foretold disorder in consequence
+of its rejection. In April the Government of Ireland Bill was
+brought in, Mr Chamberlain (<i>q.v.</i>), Mr Trevelyan and others
+leaving the ministry. The bill attempted to safeguard British
+interests, while leaving Ireland at the mercy of the native
+politicians. Irish members were excluded from the imperial
+parliament. The local legislature was to consist of two orders
+sitting and voting together, but with the power of separating
+on the demand of either order present. The 28 representative
+peers, with 75 other members having an income of Ł200, or a
+capital of Ł4000, elected for ten years by Ł25 occupiers, were to
+constitute the first order. The second was to have 204 members
+returned for five years by the usual parliamentary electorate.
+The status of the lord-lieutenant was unalterable by this legislature.
+Holders of judicial offices and permanent civil servants
+had the option of retiring with pensions, but the constabulary,
+whom the Home Rulers had openly threatened to punish when
+their time came, were to come after an interval under the
+power of the Irish Parliament. Parnell accepted the bill,
+but without enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>The Government of Ireland Bill gave no protection to landowners,
+but as the crisis was mainly agrarian, it would have
+been hardly decent to make no show of considering them.
+A Land Purchase Bill was accordingly introduced on the 16th
+of April by the prime minister under &ldquo;an obligation of honour
+and policy,&rdquo; to use his own words. Fifty millions sterling in
+three years was proposed as payment for what had been officially
+undervalued at 113 millions. It was assumed that there would
+be a rush to sell, the choice apparently lying between that
+and confiscation, and priority was to be decided by lot. The
+Irish landlords, however, showed no disposition to sell their
+country, and the Purchase Bill was quickly dropped, though
+Gladstone had declared the two measures to be inseparable.
+He reminded the landlords that the &ldquo;sands were running in
+the hour-glass,&rdquo; but this threat had no effect. The Unionists
+of Ireland had been taken by surprise, and out of Ulster they
+had no organization capable of opposing the National League
+and the government combined. Individuals went to England
+and spoke wherever they could get a hearing, but it was uphill
+work. In Ulster the Orange lodges were always available,
+and the large Protestant population made itself felt. Terrible
+riots took place at Belfast in June, July and August. In October
+there was an inquiry by a royal commission with Mr Justice
+Day at its head, and on the report being published in the following
+January there were fresh riots. Foolish and criminal as
+these disturbances were, they served to remind the English
+people that Ireland would not cease to be troublesome under
+Home Rule. In parliament the Home Rule Bill soon got
+into rough water; John Bright declared against it. The &ldquo;dissentient
+Liberals,&rdquo; as Gladstone always called them, were not
+converted by the abandonment of the Purchase Bill, and on
+the 7th of June 93 of them voted against the second reading,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page785" id="page785"></a>785</span>
+which was lost by 30 votes. A general election followed in
+July, and 74 Liberal Unionists were returned, forming with
+the Conservatives a Unionist party, which outnumbered Gladstonians
+and Parnellites together by over a hundred. Gladstone
+resigned, and Lord Salisbury became prime minister, with
+Lord Londonderry as lord-lieutenant and Sir M. Hicks-Beach
+(afterwards Lord St Aldwyn) as chief secretary.</p>
+
+<p>The political stroke having failed, agrarianism again occupied
+the ground. The &ldquo;plan of campaign&rdquo; was started, against
+Parnell&rsquo;s wishes, towards the end of 1886. The gist
+of this movement was that tenants should offer what
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Plan of Campaign.&rdquo;</span>
+they were pleased to consider a fair rent, and if it
+was refused, should pay the money into the hands
+of a committee. In March 1887 Sir M. Hicks-Beach resigned
+on account of illness, and Mr Arthur Balfour (<i>q.v.</i>) became
+chief secretary. The attempt to govern Ireland under what
+was called &ldquo;the ordinary law&rdquo; was necessarily abandoned,
+and a perpetual Crimes Act was passed which enabled the lord-lieutenant
+to proclaim disturbed districts and dangerous associations,
+and substituted trial by magistrates for trial by jury
+in the case of certain acts of violence. In August the National
+League was suppressed by proclamation. The conservative
+instincts of the Vatican were alarmed by the lawless state of
+Ireland, and an eminent ecclesiastic, Monsignor Persico, arrived
+in the late summer on a special commission of inquiry. He made
+no secret of his belief that the establishment of an occupying
+proprietary was the only lasting cure, but the attitude of the
+clergy became gradually more moderate. The government
+passed a bill giving leaseholders the benefit of the act of 1881,
+and prescribing a temporary reduction upon judicial rents
+already fixed. This last provision was open to many great
+and obvious objections, but was more or less justified by the
+fall in prices which had taken place since 1881.</p>
+
+<p>The steady administration of the Crimes Act by Mr Balfour
+gradually quieted the country. Parnell had now gained the
+bulk of the Liberal party, including Lord Spencer (in spite of
+all that he had said and done) and Sir G. Trevelyan (in spite
+of his Hawick speech). In the circumstances the best chance
+for Home Rule was not to stir the land question. Cecil Rhodes,
+hoping to help imperial federation, gave Parnell Ł10,000 for
+the cause. In September 1887 a riot arising out of the &ldquo;plan
+of campaign&rdquo; took place at Mitchelstown. The police fired,
+and two lives were lost, Mr Henry Labouchere and Mr (afterwards
+Sir John) Brunner, both members of parliament, being
+present at the time. The coroner&rsquo;s jury brought in a verdict
+against the police, but that was a matter of course, and the
+government ignored it. A telegram sent by Gladstone a little
+later, ending with the words &ldquo;remember Mitchelstown,&rdquo; created
+a good deal of feeling, but it did the Home Rulers no good.
+In October Mr Chamberlain visited Ulster, where he was received
+with enthusiasm, and delivered several stirring Unionist speeches.
+In November Lord Hartington and Mr Goschen were in Dublin,
+and addressed a great loyalist meeting there.</p>
+
+<p>In July 1888 an act was passed appointing a commission,
+consisting of Sir James Hannen, Mr Justice Day and Mr Justice
+A. L. Smith, to inquire into certain charges made by
+<i>The Times</i> against Parnell and his party. What
+<span class="sidenote">Parnell Commission.</span>
+caused most excitement was the publication by <i>The
+Times</i> on the 15th of May 1887 of a <i>facsimile</i> letter
+purporting to have been written by Parnell on the 15th of
+May 1882, nine days after the Phoenix Park murders. The
+writer of this letter suggested that his open condemnation
+of the murders had been a matter of expediency, and that
+Burke deserved his fate. Parnell at once declared that this was
+a forgery, but he did nothing more at the time. Other alleged
+incriminating letters followed. The case of <i>O&rsquo;Donnell</i> v. <i>Walter</i>,
+tried before the Lord Chief Justice of England in July 1888,
+brought matters to a head, and the special commission followed.
+The proceedings were necessarily of enormous length, and
+the commissioners did not report until the 13th of February
+1890, but the question of the letters was decided just twelve
+months earlier, Richard Pigott, who shot himself at Madrid,
+having confessed to the forgeries. A few days later, on the
+8th of March 1889, Parnell was entertained at dinner by the
+Eighty Club, Lords Spencer and Rosebery being present;
+and he was well received on English platforms when he chose
+to appear. Yet the special commission shed a flood of light on
+the agrarian and Nationalist movement in Ireland. Eight
+members of parliament were pronounced by name to have
+conspired for the total political separation of the two islands.
+The whole party were proved to have disseminated newspapers
+tending to incite to sedition and the commission of crime,
+to have abstained from denouncing the system of intimidation,
+and to have compensated persons injured in committing crime.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parnell</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The conduct of the agrarian war had in the meantime almost
+passed from Parnell&rsquo;s hands. The &ldquo;plan of campaign&rdquo; was
+not his work, still less its latest and most remarkable
+exploit. To punish Mr Smith-Barry (afterwards
+<span class="sidenote">New Tipperary.</span>
+Lord Barrymore) for his exertions in favour of a brother
+landlord, his tenants in Tipperary were ordered to give up
+their holdings. A sum of Ł50,000 was collected to build &ldquo;New
+Tipperary,&rdquo; and the fine shops and flourishing concerns in
+the town were deserted to avoid paying small ground-rents.
+The same course was pursued with the farmers, some of whom
+had large capitals invested. Mr William O&rsquo;Brien presided at
+the inaugural dinner on the 12th of April, and some English
+M.P.&rsquo;s were present, but his chief supporter throughout was
+Father Humphreys. Parnell was invited, but neither came
+nor answered. No shopkeeper nor farmer had any quarrel
+with his landlord. &ldquo;Heretofore,&rdquo; a tenant wrote in <i>The Times</i>
+in the following December, &ldquo;people were boycotted for taking
+farms; I am boycotted for not giving up mine, which I have
+held for twenty-five years. A neighbour of mine, an Englishman,
+is undergoing the same treatment, and we alone. We are
+the only Protestant tenants on the Cashel estate. The remainder
+of the tenants, about thirty, are clearing everything
+off their land, and say they will allow themselves to be evicted.&rdquo;
+In the end the attack on Mr Smith-Barry completely failed,
+and he took back his misguided tenants. But the town of
+Tipperary has not recovered its old prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>The principal Irish measure passed in 1891 was Mr Balfour&rsquo;s
+Purchase Act, to extend and modify the operation of the Ashbourne
+acts. Ł30,000,000 were provided to convert
+tenants into proprietors, the instalments paid being
+<span class="sidenote">Land purchase.</span>
+again available, so that all the tenanted land in
+Ireland might ultimately be passed through if desired. The
+land itself in one shape or another formed the security, and
+guaranteed stock was issued which the holder might exchange
+for consols. The 40th clause of the Land Act of 1896 greatly
+stimulated the creation of occupying owners in the case of
+over-incumbered estates, but solvent landlords were not in
+a hurry to sell. The interests of the tenant were so carefully
+guarded that the prices obtainable were ruinous to the vendor
+unless he had other resources. The security of the treasury
+was also so jealously scrutinized that even the price which
+the tenant might be willing to pay was often disallowed. Thus
+the Land Commission really fixed the price of all property, and
+the last vestige of free contract was obliterated. Compulsory
+purchase became a popular cry, especially in Ulster. Owners,
+however, could not with any pretence of justice be forced to
+sell at ruinous prices, nor tenants be forced to give more than
+they thought fair. If the state, for purposes of its own, insisted
+upon expropriating all landlords, it was bound to find the difference,
+or to enter upon a course of undisguised confiscation.
+The Purchase Act was not the only one relied on by Mr Balfour.
+The Light Railways Act, passed by him in 1890, did much to
+open up some of the poorest parts of the west, and the temporary
+scarcity of that year was dealt with by relief works.</p>
+
+<p>An action begun by Parnell against <i>The Times</i> was settled
+by the payment of a substantial sum. The Nationalist leader
+seemed to stand higher than ever, but the writ in the divorce
+proceedings, brought by Captain O&rsquo;Shea against his wife, with
+<span class="sidenote">Parnell&rsquo;s downfall.</span>
+the Irish leader as co-respondent, was hanging over him. To
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page786" id="page786"></a>786</span>
+public astonishment, when the case came on for trial there was
+no defence, and on the 17th of November 1890 a decree nisi
+was granted. Parnell&rsquo;s subsequent marriage with
+the respondent before a registrar did him no good
+with his Roman Catholic supporters. The Irish
+bishops remained silent, while in England the &ldquo;Nonconformist
+conscience&rdquo; revolted. Three days after the verdict a great
+meeting was held in the Leinster Hall, Dublin, attended by
+25 members of the Irish parliamentary party. The result
+was an enthusiastic vote of confidence in Parnell, moved by
+Mr Justin M&lsquo;Carthy and seconded by Mr T. M. Healy. Five
+days later he was unanimously re-elected chairman by his party
+in parliament, but the meeting was scarcely over when Gladstone&rsquo;s
+famous letter to Mr Morley became public. The writer
+in effect demanded Parnell&rsquo;s resignation of the leadership as
+the condition upon which he could continue at the head of
+the Liberal party. He had to choose between the Nonconformist
+vote and the Irish leader, and he preferred the former. Next
+day the secession of the Irish members from their chief began.
+Long and acrimonious debates followed in committee-room
+15, and on the 6th of December Parnell was left in the chair
+with only 26 supporters. The majority of 45 members&mdash;Anti-Parnellites,
+as they came to be called&mdash;went into another room,
+unanimously deposed him, and elected Mr Justin M&lsquo;Carthy
+in his place. Parnell then began a campaign as hopeless as
+that of Napoleon after Leipzig. He seized the office of <i>United
+Ireland</i> in person. The Fenian element was with him, as he
+admitted, but the clergy were against him, and the odds were
+too great, especially against a Protestant politician. His
+candidate in a by-election at Kilkenny was beaten by nearly
+two to one, and he himself was injured in the eyes by lime
+being thrown at him. Similar defeats followed at Sligo and
+Carlow. He went over to France to meet Messrs Dillon and
+O&rsquo;Brien, who had not yet taken sides, but nothing was agreed
+to, and in the end both these former followers went against
+him. Every Saturday he went from London to Dublin and
+addressed some Sunday meeting in the country. The last was
+on the 27th of September. On the 6th of October 1891
+he died at Brighton, from the effects of a chill following on
+overwork and excitement. His funeral at Glasnevin was
+attended by 200,000 people. At the general election of 1892,
+however, only 9 Parnellites&mdash;the section which under Mr John
+Redmond remained staunch to his memory&mdash;were returned
+to parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Parnellite split,&rdquo; as it was called, proved fatal to
+the cause of Home Rule, for the Nationalist party broke up
+into factions. No one of the sectional leaders commanded
+general confidence, and personal rivalries were of the bitterest
+kind. An important result of these quarrels was to stop the
+supply of American money, without which neither the Land
+League nor the Home Rule agitation could have been worked.
+The Unionist party had adopted a policy of local government
+for Ireland while opposing legislative independence, and a bill
+was introduced into the House of Commons by Mr Balfour
+in February 1892. The principle was affirmed by a great
+majority, but the measure could not then be proceeded with.
+At the general election in July the Gladstonians and Nationalists
+together obtained a majority of 40 over Conservatives and
+Liberal Unionists. Lord Salisbury resigned in August, and
+was succeeded by Gladstone, with Lord Houghton (afterwards
+earl of Crewe) as lord-lieutenant and Mr John Morley as chief
+secretary. The Crimes Act, which had already been relaxed,
+was altogether suspended, and the proclamation declaring the
+National League illegal was revoked. The lord-lieutenant,
+on taking up his quarters in Dublin, refused a loyal address
+because of its Unionist tone; and in October the government
+issued a commission, with Mr Justice Mathew as chairman,
+which had the restoration of the evicted tenants as its avowed
+object. Two of the commissioners very shortly resigned, and
+the whole inquiry became somewhat farcical. It was given
+in evidence that out of Ł234,431 collected under the plan of
+campaign only Ł125,000 had been given to evicted tenants.
+In February 1893, on the application of the sheriff of Kerry,
+an order from Dublin Castle, refusing protection, was pronounced
+illegal in the Queen&rsquo;s Bench, and persons issuing it were declared
+liable to criminal prosecution. In the same month Gladstone
+<span class="sidenote">Home Rule Bill 1893.</span>
+introduced his second Home Rule Bill, which proposed
+to retain 80 Irish members in the imperial
+parliament instead of 103, but they were not to vote
+on any proceedings expressly confined to Great Britain. On
+the 8th of April 1886 he had told the House of Commons that
+it &ldquo;passed the wit of man&rdquo; to draw a practical distinction
+between imperial and non-imperial affairs. On the 20th of July
+1888 he informed the same assembly that there was no difficulty
+in doing so. It had become evident, in the meantime, to numberless
+Englishmen that the exclusion of the Irish members would
+mean virtual separation. The plan now proposed met with
+no greater favour, for a good many English Home Rulers had
+been mainly actuated all along by the wish to get the Irish
+members out of their way. The financial provisions of the
+bill were objected to by the Nationalists as tending to keep
+Ireland in bondage.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1892 a vast number of Unionist meetings
+were held throughout Ireland, the most remarkable being
+the great Ulster convention in Belfast, and that of the three
+other provinces in Dublin, on the 14th and 23rd of June. On
+the 22nd of April 1893, the day after the second reading of
+the bill, the Albert Hall in London was filled by enthusiastic
+Unionist delegates from all parts of Ireland. Next day the
+visitors were entertained by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield, the
+duke of Devonshire, Mr Balfour, Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain
+being present. Between the second reading and the third
+on 1st September the government majority fell from 43 to 34.
+A great part of the bill was closured by what was known as the
+device of the &ldquo;gag&rdquo; without discussion, although it occupied
+the House of Commons altogether eighty-two nights. It was
+thrown out by the Lords by 419 to 41, and the country undoubtedly
+acquiesced in their action. On the 3rd of March
+1894 Gladstone resigned, and Lord Rosebery (<i>q.v.</i>) became
+prime minister. A bill to repeal the Crimes Act of 1887 was
+read a second time in the Commons by 60, but went no farther.
+A committee on the Irish Land Acts was closured at the end of
+July by the casting vote of the chairman, Mr Morley, and
+the minority refused to join in the report. The bill to restore
+the evicted tenants, which resulted from the Mathew Commission,
+was rejected in the Lords by 249 to 30. In March
+1895 Mr Morley introduced a Land Bill, but the government
+majority continued to dwindle. Another Crimes Act Repeal
+Bill passed the second reading in May by only 222 to 208. In
+July, however, the government were defeated on the question
+of the supply of small-arms ammunition. A general election
+followed, which resulted in a Unionist majority of 150. The
+Liberal Unionists, whose extinction had once been so confidently
+foretold, had increased from 46 to 71, and the Parnellites,
+in spite of the most violent clerical opposition, from 9 to 12.
+Lord Cadogan became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Mr Gerald
+Balfour&mdash;who announced a policy of &ldquo;killing Home Rule by
+kindness&rdquo;&mdash;chief secretary.</p>
+
+<p>In the session of 1896 a new Land Act was added to the
+statute-book. The general effect was to decide most disputed
+points in favour of the tenants, and to repeal the
+exceptions made by former acts in the landlord&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Land Act 1896.</span>
+favour. Dairy farms, to mention only a few of the
+most important points which had been hitherto excluded,
+were admitted within the scope of the Land Acts, and purely
+pastoral holdings of between Ł50 and Ł100 were for the first
+time included. A presumption of law in the tenant&rsquo;s favour
+was created as to improvements made since 1850. The 40th
+clause introduced the principle of compulsory sale to the tenants
+of estates in the hands of receivers. The tendency of this
+provision to lower the value of all property was partly, but only
+partly, neutralized by the firmness of the land judge. The
+landlords of Ireland, who had made so many sacrifices and
+worked so hard to return Lord Salisbury to power, felt that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page787" id="page787"></a>787</span>
+the measure was hardly what they had a right to expect from
+a Unionist administration. In their opinion it unsettled the
+agricultural mind, and encouraged judicial tenants to go to
+law at the expiration of the first fifteen years&rsquo; term instead of
+bargaining amicably with their landlords.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of this year was published the report of the
+royal commission on the financial relations between England
+and Ireland. Mr Hugh C. E. Childers was the original
+chairman of this commission, which was appointed
+<span class="sidenote">Financial relations.</span>
+in 1894 with the object of determining the fiscal
+contribution of Ireland under Home Rule, and after his death
+in 1896 The O&rsquo;Conor Don presided. The report&mdash;or rather
+the collection of minority reports&mdash;gave some countenance
+to those who held that Ireland was overtaxed, and there was
+a strong agitation on the subject, in which some Irish Unionists
+joined without perceiving the danger of treating the two islands
+as &ldquo;separate entities.&rdquo; No individual Irishman was taxed
+on a higher scale than any corresponding citizen of Great Britain.
+No tax, either on commodities or property, was higher in Ireland
+than in England. The alleged grievance was, however, exploited
+to the utmost extent by the Nationalist party. In
+1897 a royal commission, with Sir Edward Fry as chairman,
+was appointed to inquire into the operation of the Land
+Acts. Voluminous evidence was taken in different parts of
+Ireland, and the commissioners reported in the following
+year. The methods and procedure of the Land Commission
+were much criticized, and many recommendations were made,
+but no legislation followed. This inquiry proved, what
+few in Ireland doubted, that the prices paid for occupancy
+interest or tenant right increased as the landlord&rsquo;s rent was
+cut down.</p>
+
+<p>The session of 1898 was largely occupied with the discussion
+of a bill to establish county and district councils on the lines
+of the English Act of 1888. The fiscal jurisdiction
+of grand juries, which had lasted for more than two
+<span class="sidenote">Local Government Act 1898.</span>
+centuries and a half, was entirely swept away. Local
+government for Ireland had always been part of
+the Unionist programme, and the vote on the abortive bill
+of 1892 had committed parliament to legislation. It may,
+nevertheless, be doubted whether enough attention was paid
+to the local peculiarities of Ireland, and whether English precedents
+were not too closely followed. In Ireland the poor-rate
+used to be divided between landlord and tenant, except
+on holdings valued at Ł4 and under, in which the landlord paid
+the whole. Councils elected by small farmers were evidently
+unfit to impose taxes so assessed. The poor-rate and the county
+cess, which latter was mostly paid by the tenants, were consolidated,
+and an agricultural grant of Ł730,000 was voted by
+parliament in order to relieve both parties. The consolidated
+rate was now paid by the occupier, who would profit by economy
+and lose by extravagance. The towns gained nothing by
+the agricultural grant, but union rating was established for
+the first time. The net result of the county council elections
+in the spring of 1899 was to displace, except in some northern
+counties, nearly all the men who had hitherto done the local
+business. Nationalist pledges were exacted, and long service
+as a grand juror was an almost certain bar to election. The
+Irish gentry, long excluded, as landlords and Unionists, from
+political life, now felt to a great extent that they had no field
+for activity in local affairs. The new councils very generally
+passed resolutions of sympathy with the Boers in the South
+African war. The one most often adopted, though sometimes
+rejected as too mild, was that of the Limerick corporation,
+hoping &ldquo;that it may end in another Majuba Hill.&rdquo; Efforts
+not wholly unsuccessful were made to hinder recruiting in Ireland,
+and every reverse or repulse of British arms was greeted with
+Nationalist applause.</p>
+
+<p>The scheme for a Roman Catholic University&mdash;of which
+Mr Arthur Balfour, speaking for himself and not for the government,
+made himself a prominent champion&mdash;was much canvassed
+in 1899, but it came to nothing. It had not been forgotten
+that this question wrecked the Liberal party in 1874.</p>
+
+<p>The chief Irish measure of 1899 was an Agricultural and
+Technical Instruction Act, which established a new department
+(see the section <i>Economics</i> above) with the
+chief secretary at its head and an elaborate system
+<span class="sidenote">Board of Agriculture.</span>
+of local committees. Considerable funds were made
+available, and Mr (afterwards Sir) Horace Plunkett,
+who as an independent Conservative member had been active
+in promoting associations for the improvement of Irish methods
+in this direction, became the first vice-president. The new
+county councils were generally induced to further attempts
+at technical instruction and to assist them out of the rates,
+but progress in this direction was necessarily slow in a country
+where organized industries have hitherto been so few. In
+agriculture, and especially in cattle-breeding, improvement
+was formerly due mainly to the landlords, who had now been
+deprived by law of much of their power. The gap has been partly
+filled by the new department, and a good deal has been done.
+Some experience has been gained not only through the voluntary
+associations promoted by Sir H. Plunkett, but also from the
+Congested Districts Board founded under the Land Purchase
+Act of 1891. This board has power within the districts affected
+by it to foster agriculture and fisheries, to enlarge holdings,
+and to buy and hold land. In March 1899 it had from first
+to last laid out a little more than half a million. The principal
+source of income was a charge of Ł41,250 a year upon the Irish
+Church surplus, but the establishment expenses were paid by
+parliament.</p>
+
+<p>At the opening of the session in January 1900 there was
+a formal reconciliation of the Dillonite, Healyite, and Redmondite
+or Parnellite factions. It was evident
+from the speeches made on the occasion that there
+<span class="sidenote">1900.</span>
+was not much cordiality between the various leaders, but
+the outward solidarity of the party was calculated to bring
+in renewed subscriptions both at home and from America.
+It was publicly agreed that England&rsquo;s difficulty in South Africa
+was Ireland&rsquo;s opportunity, and that all should abstain from
+supporting an amendment to the address which admitted
+that the war would have to be fought out. Mr John Redmond
+was chosen chairman, and the alliance of Nationalists and
+Gladstonian Liberals was dissolved. The United Irish League,
+founded in Mayo in 1898 by Mr William O&rsquo;Brien, had recently
+become a sort of rival to the parliamentary party, its avowed
+object being to break up the great grass farms, and its methods
+resembling those of the old Land League.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking event, however, in Ireland in the earlier
+part of 1900 was Queen Victoria&rsquo;s visit. Touched by the gallantry
+of the Irish regiments in South Africa, and moved to some extent,
+no doubt, by the presence of the duke of Connaught in Dublin
+as commander-in-chief, the queen determined in April to make
+up for the loss of her usual spring holiday abroad by paying
+a visit to Ireland. The last time the queen had been in Dublin
+was in 1861 with the Prince Consort. Since then, besides the
+visit of the prince and princess of Wales in 1885, Prince Albert
+Victor and Prince George of Wales had visited Ireland in 1887,
+and the duke and duchess of York (afterwards prince and
+princess of Wales) in 1897; but the lack of any permanent
+royal residence and the long-continued absence of the sovereign
+in person had aroused repeated comment. Directly the announcement
+of the queen&rsquo;s intention was made the greatest
+public interest was taken in the project. Shortly before St
+Patrick&rsquo;s Day the queen issued an order which intensified this
+interest, that Irish soldiers might in future wear a sprig of
+shamrock in their headgear on this national festival. For
+some years past the &ldquo;wearing of the green&rdquo; had been regarded
+by the army authorities as improper, and friction had consequently
+occurred, but the queen&rsquo;s order put an end in a
+graceful manner to what had formerly been a grievance. The
+result was that St Patrick&rsquo;s Day was celebrated in London and
+throughout the empire as it never had been before, and when
+the queen went over to Dublin at the beginning of April she
+was received with the greatest enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>The general election later in the year made no practical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page788" id="page788"></a>788</span>
+difference in the strength of parties, but Mr George Wyndham
+took Mr Gerald Balfour&rsquo;s place as chief secretary, without a
+seat in the Cabinet. Both before and after the election the
+United Irish League steadily advanced, fresh branches continually
+springing up.</p>
+
+<p>The visit of Mr Redmond and others to America in 1901
+was not believed to have brought in much money, and the
+activity of the League was more or less restrained
+by want of funds. Boycotting, however, became
+<span class="sidenote">Recent years.</span>
+rife, especially in Sligo, and paid agents also promoted
+an agitation against grass farms in Tipperary, Clare
+and other southern counties. In Roscommon there was a
+strike against rent, especially on the property of Lord De Freyne.
+This was due to the action of the Congested Districts Board in
+buying the Dillon estate and reducing all the rents without
+consulting the effect upon others. It was argued that no one
+else&rsquo;s tenants could be expected to pay more. Some prosecutions
+were undertaken, but the government was much
+criticized for not using the special provisions of the Crimes
+Act; and in April 1902 certain counties were &ldquo;proclaimed&rdquo;
+under it. In February 1902 Lord Rosebery definitely repudiated
+Home Rule, and steps to oppose his followers were at once
+taken among Irish voters in English constituencies.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Cadogan resigned the viceroyalty in July 1902, and
+was succeeded by Lord Dudley. In November Sir Antony
+Macdonnell (b. 1844), a member of the Indian Council, became
+under-secretary to the lord-lieutenant. During a long and
+successful career in India (1865-1901) Sir Antony had never
+concealed his Nationalist proclivities, but his appointment,
+about the form of which there was nothing peculiar, was favoured
+by Lord Lansdowne and Lord George Hamilton, and ultimately
+sanctioned by Mr Balfour, who had been prime minister since
+Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s resignation in July. About the same time
+a conference took place in Dublin between certain landlords
+and some members of the Nationalist party, of whom Mr W.
+O&rsquo;Brien was the most conspicuous. Lord Dunraven presided,
+and it was agreed to recommend a great extension of the Land
+Purchase system with a view to give the vendor as good an
+income as before, while decreasing the tenants&rsquo; annual burden.
+This was attempted in Mr Wyndham&rsquo;s Land Purchase Act
+of 1903, which gave the tenants a material reduction, a bonus
+of 12% on the purchase-money being granted to vendors
+from funds provided by parliament. A judicial decision made
+it doubtful whether this percentage became the private property
+of tenants for life on settled estates, but a further act passed
+in 1904 answered the question in the affirmative. After this
+the sale of estates proceeded rapidly. In March 1903 was
+published the report of the Royal Commission on Irish University
+Education appointed two years before with Lord Robertson
+as chairman, Trinity College, Dublin, being excluded from
+the inquiry. The report, which was not really unanimous,
+was of little value as a basis for legislation. It recommended
+an examining university with the Queen&rsquo;s Colleges at Belfast,
+Cork and Galway, and with a new and well-endowed Roman
+Catholic college in Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>In August was formed the Irish Reform Association out of
+the wreckage of the late Land Conference and under Lord
+Dunraven&rsquo;s presidency, and it was seen that Sir
+A. Macdonnell took a great interest in the proceedings.
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;Devolution&rdquo; question.</span>
+Besides transferring private bill legislation to Dublin
+on the Scottish plan, to which no one in Ireland
+objected, it was proposed to hand over the internal expenditure
+of Ireland to a financial council consisting half of nominated
+and half of elected members, and to give an Irish assembly
+the initiative in public Irish bills. This policy, which was
+called Devolution, found little support anywhere, and was
+ultimately repudiated both by Mr Wyndham and by Mr Balfour.
+But a difficult parliamentary crisis, caused by Irish Unionist
+suspicions on the subject, was only temporarily overcome
+by Mr Wyndham&rsquo;s resignation in March 1905. Mr Walter
+Long succeeded him. One of the chief questions at issue was
+the position actually occupied by Sir Antony Macdonnell. The
+new chief secretary, while abstaining from displacing the under-secretary,
+whose encouragement of &ldquo;devolution&rdquo; had caused
+considerable commotion among Unionists, announced that
+he considered him as on the footing of an ordinary and subordinate
+civil servant, but Mr Wyndham had said that he was
+&ldquo;invited by me rather as a colleague than as a mere under-secretary
+to register my will,&rdquo; and Lord Lansdowne that he
+&ldquo;could scarcely expect to be bound by the narrow rules of
+routine which are applicable to an ordinary member of the
+civil service.&rdquo; While Mr Long remained in office no further
+complication arose, but in 1906 (Sir A. Macdonnell being retained
+in office by the Liberal government) his Nationalist
+leanings again became prominent, and the responsibility of the
+Unionist government in introducing him into the Irish administration
+became a matter of considerable heart-burning among
+the Unionist party.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Balfour resigned in December 1905 and was succeeded
+by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Lord Aberdeen becoming
+lord-lieutenant for the second time, with Mr James Bryce as
+chief secretary. The general election at the beginning of 1906
+was disastrous to the Unionist party, and the Liberal government
+secured an enormous majority. Mr Walter Long, unseated
+at Bristol, had made himself very popular among Irish
+Unionists, and a seat was found him in the constituency of
+South Dublin. Speaking in August 1906 he raised anew the
+Macdonnell question and demanded the production of all
+correspondence connected with the under-secretary&rsquo;s appointment.
+Sir A. Macdonnell at once admitted through the newspapers
+that he had in his possession letters (rumoured to be
+&ldquo;embarrassing&rdquo; to the Unionist leaders) which he might
+publish at his own discretion; and the discussion as to how
+far his appointment by Mr Wyndham had prejudiced the
+Unionist cause was reopened in public with much bitterness,
+in view of the anticipation of further steps in the Home
+Rule direction by the Liberal ministry. In 1908 Sir Antony
+resigned and was created a peer as Baron Macdonnell. Soon
+after the change of government in 1906 a royal commission,
+with ex-Lord Justice Fry as chairman, was appointed to investigate
+the condition of Trinity College, Dublin, and another
+under Lord Dudley to inquire into the question of the congested
+districts.</p>
+
+<p>Mr Bryce being appointed ambassador to Washington,
+Mr Birrell faced the session of 1907 as chief secretary. Before
+he left office Mr Bryce publicly sketched a scheme of his own
+for remodelling Irish University Education, but his scheme
+was quietly put on the shelf by his successor and received almost
+universal condemnation. Mr Birrell began by introducing
+a bill for the establishment of an Irish Council, which would
+have given the Home Rulers considerable leverage, but, to the
+surprise of the English Liberals, it was summarily rejected by a
+Nationalist convention in Dublin, and was forthwith abandoned.
+The extreme party of Sinn Fein (&ldquo;ourselves alone&rdquo;) were against
+it because of the power it gave to the government officials,
+and the Roman Catholic clergy because it involved local control
+of primary education, which would have imperilled their position
+as managers. An Evicted Tenants Bill was however passed
+at the end of the session, which gave the Estates Commissioners
+unprecedented powers to take land compulsorily. In the late
+summer and autumn, agitation in Ireland (led by Mr Ginnell,
+M.P.) took the form of driving cattle off large grass farms, as
+part of a campaign against what was known as &ldquo;ranching.&rdquo;
+This reckless and lawless practice extended to several counties,
+but was worst in Galway and Roscommon. The government
+was determined not to use the Crimes Act, and the result was
+that offenders nearly always went unpunished, benches of
+magistrates being often swamped by the chairmen of district
+councils who were <i>ex officio</i> justices under the act of 1898.</p>
+
+<p>The general election of 1910 placed the Liberal and Unionist
+parties in a position of almost exact equality in the House
+of Commons, and it was at once evident that the Nationalists
+under Mr Redmond&rsquo;s leadership would hold the balance of
+power and control the fortunes of Mr Asquith&rsquo;s government.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page789" id="page789"></a>789</span>
+A small body of &ldquo;independent Nationalists,&rdquo; led by Mr William
+O&rsquo;Brien and Mr T. M. Healy, voiced the general dislike in Ireland
+of the Budget of 1909, the rejection of which by the House of
+Lords had precipitated the dissolution of parliament. But
+although this band of free-lances was a menace to Mr Redmond&rsquo;s
+authority and to the solidarity of the &ldquo;pledge-bound&rdquo; Irish
+parliamentary party, the two sections did not differ in their
+desire to get rid of the &ldquo;veto&rdquo; of the House of Lords, which
+they recognized as the standing obstacle to Home Rule, and
+which it was the avowed policy of the government to abolish.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Ancient: The <i>Annals of the Four Masters</i>,
+ed. J. O&rsquo;Donovan (1851), compiled in Donegal under Charles I.,
+gives a continuous account of Celtic Ireland down to 1616. The
+independent <i>Annals of Lough Cé</i> (Rolls series) end with 1590. The
+<i>Topographia and Expugnatio</i> of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls series)
+are chiefly valuable for his account of the Anglo-Norman invaders
+and for descriptions of the country. Sir J. T. Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Viceroys of
+Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1865) gives a connected view of the feudal establishment
+to the accession of Henry VIII. The <i>Calendar of Documents
+relating to Ireland</i> in the Public Record Office extends from 1171 to
+1307. Christopher Pembridge&rsquo;s <i>Annals from 1162 to 1370</i> were
+published by William Camden and reprinted in Sir J. T. Gilbert&rsquo;s
+<i>Chartularies of St Mary&rsquo;s Abbey</i> (Dublin, 1884). <i>The Annals of Clyn,
+Dowling and Grace</i> have been printed by the Irish Archaeological
+Society and the Celtic Society.</p>
+
+<p>For the 16th century see volumes ii. and iii. of the <i>Printed State
+Papers</i> (1834), and the <i>Calendars of State Papers, Ireland</i>, including
+that of the Carew MSS. 1515 to 1603. See also Richard Stanihurst&rsquo;s
+<i>Chronicle</i>, continued by John Hooker, which is included in Holinshed&rsquo;s
+<i>Chronicles</i>; E. Spenser, <i>View of the State of Ireland</i>, edited by
+H. Morley (1890); Fynes Moryson, <i>History of Ireland</i> (1735);
+Thomas Stafford, <i>Pacata Hibernia</i> (1810); and R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland
+under the Tudors</i> (1885-1890).</p>
+
+<p>For the 17th century see the <i>Calendars of Irish State Papers,
+1603-1665</i> (Dublin, 1772); <i>Strafford Letters</i>, edited by W. Knowler
+(1739): Thomas Carte, <i>Life of Ormonde</i> (1735-1736), and <i>Ormonde
+Papers</i> (1739); Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery, <i>State letters</i> (1743);
+the <i>Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland, 1641-1652</i> (1879-1880),
+and <i>History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland,
+1641-1649</i> (1882-1891), both edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert; Edmund
+Ludlow&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs</i>, edited by C. H. Firth (1894); the <i>Memoirs</i> of
+James Touchet, earl of Castlehaven (1815); and <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s Letters
+and Speeches</i>, edited by T. Carlyle (1904). See also J. P. Prendergast,
+<i>The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland</i> (1870); Denis Murphy,
+<i>Cromwell in Ireland</i> (1885): M. A. Hickson, <i>Ireland in the 17th
+Century</i> (1884); Sir John Temple, <i>History of the Irish Rebellion</i>
+(1812); P. Walsh, <i>History of the Remonstrance</i> (1674); George
+Story, <i>Impartial History of the Wars of Ireland</i> (1693); Thomas
+Witherow, <i>Derry and Enniskillen</i> (1873); Philip Dwyer, <i>Siege of
+Derry</i> (1893); Lord Macaulay, <i>History of England</i>; and S. R. Gardiner,
+<i>History of England, 1603-1656</i>. Further writings which may be
+consulted are: <i>The Embassy in Ireland of Rinuccini, 1645-1649</i>,
+translated from the Italian by A. Hutton (1873); Sir William
+Petty&rsquo;s <i>Down Survey</i>, edited by T. A. Larcom (1851), and his <i>Economic
+Writings</i>, edited by C. H. Hull (1899); Charles O&rsquo;Kelly&rsquo;s <i>Macariae
+Excidium</i>, edited by J. C. O&rsquo;Callaghan (1850); and <i>A Jacobite
+Narrative of the War in Ireland, 1688-91</i>, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert
+(1892).</p>
+
+<p>For the 18th century J. A. Froude&rsquo;s <i>English in Ireland</i> and W. E.
+H. Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History of England</i> cover the whole ground. See also
+the <i>Letters 1724-1738</i> of Archbishop Hugh Boulter, edited by
+G. Faulkner (1770); the <i>Works</i> of Dean Swift; John Campbell&rsquo;s
+<i>Philosophical Survey of Ireland</i> (1778); Arthur Young&rsquo;s <i>Tour in
+Ireland</i> (1780); Henry Grattan&rsquo;s <i>Life of the Right Hon. Henry
+Grattan</i> (1839-1846); the <i>Correspondence</i> of the Marquess Cornwallis,
+edited by C. Ross (1859); Wolfe Tone&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography</i>, edited by
+R. B. O&rsquo;Brien (1893); and R. R. Madden&rsquo;s <i>United Irishmen</i> (1842-1846).</p>
+
+<p>For the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century see the
+<i>Annual Register</i>; R. M. Martin, <i>Ireland before and after the Union</i>
+(1848); Sir T. Wyse, <i>Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association</i>
+(1829); G. L. Smyth, <i>Ireland, Historical and Statistical</i> (1844-1849);
+Sir C. E. Trevelyan, <i>The Irish Crisis</i> (1880); N. W. Senior,
+<i>Journals, Conversations and Essays relating to Ireland</i> (1868);
+Sir G. C. Lewis, <i>On Local Disturbances in Ireland and on the Irish
+Church Question</i> (1836); John Morley, <i>Life of W. E. Gladstone</i>;
+Lord Fitzmaurice, <i>Life of Lord Granville</i> (1905); and R. Barry
+O&rsquo;Brien, <i>Life of Parnell</i> (1898). Other authorities are Isaac Butt,
+<i>Irish Federalism</i> (1870); H. O. Arnold-Forster, <i>The Truth about
+the Land League</i> (1883); A. V. Dicey, <i>England&rsquo;s Case against Home
+Rule</i> (1886); W. E. Gladstone, <i>History of an Idea</i> (1886), and a
+reply to this by J. E. Webb entitled <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Enemies in America</i>
+(1886); and Mrs E. Lynn Linton, <i>About Ireland</i> (1890). See also
+the <i>Report of the Parnell Special Commission</i> (1890); the <i>Report</i>
+of the Bessborough Commission (1881), of the Richmond Commission
+(1881), of the Cowper Commission (1887), and of the Mathew
+Commission (1893), and the <i>Report</i> of the Congested Districts Board
+(1899).</p>
+
+<p>For the church in Ireland see: Henry Cotton, <i>Fasti ecclesiae
+hibernicae</i> (1848-1878); W. M. Brady, <i>The Episcopal Succession</i>
+(Rome, 1876); R. Mant, <i>History of the Church of Ireland</i> (1840);
+J. T. Ball, <i>The Reformed Church in Ireland, 1537-1886</i> (1886); and
+W. D. Killen, <i>Ecclesiastical History of Ireland</i> (1875). A. Theiner&rsquo;s
+<i>Vetera Monumenta</i> (Rome, 1864) contains documents concerning
+the medieval church, and there are many others in Ussher&rsquo;s Works,
+and for a later period in Cardinal Moran&rsquo;s <i>Spicilegium Ossoriense</i>
+(1874-1884). The <i>Works</i> of Sir James Ware, edited by Walter
+Harris, are generally useful, and Alice S. Green&rsquo;s <i>The Making of
+Ireland and its Undoing</i> (1908), although written from a partisan
+standpoint, may also be consulted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Ba.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The importance of the commerce between Ireland and Gaul in
+early times, and in particular the trade in wine, has been insisted
+upon by H. Zimmer in papers in the <i>Abh. d. Berl. Akad. d. Wissenschaften</i>
+(1909).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> On the subject of Ptolemy&rsquo;s description of Ireland see articles
+by G. H. Orpen in the <i>Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of
+Ireland</i> (June 1894), and John MacNeill in the <i>New Ireland Review</i>
+(September 1906).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Scholars are only beginning to realize how close was the connexion
+between Ireland and Wales from early times. Pedersen has
+recently pointed out the large number of Brythonic and Welsh loan
+words received into Irish from the time of the Roman occupation
+of Britain to the beginning of the literary period. Welsh writers
+now assume an Irish origin for much of the contents of the
+Mabinogion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It seems probable that the celebrated monastery of Whithorn
+in Galloway played some part in the reform movement, at any rate
+in the north of Ireland. Findian of Moville spent some years there.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The O&rsquo;Neills who played such an important part in later Irish
+history do not take their name from Niall Nóigiallach, though they
+are descended from him. They take their name from Niall Glúndub
+(d. 919).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> At this period it is extremely difficult to distinguish between
+Norwegians and Danes on account of the close connexion between
+the ruling families of both countries.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This name survives in Fingall, the name of a district north of
+Dublin city. Dubgall is contained in the proper names MacDougall,
+MacDowell.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> In Anglo-Norman times the Scandinavians of Dublin and other
+cities are always called Ostmen, <i>i.e.</i> Eastmen; hence the name
+Ostmanstown, now Oxmanstown, a part of the city of Dublin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> On the name see K. Meyer <i>Erin</i>, iv. pp. 71-73.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Donaban, the son of this Ivar of Waterford, is the ancestor of
+the O&rsquo;Donavans, Donoban that of the O&rsquo;Donovans.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The term <i>rath</i> was perhaps applied to the rampart, but both <i>lis</i>
+and <i>rath</i> are used to denote the whole structure.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See D&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville, <i>Revue celtique</i>, xxv. 1 ff., 181 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13a" id="ft13a" href="#fa13a"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The whole question is discussed by Mr J. H. Round in his article
+on &ldquo;The Pope and the Conquest of Ireland&rdquo; (<i>Commune of London</i>,
+1899, pp. 171-200), where further references will be found.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRELAND, CHURCH OF.<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> The ancient Church of Ireland
+(described in the Irish Church Act 1869 by this its historic
+title) has a long and chequered history, which it will be interesting
+to trace in outline. The beginnings of Christianity in
+Ireland are difficult to trace, but there is no doubt that the first
+Christian missionary whose labours were crowned with any
+considerable success was Patrick (fl. <i>c.</i> 450), who has always
+been reckoned the patron saint of the country. For six centuries
+the Church of which he was the founder occupied a remarkable
+position in Western Christendom. Ireland, in virtue at once
+of its geographical situation and of the spirit of its people, was
+less affected than other countries by the movements of European
+thought; and thus its development, social and religious, was
+largely independent of foreign influences, whether Roman
+or English. In full communion with the Latin Church, the
+Irish long preserved many peculiarities, such as their monastic
+system and the date at which Easter was kept, which distinguished
+them in discipline, though not conspicuously in doctrine, from
+the Christians of countries more immediately under papal
+control (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ireland</a></span>: <i>Early History</i>). The incessant incursions
+of the Danes, who were the scourge of the land for a period of
+nearly three hundred years, prevented the Church from redeeming
+the promise of her infancy; and at the date of the English
+conquest of Ireland (1172) she had lost much of her ancient
+zeal and of her independence. By this time she had come more
+into line with the rest of Europe, and the Synod of Cashel
+put the seal to a new policy by its acknowledgment of the
+papal jurisdiction and by its decrees assimilating the Church,
+in ritual and usages, to that of England. There was no thought
+of a breach of continuity, but the distinctive features of Celtic
+Christianity gradually disappeared from this time onwards.
+English influence was strong only in the region round Dublin
+(known as the Pale); and beyond this district the Irish were
+not disposed to view with favour any ecclesiastical reforms
+which had their origin in the sister country. Thus from the
+days of Henry VIII. the Reformation movement was hindered
+in Ireland by national prejudice, and it never succeeded in
+gaining the allegiance of the Irish people as a whole. The
+policy which directed its progress was blundering and stupid,
+and reflects little credit on the English statesmen who were
+responsible for it. No attempt was made to commend the
+principles of the Reformation to the native Irish by conciliating
+national sentiment; and the policy which forbade the translation
+of the Prayer Book into the Irish language, and suggested
+that where English was not understood Latin might be used
+as an alternative, was doomed to failure from the beginning.
+And, in fact, the reformed church of Ireland is to this day the
+church of a small section only of the population.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation period begins with the passing of the Irish
+Supremacy Act 1537. As in England, the changes in religion
+of successive sovereigns alternately checked and promoted
+the progress of the movement, although in Ireland the mass
+of the people were less deeply affected by the religious controversies
+of the times than in Great Britain. At Mary&rsquo;s accession
+five bishops either abandoned, or were deprived of,
+their sees; but the Anglo-Irish who remained faithful to the
+Reformation were not subjected to persecution such as would
+have been their fate on the other side of the Channel. Again,
+under Elizabeth, while two bishops (William Walsh of Meath and
+Thomas Leverous of Kildare) were deprived for open resistance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page790" id="page790"></a>790</span>
+to the new order of things, and while stern measures were taken
+to suppress treasonable plotting against the constitution, the
+uniform policy of the government in ecclesiastical matters was
+one of toleration. James I. caused the Supremacy Act to
+be rigorously enforced, but on political rather than on religious
+grounds. In distant parts of Ireland, indeed, the unreformed
+order of service was often used without interference from the
+secular authority, although the bishops had openly accepted
+the Act of Uniformity.</p>
+
+<p>The episcopal succession, then, was unbroken at the Reformation.
+The Marian prelates are admitted on all hands to have
+been the true bishops of the Church, and in every case they
+were followed by a line of lawful successors, leading down
+to the present occupants of the several sees. The rival lines
+of Roman Catholic titulars are not in direct succession to the
+Marian bishops, and cannot be regarded as continuous with the
+medieval Church. The question of the continuity of the pre-Reformation
+Church with the Church of the Celtic period before
+the Anglo-Norman conquest of Ireland is more difficult. Ten
+out of eleven archbishops of Armagh who held office between
+1272 and 1439 were consecrated outside Ireland, and there
+is no evidence forthcoming that any one of them derived his
+apostolic succession through bishops of the Irish Church. It
+may be stated with confidence that the present Church of Ireland
+is the direct and legitimate successor of the Church of the 14th
+and 15th centuries, but it cannot so clearly be demonstrated
+that any existing organization is continuous with the Church
+of St Patrick. In the reign of James I. the first Convocation
+of the clergy was summoned in Ireland, of which assembly the
+most notable act was the adoption of the &ldquo;Irish Articles&rdquo;
+(1615). These had been drawn up by Usher, and were more
+decidedly Calvinistic in tone than the Thirty-nine Articles,
+which were not adopted as standards in Ireland until 1634,
+when Strafford forced them on Convocation. During the
+Commonwealth period the bishoprics which became vacant
+were not filled; but on the accession of Charles II. the Church
+was strengthened by the translation of John Bramhall (the
+most learned and zealous of the prelates) from Derry to the
+primatial see of Armagh, and the consecration of twelve other
+bishops, among whom was Jeremy Taylor. The short period
+during which the policy of James II. prevailed in Ireland was
+one of disaster to the Church; but under William and Mary
+she regained her former position. She had now been reformed
+for more than 100 years, but had made little progress; and
+the tyrannical provisions of the Penal Code introduced by
+the English government made her more unpopular than ever.
+The clergy, finding their ministrations unacceptable to the
+great mass of the population, were tempted to indolence and
+non-residence; and although bright exceptions could be named,
+there was much that called for reform. To William King (1650-1729),
+bishop of Derry, and subsequently archbishop of Dublin,
+it was mainly due that the work of the Church was reorganized,
+and the impulse which he gave it was felt all through the 18th
+century. His ecclesiastical influence was exerted in direct
+opposition to Primate Hugh Boulter and his school, who aimed
+at making the Established Church the instrument for the
+promotion of English political opinions rather than the spiritual
+home of the Irish people. In 1800 the Act of Union was passed
+by the Legislature; and thenceforward, until Disestablishment,
+there was but one &ldquo;United Church of England and Ireland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Continuous agitation for the removal of Roman Catholic
+disabilities brought about in 1833 the passing of the Church
+Temporalities Act, one of the most important provisions of
+which was the reduction of the number of Irish archbishoprics
+from four to two, and of bishoprics from eighteen to ten, the
+funds thus released being administered by commissioners.
+In 1838 the Tithe Rentcharge Act, which transferred the payment
+of tithes from the occupiers to the owners of land, was
+passed, and thus a substantial grievance was removed. It
+became increasingly plain, however, as years passed, that all
+such measures of relief were inadequate to allay the dissatisfaction
+felt by the majority of Irishmen because of the continued
+existence of the Established Church. Her position had been
+pledged to her by the Act of Union, and she was undoubtedly
+the historical representative of the ancient Church of the land;
+but such arguments proved unavailing in view of the visible
+fact that she had not gained the affections of the people. The
+census of 1861 showed that out of a total population of 5,798,967
+only 693,357 belonged to the Established Church, 4,505,265
+being Roman Catholics; and once this had been made clear,
+the passing of the Act of Disestablishment was only a question
+of time. Introduced by Mr Gladstone, and passed in 1869,
+it became law on the 1st of January 1871.</p>
+
+<p>The Church was thus suddenly thrown on her own resources,
+and called on to reorganize her ecclesiastical system, as well
+as to make provision for the maintenance of her future clergy.
+A convention of the bishops, clergy, and laity was summoned
+in 1870, and its first act was to declare the adherence of the Church
+of Ireland to the ancient standards, and her determination to
+uphold the doctrine and discipline of the Catholic and Apostolic
+Church, while reaffirming her witness, as Protestant and Reformed,
+against the innovations of Rome. Under the constitution
+then agreed on, the supreme governing body of the Church
+is the General Synod, consisting of the bishops and of 208
+clerical and 416 lay representatives of the several dioceses,
+whose local affairs are managed by subordinate Diocesan Synods.
+The bishops are elected as vacancies arise, and, with certain
+restrictions, by the Diocesan Synods, the Primate, whose see
+is Armagh, being chosen by the bishops out of their own number.
+The patronage of benefices is vested in boards of nomination,
+on which both the diocese and the parish are represented. The
+Diocesan Courts, consisting of the bishop, his chancellor, and
+two elected members, one clerical and the other lay, deal as courts
+of first instance with legal questions; but there is an appeal
+to the Court of the General Synod, composed of three bishops
+and four laymen who have held judicial office. During the
+years 1871 to 1878 the revision of the Prayer Book mainly
+occupied the attention of the General Synod; but although
+many far-reaching resolutions were proposed by the then
+predominant Evangelical party, few changes of moment were
+carried, and none which affected the Church&rsquo;s doctrinal position.
+A two-thirds majority of both the lay and clerical vote is necessary
+before any change can be made in the formularies, and an
+ultimate veto rests, on certain conditions, with the house of
+bishops.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of Disestablishment have been partly good and
+partly evil. On the one hand, the Church has now all the
+benefits of autonomy and is free from the anomalies incidental
+to state control. Her laws are definite, and the authority
+of her judicial courts is recognized by all her members. The
+place given to the laity in her synods has quickened in them
+the sense of responsibility so essential to the Church&rsquo;s progress.
+And although there are few worldly inducements to men to
+take orders in Ireland, the clergy are, for the most part, the
+equals of their predecessors in social standing and in intellectual
+equipment, while the standard of clerical activity is higher
+than in pre-Disestablishment days. On the other hand, the
+vesting of patronage in large bodies like synods, or (as is the
+case in some districts) in nominators with little knowledge
+of the Church beyond the borders of their own parish, is not
+an ideal system, although it is working better as the dangers
+of parochialism and provinciality are becoming more generally
+recognized than in the early years of Disestablishment.</p>
+
+<p>The finances are controlled by the Representative Church
+Body, to which the sum of Ł7,581,075, sufficient to provide
+life annuities for the existing clergy (2043 in number), amounting
+to Ł596,913, was handed over by the Church Temporalities
+Commissioners in 1870. So skilfully was this fund administered,
+and so generous were the contributions of clergy and laity,
+at and since Disestablishment, that while on 31st December
+1906 only 136 annuitants were living, the total assets in the
+custody of the Representative Church Body amounted at
+that date to Ł8,729,941. Of this sum no less than Ł6,525,952
+represented the free-will offerings of the members of the Church
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page791" id="page791"></a>791</span>
+for the thirty-seven years ending 31st December 1906. Out
+of the interest on capital, augmented by the annual parochial
+assessments, which are administered by the central office, provision
+has to be made for two archbishops at Ł2500 per annum,
+eleven bishops, who receive about Ł1500 each, and over 1500
+parochial clergy. Of the clergy only 338 are curates, while
+1161 are incumbents, the average annual income of a benefice
+being about Ł240, with (in most cases) a house. The large
+majority of the clergy receive their training in the Divinity
+School of Trinity College, Dublin. At the census of 1901 the
+members of the Church of Ireland numbered 579,385 out of a
+total population of 4,456,546.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Mant, <i>History of the Church of Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, 1840);
+<i>Essays on the Irish Church</i>, by various writers (Oxford, 1866);
+Maziere Brady, <i>The Alleged Conversion of the Irish Bishops</i> (London,
+1877); A. T. Lee, <i>The Irish Episcopal Succession</i> (Dublin, 1867);
+G. T. Stokes, <i>Ireland and the Celtic Church</i> (London, 1888), <i>Ireland
+and the Anglo-Norman Church</i> (London, 1892), <i>Some Worthies of the
+Irish Church</i> (London, 1900); T. Olden, <i>The Church of Ireland</i>
+(London, 1892); J. T. Ball, <i>The Reformed Church of Ireland</i> (London,
+1890); H. C. Groves, <i>The Titular Archbishops of Ireland</i> (Dublin, 1897);
+W. Lawlor, <i>The Reformation in Ireland</i> (London, 1906); <i>Reports of
+the Representative Church Body</i> (Dublin, 1872-1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRENAEUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> bishop of Lyons at the end of the 2nd century,
+was one of the most distinguished theologians of the ante-Nicene
+Church. Very little is known of his early history.
+His childhood was spent in Asia Minor, probably at or near
+Smyrna; for he himself tells us (<i>Adv. haer.</i> iii. 3, 4, and Euseb.
+<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> v. 20) that as a child he heard the preaching of Polycarp,
+the aged bishop of Smyrna (d. February 22, 156). But
+we do not know when this was. He can hardly have been
+born very long after 130, for later on he frequently mentions
+having met certain Christian presbyters who had actually
+seen John, the disciple of our Lord. The circumstances under
+which he came into the West are also unknown to us; the
+only thing which is certain is that at the time of the persecution
+of the Gallic Church under Marcus Aurelius (177) he was a
+presbyter of the church at Lyons. In 177 or 178 he went to
+Rome on a mission from this church, to make representations
+to Bishop Eleutherius in favour of a more lenient treatment
+of the Montanists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Montanism</a></span>.; Eus. v. 4. 2). On his
+return he was called upon to undertake the direction of the
+church at Lyons in the place of Bishop Pothinus, who had
+perished in the persecution (Eus. v. 5. 8). As bishop he carried
+on a great and fruitful work. Though the statement of Gregory
+of Tours (<i>Hist. Franc.</i> i. 29), that within a short time he succeeded
+in converting all Lyons to Christianity, is probably exaggerated,
+from him at any rate dates the wide spread of Christianity in
+Lyons and its neighbourhood. He devoted particular attention
+to trying to reconcile the numerous sects which menaced the
+existence of the church (see below). In the dispute on the
+question of Easter, which for a long time disturbed the Christian
+Church both in West and East, he endeavoured by means
+of many letters to effect a compromise, and in particular to
+exercise a moderating influence on Victor, the bishop of Rome,
+and his unyielding attitude towards the dissentient churches of
+Africa, thus justifying his name of &ldquo;peace-maker&rdquo; (Eirenaios)
+(Eus. <i>H. E.</i> v. 24. 28). The date of his death is unknown. His
+martyrdom under Septimius Severus is related by Gregory of
+Tours, but by no earlier writer.</p>
+
+<p>The chief work of Irenaeus, written about 180, is his &ldquo;Refutation
+and Overthrow of Gnosis, falsely so called&rdquo; (usually indicated
+by the name <i>Against the Heresies</i>). Of the Greek original
+of this work only fragments survive; it only exists in full in
+an old Latin translation, the slavish fidelity of which to a certain
+extent makes up for the loss of the original text. The treatise
+is divided into five books: of these the first two contain a
+minute and well-informed description and criticism of the tenets
+of various heretical sects, especially the Valentinians; the
+other three set forth the true doctrines of Christianity, and it
+is from them that we find out the theological opinions of the
+author. Irenaeus admits himself that he is not a good writer.
+And indeed, as he worked, his materials assumed such unmanageable
+proportions that he could not succeed in throwing
+them into a satisfactory form. But however clumsily he may
+have handled his material, he has produced a work which is
+even nowadays rightly valued as the first systematic exposition
+of Catholic belief. The foundation upon which Irenaeus bases
+his system consists in the episcopate, the canon of the Old and
+New Testaments, and the rule of faith. With their assistance
+he sets forth and upholds, in opposition to the gnostic dualism,
+<i>i.e.</i> the severing of the natural and the supernatural, the Catholic
+monism, <i>i.e.</i> the unity of the life of faith as willed by God.
+The &ldquo;grace of truth&rdquo; (the <i>charisma</i>), which the apostles had
+called down upon their first disciples by prayer and laying-on
+of hands, and which was to be imparted anew by way of
+succession (<span class="grk" title="diadochę">&#948;&#953;&#945;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#942;</span>, <i>successio</i>) to the bishops from generation
+to generation without a break, makes those who receive it
+living witnesses of the salvation offered to the faithful by written
+and spoken tradition. The Scriptures of the Old and New
+Testaments, rightly expounded by the church alone, give us
+an insight into God&rsquo;s plan of salvation for mankind, and explain
+to us the covenant which He made on various occasions (Moses
+and Christ; or Noah, Abraham, Moses and Christ). Finally,
+the &ldquo;rule of faith&rdquo; (<i>regula fidei</i>), received at baptism, contains
+in itself all the riches of Christian truth. To distribute these,
+<i>i.e.</i> to elucidate the rule of faith as set forth in the creed, and
+further to point out its agreement with the Scriptures, is the
+object of Irenaeus as a theologian. Hence he lays the greatest
+stress on the conception of God&rsquo;s disposition of salvation towards
+mankind (<i>oeconomia</i>), the object of which is that mankind,
+who in Adam were sunk in sin and death, should in Christ,
+comprised as it were in his person, be brought back to life.
+God, as the head of the family, so to speak, disposes of all. The
+Son, the Word (<i>Logos</i>) for ever dwelling with the Father, carries
+out His behests. The Holy Ghost (<i>Pneuma</i>), however, as the
+Spirit of wisdom for ever dwelling with the Father, controls
+what the Father has appointed and the Son fulfilled, and this
+Spirit lives in the church. The climax of the divine plan of
+salvation is found in the incarnation of the Word. God was
+to become man, and in Christ he became man. Christ must
+be God; for if not, the devil would have had a natural claim
+on him, and he would have been no more exempt from death
+than the other children of Adam; he must be <i>man</i>, if his blood
+were indeed to redeem us. On God incarnate the power of the
+devil is broken, and in Him is accomplished the reconciliation
+between God and man, who henceforth pursues his true object,
+namely, to become like unto God. In the God-man God has
+drawn men up to Himself. Into their human, fleshly and
+perishable nature imperishable life is thereby engrafted; it
+has become deified, and death has been changed into immortality.
+In the sacrament of the Lord&rsquo;s Supper it is the heavenly body
+of the God-man which is actually partaken of in the elements.
+This exposition by Irenaeus of the divine economy and the
+incarnation was taken as a criterion by later theologians, especially
+in the Greek Church (cf. Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa,
+Cyril of Alexandria, John of Damascus). He himself was
+especially influenced by St John and St Paul. Before him the
+Fourth Gospel did not seem to exist for the Church; Irenaeus
+made it a living force. His conception of the Logos is not that
+of the philosophers and apologists; he looks upon the Logos
+not as the &ldquo;reason&rdquo; of God, but as the &ldquo;voice&rdquo; with which
+the Father speaks in the revelation to mankind, as did the
+writer of the Fourth Gospel. And the Pauline epistles are
+adopted almost bodily by Irenaeus, according to the ideas
+contained in them; his expositions often present the appearance
+of a patchwork of St Paul&rsquo;s ideas. Certainly, it is only one
+side of Paul&rsquo;s thought that he displays to us. The great conceptions
+of justification and atonement are hardly ever touched
+by Irenaeus. In Irenaeus is no longer heard the Jew, striving
+about and against the law, who has had to break free from his
+early tradition of Pharisaism.</p>
+
+<p>Till recent times whatever other writings and letters of
+Irenaeus are mentioned by Eusebius appeared to be lost, with
+the exception of a fragment here or there. Recently, however,
+two Armenian scholars, Karapet Ter-M&#283;k&#283;rttschian and Erwand
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page792" id="page792"></a>792</span>
+Ter-Minassianz, have published from an Armenian translation
+a German edition (Leipzig, 1907; minor edition 1908) of the
+work &ldquo;in proof of the apostolic teaching&rdquo; mentioned by Eusebius
+(<i>H. E.</i> v. 26). This work, which is in the form of a dialogue with
+one Marcianus, otherwise unknown to us, contains a statement
+of the fundamental truths of Christianity. It is the oldest
+catechism extant, and an excellent example of how Bishop
+Irenaeus was able not only to defend Christianity as a theologian
+and expound it theoretically, but also to preach it to laymen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The edition of the Benedictine R. Massuet
+(Paris, 1710 and 1734, reprinted in Migne, <i>Cursus patrologiae</i>, Series
+Graeca, vol. v., Paris, 1857) long continued to be the standard one,
+till it was superseded by the editions of Adolph Stieren (2 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1848-1853) and of W. Wigan Harvey (2 vols., Cambridge,
+1857), the latter being the only edition which contains the Syriac
+fragments. For an English translation see the <i>Ante-Nicene Library</i>.
+Of modern monographs consult H. Ziegler, <i>Irenaeus, der Bischof
+von Lyon</i> (Berlin, 1871); Friedrich Loofs, <i>Irenaeus-Handschriften</i>
+(Leipzig, 1888); Johannes Werner, <i>Der Paulinismus des Irenaeus</i>
+(Leipzig, 1889); Johannes Kunze, <i>Die Gotteslehre des Irenaeus</i>
+(Leipzig, 1891); Ernst Klebba, <i>Die Anthropologie des heiligen
+Irenaeus</i> (Münster, 1894); Albert Dufourcq, <i>Saint Irénée</i> (Paris,
+1904); Franz Stoll, <i>Die Lehre des Heil. Irenaeus von der Erlösung
+und Heiligung</i> (Mainz, 1905); also the histories of dogma, especially
+Harnack, and Bethune-Baker, <i>An Introduction to the Early History
+of Christian Doctrine</i> (London, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRENE,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> the name of several Byzantine empresses.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Irene</span> (752-803), the wife of Leo IV., East Roman emperor.
+Originally a poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily
+gained the love and confidence of her feeble husband, and at his
+death in 780 was left by him sole guardian of the empire and of
+their ten-year-old son Constantine VI. Seizing the supreme
+power in the name of the latter, Irene ruled the empire at her
+own discretion for ten years, displaying great firmness and
+sagacity in her government. Her most notable act was the
+restoration of the orthodox image-worship, a policy which she
+always had secretly favoured, though compelled to abjure it
+in her husband&rsquo;s lifetime. Having elected Tarasius, one of her
+partisans, to the patriarchate (784), she summoned two church
+councils. The former of these, held in 786 at Constantinople,
+was frustrated by the opposition of the soldiers. The second,
+convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived the adoration of
+images and reunited the Eastern church with that of Rome.
+As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restive
+under her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force
+was met and crushed by the empress, who demanded that the
+oath of fidelity should thenceforward be taken in her name alone.
+The discontent which this occasioned swelled in 790 into open
+resistance, and the soldiers, headed by the Armenian guard,
+formally proclaimed Constantine VI. as the sole ruler. A hollow
+semblance of friendship was maintained between Constantine
+and Irene, whose title of empress was confirmed in 792; but
+the rival factions remained, and Irene, by skilful intrigues with
+the bishops and courtiers, organized a powerful conspiracy on
+her own behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces,
+but even there he was surrounded by participants in
+the plot. Seized by his attendants on the Asiatic shore of the
+Bosporus, the emperor was carried back to the palace at Constantinople;
+and there, by the orders of his mother, his eyes were
+stabbed out. An eclipse of the sun and a darkness of seventeen
+days&rsquo; duration were attributed by the common superstition to
+the horror of heaven. Irene reigned in prosperity and splendour
+for five years. She is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a
+marriage between herself and Charlemagne; but according to
+Theophanes, who alone mentions it, the scheme was frustrated
+by Aëtius, one of her favourites. A projected alliance between
+Constantine and Charlemagne&rsquo;s daughter, Rothrude, was in turn
+broken off by Irene. In 802 the patricians, upon whom she had
+lavished every honour and favour, conspired against her, and
+placed on the throne Nicephorus, the minister of finance. The
+haughty and unscrupulous princess, &ldquo;who never lost sight of
+political power in the height of her religious zeal,&rdquo; was exiled
+to Lesbos and forced to support herself by spinning. She
+died the following year. Her zeal in restoring images and
+monasteries has given her a place among the saints of the Greek
+church.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Gibbon, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (ed.
+J. Bury, London, 1896), vol. v.; G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (ed.
+1877, Oxford,) vol. ii.; F. C. Schlosser, <i>Geschichte der bilderstürmenden
+Kaiser des oströmischen Reiches</i> (Frankfort, 1812); J. D.
+Phoropoulos, <span class="grk" title="Eiręnę hę autokrateira Rhômaiôn">&#917;&#7984;&#961;&#942;&#957;&#951; &#7969; &#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#945; &#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span> (Leipzig, 1887); J. B.
+Bury, <i>The Later Roman Empire</i> (London, 1889), ii. 480-498; C. Diehl,
+<i>Figures byzantines</i> (Paris, 1906), pp. 77-109.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Irene</span> (<i>c.</i> 1066-<i>c.</i> 1120), the wife of Alexius I. The best-known
+fact of her life is the unsuccessful intrigue by which she
+endeavoured to divert the succession from her son John to
+Nicephorus Bryennius, the husband of her daughter Anna.
+Having failed to persuade Alexius, or, upon his death, to carry
+out a <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> with the help of the palace guards, she retired
+to a monastery and ended her life in obscurity.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Irene</span> (d. 1161), the first wife of Manuel Comnenus. She
+was the daughter of the count of Sulzbach, and sister-in-law
+of the Roman emperor Conrad II., who arranged her betrothal.
+The marriage was celebrated at Constantinople in 1146. The
+new empress, who had exchanged her earlier name of Bertha
+for one more familiar to the Greeks, became a devoted wife, and
+by the simplicity of her manner contrasted favourably with
+most Byzantine queens of the age.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>H. v. Kap-Herr, <i>Die abendländische Politik des Kaisers Manuel</i>
+(Strassburg, 1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRETON, HENRY<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1611-1651), English parliamentary general,
+eldest son of German Ireton of Attenborough, Nottinghamshire,
+was baptized on the 3rd of November 1611, became a gentleman
+commoner of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1626, graduated B.A.
+in 1629, and entered the Middle Temple the same year. On the
+outbreak of the Civil War he joined the parliamentary army,
+fought at Edgehill and at Gainsborough in July 1643, was made
+by Cromwell deputy-governor of the Isle of Ely, and next year
+served under Manchester in the Yorkshire campaign and at the
+second battle of Newbury, afterwards supporting Cromwell
+in his accusations of incompetency against the general. On the
+night before the battle of Naseby, in June 1645, he succeeded
+in surprising the Royalist army and captured many prisoners,
+and next day, on the suggestion of Cromwell, he was made
+commissary-general and appointed to the command of the left
+wing, Cromwell himself commanding the right. The wing under
+Ireton was completely broken by the impetuous charge of Rupert,
+and Ireton was wounded and taken prisoner, but after the rout
+of the enemy which ensued on the successful charge of Cromwell
+he regained his freedom. He was present at the siege of Bristol
+in the September following, and took an active part in the subsequent
+victorious campaign which resulted in the overthrow
+of the royal cause. On the 30th of October 1645 Ireton entered
+parliament as member for Appleby, and while occupied with
+the siege of Oxford he was, on the 15th of June 1646, married
+to Bridget, daughter of Oliver Cromwell. This union brought
+Ireton into still closer connexion with Cromwell, with whose
+career he was now more completely identified. But while
+Cromwell&rsquo;s policy was practically limited to making the best of
+the present situation, and was generally inclined to compromise,
+Ireton&rsquo;s attitude was based on well-grounded principles of
+statesmanship. He was opposed to the destructive schemes
+of the extreme party, disliked especially the abstract and unpractical
+theories of the Republicans and the Levellers, and
+desired, while modifying their mutual powers, to retain the
+constitution of King, Lords and Commons. He urged these
+views in the negotiations of the army with the parliament, and
+in the conferences with the king, being the person chiefly entrusted
+with the drawing up of the army proposals, including the manifesto
+called &ldquo;The Heads of the Proposals.&rdquo; He endeavoured
+to prevent the breach between the army and the parliament,
+but when the division became inevitable took the side of the
+former. He persevered in supporting the negotiations with the
+king till his action aroused great suspicion and unpopularity. He
+became at length convinced of the hopelessness of dealing with
+Charles, and after the king&rsquo;s flight to the Isle of Wight treated
+his further proposals with coldness and urged the parliament
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page793" id="page793"></a>793</span>
+to establish an administration without him. Ireton served
+under Fairfax in the second civil war in the campaigns in Kent
+and Essex, and was responsible for the executions of Lucas and
+Lisle at Colchester. After the rejection by the king of the last
+offers of the army, he showed special zeal in bringing about his
+trial, was one of the chief promoters of &ldquo;Pride&rsquo;s Purge,&rdquo; attended
+the court regularly, and signed the death-warrant. The regiment
+of Ireton having been chosen by lot to accompany Cromwell
+in his Irish campaign, Ireton was appointed major-general;
+and on the recall of his chief to take the command in Scotland,
+he remained with the title and powers of lord-deputy to complete
+Cromwell&rsquo;s work of reduction and replantation. This he proceeded
+to do with his usual energy, and as much by the severity
+of his methods of punishment as by his military skill was rapidly
+bringing his task to a close, when he died on the 26th of November
+1651 of fever after the capture of Limerick. His loss &ldquo;struck
+a great sadness into Cromwell,&rdquo; and perhaps there was no one
+of the parliamentary leaders who could have been less spared,
+for while he possessed very high abilities as a soldier, and great
+political penetration and insight, he resembled in stern unflinchingness
+of purpose the protector himself. By his wife,
+Bridget Cromwell, who married afterwards General Charles
+Fleetwood, Ireton left one son and three daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Article by C. H Firth in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> with
+authorities there quoted; Wood&rsquo;s <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> iii. 298, and <i>Fasti</i>, i.
+451; Cornelius Brown&rsquo;s <i>Lives of Notts Worthies</i>, 181; <i>Clarke Papers</i>
+published by Camden Society; Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>History of the Civil War
+and of the Commonwealth</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRIARTE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Yriarte</span>) <b>Y OROPESA, TOMÁS DE</b> (1750-1791),
+Spanish poet, was born on the 18th of September 1750,
+at Orotava in the island of Teneriffe, and received his literary
+education at Madrid under the care of his uncle, Juan de Iriarte,
+librarian to the king of Spain. In his eighteenth year the
+nephew began his literary career by translating French plays
+for the royal theatre, and in 1770, under the anagram of Tirso
+Imarete, he published an original comedy entitled <i>Hacer que
+hacemos</i>. In the following year he became official translator
+at the foreign office, and in 1776 keeper of the records in the
+war department. In 1780 appeared a dull didactic poem in
+<i>silvas</i> entitled <i>La Música</i>, which attracted some attention in
+Italy as well as at home. The <i>Fábulas literarias</i> (1781), with
+which his name is most intimately associated, are composed
+in a great variety of metres, and show considerable ingenuity
+in their humorous attacks on literary men and methods; but
+their merits have been greatly exaggerated. During his later
+years, partly in consequence of the <i>Fábulas</i>, Iriarte was absorbed
+in personal controversies, and in 1786 was reported to the Inquisition
+for his sympathies with the French philosophers. He died
+on the 17th of September 1791.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He is the subject of an exhaustive monograph (1897) by Emilio
+Cotarelo y Mori.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRIDACEAE<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (the iris family), in botany, a natural order of
+flowering plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class
+Monocotyledons, containing about 800 species in 57 genera,
+and widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions. The
+members of this order are generally perennial herbs growing
+from a corm as in <i>Crocus</i> and <i>Gladiolus</i>, or a rhizome as in <i>Iris</i>;
+more rarely, as in the Spanish iris, from a bulb. A few South
+African representatives have a shrubby habit. The flowers
+are hermaphrodite and regular as in <i>Iris</i> (fig. 1) and <i>Crocus</i>
+(fig. 3), or with a symmetry in the median plane as in <i>Gladiolus</i>.
+The petaloid perianth consists of two series, each with three
+members, which are joined below into a longer or shorter tube,
+followed by one whorl of three stamens; the inferior ovary
+is three-celled and contains numerous ovules on an axile placenta;
+the style is branched and the branches are often petaloid. The
+fruit (fig. 2) is a capsule opening between the partitions and
+containing generally a large number of roundish or angular
+seeds. The arrangement of the parts in the flower resembles
+that in the nearly allied order Amaryllidaceae (<i>Narcissus</i>,
+<i>Snowdrop</i>, &amp;c.), but differs in the absence of the inner whorl
+of stamens.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:482px; height:658px" src="images/img793a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Yellow Iris, <i>Iris Pseudacorus</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1. Flower, from which the outer
+petals and the stigmas have
+been removed, leaving the
+inner petals (<i>a</i>) and stamens.</p>
+
+<p>2. Pistil with petaloid stigmas.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>3. Fruit cut across showing the
+three chambers containing
+seeds.</p>
+
+<p>4. A seed. 1-4 about ˝ nat. size.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:153px; height:238px" src="images/img793b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Seed-vessel
+(capsule) of the
+Flower-de-Luce (<i>iris</i>),
+opening in a loculicidal
+manner. The
+three valves bear the
+septa in the centre and
+the opening takes
+place through the
+back of the chambers.
+Each valve is formed
+by the halves of contiguous
+carpels.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:312px; height:446px" src="images/img793c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;1. Crocus in flower, reduced.
+2. Flower dissected. <i>b</i>, <i>b</i>&prime;, Upper and
+lower membranous spathe-like bracts;
+<i>c</i>, Tube of perianth; <i>d</i>, Ovary; <i>e</i>, Style;
+<i>f</i>, Stigmas.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The most important genera are <i>Crocus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with about 70
+species, <i>Iris</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with about 100, and <i>Gladiolus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), with
+150. <i>Ixia</i>, <i>Freesia</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) and <i>Tritonia</i> (including <i>Montbretia</i>),
+all natives of South Africa, are well known in cultivation.
+<i>Sisyrinchium</i>, blue-eyed grass, is a new-world genus extending
+from arctic America to Patagonia and the Falkland Isles. One
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page794" id="page794"></a>794</span>
+species, <i>S. angustifolium</i>, an arctic and temperate North American
+species, is also native in Galway and Kerry in Ireland. Other
+British representatives of the order are: <i>Iris Pseudacorus</i>,
+(yellow iris), common by river-banks and ditches, <i>I. foetidissima</i>
+(stinking iris), <i>Gladiolus communis</i>, a rare plant found in the
+New Forest and the Isle of Wight, and <i>Romulea Columnae</i>, a
+small plant with narrow recurved leaves a few inches long and
+a short scape bearing one or more small regular funnel-shaped
+flowers, which occurs at Dawlish in Devonshire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRIDIUM<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (symbol Ir.; atomic weight 193.1), one of the metals
+of the platinum group, discovered in 1802 by Smithson Tennant
+during the examination of the residue left when platinum ores
+are dissolved in <i>aqua regia</i>; the element occurs in platinum
+ores in the form of alloys of platinum and iridium, and of osmium
+and iridium. Many methods have been devised for the separation
+of these metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Platinum</a></span>), one of the best being that
+of H. St. C Deville and H. J. Debray (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1874,
+78, p. 1502). In this process the osmiridium is fused with zinc
+and the excess of zinc evaporated; the residue is then ignited
+with barium nitrate, extracted with water and boiled with nitric
+acid. The iridium is then precipitated from the solution (as
+oxide) by the addition of baryta, dissolved in <i>aqua regia</i>, and
+precipitated as iridium ammonium chloride by the addition of
+ammonium chloride. The double chloride is fused with nitre,
+the melt extracted with water and the residue fused with lead,
+the excess of lead being finally removed by solution in nitric
+acid and <i>aqua regia</i>. It is a brittle metal of specific gravity
+22.4 (Deville and Debray), and is only fusible with great difficulty.
+It may be obtained in the spongy form by igniting iridium
+ammonium chloride, and this variety of the metal readily
+oxidizes when heated in air.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Two oxides of iridium are known, namely the <i>sesquioxide</i>, Ir<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>,
+and the <i>dioxide</i>, IrO<span class="su">2</span>, corresponding to which there are two series of
+salts, the sesqui-salts and the iridic salts; a third series of salts is also
+known (the iridious salts) derived from an oxide IrO. <i>Iridium
+sesquioxide</i>, Ir<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained when potassium iridium chloride is
+heated with sodium or potassium carbonates, in a stream of carbon
+dioxide. It is a bluish-black powder which at high temperatures
+decomposes into the metal, dioxide and oxygen. The hydroxide,
+Ir(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, may be obtained by the addition of caustic potash to
+iridium sodium chloride, the mixture being then heated with alcohol.
+<i>Iridium dioxide</i>, IrO<span class="su">2</span>, may be obtained as small needles by heating the
+metal to bright redness in a current of oxygen (G. Geisenheimer,
+<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1890, 110, p. 855). The corresponding hydroxide,
+Ir(OH)<span class="su">4</span>, is formed when potassium iridate is boiled with ammonium
+chloride, or when the tetrachloride is boiled with caustic potash or
+sodium carbonate. It is an indigo-blue powder, soluble in hydrochloric
+acid, but insoluble in dilute nitric and sulphuric acids.
+On the oxides see L. Wöhler and W. Witzmann, <i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>
+(1908), 57, p. 323. <i>Iridium sesquichloride</i>, IrCl<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained when
+one of the corresponding double chlorides is heated with concentrated
+sulphuric acid, the mixture being then thrown into water. It is thus
+obtained as an olive green precipitate which is insoluble in acids and
+alkalis. <i>Potassium iridium sesquichloride</i>, K<span class="su">3</span>IrCl<span class="su">6</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained
+by passing sulphur dioxide into a suspension of potassium chloriridate
+in water until all dissolves, and then adding potassium carbonate to
+the solution (C. Claus, <i>Jour. prak. Chem.</i>, 1847, 42, p. 351). It forms
+green prisms which are readily soluble in water. Similar sodium and
+ammonium compounds are known. <i>Iridium tetrachloride</i>, IrCl<span class="su">4</span>, is
+obtained by dissolving the finely divided metal in <i>aqua regia</i>; by
+dissolving the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid; and by digesting the
+hydrated sesquichloride with nitric acid. On evaporating the
+solution (not above 40° C.) a dark mass is obtained, which contains
+a little sesquichloride. It forms double chlorides with the alkaline
+chlorides. For a bromide see A. Gautbier and M. Riess, <i>Ber.</i>, 1909,
+42, p. 3905. <i>Iridium sulphide</i>, IrS, is obtained when the metal is
+ignited in sulphur vapour. The <i>sesquisulphide</i>, Ir<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained as a
+brown precipitate when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into a solution
+of one of the sesqui-salts. It is slightly soluble in potassium
+sulphide. The <i>disulphide</i>, IrS<span class="su">2</span>, is formed when powdered iridium is
+heated with sulphur and an alkaline carbonate. It is a dark brown
+powder. Iridium forms many ammine derivatives, which are analogous
+to the corresponding platinum compounds (see M. Skoblikoff,
+<i>Jahresb.</i>, 1852, p. 428; W. Palmer, <i>Ber.</i>, 1889, 22, p. 15; 1890, 23,
+p. 3810; 1891, 24, p. 2090; <i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>, 1896, 13, p. 211).</p>
+
+<p>Iridium is always determined quantitatively by conversion into
+the metallic state. The atomic weight of the element has been
+determined in various ways, C. Seubert (<i>Ber.</i>, 1878, 11, p. 1770), by the
+analysis of potassium chloriridate obtaining the value 192.74, and A.
+Joly (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1890, 110, p. 1131) from analyses of potassium
+and ammonium chloriridites, the value 191.78 (O = 15.88).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRIGA,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon,
+Philippine Islands, on the Bicol river, about 20 m. S.E. of Nueva
+Cáceres and near the S.W. base of Mt. Iriga, a volcanic peak
+reaching a height of 4092 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1903) 19,297.
+Iriga has a temperate climate. The soil in its vicinity is rich,
+producing rice, Indian corn, sugar, pepper, cacao, cotton, abacá,
+tobacco and copra. The neighbouring forests furnish ebony,
+molave, tindalo and other very valuable hardwoods. The
+language is Bicol.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRIS,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> in Greek mythology, daughter of Thaumas and the
+Ocean nymph Electra (according to Hesiod), the personification
+of the rainbow and messenger of the gods. As the rainbow
+unites earth and heaven, Iris is the messenger of the gods to men;
+in this capacity she is mentioned frequently in the <i>Iliad</i>, but never
+in the <i>Odyssey</i>, where Hermes takes her place. She is represented
+as a youthful virgin, with wings of gold, who hurries with the
+swiftness of the wind from one end of the world to the other,
+into the depths of the sea and the underworld. She is especially
+the messenger of Zeus and Hera, and is associated with Hermes,
+whose caduceus or staff she often holds. By command of Zeus
+she carries in a ewer water from the Styx, with which she puts
+to sleep all who perjure themselves. Her attributes are the
+caduceus and a vase.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRIS,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> in botany. The iris flower belongs to the natural order
+Iridaceae of the class Monocotyledons, which is characterized
+by a petaloid six-parted perianth, an inferior ovary and only
+three stamens (the outer series), being thus distinguished from
+the Amaryllidaceae family, which has six stamens. They are
+handsome showy-flowered plants, the Greek name having been
+applied on account of the hues of the flowers. The genus contains
+about 170 species widely distributed throughout the north
+temperate zone. Two of the species are British. <i>I. Pseudacorus</i>,
+the yellow flag or iris, is common in Britain on river-banks,
+and in marshes and ditches. It is called the &ldquo;water-flag&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;bastard floure de-luce&rdquo; by Gerard, who remarks that
+&ldquo;although it be a water plant of nature, yet being planted in
+gardens it prospereth well.&rdquo; Its flowers appear in June and July,
+and are of a golden-yellow colour. The leaves are from 2 to 4 ft.
+long, and half an inch to an inch broad. Towards the latter part
+of the year they are eaten by cattle. The seeds are numerous
+and pale-brown; they have been recommended when roasted as
+a substitute for coffee, of which, however, they have not the
+properties. The astringent rhizome has diuretic, purgative
+and emetic properties, and may, it is said, be used for dyeing
+black, and in the place of galls for ink-making. The other
+British species, <i>I. foetidissima</i>, the fetid iris, gladdon or roast-beef
+plant, the <i>Xyris</i> or stinking gladdon of Gerard, is a native
+of England south of Durham, and also of Ireland, southern
+Europe and North Africa. Its flowers are usually of a dull,
+leaden-blue colour; the capsules, which remain attached to
+the plant throughout the winter, are 2 to 3 in. long; and the
+seeds scarlet. When bruised this species emits a peculiar and
+disagreeable odour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iris florentina</i>, with white or pale-blue flowers, is a native of
+the south of Europe, and is the source of the violet-scented
+orris root used in perfumery. <i>Iris versicolor</i>, or blue flag, is
+indigenous to North America, and yields &ldquo;iridin,&rdquo; a powerful
+hepatic stimulant. <i>Iris germanica</i> of central Europe, &ldquo;the
+most common purple Fleur de Luce&rdquo; of Ray, is the large common
+blue iris of gardens, the bearded iris or fleur de luce and probably
+the Illyrian iris of the ancients. From the flowers of <i>Iris florentina</i>
+a pigment&mdash;the &ldquo;verdelis,&rdquo; &ldquo;vert d&rsquo;iris,&rdquo; or iris-green,
+formerly used by miniature painters&mdash;was prepared by maceration,
+the fluid being left to putrefy, when chalk or alum was added.
+The garden plants known as the Spanish iris and the English
+iris are both of Spanish origin, and have very showy flowers.
+Along with some other species, as <i>I. reticulata</i> and <i>I. persica</i>,
+both of which are fragrant, they form great favourites with
+florists. All these just mentioned differ from those formerly
+named in the nature of the underground stem, which forms
+a bulb and not a strict creeping rhizome as in <i>I. Pseudacorus</i>,
+<i>germanica</i>, <i>florentina</i>, &amp;c. Some botanists separate these bulbous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page795" id="page795"></a>795</span>
+irises from the genus <i>Iris</i>, and place them apart in the genus
+<i>Xiphium</i>, the Spanish iris, including about 30 species, all from
+the Mediterranean region and the East.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:167px; height:323px" src="images/img795a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:118px; height:121px" src="images/img795b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Gynoecium
+of Iris, consisting of an
+inferior ovary <i>o</i>, and a
+style, with three petaloid
+segments <i>s</i>, bearing
+stigmas <i>st</i>.</td>
+<td class="tcl f90" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram
+of Trimerous Symmetrical
+Flower of
+Iris, with two whorls
+of perianth, three
+stamens in one whorl
+and an ovary formed
+of three carpels. The
+three dots indicate
+the position of an
+inner whorl of
+stamens which is
+present in the allied
+families Amaryllidaceae
+and Liliaceae
+but absent in Iridaceae.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The iris flower is of special interest as an example of the relation
+between the shape of the flower and the position of the
+pollen-receiving
+and stigmatic
+surfaces on the
+one hand and the
+visits of insects on
+the other. The large
+outer petals form a
+landing-stage for a
+flying insect which in
+probing the perianth-tube
+for honey will
+first come in contact
+with the stigmatic
+surface which is borne
+on the outer face of
+a shelf-like transverse
+projection on the
+under side of the
+petaloid style-arm.
+The anther, which
+opens towards the
+outside, is sheltered
+beneath the over-arching style arm below
+the stigma, so that the insect comes in contact with its
+pollen-covered surface only after passing the stigma, while in
+backing out of the flower it will come in contact only with
+the non-receptive lower face of the stigma. Thus an insect
+bearing pollen from one flower will in entering a second deposit
+the pollen on the stigma, while in backing out of a flower
+the pollen which it bears will not be rubbed off on the stigma
+of the same flower.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The hardier bulbous irises, including the Spanish iris (<i>I. Xiphium</i>)
+and the English iris (<i>I. xiphioides</i>, so called, which is also of Spanish
+origin), require to be planted in thoroughly drained beds in very light
+open soil, moderately enriched, and should have a rather sheltered
+position. Both these present a long series of beautiful varieties of
+the most diverse colours, flowering in May, June and July, the
+smaller Spanish iris being the earlier of the two. There are many
+other smaller species of bulbous iris. Being liable to perish from
+excess of moisture, they should have a well-drained bed of good but
+porous soil made up for them, in some sunny spot, and in winter
+should be protected by a 6-in. covering of half-decayed leaves or
+fresh coco-fibre refuse. To this set belong <i>I. persica</i>, <i>reticulata</i>,
+<i>filifolia</i>, <i>Histrio</i>, <i>juncea</i>, <i>Danfordiae</i> <i>Rosenbachiana</i> and others which
+flower as early as February and March.</p>
+
+<p>The flag irises are for the most part of the easiest culture; they
+grow in any good free garden soil, the smaller and more delicate
+species only needing the aid of turfy ingredients, either peaty or
+loamy, to keep it light and open in texture. The earliest to bloom
+are the dwarf forms of <i>Iris pumila</i>, which blossom during March,
+April and May; and during the latter month and the following one
+most of the larger growing species, such as <i>I. germanica</i>, <i>florentina</i>,
+<i>pallida</i>, <i>variegata</i>, <i>amoena</i>, <i>flavescens</i>, <i>sambucina</i>, <i>neglecta</i>, <i>ruthenica</i>,
+&amp;c., produce their gorgeous flowers. Of many of the foregoing there
+are, besides the typical form, a considerable number of named garden
+varieties. <i>Iris unguicularis</i> (or <i>stylosa</i>) is a remarkable winter
+flowering species from Algeria, with sky-blue flowers blotched with
+yellow, produced at irregular intervals from November to March,
+the bleakest period of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful Japanese <i>Iris Kaempferi</i> (or <i>I. laevigata</i>) is of comparatively
+modern introduction, and though of a distinct type is
+equally beautiful with the better-known species. The outer segments
+are rather spreading than deflexed, forming an almost circular flower,
+which becomes quite so in some of the very remarkable duplex
+varieties, in which six of these broad segments are produced instead
+of three. Of this too there are numberless varieties cultivated under
+names. They require a sandy peat soil on a cool moist subsoil.</p>
+
+<p>What are known as <i>Oncocyclus</i>, or cushion irises, constitute a
+magnificent group of plants remarkable for their large, showy and
+beautifully marked flowers. Compared with other irises the
+&ldquo;cushion&rdquo; varieties are scantily furnished with narrow sickle-shaped
+leaves and the blossoms are usually borne singly on the
+stalks. The best-known kinds are <i>atrofusca</i>, <i>Barnumae</i>, <i>Bismarckiana</i>,
+<i>Gatesi</i>, <i>Heylandiana</i>, <i>iberica</i>, <i>Lorteti</i>, <i>Haynei</i>, <i>lupina</i>, <i>Mariae</i>, <i>meda</i>,
+<i>paradoxa</i>, <i>sari</i>, <i>sofarana</i> and <i>susiana</i>&mdash;the last-named being
+popularly called the &ldquo;mourning&rdquo; iris owing to the dark silvery
+appearance of its huge flowers. All these cushion irises are somewhat
+fastidious growers, and to be successful with them they must be
+planted rather shallow in very gritty well-drained soil. They should
+not be disturbed in the autumn, and after the leaves have withered
+the roots should be protected from heavy rains until growth starts
+again naturally.</p>
+
+<p>A closely allied group to the cushion irises are those known as
+<i>Regelia</i>, of which <i>Korolkowi</i>, <i>Leichtlini</i> and <i>vaga</i> are the best known.
+Some magnificent hybrids have been raised between these two groups,
+and a hardier and more easily grown race of garden irises has been
+produced under the name of <i>Regelio-Cyclus</i>. They are best planted
+in September or October in warm sunny positions, the rhizomes being
+lifted the following July after the leaves have withered.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRISH MOSS,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Carrageen</span> (Irish <i>carraigeen</i>, &ldquo;moss of the
+rock&rdquo;), a sea-weed (<i>Chondrus crispus</i>) which grows abundantly
+along the rocky parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North
+America. In its fresh condition the plant is soft and cartilaginous,
+varying in colour from a greenish-yellow to a dark purple or
+purplish-brown; but when washed and sun-dried for preservation
+it has a yellowish translucent horn-like aspect and consistency.
+The principal constituent of Irish moss is a mucilaginous
+body, of which it contains about 55%; and with that it has
+nearly 10% of albuminoids and about 15% of mineral matter
+rich in iodine and sulphur. When softened in water it has a
+sea-like odour, and from the abundance of its mucilage it will
+form a jelly on boiling with from 20 to 30 times its weight of
+water. The jelly of Irish moss is used as an occasional article
+of food. It may also be used as a thickener in calico-printing
+and for fining beer. Irish moss is frequently mixed with <i>Gigartina
+mammillosa</i>, <i>G. acicularis</i> and other sea-weeds with which it is
+associated in growth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRKUTSK,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a government of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia,
+bounded on the W. by the government of Yeniseisk, on the
+N. by Yakutsk, on the E. by Lake Baikal and Transbaikalia
+and on the S. and S.W. by Mongolia; area, 287,061 sq. m.
+The most populous region is a belt of plains 1200 to 2000 ft. in
+altitude, which stretch north-west to south-east, having the
+Sayan mountains on the south and the Baikal mountains on the
+north, and narrowing as it approaches the town of Irkutsk. The
+high road, now the Trans-Siberian railway, follows this belt.
+The south-western part of the government is occupied by
+mountains of the Sayan system, whose exact orography is as
+yet not well known. From the high plateau of Mongolia, fringed
+by the Sayan mountains, of which the culminating point is the
+snow-clad Munko-sardyk (11,150 ft.), a number of ranges,
+7500 to 8500 ft. high, strike off in a north-east direction. Going
+from south to north they are distinguished as the Tunka Alps,
+the Kitoi Alps (both snow-clad nearly all the year round), the
+Ida mountains and the Kuitun mountains. These are, however,
+by no means regular chains, but on the contrary are a complex
+result of upheavals which took place at different geological
+epochs, and of denudation on a colossal scale. A beautiful,
+fertile valley, drained by the river Irkut, stretches between the
+Tunka Alps and the Sayan, and another somewhat higher plain,
+but not so wide, stretches along the river Kitoi. A succession
+of high plains, 2000 to 2500 ft. in altitude, formed of horizontal
+beds of Devonian (or Upper Silurian) sandstone and limestone,
+extends to the north of the railway along the Angara, or Verkhnyaya
+(<i>i.e.</i> upper) Tunguzka, and the upper Lena, as far as
+Kirensk. The Bratskaya Steppe, west of the Angara, is a
+prairie peopled by Buriats. A mountain region, usually described
+as the Baikal range, but consisting in reality of several
+ranges running north-eastwards, across Lake Baikal, and
+scooped out to form the depression occupied by the lake, is
+fringed on its north-western slope by horizontal beds of sandstone
+and limestone. Farther north-east the space between the Lena
+and the Vitim is occupied by another mountain region belonging
+to the Olekma and Vitim system, composed of several parallel
+mountain chains running north-eastwards (across the lower
+Vitim), and auriferous in the drainage area of the Mama (N.E.
+of Lake Baikal). Lake Baikal separates Irkutsk from Transbaikalia.
+The principal rivers of the government are the Angara,
+which flows from this lake northwards, with numerous sharp
+windings, and receives from the left several large tributaries.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page796" id="page796"></a>796</span>
+as the Irkut, Kitoi, Byelaya, Oka and Iya. The Lena is the
+principal means of communication both with the gold-mines
+on its own tributary, the lower Vitim, and with the province of
+Yakutsk. The Nizhnyaya Tunguzka flows northwards, to
+join the Yenisei in the far north, and the mountain streams
+tributary to the Vitim drain the north-east.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The post-Tertiary formations are represented by glacial deposits in
+the highlands and loess on their borders. Jurassic deposits are
+met with in a zone running north-westwards from Lake Baikal to
+Nizhne-udinsk. The remainder of this region is covered by vast
+series of Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian deposits&mdash;the first
+two but slightly disturbed over wide areas. All the highlands are
+built up of older, semi-crystalline Cambro-Silurian strata, which
+attain a thickness of 2500 ft., and of crystalline slates and limestones
+of the Laurentian system, with granites, syenites, diorites and
+diabases protruding from beneath them. Very extensive beds of
+basaltic lavas and other volcanic deposits are spread along the
+border ridge of the high plateau, about Munko-sardyk, up the Irkut,
+and on the upper Oka, where cones of extinct volcanoes are found
+(Jun-bulak). Earthquakes are frequent in the neighbourhood of
+Lake Baikal and the surrounding region. Gold is extracted in the
+Nizhne-udinsk district; graphite is found on the Botu-gol and Alibert
+mountains (abandoned many years since) and on the Olkhon island
+of Lake Baikal. Brown coal (Jurassic) is found in many places, and
+coal on the Oka. The salt springs of Usoliye (45 m. west of Irkutsk),
+as also those on the Ilim and of Ust-Kutsk (on the Lena), yield
+annually about 7000 tons of salt. Fireclay, grindstones, marble and
+mica, lapis-lazuli, granites and various semi-precious stones occur on
+the Sludyanka (south-west corner of the Baikal).</p>
+
+<p>The climate is severe; the mean temperatures being at Irkutsk
+(1520 ft), for the year 31° Fahr., for January &minus;6°, for July 65°; at
+Shimki (valley of the Irkut, 2620 ft.), for the year 24°, for January
+&minus;17°, for July 63°. The average rainfall is 15 in. a year. Virgin
+forests cover all the highlands up to 6500 ft.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The population which was 383,578 in 1879, was 515,132 in
+1897, of whom 238,997 were women and 60,396 were urban;
+except about 109,000 Buriats and 1700 Tunguses, they are
+Russians. The estimated population in 1906 was 552,700.
+Immigration contributes about 14,000 every year. Schools
+are numerous at Irkutsk, but quite insufficient in the country
+districts, and only 12% of the children receive education.
+The soil is very fertile in certain parts, but meagre elsewhere,
+and less than a million acres are under crops (rye, wheat, barley,
+oats, buckwheat, potatoes). Grain has to be imported from
+West Siberia and cattle from Transbaikalia. Fisheries on
+Lake Baikal supply every year about 2,400,000 Baikal herring
+(<i>omul</i>). Industry is only beginning to be developed (iron-works,
+glass- and pottery-works and distilleries, and all manufactured
+goods are imported from Russia). The government is divided
+into five districts, the chief towns of which are Irkutsk (<i>q.v.</i>),
+Balagansk (pop., 1313 in 1897), Kirensk (2253), Nizhne-udinsk
+and Verkholensk.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRKUTSK,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the chief town of the above government, is the
+most important place in Siberia, being not only the largest
+centre of population and the principal commercial depot north
+of Tashkent, but a fortified military post, an archbishopric
+of the Orthodox Greek Church and the seat of several learned
+societies. It is situated in 52° 17&prime; N. and 104° 16&prime; E., 3792 m.
+by rail from St Petersburg. Pop. (1875) 32,512, (1900) 49,106.
+The town proper lies on the right bank of the Angara, a tributary
+of the Yenisei, 45 m. below its outflow from Lake Baikal, and on
+the opposite bank is the Glaskovsk suburb. The river, which
+has a breadth of 1900 ft., is crossed by a flying bridge. The
+Irkut, from which the town takes its name, is a small river which
+joins the Angara directly opposite the town, the main portion
+of which is separated from the monastery, the castle, the port
+and the suburbs by another confluent, the Ida or Ushakovka.
+Irkutsk has long been reputed a remarkably fine city&mdash;its streets
+being straight, broad, well paved and well lighted; but in 1879,
+on the 4th and 6th of July, the palace of the (then) governor-general,
+the principal administrative and municipal offices and
+many of the other public buildings were destroyed by fire;
+and the government archives, the library and museum of the
+Siberian section of the Russian Geographical Society were
+utterly ruined. A cathedral (built of wood in 1693 and rebuilt
+of stone in 1718), the governor&rsquo;s palace, a school of medicine, a
+museum, a military hospital, and the crown factories are among
+the public institutions and buildings. An important fair is
+held in December. Irkutsk grew out of the winter-quarters
+established (1652) by Ivan Pokhabov for the collection of the fur
+tax from the Buriats. Its existence as a town dates from 1686.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRMIN,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Irminus</span>, in Teutonic mythology, a deified eponymic
+hero of the Herminones. The chief seat of his worship was
+Irminsal, or Ermensul, in Westphalia, destroyed in 772 by
+Charlemagne. Huge wooden posts (Irmin pillars) were raised to
+his honour, and were regarded as sacred by the Saxons.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRNERIUS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Hirnerius, Hyrnerius, Iernerius, Gernerius,
+Guarnerius, Warnerius, Wernerius, Yrnerius), Italian jurist,
+sometimes referred to as &ldquo;lucerna juris.&rdquo; He taught the &ldquo;free
+arts&rdquo; at Bologna, his native city, during the earlier decades
+of the 12th century. Of his personal history nothing is known,
+except that it was at the instance of the countess Matilda,
+Hildebrand&rsquo;s friend, who died in 1115, that he directed his
+attention and that of his students to the <i>Institutes</i> and <i>Code</i>
+of Justinian; that after 1116 he appears to have held some
+office under the emperor Henry V.; and that he died, perhaps
+during the reign of the emperor Lothair II., but certainly before
+1140. He was the first of the Glossators (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gloss</a></span>), and
+according to ancient opinion (which, however, has been much
+controverted) was the author of the epitome of the <i>Novellae</i>
+of Justinian, called the <i>Authentica</i>, arranged according to the
+titles of the <i>Code</i>. His <i>Formularium tabellionum</i> (a directory
+for notaries) and <i>Quaestiones</i> (a book of decisions) are no longer
+extant. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Savigny, <i>Gesch. d. röm. Rechts im Mittelalter</i>, iii. 83; Vecchio,
+<i>Notizie di Irnerio e della sua scuola</i> (Pisa, 1869); Ficker, <i>Forsch, z.
+Reichs- u. Rechtsgesch. Italiens</i>, vol. iii. (Innsbruck, 1870); and
+Fitting, <i>Die Anfänge der Rechtsschule zu Bologna</i> (Berlin, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRON<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (O = 16)], a metallic
+chemical element. Although iron occurs only sparingly in the
+free state, the abundance of ores from which it may be readily
+obtained led to its application in the arts at a very remote period.
+It is generally agreed, however, that the Iron Age, the period
+of civilization during which this metal played an all-important
+part, succeeded the ages of copper and bronze, notwithstanding
+the fact that the extraction of these metals required greater
+metallurgical skill. The Assyrians and Egyptians made considerable
+use of the metal; and in Genesis iv. 22 mention
+is made of Tubal-cain as the instructor of workers in iron and
+copper. The earlier sources of the ores appear to have been
+in India; the Greeks, however, obtained it from the Chalybes,
+who dwelt on the south coast of the Black Sea; and the Romans,
+besides drawing from these deposits, also exploited Spain,
+Elba and the province of Noricum. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metal-work</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The chief occurrences of metallic iron are as minute spiculae
+disseminated through basaltic rocks, as at Giant&rsquo;s Causeway
+and in the Auvergne, and, more particularly, in meteorites (<i>q.v.</i>).
+In combination it occurs, usually in small quantity, in most
+natural waters, in plants, and as a necessary constituent of blood.
+The economic sources are treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span> below;
+in the same place will be found accounts of the manufacture,
+properties, and uses of the metal, the present article being
+confined to its chemistry. The principal iron ores are the
+oxides and carbonates, and these readily yield the metal by
+smelting with carbon. The metal so obtained invariably contains
+a certain amount of carbon, free or combined, and the proportion
+and condition regulate the properties of the metal, giving
+origin to the three important varieties: cast iron, steel, wrought
+iron. The perfectly pure metal may be prepared by heating
+the oxide or oxalate in a current of hydrogen; when obtained
+at a low temperature it is a black powder which oxidizes in air
+with incandescence; produced at higher temperatures the
+metal is not pyrophoric. Péligot obtained it as minute tetragonal
+octahedra and cubes by reducing ferrous chloride in hydrogen.
+It may be obtained electrolytically from solutions of ferrous
+and magnesium sulphates and sodium bicarbonate, a wrought
+iron anode and a rotating cathode of copper, thinly silvered and
+iodized, being employed (S. Maximowitsch, <i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>,
+1905, 11, p. 52).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page797" id="page797"></a>797</span></p>
+
+<p>In bulk, the metal has a silvery white lustre and takes a
+high polish. Its specific gravity is 7.84; and the average
+specific heat over the range 15°-100° is 0.10983; this value
+increases with temperature to 850°, and then begins to diminish.
+It is the most tenacious of all the ductile metals at ordinary
+temperatures with the exception of cobalt and nickel; it becomes
+brittle, however, at the temperature of liquid air. It softens
+at a red heat, and may be readily welded at a white heat;
+above this point it becomes brittle. It fuses at about 1550°-1600°,
+and may be distilled in the electric furnace (H. Moissan,
+<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1906, 142, p. 425). It is attracted by a magnet
+and may be magnetized, but the magnetization is quickly
+lost. The variation of physical properties which attends iron
+on heating has led to the view that the metal exists in allotropic
+forms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span>, below).</p>
+
+<p>Iron is very reactive chemically. Exposed to atmospheric
+influences it is more or less rapidly corroded, giving the familiar
+rust (<i>q.v.</i>). S. Burnie (<i>Abst. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, ii. p. 469) has shown
+that water is decomposed at all temperatures from 0° to 100°
+by the finely divided metal with liberation of hydrogen, the
+action being accelerated when oxides are present. The decomposition
+of steam by passing it through a red-hot gun-barrel,
+resulting in the liberation of hydrogen and the production
+of magnetic iron oxide, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, is a familiar laboratory method
+for preparing hydrogen (<i>q.v.</i>). When strongly heated iron
+inflames in oxygen and in sulphur vapour; it also combines
+directly with the halogens. It dissolves in most dilute acids
+with liberation of hydrogen; the reaction between sulphuric
+acid and iron turnings being used for the commercial manufacture
+of this gas. It dissolves in dilute cold nitric acid with
+the formation of ferrous and ammonium nitrates, no gases
+being liberated; when heated or with stronger acid ferric
+nitrate is formed with evolution of nitrogen oxides.</p>
+
+<p>It was observed by James Keir (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1790, p. 359)
+that iron, after having been immersed in strong nitric acid,
+is insoluble in acids, neither does it precipitate metals from
+solutions. This &ldquo;passivity&rdquo; may be brought about by immersion
+in other solutions, especially by those containing such
+oxidizing anions as NO&prime;<span class="su">3</span>, ClO&prime;<span class="su">3</span>, less strongly by the anions
+SO&Prime;<span class="su">4</span> CN&prime;, CNS&prime;, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">3</span>O&prime;<span class="su">2</span>, OH&prime;, while Cl&prime;, Br&prime; practically inhibit
+passivity; H&prime; is the only cation which has any effect, and this
+tends to exclude passivity. It is also occasioned by anodic
+polarization of iron in sulphuric acid. Other metals may
+be rendered passive; for example, zinc does not precipitate
+copper from solutions of the double cyanides and sulphocyanides,
+nickel and cadmium from the nitrates, and iron from the sulphate,
+but it immediately throws down nickel and cadmium from
+the sulphates and chlorides, and lead and copper from the
+nitrates (see O. Sackur, <i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>, 1904, 10, p. 841).
+Anodic polarization in potassium chloride solution renders
+molybdenum, niobium, ruthenium, tungsten, and vanadium
+passive (W. Muthmann and F. Frauenberger, <i>Sitz. Bayer.
+Akad. Wiss.</i>, 1904, 34, p. 201), and also gold in commercial
+potassium cyanide solution (A. Coehn and C. L. Jacobsen,
+<i>Abs. J.C.S.</i>, 1907, ii. p. 926). Several hypotheses have been
+promoted to explain this behaviour, and, although the question
+is not definitely settled, the more probable view is that it is
+caused by the formation of a film of an oxide, a suggestion made
+many years ago by Faraday (see P. Krassa, <i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>,
+1909, 15, p. 490). Fredenhagen (<i>Zeit. physik. Chem.</i>, 1903,
+43, p. 1), on the other hand, regarded it as due to surface films
+of a gas; submitting that the difference between iron made
+passive by nitric acid and by anodic polarization was explained
+by the film being of nitrogen oxides in the first case and of
+oxygen in the second case. H. L. Heathcote and others regard
+the passivity as invariably due to electrolytic action (see papers
+in the <i>Zeit. physik. Chem.</i>, 1901 et seq.).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Compounds of Iron.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Oxides and Hydroxides.</i>&mdash;Iron forms three oxides: ferrous
+oxide, FeO, ferric oxide, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, and ferroso-ferric oxide, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>.
+The first two give origin to well-defined series of salts, the ferrous
+salts, wherein the metal is divalent, and the ferric salts, wherein
+the metal is trivalent; the former readily pass into the latter on
+oxidation, and the latter into the former on reduction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ferrous oxide</i> is obtained when ferric oxide is reduced in
+hydrogen at 300° as a black pyrophoric powder. Sabatier and
+Senderens (<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1892, 114, p. 1429) obtained it by
+acting with nitrous oxide on metallic iron at 200°, and Tissandier
+by heating the metal to 900° in carbon dioxide; Donau (<i>Monats.</i>,
+1904, 25, p. 181), on the other hand, obtained a magnetic and
+crystalline-ferroso-ferric oxide at 1200°. It may also be prepared
+as a black velvety powder which readily takes up oxygen from
+the air by adding ferrous oxalate to boiling caustic potash.
+Ferrous hydrate, Fe(OH)<span class="su">2</span>, when prepared from a pure ferrous
+salt and caustic soda or potash free from air, is a white powder
+which may be preserved in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Usually,
+however, it forms a greenish mass, owing to partial oxidation.
+It oxidizes on exposure with considerable evolution of heat;
+it rapidly absorbs carbon dioxide; and readily dissolves in acids
+to form ferrous salts, which are usually white when anhydrous,
+but greenish when hydrated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ferric oxide</i> or iron sesquioxide, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, constitutes the valuable
+ores red haematite and specular iron; the minerals brown
+haematite or limonite, and göthite and also iron rust are hydrated
+forms. It is obtained as a steel-grey crystalline powder by
+igniting the oxide or any ferric salt containing a volatile acid.
+Small crystals are formed by passing ferric chloride vapour over
+heated lime. When finely ground these crystals yield a brownish
+red powder which dissolves slowly in acids, the most effective
+solvent being a boiling mixture of 8 parts of sulphuric acid and
+3 of water. Ferric oxide is employed as a pigment, as jeweller&rsquo;s
+rouge, and for polishing metals. It forms several hydrates, the
+medicinal value of which was recognized in very remote times.
+Two series of synthetic hydrates were recognized by Muck and
+Tommasi: the &ldquo;red&rdquo; hydrates, obtained by precipitating ferric
+salts with alkalis, and the &ldquo;yellow&rdquo; hydrates, obtained by
+oxidizing moist ferrous hydroxide or carbonates. J. van Bemmelen
+has shown that the red hydrates are really colloids, the
+amount of water retained being such that its vapour pressure
+equals the pressure of the aqueous vapour in the superincumbent
+atmosphere. By heating freshly prepared red ferric hydrate
+with water under 5000 atmospheres pressure Ruff (<i>Ber.</i>, 1901,
+34, p. 3417) obtained definite hydrates corresponding to the
+minerals limonite (30°-42.5°), göthite (42.5°-62.5°), and
+hydrohaematite (above 62.5°). Thomas Graham obtained a
+soluble hydrate by dissolving the freshly prepared hydrate in
+ferric chloride and dialysing the solution, the soluble hydrate
+being left in the dialyser. All the chlorine, however, does not
+appear to be removed by this process, the residue having the
+composition 82Fe(OH)<span class="su">3</span>·FeCl<span class="su">3</span>; but it may be by electrolysing
+in a porous cell (Tribot and Chrétien, <i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1905, 140,
+p. 144). On standing, the solution usually gelatinizes, a process
+accelerated by the addition of an electrolyte. It is employed in
+medicine under the name <i>Liquor ferri dialysati</i>. The so-called
+soluble meta-ferric hydroxide, FeO(OH)(?), discovered by Péan
+de St Gilles in 1856, may be obtained by several methods. By
+heating solutions of certain iron salts for some time and then
+adding a little sulphuric acid it is precipitated as a brown powder.
+Black scales, which dissolve in water to form a red solution, are
+obtained by adding a trace of hydrochloric acid to a solution of
+basic ferric nitrate which has been heated to 100° for three days.
+A similar compound, which, however, dissolves in water to form
+an orange solution, results by adding salt to a heated solution of
+ferric chloride. These compounds are insoluble in concentrated,
+but dissolve readily in dilute acids.</p>
+
+<p>Red ferric hydroxide dissolves in acids to form a well-defined
+series of salts, the ferric salts, also obtained by oxidizing ferrous
+salts; they are usually colourless when anhydrous, but yellow
+or brown when hydrated. It has also feebly acidic properties,
+forming <i>ferrites</i> with strong bases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Magnetite</i>, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, may be regarded as ferrous ferrite,
+FeO·Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. This important ore of iron is most celebrated for
+its magnetic properties (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnetism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Compass</a></span>), but the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page798" id="page798"></a>798</span>
+mineral is not always magnetic, although invariably attracted
+by a magnet. It may be obtained artificially by passing steam
+over red-hot iron. It dissolves in acids to form a mixture of a
+ferrous and ferric salt,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and if an alkali is added to the solution
+a black precipitate is obtained which dries to a dark brown mass
+of the composition Fe(OH)<span class="su">2</span>·Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>; this substance is attracted
+by a magnet, and thus may be separated from the admixed ferric
+oxide. Calcium ferrite, magnesium ferrite and zinc ferrite,
+RO·Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> (R = Ca, Mg, Zn), are obtained by intensely heating
+mixtures of the oxides; magnesium ferrite occurs in nature as
+the mineral magnoferrite, and zinc ferrite as franklinite, both
+forming black octahedra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ferric acid</i>, H<span class="su">2</span>FeO<span class="su">4</span>. By fusing iron with saltpetre and
+extracting the melt with water, or by adding a solution of ferric
+nitrate in nitric acid to strong potash, an amethyst or purple-red
+solution is obtained which contains potassium ferrate. E.
+Frémy investigated this discovery, made by Stahl in 1702, and
+showed that the same solution resulted when chlorine is passed
+into strong potash solution containing ferric hydrate in suspension.
+Haber and Pick (<i>Zeit. Elektrochem.</i>, 1900, 7, p. 215) have
+prepared potassium ferrate by electrolysing concentrated potash
+solution, using an iron anode. A temperature of 70°, and a
+reversal of the current (of low density) between two cast iron
+electrodes every few minutes, are the best working conditions.
+When concentrated the solution is nearly black, and on heating
+it yields a yellow solution of potassium ferrite, oxygen being
+evolved. Barium ferrate, BaFeO<span class="su">4</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, obtained as a dark red
+powder by adding barium chloride to a solution of potassium
+ferrate, is fairly stable. It dissolves in acetic acid to form a red
+solution, is not decomposed by cold sulphuric acid, but with
+hydrochloric or nitric acid it yields barium and ferric salts, with
+evolution of chlorine or oxygen (Baschieri, <i>Gazetta</i>, 1906, 36,
+ii. p. 282).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Halogen Compounds.</i>&mdash;Ferrous fluoride, FeF<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as
+colourless prisms (with 8H<span class="su">2</span>O) by dissolving iron in hydrofluoric acid,
+or as anhydrous colourless rhombic prisms by heating iron or ferric
+chloride in dry hydrofluoric acid gas. Ferric fluoride, FeF<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained
+as colourless crystals (with 4˝H<span class="su">2</span>O) by evaporating a solution
+of the hydroxide in hydrofluoric acid. When heated in air it yields
+ferric oxide. Ferrous chloride, FeCl<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as shining scales
+by passing chlorine, or, better, hydrochloric acid gas, over red-hot
+iron, or by reducing ferric chloride in a current of hydrogen. It is
+very deliquescent, and freely dissolves in water and alcohol. Heated
+in air it yields a mixture of ferric oxide and chloride, and in steam
+magnetic oxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen. It absorbs
+ammonia gas, forming the compound FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·6NH<span class="su">2</span>, which on heating
+loses ammonia, and, finally, yields ammonium chloride, nitrogen and
+iron nitride. It fuses at a red-heat, and volatilizes at a yellow-heat;
+its vapour density at 1300°-1400° corresponds to the formula
+FeCl<span class="su">2</span>. By evaporating in vacuo the solution obtained by dissolving
+iron in hydrochloric acid, there results bluish, monoclinic
+crystals of FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, which deliquesce, turning greenish, on exposure
+to air, and effloresce in a desiccator. Other hydrates are
+known. By adding ammonium chloride to the solution, evaporating
+in vacuo, and then volatilizing the ammonium chloride, anhydrous
+ferrous chloride is obtained. The solution, in common with those of
+most ferrous salts, absorbs nitric oxide with the formation of a
+brownish solution.</p>
+
+<p>Ferric chloride, FeCl<span class="su">3</span>, known in its aqueous solution to Glauber as
+<i>oleum martis</i>, may be obtained anhydrous by the action of dry
+chlorine on the metal at a moderate red-heat, or by passing hydrochloric
+acid gas over heated ferric oxide. It forms iron-black plates
+or tablets which appear red by transmitted and a metallic green by
+reflected light. It is very deliquescent, and readily dissolves in
+water, forming a brown or yellow solution, from which several
+hydrates may be separated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>). The solution is best
+prepared by dissolving the hydrate in hydrochloric acid and removing
+the excess of acid by evaporation, or by passing chlorine into
+the solution obtained by dissolving the metal in hydrochloric acid
+and removing the excess of chlorine by a current of carbon dioxide.
+It also dissolves in alcohol and ether; boiling point determinations
+of the molecular weight in these solutions point to the formula
+FeCl<span class="su">3</span>. Vapour density determinations at 448° indicate a partial
+dissociation of the double molecule Fe<span class="su">2</span>Cl<span class="su">6</span>; on stronger heating it
+splits into ferrous chloride and chlorine. It forms red crystalline
+double salts with the chlorides of the metals of the alkalis and of the
+magnesium group. An aqueous solution of ferric chloride is used in
+pharmacy under the name <i>Liquor ferri perchloridi</i>; and an alcoholic
+solution constitutes the quack medicine known as &ldquo;Lamotte&rsquo;s
+golden drops.&rdquo; Many oxychlorides are known; soluble forms are
+obtained by dissolving precipitated ferric hydrate in ferric chloride,
+whilst insoluble compounds result when ferrous chloride is oxidized
+in air, or by boiling for some time aqueous solutions of ferric chloride.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrous bromide, FeBr<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as yellowish crystals by the
+union of bromine and iron at a dull red-heat, or as bluish-green
+rhombic tables of the composition FeBr<span class="su">2</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O by crystallizing a
+solution of iron in hydrobromic acid. Ferric bromide, FeBr<span class="su">3</span>, is
+obtained as dark red crystals by heating iron in an excess of bromine
+vapour. It closely resembles the chloride in being deliquescent,
+dissolving ferric hydrate, and in yielding basic salts. Ferrous iodide,
+FeI<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as a grey crystalline mass by the direct union of
+its components. Ferric iodide does not appear to exist.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sulphur Compounds.</i>&mdash;Ferrous sulphide, FeS, results from the
+direct union of its elements, best by stirring molten sulphur with a
+white-hot iron rod, when the sulphide drops to the bottom of the
+crucible. It then forms a yellowish crystalline mass, which readily
+dissolves in acids with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen.
+Heated in air it at first partially oxidizes to ferrous sulphate, and at
+higher temperatures it yields sulphur dioxide and ferric oxide. It
+is unaltered by ignition in hydrogen. An amorphous form results
+when a mixture of iron filings and sulphur are triturated with water.
+This modification is rapidly oxidized by the air with such an elevation
+of temperature that the mass may become incandescent. Another
+black amorphous form results when ferrous salts are precipitated by
+ammonium sulphide.</p>
+
+<p>Ferric sulphide, Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained by gently heating a mixture of
+its constituent elements, or by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen
+on ferric oxide at temperatures below 100°. It is also prepared by
+precipitating a ferric salt with ammonium sulphide; unless the
+alkali be in excess a mixture of ferrous sulphide and sulphur is obtained.
+It combines with other sulphides to form compounds of the
+type M&prime;<span class="su">2</span>Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">4</span>. Potassium ferric sulphide, K<span class="su">2</span>Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">4</span>, obtained by
+heating a mixture of iron filings, sulphur and potassium carbonate,
+forms purple glistening crystals, which burn when heated in air.
+Magnetic pyrites or pyrrhotite has a composition varying between
+Fe<span class="su">7</span>S<span class="su">8</span> and Fe<span class="su">8</span>S<span class="su">9</span>, <i>i.e.</i> 5FeS·Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span> and 6FeS·Fe<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>. It has a somewhat
+brassy colour, and occurs massive or as hexagonal plates; it
+is attracted by a magnet and is sometimes itself magnetic. The
+mineral is abundant in Canada, where the presence of about 5% of
+nickel makes it a valuable ore of this metal. Iron disulphide, FeS<span class="su">2</span>,
+constitutes the minerals pyrite and marcasite (<i>q.v.</i>); copper pyrites
+is (Cu, Fe)S<span class="su">2</span>. Pyrite may be prepared artificially by gently heating
+ferrous sulphide with sulphur, or as brassy octahedra and cubes by
+slowly heating an intimate mixture of ferric oxide, sulphur and sal-ammoniac.
+It is insoluble in dilute acids, but dissolves in nitric
+acid with separation of sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrous sulphite, FeSO<span class="su">3</span>. Iron dissolves in a solution of sulphur
+dioxide in the absence of air to form ferrous sulphite and thio-sulphate;
+the former, being less soluble than the latter, separates
+out as colourless or greenish crystals on standing.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrous sulphate, green vitriol or copperas, FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O, was
+known to, and used by, the alchemists; it is mentioned in the
+writings of Agricola, and its preparation from iron and sulphuric
+acid occurs in the <i>Tractatus chymico-philosophicus</i> ascribed to Basil
+Valentine. It occurs in nature as the mineral melanterite, either
+crystalline or fibrous, but usually massive; it appears to have been
+formed by the oxidation of pyrite or marcasite. It is manufactured
+by piling pyrites in heaps and exposing to atmospheric oxidation,
+the ferrous sulphate thus formed being dissolved in water, and the
+solution run into tanks, where any sulphuric acid which may be
+formed is decomposed by adding scrap iron. By evaporation the
+green vitriol is obtained as large crystals. The chief impurities are
+copper and ferric sulphates; the former may be removed by adding
+scrap iron, which precipitates the copper; the latter is eliminated by
+recrystallization. Other impurities such as zinc and manganese
+sulphates are more difficult to remove, and hence to prepare the pure
+salt it is best to dissolve pure iron wire in dilute sulphuric acid.
+Ferrous sulphate forms large green crystals belonging to the monoclinic
+system; rhombic crystals, isomorphous with zinc sulphate, are
+obtained by inoculating a solution with a crystal of zinc sulphate, and
+triclinic crystals of the formula FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O by inoculating with
+copper sulphate. By evaporating a solution containing free sulphuric
+acid in a vacuum, the hepta-hydrated salt first separates, then
+the penta-, and then a tetra-hydrate, FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O, isomorphous
+with manganese sulphate. By gently heating in a vacuum to 140°,
+the hepta-hydrate loses 6 molecules of water, and yields a white
+powder, which on heating in the absence of air gives the anhydrous
+salt. The monohydrate also results as a white precipitate when
+concentrated sulphuric acid is added to a saturated solution of ferrous
+sulphate. Alcohol also throws down the salt from aqueous solution,
+the composition of the precipitate varying with the amount of salt
+and precipitant employed. The solution absorbs nitric oxide to form
+a dark brown solution, which loses the gas on heating or by placing
+in ä vacuum. Ferrous sulphate forms double salts with the alkaline
+sulphates. The most important is ferrous ammonium sulphate,
+FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·(NH<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, obtained by dissolving equivalent amounts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page799" id="page799"></a>799</span>
+of the two salts in water and crystallizing. It is very stable and is
+much used in volumetric analysis.</p>
+
+<p>Ferric sulphate, Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained by adding nitric acid to a
+hot solution of ferrous sulphate containing sulphuric acid, colourless
+crystals being deposited on evaporating the solution. The anhydrous
+salt is obtained by heating, or by adding concentrated
+sulphuric acid to a solution. It is sparingly soluble in water, and on
+heating it yields ferric oxide and sulphur dioxide. The mineral
+coquimbite is Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O. Many basic ferric sulphates are
+known, some of which occur as minerals; carphosiderite is
+Fe(FeO)<span class="su">5</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">4</span>·10H<span class="su">2</span>O; amarantite is Fe(FeO)(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O; utahite
+is 3(FeO)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·4H<span class="su">2</span>O; copiapite is Fe3(FeO)(SO4)<span class="su">5</span>·18H<span class="su">2</span>O; castanite
+is Fe(FeO)(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·8H<span class="su">2</span>O; römerite is FeSO<span class="su">4</span>·Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·12H<span class="su">2</span>O. The
+iron alums are obtained by crystallizing solutions of equivalent
+quantities of ferric and an alkaline sulphate. Ferric potassium
+sulphate, the common iron alum, K<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>·Fe<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·24H<span class="su">2</span>O, forms
+bright violet octahedra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nitrides, Nitrates, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Several nitrides are known. Guntz
+(<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1902, 135, p. 738) obtained ferrous nitride, Fe<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">2</span>,
+and ferric nitride, FeN, as black powders by heating lithium nitride
+with ferrous potassium chloride and ferric potassium chloride respectively.
+Fowler (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1901, p. 285) obtained a
+nitride Fe<span class="su">2</span>N by acting upon anhydrous ferrous chloride or bromide,
+finely divided reduced iron, or iron amalgam with ammonia at 420°;
+and, also, in a compact form, by the action of ammonia on red-hot
+iron wire. It oxidizes on heating in air, and ignites in chlorine; on
+solution in mineral acids it yields ferrous and ammonium salts,
+hydrogen being liberated. A nitride appears to be formed when
+nitrogen is passed over heated iron, since the metal is rendered
+brittle. Ferrous nitrate, Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O, is a very unstable salt, and
+is obtained by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate and barium
+nitrate, filtering, and crystallizing in a vacuum over sulphuric acid.
+Ferric nitrate, Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained by dissolving iron in nitric acid
+(the cold dilute acid leads to the formation of ferrous and ammonium
+nitrates) and crystallizing, when cubes of Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·6H<span class="su">2</span>O or monoclinic
+crystals of Fe(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained. It is used as a
+mordant.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrous solutions absorb nitric oxide, forming dark green to black
+solutions. The coloration is due to the production of unstable
+compounds of the ferrous salt and nitric oxide, and it seems that in
+neutral solutions the compound is made up of one molecule of salt
+to one of gas; the reaction, however, is reversible, the composition
+varying with temperature, concentration and nature of the salt.
+Ferrous chloride dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid absorbs two
+molecules of the gas (Kohlschütter and Kutscheroff, <i>Ber.</i>, 1907, 40,
+p. 873). Ferric chloride also absorbs the gas. Reddish brown
+amorphous powders of the formulae 2FeCl<span class="su">3</span>·NO and 4FeCl<span class="su">3</span>·NO are
+obtained by passing the gas over anhydrous ferric chloride. By
+passing the gas into an ethereal solution of the salt, nitrosyl chloride
+is produced, and on evaporating over sulphuric acid, black needles
+of FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·NO·2H<span class="su">2</span>O are obtained, which at 60° form the yellow
+FeCl<span class="su">2</span>·NO. Complicated compounds, discovered by Roussin in
+1858, are obtained by the interaction of ferrous sulphate and alkaline
+nitrites and sulphides. Two classes may be distinguished:&mdash;(1) the
+ferrodinitroso salts, <i>e.g.</i> K[Fe(NO)<span class="su">2</span>S], potassium ferrodinitrososulphide,
+and (2) the ferroheptanitroso salts, <i>e.g.</i> K[Fe<span class="su">4</span>(NO)<span class="su">7</span>S<span class="su">8</span>],
+potassium ferroheptanitrososulphide. These salts yield the corresponding
+acids with sulphuric acid. The dinitroso acid slowly
+decomposes into sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and
+the heptanitroso acid. The heptanitroso acid is precipitated as a
+brown amorphous mass by dilute sulphuric acid, but if the salt be
+heated with strong acid it yields nitrogen, nitric oxide, sulphur, sulphuretted
+hydrogen, and ferric, ammonium and potassium sulphates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phosphides, Phosphates.</i>&mdash;H. Le Chatelier and S. Wologdine (<i>Compt.
+rend.</i>, 1909, 149, p. 709) have obtained Fe<span class="su">3</span>P, Fe<span class="su">2</span>P, FeP, Fe<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">3</span>,
+but failed to prepare five other phosphides previously described.
+Fe<span class="su">3</span>P occurs as crystals in the product of fusing iron with phosphorus;
+it dissolves in strong hydrochloric acid. Fe<span class="su">2</span>P forms crystalline
+needles insoluble in acids except aqua regia; it is obtained by fusing
+copper phosphide with iron. FeP is obtained by passing phosphorus
+vapour over Fe<span class="su">2</span>P at a red-heat. Fe<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">3</span> is prepared by the action of
+phosphorus iodide vapour on reduced iron. Ferrous phosphate,
+Fe<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·8H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs in nature as the mineral vivianite. It may
+be obtained artificially as a white precipitate, which rapidly turns
+blue or green on exposure, by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate
+and sodium phosphate. It is employed in medicine. Normal ferric
+phosphate, FePO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, occurs as the mineral strengite, and is
+obtained as a yellowish-white precipitate by mixing solutions of
+ferric chloride and sodium phosphate. It is insoluble in dilute acetic
+acid, but dissolves in mineral acids. The acid salts Fe(H<span class="su">2</span>PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span> and
+2FeH<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O have been described. Basic salts have been
+prepared, and several occur in the mineral kingdom; dufrenite is
+Fe<span class="su">2</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>PO<span class="su">4</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arsenides, Arsenites, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Several iron arsenides occur as minerals;
+lölingite, FeAs<span class="su">2</span>, forms silvery rhombic prisms; mispickel or arsenical
+pyrites, Fe<span class="su">2</span>AsS<span class="su">2</span>, is an important commercial source of arsenic.
+A basic ferric arsenite, 4Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·As<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as a flocculent
+brown precipitate by adding an arsenite to ferric acetate, or by
+shaking freshly prepared ferric hydrate with a solution of arsenious
+oxide. The last reaction is the basis of the application of ferric
+hydrate as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. Normal ferric
+arsenate, FeAsO<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, constitutes the mineral scorodite; pharmacosiderite
+is the basic arsenate 2FeAsO<span class="su">4</span>·Fe(OK)<span class="su">3</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O. An acid
+arsenate, 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>(HAsO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·9H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained as a white precipitate by
+mixing solutions of ferric chloride and ordinary sodium phosphate.
+It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbides, Carbonates.</i>&mdash;The carbides of iron play an important part
+in determining the properties of the different modifications of the
+commercial metal, and are discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron and Steel</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrous carbonate, FeCO<span class="su">3</span>, or spathic iron ore, may be obtained as
+microscopic rhombohedra by adding sodium bicarbonate to ferrous
+sulphate and heating to 150° for 36 hours. Ferrous sulphate and
+sodium carbonate in the cold give a flocculent precipitate, at first
+white but rapidly turning green owing to oxidation. A soluble
+carbonate and a ferric salt give a precipitate which loses carbon
+dioxide on drying. Of great interest are the carbonyl compounds.
+Ferropentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)<span class="su">5</span>, obtained by L. Mond, Quincke and
+Langer (<i>Jour. Chem. Soc.</i>, 1891; see also ibid. 1910, p. 798) by
+treating iron from ferrous oxalate with carbon monoxide, and heating
+at 150°, is a pale yellow liquid which freezes at about &minus;20°, and
+boils at 102.5°. Air and moisture decompose it. The halogens give
+ferrous and ferric haloids and carbon monoxide; hydrochloric and
+hydrobromic acids have no action, but hydriodic decomposes it.
+By exposure to sunlight, either alone or dissolved in ether or ligroin,
+it gives lustrous orange plates of diferrononacarbonyl, Fe<span class="su">2</span>(CO)<span class="su">9</span>.
+If this substance be heated in ethereal solution to 50°, it deposits
+lustrous dark-green tablets of ferrotetracarbonyl, Fe(CO)<span class="su">4</span>, very
+stable at ordinary temperatures, but decomposing at 140°-150° into
+iron and carbon monoxide (J. Dewar and H. O. Jones, <i>Abst. J.C.S.</i>,
+1907, ii. 266). For the cyanides see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prussic Acid</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Ferrous salts give a greenish precipitate with an alkali, whilst
+ferric give a characteristic red one. Ferrous salts also give a bluish
+white precipitate with ferrocyanide, which on exposure turns to a
+dark blue; ferric salts are characterized by the intense purple
+coloration with a thiocyanate. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>, § <i>Analytical</i>).
+For the quantitative estimation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assaying</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>A recent atomic weight determination by Richards and Baxter
+(<i>Zeit. anorg. Chem.</i>, 1900, 23, p. 245; 1904, 38, p. 232), who found the
+amount of silver bromide given by ferrous bromide, gave the value
+55.44 [O = 16].</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Pharmacology.</i></p>
+
+<p>All the official salts and preparations of iron are made directly or
+indirectly from the metal. The pharmacopoeial forms of iron are as
+follow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Ferrum</i>, annealed iron wire No. 35 or wrought iron nails free
+from oxide; from which we have the preparation <i>Vinum ferri</i>, iron
+wine, iron digested in sherry wine for thirty days. (Strength, 1
+in 20.)</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Ferrum redactum</i>, reduced iron, a powder containing at least
+75% of metallic iron and a variable amount of oxide. A preparation
+of it is <i>Trochiscus ferri redacti</i> (strength, 1 grain of reduced iron in
+each).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Ferri sulphas</i>, ferrous sulphate, from which is prepared <i>Mistura
+ferri composita</i>, &ldquo;Griffiths&rsquo; mixture,&rdquo; containing ferrous sulphate
+25 gr., potassium carbonate 30 gr., myrrh 60 gr., sugar 60 gr.,
+spirit of nutmeg 50 m., rose water 10 fl. oz.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Ferri sulphas exsiccatus</i>, which has two subpreparations:
+(<i>a</i>) <i>Pilula ferri</i>, &ldquo;Blaud&rsquo;s pill&rdquo; (exsiccated ferrous sulphate 150,
+exsiccated sodium carbonate 95, gum acacia 50, tragacanth 15,
+glycerin 10, syrup 150, water 20, each to contain about 1 grain of
+ferrous carbonate); (<i>b</i>) <i>Pilula aloes et ferri</i> (Barbadoes aloes 2,
+exsiccated ferrous sulphate 1, compound powder of cinnamon 3,
+syrup of glucose 3).</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Ferri carbonas saccharatus</i>, saccharated iron carbonate. The
+carbonate forms about one-third and is mixed with sugar into a
+greyish powder.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Ferri arsenas</i>, iron arsenate, ferrous and ferric arsenates with
+some iron oxides, a greenish powder.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Ferri phosphas</i>, a slate-blue powder of ferrous and ferric phosphates
+with some oxide. Its preparations are: (<i>a</i>) <i>Syrupus ferri
+phosphatis</i> (strength, 1 gr. of ferrous phosphate in each fluid drachm);
+(<i>b</i>) <i>Syrupus ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina</i>, &ldquo;Easton&rsquo;s
+syrup&rdquo; (iron wire 75 grs., concentrated phosphoric acid 10 fl. dr.,
+powdered strychnine 5 gr., quinine sulphate 130 gr., syrup 14
+fl. oz., water to make 20 fl. oz.), in which each fluid drachm represents
+1 gr. of ferrous phosphate, <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> gr. of quinine sulphate, and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span> gr. of
+strychnine.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Syrupus ferri iodidi</i>, iron wire, iodine, water and syrup
+(strength, 5.5 gr. of ferrous iodide in one fl. dr.).</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Liquor ferri perchloridi fortis</i>, strong solution of ferric chloride
+(strength, 22.5% of iron); its preparations only are prescribed, viz.
+<i>Liquor ferri perchloridi</i> and <i>Tinctura ferri perchloridi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Liquor ferri persulphatis</i>, solution of ferric sulphate.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Liquor ferri pernitratus</i>, solution of ferric nitrate (strength,
+3.3% of iron).</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Liquor ferri acetatis</i>, solution of ferric acetate.</p>
+
+<p>13. The scale preparations of iron, so called because they are
+dried to form scales, are three in number, the base of all being ferric
+hydrate:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page800" id="page800"></a>800</span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Ferrum tartaratum</i>, dark red scales, soluble in water.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Ferri et quininae citratis</i>, greenish yellow scales soluble in
+water.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Ferri et ammonii citratis</i>, red scales soluble in water, from
+which is prepared <i>Vinum ferri citratis</i> (ferri et ammonii citratis
+1 gr., orange wine 1 fl. dr.).</p>
+
+<p>Substances containing tannic or gallic acid turn black when compounded
+with a ferric salt, so it cannot be used in combination
+with vegetable astringents except with the infusion of quassia or
+calumba. Iron may, however, be prescribed in combination with
+digitalis by the addition of dilute phosphoric acid. Alkalis and their
+carbonates, lime water, carbonate of calcium, magnesia and its
+carbonate give green precipitates with ferrous and brown with ferric
+salts.</p>
+
+<p>Unofficial preparations of iron are numberless, and some of them
+are very useful. Ferri hydroxidum (U.S.P.), the hydrated oxide of
+iron, made by precipitating ferric sulphate with ammonia, is used
+solely as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. The Syrupus ferri
+phosphatis Co. is well known as &ldquo;Parrish&rsquo;s&rdquo; syrup or chemical food,
+and the Pilulae ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina, known
+as Easton&rsquo;s pills, form a solid equivalent to Easton&rsquo;s syrup.</p>
+
+<p>There are numerous organic preparations of iron. Ferratin is a
+reddish brown substance which claims to be identical with the iron
+substance found in pig&rsquo;s liver. Carniferrin is another tasteless
+powder containing iron in combination with the phosphocarnic acid
+of muscle preparations, and contains 35% of iron. Ferratogen is
+prepared from ferric nuclein. Triferrin is a paranucleinate of iron,
+and contains 22% of iron and 2˝% of organically combined phosphorus,
+prepared from the casein of cow&rsquo;s milk. Haemoglobin is
+extracted from the blood of an ox and may be administered in bolus
+form. Dieterich&rsquo;s solution of peptonated iron contains about 2 gr.
+of iron per oz. Vachetta has used the albuminate of iron with
+striking success in grave cases of anaemia. Succinate of iron has
+been prepared by Hausmann. Haematogen, introduced by Hommel,
+claims to contain the albuminous constituents of the blood serum
+and all the blood salts as well as pure haemoglobin. Sicco, the name
+given to dry haematogen, is a tasteless powder. Haemalbumen,
+introduced by Dahmen, is soluble in warm water.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Therapeutics.</i></p>
+
+<p>Iron is a metal which is used both as a food and as a medicine and
+has also a definite local action. Externally, it is not absorbed by the
+unbroken skin, but when applied to the broken skin, sores, ulcers
+and mucous surfaces, the ferric salts are powerful astringents, because
+they coagulate the albuminous fluids in the tissues themselves.
+The salts of iron quickly cause coagulation of the blood, and the clot
+plugs the bleeding vessels. They thus act locally as haemostatics or
+styptics, and will often arrest severe haemorrhage from parts which
+are accessible, such as the nose. They were formerly used in the
+treatment of <i>post partum</i> haemorrhage. The perchloride, sulphate
+and pernitrate are strongly astringent; less extensively they are
+used in chronic discharges from the vagina, rectum and nose, while
+injected into the rectum they destroy worms.</p>
+
+<p>Internally, a large proportion of the various articles of ordinary
+diet contains iron. When given medicinally preparations of iron
+have an astringent taste, and the teeth and tongue are blackened
+owing to the formation of sulphide of iron. It is therefore advisable
+to take liquid iron preparations through a glass tube or a quill.</p>
+
+<p>In the stomach all salts of iron, whatever their nature, are converted
+into ferric chloride. If iron be given in excess, or if the
+hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice be deficient, iron acts directly
+as an astringent upon the mucous membrane of the stomach wall.
+Iron, therefore, may disorder the digestion even in healthy subjects.
+Acid preparations are more likely to do this, and the acid set free
+after the formation of the chloride may act as an irritant. Iron,
+therefore, must not be given to subjects in whom the gastric functions
+are disturbed, and it should always be given after meals. Preparations
+which are not acid, or are only slightly acid, such as reduced
+iron, dialysed iron, the carbonate and scale preparations, do not
+disturb the digestion. If the sulphate is prescribed in the form of a
+pill, it may be so coated as only to be soluble in the intestinal digestive
+fluid. In the intestine the ferric chloride becomes changed into an
+oxide of iron; the sub-chloride is converted into a ferrous carbonate,
+which is soluble. Lower down in the bowel these compounds are
+converted into ferrous sulphide and tannate, and are eliminated with
+the faeces, turning them black. Iron in the intestine causes an
+astringent or constipating effect. The astringent salts are therefore
+useful occasionally to check diarrhoea and dysentery. Thus most
+salts of iron are distinctly constipating, and are best used in combination
+with a purgative. The pill of iron and aloes (B.P.) is designed
+for this purpose. Iron is certainly absorbed from the intestinal
+canal. As the iron in the food supplies all the iron in the body of a
+healthy person, there is no doubt that it is absorbed in the organic
+form. Whether inorganic salts are directly absorbed has been a
+matter of much discussion; it has, however, been directly proved
+by the experiments of Kunkel (<i>Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie
+des Menschen und der Tiere</i>, lxi.) and Gaule. The amount of iron
+existing in the human blood is only 38 gr.; therefore, when an
+excess of iron is absorbed, part is excreted immediately by the bowel
+and kidneys, and part is stored in the liver and spleen.</p>
+
+<p>Iron being a constituent part of the blood itself, there is a direct
+indication for the physician to prescribe it when the amount of
+haemoglobin in the blood is lowered or the red corpuscles are
+diminished. In certain forms of anaemia the administration of iron
+rapidly improves the blood in both respects. The exact method in
+which the prescribed iron acts is still a matter of dispute. Ralph
+Stockman points out that there are three chief theories as to the
+action of iron in anaemia. The first is based on the fact that the iron
+in the haemoglobin of the blood must be derived from the food,
+therefore iron medicinally administered is absorbed. The second
+theory is that there is no absorption of iron given by the mouth, but
+it acts as a local stimulant to the mucous membrane, and so improves
+anaemia by increasing the digestion of the food. The third theory is
+that of Bunge, who says that in chlorotic conditions there is an excess
+of sulphuretted hydrogen in the bowel, changing the food iron into
+sulphide of iron, which Bunge states cannot be absorbed. He
+believes that inorganic iron saves the organic iron of the food by
+combining with the sulphur, and improves anaemia by protecting
+the organic food iron. Stockman&rsquo;s own experiments are, however,
+directly opposed to Bunge&rsquo;s view. Wharfinger states that in chlorosis
+the specific action of iron is only obtained by administering those
+inorganic preparations which give a reaction with the ordinary reagents;
+the iron ions in a state of dissociation act as a catalytic
+agent, destroying the hypothetical toxin which is the cause of
+chlorosis. Practical experience teaches every clinician that, whatever
+the mode of action, iron is most valuable in anaemia, though in
+many cases, where there is well-marked toxaemia from absorption of
+the intestinal products, not only laxatives in combination with iron
+but intestinal antiseptics are necessary. That form of neuralgia
+which is associated with anaemia usually yields to iron.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By solution in concentrated hydrochloric acid, a yellow liquid is
+obtained, which on concentration over sulphuric acid gives yellow
+deliquescent crusts of ferroso-ferric chloride, Fe<span class="su">3</span>Cl<span class="su">8</span>·18H<span class="su">2</span>O.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRON AGE,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the third of the three periods, Stone, Bronze
+and Iron Ages, into which archaeologists divide prehistoric
+time; the weapons, utensils and implements being as a general
+rule made of iron (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archaeology</a></span>). The term has no real
+chronological value, for there has been no universal synchronous
+sequence of the three epochs in all quarters of the world. Some
+countries, such as the islands of the South Pacific, the interior
+of Africa, and parts of North and South America, have passed
+direct from the Stone to the Iron Age. In Europe the Iron
+Age may be said to cover the last years of the prehistoric and
+the early years of the historic periods. In Egypt, Chaldaea,
+Assyria, China, it reaches far back, to perhaps 4000 years before
+the Christian era. In Africa, where there has been no Bronze
+Age, the use of iron succeeded immediately the use of stone.
+In the Black Pyramid of Abusir (VIth Dynasty), at least 3000
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron, and in the
+funeral text of Pepi I. (about 3400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the metal is mentioned.
+The use of iron in northern Europe would seem to have been
+fairly general long before the invasion of Caesar. But iron was
+not in common use in Denmark until the end of the 1st century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> In the north of Russia and Siberia its introduction was
+even as late as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 800, while Ireland enters upon her Iron Age
+about the beginning of the 1st century. In Gaul, on the other
+hand, the Iron Age dates back some 800 years <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; while in
+Etruria the metal was known some six centuries earlier. Homer
+represents Greece as beginning her Iron Age twelve hundred
+years before our era. The knowledge of iron spread from the
+south to the north of Europe. In approaching the East from
+the north of Siberia or from the south of Greece and the Troad,
+the history of iron in each country eastward is relatively later;
+while a review of European countries from the north towards
+the south shows the latter becoming acquainted with the metal
+earlier than the former It is suggested that these facts support
+the theory that it is from Africa that iron first came into use.
+The finding of worked iron in the Great Pyramids seems to
+corroborate this view. The metal, however, is singularly scarce
+in collections of Egyptian antiquities. The explanation of this
+would seem to lie in the fact that the relics are in most cases
+the paraphernalia of tombs, the funereal vessels and vases, and
+iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians
+it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious
+purposes. This idea of impurity would seem a further proof
+of the African origin of iron. It was attributed to Seth, the
+spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the
+central deserts of Africa. The Iron Age in Europe is characterized
+by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements and
+utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape,
+and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather than simple
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page801" id="page801"></a>801</span>
+rectilinear, the forms and character of the ornamentation of the
+northern European weapons resembling in some respects Roman
+arms, while in others they are peculiar and evidently representative
+of northern art. The dead were buried in an extended
+position, while in the preceding Bronze Age cremation had
+been the rule.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lord Avebury, <i>Prehistoric Times</i> (1865; 1900); Sir J. Evans,
+<i>Ancient Stone Implements</i> (1897); <i>Horae Ferales, or Studies in
+the Archaeology of Northern Nations</i>, by Kemble (1863); Gaston C. C.
+Maspero, <i>Guide du Musée de Boulaq</i>, 296; <i>Scotland in Pagan Times&mdash;The
+Iron Age</i>, by Joseph Anderson (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRON AND STEEL.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> 1. Iron, the most abundant and the
+cheapest of the heavy metals, the strongest and most magnetic
+of known substances, is perhaps also the most indispensable
+of all save the air we breathe and the water we drink. For one
+kind of meat we could substitute another; wool could be
+replaced by cotton, silk or fur; were our common silicate glass
+gone, we could probably perfect and cheapen some other of
+the transparent solids; but even if the earth could be made
+to yield any substitute for the forty or fifty million tons of
+iron which we use each year for rails, wire, machinery, and
+structural purposes of many kinds, we could not replace either
+the steel of our cutting tools or the iron of our magnets, the
+basis of all commercial electricity. This usefulness iron owes
+in part, indeed, to its abundance, through which it has led
+us in the last few thousands of years to adapt our ways to its <span class="correction" title="added properties">properties</span>;
+but still in chief part first to the single qualities in which it
+excels, such as its strength, its magnetism, and the property
+which it alone has of being made at will extremely hard by sudden
+cooling and soft and extremely pliable by slow cooling; second,
+to the special combinations of useful properties in which it
+excels, such as its strength with its ready welding and shaping
+both hot and cold; and third, to the great variety of its properties.
+It is a very Proteus. It is extremely hard in our
+files and razors, and extremely soft in our horse-shoe nails,
+which in some countries the smith rejects unless he can bend
+them on his forehead; with iron we cut and shape iron. It
+is extremely magnetic and almost non-magnetic; as brittle
+as glass and almost as pliable and ductile as copper; extremely
+springy, and springless and dead; wonderfully strong, and
+very weak; conducting heat and electricity easily, and again
+offering great resistance to their passage; here welding readily,
+there incapable of welding; here very infusible, there melting
+with relative ease. The coincidence that so indispensable a
+thing should also be so abundant, that an iron-needing man
+should be set on an iron-cored globe, certainly suggests design.
+The indispensableness of such abundant things as air, water
+and light is readily explained by saying that their very abundance
+has evolved a creature dependent on them. But the indispensable
+qualities of iron did not shape man&rsquo;s evolution, because
+its great usefulness did not arise until historic times, or even,
+as in case of magnetism, until modern times.</p>
+
+<p>These variations in the properties of iron are brought about
+in part by corresponding variations in mechanical and thermal
+treatment, by which it is influenced profoundly, and in part by
+variations in the proportions of certain foreign elements which
+it contains; for, unlike most of the other metals, it is never
+used in the pure state. Indeed pure iron is a rare curiosity.
+Foremost among these elements is carbon, which iron inevitably
+absorbs from the fuel used in extracting it from its ores. So
+strong is the effect of carbon that the use to which the metal
+is put, and indeed its division into its two great classes, the
+malleable one, comprising steel and wrought iron, with less
+than 2.20% of carbon, and the unmalleable one, cast iron,
+with more than this quantity, are based on carbon-content.
+(See Table I.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>&mdash;<i>General Classification of Iron and Steel according (1) to Carbon-Content and (2) to Presence or Absence of Inclosed Slag.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Containing very little Carbon (say, less than 0.30%).</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Containing an Intermediate Quantity of Carbon (say, between 0.30 and 2.2%).</td>
+<td class="tccm allb">Containing much Carbon (say, from 2.2 to 5%).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Slag-bearing or &rdquo;Weld-metal&rdquo; Series.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Wrought Iron.</span><br />Puddled and bloomary, or Charcoal-hearth iron belong here.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Weld Steel.</span><br />Puddled and blister steel belong here.</td>
+<td class="allb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb cl" rowspan="3">Slagless or &ldquo;Ingot-Metal&rdquo; Series.</td>
+<td class="tccm rb"><span class="sc">Low-Carbon</span> or <span class="sc">Mild Steel</span>,<br /> sometimes called &ldquo;ingot-iron.&rdquo;</td>
+<td class="tccm rb"><span class="sc">Half-Hard</span> and <span class="sc">High-Carbon Steels</span><br />sometimes called &ldquo;ingot-steel.&rdquo;</td>
+<td class="tccm rb"><span class="sc">Cast Iron.</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm rb">It may be either Bessemer, open-hearth, or crucible steel.</td>
+<td class="tcl rb"><p>They may be either Bessemer, open-hearth, or crucible steel. Malleable cast iron also often belongs here.</p></td>
+<td class="tcl rb"><p>Normal cast iron, &rdquo;washed&rdquo; metal, and most &ldquo;malleable cast iron&rdquo; belong here.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="allb">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Alloy Steels.</span><br />Nickel, manganese, tungsten, and chrome steels belong here.</td>
+<td class="tccm allb"><span class="sc">Alloy Cast Irons.</span>*<br />Spiegeleisen, ferro-manganese, and silico-spiegel belong here.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">* The term &ldquo;Alloy Cast Irons&rdquo; is not actually in frequent use, not because of any question as to its fitness or meaning, but because
+the need of such a generic term rarely arises in the industry.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2">2. <i>Nomenclature.</i>&mdash;Until about 1860 there were only three
+important classes of iron&mdash;wrought iron, steel and cast iron.
+The essential characteristic of wrought iron was its nearly
+complete freedom from carbon; that of steel was its moderate
+carbon-content (say between 0.30 and 2.2%), which, though
+great enough to confer the property of being rendered intensely
+hard and brittle by sudden cooling, yet was not so great but
+that the metal was malleable when cooled slowly; while that of
+cast iron was that it contained so much carbon as to be very
+brittle whether cooled quickly or slowly. This classification
+was based on carbon-content, or on the properties which it gave.
+Beyond this, wrought iron, and certain classes of steel which
+then were important, necessarily contained much slag or &ldquo;cinder,&rdquo;
+because they were made by welding together pasty particles
+of metal in a bath of slag, without subsequent fusion.  But the
+best class of steel, crucible steel, was freed from slag by fusion in
+crucibles; hence its name, &ldquo;cast steel.&rdquo; Between 1860 and
+1870 the invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes
+introduced a new class of iron to-day called &ldquo;mild&rdquo; or &ldquo;low-carbon
+steel,&rdquo; which lacked the essential property of steel, the
+hardening power, yet differed from the existing forms of wrought
+iron in freedom from slag, and from cast iron in being very
+malleable. Logically it was wrought iron, the essence of which
+was that it was (1) &ldquo;iron&rdquo; as distinguished from steel, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page802" id="page802"></a>802</span>
+(2) malleable, <i>i.e.</i> capable of being &ldquo;wrought.&rdquo; This name did
+not please those interested in the new product, because existing
+wrought iron was a low-priced material. Instead of inventing
+a wholly new name for the wholly new product, they appropriated
+the name &ldquo;steel,&rdquo; because this was associated in the public
+mind with superiority. This they did with the excuse that the
+new product resembled one class of steel&mdash;cast steel&mdash;in being
+free from slag; and, after a period of protest, all acquiesced in
+calling it &ldquo;steel,&rdquo; which is now its firmly established name.
+The old varieties of wrought iron, steel and cast iron preserve
+their old names; the new class is called steel by main force.
+As a result, certain varieties, such as blister steel, are called
+&ldquo;steel&rdquo; solely because they have the hardening power, and
+others, such as low-carbon steel, solely because they are free
+from slag. But the former lack the essential quality, slaglessness,
+which makes the latter steel, and the latter lack the essential
+quality, the hardening power, which makes the former steel.
+&ldquo;Steel&rdquo; has come gradually to stand rather for excellence than
+for any specific quality. These anomalies, however confusing
+to the general reader, in fact cause no appreciable trouble to
+important makers or users of iron and steel, beyond forming
+an occasional side-issue in litigation.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Definitions.</i>&mdash;<i>Wrought iron</i> is slag-bearing malleable iron,
+containing so little carbon (0.30% or less), or its equivalent, that
+it does not harden greatly when cooled suddenly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Steel</i> is iron which is malleable at least in some one range of
+temperature, and also is either (<i>a</i>) cast into an initially malleable
+mass, or (<i>b</i>) is capable of hardening greatly by sudden cooling,
+or (<i>c</i>) is both so cast and so capable of hardening. (Tungsten
+steel and certain classes of manganese steel are malleable only
+when red-hot.) Normal or carbon steel contains between 0.30
+and 2.20% of carbon, enough to make it harden greatly when
+cooled suddenly, but not enough to prevent it from being usefully
+malleable when hot.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cast iron</i> is, generically, iron containing so much carbon
+(2.20% or more) or its equivalent that it is not usefully malleable
+at any temperature. Specifically, it is cast iron in the form of
+castings other than pigs, or remelted cast iron suitable for such
+castings, as distinguished from pig iron, <i>i.e.</i> the molten cast iron
+as it issues from the blast furnace, or the pigs into which it is
+cast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Malleable cast iron</i> is iron which has been cast in the condition
+of cast iron, and made malleable by subsequent treatment
+without fusion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alloy steels</i> and <i>cast irons</i> are those which owe their properties
+chiefly to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ingot iron</i> is slagless steel with less than 0.30% of carbon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ingot steel</i> is slagless steel containing more than 0.30% of
+carbon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weld steel</i> is slag-bearing iron malleable at least at some one
+temperature, and containing more than 0.30% of carbon.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Historical Sketch.</i>&mdash;The iron oxide of which the ores of
+iron consist would be so easily deoxidized and thus brought to
+the metallic state by the carbon, <i>i.e.</i> by the glowing coals of any
+primeval savage&rsquo;s wood fire, and the resulting metallic iron
+would then differ so strikingly from any object which he had
+previously seen, that its very early use by our race is only natural.
+The first observing savage who noticed it among his ashes might
+easily infer that it resulted from the action of burning wood
+on certain extremely heavy stones. He could pound it out into
+many useful shapes. The natural steps first of making it intentionally
+by putting such stones into his fire, and next of improving
+his fire by putting it and these stones into a cavity on the weather
+side of some bank with an opening towards the prevalent wind,
+would give a simple forge, differing only in size, in lacking forced
+blast, and in details of construction, from the Catalan forges
+and bloomaries of to-day. Moreover, the coals which deoxidized
+the iron would inevitably carburize some lumps of it, here so
+far as to turn it into the brittle and relatively useless cast iron,
+there only far enough to convert it into steel, strong and very
+useful even in its unhardened state. Thus it is almost certain
+that much of the earliest iron was in fact steel. How soon after
+man&rsquo;s discovery, that he could beat iron and steel out while
+cold into useful shapes, he learned to forge it while hot is hard
+to conjecture. The pretty elaborate appliances, tongs or their
+equivalent, which would be needed to enable him to hold it
+conveniently while hot, could hardly have been devised till a
+very much later period; but then he may have been content
+to forge it inconveniently, because the great ease with which
+it mashes out when hot, perhaps pushed with a stout stick from
+the fire to a neighbouring flat stone, would compensate for much
+inconvenience. However this may be, very soon after man began
+to practise hot-forging he would inevitably learn that sudden
+cooling, by quenching in water, made a large proportion of his
+metal, his steel, extremely hard and brittle, because he would
+certainly try by this very quenching to avoid the inconvenience
+of having the hot metal about. But the invaluable and rather
+delicate art of tempering the hardened steel by a very careful
+and gentle reheating, which removes its extreme brittleness
+though leaving most of its precious hardness, needs such skilful
+handling that it can hardly have become known until very long
+after the art of hot-forging.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide ores of copper would be deoxidized by the savage&rsquo;s
+wood fire even more easily than those of iron, and the resulting
+copper would be recognized more easily than iron, because it
+would be likely to melt and run together into a mass conspicuous
+by its bright colour and its very great malleableness. From
+this we may infer that copper and iron probably came into use
+at about the same stage in man&rsquo;s development, copper before
+iron in regions which had oxidized copper ores, whether they
+also had iron ores or not, iron before copper in places where
+there were pure and easily reduced ores of iron but none of copper.
+Moreover, the use of each metal must have originated in many
+different places independently. Even to-day isolated peoples
+are found with their own primitive iron-making, but ignorant
+of the use of copper.</p>
+
+<p>If iron thus preceded copper in many places, still more must
+it have preceded bronze, an alloy of copper and tin much less
+likely than either iron or copper to be made unintentionally.
+Indeed, though iron ores abound in many places which have
+neither copper nor tin, yet there are but few places which have
+both copper and tin. It is not improbable that, once bronze
+became known, it might replace iron in a measure, perhaps even
+in a very large measure, because it is so fusible that it can be
+cast directly and easily into many useful shapes. It seems to
+be much more prominent than iron in the Homeric poems;
+but they tell us only of one region at one age. Even if a nation
+here or there should give up the use of iron completely, that all
+should is neither probable nor shown by the evidence. The
+absence of iron and the abundance of bronze in the relics of a
+prehistoric people is a piece of evidence to be accepted with
+caution, because the great defect of iron, its proneness to rust,
+would often lead to its complete disappearance, or conversion
+into an unrecognizable mass, even though tools of bronze
+originally laid down beside it might remain but little corroded.
+That the ancients should have discovered an art of hardening
+bronze is grossly improbable, first because it is not to be hardened
+by any simple process like the hardening of steel, and second
+because, if they had, then a large proportion of the ancient
+bronze tools now known ought to be hard, which is not the case.</p>
+
+<p>Because iron would be so easily made by prehistoric and even
+by primeval man, and would be so useful to him, we are hardly
+surprised to read in Genesis that Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent
+from Adam, discovered it; that the Assyrians had knives and
+saws which, to be effective, must have been of hardened steel,
+<i>i.e.</i> of iron which had absorbed some carbon from the coals
+with which it had been made, and had been quenched in water
+from a red heat; that an iron tool has been found embedded in
+the ancient pyramid of Kephron (probably as early as 3500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>);
+that iron metallurgy had advanced at the time of Tethmosis
+(Thothmes) III. (about 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) so far that bellows were used
+for forcing the forge fire; that in Homer&rsquo;s time (not later than
+the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the delicate art of hardening and tempering
+steel was so familiar that the poet used it for a simile, likening
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page803" id="page803"></a>803</span>
+the hissing of the stake which Ulysses drove into the eye of
+Polyphemus to that of the steel which the smith quenches in
+water, and closing with a reference to the strengthening effect
+of this quenching; and that at the time of Pliny (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23-79)
+the relative value of different baths for hardening was known,
+and oil preferred for hardening small tools. These instances of
+the very early use of this metal, intrinsically at once so useful
+and so likely to disappear by rusting away, tell a story like that
+of the single foot-print of the savage which the waves left for
+Robinson Crusoe&rsquo;s warning. Homer&rsquo;s familiarity with the art
+of tempering could come only after centuries of the wide use
+of iron.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Three Periods.</i>&mdash;The history of iron may for convenience
+be divided into three periods: a first in which only the direct
+extraction of wrought iron from the ore was practised; a
+second which added to this primitive art the extraction of iron
+in the form of carburized or cast iron, to be used either as such
+or for conversion into wrought iron; and a third in which the
+iron worker used a temperature high enough to melt wrought
+iron, which he then called molten steel. For brevity we may
+call these the periods of wrought iron, of cast iron, and of molten
+steel, recognizing that in the second and third the earlier processes
+continued in use. The first period began in extremely
+remote prehistoric times; the second in the 14th century; and
+the third with the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>6. <i>First Period.</i>&mdash;We can picture to ourselves how in the first
+period the savage smith, step by step, bettered his control over his
+fire, at once his source of heat and his deoxidizing agent. Not content
+to let it burn by natural draught, he would blow it with his own
+breath, would expose it to the prevalent wind, would urge it with a
+fan, and would devise the first crude valveless bellows, perhaps the
+pigskin already familiar as a water-bottle, of which the psalmist says:
+&ldquo;I am become as a bottle in the smoke.&rdquo; To drive the air out of this
+skin by pressing on it, or even by walking on it, would be easy; to
+fill it again with air by pulling its sides apart with his fingers would
+be so irksome that he would soon learn to distend it by means of
+strings. If his bellows had only a single opening, that through which
+they delivered the blast upon the fire, then in inflating them he
+would draw back into them the hot air and ashes from the fire. To
+prevent this he might make a second or suction hole, and thus he
+would have a veritable engine, perhaps one of the very earliest of all.
+While inflating the bellows he would leave the suction port open and
+close the discharge port with a pinch of his finger; and while blowing
+the air against the fire he would leave the discharge port open and
+pinch together the sides of the suction port.</p>
+
+<p>The next important step seems to have been taken in the 4th
+century when some forgotten Watt devised valves for the bellows.
+But in spite of the activity of the iron manufacture in many of the
+Roman provinces, especially England, France, Spain, Carinthia and
+near the Rhine, the little forges in which iron was extracted from the
+ore remained, until the 14th century, very crude and wasteful of
+labour, fuel, and iron itself: indeed probably not very different from
+those of a thousand years before. Where iron ore was found, the
+local smith, the <i>Waldschmied</i>, converted it with the charcoal of the
+surrounding forest into the wrought iron which he worked up.
+Many farmers had their own little forges or smithies to supply the iron
+for their tools.</p>
+
+<p>The fuel, wood or charcoal, which served both to heat and to
+deoxidize the ore, has so strong a carburizing action that it would
+turn some of the resultant metal into &ldquo;natural steel,&rdquo; which differs
+from wrought iron only in containing so much carbon that it is relatively
+hard and brittle in its natural state, and that it becomes
+intensely hard when quenched from a red heat in water. Moreover,
+this same carburizing action of the fuel would at times go so far as
+to turn part of the metal into a true cast iron, so brittle that it could
+not be worked at all. In time the smith learnt how to convert this
+unwelcome product into wrought iron by remelting it in the forge,
+exposing it to the blast in such a way as to burn out most of its
+carbon.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Second Period.</i>&mdash;With the second period began, in the 14th
+century, the gradual displacement of the direct extraction of wrought
+iron from the ore by the intentional and regular use of this indirect
+method of first carburizing the metal and thus turning it into cast
+iron, and then converting it into wrought iron by remelting it in the
+forge. This displacement has been going on ever since, and it is not
+quite complete even to-day. It is of the familiar type of the replacing
+of the simple but wasteful by the complex and economical,
+and it was begun unintentionally in the attempt to save fuel and
+labour, by increasing the size and especially the height of the forge,
+and by driving the bellows by means of water-power. Indeed it was
+the use of water-power that gave the smith pressure strong enough
+to force his blast up through a longer column of ore and fuel, and thus
+enabled him to increase the height of his forge, enlarge the scale of his
+operations, and in turn save fuel and labour. And it was the lengthening
+of the forge, and the length and intimacy of contact between ore
+and fuel to which it led, that carburized the metal and turned it into
+cast iron. This is so fusible that it melted, and, running together
+into a single molten mass, freed itself mechanically from the
+&ldquo;gangue,&rdquo; as the foreign minerals with which the ore is mixed are
+called. Finally, the improvement in the quality of the iron which
+resulted from thus completely freeing it from the gangue turned out
+to be a great and unexpected merit of the indirect process, probably
+the merit which enabled it, in spite of its complexity, to drive out the
+direct process. Thus we have here one of these cases common in the
+evolution both of nature and of art, in which a change, made for a
+specific purpose, has a wholly unforeseen advantage in another
+direction, so important as to outweigh that for which it was made
+and to determine the path of future development.</p>
+
+<p>With this method of making molten cast iron in the hands of a
+people already familiar with bronze founding, iron founding, <i>i.e.</i> the
+casting of the molten cast iron into shapes which were useful in spite
+of its brittleness, naturally followed. Thus ornamental iron castings
+were made in Sussex in the 14th century, and in the 16th cannons
+weighing three tons each were cast.</p>
+
+<p>The indirect process once established, the gradual increase in the
+height and diameter of the high furnace, which has lasted till our
+own days, naturally went on and developed the gigantic blast
+furnaces of the present time, still called &ldquo;high furnaces&rdquo; in French
+and German. The impetus which the indirect process and the acceleration
+of civilization in the 15th and 16th centuries gave to the
+iron industry was so great that the demands of the iron masters for
+fuel made serious inroads on the forests, and in 1558 an act of Queen
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s forbade the cutting of timber in certain parts of the
+country for iron-making. Another in 1584 forbade the building of
+any more iron-works in Surrey, Kent, and Sussex. This increasing
+scarcity of wood was probably one of the chief causes of the attempts
+which the iron masters then made to replace charcoal with mineral
+fuel. In 1611 Simon Sturtevant patented the use of mineral coal for
+iron-smelting, and in 1619 Dud Dudley made with this coal both
+cast and wrought iron with technical success, but through the
+opposition of the charcoal iron-makers all of his many attempts were
+defeated. In 1625 Stradda&rsquo;s attempts in Hainaut had no better
+success, and it was not till more than a century later that iron-smelting
+with mineral fuel was at last fully successful. It was then,
+in 1735, that Abraham Darby showed how to make cast iron with
+coke in the high furnace, which by this time had become a veritable
+blast furnace.</p>
+
+<p>The next great improvement in blast-furnace practice came in
+1811, when Aubertot in France used for heating steel the furnace
+gases rich in carbonic oxide which till then had been allowed to burn
+uselessly at the top of the blast furnace. The next was J. B. Neilson&rsquo;s
+invention in 1828 of heating the blast, which increased the production
+and lessened the fuel-consumption of the furnace wonderfully.
+Very soon after this, in 1832, the work of heating the blast
+was done by means of the waste gases, at Wasseralfingen in Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Henry Cort had in 1784 very greatly simplified the
+conversion of cast iron into wrought iron. In place of the old forge,
+in which the actual contact between the iron and the fuel, itself an
+energetic carburizing agent, made decarburization difficult, he
+devised the reverberatory puddling furnace (see fig. 14 below), in
+which the iron lies in a chamber apart from the fire-place, and is thus
+protected from the carburizing action of the fuel, though heated by
+the flame which that fuel gives out.</p>
+
+<p>The rapid advance in mechanical engineering in the latter part of
+this second period stimulated the iron industry greatly, giving it in
+1728 Payn and Hanbury&rsquo;s rolling mill for rolling sheet iron, in 1760
+John Smeaton&rsquo;s cylindrical cast-iron bellows in place of the wooden
+and leather ones previously used, in 1783 Cort&rsquo;s grooved rolls for
+rolling bars and rods of iron, and in 1838 James Nasmyth&rsquo;s steam
+hammer. But even more important than these were the advent of
+the steam engine between 1760 and 1770, and of the railroad in
+1825, each of which gave the iron industry a great impetus. Both
+created a great demand for iron, not only for themselves but for the
+industries which they in turn stimulated; and both directly aided
+the iron master: the steam engine by giving him powerful and convenient
+tools, and the railroad by assembling his materials and
+distributing his products.</p>
+
+<p>About 1740 Benjamin Huntsman introduced the &ldquo;crucible
+process&rdquo; of melting steel in small crucibles, and thus freeing it from
+the slag, or rich iron silicate, with which it, like wrought iron, was
+mechanically mixed, whether it was made in the old forge or in the
+puddling furnace. This removal of the cinder very greatly improved
+the steel; but the process was and is so costly that it is used only for
+making steel for purposes which need the very best quality.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Third Period.</i>&mdash;The third period has for its great distinction the
+invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes, which are like
+Huntsman&rsquo;s crucible process in that their essence is their freeing
+wrought iron and low carbon steel from mechanically entangled
+cinder, by developing the hitherto unattainable temperature, rising
+to above 1500° C., needed for melting these relatively infusible products.
+These processes are incalculably more important than
+Huntsman&rsquo;s, both because they are incomparably cheaper, and
+because their products are far more useful than his.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the distinctive work of the second and third periods is freeing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page804" id="page804"></a>804</span>
+the metal from mechanical impurities by fusion. The second period,
+by converting the metal into the fusible cast iron and melting this,
+for the first time removed the gangue of the ore; the third period by
+giving a temperature high enough to melt the most infusible forms
+of iron, liberated the slag formed in deriving them from cast iron.</p>
+
+<p>In 1856 Bessemer not only invented his extraordinary process of
+making the heat developed by the rapid oxidation of the impurities
+in pig iron raise the temperature above the exalted melting-point of
+the resultant purified steel, but also made it widely known that this
+steel was a very valuable substance. Knowing this, and having in
+the Siemens regenerative gas furnace an independent means of generating
+this temperature, the Martin brothers of Sireuil in France in
+1864 developed the open-hearth process of making steel of any
+desired carbon-content by melting together in this furnace cast and
+wrought iron. The great defect of both these processes, that they
+could not remove the baneful phosphorus with which all the ores
+of iron are associated, was remedied in 1878 by S. G. Thomas, who
+showed that, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, the whole of the
+phosphorus could be removed readily.</p>
+
+<p>9. After the remarkable development of the blast furnace, the
+Bessemer, and the open-hearth processes, the most important work
+of this, the third period of the history of iron, is the birth and growth
+of the science and art of iron metallography. In 1868 Tschernoff
+enunciated its chief fundamental laws, which were supplemented in
+1885 by the laws of Brinell. In 1888 F. Osmond showed that the
+wonderful changes which thermal treatment and the presence of certain
+foreign elements cause were due to allotropy, and from these and like
+teachings have come a rapid growth of the use of the so-called &ldquo;alloy
+steels&rdquo; in which, thanks to special composition and treatment, the
+iron exists in one or more of its remarkable allotropic states. These
+include the austenitic or gamma non-magnetic manganese steel,
+already patented by Robert Hadfield in 1883, the first important
+known substance which combined great malleableness with great
+hardness, and the martensitic or beta &ldquo;high speed tool steel&rdquo; of
+White and Taylor, which retains its hardness and cutting power even
+at a red heat.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>10. <i>Constitution of Iron and Steel.</i>&mdash;The constitution of the
+various classes of iron and steel as shown by the microscope
+explains readily the great influence of carbon which was outlined
+in §§ 2 and 3. The metal in its usual slowly cooled state is a
+conglomerate like the granitic rocks. Just as a granite is a
+conglomerate or mechanical mixture of distinct crystalline
+grains of three perfectly definite minerals, mica, quartz, and
+felspar, so iron and steel in their usual slowly cooled state consist
+of a mixture of microscopic particles of such definite quasi-minerals,
+diametrically unlike. These are cementite, a definite
+iron carbide, Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, harder than glass and nearly as brittle, but
+probably very strong under gradually and axially applied stress;
+and ferrite, pure or nearly pure metallic &alpha;-iron, soft, weak, with
+high electric conductivity, and in general like copper except in
+colour. In view of the fact that the presence of 1% of carbon
+implies that 15% of the soft ductile ferrite is replaced by the
+glass-hard cementite, it is not surprising that even a little
+carbon influences the properties of the metal so profoundly.</p>
+
+<p>But carbon affects the properties of iron not only by giving
+rise to varying proportions of cementite, but also both by itself
+shifting from one molecular state to another, and by enabling
+us to hold the iron itself in its unmagnetic allotropic forms,
+&beta;- and &gamma;-iron, as will be explained below. Thus, sudden cooling
+from a red heat leaves the carbon not in definite combination
+as cementite, but actually dissolved in &beta;- and &gamma;-allotropic iron,
+in the conditions known as martensite and austenite, not granitic
+but glass-like bodies, of which the &ldquo;hardened&rdquo; and &ldquo;tempered&rdquo;
+steel of our cutting tools in large part consists. Again, if more
+than 2% of carbon is present, it passes readily into the state of
+pure graphitic carbon, which, in itself soft and weak, weakens
+and embrittles the metal as any foreign body would, by breaking
+up its continuity.</p>
+
+<p>11. The <i>Roberts-Austen</i> or <i>carbon-iron diagram</i> (fig. 1), in
+which vertical distances represent temperatures and horizontal
+ones the percentage of carbon in the iron, aids our study of these
+constituents of iron. If, ignoring temporarily and for simplicity
+the fact that part of the carbon may exist in the state of graphite,
+we consider the behaviour of iron in cooling from the molten
+state, AB and BC give the temperature at which, for any given
+percentage of carbon, solidification begins, and A<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>B, and B<i>c</i>
+that at which it ends. But after solidification is complete and
+the metal has cooled to a much lower range of temperature,
+usually between 900° and 690° C., it undergoes a very remarkable
+series of transformations. GHS<i>a</i> gives the temperature at which,
+for any given percentage of carbon, these transformations begin,
+and PSP&prime; that at which they end.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:469px" src="images/img804.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Roberts-Austen or Carbon-Iron diagram.
+The Cementite-Austenite or Metastable form.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These freezing-point curves and transformation curves thus
+divide the diagram into 8 distinct regions, each with its own
+specific state or constitution of the metal, the molten state for
+region 1, a mixture of molten metal and of solid austenite for
+region 2, austenite alone for region 4 and so on. This will be
+explained below. If the metal followed the laws of equilibrium,
+then whenever through change of temperature it entered a new
+region, it would forthwith adopt the constitution normal to that
+region. But in fact the change of constitution often lags greatly,
+so that the metal may have the constitution normal to a region
+higher than that in which it is, or even a patchwork constitution,
+representing fragments of those of two or more regions. It is
+by taking advantage of this lagging that thermal treatment
+causes such wonderful changes in the properties of the cold
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>12. With these facts in mind we may now study further these
+different constituents of iron.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Austenite, gamma</i> (&gamma;) <i>iron</i>.&mdash;Austenite is the name of the solid
+solution of an iron carbide in allotropie &gamma;-iron of which the metal
+normally consists when in region 4. In these solid solutions, as in
+aqueous ones, the ratios in which the different chemical substances
+are present are not fixed or definite, but vary from case to case, not
+<i>per saltum</i> as between definite chemical compounds, but by infinitesimal
+steps. The different substances are as it were dissolved in
+each other in a state which has the indefiniteness of composition, the
+absolute merging of identity, and the weakness of reciprocal chemical
+attraction, characteristic of aqueous solutions.</p>
+
+<p>On cooling into region 6 or 8 austenite should normally split up
+into ferrite and cementite, after passing through the successive
+stages of martensite, troostite and sorbite, Fe<span class="su">x</span>C = Fe<span class="su">3</span>C + Fe(<span class="su">x&minus;3</span>).
+But this change may be prevented so as to preserve the austenite in
+the cold, either very incompletely, as when high-carbon steel is
+&ldquo;hardened,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> is cooled suddenly by quenching in water, in
+which case the carbon present seems to act as a brake to retard the
+change; or completely, by the presence of a large quantity of
+manganese, nickel, tungsten or molybdenum, which in effect sink the
+lower boundary GHS<i>a</i> of region 4 to below the atmospheric temperature.
+The important manganese steels of commerce and certain
+nickel steels are manganiferous and niccoliferous austenite, unmagnetic
+and hard but ductile.</p>
+
+<p>Austenite may contain carbon in any proportion up to about 2.2%.
+It is non-magnetic, and, when preserved in the cold either by quenching
+or by the presence of manganese, nickel, &amp;c., it has a very
+remarkable combination of great malleability with very marked hardness,
+though it is less hard than common carbon steel is when hardened,
+and probably less hard than martensite. When of eutectoid composition,
+it is called &ldquo;hardenite.&rdquo; Suddenly cooled carbon steel,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page805" id="page805"></a>805</span>
+even if rich in austenite, is strongly magnetic because of the very
+magnetic &alpha;-iron which inevitably forms even in the most rapid
+cooling from region 4. Only in the presence of much manganese,
+nickel, or their equivalent can the true austenite be preserved in the
+cold so completely that the steel remains non-magnetic.</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>Beta</i> (&beta;) <i>iron</i>, an unmagnetic, intensely hard and brittle
+allotropic form of iron, though normal and stable only in the little
+triangle GHM, is yet a state through which the metal seems always
+to pass when the austenite of region 4 changes into the ferrite and
+cementite of regions 6 and 8. Though not normal below MHSP&prime;,
+yet like &gamma;-iron it can be preserved in the cold by the presence of about
+5% of manganese, which, though not enough to bring the lower
+boundary of region 4 below the atmospheric temperature and thus
+to preserve austenite in the cold, is yet enough to make the
+transformation of &beta; into &alpha; iron so sluggish that the former
+remains untransformed even during slow cooling.</p>
+
+<p>Again, &beta;-iron may be preserved incompletely as in the &ldquo;hardening
+of steel,&rdquo; which consists in heating the steel into the austenite state
+of region 4, and then cooling it so rapidly, <i>e.g.</i> by quenching it in cold
+water, that, for lack of the time needed for the completion of the
+change from austenite into ferrite and cementite, much of the iron is
+caught in transit in the &beta; state. According to our present theory, it
+is chiefly to beta iron, preserved in one of these ways, that all of our
+tool steel proper, <i>i.e.</i> steel used for cutting as distinguished from
+grinding, seems to owe its hardness.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Martensite</i>, <i>Troostite</i> and <i>Sorbite</i> are the successive stages
+through which the metal passes in changing from austenite into
+ferrite and cementite. <i>Martensite</i>, very hard because of its large
+content of &beta;-iron, is characteristic of hardened steel, but the two
+others, far from being definite substances, are probably only roughly
+bounded stages of this transition. <i>Troostite</i> and <i>sorbite</i>, indeed,
+seem to be chiefly very finely divided mixtures of ferrite and cementite,
+and it is probably because of this fineness that sorbitic steel has its
+remarkable combination of strength and elasticity with ductility
+which fits it for resisting severe vibratory and other dynamic stresses,
+such as those to which rails and shafting are exposed.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Alpha</i> (&alpha;) <i>iron</i> is the form normal and stable for regions 5, 6
+and 8, <i>i.e.</i> for all temperatures below MHSP&prime;. It is the common,
+very magnetic form of iron, in itself ductile but relatively soft and
+weak, as we know it in wrought iron and mild or low-carbon steel.</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>Ferrite</i> and <i>cementite</i>, already described in § 10, are the final
+products of the transformation of austenite in slow-cooling. &beta;-ferrite
+and austenite are the normal constituents for the triangle
+GHM, &alpha;-ferrite (<i>i.e.</i> nearly pure &alpha;-iron) with austenite for the space
+MHSP, cementite with austenite for region 7, and &alpha;-ferrite and
+cementite jointly for regions 6 and 8. Ferrite and cementite are thus
+the normal and usual constituents of slowly cooled steel, including all
+structural steels, rail steel, &amp;c., and of white cast iron (see § 18).</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>Pearlite.</i>&mdash;The ferrite and cementite present interstratify
+habitually as a &ldquo;eutectoid&rdquo;<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> called &ldquo;pearlite&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>,
+Pl., fig. 11), in the ratio of about 6 parts of ferrite to 1 of cementite,
+and hence containing about 0.90% of carbon. Slowly cooled steel
+containing just 0.90% of carbon (S in fig. 1) consists of pearlite
+alone. Steel and white cast iron with more than this quantity
+of carbon consist typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
+envelopes of free cementite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 13) sufficient in
+quantity to represent their excess of carbon over the eutectoid ratio;
+they arc called &ldquo;hyper-eutectoid,&rdquo; and are represented by region 8
+of Fig. 1. Steel containing less than this quantity of carbon consists
+typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 12) sufficient in quantity to represent their
+excess of iron over this eutectoid ratio; is called &ldquo;hypo-eutectoid&rdquo;;
+and is represented by region 6 of Fig. 1. This typical &ldquo;envelope and
+kernel&rdquo; structure is often only rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p>The percentage of pearlite and of free ferrite or cementite in these
+products is shown in fig. 2, in which the ordinates of the line ABC
+represent the percentage of pearlite corresponding to each percentage
+of carbon, and the intercept ED, MN or KF, of any point H, P or L,
+measures the percentage of the excess of ferrite or cementite for hypo- and
+hyper-eutectic steel and white cast iron respectively.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:518px; height:188px" src="images/img805a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Relation between the carbon-content and the percentage
+of the several constituents of slowly cooled steel and white cast
+iron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>18. <i>The Carbon-Content, i.e. the Ratio of Ferrite to Cementite, of
+certain typical Steels.</i>&mdash;Fig. 3 shows how, as the carbon-content rises
+from 0 to 4.5%, the percentage of the glass-hard cementite, which is
+15 times that of the carbon itself, rises, and that of the soft copper-like
+ferrite falls, with consequent continuous increase of hardness
+and loss of malleableness and ductility. The tenacity or tensile
+strength increases till the carbon-content reaches about 1.25%, and
+the cementite about 19%, and then in turn falls, a result by no means
+surprising. The presence of a small quantity of the hard cementite
+ought naturally to strengthen the mass, by opposing the tendency of
+the soft ferrite to flow under any stress applied to it; but more
+cementite by its brittleness naturally weakens the mass, causing it to
+crack open under the distortion which stress inevitably causes.
+The fact that this decrease of strength begins shortly after the carbon-content
+rises above the eutectoid or pearlite ratio of 0.90% is
+natural, because the brittleness of the cementite which, in hyper-eutectoid
+steels, forms a more or less continuous skeleton (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>,
+Pl., fig. 13) should be much more effective in starting cracks under
+distortion than that of the far more minute particles of cementite
+which lie embedded, indeed drowned, in the sixfold greater mass of
+ferrite with which they are associated in the pearlite itself. The
+large massive plates of cementite which form the network or skeleton
+in hyper-eutectoid steels should, under distortion, naturally tend to
+cut, in the softer pearlite, chasms too serious to be healed by the
+inflowing of the plastic ferrite, though this ferrite flows around and
+immediately heals over any cracks which form in the small quantity
+of cementite interstratified with it in the pearlite of hypo-eutectoid
+steels.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:488px; height:215px" src="images/img805b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Physical properties and assumed microscopic constitution
+of the pearlite series, graphiteless steel slowly cooled
+and white cast iron. By &ldquo;total ferrite&rdquo; is meant both that which
+forms part of the pearlite and that which is in excess of the pearlite,
+taken jointly. So with the &ldquo;total cementite.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">As the carbon-content increases the welding power naturally
+decreases rapidly, because of the rapid fall of the &ldquo;solidus curve&rdquo;
+at which solidification is complete (A<i>a</i> of fig. 1), and hence of the
+range in which the steel is coherent enough to be manipulated, and,
+finally, of the attainable pliancy and softness of the metal. Clearly
+the mushy mixture of solid austenite and molten iron of which the
+metal in region 2 consists cannot cohere under either the blows or
+the pressure by means of which welding must be done. Rivet steel,
+which above all needs extreme ductility to endure the distortion of
+being driven home, and tube steel which must needs weld easily, no
+matter at what sacrifice of strength, are made as free from carbon,
+<i>i.e.</i> of as nearly pure ferrite, as is practicable. The distortion which
+rails undergo in manufacture and use is incomparably less than that
+to which rivets are subjected, and thus rail steel may safely be much
+richer in carbon and hence in cementite, and therefore much stronger
+and harder, so as to better endure the load and the abrasion of the
+passing wheels. Indeed, its carbon-content is made small quite as
+much because of the violence of the shocks from these wheels as because
+of any actual distortion to be expected, since, within limits, as the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page806" id="page806"></a>806</span>
+carbon-content increases the shock-resisting power decreases. Here,
+as in all cases, the carbon-content must be the result of a compromise,
+neither so small that the rail flattens and wears out like lead, nor so
+great that it snaps like glass. Boiler plates undergo in shaping and
+assembling an intermediate degree of distortion, and therefore they
+must be given an intermediate carbon-content, following the general
+rule that the carbon-content and hence the strength should be as
+great as is consistent with retaining the degree of ductility and the
+shock-resisting power which the object will need in actual use. Thus
+the typical carbon-content may be taken as about 0.05% for rivets
+and tubes, 0.20% for boiler plates, and 0.50 to 0.75% for rails,
+implying the presence of 0.75% of cementite in the first two, 3% in
+the third and 7.5% to 11.25% in the last.</p>
+
+<p>19. <i>Carbon-Content of Hardened Steels.</i>&mdash;Turning from these cases
+in which the steel is used in the slowly cooled state, so that it is a
+mixture of pearlite with ferrite or cementite, <i>i.e.</i> is pearlitic, to those
+in which it is used in the hardened or martensitic state, we find that
+the carbon-content is governed by like considerations. Railway car
+springs, which are exposed to great shock, have typically about
+0.75% of carbon; common tool steel, which is exposed to less
+severe shock, has usually between 0.75 and 1.25%; file steel, which
+is subject to but little shock, and has little demanded of it but to bite
+hard and stay hard, has usually from 1.25 to 1.50%. The carbon-content
+of steel is rarely greater than this, lest the brittleness be
+excessive. But beyond this are the very useful, because very fusible,
+cast irons with from 3 to 4% of carbon, the embrittling effect of
+which is much lessened by its being in the state of graphite.</p>
+
+<p>20. <i>Slag or Cinder</i>, a characteristic component of wrought iron,
+which usually contains from 0.20 to 2.00% of it, is essentially a
+silicate of iron (ferrous silicate), and is present in wrought iron
+simply because this product is made by welding together pasty
+granules of iron in a molten bath of such slag, without ever melting
+the resultant mass or otherwise giving the envelopes of slag thus
+imprisoned a chance to escape completely.</p>
+
+<p>21. <i>Graphite</i>, nearly pure carbon, is characteristic of &ldquo;gray cast
+iron,&rdquo; in which it exists as a nearly continuous skeleton of very
+thin laminated plates or flakes (fig. 27), usually curved, and forming
+from 2.50% to 3.50% of the whole. As these flakes readily split
+open, when a piece of this iron is broken rupture passes through them,
+with the result that, even though the graphite may form only some
+3% of the mass by weight (say 10% by volume), practically nothing
+but graphite is seen in the fracture. Hence the weakness and the
+dark-grey fracture of this iron, and hence, by brushing this fracture
+with a wire brush and so detaching these loosely clinging flakes of
+graphite, the colour can be changed nearly to the very light-grey of
+pure iron. There is rarely any important quantity of graphite in
+commercial steels. (See § 26.)</p>
+
+<p>22. <i>Further Illustration of the Iron-Carbon Diagram.</i>&mdash;In order to
+illustrate further the meaning of the diagram (fig. 1), let us follow
+by means of the ordinate QUw the undisturbed slow cooling of molten
+hyper-eutectoid steel containing 1% of carbon, for simplicity assuming
+that no graphite forms and that the several transformations occur
+promptly as they fall due. When the gradually falling temperature
+reaches 1430° (<i>q</i>), the mass begins to freeze as &gamma;-iron or austenite,
+called &ldquo;primary&rdquo; to distinguish it from that which forms part of the
+eutectic. But the freezing, instead of completing itself at a fixed
+temperature as that of pure water does, continues until the temperature
+sinks to r on the line Aa. Thus the iron has rather a freezing-range
+than a freezing-point. Moreover, the freezing is &ldquo;selective.&rdquo;
+The first particles of austenite to freeze contain about 0.33% of
+carbon (<i>p</i>). As freezing progresses, at each successive temperature
+reached the frozen austenite has the carbon-content of the point on
+Aa which that temperature abscissa cuts, and the still molten part or
+&ldquo;mother-metal&rdquo; has the carbon-content horizontally opposite this
+on the line AB. In other words, the composition of the frozen part
+and that of the mother-metal respectively are p and q at the beginning
+of the freezing, and <i>r</i> and <i>t</i>&prime; at the end; and during freezing they
+slide along A<i>a</i> and AB from <i>p</i> to <i>r</i> and from <i>q</i> to <i>t</i>&prime;. This, of course,
+brings the final composition of the frozen austenite when freezing is
+complete exactly to that which the molten mass had before freezing
+began.</p>
+
+<p>The heat evolved by this process of solidification retards the fall
+of temperature; but after this the rate of cooling remains regular
+until T (750°) on the line S<i>a</i> (Ar<span class="su">3</span>) is reached, when a second retardation
+occurs, due to the heat liberated by the passage within the
+pasty mass of part of the iron and carbon from a state of mere
+solution to that of definite combination in the ratio Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, forming
+microscopic particles of cementite, while the remainder of the iron
+and carbon continue dissolved in each other as austenite. This
+formation of cementite continues as the temperature falls, till at
+about 690° C., (U, called Ar<span class="su">2&minus;1</span>) so much of the carbon (in this case
+about 0.10%) and of the iron have united in the form of cementite,
+that the composition of the remaining solid-solution or &ldquo;mother-metal&rdquo;
+of austenite has reached that of the eutectoid, hardenite;
+<i>i.e.</i> it now contains 0.90 % of carbon. The cementite which has thus
+far been forming may be called &ldquo;pro-eutectoid&rdquo; cementite, because
+it forms before the remaining austenite reaches the eutectoid composition.
+As the temperature now falls past 690°, this hardenite
+mother-metal in turn splits up, after the fashion of eutectics, into
+alternate layers of ferrite and cementite grouped together as pearlite,
+so that the mass as a whole now becomes a mixture of pearlite with
+cementite. The iron thus liberated, as the ferrite of this pearlite,
+changes simultaneously to &alpha;-ferrite. The passage of this large
+quantity of carbon and iron, 0.90% of the former and 12.6 of the
+latter, from a state of mere solution as hardenite to one of definite
+chemical union as cementite, together with the passage of the iron
+itself from the &gamma; to the &alpha; state, evolves so much heat as actually to
+heat the mass up so that it brightens in a striking manner. This
+phenomenon is called the &ldquo;recalescence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This change from austenite to ferrite and cementite, from the &gamma;
+through the &beta; to the &alpha; state, is of course accompanied by the loss of
+the &ldquo;hardening power,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the power of being hardened by sudden
+cooling, because the essence of this hardening is the retention of the &beta;
+state. As shown in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 13, the slowly cooled steel now
+consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of the cementite
+which was born of the austenite in cooling from T to U.</p>
+
+<p>23. To take a second case, molten hypo-eutectoid steel of 0.20%
+of carbon on freezing from K to x passes in the like manner to the
+state of solid austenite, &gamma;-iron with this 0.20% of carbon dissolved
+in it. Its further cooling undergoes three spontaneous retardations,
+one at K&prime; (Ar<span class="su">3</span> about 820°), at which part of the iron begins to isolate
+itself within the austenite mother-metal in the form of envelopes of
+&beta;-ferrite, <i>i.e.</i> of free iron of the &beta; allotropic modification, which
+surrounds the kernels or grains of the residual still undecomposed
+part of the austenite. At the second retardation, K&Prime; (Ar<span class="su">2</span>, about 770°)
+this ferrite changes to the normal magnetic &alpha;-ferrite, so that the
+mass as a whole becomes magnetic. Moreover, the envelopes of
+ferrite which began forming at Ar<span class="su">3</span> continue to broaden by the
+accession of more and more ferrite born from the austenite progressively
+as the temperature sinks, till, by the time when Ar<span class="su">1</span> (about
+690°) is reached, so much free ferrite has been formed that the remaining
+mother-metal has been enriched to the composition of
+hardenite, <i>i.e.</i> it now contains 0.90% of carbon. Again, as the
+temperature in turn falls past Ar<span class="su">1</span> this hardenite mother-metal splits
+up into cementite and ferrite grouped together as pearlite, with the
+resulting recalescence, and the mass, as shown in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>, Pl., fig. 12,
+then consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite.
+All these phenomena are parallel with those of 1.00% carbon steel
+at this same critical point Ar<span class="su">1</span>. As such steel cools slowly past Ar<span class="su">3</span>,
+Ar<span class="su">2</span> and Ar<span class="su">1</span>, it loses its hardening power progressively.</p>
+
+<p>In short, from Ar<span class="su">3</span> to Ar<span class="su">1</span> the excess substance ferrite or cementite,
+in hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels respectively, progressively
+crystallizes out as a network or skeleton within the austenite mother-metal,
+which thus progressively approaches the composition of
+hardenite, reaching it at Ar<span class="su">1</span>, and there splitting up into ferrite and
+cementite interstratified as pearlite. Further, any ferrite liberated
+at Ar<span class="su">3</span> changes there from &gamma; to &beta;, and any present at Ar<span class="su">2</span> changes
+from &beta; to &alpha;. Between H and S, Ar<span class="su">3</span> and Ar<span class="su">2</span> occur together, as do
+Ar<span class="su">2</span> and Ar<span class="su">1</span> between S and P&prime; and Ar<span class="su">3</span>, Ar<span class="su">2</span> and Ar<span class="su">1</span> at S itself; so
+that these critical points in these special cases are called Ar<span class="su">3&minus;2</span>, Ar<span class="su">2&minus;1</span>
+and Ar<span class="su">3&minus;2&minus;1</span> respectively. The corresponding critical points which
+occur during rise of temperature, with the reverse transformations,
+are called Ac<span class="su">1</span>, Ac<span class="su">2</span>, Ac<span class="su">3</span>, &amp;c. A (Tschernoff) is the generic name, r
+refers to falling temperature (<i>refroidissant</i>) and c to rising temperature
+(<i>chauffant</i>, Osmond).</p>
+
+<p>24. The freezing of molten cast iron of 2.50% of carbon goes on
+selectively like that of these steels which we have been studying,
+till the enrichment of the molten mother-metal in carbon brings its
+carbon-contents to B, 4.30%, the eutectic<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> carbon-content, <i>i.e.</i> that
+of the greatest fusibility or lowest melting-point. At this point
+selection ceases; the remaining molten metal freezes as a whole, and
+in freezing splits up into a conglomerate eutectic of (1) austenite of
+about 2.2 % of carbon, and therefore saturated with that element,
+and (2) cementite; and with this eutectic is mixed the &ldquo;primary&rdquo;
+austenite which froze out as the temperature sank from <i>v</i> to <i>v</i>&prime;.
+The white-hot, solid, but soft mass is now a conglomerate of (1)
+&ldquo;primary&rdquo; austenite, (2) &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo; austenite and (3) &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo;
+cementite. As the temperature sinks still farther, pro-eutectoid
+cementite (see § 22) forms progressively in the austenite both primary
+and eutectic, and this pro-eutectoid cementite as it comes into
+existence tends to assemble in the form of a network enveloping the
+kernels or grains of the austenite from which it springs. The reason
+for its birth, of course, is that the solubility of carbon in austenite progressively
+decreases as the temperature falls, from about 2.2% at
+1130° (<i>a</i>), to 0.90% at 690° (Ar<span class="su">1</span>), as shown by the line <i>a</i>S, with the
+consequence that the austenite keeps rejecting in the form of this
+pro-eutectoid cementite all carbon in excess of its saturation-point
+for the existing temperature. Here the mass consists of (1) primary
+austenite, (2) eutectic austenite and cementite interstratified and
+(3) pro-eutectoid cementite.</p>
+
+<p>This formation of cementite through the rejection of carbon by
+both the primary and the eutectic austenite continues quite as in the
+case of 1.00% carbon steel, with impoverishment of the austenite to
+the hardenite or eutectoid ratio, and the splitting up of that hardenite
+into pearlite at Ar<span class="su">1</span>, so that the mass when cold finally consists of (1)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page807" id="page807"></a>807</span>
+the primary austenite now split up into kernels of pearlite surrounded
+by envelopes of pro-eutectoid cementite, (2) the eutectic of cementite
+plus austenite, the latter of which has in like manner split up into a
+mixture of pearlite plus cementite. Such a mass is shown in fig. 4.
+Here the black bat-like patches are the masses of pearlite plus pro-eutectoid
+cementite resulting from the splitting up of the primary
+austenite. The magnification is too small to show the zebra striping
+of the pearlite. In the black-and-white ground mass the white is
+the eutectic cementite, and the black the eutectic austenite, now
+split up into pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, which cannot here
+be distinguished from each other.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:386px" src="images/img807a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;The constitution of hypo-eutectic white or cementitiferous
+cast iron (washed metal), W. Campbell. The black bat-like
+areas are the primary austenite, the zebra-marked ground mass the
+eutectic, composed of white stripes of cementite and black stripes of
+austenite. Both the primary and eutectic austenite have changed in
+cooling into a mixture of pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, too
+fine to be distinguished here.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">25. As we pass to cases with higher and higher carbon-content, the
+primary austenite which freezes in cooling across region 2 forms a
+smaller and smaller proportion of the whole, and the austenite-cementite
+eutectic which forms at the eutectic freezing-point, 1130°
+(aB), increases in amount until, when the carbon-content reaches the
+eutectic ratio, 4.30%, there is but a single freezing-point, and the
+whole mass when solid is made up of this eutectic. If there is more
+than 4.30% of carbon, then in cooling through region 3 the excess
+of carbon over this ratio freezes out as &ldquo;primary&rdquo; cementite. But
+in any event the changes which have just been described for cast
+iron of 2.50% of carbon occur in crossing region 7, and at Ar<span class="su">1</span>
+(PSP&prime;).</p>
+
+<p>Just as variations in the carbon-content shift the temperature of
+the freezing-range and of the various critical points, so do variations
+in the content of other elements, notably silicon, phosphorus, manganese,
+chromium, nickel and tungsten. Nickel and manganese
+lower these critical points, so that with 25% of nickel Ar<span class="su">3</span> lies below
+the common temperature 20° C. With 13% of manganese Ar<span class="su">3</span> is very
+low, and the austenite decomposes so slowly that it is preserved
+practically intact by sudden cooling. These steels then normally
+consist of &gamma;-iron, modified by the large amount of nickel or manganese
+with which it is alloyed. They are non-magnetic or very feebly
+magnetic. But the critical points of such nickel steel though thus
+depressed, are not destroyed; and if it is cooled in liquid air below
+its Ar<span class="su">2</span>, it passes to the &alpha; state and becomes magnetic.</p>
+
+<p>26. <i>Double Nature of the Carbon-Iron Diagram.</i>&mdash;The part played
+by graphite in the constitution of the iron-carbon compounds,
+hitherto ignored for simplicity, is shown in fig. 5. Looking at the
+matter in a broad way, in all these carbon-iron alloys, both steel and
+cast irons, part of the carbon may be dissolved in the iron, usually
+as austenite, <i>e.g.</i> in regions 2, 4, 5 and 7 of Fig. 1; the rest, <i>i.e.</i> the
+carbon which is not dissolved, or the &ldquo;undissolved carbon,&rdquo; forms
+either the definite carbide, cementite, Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, or else exists in the free
+state as graphite. Now, just as fig. 1 shows the constitution of these
+iron-carbon alloys for all temperatures and all percentages of carbon
+when the undissolved carbon exists as cementite, so there should be
+a diagram showing this constitution when all the undissolved carbon
+exists as graphite. In short, there are two distinct carbon-iron
+diagrams, the iron-cementite one shown in fig. 1 and studied at
+length in §§ 22 to 25, and the iron-graphite one shown in fig. 5 in
+unbroken lines, with the iron-cementite diagram reproduced in
+broken lines for comparison. What here follows represents our
+present rather ill-established theory. These two diagrams naturally
+have much the same general shape, but though the boundaries of the
+several regions in the iron-cementite diagram are known pretty
+accurately, and though the relative positions of the boundaries of the
+two diagrams are probably about as here shown, the exact topography
+of the iron-graphite diagram is not yet known. In it the normal constituents
+are, for region II., molten metal + primary austenite; for
+region III., molten metal + primary graphite; for region IV., primary
+austenite; for region VII., eutectic austenite, eutectic graphite, and a
+quantity of pro-eutectoid graphite which increases as we pass from
+the upper to the lower part of the region, together with primary
+austenite at the left of the eutectic point B&prime; and primary graphite at
+the right of that point. Thus when iron containing 2.50% of carbon
+(<i>v.</i> fig. 1) solidifies, its carbon may form cementite following the
+cementite-austenite diagram so that white, <i>i.e.</i> cementitiferous, cast
+iron results; or graphite, following the graphite-austenite diagram,
+so that ultra-grey, <i>i.e.</i> typical graphitic cast iron results; or, as
+usually happens, certain molecules may follow one diagram while the
+rest follow the other diagram, so that cast iron which has both
+cementite and graphite results, as in most commercial grey cast iron,
+and typically in &ldquo;mottled cast iron,&rdquo; in which there are distinct
+patches of grey and others of white cast iron.</p>
+
+<p>Though carbon passes far more readily under most conditions into
+the state of cementite than into that of graphite, yet of the two
+graphite is the more stable and cementite the less stable, or the
+&ldquo;metastable&rdquo; form. Thus cementite is always tending to change
+over into graphite by the reaction Fe<span class="su">3</span>C = 3Fe + Gr, though this
+tendency is often held in check by different causes; but graphite
+never changes back directly into cementite, at least according to our
+present theory. The fact that graphite may dissolve in the iron as
+austenite, and that when this latter again breaks up it is more likely
+to yield cementite than graphite, is only an apparent and not a real
+exception to this law of the greater stability of graphite than of
+cementite.</p>
+
+<p>Slow cooling, slow solidification, the presence of an abundance of
+carbon, and the presence of silicon, all favour the formation of
+graphite; rapid cooling, the presence of sulphur, and in most cases
+that of manganese, favour the formation of cementite. For instance,
+though in cast iron, which is rich in carbon, that carbon
+passes comparatively easily into the state of graphite, yet in steel,
+which contains much less carbon, but little graphite forms under most
+conditions. Indeed, in the common structural steels which contain
+only very little carbon, hardly any of that carbon exists as graphite.</p>
+
+<p>27. <i>Thermal Treatment.</i>&mdash;The hardening, tempering and annealing
+of steel, the chilling and annealing of cast iron, and the annealing of
+malleable cast iron are explained readily by the facts just set forth.</p>
+
+<p>28. <i>The hardening of steel</i> consists in first transforming it into
+austenite by heating it up into region 4 of fig. 1, and then quenching
+it, usually in cold water, so as to cool it very suddenly, and thus to
+deny the time which the complete transformation of the austenite
+into ferrite and cementite requires, and thereby to catch much of
+the iron in transit in the hard brittle &beta; state. In the cold this transformation
+cannot take place, because of molecular rigidity or some
+other impediment. The suddenly cooled metal is hard and brittle,
+because the cold &beta;-iron which it contains is hard and brittle.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:400px; height:362px" src="images/img807b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Graphite-austenite or stable carbon-iron, diagram.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The degree of hardening which the steel undergoes increases with
+its carbon-content, chiefly because, during sudden cooling, the
+presence of carbon acts like a brake to impede the transformations,
+and thus to increase the quantity of &beta;-iron caught in transit, but
+probably also in part because the hardness of this &beta;-iron increases
+with its carbon-content. Thus, though sudden cooling has very
+little effect on steel of 0.10% of carbon, it changes that of 1.50%
+from a somewhat ductile body to one harder and more brittle than
+glass.</p>
+
+<p>29. <i>The Tempering and Annealing of Steel.</i>&mdash;But this sudden cooling
+goes too far, preserving so much &beta;-iron as to make the steel too brittle
+for most purposes. This brittleness has therefore in general to be
+mitigated or &ldquo;tempered,&rdquo; unfortunately at the cost of losing part
+of the hardness proper, by reheating the hardened steel slightly,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page808" id="page808"></a>808</span>
+usually to between 200° and 300° C., so as to relax the molecular
+rigidity and thereby to allow the arrested transformation to go on a
+little farther, shifting a little of the &beta;-iron over into the &alpha; state.
+The higher the tempering-temperature, <i>i.e.</i> that to which the
+hardened steel is thus reheated, the more is the molecular rigidity
+relaxed, the farther on does the transformation go, and the softer
+does the steel become; so that, if the reheating reaches a dull-red
+heat, the transformation from austenite into ferrite and cementite
+completes itself slowly, and when now cooled the steel is as soft and
+ductile as if it had never been hardened. It is now said to be
+&ldquo;annealed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>30. <i>Chilling cast iron</i>, <i>i.e.</i> hastening its cooling by casting it in a
+cool mould, favours the formation of cementite rather than of
+graphite in the freezing of the eutectic at aBc, and also, in case of
+hyper-eutectic iron, in the passage through region 3. Like the
+hardening of steel, it hinders the transformation of the austenite,
+whether primary or eutectic, into pearlite + cementite, and thus
+catches part of the iron in transit in the hard &beta; state. The annealing
+of such iron may occur in either of two degrees&mdash;a small one, as in
+making common chilled cast iron objects, such as railway car wheels,
+or a great one, as in making malleable cast iron. In the former case,
+the objects are heated only to the neighbourhood of Ac<span class="su">1</span>, say to
+730° C., so that the &beta;-iron may slip into the a state, and the transformation
+of the austenite into pearlite and cementite may complete
+itself. The joint effect of such chilling and such annealing is to make
+the metal much harder than if slowly cooled, because for each 1%
+of graphite which the chilling suppresses, 15% of the glass-hard
+cementite is substituted. Thus a cast iron which, if cooled slowly,
+would have been &ldquo;grey,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> would have consisted chiefly of graphite
+with pearlite and ferrite (which are all relatively soft bodies), if thus
+chilled and annealed consists of cementite and pearlite. But in
+most such cases, in spite of the annealing, this hardness is accompanied
+by a degree of brittleness too great for most purposes. The
+process therefore is so managed that only the outer shell of the casting
+is chilled, and that the interior remains graphitic, <i>i.e.</i> grey cast
+iron, soft and relatively malleable.</p>
+
+<p>31. In making <i>malleable castings</i> the annealing, <i>i.e.</i> the change
+towards the stable state of ferrite + graphite, is carried much farther
+by means of a much longer and usually a higher heating than in the
+manufacture of chilled castings. The castings, initially of white
+cast iron, are heated for about a week, to a temperature usually above
+730° C. and often reaching 900° C. (1346° and 1652° F.). For about
+60 hours the heat is held at its highest point, from which it descends
+extremely slowly. The molecular freedom which this high temperature
+gives enables the cementite to change gradually into a mixture
+of graphite and austenite with the result that, after the castings
+have been cooled and their austenite has in cooling past Ac<span class="su">1</span> changed
+into pearlite and ferrite, the mixture of cementite and pearlite of
+which they originally consisted has now given place to one of fine or
+&ldquo;temper&rdquo; graphite and ferrite, with more or less pearlite according to
+the completeness of the transfer of the carbon to the state of graphite.</p>
+
+<p>Why, then, is this material malleable, though the common grey
+cast iron, which is made up of about the same constituents and often
+in about the same proportion, is brittle? The reason is that the
+particles of temper graphite which are thus formed within the solid
+casting in its long annealing are so finely divided that they do not
+break up the continuity of the mass in a very harmful way; whereas
+in grey cast iron both the eutectic graphite formed in solidifying,
+and also the primary graphite which, in case the metal is hyper-eutectic,
+forms in cooling through region 3 of fig. 1, surrounded as
+it is by the still molten mother-metal out of which it is growing,
+form a nearly continuous skeleton of very large flakes, which do break
+up in a most harmful way the continuity of the mass of cast iron in
+which they are embedded.</p>
+
+<p>In carrying out this process the castings are packed in a mass of
+iron oxide, which at this temperature gradually removes the fine or
+&ldquo;temper&rdquo; graphite by oxidizing that in the outer crust to carbonic
+oxide, whereon the carbon farther in begins diffusing outwards by
+&ldquo;molecular migration,&rdquo; to be itself oxidized on reaching the crust.
+This removal of graphite doubtless further stimulates the formation
+of graphite, by relieving the mechanical and perhaps the osmotic
+pressure. Thus, first, for the brittle glass-hard cementite there is
+gradually substituted the relatively harmless temper graphite; and,
+second, even this is in part removed by surface oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>32. <i>Fineness of Structure.</i>&mdash;Each of these ancient processes thus
+consists essentially in so manipulating the temperature that, out
+of the several possible constituents, the metal shall actually consist
+of a special set in special proportions. But in addition there is
+another very important principle underlying many of our thermal
+processes, viz. that the state of aggregation of certain of these constituents,
+and through it the properties of the metal as a whole, are
+profoundly affected by temperature manipulations. Thus, prior
+exposure to a temperature materially above Ac<span class="su">3</span> coarsens the structure
+of most steel, in the sense of giving it when cold a coarse fracture,
+and enlarging the grains of pearlite, &amp;c., later found in the slowly
+cooled metal. This coarsening and the brittleness which accompanies
+it increase with the temperature to which the metal has been exposed.
+Steel which after a slow cooling from about 722° C. will bend 166°
+before breaking, will, after slow cooling from about 1050° C., bend
+only 18° before breaking. This injury fortunately can be cured
+either by <i>reheating</i> the steel to Ac<span class="su">3</span> when it &ldquo;refines,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> returns
+spontaneously to its fine-grained ductile state (<i>cooling</i> past Ar<span class="su">3</span> does
+not have this effect); or by breaking up the coarse grains by <i>mechanical
+distortion</i>, <i>e.g.</i> by forging or rolling. For instance, if steel has
+been coarsened by heating to 1400° C., and if, when it has cooled
+to a lower temperature, say 850° C. we forge it, its grain-size and
+ductility when cold will be approximately those which it would have
+had if heated only to 850°. Hence steel which has been heated very
+highly, whether for welding, or for greatly softening it so that it can
+be rolled to the desired shape with but little expenditure of power,
+ought later to be refined, either by reheating it from below Ar<span class="su">3</span> to
+slightly above Ac<span class="su">3</span> or by rolling it after it has cooled to a relatively
+low temperature, <i>i.e.</i> by having a low &ldquo;finishing temperature.&rdquo;
+Steel castings have initially the extremely coarse structure due to
+cooling without mechanical distortion from their very high temperature
+of solidification; they are &ldquo;annealed,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> this coarseness
+and the consequent brittleness are removed, by reheating them much
+above Ac<span class="su">3</span>, which also relieves the internal stresses due to the different
+rates at which different layers cool, and hence contract, during and
+after solidification. For steel containing less than about 0.13%
+of carbon, the embrittling temperature is in a different range, near
+700° C., and such steel refines at temperatures above 900° C.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>33. <i>The Possibilities of Thermal Treatment.</i>&mdash;When we consider
+the great number of different regions in fig. 1, each with its own
+set of constitutents, and remember that by different rates of
+cooling from different temperatures we can retain in the cold
+metal these different sets of constituents in widely varying
+proportions; and when we further reflect that not only the
+proportion of each constituent present but also its state of
+aggregation can be controlled by thermal treatment, we see
+how vast a field is here opened, how great a variety of different
+properties can be induced in any individual piece of steel, how
+enormous the variety of properties thus attainable in the different
+varieties collectively, especially since for each percentage of
+carbon an incalculable number of varieties of steel may be made
+by alloying it with different proportions of such elements as
+nickel, chromium, &amp;c. As yet there has been only the roughest
+survey of certain limited areas in this great field, the further
+exploration of which will enormously increase the usefulness
+of this wonderful metal.</p>
+
+<p>34. <i>Alloy steels</i> have come into extensive use for important
+special purposes, and a very great increase of their use is to
+be expected. The chief ones are nickel steel, manganese steel,
+chrome steel and chrome-tungsten steel. The general order of
+merit of a given variety or specimen of iron or steel may be
+measured by the degree to which it combines strength and
+hardness with ductility. These two classes of properties tend
+to exclude each other, for, as a general rule, whatever tends
+to make iron and steel hard and strong tends to make it correspondingly
+brittle, and hence liable to break treacherously,
+especially under shock. Manganese steel and nickel steel form
+an important exception to this rule, in being at once very strong
+and hard and extremely ductile. <i>Nickel steel</i>, which usually
+contains from 3 to 3.50% of nickel and about 0.25% of carbon,
+combines very great tensile strength and hardness, and a very
+high limit of elasticity, with great ductility. Its combination
+of ductility with strength and hardening power has given it very
+extended use for the armour of war-vessels. For instance,
+following Krupp&rsquo;s formula, the side and barbette armour of
+war-vessels is now generally if not universally made of nickel
+steel containing about 3.25% of nickel, 0.40% of carbon,
+and 1.50% of chromium, deeply carburized on its impact face.
+Here the merit of nickel steel is not so much that it resists
+perforation, as that it does not crack even when deeply penetrated
+by a projectile. The combination of ductility, which lessens the
+tendency to break when overstrained or distorted, with a very
+high limit of elasticity, gives it great value for shafting, the
+merit of which is measured by its endurance of the repeated
+stresses to which its rotation exposes it whenever its alignment
+is not mathematically straight. The alignment of marine
+shafting, changing with every passing wave, is an extreme
+example. Such an intermittently applied stress is far more
+destructive to iron than a continuous one, and even if it is
+only half that of the limit of elasticity, its indefinite repetition
+eventually causes rupture. In a direct competitive test the
+presence of 3.25% of nickel increased nearly sixfold the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page809" id="page809"></a>809</span>
+number of rotations which a steel shaft would endure before
+breaking.</p>
+
+<p>35. As actually made, <i>manganese steel</i> contains about 12%
+of manganese and 1.50% of carbon. Although the presence
+of 1.50% of manganese makes steel relatively brittle, and
+although a further addition at first increases this brittleness, so
+that steel containing between 4 and 5.5% can be pulverized
+under the hammer, yet a still further increase gives very great
+ductility, accompanied by great hardness&mdash;a combination of
+properties which was not possessed by any other known substance
+when this remarkable alloy, known as Hadfield&rsquo;s manganese
+steel, was discovered. Its ductility, to which it owes its value, is
+profoundly affected by the rate of cooling. Sudden cooling
+makes the metal extremely ductile, and slow cooling makes it
+brittle. Its behaviour in this respect is thus the opposite of
+that of carbon steel. But its great hardness is not materially
+affected by the rate of cooling. It is used extensively for objects
+which require both hardness and ductility, such as rock-crushing
+machinery, railway crossings, mine-car wheels and safes. The
+burglar&rsquo;s blow-pipe locally &ldquo;draws the temper,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> softens a
+spot on a hardened carbon steel or chrome steel safe by simply
+heating it, so that as soon as it has again cooled he can drill
+through it and introduce his charge of dynamite. But neither
+this nor any other procedure softens manganese steel rapidly.
+Yet this very fact that it is unalterably hard has limited its use,
+because of the great difficulty of cutting it to shape, which has
+in general to be done with emery wheels instead of the usual
+iron-cutting tools. Another defect is its relatively low elastic
+limit.</p>
+
+<p>36. <i>Chrome steel</i>, which usually contains about 2% of chromium
+and 0.80 to 2% of carbon, owes its value to combining, when
+in the &ldquo;hardened&rdquo; or suddenly cooled state, intense hardness
+with a high elastic limit, so that it is neither deformed permanently
+nor cracked by extremely violent shocks. For this reason it is
+the material generally if not always used for armour-piercing
+projectiles. It is much used also for certain rock-crushing
+machinery (the shoes and dies of stamp-mills) and for safes.
+These are made of alternate layers of soft wrought iron and
+chrome steel hardened by sudden cooling. The hardness of the
+hardened chrome steel resists the burglar&rsquo;s drill, and the ductility
+of the wrought iron the blows of his sledge.</p>
+
+<p>Vanadium in small quantities, 0.15 or 0.20%, is said to improve
+steel greatly, especially in increasing its resistance to shock
+and to often-repeated stress. But the improvement may be
+due wholly to the considerable chromium content of these so-called
+vanadium steels.</p>
+
+<p>37. <i>Tungsten steel</i>, which usually contains from 5 to 10% of
+tungsten and from 1 to 2% of carbon, is used for magnets,
+because of its great retentivity.</p>
+
+<p>38. <i>Chrome-tungsten or High-speed Steel.</i>&mdash;Steel with a large
+content of both chromium and tungsten has the very valuable
+property of &ldquo;red-hardness,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> of retaining its hardness and
+hence its power of cutting iron and other hard substances,
+even when it is heated to dull redness, say 600° C. (1112° F.) by
+the friction of the work which it is doing. Hence a machinist
+can cut steel or iron nearly six times as fast with a lathe tool
+of this steel as with one of carbon steel, because with the latter
+the cutting speed must be so slow that the cutting tool is not
+heated by the friction above say 250° C. (482° F.), lest it be unduly
+softened or &ldquo;tempered&rdquo; (§ 29). This effect of chromium,
+tungsten and carbon jointly consists essentially in raising the
+&ldquo;tempering temperature,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> that to which the metal, in which
+by suitable thermal treatment the iron molecules have been
+brought to the allotropic &gamma; or &beta; state or a mixture of both, can
+be heated without losing its hardness through the escape of that
+iron into the &alpha; state. In short, these elements seem to impede
+the allotropic change of the iron itself. The composition of this
+steel is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">The usual limits.</td> <td class="tcc">Apparently the best.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon</td> <td class="tcc">0.32 to 1.28</td> <td class="tcc">0.68 to 0.67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Manganese</td> <td class="tcc">0.03 to 0.30</td> <td class="tcc">0.07 to 0.11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chromium</td> <td class="tcc">2.23 to 7.02</td> <td class="tcc">5.95 to 5.47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tungsten</td> <td class="tcc">9.25 to 25.45</td> <td class="tcc">17.81 to 18.19</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>39. <i>Impurities.</i>&mdash;The properties of iron and steel, like those
+of most of the metals, are profoundly influenced by the presence
+of small and sometimes extremely small quantities of certain
+impurities, of which the most important are phosphorus and
+sulphur, the former derived chiefly from apatite (phosphate of
+lime) and other minerals which accompany the iron ore itself,
+the latter from the pyrite found not only in most iron ores but
+in nearly all coal and coke. All commercial iron and steel
+contain more or less of both these impurities, the influence of
+which is so strong that a variation of 0.01%, <i>i.e.</i> of one part in
+10,000, of either of them has a noticeable effect. The best tool
+steel should not contain more than 0.02% of either, and in
+careful practice it is often specified that the phosphorus and
+sulphur respectively shall not exceed 0.04 and 0.05% in the
+steel for important bridges, or 0.06 and 0.07% in rail steel,
+though some very prudent engineers allow as much as .085%
+or even 0.10% of phosphorus in rails.</p>
+
+<p>40. The specific effect of <i>phosphorus</i> is to make the metal
+cold-short, <i>i.e.</i> brittle in the cold, apparently because it increases
+the size and the sharpness of demarcation of the crystalline
+grains of which the mass is made up. The specific effect of <i>sulphur</i>
+is to make the metal red-short, <i>i.e.</i> brittle, when at a red heat,
+by forming a network of iron sulphide which encases these
+crystalline grains and thus plays the part of a weak link in a
+strong chain.</p>
+
+<p>41. <i>Oxygen</i>, probably dissolved in the iron as ferrous oxide
+FeO, also makes the metal red-short.</p>
+
+<p>42. <i>Manganese</i> by itself rather lessens than increases the
+malleableness and, indeed, the general merit of the metal, but
+it is added intentionally, in quantities even as large as 1.5%
+to palliate the effects of sulphur and oxygen. With sulphur
+it forms a sulphide which draws together into almost harmless
+drops, instead of encasing the grains of iron. With oxygen it
+probably forms manganous oxide, which is less harmful than
+ferrous oxide. (See § 35.)</p>
+
+<p>43. <i>Ores of Iron.</i>&mdash;Even though the earth seems to be a huge
+iron meteor with but a thin covering of rocks, the exasperating
+proneness of iron to oxidize explains readily why this metal is
+only rarely found native, except in the form of meteorites.
+They are four important iron ores, magnetite, haematite,
+limonite and siderite, and one of less but still considerable
+importance, pyrite or pyrites.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>44. <i>Magnetite</i>, Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, contains 72.41% of iron. It crystallizes in
+the cubical system, often in beautiful octahedra and rhombic
+dodecahedra. It is black with a black streak. Its specific gravity
+is 5.2, and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5. It is very magnetic, and sometimes
+polar.</p>
+
+<p>45. <i>Haematite</i>, or red haematite, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, contains 70% of iron.
+It crystallizes in the rhombohedral system. Its colour varies from
+brilliant bluish-grey to deep red. Its streak is always red. Its
+specific gravity is 5.3 and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5.</p>
+
+<p>46. <i>Limonite</i>, 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, 3H<span class="su">2</span>O, contains 59.9% of iron. Its colour
+varies from light brown to black. Its streak is yellowish-black,
+its specific gravity 3.6 to 4.0, and its hardness 5 to 5.5. Limonite
+and the related minerals, turgite, 2Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O, and göthite,
+Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O, are grouped together under the term &ldquo;brown haematite.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>47. <i>Siderite</i>, or spathic iron ore, FeCO<span class="su">3</span>, crystallizes in the rhombohedral
+system and contains 48.28% of iron. Its colour varies from
+yellowish-brown to grey. Its specific gravity is 3.7 to 3.9, and its
+hardness 3.5 to 4.5. The clayey siderite of the British coal measures
+is called &ldquo;clay band,&rdquo; and that containing bituminous matter
+is called &ldquo;black band.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>48. <i>Pyrite</i>, FeS<span class="su">2</span>, contains 46.7% of iron. It crystallizes in the
+cubic system, usually in cubes, pentagonal dodecahedra or octahedra,
+often of great beauty and perfection. It is golden-yellow,
+with a greenish or brownish-black streak. Its specific gravity is
+4.83 to 5.2, its hardness 6 to 6.5. Though it contains far too much
+sulphur to be used in iron manufacture without first being desulphurized,
+yet great quantities of slightly cupriferous pyrite, after yielding
+nearly all their sulphur in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and
+most of the remainder in the wet extraction of their copper, are then
+used under the name of &ldquo;blue billy&rdquo; or &ldquo;purple ore,&rdquo; as an ore of
+iron, a use which is likely to increase greatly in importance with the
+gradual exhaustion of the richest deposits of the oxidized ores.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>49. <i>The Ores actually Impure.</i>&mdash;As these five minerals actually
+exist in the earth&rsquo;s crust they are usually more or less impure
+chemically, and they are almost always mechanically mixed with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page810" id="page810"></a>810</span>
+barren mineral matter, such as quartz, limestone and clay,
+collectively called &ldquo;the gangue.&rdquo; In some cases the iron-bearing
+mineral, such as magnetite or haematite, can be separated from
+the gangue after crashing, either mechanically or magnetically,
+so that the part thus enriched or &ldquo;concentrated&rdquo; alone need be
+smelted.</p>
+
+<p>50. <i>Geological Age.</i>&mdash;The Archaean crystalline rocks abound
+in deposits of magnetite and red haematite, many of them very
+large and rich. These of course are the oldest of our ores, and
+from deposits of like age, especially those of the more readily
+decomposed silicates, has come the iron which now exists in the
+siderites and red and brown haematites of the later geological
+formations.</p>
+
+<p>51. <i>The World&rsquo;s Supply of Iron Ore.</i>&mdash;The iron ores of the
+earth&rsquo;s crust will probably suffice to supply our needs for a
+very long period, perhaps indeed for many thousand years.
+It is true that an official statement, which is here reproduced,
+given in 1905 by Professor Tornebohm to the Swedish parliament,
+credited the world with only 10,000,000,000 tons of ore, and that,
+if the consumption of iron should continue to increase hereafter
+as it did between 1893 and 1906, this quantity would last only
+until 1946. How then can it be that there is a supply for
+thousands of years? The two assertions are not to be reconciled
+by pointing out that Professor Tornebohm underestimated, for
+instance crediting the United States with only 1.1 billion tons,
+whereas the United States Geological Survey&rsquo;s expert credits
+that country with from ten to twenty times this quantity;
+nor by pointing out that only certain parts of Europe and a
+relatively small part of North America have thus far been
+carefully explored for iron ore, and that the rest of these two
+continents and South America, Asia and Africa may reasonably
+be expected to yield very great stores of iron, and that pyrite,
+one of the richest and most abundant of ores, has not been
+included. Important as these considerations are, they are
+much less important than the fact that a very large proportion
+of the rocks of the earth&rsquo;s crust contain more or less iron, and
+therefore are potential iron ores.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table II.</span>&mdash;<i>Professor Tornebohm&rsquo;s Estimate of the World&rsquo;s
+Ore Supply.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Workable<br />Deposits.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual<br />Output.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Annual<br />Consumption.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons.</td> <td class="tcc rb">tons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,100,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,200,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,000,900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcr rb">500,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia and Finland</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,500,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,200,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,000,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,000,000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">10,000,000,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">100,000,000</td> <td class="tcr allb">100,000,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Note to Table.</i>&mdash;Though this estimate seems to be near the truth as
+regards the British ores, it does not credit the United States with
+one-tenth, if indeed with one-twentieth, of their true quantity as
+estimated by that country&rsquo;s Geological Survey in 1907.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1">52. <i>What Constitutes an Iron Ore.</i>&mdash;Whether a ferruginous
+rock is or is not ore is purely a question of current demand and
+supply. That is ore from which there is reasonable hope that
+metal can be extracted with profit, if not to-day, then within a
+reasonable length of time. Rock containing 2˝% of gold is ah
+extraordinarily rich gold ore; that with 2˝% of copper is a
+profitable one to-day; that containing 2˝% of iron is not so
+to-day, for the sole reason that its iron cannot be extracted with
+profit in competition with the existing richer ores. But it will
+become a profitable ore as soon as the richer ore shall have
+been exhausted. Very few of the ores which, are mined to-day
+contain less than 25% of iron, and some of them contain over
+60%. As these richest ores are exhausted, poorer and poorer
+ones will be used, and the cost of iron will increase progressively
+if measured either in units of the actual energy used in mining
+and smelting it, or in its power of purchasing animal and vegetable
+products, cotton, wool, corn, &amp;c., the supply of which is renewable
+and indeed capable of very great increase, but probably not if
+measured in its power of purchasing the various mineral products,
+<i>e.g.</i> the other metals, coal, petroleum and the precious stones,
+of which the supply is limited. This is simply one instance of the
+inevitable progressive increase in cost of the irrecreatable mineral
+relatively to the recreatable animal and vegetable. When, in
+the course of centuries, the exhaustion of richer ores shall have
+forced us to mine, crush and concentrate mechanically or by
+magnetism the ores which contain only 2 or 3% of iron, then
+the cost of iron in the ore, measured in terms of the energy
+needed to mine and concentrate it, will be comparable with the
+actual cost of the copper in the ore of the copper-mines of to-day.
+But, intermediate in richness between these two extremes, the
+iron ores mined to-day and these 2 and 3% ores, there is an
+incalculably great quantity of ore capable of mechanical concentration,
+and another perhaps vaster store of ore which we do
+not yet know how to concentrate mechanically, so that the day
+when a pound of iron in the ore will cost as much as a pound of
+copper in the ore costs to-day is immeasurably distant.</p>
+
+<p>53. <i>Future Cost of Ore.</i>&mdash;The cost of iron ore is likely to rise
+much less rapidly than that of coal, because the additions to our
+known supply are likely to be very much greater in the case of
+ore than in that of coal, for the reason that, while rich and great
+iron ore beds may exist anywhere, those of coal are confined
+chiefly to the Carboniferous formation, a fact which has led to the
+systematic survey and measurement of this formation in most
+countries. In short, a very large part of the earth&rsquo;s coal supply
+is known and measured, but its iron ore supply is hardly to be
+guessed. On the other hand, the cost of iron ore is likely to
+rise much faster than that of the potential aluminium ores,
+clay and its derivatives, because of the vast extent and richness
+of the deposits of this latter class. It is possible that, at some
+remote day, aluminium, or one of its alloys, may become the
+great structural material, and iron be used chiefly for those
+objects for which it is especially fitted, such as magnets, springs
+and cutting tools.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In passing, it may be noted that the cost of the ore itself forms
+a relatively small part of the cost even of the cruder forms of steel,
+hardly a quarter of the cost of such simple products as rails, and an
+insignificant part of the cost of many most important finished
+objects, such as magnets, cutting tools, springs and wire, for which
+iron is almost indispensable. Thus, if the use of ores very much
+poorer than those we now treat, and the need of concentrating them
+mechanically, were to double the cost of a pound of iron in the
+concentrated ore ready for smelting, that would increase the cost of
+rails by only one quarter. Hence the addition to the cost of finished
+steel objects which is due to our being forced to use progressively
+poorer and poorer ores is likely to be much less than the addition
+due to the progressive rise in the cost of coal and in the cost of labour,
+because of the ever-rising scale of living. The effect of each of these
+additions will be lessened by the future improvements in processes
+of manufacture, and more particularly by the progressive replacement
+of that ephemeral source of energy, coal, by the secular sources,
+the winds, waves, tides, sunshine, the earth&rsquo;s heat and, greatest of
+all, its momentum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>54. <i>Ore Supply of the Chief Iron-making Countries.</i>&mdash;The
+United States mine nearly all of their iron ores, Austria-Hungary,
+Russia and France mine the greater part of theirs, but none of
+these countries exports much ore. Great Britain and Germany,
+besides mining a great deal of ore, still have to import much
+from Spain, Sweden and in the case of Germany from Luxemburg,
+although, because of the customs arrangement between these
+last two countries, this importation is not usually reported.
+Belgium imports nearly all of its ore, while Sweden and Spain
+export most of the ore which they mine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>55. <i>Great Britain</i> has many valuable ore beds, some rich in iron,
+many of them near to beds of coal and to the sea-coast, to canals or
+to navigable rivers. They extend from Northamptonshire to near
+Glasgow. About two-thirds of the ore mined is clayey siderite.
+In 1905 the Cleveland district in North Yorkshire supplied 41%
+of the total British product of iron ores; Lincolnshire, 14.8%;
+Northamptonshire, 13.9%; Leicestershire, 4.7%; Cumberland,
+8.6%; North Lancashire, 2.7%; Staffordshire, 6.1%; and
+Scotland, 5.7%. The annual production of British iron ore reached
+18,031,957 tons in 1882, but in 1905 it had fallen to 14,590,703 tons,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page811" id="page811"></a>811</span>
+valued at Ł3,482,184. In addition 7,344,786 tons, or about half
+as much as was mined in Great Britain, were imported, 78.5% of
+it from Spain. The most important British ore deposit is the Lower
+Cleveland bed of oolitic siderite in the Middle Lias, near Middlesborough.
+It is from 10 to 17 ft. thick, and its ore contains about
+30% of iron.</p>
+
+<p>56. <i>Geographical Distribution of the British Works.</i>&mdash;Most of the
+British iron works lie in and near the important coal-fields in
+Scotland between the mouth of the Clyde and the Forth, in Cleveland
+and Durham, in Cumberland and Lancashire, in south Yorkshire,
+Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire, in Staffordshire and Northamptonshire,
+and in south Wales in spite of its lack of ore.</p>
+
+<p>The most important group is that of Cleveland and Durham,
+which makes about one-third of all the British pig iron. It has the
+great Cleveland ore bed and the excellent Durham coal near tidewater
+at Middlesbrough. The most important seat of the manufacture
+of cutlery and the finer kinds of steel is at Sheffield.</p>
+
+<p>57. The <i>United States</i> have great deposits of ore in many different
+places. The rich beds near Lake Superior, chiefly red haematite,
+yielding at present about 55% of iron, are thought to contain between
+1˝ and 2 billion tons, and the red and brown haematites of the
+southern states about 10 billion tons. The middle states, New York,
+New Jersey and Pennsylvania, are known to have many great
+deposits of rich magnetite, which supplied a very large proportion
+of the American ores till the discovery of the very cheaply
+mined ores of Lake Superior. In 1906 these latter formed 80%
+of the American production, and the southern states supplied
+about 13% of it, while the rich deposits of the middle states are
+husbanded in accordance with the law that ore bodies are drawn
+on in the order of their apparent profitableness.</p>
+
+<p>The most important American iron-making district is in and
+about Pittsburg, to whose cheap coal the rich Lake Superior ores are
+brought nearly 1000 m., about four-fifths of the distance in the large
+ore steamers of the Great Lakes. Chicago, nearer to the Lake ores,
+though rather far from the Pittsburg coal-field, is a very important
+centre for rail-making for the railroads of the western states. Ohio,
+the Lake Erie end of New York State, eastern Pennsylvania and
+Maryland have very important works, the ore for which comes in
+part from Lake Superior and in part from Pennsylvania, New York
+and Cuba, and the fuel from Pennsylvania and its neighbourhood.
+Tennessee and Alabama in the south rely on southern ore and fuel.</p>
+
+<p>58. <i>Germany</i> gets about two-thirds of her total ore supply from
+the great Jurassic &ldquo;Minette&rdquo; ore deposit of Luxemburg and Lorraine,
+which reaches also into France and Belgium. In spite of its containing
+only about 36% of iron, this deposit is of very great value
+because of its great size, and of the consequent small cost of mining.
+It stretches through an area of about 8 m. wide and 40 m. long, and
+in some places it is nearly 60 ft. thick. There are valuable deposits
+also in Siegerland and in many other parts of the country.</p>
+
+<p>59. <i>Sweden</i> has abundant, rich and very pure iron ores, but her
+lack of coal has restricted her iron manufacture chiefly to the very
+purest and best classes of iron and steel, in making which her thrifty
+and intelligent people have developed very rare skill. The magnetite
+ore bodies which supply this industry lie in a band about 180 m. long,
+reaching from a little north of Stockholm westerly toward the
+Norwegian frontier, between the latitudes 59° and 61° N. In Swedish
+Lapland, near the Arctic circle, are the great Gellivara, Kirunavara
+and Luossavara magnetite beds, among the largest in Europe.
+From these beds, which in some parts are about 300 ft. thick, much
+ore is sent to Germany and Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>60. <i>Other Countries.</i>&mdash;Spain has large, rich and pure iron ore
+beds, near both her northern and her southern sea coast. She exports
+about 90% of all the iron ore which she mines, most of it to England.
+France draws most of her iron ore from her own part of the great
+Minette ore deposit, and from those parts of it which were taken from
+her when she lost Alsace and Lorraine. Russia&rsquo;s most valuable ore
+deposit is the very large and easily mined one of Krivoi Rog in the
+south, from which comes about half of the Russian iron ore. It is
+near the Donetz coal-field, the largest in Europe. There are also
+important ore beds in the Urals, near the border of Finland, and at the
+south of Moscow. In Austria-Hungary, besides the famous Styrian
+Erzberg, with its siderite ore bed about 450 ft. thick, there are cheaply
+mined but poor and impure ores near Prague, and important ore beds
+in both northern and southern Hungary. Algeria, Canada, Cuba
+and India have valuable ore bodies.</p>
+
+<p>61. <i>Richness of Iron Ores.</i>&mdash;The American ores now mined are
+decidedly richer than those of most European countries. To make
+a ton of pig iron needs only about 1.9 tons of ore in the United States,
+2 tons in Sweden and Russia, 2.4 tons in Great Britain and Germany,
+and about 2.7 tons in France and Belgium, while about 3 tons of the
+native British ores are needed per ton of pig iron.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>62. <i>The general scheme of iron manufacture</i> is shown diagrammatically
+in fig. 6. To put the iron contained in iron ore
+into a state in which it can be used as a metal requires essentially,
+first its deoxidation, and second its separation from the other
+mineral matter, such as clay, quartz, &amp;c. with which it is found
+associated. These two things are done simultaneously by heating
+and melting the ore in contact with coke, charcoal or anthracite,
+in the iron blast furnace, from which issue intermittently two
+molten streams, the iron now deoxidized and incidentally
+carburized by the fuel with which it has been in contact, and
+the mineral matter, now called &ldquo;slag.&rdquo; This crude cast iron,
+called &ldquo;pig iron,&rdquo; may be run from the blast furnace directly
+into moulds, which give the metal the final shape in which it
+is to be used in the arts; but it is almost always either remelted,
+following path 1 of fig. 6, and then cast into castings of cast
+iron, or converted into wrought iron or steel by purifying it,
+following path 2.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:493px; height:257px" src="images/img811.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;General Scheme of Iron Manufacture.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>If it is to follow path 1, the castings into which it is made may be
+either (<i>a</i>) grey or (<i>b</i>) chilled or (<i>c</i>) malleable. Grey iron castings are
+made by remelting the pig iron either in a small shaft or &ldquo;cupola&rdquo;
+furnace, or in a reverberatory or &ldquo;air&rdquo; furnace, with very little
+change of chemical composition, and then casting it directly into
+suitable moulds, usually of either &ldquo;baked,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> oven-dried, or
+&ldquo;green,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> moist undried, sand, but sometimes of iron covered
+with a refractory coating to protect it from being melted or overheated
+by the molten cast iron. The general procedure in the manufacture
+of chilled and of malleable castings has been described in
+§§ 30 and 31.</p>
+
+<p>If the pig iron is to follow path 2, the purification which converts
+it into wrought iron or steel consists chiefly in oxidizing and thereby
+removing its carbon, phosphorus and other impurities, while it is
+molten, either by means of the oxygen of atmospheric air blown
+through it as in the Bessemer process, or by the oxygen of iron ore
+stirred into it as in the puddling and Bell-Krupp processes, or by
+both together as in the open hearth process.</p>
+
+<p>On its way from the blast furnace to the converter or open hearth
+furnace the pig iron is often passed through a great reservoir called
+a &ldquo;mixer,&rdquo; which acts also as an equalizer, to lessen the variation in
+composition of the cast iron, and as a purifier, removing part of the
+sulphur and silicon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>63. <i>Shaping and Adjusting Processes.</i>&mdash;Besides these extraction
+and purification processes there are those of adjustment
+and shaping. The <i>adjusting processes</i> adjust either the
+ultimate composition, <i>e.g.</i> carburizing wrought iron by long
+heating in contact with charcoal (cementation), or the proximate
+composition or constitution, as in the hardening, tempering
+and annealing of steel already described (§§ 28, 29), or both,
+as in the process of making malleable cast iron (§ 31). The
+<i>shaping processes</i> include the <i>mechanical</i> ones, such as rolling,
+forging and wire-drawing, and the <i>remelting</i> ones such as the
+crucible process of melting wrought iron or steel in crucibles
+and casting it in ingots for the manufacture of the best kinds
+of tool steel. Indeed, the remelting of cast iron to make grey
+iron castings belongs here. This classification, though it helps
+to give a general idea of the subject, yet like most of its kind
+cannot be applied rigidly. Thus the crucible process in its
+American form both carburizes and remelts, and the open
+hearth process is often used rather for remelting than for
+purifying.</p>
+
+<p>64. The <i>iron blast furnace</i>, a crude but very efficient piece
+of apparatus, is an enormous shaft usually about 80 ft. high
+and 20 ft. wide at its widest part. It is at all times full from
+top to bottom, somewhat as sketched in figs. 7 and 8, of a solid
+column of lumps of fuel, ore and limestone, which are charged
+through a hopper at the top, and descend slowly as the lower
+end of the column is eaten off through the burning away of
+its coke by means of very hot air or &ldquo;blast&rdquo; blown through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page812" id="page812"></a>812</span>
+holes or &ldquo;tuyeres&rdquo; near the bottom or &ldquo;hearth,&rdquo; and through
+the melting away, by the heat thus generated, both of the iron
+itself which has been deoxidized in its descent, and of the other
+minerals of the ore, called the &ldquo;gangue,&rdquo; which unite with the
+lime of the limestone and the ash of the fuel to form a complex
+molten silicate called the &ldquo;cinder&rdquo; or &ldquo;slag.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:526px; height:1340px" src="images/img812a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Section of Duquesne Blast Furnace.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>GG, Flanges on the ore bucket;</p>
+<p>HH, Fixed flanges on the top of the furnace;</p>
+<p>J, Counterweighted false bell;</p>
+<p>K, Main bell;</p>
+<p>O, Tuyere;</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>P, Cinder notch;</p>
+<p>RR&prime;, Water cooled boxes;</p>
+<p>S, Blast pipe;</p>
+<p>T, Cable for allowing conical bottom of bucket to drop.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:373px; height:399px" src="images/img812b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Lower Part of the Blast Furnace.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:77px" src="images/img812c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>* The ore and lime actually exist here in powder. They are
+shown in lump form because of the difficulty of presenting to the
+eye their powdered state.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:537px" src="images/img812d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Method of transferring charge from bucket to main charging
+bell, without permitting escape of furnace gas (lettering as in
+fig. 7).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Interpenetrating this descending column of solid ore, limestone
+and coke, there is an upward rushing column of hot gases, the
+atmospheric nitrogen of the blast from the tuyeres, and the
+carbonic oxide from the combustion of the coke by that blast.
+The upward ascent of the column of gases is as swift as the
+descent of the solid charge is slow. The former occupies but a
+very few seconds, the latter from 12 to 15 hours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page813" id="page813"></a>813</span></p>
+
+<p>In the upper part of the furnace the carbonic oxide deoxidizes
+the iron oxide of the ore by such reactions as xCO + FeO<span class="su">x</span> =
+Fe + xCO<span class="su">2</span>. Part of the resultant carbonic acid is again deoxidized
+to carbonic oxide by the surrounding fuel, CO<span class="su">2</span> + C = 2CO,
+and the carbonic oxide thus formed deoxidizes more iron oxide,
+&amp;c. As indicated in fig. 7, before the iron ore has descended
+very far it has given up nearly the whole of its oxygen, and thus
+lost its power of oxidizing the rising carbonic oxide, so that
+from here down the atmosphere of the furnace consists essentially
+of carbonic oxide and nitrogen.</p>
+
+<p>But the transfer of heat from the rising gases to the sinking
+solids, which has been going on in the upper part of the furnace,
+continues as the solid column gradually sinks downward to
+the hearth, till at the &ldquo;fusion level&rdquo; (A in fig. 7) the solid
+matter has become so hot that the now deoxidized iron melts,
+as does the slag as fast as it is formed by the union of its three
+constituents, the gangue, the lime resulting from the decomposition
+of the limestone and the ash of the fuel. Hence from
+this level down the only solid matter is the coke, in lumps which
+are burning rapidly and hence shrinking, while between them
+the molten iron and slag trickle, somewhat as sketched in fig. 8,
+to collect in the hearth in two layers as distinct as water and
+oil, the iron below, the slag above.</p>
+
+<p>As they collect, the molten iron is drawn off at intervals
+through a hole A (fig. 8), temporarily stopped with clay, at the
+very bottom, and the slag through another hole a little higher
+up, called the &ldquo;cinder notch.&rdquo; Thus the furnace may be said
+to have four zones, those of (1) deoxidation, (2) heating, (3)
+melting, and (4) collecting, though of course the heating is
+really going on in all four of them.</p>
+
+<p>In its slow descent the deoxidized iron nearly saturates
+itself with carbon, of which it usually contains between 3.5
+and 4%, taking it in part from the fuel with which it is in such
+intimate contact, and in part from the finely divided carbon
+deposited within the very lumps of ore, by the reaction 2CO =
+C + CO<span class="su">2</span>. This carburizing is an indispensable part of the process,
+because through it alone can the iron be made fusible enough
+to melt at the temperature which can be generated in the furnace,
+and only when liquid can it be separated readily and completely
+from the slag. In fact, the molten iron is heated so far above
+its melting point that, instead of being run at once into pigs
+as is usual, it may, without solidifying, be carried even several
+miles in large clay-lined ladles to the mill where it is to be
+converted into steel.</p>
+
+<p>65. The <i>fuel</i> has, in addition to its duties of deoxidizing
+and carburizing the iron and yielding the heat needed for melting
+both the iron and slag, the further task of desulphurizing the
+iron, probably by the reaction FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The desulphurizing effect of this transfer of the sulphur from
+union with iron to union with calcium is due to the fact that, whereas
+iron sulphide dissolves readily in the molten metallic iron, calcium
+sulphide, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, does not, but by
+preference enters the slag, which may thus absorb even as much as
+3% of sulphur. This action is of great importance whether the
+metal is to be used as cast iron or is to be converted into wrought
+iron or steel. In the former case there is no later chance to remove
+sulphur, a minute quantity of which does great harm by leading
+to the formation of cementite instead of graphite and ferrite, and
+thus making the cast-iron castings too hard to be cut to exact shape
+with steel tools; in the latter case the converting or purifying processes,
+which are essentially oxidizing ones, though they remove
+the other impurities, carbon, silicon, phosphorus and manganese,
+are not well adapted to desulphurizing, which needs rather deoxidizing
+conditions, so as to cause the formation of calcium sulphide, than
+oxidizing ones.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>66. The <i>duty of the limestone</i> (CaCO<span class="su">3</span>) is to furnish enough
+lime to form with the gangue of the ore and the ash of the
+fuel a lime silicate or slag of such a composition (1) that it
+will melt at the temperature which it reaches at about level
+A, of fig. 7, (2) that it will be fluid enough to run out through
+the cinder notch, and (3) that it will be rich enough in lime
+to supply that needed for the desulphurizing reaction
+FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO. In short, its duty is to &ldquo;flux&rdquo;
+the gangue and ash, and wash out the sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>67. In order that the <i>slag</i> shall have these properties its
+composition usually lies between the following limits: silica,
+26 to 35%; lime, <i>plus</i> 1.4 times the magnesia, 45 to 55%;
+alumina, 5 to 20%. Of these the silica and alumina are chiefly
+those which the gangue of the ore and the ash of the fuel introduce,
+whereas the lime is that added intentionally to form with
+these others a slag of the needed physical properties.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Thus the more gangue the ore contains, <i>i.e.</i> the poorer it is in iron,
+the more limestone must in general be added, and hence the more
+slag results, though of course an ore the gangue of which initially
+contains much lime and little silica needs a much smaller addition
+of limestone than one of which the gangue is chiefly silica. Further,
+the more sulphur there is to remove, the greater must be the quantity
+of slag needed to dissolve it as calcium sulphide. In smelting the
+rich Lake Superior ores the quantity of slag made was formerly as
+small as 28% of that of the pig iron, whereas in smelting the Cleveland
+ores of Great Britain it is usually necessary to make as much as
+1˝ tons of slag for each ton of iron.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>68. <i>Shape and Size of the Blast-Furnace.</i>&mdash;Large size has here,
+as in most metallurgical operations, not only its usual advantage
+of economy of installation, labour and administration per unit
+of product, but the further very important one that it lessens
+the proportion which the outer heat-radiating and hence heat-wasting
+surface bears to the whole. The limits set to the furnace
+builder&rsquo;s natural desire to make his furnace as large as possible,
+and its present shape (an obtuse inverted cone set below an
+acute upright one, both of them truncated), have been reached
+in part empirically, and in part by reasoning which is open
+to question, as indeed are the reasons which will now be offered
+reservedly for both size and shape.</p>
+
+<p>First the width at the tuyeres (fig. 7) has generally been
+limited to about 12˝ ft. by the fear that, if it were greater,
+the blast would penetrate so feebly to the centre that the difference
+in conditions between centre and circumference would
+be so great as to cause serious unevenness of working. Of
+late furnaces have been built even as wide as 17 ft. in the hearth,
+and it may prove that a width materially greater than 12˝ ft.
+can profitably be used. With the width at the bottom thus
+limited, the furnace builder naturally tries to gain volume as
+rapidly as possible by flaring or &ldquo;battering&rdquo; his walls outwards,
+<i>i.e.</i> by making the &ldquo;bosh&rdquo; or lower part of his furnace an
+inverted cone as obtuse as is consistent with the free descent
+of the solid charge. In practice a furnace may be made to
+work regularly if its boshes make an angle of between 73° and
+76° with the horizontal, and we may assume that one element
+of this regularity is the regular easy sliding of the charge over
+this steep slope. A still steeper one not only gives less available
+room, but actually leads to irregular working, perhaps because
+it unduly favours the passage of the rising gas along the walls
+instead of up and through the charge, and thus causes the
+deoxidation of the central core to lag behind that of the periphery
+of the column, with the consequence that this central core arrives
+at the bottom incompletely deoxidized.</p>
+
+<p>In the very swift-running furnaces of the Pittsburg type
+this outward flare of the boshes ceases at about 12 ft. above
+the tuyeres, and is there reversed, as in fig. 7, so that the furnace
+above this is a very acute upright cone, the walls of which
+make an angle of about 4° with the vertical, instead of an obtuse
+inverted cone.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In explanation or justification of this it has been said that a much
+easier descent must be provided above this level than is needed
+below it. Below this level the solid charge descends easily, because
+it consists of coke alone or nearly alone, and this in turn because the
+temperature here is so high as to melt not only the iron now deoxidized
+and brought to the metallic state, but also the gangue of the
+ore and the limestone, which here unite to form the molten slag,
+and run freely down between the lumps of coke. This coke descends
+freely even through this fast-narrowing space, because it is perfectly
+solid and dry without a trace of pastiness. But immediately above
+this level the charge is relatively viscous, because here the temperature
+has fallen so far that it is now at the melting or formation point of
+the slag, which therefore is pasty, liable to weld the whole mass
+together as so much tar would, and thus to obstruct the descent of
+the charge, or in short to &ldquo;scaffold.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The reason why at this level the walls must form an upright
+instead of an inverted cone, why the furnace must widen downward
+instead of narrowing, is, according to some metallurgists, that this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page814" id="page814"></a>814</span>
+shape is needed in order that, in spite of the pastiness of the slag in
+this formative period of incipient fusion, this layer may descend
+freely as the lower part of the column is gradually eaten away.
+To this very plausible theory it may be objected that in many slow-running
+furnaces, which work very regularly and show no sign of
+scaffolding, the outward flare of the boshes continues (though
+steepened) far above this region of pastiness, indeed nearly half-way
+to the top of the furnace. This proves that the regular descent of the
+material in its pasty state can take place even in a space which is
+narrowing downwards. To this objection it may in turn be answered
+that, though this degree of freedom of descent may suffice for a slow-running
+furnace, particularly if the slag is given such a composition
+that it passes quickly from the solid state to one of decided fluidity,
+yet it is not enough for swift-running ones, especially if the composition
+of the slag is such that, in melting, it remains long in a very
+sticky condition. In limiting the diameter at the tuyeres to 12˝ ft.,
+the height of the boshes to one which will keep their upper end
+below the region of pastiness, and their slope to one over which the
+burning coke will descend freely, we limit the width of the furnace
+at the top of the boshes and thus complete the outline of the lower
+part of the furnace.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The height of the furnace is rarely as great as 100 ft., and in
+the belief of many metallurgists it should not be much more
+than 80 ft. There are some very evident disadvantages of
+excessive height; for instance, that the weight of an excessively
+high column of solid coke, ore and limestone tends to crush the
+coke and jam the charge in the lower and narrowing part of the
+furnace, and that the frictional resistance of a long column
+calls for a greater consumption of power for driving the blast
+up through it. Moreover, this resistance increases much more
+rapidly than the height of the furnace, even if the rapidity with
+which the blast is forced through is constant; and it still further
+increases if the additional space gained by lengthening the
+furnace is made useful by increasing proportionally the rate
+of production, as indeed would naturally be done, because
+the chief motive for gaining this additional space is to increase
+production.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The reason why the frictional resistance would be further increased
+is the very simple one that the increase in the rate of production
+implies directly a corresponding increase in the quantity of blast
+forced through, and hence in the velocity of the rising gases, because
+the chemical work of the blast furnace needs a certain quantity of
+blast for each ton of iron made. In short, to increase the rate of
+production by lengthening the furnace increases the frictional
+resistance of the rising gases, both by increasing their quantity and
+hence their velocity and by lengthening their path.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, one important reason for the difficulties in working very
+high furnaces, <i>e.g.</i> those 100 ft. high, may be that this frictional
+resistance becomes so great as actually to interrupt the even descent
+of the charge, parts of which are at times suspended like a ball in
+the rising jet of a fountain, to fall perhaps with destructive violence
+when some shifting condition momentarily lessens the friction.
+We see how powerful must be the lifting effect of the rising gases
+when we reflect that their velocity in a 100 ft. furnace rapidly driven
+is probably at least as great as 2000 ft. per minute, or that of a
+&ldquo;high wind.&rdquo; Conceive these gases passing at this great velocity
+through the narrow openings between the adjoining lumps of coke
+and ore. Indeed, the velocity must be far greater than this where the
+edge or corner of one lump touches the side of another, and the only
+room for the passage of this enormous quantity of gas is that left
+by the roughness and irregularity of the individual lumps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The furnace is made rather narrow at the top or &ldquo;stock line,&rdquo;
+in order that the entering ore, fuel and flux may readily be
+distributed evenly. But extreme narrowness would not only
+cause the escaping gases to move so swiftly that they would sweep
+much of the fine ore out of the furnace, but would also throw
+needless work on the blowing engines by throttling back the
+rising gases, and would lessen unduly the space available for
+the charge in the upper part of the furnace.</p>
+
+<p>From its top down, the walls of the furnace slope outward at
+an angle of between 3° and 8°, partly in order to ease the descent
+of the charge, here impeded by the swelling of the individual
+particles of ore caused by the deposition within them of great
+quantities of fine carbon, by the reaction of 2CO = C + CO<span class="su">2</span>.
+To widen it more abruptly would indeed increase the volume of
+the furnace, but would probably lead to grave irregularities in
+the distribution of the gas and charge, and hence in the working
+of the furnace.</p>
+
+<p>When we have thus fixed the height of the furnace, its
+diameter at its ends, and the slope of its upper and lower
+parts, we have completed its outline closely enough for our
+purpose here.</p>
+
+<p>69. <i>Hot Blast and Dry Blast.</i>&mdash;On its way from the blowing
+engine to the tuyeres of the blast-furnace, the blast, <i>i.e.</i> the air
+forced in for the purpose of burning the fuel, is usually pre-heated,
+and in some of the most progressive works is dried by Gayley&rsquo;s
+refrigerating process. These steps lead to a saving of fuel so
+great as to be astonishing at first sight&mdash;indeed in case of Gayley&rsquo;s
+blast-drying process incredible to most writers, who proved
+easily and promptly to their own satisfaction that the actual
+saving was impossible. But the explanation is really so very
+simple that it is rather the incredulity of these writers that is
+astonishing. In the hearth of the blast furnace the heat made
+latent by the fusion of the iron and slag must of course be supplied
+by some body which is itself at a temperature above the melting
+point of these bodies, which for simplicity of exposition we may
+call the critical temperature of the blast-furnace process, because
+heat will flow only from a hotter to a cooler object. Much the
+same is true of the heat needed for the deoxidation of the silica,
+SiO<span class="su">2</span> + 2C = Si + 2CO<span class="su">2</span>. Now the heat developed by the combustion
+of coke to carbonic oxide with cold air containing the
+usual quantity of moisture, develops a temperature only slightly
+above this critical point; and it is only the heat represented by
+this narrow temperature-margin that is available for doing this
+critical work of fusion and deoxidation. That is the crux of the
+matter. If by pre-heating the blast we add to the sum of the
+heat available; or if by drying it we subtract from the work
+to be done by that heat the quantity needed for decomposing
+the atmospheric moisture; or if by removing part of its nitrogen
+we lessen the mass over which the heat developed has to be
+spread&mdash;if by any of these means we raise the temperature
+developed by the combustion of the coke, it is clear that we
+increase the proportion of the total heat which is available for
+this critical work in exactly the way in which we should increase
+the proportion of the water of a stream, initially 100 in. deep,
+which should flow over a waste weir initially 1 in. beneath the
+stream&rsquo;s surface, by raising the upper surface of the water 10 in.
+and thus increasing the depth of the water to 110 in. Clearly
+this raising the level of the water by 10% increases tenfold, or
+by 1000%, the volume of water which is above the level of the
+weir.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The special conditions of the blast-furnace actually exaggerate
+the saving due to this widening of the available temperature-margin,
+and beyond this drying the blast does great good by preventing the
+serious irregularities in working the furnace caused by changes in
+the humidity of the air with varying weather.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>70. <i>Means of Heating the Blast.</i>&mdash;After the ascending column
+of gases has done its work of heating and deoxidizing the ore,
+it still necessarily contains so much carbonic oxide, usually
+between 20 and 26% by weight, that it is a very valuable fuel,
+part of which is used for raising steam for generating the blast
+itself and driving the rolling mill engines, &amp;c., or directly in
+gas engines, and the rest for heating the blast. This heating
+was formerly done by burning part of the gases, after their
+escape from the furnace top, in a large combustion chamber,
+around a series of cast iron pipes through which the blast passed
+on its way from the blowing engine to the tuyeres. But these
+&ldquo;iron pipe stoves&rdquo; are fast going out of use, chiefly because
+they are destroyed quickly if an attempt is made to heat the
+blast above 1000° F. (538° C.), often a very important thing.
+In their place the regenerative stoves of the Whitwell and
+Cowper types (figs. 10 and 11) are used. With these the regular
+temperature of the blast at some works is about 1400° F.
+(760° C.), and the usual blast temperature lies between 900°
+and 1200° F. (480° and 650° C.).</p>
+
+<p>Like the Siemens furnace, described in § 99, they have two
+distinct phases: one, &ldquo;on gas,&rdquo; during which part of the waste
+gas of the blast-furnace is burnt within the stove, highly heating
+the great surface of brickwork which for that purpose is provided
+within it; the other, &ldquo;on wind,&rdquo; during which the blast is
+heated by passing it back over these very surfaces which
+have thus been heated. They are heat-filters or heat-traps for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page815" id="page815"></a>815</span>
+impounding the heat developed by the combustion of the furnace
+gas, and later returning it to the blast. Each blast-furnace is
+now provided with three or even four of these stoves, which
+collectively may be nearly thrice as large as the furnace itself.
+At any given time one of these is &ldquo;on wind&rdquo; and the others
+&ldquo;on gas.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:349px; height:627px" src="images/img815a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Whitwell Hot-Blast Stove, as
+modified by H. Kennedy. When &ldquo;on wind,&rdquo;
+the cold blast is forced in at A, and passes
+four times up and down, as shown by means
+of unbroken arrows, escaping as hot-blast at
+B. When &ldquo;on gas,&rdquo; the gas and air enter at
+the bottom of each of the three larger
+vertical chambers, pass once up through the
+stove, and escape at the top, as shown by
+means of broken arrows. Hence this is a four-pass
+stove when on wind, but a one-pass
+stove when on gas.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">The Whitwell stove (fig. 10), by means of the surface of several
+fire-brick walls, catches in one phase the heat evolved by the burning
+gas as it sweeps
+through, and in the
+other phase returns
+that heat to the
+entering blast as it
+sweeps through from
+left to right. In the
+original Whitwell
+stove, which lacks
+the chimneys shown
+at the top of fig. 10,
+both the burning gas
+and the blast pass
+up and down repeatedly.
+In the H.
+Kennedy modification,
+shown in fig. 10,
+the gas and air in
+one phase enter at
+the bottom of all
+three of the large
+vertical chambers,
+burn in passing upwards,
+and escape at
+once at the top, as
+shown by the broken
+arrows. In the other
+phase the cold blast,
+forced in at A, passes
+four times up and
+down, as shown by
+the unbroken arrows,
+and escapes as hot
+blast at B. This,
+then, is a &ldquo;one-pass&rdquo;
+stove when on gas
+but a &ldquo;four-pass&rdquo;
+one when on wind.</p>
+
+<p>The Cowper stove
+(Fig. 11) differs from
+the Whitwell (1) in
+having not a series
+of flat smooth walls,
+but a great number
+of narrow vertical
+flues, E, for the alternate
+absorption and
+emission of the heat,
+with the consequence
+that, for given outside
+dimensions, it
+offers about one-half
+more heating surface than the true Whitwell stove; and (2)
+in that the gas and the blast pass only once up and once down
+through it, instead of twice up and twice down as in the modern
+true Whitwell stoves. As regards frictional resistance, this smaller
+number of reversals of direction compensates in a measure for the
+smaller area of the Cowper flues. The large combustion chamber
+B permits thorough combustion of the gas.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>71. <i>Preservation of the Furnace Walls.</i>&mdash;The combined fluxing
+and abrading action of the descending charge tends to wear
+away the lining of the furnace where it is hottest, which of
+course is near its lower end, thus changing its shape materially,
+lessening its efficiency, and in particular increasing its consumption
+of fuel. The walls, therefore, are now made thin, and are
+thoroughly cooled by water, which circulates through pipes or
+boxes bedded in them. James Gayley&rsquo;s method of cooling, shown
+in fig. 7, is to set in the brickwork walls several horizontal rows
+of flat water-cooled bronze boxes, RR&prime;, extending nearly to the
+interior of the furnace, and tapered so that they can readily be
+withdrawn and replaced in case they burn through. The brickwork
+may wear back to the front edges of these boxes, or even,
+as is shown at R&prime;, a little farther. But in the latter case their
+edges still determine the effective profile of the furnace walls
+because the depressions at the back of these edges become filled
+with carbon and scoriaceous matter when the furnace is in normal
+working. Each of these rows, of which five are shown in fig. 7,
+consists of a great number of short segmental boxes.</p>
+
+<p>72. <i>Blast-furnace Gas Engines.</i>&mdash;When the gas which escapes
+from the furnace top is used in gas engines it generates about
+four times as much power as when it is used for raising steam.
+It has been calculated that the gas from a pair of old-fashioned
+blast-furnaces making 1600 tons of iron per week would in this
+way yield some 16,000 horse-power in excess of their own needs,
+and that all the available blast-furnace gas in the United States
+would develop about 1,500,000 horse-power, to develop which
+by raising steam would need about 20,000,000 tons of coal a
+year. Of this power about half would be used at the blast-furnaces
+themselves,
+leaving
+750,000 horse-power
+available
+for driving the
+machinery of the
+rolling mills, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:357px; height:856px" src="images/img815b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Cowper Hot-Blast
+Stove at Duquesne. (After J. Kennedy.) Broken
+arrows show the path of the gas and air
+while the stove is &ldquo;on gas,&rdquo; and solid arrows
+that of the blast while it is &ldquo;on wind.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A, Entrance for blast-furnace gas.</p>
+<p>B, B, Combustion chamber.</p>
+<p>C, Chimney valve.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>D, Cold blast main.</p>
+<p>E, Hollow bricks.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">This use of the gas
+engine is likely to
+have far-reaching
+results. In order to
+utilize this power,
+the converting mill,
+in which the pig iron
+is converted into
+steel, and the rolling
+mills must adjoin
+the blast-furnace.
+The numerous converting
+mills which
+treat pig iron made
+at a distance will
+now have the crushing
+burden of providing
+in other ways
+the power which
+their rivals get from
+the blast-furnace, in
+addition to the severe
+disadvantage under
+which they already
+suffer, of wasting the
+initial heat of the
+molten cast iron as
+it runs from the blast-furnace.
+Before its
+use in the gas engine,
+the blast-furnace gas
+has to be freed carefully
+from the large
+quantity of fine ore
+dust which it carries
+in suspension.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>73. <i>Mechanical
+Appliances.</i>&mdash;Moving
+the raw materials
+and the products:
+In order to
+move economically
+the great quantity
+of materials which
+enter and issue from
+each furnace daily,
+mechanical appliances
+have at many
+works displaced
+hand labour wholly,
+and indeed that any
+of the materials
+should be shovelled by hand is not to be thought of in designing
+new works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The arrangement at the Carnegie Company&rsquo;s Duquesne works
+(fig. 12) may serve as an example of modern methods of handling.
+The standard-gauge cars which bring the ore and coke to Duquesne
+pass over one of three very long rows of bins, A, B, and C (fig. 12),
+of which A and B receive the materials (ore, coke and limestone)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page816" id="page816"></a>816</span>
+for immediate use, while C receives those to be stored for winter
+use. From A and B the materials are drawn as they are needed
+into large buckets D standing on cars, which carry them to the foot
+of the hoist track EE, up which they are hoisted to the top of the
+furnace. Arrived here, the material is introduced into the furnace
+by an ingenious piece of mechanism which completely prevents the
+furnace gas from escaping into the air. The hoist-engineer in the
+house F at the foot of the furnace, when informed by means of an
+indicator that the bucket has arrived at the top, lowers it so that
+its flanges GG (fig. 7) rest on the corresponding fixed flanges HH, as
+shown in fig. 9. The farther descent of the bucket being thus
+arrested, the special cable T is now slackened, so that the conical
+bottom of the bucket drops down, pressing down by its weight the
+counter-weighted false cover J of the furnace, so that the contents
+of the bucket slide down into the space between this false cover
+and the true charging bell, K. The special cable T is now tightened
+again, and lifts the bottom of the bucket so as both to close it and
+to close the space between J and K, by allowing J to rise back to
+its initial place. The bucket then descends along the hoist-track
+to make way for the next succeeding one, and K is lowered, dropping
+the charge into the furnace. Thus some 1700 tons of materials
+are charged daily into each of these furnaces without being shovelled
+at all, running by gravity from bin to bucket and from bucket to
+furnace, and being hoisted and charged into the furnace by a single
+engineer below, without any assistance or supervision at the
+furnace-top.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:900px; height:375px" src="images/img816a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the Carnegie Blast-Furnace Plant at Duquesne, Pa.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A and B, Bins for stock for immediate use.</p>
+<p>C, Receiving bin for winter stock pile.</p>
+<p>D, D, Ore bucket.</p>
+<p>EE, Hoist-track.</p>
+<p>F, Hoist-engine house.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>LL, Travelling crane commanding stock pile.</p>
+<p>M, Ore bucket receiving ore for stock pile.</p>
+<p>M&prime;, Bucket removing ore from stock pile.</p>
+<p>N, N, N, Ladles carrying the molten cast iron to the works, where
+  it is converted into steel by the open hearth process.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The winter stock of materials is drawn from the left-hand row of
+bins, and distributed over immense stock piles by means of the
+great crane LL (fig. 12), which transfers it as it is needed to the
+row A of bins, whence it is carried to the furnace, as already explained.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>74. <i>Casting the Molten Pig Iron.</i>&mdash;The molten pig iron at many
+works is still run directly from the furnace into sand or iron
+moulds arranged in a way which suggests a nursing litter of pigs;
+hence the name &ldquo;pig iron.&rdquo; These pigs are then usually broken
+by hand. The Uehling casting machine (fig. 13) has displaced
+this method in many works. It consists essentially of a series
+of thin-walled moulds, BB, carried by endless chains past the
+lip of a great ladle A. This pours into them the molten cast iron
+which it has just received directly from the blast-furnace. As
+the string of moulds, each thus containing a pig, moves slowly
+forward, the pigs solidify and cool, the more quickly because
+in transit they are sprayed with water or even submerged in
+water in the tank EE. Arrived at the farther sheave C, the now
+cool pigs are dumped into a railway car.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:900px; height:304px" src="images/img816b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Pig-Casting Machine.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Ladle bringing the cast iron from the blast-furnace.</p>
+<p>BB, The moulds.</p>
+<p>C, D, Sheaves carrying the endless chain of moulds.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>EE, Tank in which the moulds are submerged.</p>
+<p>F, Car into which the cooled pigs are dropped.</p>
+<p>G, Distributing funnel.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">Besides a great saving of labour, only partly offset by the cost of
+repairs, these machines have the great merit of making the management
+independent of a very troublesome set of labourers, the hand
+pig-breakers, who were not only absolutely indispensable for every
+cast and every day, because the pig iron must be removed promptly
+to make way for the next succeeding cast of iron, but very difficult
+to replace because of the great
+physical endurance which their
+work requires.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>75. <i>Direct Processes for making
+Wrought Iron and Steel.</i>&mdash;The
+present way of getting the iron of the ore into the form of wrought
+iron and steel by first making cast iron and then purifying it,
+<i>i.e.</i> by first putting carbon and silicon into the iron and then
+taking them out again at great expense, at first sight seems
+so unreasonably roundabout that many &ldquo;direct&rdquo; processes
+of extracting the iron without thus charging it with carbon and
+silicon have been proposed, and some of them have at times been
+important. But to-day they have almost ceased to exist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>That the blast-furnace process must be followed by a purifying
+one, that carburization must at once be undone by decarburization,
+is clearly a disadvantage, but it is one which is far out weighed by
+five important incidental advantages. (1) The strong deoxidizing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page817" id="page817"></a>817</span>
+action incidental to this carburizing removes the sulphur easily and
+cheaply, a thing hardly to be expected of any direct process so far
+as we can see. (2) The carburizing incidentally carburizes the
+brickwork of the furnace, and thus protects it against corrosion by
+the molten slag. (3) It protects the molten iron against reoxidation,
+the greatest stumbling block in the way of the direct processes
+hitherto. (4) This same strong deoxidizing action leads to the
+practically complete deoxidation and hence extraction of the iron.
+(5) In that carburizing lowers the melting point of the iron greatly,
+it lowers somewhat the temperature to which the mineral matter of
+the ore has to be raised in order that the iron may be separated
+from it, because this separation requires that both iron and slag
+shall be very fluid. Indeed, few if any of the direct processes have
+attempted to make this separation, or to make it complete, leaving
+it for some subsequent operation, such as the open hearth process.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, the blast-furnace uses a very cheap source of energy,
+coke, anthracite, charcoal, and even certain kinds of raw bituminous
+coal, and owing first to the intimacy of contact between this fuel and
+the ore on which it works, and second to the thoroughness of the
+transfer of heat from the products of that fuel&rsquo;s combustion in
+their long upward journey through the descending charge, even
+this cheap energy is used most effectively.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we have reasons enough why the blast-furnace has displaced
+all competing processes, without taking into account its further
+advantage in lending itself easily to working on an enormous scale
+and with trifling consumption of labour, still further lessened by the
+general practice of transferring the molten cast iron in enormous
+ladles into the vessels in which its conversion into steel takes place.
+Nevertheless, a direct process may yet be made profitable under
+conditions which specially favour it, such as the lack of any fuel
+suitable for the blast-furnace, coupled with an abundance of cheap
+fuel suitable for a direct process and of cheap rich ore nearly free
+from sulphur.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>76. The chief difficulty in the way of modifying the blast-furnace
+process itself so as to make it accomplish what the direct
+processes aim at, by giving its product less carbon and silicon
+than pig iron as now made contains, is the removal of the sulphur.
+The processes for converting cast iron into steel can now remove
+phosphorus easily, but the removal of sulphur in them is so
+difficult that it has to be accomplished for the most part in the
+blast-furnace itself. As desulphurizing seems to need the direct
+and energetic action of carbon on the molten iron itself, and as
+molten iron absorbs carbon most greedily, it is hard to see how
+the blast-furnace is to desulphurize without carburizing almost
+to saturation, <i>i.e.</i> without making cast iron.</p>
+
+<p>77. <i>Direct Metal and the Mixer.</i>&mdash;Until relatively lately the
+cast iron for the Bessemer and open-hearth processes was nearly
+always allowed to solidify in pigs, which were next broken up
+by hand and remelted at great cost. It has long been seen that
+there would be a great saving if this remelting could be avoided
+and &ldquo;direct metal,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the molten cast iron direct from the blast-furnace,
+could be treated in the conversion process. The obstacle
+is that, owing to unavoidable irregularities in the blast-furnace
+process, the silicon- and sulphur-content of the cast iron vary
+to a degree and with an abruptness which are inconvenient for
+any conversion process and intolerable for the Bessemer process.
+For the acid variety of this process, which does not remove
+sulphur, this most harmful element must be held below a limit
+which is always low, though it varies somewhat with the use to
+which the steel is to be put. Further, the point at which the
+process should be arrested is recognized by the appearance of
+the flame which issues from the converter&rsquo;s mouth, and variations
+in the silicon-content of the cast iron treated alter this appearance,
+so that the indications of the flame become confusing, and control
+over the process is lost. Moreover, the quality of the resultant
+steel depends upon the temperature of the process, and this in
+turn depends upon the proportion of silicon, the combustion
+of which is the chief source of the heat developed. Hence the
+importance of having the silicon-content constant. In the basic
+Bessemer process, also, unforeseen variations in the silicon-content
+are harmful, because the quantity of lime added should
+be just that needed to neutralize the resultant silica and the
+phosphoric acid and no more. Hence the importance of having
+the silicon-content uniform. This uniformity is now given by
+the use of the &ldquo;mixer&rdquo; invented by Captain W. R. Jones.</p>
+
+<p>This &ldquo;mixer&rdquo; is a great reservoir into which successive lots
+of molten cast iron from all the blast-furnaces available are
+poured, forming a great molten mass of from 200 to 750 tons.
+This is kept molten by a flame playing above it, and successive
+lots of the cast iron thus mixed are drawn off, as they are needed,
+for conversion into steel by the Bessemer or open-hearth process.
+An excess of silicon or sulphur in the cast iron from one blast-furnace
+is diluted by thus mixing this iron with that from the
+other furnaces. Should several furnaces simultaneously make
+iron too rich in silicon, this may be diluted by pouring into the
+mixer some low-silicon iron melted for this purpose in a cupola
+furnace. This device not only makes the cast iron much more
+uniform, but also removes much of its sulphur by a curious
+slow reaction. Many metals have the power of dissolving their
+own oxides and sulphides, but not those of other metals. Thus
+iron, at least highly carburetted, <i>i.e.</i> cast iron, dissolves its own
+sulphide freely, but not that of either calcium or manganese.
+Consequently, when we deoxidize calcium in the iron blast-furnace,
+it greedily absorbs the sulphur which has been dissolved
+in the iron as iron sulphide, and the sulphide of calcium thus
+formed separates from the iron. In like manner, if the molten
+iron in the mixer contains manganese, this metal unites with the
+sulphur present, and the manganese sulphide, insoluble in the
+iron, slowly rises to the surface, and as it reaches the air, its
+sulphur oxidizes to sulphurous acid, which escapes. Further,
+an important part of the silicon may be removed in the mixer
+by keeping it very hot and covering the metal with a rather
+basic slag. This is very useful if the iron is intended for either
+the basic Bessemer or the basic open-hearth process, for both
+of which silicon is harmful.</p>
+
+<p>78. <i>Conversion or Purifying Processes for converting Cast Iron
+into Steel or Wrought Iron.</i>&mdash;As the essential difference between
+cast iron on one hand and wrought iron and steel on the other
+is that the former contains necessarily much more carbon,
+usually more silicon, and often more phosphorus that are suitable
+or indeed permissible in the latter two, the chief work of
+all these conversion processes is to remove the excess of these
+several foreign elements by oxidizing them to carbonic oxide
+CO, silica SiO<span class="su">2</span>, and phosphoric acid P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, respectively. Of
+these the first escapes immediately as a gas, and the others
+unite with iron oxide, lime, or other strong base present to form
+a molten silicate or silico-phosphate called &ldquo;cinder&rdquo; or &ldquo;slag,&rdquo;
+which floats on the molten or pasty metal. The ultimate source
+of the oxygen may be the air, as in the Bessemer process, or rich
+iron oxide as in the puddling process, or both as in the open-hearth
+process; but in any case iron oxide is the chief immediate source,
+as is to be expected, because the oxygen of the air would naturally
+unite in much greater proportion with some of the great quantity
+of iron offered to it than with the small quantity of these impurities.
+The iron oxide thus formed immediately oxidizes
+these foreign elements, so that the iron is really a carrier of oxygen
+from air to impurity. The typical reactions are something like
+the following: Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> + 4C = 4CO + 3Fe; Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> + C = 3FeO + CO;
+2P + 5Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> = 12FeO + 3FeO,P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>; Si + 2Fe<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span> =
+3FeO,SiO<span class="su">2</span> + 3FeO. Beside this their chief and easy work of oxidizing carbon,
+silicon and phosphorus, the conversion processes have the harder
+task of removing sulphur, chiefly by converting it into calcium
+sulphide, CaS, or manganous sulphide, MnS, which rise to the
+top of the molten metal and there enter the overlying slag,
+from which the sulphur may escape by oxidizing to the gaseous
+compound, sulphurous acid, SO<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>79. In the <i>puddling process</i> molten cast iron is converted into
+wrought iron, <i>i.e.</i> low-carbon slag-bearing iron, by oxidizing its
+carbon, silicon and phosphorus, by means of iron oxide stirred
+into it as it lies in a thin shallow layer in the &ldquo;hearth&rdquo; or flat
+basin of a reverberatory furnace (fig. 14), itself lined with iron
+ore. As the iron oxide is stirred into the molten metal laboriously
+by the workman or &ldquo;puddler&rdquo; with his hook or &ldquo;rabble,&rdquo;
+it oxidizes the silicon to silica and the phosphorus to phosphoric
+acid, and unites with both these products, forming with them
+a basic iron silicate rich in phosphorus, called &ldquo;puddling&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;tap cinder.&rdquo; It oxidizes the carbon also, which escapes
+in purple jets of burning carbonic oxide. As the melting point of
+the metal is gradually raised by the progressive decarburization,
+it at length passes above the temperature of the furnace, about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page818" id="page818"></a>818</span>
+1400° C., with the consequence that the metal, now below its
+melting point, solidifies in pasty grains, or &ldquo;comes to nature.&rdquo;
+These grains the puddler welds together by means of his rabble
+into rough 80-&#8468; balls, each like a sponge of metallic iron
+particles with its pores filled with the still molten cinder. These
+balls are next worked into merchantable shape, and the cinder
+is simultaneously expelled in large part, first by hammering
+them one at a time under a steam hammer (fig. 37) or by squeezing
+them, and next by rolling them. The squeezing is usually
+done in the way shown in fig. 15.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:204px" src="images/img818a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Puddling Furnace.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:213px; height:213px" src="images/img818b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Plan of Burden&rsquo;s
+Excentric Revolving Squeezer
+for Puddled Balls.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Here BB is a large fixed iron cylinder, corrugated within, and C
+an excentric cylinder, also corrugated, which, in turning to the
+right, by the friction of its corrugated
+surface rotates the puddled
+ball D which has just entered at A,
+so that, turning around its own
+axis, it travels to the right and is
+gradually changed from a ball into
+a bloom, a rough cylindrical mass
+of white hot iron, still dripping
+with cinder. This bloom is immediately
+rolled down into a long
+flat bar, called &ldquo;muck bar,&rdquo; and
+this in turn is cut into short lengths
+which, piled one on another, are
+reheated and again rolled down,
+sometimes with repeated cutting,
+piling and re-rolling, into the
+final shape in which it is actually
+to be used. But, roll and re-roll
+as often as we like, much cinder remains imbedded in the iron, in
+the form of threads and rods drawn out in the direction of rolling,
+and of course weakening the metal in the transverse direction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>80. <i>Machine Puddling.</i>&mdash;The few men who have, and are
+willing to exercise, the great strength and endurance which the
+puddler needs when he is stirring the pasty iron and balling it
+up, command such high wages, and with their little 500-&#8468;
+charges turn out their iron so slowly, that many ways of puddling
+by machinery have been tried. None has succeeded permanently,
+though indeed one offered by J. P. Roe is not without promise.
+The essential difficulty has been that none of them could subdivide
+the rapidly solidifying charge into the small balls which
+the workman dexterously forms by hand, and that if the charge
+is not thus subdivided but drawn as a single ball, the cinder
+cannot be squeezed out of it thoroughly enough.</p>
+
+<p>81. <i>Direct Puddling.</i>&mdash;In common practice the cast iron as
+it runs from the blast-furnace is allowed to solidify and cool
+completely in the form of pigs, which are then graded by their
+fracture, and remelted in the puddling furnace itself. At
+Hourpes, in order to save the expense of this remelting, the
+molten cast iron as it comes from the blast-furnace is poured
+directly into the puddling furnace, in large charges of about
+2200 &#8468;, which are thus about four times as large as those
+of common puddling furnaces. These large charges are puddled
+by two gangs of four men each, and a great saving in fuel and
+labour is effected.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Attractive as are these advances in puddling, they have not been
+widely adopted, for two chief reasons: First, owners of puddling
+works have been reluctant to spend money freely in plant for a
+process of which the future is so uncertain, and this unwillingness
+has been the more natural because these very men are in large
+part the more conservative fraction, which has resisted the temptation
+to abandon puddling and adopt the steel-making processes.
+Second, in puddling iron which is to be used as a raw material for
+making very fine steel by the crucible process, quality is the thing
+of first importance. Now in the series of operations, the blast-furnace,
+puddling and crucible processes, through which the iron
+passes from the state of ore to that of crucible tool steel, it is so
+difficult to detect just which are the conditions essential to excellence
+in the final product that, once a given procedure has been found to
+yield excellent steel, every one of its details is adhered to by the
+more cautious ironmasters, often with surprising conservatism.
+Buyers of certain excellent classes of Swedish iron have been said
+to object even to the substitution of electricity for water-power as
+a means of driving the machinery of the forge. In case of direct
+puddling and the use of larger charges this conservatism has some
+foundation, because the established custom of allowing the cast iron
+to solidify gives a better opportunity of examining its fracture,
+and thus of rejecting unsuitable iron, than is afforded in direct
+puddling. So, too, when several puddlers are jointly responsible
+for the thoroughness of their work, as happens in puddling large
+charges, they will not exercise such care (nor indeed will a given
+degree of care be so effective) as when responsibility for each charge
+rests on one man.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>82. The <i>removal of phosphorus</i>, a very important duty of the
+puddling process, requires that the cinder shall be &ldquo;basic,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> that it shall have a great excess of the strong base, ferrous
+oxide, FeO, for the phosphoric acid to unite with, lest it be
+deoxidized by the carbon of the iron as fast as it forms, and so
+return to the iron, following the general rule that oxidized bodies
+enter the slag and unoxidized ones the metallic iron. But this
+basicity implies that for each part of the silica or silicic acid
+which inevitably results from the oxidation of the silicon of the
+pig iron, the cinder shall contain some three parts of iron oxide,
+itself a valuable and expensive substance. Hence, in order to
+save iron oxide the pig iron used should be nearly free from
+silicon. It should also be nearly free from sulphur, because of
+the great difficulty of removing this element in the puddling
+process. But the strong deoxidizing conditions needed in the
+blast-furnace to remove sulphur tend strongly to deoxidize
+silica and thus to make the pig iron rich in silicon.</p>
+
+<p>83. The <i>&rdquo;refinery process&rdquo;</i> of fitting pig iron for the puddling
+process by removing the silicon without the carbon, is sometimes
+used because of this difficulty in making a pig iron initially low
+in both sulphur and silicon. In this process molten pig iron
+with much silicon but little sulphur has its silicon oxidized to
+silica and thus slagged off, by means of a blast of air playing on
+the iron through a blanket of burning coke which covers it.
+The coke thus at once supplies by its combustion the heat
+needed for melting the iron and keeping it hot, and by itself
+dissolving in the molten metal returns carbon to it as fast as
+this element is burnt out by the blast, so that the &ldquo;refined&rdquo;
+cast iron which results, though still rich in carbon and therefore
+easy to melt in the puddling process, has relatively little silicon.</p>
+
+<p>84. In the <i>Bessemer or &ldquo;pneumatic&rdquo; process</i>, which indeed
+might be called the &ldquo;fuel-less&rdquo; process, molten pig iron is
+converted into steel by having its carbon, silicon and manganese,
+and often its phosphorus and sulphur, oxidized and thus removed
+by air forced through it in so many fine streams and hence so
+rapidly that the heat generated by the oxidation of these impurities
+suffices in and by itself, unaided by burning any other
+fuel, not only to keep the iron molten, but even to raise its
+temperature from a point initially but little above the melting
+point of cast iron, say 1150° to 1250° C., to one well above the
+melting point of the resultant steel, say 1500° C. The &ldquo;Bessemer
+converter&rdquo; or &ldquo;vessel&rdquo; (fig. 16) in which this wonderful
+process is carried out is a huge retort, lined with clay, dolomite
+or other refractory material, hung aloft and turned on trunnions,
+DD, through the right-hand one of which the blast is carried
+to the gooseneck E, which in turn delivers it to the tuyeres Q
+at the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>There are two distinct varieties of this process, the original
+undephosphorizing or &ldquo;acid&rdquo; Bessemer process, so called
+because the converter is lined with acid materials, <i>i.e.</i> those rich
+in silicic acid, such as quartz and clay, and because the slag is
+consequently acid, <i>i.e.</i> siliceous; and the dephosphorizing or
+&ldquo;Thomas&rdquo; or &ldquo;basic Bessemer&rdquo; process, so called because
+the converter is lined with basic materials, usually calcined
+dolomite, a mixture of lime and magnesia, bound together with
+tar, and because the slag is made very basic by adding much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page819" id="page819"></a>819</span>
+lime to it. In the basic Bessemer process phosphorus is readily
+removed by oxidation, because the product of its oxidation,
+phosphoric acid, P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, in the presence of an excess of base forms
+stable phosphates of lime and iron which pass into the slag,
+making it valuable as an artificial manure. But this dephosphorization
+by oxidation can be carried out only in the case slag
+is basic. If it is acid, <i>i.e.</i> if it holds much more than 20% of
+so powerful an acid as silica, then the phosphoric acid has so
+feeble a hold on the base in the slag that it is immediately re-deoxidized
+by the carbon of the metal, or even by the iron itself,
+P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span> + 5Fe = 2P + 5FeO, and the resultant deoxidized phosphorus
+immediately recombines with the iron. Now in an acid-lined
+converter the slag is necessarily acid, because even an initially
+basic slag would immediately corrode away enough of the acid
+lining to make itself acid. Hence phosphorus cannot be removed
+in an acid-lined converter. Though all this is elementary to-day,
+not only was it unknown, indeed unguessed, at the time of the
+invention of the Bessemer process, but even when, nearly a
+quarter of a century later, a young English metallurgical chemist,
+Sidney Gilchrist Thomas (1850-1885), offered to the British Iron
+and Steel Institute a paper describing his success in dephosphorizing
+by the Bessemer process
+with a basic-lined converter
+and a basic slag, that body
+rejected it.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:490px; height:486px" src="images/img819a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;12-15 ton Bessemer Converter.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Trunnion-ring.</p>
+<p>B, Main shell.</p>
+<p>C, Upper part of shell.</p>
+<p>D, Trunnions.</p>
+<p>E, Goose-neck.</p>
+<p>F, Tuyere-box.</p>
+<p>N, Lid of tuyere-box.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>O, Tuyere-plate.</p>
+<p>P, False plate.</p>
+<p>Q, Tuyeres.</p>
+<p>R, Keys holding lid of tuyere-box.</p>
+<p>S, Refractory lining.</p>
+<p>U, Key-link holding bottom.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:242px; height:184px" src="images/img819b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Bessemer Converter,
+turned down in position to receive
+and discharge the molten metal.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">85. In carrying out the acid
+Bessemer process, the converter,
+preheated to about
+1200° C. by burning coke in it,
+is turned into the position
+shown in fig. 17, and the charge
+of molten pig iron, which
+sometimes weighs as much
+as 20 tons, is poured into it
+through its mouth. The converter is then turned upright
+into the position shown in fig. 16, so that the blast, which has
+been let on just before this, entering through the great number
+of tuyere holes in the bottom, forces its way up through the
+relatively shallow layer of iron, throwing it up within the converter
+as a boiling foam, and oxidizing the foreign elements so
+rapidly that in some cases their removal is complete after 5
+minutes. The oxygen of the blast having been thus taken up by the
+molten metal, its nitrogen issues from the mouth of the converter
+as a pale spark-bearing cone. Under normal conditions the silicon
+oxidizes first. Later, when most of it has been oxidized, the
+carbon begins to oxidize to carbonic oxide, which in turn burns
+to carbonic acid as it meets the outer air on escaping from the
+mouth of the converter, and generates a true flame which grows
+bright, then brilliant, then almost blinding, as it rushes and roars,
+then &ldquo;drops,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> shortens and suddenly grows quiet when the
+last of the carbon has burnt away, and no flame-forming substance
+remains. Thus may a 20-ton charge of cast iron be converted
+into steel in ten minutes.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> It is by the appearance of the flame
+that the operator or &ldquo;blower&rdquo; knows when to end the process,
+judging by its brilliancy, colour, sound, sparks, smoke and other
+indications.</p>
+
+<p>86. <i>Recarburizing.</i>&mdash;The process may be interrupted as soon
+as the carbon-content has fallen to that which the final product
+is to have, or it may be continued till nearly the whole of the
+carbon has been burned out, and then the needed carbon may
+be added by &ldquo;recarburizing.&rdquo; The former of these ways is
+followed by the very skilful and intelligent blowers in Sweden,
+who, with the temperature and all other conditions well under
+control, and with their minds set on the quality rather than on
+the quantity of their product, can thus make steel of any desired
+carbon-content from 0.10 to 1.25%. But even with all their
+skill and care, while the carbon-content is still high the indications
+of the flame are not so decisive as to justify them in omitting to
+test the steel before removing it from the converter, as a check
+on the accuracy of their blowing. The delay which this test
+causes is so unwelcome that in all other countries the blower
+continues the blow until decarburization is nearly complete,
+because of the very great accuracy with which he can then read
+the indications of the flame, an accuracy which leaves little to
+be desired. Then, without waiting to test the product, he
+&ldquo;recarburizes&rdquo; it, <i>i.e.</i> adds enough carbon to give it the content
+desired, and then immediately pours the steel into a great clay-lined
+casting ladle by turning the converter over, and through
+a nozzle in the bottom of this ladle pours the steel into its ingot
+moulds. In making very low-carbon steel this recarburizing
+proper is not needed; but in any event a considerable quantity
+of manganese must be added unless the pig iron initially contains
+much of that metal, in order to remove from the molten steel
+the oxygen which it has absorbed from the blast, lest this make
+it redshort. If the carbon-content is not to be raised materially,
+this manganese is added in the form of preheated lumps of
+&ldquo;ferro-manganese,&rdquo; which contains about 80% of manganese,
+5% of carbon and 15% of iron, with a little silicon and other
+impurities. If, on the other hand, the carbon-content is to be
+raised, then carbon and manganese are usually added together
+in the form of a manganiferous molten pig iron, called spiegeleisen,
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;mirror-iron,&rdquo; from the brilliancy of its facets, and
+usually containing somewhere about 12% of manganese and
+4% of carbon, though the proportion between these two elements
+has to be adjusted so as to introduce the desired quantity of
+each into the molten steel. Part of the carbon of this spiegeleisen
+unites with the oxygen occluded in the molten iron to
+form carbonic oxide, and again a bright flame, greenish with
+manganese, escapes from the converter.</p>
+
+<p>87. <i>Darby&rsquo;s Process.</i>&mdash;Another way of introducing the carbon
+is Darby&rsquo;s process of throwing large paper bags filled with
+anthracite, coke or gas-carbon into the casting ladle as the
+molten steel is pouring into it. The steel dissolves the carbon
+of this fuel even more quickly than water would dissolve salt
+under like conditions.</p>
+
+<p>88. <i>Bessemer and Mushet.</i>&mdash;Bessemer had no very wide
+knowledge of metallurgy, and after overcoming many stupendous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page820" id="page820"></a>820</span>
+difficulties he was greatly embarrassed by the brittleness or
+&ldquo;redshortness&rdquo; of his steel, which he did not know how to
+cure. But two remedies were quickly offered, one by the skilful
+Swede, Göransson, who used a pig iron initially rich in manganese
+and stopped his blow before much oxygen had been taken up;
+and the other by a British steel maker, Robert Mushet, who
+proposed the use of the manganiferous cast iron called spiegeleisen,
+and thereby removed the only remaining serious obstacle to the
+rapid spread of the process.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>From this many have claimed for Mushet a part almost or even
+quite equal to Bessemer&rsquo;s in the development of the Bessemer process,
+even calling it the &ldquo;Bessemer-Mushet process.&rdquo; But this
+seems most unjust. Mushet had no such exclusive knowledge of the
+effects of manganese that he alone could have helped Bessemer;
+and even if nobody had then proposed the use of spiegeleisen, the
+development of the Swedish Bessemer practice would have gone on,
+and, the process thus established and its value and great economy
+thus shown in Sweden, it would have been only a question of time
+how soon somebody would have proposed the addition of manganese.
+Mushet&rsquo;s aid was certainly valuable, but not more than Göransson&rsquo;s,
+who, besides thus offering a preventive of redshortness, further
+helped the process on by raising its temperature by the simple
+expedient of further subdividing the blast, thus increasing the
+surface of contact between blast and metal, and thus in turn hastening
+the oxidation. The two great essential discoveries were first
+that the rapid passage of air through molten cast iron raised its
+temperature above the melting point of low-carbon steel, or as it
+was then called &ldquo;malleable iron,&rdquo; and second that this low-carbon
+steel, which Bessemer was the first to make in important quantities,
+was in fact an extraordinarily valuable substance when made under
+proper conditions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>89. <i>Source of Heat.</i>&mdash;The carbon of the pig iron, burning as it
+does only to carbonic oxide within the converter, does not by
+itself generate a temperature high enough for the needs of the
+process. The oxidation of manganese is capable of generating
+a very high temperature, but it has the very serious disadvantage
+of causing such thick clouds of smoky oxide of manganese as
+to hide the flame from the blower, and prevent him from
+recognizing the moment when the blow should be ended. Thus
+it comes about that the temperature is regulated primarily by
+adjusting the quantity of silicon in the pig iron treated, 1Ľ%
+of this element usually sufficing. If any individual blow proves
+to be too hot, it may be cooled by throwing cold &ldquo;scrap&rdquo; steel
+such as the waste ends of rails and other pieces, into the converter,
+or by injecting with the blast a little steam, which is decomposed
+by the iron by the endothermic reaction H<span class="su">2</span>O + Fe = 2H + FeO.
+If the temperature is not high enough, it is raised by managing
+the blast in such a way as to oxidize some of the iron itself
+permanently, and thus to generate much heat.</p>
+
+<p>90. The <i>basic</i> or dephosphorizing variety of the Bessemer
+process, called in Germany the &ldquo;Thomas&rdquo; process, differs from
+the acid process in four chief points: (1) that its slag is made
+very basic and hence dephosphorizing by adding much lime to
+it; (2) that the lining is basic, because an acid lining would
+quickly be destroyed by such a basic slag; (3) that the process
+is arrested not at the &ldquo;drop of the flame&rdquo; (§85) but at a predetermined
+length of time after it; and (4) that phosphorus
+instead of silicon is the chief source of heat. Let us consider
+these in turn.</p>
+
+<p>91. The <i>slag</i>, in order that it may have such an excess of base
+that this will retain the phosphoric acid as fast as it is formed
+by the oxidation of the phosphorus of the pig iron, and prevent
+it from being re-deoxidized and re-absorbed by the iron, should,
+according to von Ehrenwerth&rsquo;s rule which is generally followed,
+contain enough lime to form approximately a tetra-calcic silicate,
+4CaO,SiO<span class="su">2</span> with the silica which results from the oxidation of
+the silicon of the pig iron and tri-calcic phosphate, 3CaO,P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>,
+with the phosphoric acid which forms. The danger of this
+&ldquo;rephosphorization&rdquo; is greatest at the end of the blow, when
+the recarburizing additions are made. This lime is charged in
+the form of common quicklime, CaO, resulting from the calcination
+of a pure limestone, CaCO<span class="su">3</span>, which should be as free as
+possible from silica. The usual composition of this slag is iron
+oxide, 10 to 16%; lime, 40 to 50%; magnesia, 5%; silica,
+6 to 9%; phosphoric acid, 16 to 20%. Its phosphoric acid
+makes it so valuable as a fertilizer that it is a most important
+by-product. In order that the phosphoric acid may be the
+more fully liberated by the humic acid, &amp;c., of the earth, a little
+silicious sand is mixed with the still molten slag after it has been
+poured off from the molten steel. The slag is used in agriculture
+with no further preparation, save very fine grinding.</p>
+
+<p>92. The <i>lining of the converter</i> is made of 90% of the mixture
+of lime and magnesia which results from calcining dolomite,
+(Ca,Mg)CO<span class="su">3</span>, at a very high temperature, and 10% of coal tar
+freed from its water by heating. This mixture may be rammed in
+place, or baked blocks of it may be laid up like a masonry wall.
+In either case such a lining is expensive, and has but a short life,
+in few works more than 200 charges, and in some only 100,
+though the silicious lining of the acid converter lasts thousands
+of charges. Hence, for the basic process, spare converters must
+be provided, so that there may always be some of them re-lining,
+either while standing in the same place as when in use, or, as
+in Holley&rsquo;s arrangement, in a separate repair house, to which
+these gigantic vessels are removed bodily.</p>
+
+<p>93. <i>Control of the Basic Bessemer Process.</i>&mdash;The removal of
+the greater part of the phosphorus takes place after the carbon
+has been oxidized and the flame has consequently &ldquo;dropped,&rdquo;
+probably because the lime, which is charged in solid lumps,
+is taken up by the slag so slowly that not until late in the
+operation does the slag become so basic as to be retentive of
+phosphoric acid. Hence in making steel rich in carbon it is not
+possible, as in the acid Bessemer process, to end the operation
+as soon as the carbon in the metal has fallen to the point sought,
+but it is necessary to remove practically all of the carbon, then
+the phosphorus, and then &ldquo;recarburize,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> add whatever
+carbon the steel is to contain. The quantity of phosphorus in
+the pig iron is usually known accurately, and the dephosphorization
+takes place so regularly that the quantity of air which it
+needs can be foretold closely. The blower therefore stops the
+process when he has blown a predetermined quantity of air
+through, counting from the drop of the flame; but as a check
+on his forecast he usually tests the blown metal before recarburizing
+it.</p>
+
+<p>94. <i>Source of Heat.</i>&mdash;Silicon cannot here be used as the chief
+source of heat as it is in the acid Bessemer process, because most
+of the heat which its oxidation generates is consumed in heating
+the great quantities of lime needed for neutralizing the resultant
+silica. Fortunately the phosphorus, turned from a curse into a
+blessing, develops by its oxidation the needed temperature,
+though the fact that this requires at least 1.80% of phosphorus
+limits the use of the process, because there are few ores which
+can be made to yield so phosphoric a pig iron. Further objections
+to the presence of silicon are that the resultant silica (1)
+corrodes the lining of the converter, (2) makes the slag froth so
+that it both throws much of the charge out and blocks up the
+nose of the converter, and (3) leads to rephosphorization. These
+effects are so serious that until very lately it was thought that
+the silicon could not safely be much in excess of 1%. But
+Massenez and Richards, following the plan outlined by Pourcel
+in 1879, have found that even 3% of silicon is permissible if,
+by adding iron ore, the resultant silica is made into a fluid slag,
+and if this is removed in the early cool part of the process, when
+it attacks the lining of the converter but slightly. Manganese
+to the extent of 1.80% is desired as a means of preventing the
+resultant steel from being redshort, <i>i.e.</i> brittle at a red or forging
+heat. The pig iron should be as nearly free as possible from
+sulphur, because the removal of any large quantity of this
+injurious element in the process itself is both difficult and
+expensive.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>95. The <i>car casting</i> system deserves description chiefly because it
+shows how, when the scale of operations is as enormous as it is in
+the Bessemer process, even a slight simplification and a slight heat-saving
+may be of great economic importance.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever be the form into which the steel is to be rolled, it must
+in general first be poured from the Bessemer converter in which it
+is made into a large clay-lined ladle, and thence cast in vertical
+pyramidal ingots. To bring them to a temperature suitable for
+rolling, these ingots must be set in heating or soaking furnaces
+(§ 125), and this should be done as soon as possible after they are
+cast, both to lessen the loss of their initial heat, and to make way
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page821" id="page821"></a>821</span>
+for the next succeeding lot of ingots, a matter of great importance,
+because the charges of steel follow each other at such very brief
+intervals. A pair of working converters has made 4958 charges
+of 10 tons each, or a total of 50,547 tons, in one month, or at an
+average rate of a charge every seven minutes and twenty-four seconds
+throughout every working day. It is this extraordinary rapidity
+that makes the process so economical and determines the way in
+which its details must be carried out. Moreover, since the mould
+acts as a covering to retard the loss of heat, it should not be removed
+from the ingot until just before the latter is to be placed in its
+soaking furnace. These conditions are fulfilled by the car casting
+system of F. W. Wood, of Sparrows Point, Md., in which the moulds,
+while receiving the steel, stand on a train of cars, which are immediately
+run to the side of the soaking furnace. Here, as soon
+as the ingots have so far solidified that they can be lifted without
+breaking, their moulds are removed and set on an adjoining train
+of cars, and the ingots are charged directly into the soaking furnace.
+The mould-train now carries its empty moulds to a cooling yard,
+and, as soon as they are cool enough to be used again, carries them
+back to the neighbourhood of the converters to receive a new lot
+of steel. In this system there is for each ingot and each mould
+only one handling in which it is moved as a separate unit, the mould
+from one train to the other, the ingot from its train into the furnace.
+In the other movements, all the moulds and ingots of a given charge
+of steel are grouped as a train, which is moved as a unit by a locomotive.
+The difficulty in the way of this system was that, in pouring
+the steel from ladle to mould, more or less of it occasionally spatters,
+and these spatterings, if they strike the rails or the running
+gear of the cars, obstruct and foul them, preventing the movement
+of the train, because the solidified steel is extremely tenacious. But
+this cannot be tolerated, because the economy of the process requires
+extreme promptness in each of its steps. On account of this difficulty
+the moulds formerly stood, not on cars, but directly on the floor of
+a casting pit while receiving the molten steel. When the ingots had
+so far solidified that they could be handled, the moulds were removed
+and set on the floor to cool, the ingots were set on a car and carried
+to the soaking furnace, and the moulds were then replaced in the
+casting pit. Here each mould and each ingot was handled as a
+separate unit twice, instead of only once as in the car casting system;
+the ingots radiated away great quantities of heat in passing naked
+from the converting mill to the soaking furnaces, and the heat
+which they and the moulds radiated while in the converting mill
+was not only wasted, but made this mill, open-doored as it was,
+so intolerably hot, that the cost of labour there was materially increased.
+Mr Wood met this difficulty by the simple device of so
+shaping the cars that they completely protect both their own
+running gear and the track from all possible spattering, a device
+which, simple as it is, has materially lessened the cost of the steel
+and greatly increased the production. How great the increase has
+been, from this and many other causes, is shown in Table III.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table III.</span>&mdash;<i>Maximum Production of Ingots by a Pair of
+American Converters.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Gross Tons per Week.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1870</td> <td class="tcr">254</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1880</td> <td class="tcr">3,433</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1889</td> <td class="tcr">8,549</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1899 (average for a month)</td> <td class="tcr">11,233</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">1903</td> <td class="tcr">15,704</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Thus in thirty-three years the rate of production per pair of vessels
+increased more than sixty-fold. The production of European
+Bessemer works is very much less than that of American. Indeed,
+the whole German production of acid Bessemer steel in 1899 was
+at a rate but slightly greater than that here given for one pair of
+American converters; and three pairs, if this rate were continued,
+would make almost exactly as much steel as all the sixty-five active
+British Bessemer converters, acid and basic together, made in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>96. <i>Range in Size of Converters.</i>&mdash;In the Bessemer process, and
+indeed in most high-temperature processes, to operate on a large
+scale has, in addition to the usual economies which it offers in other
+industries, a special one, arising from the fact that from a large
+hot furnace or hot mass in general a very much smaller proportion
+of its heat dissipates through radiation and like causes than from a
+smaller body, just as a thin red-hot wire cools in the air much faster
+than a thick bar equally hot. Hence the progressive increase which
+has occurred in the size of converters, until now some of them can
+treat a 20-ton charge, is not surprising. But, on the other hand,
+when only a relatively small quantity of a special kind of steel is
+needed, very much smaller charges, in some cases weighing even less
+than half a ton, have been treated with technical success.</p>
+
+<p>97. <i>The Bessemer Process for making Steel Castings.</i>&mdash;This has
+been particularly true in the manufacture of steel castings, <i>i.e.</i>
+objects usually of more or less intricate shape, which are cast initially
+in the form in which they are to be used, instead of being forged or
+rolled to that form from steel cast originally in ingots. For making
+castings, especially those which are so thin and intricate that, in
+order that the molten steel may remain molten long enough to run
+into the thin parts of the mould, it must be heated initially very far
+above its melting-point, the Bessemer process has a very great
+advantage in that it can develop a much higher temperature than is
+attainable in either of its competitors, the crucible and the open-hearth
+processes. Indeed, no limit has yet been found to the
+temperature which can be reached, if matters are so arranged that
+not only the carbon and silicon of the pig iron, but also a considerable
+part of the metallic iron which is the iron itself, are oxidized by the
+blast; or if, as in the Walrand-Legenisel modification, after the
+combustion of the initial carbon and silicon of the pig iron has already
+raised the charge to a very high temperature, a still further rise of
+temperature is brought about by adding more silicon in the form of
+ferro-silicon, and oxidizing it by further blowing. But in the
+crucible and the open-hearth processes the temperature attainable
+is limited by the danger of melting the furnace itself, both because
+some essential parts of it, which, unfortunately, are of a destructible
+shape, are placed most unfavourably in that they are surrounded
+by the heat on all sides, and because the furnace is necessarily
+hotter than the steel made within it. But no part of the Bessemer
+converter is of a shape easily affected by the heat, no part of it is
+exposed to the heat on more than one side, and the converter itself
+is necessarily cooler than the metal within it, because the heat is
+generated within the metal itself by the combustion of its silicon and
+other calorific elements. In it the steel heats the converter, whereas
+in the open-hearth and crucible processes the furnace heats the steel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>98. The <i>open-hearth process</i> consists in making molten steel
+out of pig or cast iron and &ldquo;scrap,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> waste pieces of steel
+and iron melted together on the &ldquo;open hearth,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the uncovered
+basin-like bottom of a reverberatory furnace, under
+conditions of which fig. 18 may give a general idea. The conversion
+of cast iron into steel, of course, consists in lessening its
+content of the several foreign elements, carbon, silicon, phosphorus,
+&amp;c. The open-hearth process does this by two distinct
+steps: (1) by oxidizing and removing these elements by means
+of the flame of the furnace, usually aided by the oxygen of
+light charges of iron ore, and (2) by diluting them with scrap
+steel or its equivalent. The &ldquo;pig and ore&rdquo; or &ldquo;Siemens&rdquo;
+variety of the process works chiefly by oxidation, the &ldquo;pig
+and scrap&rdquo; or &ldquo;Siemens-Martin&rdquo; variety chiefly by dilution,
+sometimes indeed by extreme dilution, as when 10 parts of
+cast iron are diluted with 90 parts of scrap. Both varieties
+may be carried out in the basic and dephosphorizing way,
+<i>i.e.</i> in presence of a basic slag and in a basic- or neutral-lined
+furnace; or in the acid and undephosphorizing way, in presence
+of an acid, <i>i.e.</i> silicious slag, and in a furnace with a silicious
+lining.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:494px; height:160px" src="images/img821.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Open-Hearth Process.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>Half Section showing condition
+of charge when boiling very
+gently.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>Half Section showing condition
+of charge when boiling violently
+during oreing.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The charge may be melted down on the &ldquo;open hearth&rdquo;
+itself, or, as in the more advanced practice, the pig iron may
+be brought in the molten state from the blast furnace in which
+it is made. Then the furnaceman, controlling the decarburization
+and purification of the molten charge by his examination
+of test ingots taken from time to time, gradually oxidizes and
+so removes the foreign elements, and thus brings the metal
+simultaneously to approximately the composition needed
+and to a temperature far enough above its present melting-point
+to permit of its being cast into ingots or other castings.
+He then pours or taps the molten charge from the furnace into
+a large clay-lined casting ladle, giving it the final additions
+of manganese, usually with carbon and often with silicon,
+needed to give it exactly the desired composition. He then
+casts it into its final form through a nozzle in the bottom of the
+casting ladle, as in the Bessemer process.</p>
+
+<p>The oxidation of the foreign elements must be very slow,
+lest the effervescence due to the escape of carbonic oxide from
+the carbon of the metal throw the charge out of the doors and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page822" id="page822"></a>822</span>
+ports of the furnace, which itself must be shallow in order
+to hold the flame down close to the charge. It is in large part
+because of this shallowness, which contrasts so strongly with
+the height and roominess of the Bessemer converter, that
+the process lasts hours where the Bessemer process lasts minutes,
+though there is the further difference that in the open-hearth
+process the transfer of heat from flame to charge through the
+intervening layer of slag is necessarily slow, whereas in the
+Bessemer process the heat, generated as it is in and by the
+metallic bath itself, raises the temperature very rapidly. The
+slowness of this rise of the temperature compels us to make
+the removal of the carbon slow for a very simple reason. That
+removal progressively raises the melting-point of the metal,
+after line A<i>a</i> of Fig. 1, <i>i.e.</i> makes the charge more and more
+infusible; and this progressive rise of the melting-point of the
+charge must not be allowed to outrun the actual rise of temperature,
+or in other words the charge must always be kept molten,
+because once solidified it is very hard to remelt. Thus the necessary
+slowness of the heating up of the molten charge would
+compel us to make the removal of the carbon slow, even if this
+slowness were not already forced on us by the danger of having
+the charge froth so much as to run out of the furnace.</p>
+
+<p>The general plan of the open-hearth process was certainly
+conceived by Josiah Marshall Heath in 1845, if not indeed
+by Réaumur in 1722, but for lack of a furnace in which a high
+enough temperature could be generated it could not be carried
+out until the development of the Siemens regenerative gas
+furnace about 1860. It was in large part through the efforts
+of Le Chatelier that this process, so long conceived, was at
+last, in 1864, put into actual use by the brothers Martin, of
+Sireuil in France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>99. <i>Siemens Open-Hearth Furnace.</i>&mdash;These furnaces are usually
+stationary, but in that shown in figs. 19 to 22 the working chamber
+or furnace body, G of fig. 22, rotates about its own axis, rolling on
+the rollers M shown in fig. 21. In this working chamber, a long
+quasi-cylindrical vessel of brickwork, heated by burning within it
+pre-heated gas with pre-heated air, the charge is melted and brought
+to the desired composition and temperature. The working chamber
+indeed is the furnace proper, in which the whole of the open-hearth
+process is carried out, and the function of all the rest of the apparatus,
+apart from the tilting mechanism, is simply to pre-heat the air and
+gas, and to lead them to the furnace proper and thence to the chimney.
+How this is done may be understood more easily if figs. 19
+and 20 are regarded for a moment as forming a single diagrammatic
+figure instead of sections in different planes. The unbroken arrows
+show the direction of the incoming gas and air, the broken ones the
+direction of the escaping products of their combustion. The air
+and gas, the latter coming from the gas producers or other source,
+arrive through H and J respectively, and their path thence is determined
+by the position of the reversing valves K and K&prime;. In the
+position shown in solid lines, these valves deflect the air and gas
+into the left-hand pair of &ldquo;regenerators&rdquo; or spacious heat-transferring
+chambers. In these, bricks in great numbers are piled
+loosely, in such a way that, while they leave ample passage for the
+gas and air, yet they offer to them a very great extent of surface,
+and therefore readily transfer to them the heat which they have as
+readily sucked out of the escaping products of combustion in the
+last preceding phase. The gas and air thus separately pre-heated
+to about 1100° C. (2012° F.) rise thence as two separate streams
+through the uptakes (fig. 22), and first mix at the moment of entering
+the working chamber through the ports L and L&prime; (fig. 19). As they
+are so hot at starting, their combustion of course yields a very much
+higher temperature than if they had been cold before burning, and
+they form an enormous flame, which fills the great working chamber.
+The products of combustion are sucked by the pull of the chimney
+through the farther or right-hand end of this chamber, out through
+the exit ports, as shown by the dotted arrows, down through the
+right-hand pair of regenerators, heating to perhaps 1300° C. the
+upper part of the loosely-piled masses of brickwork within them,
+and thence past the valves K and K&prime; to the chimney-flue O. During
+this phase the incoming gas and air have been withdrawing heat
+from the left-hand regenerators, which have thus been cooling down,
+while the escaping products of combustion have been depositing
+heat in the right-hand pair of regenerators, which have thus been
+heating up. After some thirty minutes this condition of things is
+reversed by turning the valves K and K&prime; 90° into the positions
+shown in dotted lines, when they deflect the incoming gas and air
+into the right-hand regenerators, so that they may absorb in passing
+the heat which has just been stored there; thence they pass up
+through the right-hand uptakes and ports into the working chamber,
+where as before they mix, burn and heat the charge. Thence they
+are sucked out by the chimney-draught through the left-hand ports,
+down through the uptakes and regenerators, here again meeting and
+heating the loose mass of &ldquo;regenerator&rdquo; brickwork, and finally
+escape by the chimney-flue O. After another thirty minutes the
+current is again reversed to its initial direction, and so on. These
+regenerators are the essence of the Siemens or &ldquo;regenerative
+furnace&rdquo;; they are heat-traps, catching and storing by their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page823" id="page823"></a>823</span>
+enormous surface of brickwork the heat of the escaping products
+of combustion, and in the following phase restoring the heat to the
+entering air and gas. At any given moment one pair of regenerators
+is storing heat, while the other is restoring it.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="caption pt2"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Section on EF through Furnace and Port Ends.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:416px; height:370px" src="images/img822a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Plan through Regenerators, Flues and Reversing Valves.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:273px" src="images/img822b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Section on CD through Body of Furnace.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:438px; height:326px" src="images/img822c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Section on AB through Uptake, Slag Pocket
+and Regenerator.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 19 to 22.&mdash;Diagrammatic Sections of Tilting Siemens Furnace.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>G,  Furnace body.</p>
+<p>H,  Air supply.</p>
+<p>J,  Gas supply.</p>
+<p>K,  Air reversing valve.</p>
+<p>K&prime;, Gas reversing valve.</p>
+<p>L,  Air port.</p>
+<p>L&prime;, Gas port.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>M,  Rollers on which the furnace tilts.</p>
+<p>N,  Hydraulic cylinder for tilting the furnace.</p>
+<p>O,  Flue leading to chimney.</p>
+<p>P,  Slag pockets.</p>
+<p>R,  Charging boxes.</p>
+<p>W,  Water-cooled joints between furnace proper, G, and ports L, L&prime;.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The tilting working chamber is connected with the stationary
+ports L and L&prime; by means of the loose water-cooled joint W in
+Campbell&rsquo;s system, which is here shown. The furnace, resting on
+the rollers M, is tilted by the hydraulic cylinder N. The slag-pockets
+P (fig. 22), below the uptakes, are provided to catch the
+dust carried out of the furnace proper by the escaping products of
+combustion, lest it enter and choke the regenerators. Wellman&rsquo;s
+tilting furnace rolls on a fixed rack instead of on rollers. By his
+charging system a charge of as much as fifty tons is quickly introduced.
+The metal is packed by unskilled labourers in iron boxes,
+R (fig. 21), standing on cars in the stock-yard. A locomotive
+carries a train of these cars to the track running beside a long line
+of open-hearth furnaces. Here the charging machine lifts one box
+at a time from its car, pushes it through the momentarily opened
+furnace door, and empties the metal upon the hearth of the furnace
+by inverting the box, which it then replaces on its car.</p>
+
+<p>100. The proportion of pig to scrap used depends chiefly on the
+relative cost of these two materials, but sometimes in part also on
+the carbon content which the resultant steel is to have. Thus part
+at least of the carbon which a high-carbon steel is to contain may
+be supplied by the pig iron from which it is made. The length of
+the process increases with the proportion of pig used. Thus in the
+Westphalian pig and scrap practice, scrap usually forms 75 or even
+80% of the charge, and pig only from 20 to 25%, indeed only
+enough to supply the carbon inevitably burnt out in melting the
+charge and heating it up to a proper casting temperature; and here
+the charge lasts only about 6 hours. In some British and Swedish
+&ldquo;pig and ore&rdquo; practice (§ 98), on the other hand, little or no scrap
+is used, and here the removal of the large quantity of carbon, silicon
+and phosphorus prolongs the process to 17 hours. The common
+practice in the United States is to use about equal parts of pig and
+scrap, and here the usual length of a charge is about ll˝ hours.
+The pig and ore process is held back, first by the large quantity
+of carbon, and usually of silicon and phosphorus, to be removed,
+and second by the necessary slowness of their removal. The gangue
+of the ore increases the quantity of slag, which separates the metal
+from the source of its heat, the flame, and thus delays the rise of
+temperature; and the purification by &ldquo;oreing,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> by means of
+the oxygen of the large lumps of cold iron ore thrown in by hand,
+is extremely slow, because the ore must be fed in very slowly lest
+it chill the metal both directly and because the reaction by which
+it removes the carbon of the metal, Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> + C = 2FeO + CO, itself
+absorbs heat. Indeed, this local cooling aggravates the frothing.
+A cold lump of ore chills the slag immediately around it, just where
+its oxygen, reacting on the carbon of the metal, generates carbonic
+oxide; the slag becomes cool, viscous, and hence easily made to
+froth, just where the froth-causing gas is evolved.</p>
+
+<p>The length of these varieties of the process just given refers to the
+basic procedure. The acid process goes on much faster, because in
+it the heat insulating layer of slag is much thinner. For instance it
+lasts only about 8˝ hours when equal parts of pig and scrap are used,
+instead of the 11˝ hours of the basic process. Thus the actual cost
+of conversion by the acid process is materially less than by the
+basic, but this difference is more than outweighed in most places
+by the greater cost of pig and scrap free enough from phosphorus
+to be used in the undephosphorizing acid process.</p>
+
+<p>101. <i>Three special varieties of the open-hearth process</i>, the
+Bertrand-Thiel, the Talbot and the Monell, deserve notice. Bertrand
+and Thiel oxidize the carbon of molten cast iron by pouring it into
+a bath of molten iron which has first been oxygenated, <i>i.e.</i> charged
+with oxygen, and superheated, in an open-hearth furnace. The
+two metallic masses coalesce, and the reaction between the oxygen
+of one and the carbon of the other is therefore extremely rapid
+because it occurs throughout their depth, whereas in common procedure
+oxidation occurs only at the upper surface of the bath of
+cast iron at its contact with the overlying slag. Moreover, since
+local cooling, with its consequent viscosity and tendency to froth,
+are avoided, the frothing is not excessive in spite of the rapidity of
+the reaction. The oxygenated metal is prepared by melting cast
+iron diluted with as much scrap steel as is available, and oxidizing
+it with the flame and with iron ore as it lies in a thin molten layer
+on the hearth of a large open-hearth furnace; the thinness of the
+layer hastens the oxidation, and the large size of the furnace permits
+considerable frothing. But the oxygenated metal might be prepared
+easily in a Bessemer converter.</p>
+
+<p>To enlarge the scale of operations makes strongly for economy
+in the open-hearth process as in other high temperature ones. Yet
+the use of an open-hearth furnace of very great capacity, say of
+200 tons per charge, has the disadvantage that such very large lots
+of steel, delivered at relatively long intervals, are less readily managed
+in the subsequent operations of soaking and rolling down to the
+final shape, than smaller lots delivered at shorter intervals. To
+meet this difficulty Mr B. Talbot carries on the process as a quasi-continuous
+instead of an intermittent one, operating on 100-ton or
+200-ton lots of cast iron in such a way as to draw off his steel in
+20-ton lots at relatively short intervals, charging a fresh 20-ton lot
+of cast iron to replace each lot of steel thus drawn off, and thus keeping
+the furnace full of metal from Monday morning till Saturday
+night. Besides minor advantages, this plan has the merit of avoiding
+an ineffective period which occurs in common open-hearth procedure
+just after the charge of cast iron has been melted down. At this
+time the slag is temporarily rich in iron oxide and silica, resulting
+from the oxidation of the iron and of its silicon as the charge slowly
+melts and trickles down. Such a slag not only corrodes the furnace
+lining, but also impedes dephosphorization, because it is irretentive
+of phosphorus. Further, the relatively low temperature impedes
+decarburization. Clearly, no such period can exist in the continuous
+process.</p>
+
+<p>At a relatively low temperature, say 1300° C., the phosphorus
+of cast iron oxidizes and is removed much faster than its carbon,
+while at a higher temperature, say 1500° C., carbon oxidizes in preference
+to phosphorus. It is well to remove this latter element
+early, so that when the carbon shall have fallen to the proportion
+which the steel is to contain, the steel shall already be free from
+phosphorus, and so ready to cast. In common open-hearth procedure,
+although the temperature is low early in the process, viz.
+at the end of the melting down, dephosphorization is then impeded
+by the temporary acidity of the slag, as just explained. At the
+Carnegie works Mr Monell gets the two dephosphorizing conditions,
+low temperature and basicity of slag, early in the process, by pouring
+his molten but relatively cool cast iron upon a layer of pre-heated
+lime and iron oxide on the bottom of the open-hearth furnace.
+The lime and iron oxide melt, and, in passing up through the overlying
+metal, the iron oxide very rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus and
+thus drags it into the slag as phosphoric acid. The ebullition from
+the formation of carbonic oxide puffs up the resultant phosphoric
+slag enough to make most of it run out of the furnace, thus both
+removing the phosphorus permanently from danger of being later
+deoxidized and returned to the steel, and partly freeing the bath of
+metal from the heat-insulating blanket of slag. Yet frothing is
+not excessive, because the slag is not, as in common practice, locally
+chilled and made viscous by cold lumps of ore.</p>
+
+<p>102. In the <i>duplex process</i> the conversion of the cast iron into
+steel is begun in the Bessemer converter and finished in the open-hearth
+furnace. In the most promising form of this process an acid
+converter and a basic open-hearth furnace are used. In the former
+the silicon and part of the carbon are moved rapidly, in the latter
+the rest of the carbon and the phosphorus are removed slowly, and
+the metal is brought accurately to the proper temperature and
+composition. The advantage of this combination is that, by simplifying
+the conditions with which the composition of the pig iron has
+to comply, it makes the management of the blast furnace easier,
+and thus lessens the danger of making &ldquo;misfit&rdquo; pig iron, <i>i.e.</i> that
+which, because it is not accurately suited to the process for which
+it is intended, offers us the dilemma of using it in that process at
+poor advantage or of putting it to some other use, a step which
+often implies serious loss.</p>
+
+<p>For the acid Bessemer process the sulphur-content must be small
+and the silicon-content should be constant; for the basic open-hearth
+process the content of both silicon and sulphur should be
+small, a thing difficult to bring about, because in the blast furnace
+most of the conditions which make for small sulphur-content make
+also for large silicon-content. In the acid Bessemer process the
+reason why the sulphur-content must be small is that the process
+removes no sulphur; and the reason why the silicon-content should
+be constant is that, because silicon is here the chief source of heat,
+variations in its content cause corresponding variations in the
+temperature, a most harmful thing because it is essential to the
+good quality of the steel that it shall be finished and cast at the
+proper temperature. It is true that the use of the &ldquo;mixer&rdquo; (§ 77)
+lessens these variations, and that there are convenient ways of
+mitigating their effects. Nevertheless, their harm is not completely
+done away with. But if the conversion is only begun in the
+converter and finished on the open-hearth, then there is no need
+of regulating the temperature in the converter closely, and variations
+in the silicon-content of the pig iron thus become almost harmless
+in this respect. In the basic open-hearth process, on the other hand,
+silicon is harmful because the silica which results from its oxidation
+not only corrodes the lining of the furnace but interferes with the
+removal of the phosphorus, an essential part of the process. The
+sulphur-content should be small, because the removal of this element
+is both slow and difficult. But if the silicon of the pig iron is
+removed by a preliminary treatment in the Bessemer converter, then
+its presence in the pig iron is harmless as regards the open-hearth
+process. Hence the blast furnace process, thus freed from the
+hampering need of controlling accurately the silicon-content, can
+be much more effectively guided so as to prevent the sulphur from
+entering the pig iron.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at the duplex process in another way, the preliminary
+desilicidizing in the Bessemer converter should certainly be an
+advantage; but whether it is more profitable to give this treatment
+in the converter than in the mixer remains to be seen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>103. In the <i>cementation process</i> bars of wrought iron about
+˝ in. thick are carburized and so converted into high carbon
+&ldquo;blister steel,&rdquo; by heating them in contact with charcoal in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page824" id="page824"></a>824</span>
+a closed chamber to about 1000° C. (1832° F.) for from 8 to 11
+days. Low-carbon steel might thus be converted into high-carbon
+steel, but this is not customary. The carbon dissolves
+in the hot but distinctly solid &gamma;-iron (compare fig. 1) as salt
+dissolves in water, and works its way towards the centre of the
+bar by diffusion. When the mass is cooled, the carbon changes
+over into the condition of cementite as usual, partly interstratified
+with ferrite in the form of pearlite, partly in the form
+of envelopes enclosing kernels of this pearlite (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alloys</a></span>,
+Pl. fig. 13). Where the carbon, in thus diffusing inwards, meets
+particles of the slag, a basic ferrous silicate which is always
+present in wrought iron, it forms carbonic oxide, FeO + C = Fe + CO,
+which puffs the pliant metal up and forms blisters.
+Hence the name &ldquo;blister steel.&rdquo; It was formerly sheared to
+short lengths and formed into piles, which were then rolled
+out, perhaps to be resheared and rerolled into bars, known
+as &ldquo;single shear&rdquo; or &ldquo;double shear&rdquo; steel according to the
+number of shearings. But now the chief use for blister steel
+is for remelting in the crucible process, yielding a product which
+is asserted so positively, so universally and by such competent
+witnesses to be not only better but very much better
+than that made from any other material, that we must believe
+that it is so, though no clear reason can yet be given why it
+should be. For long all the best high-carbon steel was made
+by remelting this blister steel in crucibles (§ 106), but in the
+last few years the electric processes have begun to make this
+steel (§ 108).</p>
+
+<p>104. <i>Case Hardening.</i>&mdash;The many steel objects which need
+an extremely hard outer surface but a softer and more malleable
+interior may be carburized superficially by heating them in
+contact with charcoal or other carbonaceous matter, for instance
+for between 5 and 48 hours at a temperature of 800° to 900° C.
+This is known as &ldquo;case hardening.&rdquo; After this carburizing
+these objects are usually hardened by quenching in cold water
+(see § 28).</p>
+
+<p>105. <i>Deep Carburizing; Harvey and Krupp Processes.</i>&mdash;Much
+of the heavy side armour of war-vessels (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armour-Plate</a></span>)
+is made of nickel steel initially containing so little carbon
+that it cannot be hardened, <i>i.e.</i> that it remains very ductile
+even after sudden cooling. The impact face of these plates
+is given the intense hardness needed by being converted into
+high-carbon steel, and then hardened by sudden cooling. The
+impact face is thus carburized to a depth of about 1Ľ in. by
+being held at a temperature of 1100° for about a week, pressed
+strongly against a bed of charcoal (Harvey process). The plate
+is then by Krupp&rsquo;s process heated so that its impact face is
+above while its rear is below the hardening temperature, and
+the whole is then cooled suddenly with sprays of cold water.
+Under these conditions the hardness, which is very extreme
+at the impact face, shades off toward the back, till at about
+quarter way from face to back all hardening ceases, and the rest of
+the plate is in a very strong, shock-resisting state. Thanks
+to the glass-hardness of this face, the projectile is arrested
+so abruptly that it is shattered, and its energy is delivered
+piecemeal by its fragments; but as the face is integrally united
+with the unhardened, ductile and slightly yielding interior and
+back, the plate, even if it is locally bent backwards somewhat
+by the blow, neither cracks nor flakes.</p>
+
+<p>106. The <i>crucible process</i> consists essentially in melting one
+or another variety of iron or steel in small 80-&#8468;. charges in
+closed crucibles, and then casting it into ingots or other castings,
+though in addition the metal while melting may be carburized.
+Its chief, indeed almost its sole use, is for making tool steel,
+the best kinds of spring steel and other very excellent kinds
+of high-carbon and alloy steel. After the charge has been fully
+melted, it is held in the molten state from 30 to 60 minutes.
+This enables it to take up enough silicon from the walls of the
+crucible to prevent the evolution of gas during solidification,
+and the consequent formation of blowholes or internal gas
+bubbles. In Great Britain the charge usually consists of blister
+steel, and is therefore high in carbon, so that the crucible
+process has very little to do except to melt the charge. In the
+United States the charge usually consists chiefly of wrought
+iron, and in melting in the crucible it is carburized by mixing
+with it either charcoal or &ldquo;washed metal,&rdquo; a very pure cast
+iron made by the Bell-Krupp process (§ 107).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Compared with the Bessemer process, which converts a charge
+of even as much as 20 tons of pig iron into steel in a few minutes,
+and the open-hearth process which easily treats charges of 75 tons,
+the crucible process is, of course, a most expensive one, with its
+little 80-&#8468; charges, melted with great consumption of fuel because
+the heat is kept away from the metal by the walls of the crucible,
+themselves excellent heat insulators. But it survives simply because
+crucible steel is very much better than either Bessemer or open-hearth
+steel. This in turn is in part because of the greater care
+which can be used in making these small lots, but probably in chief
+part because the crucible process excludes the atmospheric nitrogen,
+which injures the metal, and because it gives a good opportunity for
+the suspended slag and iron oxide to rise to the surface. Till Huntsman
+developed the crucible process in 1740, the only kinds of steel
+of commercial importance were blister steel made by carburizing
+wrought iron without fusion, and others which like it were greatly
+injured by the presence of particles of slag. Huntsman showed that
+the mere act of freeing these slag-bearing steels from their slag by
+melting them in closed crucibles greatly improved them. It is true
+that Réaumur in 1722 described his method of making molten steel
+in crucibles, and that the Hindus have for centuries done this on a
+small scale, though they let the molten steel resolidify in the crucible.
+Nevertheless, it is to Huntsman that the world is immediately
+indebted for the crucible process. He could make only high-carbon
+steel, because he could not develop within his closed crucibles the
+temperature needed for melting low-carbon steel. The crucible
+process remained the only one by which slagless steel could be
+made, till Bessemer, by his astonishing invention, discovered at
+once low-carbon steel and a process for making both it and high-carbon
+steel extremely cheaply.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>107. In the <i>Bell-Krupp</i> or &ldquo;pig-washing&rdquo; process, invented
+independently by the famous British iron-master, Sir Lowthian
+Bell, and Krupp of Essen, advantage is taken of the fact that,
+at a relatively low temperature, probably a little above 1200° C.,
+the phosphorus and silicon of molten cast iron are quickly oxidized
+and removed by contact with molten iron oxide, though carbon
+is thus oxidized but slowly. By rapidly stirring molten iron
+oxide into molten pig iron in a furnace shaped like a saucer,
+slightly inclined and turning around its axis, at a temperature
+but little above the melting-point of the metal itself, the
+phosphorus and silicon are removed rapidly, without removing
+much of the carbon, and by this means an extremely pure cast
+iron is made. This is used in the crucible process as a convenient
+source of the carbon needed for high-carbon steel.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:178px" src="images/img824.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"> <span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Heroult Double-arc
+Electric Steel Purifying
+Furnace.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>108. <i>Electric steel-making processes</i>, or more accurately
+processes in which electrically heated furnaces are used, have
+developed very rapidly. In steel-making, electric furnaces are
+used for two distinct purposes, first for making steel sufficiently
+better than Bessemer and open-hearth steels to replace these
+for certain important purposes, and second for replacing the
+very expensive crucible process for making the very best steel.
+The advantages of the electric furnaces for these purposes can
+best be understood after examining the furnaces themselves
+and the way in which they are used. The most important ones
+are either &ldquo;arc&rdquo; furnaces, <i>i.e.</i> those heated by electric arcs,
+or &ldquo;induction&rdquo; ones, <i>i.e.</i> those in which the metal under treatment
+is heated by its own resistance
+to a current of electricity
+induced in it from without. The
+Heroult furnace, the best known
+in the arc class, and the Kjellin
+and Roechling-Rodenhauser furnaces,
+the best known of the
+induction class, will serve as
+examples.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Heroult furnace (fig. 23) is
+practically a large closed crucible,
+ABCA, with two carbon electrodes,
+E and F, &ldquo;in series&rdquo; with the bath,
+H, of molten steel. A pair of electric
+arcs play between these electrodes and the molten steel, passing
+through the layer of slag, G, and generating much heat. The
+lining of the crucible may be of either magnesite (MgO) or
+chromite (FeO·Cr<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>). The whole furnace, electrodes and all,
+rotates about the line KL for the purpose of pouring out the molten
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page825" id="page825"></a>825</span>
+slag and purified metal through the spout J at the end of the
+process. This spout and the charging doors A, A are kept closed
+except when in actual use for pouring or charging.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:313px; height:196px" src="images/img825a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Kjellin Induction Electric
+Steel Melting Furnace.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Kjellin furnace consists essentially of an annular trough,
+AA (fig. 24), which contains the molten charge. This charge is
+heated, like the filaments of a common household electric lamp, by
+the resistance which it offers to the passage of a current of electricity
+induced in it by means of
+the core C and the frame
+EEE. The ends of this
+core are connected above,
+below and at the right of
+the trough A, by means
+of that frame, so that the
+trough and this core and
+frame stand to each other
+in a position like that of
+two successive links of
+a common oval-linked
+chain. A current of great
+electromotive force (intensity
+or voltage) passed
+through the coil D, induces,
+by means of the core and frame, a current of enormous
+quantity (volume or amperage), but very small electromotive force,
+in the metal in the trough. Thus the apparatus is analogous to the
+common transformers used for inducing from currents of great
+electromotive force and small quantity, which carry energy through
+long distances, currents of great quantity and small electromotive
+force for incandescent lights and for welding. The molten metal
+in the Kjellin trough forms the &ldquo;secondary&rdquo; circuit. Like the
+Heroult furnace, the Kjellin furnace may be lined with either
+magnesite or chromite, and it may be tilted for the purpose of
+pouring off slag and metal.</p>
+
+<p>The shape which the molten metal under treatment has in the
+Kjellin furnace, a thin ring of large diameter, is evidently bad,
+inconvenient for manipulation and with excessive heat-radiating
+surface. In the Roechling-Rodenhauser induction furnace (fig. 25),
+the molten metal lies chiefly in a large compact mass A, heated at
+three places on its periphery by the current induced in it there by
+means of the three coils and cores CCC. The molten metal also
+extends round each of these three coils, in the narrow channels B.
+It is in the metal in these channels and in that part of the main
+mass of metal which immediately adjoins the coils that the current
+is induced by means of the coils and cores, as in the Kjellin furnace.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:381px" src="images/img825b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Plan of Roechling-Rodenhauser Induction Electric
+Furnace.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When the Heroult furnace is used for completing the purification
+of molten steel begun in the Bessemer or open-hearth process, and
+this is its most appropriate use, the process carried out in it may
+be divided into two stages, first dephosphorization, and second
+deoxidation and desulphurization.</p>
+
+<p>In the first stage the phosphorus is removed from the molten steel
+by oxidizing it to phosphoric acid, P<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, by means of iron oxide
+contained in a molten slag very rich in lime, and hence very basic
+and retentive of that phosphoric acid. This slag is formed by
+melting lime and iron oxide, with a little silica sand if need be.
+Floating on top of the molten metal, it rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus,
+and the resultant phosphoric acid combines with the lime
+in the overlying slag as phosphate of lime. When the removal of
+the phosphorus is sufficiently complete, this slag is withdrawn from
+the furnace.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the deoxidizing and desulphurizing stage, of which
+the first step is to throw some strongly deoxidizing substance, such
+as coke or ferro-silicon, upon the molten metal, in order to remove
+thus the chief part of the oxygen which it has taken up during the
+oxidation of the phosphorus in the preceding stage. Next the
+metal is covered with a very basic slag, made by melting lime with
+a little silica and fluor spar. Coke now charged into this slag first
+deoxidizes any iron oxide contained in either slag or metal, and next
+deoxidizes part of the lime of the slag and thus forms calcium,
+which, uniting with the sulphur present in the molten metal, forms
+calcium sulphide, CaO + FeS + C = CaS + Fe + CO. This sulphide is
+nearly insoluble in the metal, but is readily soluble in the overlying
+basic slag, into which it therefore passes. The thorough
+removal of the sulphur is thus brought about by the deoxidation of
+the calcium. It is by forming calcium sulphide that sulphur is
+removed in the manufacture of pig iron in the iron blast furnace,
+in the crucible of which, as in the electric furnaces, the conditions
+are strongly deoxidizing. But in the Bessemer and open-hearth
+processes this means of removing sulphur cannot be used, because in
+each of them there is always enough oxygen in the atmosphere to
+re-oxidize any calcium as fast as it is deoxidized. Here sulphur
+may indeed be removed to a very important degree in the form of
+manganese sulphide, which distributes itself between metal and
+slag in rough accord with the laws of equilibrium. But if we rely
+on this means we have difficulty in reducing the sulphur content
+of the metal to 0.03% and very great difficulty in reducing it to
+0.02%, whereas with the calcium sulphide of the electric furnaces
+we can readily reduce it to less than 0.01%.</p>
+
+<p>When the desulphurization is sufficiently complete, the sulphur-bearing
+slag is removed, the final additions needed to give the metal
+exactly the composition aimed at are made, and the molten steel is
+tapped out of the furnace into its moulds. If the initial quantity
+of phosphorus or sulphur is large, or if the removal of these impurities
+is to be made very thorough, the dephosphorizing or the
+desulphurizing slagging off may be repeated. While the metal lies
+tranquilly on the bottom of the furnace, any slag mechanically
+suspended in it has a chance to rise to the surface and unite with
+the slag layer above.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this work of purification, the furnace may be used
+for melting down the initial charge of cold metal, and for beginning
+the purification&mdash;in short not only for finishing but also for roughing.
+But this is rarely expedient, because electricity is so expensive that
+it should be used for doing only those things which cannot be accomplished
+by any other and cheaper means. The melting can be done
+much more cheaply in a cupola or open-hearth furnace, and the first
+part of the purification much more cheaply in a Bessemer converter
+or open-hearth furnace.</p>
+
+<p>The normal use of the Kjellin induction furnace is to do the work
+usually done in the crucible process, <i>i.e.</i> to melt down very pure
+iron for the manufacture of the best kinds of steel, such as fine tool
+and spring steel, and to bring the molten metal simultaneously to
+the exact composition and temperature at which it should be cast
+into its moulds. This furnace may be used also for purifying the
+molten metal, but it is not so well suited as the arc furnaces for
+dephosphorizing. The reason for this is that in it the slag, by means
+of which all the purification must needs be done, is not heated
+effectively; that hence it is not readily made thoroughly liquid;
+that hence the removal of the phosphoric slag made in the early
+dephosphorizing stage of the process is liable to be incomplete;
+and that hence, finally, the phosphorus of any of this slag which is
+left in the furnace becomes deoxidized during the second or deoxidizing
+stage, and is thereby returned to befoul the underlying
+steel. The reason why the slag is not heated effectively is that the
+heat is developed only in the layer of metal itself, by its resistance
+to the induced current, and hence the only heat which the slag
+receives is that supplied to its lower surface by the metal, while its
+upper side is constantly radiating heat away towards the relatively
+cool roof above.</p>
+
+<p>The Roechling-Rodenhauser furnace is unfitted, by the vulnerability
+of its interior walls, for receiving charges of cold metal to be
+melted down, but it is used to good advantage for purifying molten
+basic Bessemer steel sufficiently to fit it for use in the form of railway
+rails.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We are now in a position to understand why electricity
+should be used as a source of heat in making molten steel.
+Electric furnaces are at an advantage over others as regards
+the removal of sulphur and of iron oxide from the molten steel,
+because their atmosphere is free from the sulphur always present
+in the flame of coal-fired furnaces, and almost free from oxygen,
+because this element is quickly absorbed by the carbon and
+silicon of the steel, and in the case of arc furnaces by the carbon
+of the electrodes themselves, and is replaced only very slowly
+by leakage, whereas through the Bessemer converter and the
+open-hearth furnace a torrent of air is always rushing. As
+we have seen, the removal of sulphur can be made complete
+only by deoxidizing calcium, and this cannot be done if much
+oxygen is present. Indeed, the freedom of the atmosphere
+of the electric furnaces from oxygen is also the reason indirectly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page826" id="page826"></a>826</span>
+why the molten metal can be freed from mechanically suspended
+slag more perfectly in them than in the Bessemer converter or
+the open-hearth furnace. In order that this finely divided slag
+shall rise to the surface and there coalesce with the overlying
+layer, the metal must be tranquil. But tranquillity is clearly
+impossible in the Bessemer converter, in which the metal can
+be kept hot only by being torn into a spray by the blast. It is
+practically unattainable in the open-hearth furnace, because
+here the oxygen of the furnace atmosphere indirectly oxidizes
+the carbon of the metal which is kept boiling by the escape of
+the resultant carbonic oxide. In short the electric furnaces
+can be used to improve the molten product of the Bessemer
+converter and open-hearth furnace, essentially because their
+atmosphere is free from sulphur and oxygen, and because they
+can therefore remove sulphur, iron oxide and mechanically
+suspended slag, more thoroughly than is possible in these older
+furnaces. They make a better though a dearer steel.</p>
+
+<p>Further, the electric furnaces, <i>e.g.</i> the Kjellin, can be used
+to replace the crucible melting process (§ 106), chiefly because
+their work is cheaper for two reasons. First, they treat a larger
+charge, a ton or more, whereas the charge of each crucible is
+only about 80 pounds. Second, their heat is applied far more
+economically, directly to the metal itself, whereas in the crucible
+process the heat is applied most wastefully to the outside of the
+non-conducting walls of a closed crucible within which the charge
+to be heated lies. Beyond this sulphur and phosphorus can be
+removed in the electric furnace, whereas in the crucible process
+they cannot. In short electric furnaces replace the old crucible
+furnace primarily because they work more cheaply, though in
+addition they may be made to yield a better steel than it can.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Thus we see that the purification in these electric furnaces has
+nothing to do with electricity. We still use the old familiar purifying
+agents, iron oxide, lime and nascent calcium. The electricity is
+solely a source of heat, free from the faults of the older sources
+which for certain purposes it now replaces. The electric furnaces
+are likely to displace the crucible furnaces completely, because
+they work both more cheaply and better. They are not likely
+to displace either the open-hearth furnace or the Bessemer converter,
+because their normal work is only to improve the product
+of these older furnaces. Here their use is likely to be limited by its
+costliness, because for the great majority of purposes the superiority
+of the electrically purified steel is not worth the cost of the electric
+purification.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>109. <i>Electric Ore-smelting Processes.</i>&mdash;Though the electric
+processes which have been proposed for extracting the iron from
+iron ore, with the purpose of displacing the iron blast furnace,
+have not become important enough to deserve description here,
+yet it should be possible to devise one which would be useful
+in a place (if there is one) which has an abundance of water
+power and iron ore and a local demand for iron, but has not
+coke, charcoal or bituminous coal suitable for the blast furnace.
+But this ancient furnace does its fourfold work of deoxidizing,
+melting, removing the gangue and desulphurizing, so very
+economically that it is not likely to be driven out in other places
+until the exhaustion of our coal-fields shall have gone so far as to
+increase the cost of coke greatly.</p>
+
+<p>110. <i>Comparison of Steel-making Processes.</i>&mdash;When Bessemer
+discovered that by simply blowing air through molten cast iron
+rapidly he could make low-carbon steel, which is essentially
+wrought iron greatly improved by being freed from its essential
+defect, its necessarily weakening and embrittling slag, the very
+expensive and exhausting puddling process seemed doomed,
+unable to survive the time when men should have familiarized
+themselves with the use of Bessemer steel, and should have
+developed the evident possibilities of cheapness of the Bessemer
+process. Nevertheless the use of wrought iron actually continued
+to increase. The first of the United States decennial censuses
+to show a decrease in the production of wrought iron was that
+in 1890, 35 years after the invention of the Bessemer process.
+It is still in great demand for certain normal purposes for which
+either great ease in welding or resistance to corrosion by rusting
+is of great importance; for purposes requiring special forms of
+extreme ductility which are not so confidently expected in steel;
+for miscellaneous needs of many users, some ignorant, some
+very conservative; and for remelting in the crucible process.
+All the best cutlery and tool steel is made either by the crucible
+process or in electric furnaces, and indeed all for which any
+considerable excellence is claimed is supposed to be so made,
+though often incorrectly. But the great mass of the steel of
+commerce is made by the Bessemer and the open-hearth processes.
+Open-hearth steel is generally thought to be better than Bessemer,
+and the acid variety of each of these two processes is thought
+to yield a better product than the basic variety. This may not
+necessarily be true, but the acid variety lends itself more readily
+to excellence than the basic. A very large proportion of ores
+cannot be made to yield cast iron either free enough from
+phosphorus for the acid Bessemer or the acid open-hearth
+process, neither of which removes that most injurious element,
+or rich enough in phosphorus for the basic Bessemer process,
+which must rely on that element as its source of heat. But
+cast iron for the basic open-hearth process can be made from
+almost any ore, because its requirements, comparative freedom
+from silicon and sulphur, depend on the management of the
+blast-furnace rather than on the composition of the ore, whereas
+the phosphorus-content of the cast iron depends solely on that
+of the ore, because nearly all the phosphorus of the ore necessarily
+passes into the cast iron. Thus the basic open-hearth process
+is the only one which can make steel from cast iron containing
+more than 0.10% but less than 1.80% of phosphorus.</p>
+
+<p>The restriction of the basic Bessemer process to pig iron
+containing at least 1.80% of phosphorus has prevented it from
+getting a foothold in the United States; the restriction of the
+acid Bessemer process to pig iron very low in phosphorus, usually
+to that containing less than 0.10% of that element, has almost
+driven it out of Germany, has of late retarded, indeed almost
+stopped, the growth of its use in the United States, and has even
+caused it to be displaced at the great Duquesne works of the
+Carnegie Steel Company by the omnivorous basic open-hearth
+process, the use of which has increased very rapidly. Under
+most conditions the acid Bessemer process is the cheapest in
+cost of conversion, the basic Bessemer next, and the acid open-hearth
+next, though the difference between them is not great.
+But the crucible process is very much more expensive than any
+of the others.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Until very lately the Bessemer process, in either its acid or its
+basic form, made all of the world&rsquo;s rail steel; but even for this work
+it has now begun to be displaced by the basic open-hearth process,
+partly because of the fast-increasing scarcity of ores which yield pig
+iron low enough in phosphorus for the acid Bessemer process, and
+partly because the increase in the speed of trains and in the loads on
+the individual engine- and car-wheels has made a demand for rails of
+a material better than Bessemer steel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>111. <i>Iron founding</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the manufacture of castings of cast
+iron, consists essentially in pouring the molten cast iron into
+moulds, and, as preparatory steps, melting the cast iron itself
+and preparing the moulds. These are usually made of sand
+containing enough clay to give it the needed coherence, but of
+late promising attempts have been made to use permanent iron
+moulds. In a very few places the molten cast iron as it issues
+from the blast furnace is cast directly in these moulds, but in
+general it is allowed to solidify in pigs, and then remelted either
+in cupola furnaces or in air furnaces. The cupola furnace (fig. 26)
+is a shaft much like a miniature blast furnace, filled from top
+to bottom by a column of lumps of coke and of iron. The blast
+of air forced in through the tuyeres near the bottom of the
+furnace burns the coke there, and the intense heat thus caused
+melts away the surrounding iron, so that this column of coke and
+iron gradually descends; but it is kept at its full height by
+feeding more coke and iron at its top, until all the iron needed
+for the day&rsquo;s work has thus been charged. As the iron melts
+it runs out through a tap hole and spout at the bottom of the
+furnace, to be poured into the moulds by means of clay-lined
+ladles. The air furnace is a reverberatory furnace like that used
+for puddling (fig. 14), but larger, and in it the pigs of iron, lying
+on the bottom or hearth, are melted down by the flame from the
+coal which burns in the firebox. The iron is then held molten
+till it has grown hot enough for casting and till enough of its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page827" id="page827"></a>827</span>
+carbon has been burnt away to leave just the carbon-content
+desired, and it is then tapped out and poured into the moulds.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:369px; height:821px" src="images/img827a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Cupola Furnace for Remelting
+Pig Iron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the two the cupola is very much the more economical of fuel,
+thanks to the direct transfer of heat from the burning coke to the
+pig iron with which
+it is in contact. But
+this contact both
+causes the iron to
+absorb sulphur
+from the coke to
+its great harm, and
+prevents it from
+having any large
+part of its carbon
+burnt away, which
+in many cases
+would improve it
+very greatly by
+strengthening it.
+Thus it comes about
+that the cupola,
+because it is so
+economical, is used
+for all but the relatively
+few cases in
+which the strengthening
+of the iron by
+the removal of part
+of its carbon and
+the prevention of
+the absorption of
+sulphur are so important
+as to compensate
+for the
+greater cost of the
+air-furnace melting.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>112. <i>Cast iron
+for foundry purposes</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> for
+making castings of
+cast iron. Though,
+as we have seen in
+§ 19, steel is rarely
+given a carbon-content
+greater
+than 1.50% lest its
+brittleness should
+be excessive, yet
+cast iron with between
+3 and 4% of
+carbon, the usual
+cast iron of the
+foundry, is very
+useful. Because of the ease and cheapness with which, thanks to
+its fluidity and fusibility (fig. 1), it can be melted and run even into
+narrow and intricate moulds, castings made of it are very often
+more economical, <i>i.e.</i> they serve a given purpose more cheaply, in
+the long run, than either rolled or cast steel, in spite of their need
+of being so massive that the brittleness of the material itself
+shall be endurable. Indeed this high carbon-content, 3 to 4%,
+in practice actually leads to less brittleness than can readily be
+had with somewhat less carbon, because with it much of the
+carbon can easily be thrown into the relatively harmless state
+of graphite, whereas if the carbon amounts to less than 3% it
+can be brought to this state only with difficulty. For crushing
+certain kinds of rock, the hardness of which cast iron is capable
+really makes it more valuable, pound for pound, than steel.</p>
+
+<p>113. <i>Qualities needed in Cast Iron Castings.</i>&mdash;Different kinds
+of castings need very different sets of qualities, and the composition
+of the cast iron itself must vary from case to case so as
+to give each the qualities needed. The iron for a statuette must
+first of all be very fluid, so that it will run into every crevice in
+its mould, and it must expand in solidifying, so that it shall
+reproduce accurately every detail of that mould. The iron for
+most engineering purposes needs chiefly to be strong and not
+excessively brittle. That for the thin-walled water mains must
+combine strength with the fluidity needed to enable it to run
+freely into its narrow moulds; that for most machinery must
+be soft enough to be cut easily to an exact shape; that for
+hydraulic cylinders must combine strength with density lest the
+water leak through; and that for car-wheels must be intensely
+hard in its wearing parts, but in its other parts it must have that
+shock-resisting power which can be had only along with great
+softness. Though all true cast iron is brittle, in the sense that
+it is not usefully malleable, <i>i.e.</i> that it cannot be hammered from
+one shape into another, yet its degree of brittleness differs as
+that of soapstone does from that of glass, so that there are the
+intensely hard and brittle cast irons, and the less brittle ones,
+softer and unhurt by a shock which would shiver the former.</p>
+
+<p>Of these several qualities which cast iron may have, fluidity
+is given by keeping the sulphur-content low and phosphorus-content
+high; and this latter element must be kept low if
+shock is to be resisted; but strength, hardness, endurance of
+shock, density and expansion in solidifying are controlled
+essentially by the distribution of the carbon between the states
+of graphite and cementite, and this in turn is controlled chiefly
+by the proportion of silicon, manganese and sulphur present,
+and in many cases by the rate of cooling.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>114. <i>Constitution of Cast Iron.</i>&mdash;Cast iron naturally has a high
+carbon-content, usually between 3 and 4%, because while molten
+it absorbs carbon greedily from the coke with which it is in contact
+in the iron blast furnace in which it is made, and in the cupola furnace
+in which it is remelted for making most castings. This carbon may
+all be present as graphite, as in typical grey cast iron; or all present
+as cementite, Fe<span class="su">3</span>C, as in typical white cast iron; or, as is far more
+usual, part of it may be present as graphite and part as cementite.
+Now how does it come about that the distribution of the carbon
+between these very unlike states determines the strength, hardness
+and many other valuable properties of the metal as a whole? The
+answer to this is made easy by a careful study of the effect of this
+same distribution on the constitution of the metal, because it is
+through controlling this constitution that the condition of the carbon
+controls these useful properties. To fix our ideas let us assume that
+the iron contains 4% of carbon. If this carbon is all present as
+graphite, so that in cooling the graphite-austenite diagram has been
+followed strictly (§ 26), the constitution is extremely simple; clearly
+the mass consists first of a metallic matrix, the carbonless iron itself
+with whatever silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur happen
+to be present, in short an impure ferrite, encased in which as a wholly
+distinct foreign body is the graphite. The primary graphite (§ 26)
+generally forms a coarse, nearly continuous skeleton of curved black
+plates, like those shown in fig. 27; the eutectic graphite is much
+finer; while the pro-eutectoid and eutectoid graphite, if they exist,
+are probably in very fine particles. We must grasp clearly this
+conception of metallic matrix and encased graphite skeleton if we
+are to understand this subject.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:453px" src="images/img827b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Graphite in Grey Cast Iron.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Now this matrix itself is equivalent to a very low-carbon steel,
+strictly speaking to a carbonless steel, because it consists of pure
+ferrite, which is just what such a steel consists of; and the cast iron
+as a whole is therefore equivalent to a matrix of very low-carbon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page828" id="page828"></a>828</span>
+steel in which is encased a skeleton of graphite plates, besides some
+very fine scattered particles of graphite.</p>
+
+<p>Next let us imagine that, in a series of cast irons all containing 4%
+of carbon, the graphite of the initial skeleton changes gradually
+into cementite and thereby becomes part of the matrix, a change
+which of course has two aspects, first, a gradual thinning of the
+graphite skeleton and a decrease of its continuity, and second, a
+gradual introduction of cementite into the originally pure ferrite
+matrix. By the time that 0.4% of graphite has thus changed,
+and in changing has united with 0.4 × 14 = 5.6% of the iron of the
+original ferrite matrix, it will have changed this matrix from pure
+ferrite into a mixture of</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cementite</td> <td class="tcr">0.4 + 5.6 =  &ensp;6.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ferrite</td> <td class="tcr">96.0 &minus; 5.6 = 90.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">96.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">The residual graphite skeleton forms</td> <td class="tcr">4   &minus; 0.4 = &ensp;3.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">But this matrix is itself equivalent to a steel of about 040% of
+carbon (more accurately 0.40 × 100 ÷ 96.4 = 0.415%), a rail steel,
+because it is of just such a mixture of ferrite and cementite in the
+ratio of 90.4 : 6 or 94% and 6%, that such a rail steel consists. The
+mass as a whole, then, consists of 96.4 parts of metallic matrix, which
+itself is in effect a 0.415% carbon rail steel, weakened and embrittled
+by having its continuity broken up by this skeleton of graphite
+forming 3.6% of the whole mass by weight, or say 12% by volume.</p>
+
+<p>As, in succeeding members of this same series of cast irons, more
+of the graphite of the initial skeleton changes into cementite and
+thereby becomes part of the metallic matrix, so the graphite skeleton
+becomes progressively thinner and more discontinuous, and the
+matrix richer in cementite and hence in carbon and hence equivalent
+first to higher and higher carbon steel, such as tool steel of 1%
+carbon, file steel of 1.50%, wire-die steel of 2% carbon and then
+to white cast iron, which consists essentially of much cementite
+with little ferrite. Eventually, when the whole of the graphite of
+the skeleton has changed into cementite, the mass as a whole becomes
+typical or ultra white cast iron, consisting of nothing but ferrite and
+cementite, distributed as follows (see fig. 2):&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Eutectoid ferrite</td> <td class="tcr">40.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Eutectoid cementite</td> <td class="tcr">6.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Eutectoid Interstratified as pearlite</td> <td class="tcr">46.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cementite, primary, eutectoid and pro-eutectoid</td> <td class="tcr">53.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Total ferrite</td> <td class="tcr">40.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Total cementite</td> <td class="tcr">60.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:563px" src="images/img828.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Physical Properties and assumed Microscopic Constitution
+of Cast Iron containing 4% of carbon, as affected by the distribution
+of that carbon between the combined and graphitic states.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The constitution and properties of such a series of cast irons,
+all containing 4% of carbon but with that carbon shifting progressively
+from the state of graphite to that of cementite as we pass
+from specimen to specimen, may, with the foregoing picture of a
+skeleton-holding matrix clearly in our minds be traced by means of
+fig. 28. The change from graphite into cementite is supposed to
+take place as we pass from left to right. BC and OH give the proportion
+of ferrite and cementite respectively in the matrix, DEF,
+KS and TU reproduced from fig. 3 give the consequent properties
+of the matrix, and GAF, RS and VU give, partly from conjecture,
+the properties of the cast iron as a whole. Above the diagram are
+given the names of the different classes of cast iron to which different
+stages in the change from graphite to cementite correspond, and
+above these the names of kinds of steel or cast iron, to which at the
+corresponding stages the constitution of the matrix corresponds,
+while below the diagram are given the properties of the cast iron as
+a whole corresponding to these stages, and still lower the purposes
+for which these stages fit the cast iron, first because of its strength
+and shock-resisting power, and second because of its hardness.</p>
+
+<p>115. <i>Influence of the Constitution of Cast Iron on its Properties.</i>&mdash;How
+should the hardness, strength and ductility, or rather shock-resisting
+power, of the cast iron be affected by this progressive
+change from graphite into cementite? First, the hardness (VU)
+should increase progressively as the soft ferrite and graphite are
+replaced by the glass-hard cementite. Second, though the brittleness
+should be lessened somewhat by the decrease in the extent to
+which the continuity of the strong matrix is broken up by the
+graphite skeleton, yet this effect is outweighed greatly by that of
+the rapid substitution in the matrix of the brittle cementite for the
+very ductile copper-like ferrite, so that the brittleness increases
+continuously (RS), from that of the very grey graphitic cast irons,
+which, like that of soapstone, is so slight that the metal can endure
+severe shock and even indentation without breaking, to that of the
+pure white cast iron which is about as brittle as porcelain. Here
+let us recognize that what gives this transfer of carbon from graphite
+skeleton to metallic matrix such very great influence on the properties
+of the metal is the fact that the transfer of each 1%
+of carbon means substituting in the matrix no less than 15% of
+the brittle, glass-hard cementite for the soft, very ductile ferrite.
+Third, the tensile strength of steel proper, of which the matrix
+consists, as we have already seen (fig. 3), increases with the carbon-content
+till this reaches about 1.25%, and then in turn decreases
+(fig. 28, DEF). Hence, as with the progressive transfer of the
+carbon from the graphitic to the cementite state in our imaginary
+series of cast irons, the combined carbon present in the matrix
+increases, so does the tensile strength of the mass as a whole for
+two reasons; first, because the strength of the matrix itself is increasing
+(DE), and second, because the discontinuity is decreasing
+with the decreasing proportion of graphite. With further transfer
+of the carbon from the graphitic to the combined state, the matrix
+itself grows weaker (EF); but this weakening is offset in a measure
+by the continuing decrease of discontinuity due to the decreasing
+proportion of graphite. The resultant of these two effects has not
+yet been well established; but it is probable that the strongest
+cast iron has a little more than 1% of carbon combined as cementite,
+so that its matrix is nearly equivalent to the strongest of the steels.
+As regards both tensile strength and ductility not only the quantity
+but the distribution of the graphite is of great importance. Thus it
+is extremely probable that the primary graphite, which forms large
+sheets, is much more weakening and embrittling than the eutectic
+and other forms, and therefore that, if either strength or ductility
+is sought, the metal should be free from primary graphite, <i>i.e.</i>
+that it should not be hyper-eutectic.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of graphite has two further and very natural
+effects. First, if the skeleton which it forms is continuous, then
+its planes of junction with the metallic matrix offer a path of
+low resistance to the passage of liquids or gases, or in short they
+make the metal so porous as to unfit it for objects like the
+cylinders of hydraulic presses, which ought to be gas-tight
+and water-tight. For such purposes the graphite-content should
+be low. Second, the very genesis of so bulky a substance as the
+primary and eutectic graphite while the metal is solidifying
+(fig. 5) causes a sudden and permanent expansion, which forces
+the metal into even the finest crevices in its mould, a fact
+which is taken advantage of in making ornamental castings and
+others which need great sharpness of detail, by making them
+rich in graphite.</p>
+
+<p>To sum this up, as graphite is replaced by carbon combined
+as cementite, the hardness, brittleness and density increase,
+and the expansion in solidification decreases, in both cases
+continuously, while the tensile strength increases till the combined
+carbon-content rises a little above 1%, and then in turn
+decreases. That strength is good and brittleness bad goes without
+saying; but here a word is needed about hardness. The
+expense of cutting castings accurately to shape, cutting on them
+screw threads and what not, called &ldquo;machining&rdquo; in trade
+parlance, is often a very large part of their total cost; and it
+increases rapidly with the hardness of the metal. On the other
+hand, the extreme hardness of nearly graphiteless cast iron is
+of great value for objects of which the chief duty is to resist
+abrasion, such as parts of crushing machinery. Hence objects
+which need much machining are made rich in graphite, so that
+they may be cut easily, and those of the latter class rich in
+cementite so that they may not wear out.</p>
+
+<p>116. <i>Means of controlling the Constitution of Cast Iron.</i>&mdash;The
+distribution of the carbon between these two states, so as to give
+the cast iron the properties needed, is brought about chiefly by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page829" id="page829"></a>829</span>
+adjusting the silicon-content, because the presence of this element
+favours the formation of graphite. Beyond this, rapid cooling and
+the presence of sulphur both oppose the formation of graphite, and
+hence in cast iron rich in sulphur, and in thin and therefore rapidly
+cooling castings, the silicon-content must be greater than in thick
+ones and in those freer from sulphur. Thus thick machinery castings
+usually contain between 1.50 and 2.25% of silicon, whereas
+thin castings and ornamental ones which must reproduce the finest
+details of the mould accurately may have as much as 3 or even
+3.40% of it. Castings which, like hydraulic press cylinders and
+steam radiators, must be dense and hence must have but little
+graphite lest their contents leak through their walls, should not
+have more than 1.75% of silicon and may have even as little as
+1% if impenetrability is so important that softness and consequent
+ease of machining must be sacrificed to it. Cast iron railroad car-wheels,
+the tread or rim of which must be intensely hard so as to
+endure the grinding action of the brakeshoe while their central
+parts must have good shock-resisting power, are given such
+moderate silicon-content, preferably between 0.50 and 0.80%, as in
+and by itself leaves the tendencies toward graphite-forming and
+toward cementite-forming nearly in balance, so that they are easily
+controlled by the rate of cooling. The &ldquo;tread&rdquo; or circumferential
+part of the mould itself is made of iron, because this, by conducting
+the heat away from the casting rapidly, makes it cool quickly,
+and thus causes most of the carbon here to form cementite, and
+thus in turn makes the tread of the wheel intensely hard; while
+those parts of the mould which come in contact with the central
+parts of the wheel are made of sand, which conducts the heat away
+from the molten metal so slowly that it solidifies slowly, with the
+result that most of its carbon forms graphite, and here the metal
+is soft and shock-resisting.</p>
+
+<p>117. <i>Influence of Sulphur.</i>&mdash;Sulphur has the specific harmful
+effects of shifting the carbon from the state of graphite to that of
+cementite, and thus of making the metal hard and brittle; of
+making it thick and sluggish when molten, so that it does not run
+freely in the moulds; and of making it red short, <i>i.e.</i> brittle at a
+red heat, so that it is very liable to be torn by the aeolotachic
+contraction in cooling from the molten state; and it has no good
+effects to offset these. Hence the sulphur present is, except in
+certain rare cases, simply that which the metallurgist has been
+unable to remove. The sulphur-content should not exceed 0.12%,
+and it is better that it should not exceed 0.08 % in castings which
+have to be soft enough to be machined, nor 0.05% in thin castings
+the metal for which must be very fluid.</p>
+
+<p>118. <i>Influence of Manganese.</i>&mdash;Manganese in many cases, but
+not in all, opposes the formation of graphite and thus hardens the
+iron, and it lessens the red shortness (§ 40), which sulphur causes,
+by leading to the formation of the less harmful manganese sulphide
+instead of the more harmful iron sulphide. Hence the manganese-content
+needed increases with the sulphur-content which has to be
+endured. In the better classes of castings it is usually between 0.40
+and 0.70%, and in chilled railroad car-wheels it may well be between
+0.15 and 0.30%; but skilful founders, confronted with the
+task of making use of cast iron rich in manganese, have succeeded
+in making good grey iron castings with even as much as 2.20% of
+this element.</p>
+
+<p>119. <i>Influence of Phosphorus.</i>&mdash;Phosphorus has, along with its
+great merit of giving fluidity, the grave defect of causing brittleness,
+especially under shock. Fortunately its embrittling effect on cast
+iron is very much less than on steel, so that the upper limit or
+greatest tolerable proportion of phosphorus, instead of being 0.10
+or better 0.08% as in the case of rail steel, may be put at 0.50%
+in case of machinery castings even if they are exposed to moderate
+shocks; at 1.60% for gas and water mains in spite of the gravity
+of the disasters which extreme brittleness here might cause; and
+even higher for castings which are not exposed to shock, and
+are so thin that the iron of which they are made must needs be very
+fluid. The permissible phosphorus-content is lessened by the
+presence of either much sulphur or much manganese, and by rapid
+cooling, as for instance in case of thin castings, because each of these
+three things, by leading to the formation of the brittle cementite,
+in itself creates brittleness which aggravates that caused by phosphorus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>120. <i>Defects in Steel Ingots.</i>&mdash;Steel ingots and other steel
+castings are subject to three kinds of defects so serious as to
+deserve notice here. They are known as &ldquo;piping,&rdquo; &ldquo;blowholes&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;segregation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:462px" src="images/img829a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Diagram
+showing how a Pipe is formed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>A, Superficial blowholes.</p>
+<p>B, Deep-seated blowholes.</p>
+<p>C, Pipe.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>121. <i>Piping.</i>&mdash;In an early period of the solidification of a molten
+steel ingot cast in a cold iron mould we may distinguish three
+parts: (1) the outer layers, <i>i.e.</i> the outermost of the now solid
+metal; (2) the inner layers, <i>i.e.</i> the remainder of the solid metal;
+and (3) the molten lake, <i>i.e.</i> the part which still is molten. At this
+instant the outer layers, because of their contact with the cold
+mould, are cooling much faster than the inner ones, and hence tend
+to contract faster. But this excess of their contraction is resisted
+by the almost incompressible inner layers so that the outer layers
+are prevented from contracting as much as they naturally would if
+unopposed, and they are thereby virtually stretched. Later on the
+cooling of the inner layers becomes more rapid than that of the
+outer ones, and on this account their contraction tends to become
+greater than that of the outer ones. Because the outer and inner
+layers are integrally united, this excess of
+contraction of the inner layers makes them
+draw outward towards and against the outer
+layers, and because of their thus drawing outward
+the molten lake within no longer suffices
+to fill completely the central space, so that
+its upper surface begins to sink. This ebb
+continues, and, combined with the progressive
+narrowing of the molten lake as more and more
+of it solidifies and joins the shore layers, gives
+rise to the pipe, a cavity like an inverted pear,
+as shown at C in fig. 29. Because this pipe is
+due to the difference in the rates of contraction
+of interior and exterior, it may be lessened
+by retarding the cooling of the mass as a
+whole, and it may be prevented from stretching
+down deep by retarding the solidification
+of the upper part of the ingot, as, for instance,
+by preheating the top of the mould, or by
+covering the ingot with a mass of burning fuel
+or of molten slag. This keeps the upper part
+of the mass molten, so that it continues to
+flow down and feed the pipe during the early
+part of its formation in the lower and quicker-cooling
+part of the ingot. In making castings
+of steel this same difficulty arises; and much
+of the steel-founder&rsquo;s skill consists either in
+preventing these pipes, or in so placing them
+that they shall not occur in the finished casting,
+or at least not in a harmful position.
+In making armour-plates from steel ingots,
+as much as 40% of the metal may be rejected
+as unsound from this cause. An ingot
+should always stand upright while solidifying,
+so that the unsound region due to the pipe
+may readily be cut off, leaving the rest of
+the ingot solid. If the ingot lay on its side
+while solidifying, the pipe would occur as
+shown in fig. 30, and nearly the whole of the ingot would be
+unsound.</p>
+
+<p>122. <i>Blowholes.</i>&mdash;Iron, like water and many other substances,
+has a higher solvent power for gases, such as hydrogen and nitrogen,
+when molten, <i>i.e.</i> liquid, than when frozen, <i>i.e.</i> solid. Hence in the
+act of solidifying it expels any excess of gas which it has dissolved
+while liquid, and this gas becomes entangled in the freezing mass,
+causing gas bubbles or <i>blowholes</i>, as at A and B in fig. 29. Because
+the volume of the pipe represents the excess of the contraction of the
+inner walls and the molten lake jointly over that of the outer walls,
+between the time when the lake begins to ebb and the time when
+even the axial metal is too firm to be drawn further open by this
+contraction, the space occupied by blowholes must, by compensating
+for part of this excess, lessen the size of the pipe, so that the more
+abundant and larger the blowholes are, the smaller will the pipe be.
+The interior surface of a blowhole which lies near the outer crust of
+the ingot, as at A in fig. 29, is liable to become oxidized by the
+diffusion of the atmospheric oxygen, in which case it can hardly be
+completely welded later, since welding implies actual contact of
+metal with metal; it thus forms a permanent flaw. But deep-seated
+blowholes like those at B are relatively harmless in low-carbon
+easily welding steel, because the subsequent operation of
+forging or rolling usually obliterates them by welding their sides
+firmly together.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:457px; height:108px" src="images/img829b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing a Pipe so formed as to
+render Ingot unsound.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Blowholes may be lessened or even wholly prevented by adding
+to the molten metal shortly before it solidifies either silicon or
+aluminium, or both; even as little as 0.002% of aluminium is
+usually sufficient. These additions seem to act in part by deoxidizing
+the minute quantity of iron oxide and carbonic oxide present, in
+part by increasing the solvent power of the metal for gas, so that
+even after freezing it can retain in solution the gas which it had
+dissolved when molten. But, because preventing blowholes increases
+the volume of the pipe, it is often better to allow them to
+form, but to control their position, so that they shall be deep-seated.
+This is done chiefly by casting the steel at a relatively low temperature,
+and by limiting the quantity of manganese and silicon which
+it contains. Brinell finds that, for certain normal conditions, if
+the sum of the percentage of manganese plus 5.2 times that of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page830" id="page830"></a>830</span>
+silicon equals 1.66, there will be no blowholes; if this sum is less,
+blowholes will occur, and will be injuriously near the surface unless
+this sum is reduced to 0.28. He thus finds that this sum should be
+either as great as 1.66, so that blowholes shall be absent; or as low
+as 0.28, so that they shall be harmlessly deep-seated. These numbers
+must be varied with the variations in other conditions, such as
+casting temperature, rapidity of solidification, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>123. <i>Segregation.</i>&mdash;The solidification of an ingot of steel takes
+place gradually from without inwards, and each layer in solidifying
+tends to expel into the still molten interior the impurities which it
+contains, especially the carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur, which by
+this process are in part concentrated or <i>segregated</i> in the last-freezing
+part of the ingot. This is in general around the lower part of the
+pipe, so that here is a second motive for rejecting the piped part of
+the ingot. While segregation injures the metal here, often fatally,
+by giving it an indeterminate excess of phosphorus and sulphur, it
+clearly purifies the remainder of the ingot, and on this account it
+ought, under certain conditions, to be promoted rather than restrained.
+The following is an extreme case:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb f80">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Carbon.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Silicon.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Manganese.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Phosphorus.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Sulphur.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Composition of the initial metal per cent</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.336</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.97</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.089</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.074</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Composition of the segregate</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.27</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.41&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.08</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.753</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.418</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The surprising fact that the degree of segregation does not increase
+greatly either with the slowness of solidification or with the size of the
+ingot, at least between the limits of 5 in. sq. and 16 in. sq., has been
+explained by the theory that the relative quiet due to the gentleness
+of the convection currents in a slowly cooling mass favours the
+formation of far outshooting pine-tree crystals, and that the tangled
+branches of these crystals landlock much of the littoral molten
+mother metal, and thus mechanically impede that centreward
+diffusion and convection of the impurities which is the essence of
+segregation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>124. <i>Castings and Forgings.</i>&mdash;There are two distinct ways of
+making the steel objects actually used in the arts, such as rails,
+gear wheels, guns, beams, &amp;c., out of the molten steel made by
+the Bessemer, open hearth, or crucible process, or in an electric
+furnace. The first is by &ldquo;steel founding,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> casting the steel
+as a &ldquo;steel casting&rdquo; in a mould which has the exact shape of
+the object to be made, <i>e.g.</i> a gear wheel, and letting it solidify
+there. The second is by casting it into a large rough block called
+an &ldquo;ingot,&rdquo; and rolling or hammering this out into the desired
+shape. Though the former certainly seems the simpler way,
+yet its technical difficulties are so great that it is in fact much
+the more expensive, and therefore it is in general used only in
+making objects of a shape hard to give by forging or rolling.
+These technical difficulties are due chiefly to the very high melting
+point of the metal, nearly 1500° C (2732° F.), and to the consequent
+great contraction which it undergoes in cooling through
+the long range between this temperature and that of the room.
+The cooling of the thinner, the outer, and in general the more
+exposed parts of the casting outruns that of the thicker and less
+exposed parts, with the consequence that, at any given instant,
+the different parts are contracting at very different rates, <i>i.e.</i>
+aeolotachically; and this aeolotachic contraction is very likely
+to concentrate severe stress on the slowest cooling parts at the
+time when they are passing from the molten to the solid state,
+when the steel is mushy, with neither the fluidity of a liquid
+nor the strength and ductility of a solid, and thus to tear it
+apart. Aeolotachic contraction further leads to the &ldquo;pipes&rdquo;
+or contraction cavities already described in § 121, and the
+procedure must be carefully planned first so as to reduce these
+to a minimum, and second so as to induce them to form either
+in those parts of the casting which are going to be cut off and
+re-melted, or where they will do little harm. These and kindred
+difficulties make each new shape or size a new problem, and
+in particular they require that for each and every individual
+casting a new sand or clay mould shall be made with care by a
+skilled workman. If a thousand like gears are to be cast, a
+thousand moulds must be made up, at least to an important
+extent by hand, for even machine moulding leaves something
+for careful manipulation by the moulder. It is a detail, one is
+tempted to say a retail, manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>In strong contrast with this is the procedure in making rolled
+products such as rails and plates. The steel is cast in lots,
+weighing in some cases as much as 75 tons, in enduring cast
+iron moulds into very large ingots, which with their initial heat
+are immediately rolled down by a series of powerful roll trains
+into their final shape with but slight wear and tear of the moulds
+and the machinery. But in addition to the greater cost of steel
+founding as compared with rolling there are two facts which
+limit the use of steel castings: (1) they are not so good as
+rolled products, because the kneading which the metal undergoes
+in rolling improves its quality, and closes up its cavities; and
+(2) it would be extremely difficult and in most cases impracticable
+to cast the metal directly into any of the forms in which the great
+bulk of the steel of commerce is needed, such as rails, plates,
+beams, angles, rods, bars, and wire, because the metal would
+become so cool as to solidify before running far in such thin
+sections, and because even the short pieces which could thus be
+made would pucker or warp on account of their aeolotachic
+contraction.</p>
+
+<p>125. <i>Heating Furnaces</i> are used in iron manufacture chiefly
+for bringing masses of steel or wrought iron to a temperature
+proper for rolling or forging. In order to economize power in
+these operations, the metal should in general be as soft and hence
+as hot as is consistent with its reaching a low temperature before
+the rolling or forging is finished, because, as explained in § 32,
+undisturbed cooling from a high temperature injures the metal.
+Many of the furnaces used for this heating are in a general way
+like the puddling furnace shown in fig. 14, except that they are
+heated by gas, that the hearth or bottom of the chamber in
+which they are heated is nearly flat, and that it is usually very
+much larger than that of a puddling furnace. But in addition
+there are many special kinds of furnaces arranged to meet the
+needs of each case. Of these two will be shown here, the Gjers
+soaking pit for steel ingots, and the Eckman or continuous
+furnace, as modified by C. H. Morgan for heating billets.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:245px; height:339px" src="images/img830.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Section of Gjers
+Soaking Pit.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>126. <i>Gjers Soaking Pit.</i>&mdash;When the outer crust of a large
+ingot in which a lot of molten steel has been cast has so far
+cooled that it can be moved without breaking, the temperature
+of the interior is still far above that suitable for rolling or hammering&mdash;so
+far above that the surplus heat of the interior would
+more than suffice to reheat the now cool crust to the rolling
+temperature, if we could only
+arrest or even greatly retard the
+further escape of heat from that
+crust. Bringing such an ingot,
+then, to the rolling temperature
+is not really an operation of heating,
+because its average temperature
+is already above the rolling
+temperature, but one of equalizing
+the temperature, by allowing
+the internal excess of heat to
+&ldquo;soak&rdquo; through the mass. Gjers
+did this by setting the partly-solidified
+ingot in a well-closed
+&ldquo;pit&rdquo; of brickwork, preheated
+by the excess heat of previous
+lots of ingots. The arrangement,
+shown in fig. 31, has three
+advantages&mdash;(1) that the temperature
+is adjusted with absolutely
+no consumption of fuel; (2) that the waste of iron due
+to the oxidation of the outer crust of the ingot is very slight,
+because the little atmospheric oxygen initially in the pit is
+not renewed, whereas in a common heating furnace the flame
+brings a constant fresh supply of oxygen; and (3) that the ingot
+remains upright during solidification, so that its pipe is concentrated
+at one end and is thus removable. (See § 121.) In this
+form the system is rather inflexible, for if the supply of ingots
+is delayed the pits grow unduly cool, so that the next ensuing
+lot of ingots either is not heated hot enough or is delayed too
+long in soaking. This defect is usually remedied by heating
+the pits by the Siemens regenerative system (see § 99); the greater
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page831" id="page831"></a>831</span>
+flexibility thus gained outweighs the cost of the fuel used and
+the increased loss of iron by oxidation by the Siemens gas
+flame.</p>
+
+<p>127. <i>Continuous Heating Furnace.</i>&mdash;The Gjers system is not
+applicable to small ingots or &ldquo;billets,&rdquo;<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> because they lack the
+inner surplus heat of large ingots; indeed, they are now allowed
+to cool completely. To heat these on the intermittent plan for
+further rolling, <i>i.e.</i> to charge a lot of them as a whole in a heating
+furnace, bring them as a whole to rolling temperature, and then
+withdraw them as a whole for rolling, is very wasteful of heat,
+because it is only in the first part of the heating that the outside
+of the ingots is cool enough to abstract thoroughly the heat from
+the flame. During all the latter part of the heating, when the
+temperature of the ingot has approached that of the flame,
+only an ever smaller and smaller part of the heat of that flame
+can be absorbed by the ingots. Hence in the intermittent system
+most of the heat generated within the furnace escapes from it
+with the products of combustion. The continuous heating system
+(fig. 32) recovers this heat by bringing the flame into contact
+with successively cooler and cooler billets, A-F, and finally with
+quite cold ones, of consequently great heat-absorbing capacity.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:700px; height:326px" src="images/img831a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Diagram of C. H. Morgan&rsquo;s Continuous Heating Furnace
+for 2-inch billets 30 ft. long.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Hottest billet ready for rolling.</p>
+<p>B, Exit door.</p>
+<p>C, Pusher, for forcing billets forward.</p>
+<p>D, Water-cooled pipe on which billets are pushed forward.</p>
+<p>E, Magnesite bricks on which the hot billets slide forward.</p>
+<p>F, The billet last entered.</p>
+<p>G, The suspended roof.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>H, The incoming air preheated by G and by the pipes N and
+    brought from above G to between N by a flue not shown.</p>
+<p>J, The incoming gas.</p>
+<p>L, The flame.</p>
+<p>M, The escaping products of combustion.</p>
+<p>N, Pipes through which the products of combustion pass.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">As soon as a hot billet A is withdrawn by pushing it endwise out
+of the exit door B, the whole row is pushed forward by a set of
+mechanical pushers C, the billets sliding on the raised water-cooled
+pipes D, and, in the hotter part of the furnace, on the magnesite
+bricks E, on which iron slides easily when red-hot. A new cold
+billet is then charged at the upper end of the hearth, and the new cycle
+begins by pushing out through B a second billet, and so forth.
+To lessen the loss in shape of &ldquo;crop ends,&rdquo; and for general economy,
+these billets are in some cases 30 ft. long, as in the furnace shown
+in fig. 32. It is to make it wide enough to receive such long billets
+that its roof is suspended, as here shown, by two sets of iron tie-rods.
+As the foremost end of the billet emerges from the furnace it enters the
+first of a series of roll-trains, and passes immediately thence to
+others, so that before half of the billet has emerged from the furnace
+its front end has already been reduced by rolling to its final shape,
+that of merchant-bars, which are relatively thin, round or square
+rods, in lengths of 300 ft.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:122px" src="images/img831b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Wire undergoing
+Reduction in the Die.
+</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:277px" src="images/img831c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;Two-high Rolling
+Mill.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the intermittent system the waste heat can, it is true, be
+utilized either for raising steam (but inefficiently and inconveniently,
+because of the intermittency), or by a regenerative method like the
+Siemens, fig. 19; but this would probably recover less heat than the
+continuous system, first, because it transfers the heat from flame to
+metal indirectly instead of directly; and, second, because the brickwork
+of the Siemens system is probably a poorer heat-catcher than
+the iron billets of the continuous system, because its disadvantages
+of low conductivity and low specific heat probably outweigh its
+advantages of roughness and porosity.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>128. <i>Rolling, Forging, and Drawing.</i>&mdash;The three chief processes
+for shaping iron and steel, rolling, forging (<i>i.e.</i> hammering,
+pressing or stamping) and drawing, all really proceed by squeezing
+the metal into the desired shape. In forging, whether under a
+hammer or under a press, the action is evidently a squeeze,
+however skilfully guided. In drawing, the pull of the pincers
+(fig. 33) upon the protruding end,
+F, of the rod, transmitted to the
+still undrawn part, E, squeezes the
+yielding metal of the rod against
+the hard unyielding die, C. As when
+a half-opened umbrella is thrust
+ferrule-foremost between the balusters
+of a staircase, so when the rod is
+drawn forward, its yielding metal is
+folded and forced backwards and centrewards by the resistance
+of the unyielding die, and thus it is reduced in diameter and
+simultaneously lengthened proportionally, without material
+change of volume or density.</p>
+
+<p>129. <i>Methods of Rolling.</i>&mdash;Of rolling much the same is true.
+The rolling mill in its simplest form is a pair of cylindrical rollers,
+BB (figs. 34 and 35) turning about their axes in opposite directions
+as shown by the arrows, and supported at their ends in strong
+frames called &ldquo;housings,&rdquo; CC (fig. 35). The skin of the object,
+D, which is undergoing rolling, technically called &ldquo;the piece,&rdquo;
+is drawn forward powerfully by the friction of the revolving
+rolls, and especially of that part of their surface which at any
+given instant is moving horizontally (HH in fig. 34), much as,
+the rod is drawn through the die
+in fig. 33, while the vertical component
+of the motion of the rear
+part JJ of the rolls forces the
+plastic metal of that part of
+&ldquo;the piece&rdquo; with which they are
+in contact backwards and centrewards,
+reducing its area and simultaneously
+lengthening it proportionally,
+here again as in drawing
+through a die. The rolls thus
+both draw the piece forward like
+the pincers of a wire die, and
+themselves are a die which like a
+river ever renews or rather maintains
+its fixed shape and position,
+though its particles themselves are
+moving constantly forward with &ldquo;the piece&rdquo; which is passing
+between them.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:222px" src="images/img831d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Two-high Rolling Mill.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:78px; height:157px" src="images/img832a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Three-high
+Rolling Mill.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>After the piece has been reduced in thickness by its first
+passage or &ldquo;pass&rdquo; between the rolls, it may be given a second
+reduction and then a third and so on, either by bringing the
+two rolls nearer together, as in case of the plain rolls BB at the
+left in fig. 35, or by passing the piece through an aperture, F&prime;,
+smaller than the first F, as in case of the grooved rolls, AA,
+shown at the right, or by both means jointly. If, as sketched
+in fig. 34, the direction in which each of the rolls turns is constant,
+then after the piece has passed once through the rolls to the
+right, it cannot undergo a second pass till it has been brought
+back to its initial position at the left. But bringing it back
+wastes power and, still worse, time, heat, and metal, because
+the yellow- or even white-hot piece is rapidly cooling down and
+oxidizing. In order to prevent this waste the direction in which
+the rolls move may be reversed, so that the piece may be reduced
+a second time in passing to the left, in which case the rolls are
+usually driven by a pair of reversing engines; or the rolls may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page832" id="page832"></a>832</span>
+be &ldquo;three high,&rdquo; as shown in fig. 36, with the upper and the lower
+roll moving constantly to the right and the middle roll constantly
+to the left, so that the piece first passes to the right between
+the middle and lower rolls, and then to the left between the middle
+and upper rolls. The advantage of the
+&ldquo;reversing&rdquo; system is that it avoids lifting
+the piece from below to above the middle
+roll, and again lowering it, which is rather
+difficult because the white-hot piece cannot
+be guided directly by hand, but must be
+moved by means of hooks, tongs, or even
+complex mechanism. The advantage of the
+three-high mill is that, because each of its
+moving parts is always moving in the same
+direction, it may be driven by a relatively
+small and hence cheap engine, the power delivered by which
+between the passes is taken up by a powerful fly-wheel, to be
+given up to the rolls during the next pass. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rolling
+Mill</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>130. <i>Advantages and Applicability of Rolling.</i>&mdash;Rolling uses
+very much less power than drawing, because the friction against
+the fixed die in the latter process is very great. For much the
+same reason rolling proceeds much faster than drawing, and on
+both these accounts it is incomparably the cheaper of the two.
+It is also very much cheaper than forging, in large part because
+it works so quickly. The piece travels through the rolls very
+rapidly, so that the reduction takes place over its whole length
+in a very few seconds, whereas in forging, whether under hammer
+or press, after one part of the piece has been compressed the piece
+must next be raised, moved forward, and placed so that the
+hammer or press may compress the next part of its length.
+This moving is expensive, because it has to be done, or at least
+guided, by hand, and it takes up much time, during which both
+heat and iron are wasting. Thus it comes about that rolling is
+so very much cheaper than either forging or drawing that these
+latter processes are used only when rolling is impracticable.
+The conditions under which it is impracticable are (1) when the
+piece has either an extremely large or an extremely small cross
+section, and (2) when its cross section varies materially in different
+parts of its length. The number of great shafts for marine engines,
+reaching a diameter of 22<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. in the case of the &ldquo;Lusitania,&rdquo;
+is so small that it would be wasteful to instal for their manufacture
+the great and costly rolling mill needed to reduce them
+from the gigantic ingots from which they must be made, with
+its succession of decreasing passes, and its mechanism for
+rotating the piece between passes and for transferring it from
+pass to pass. Great armour plates can indeed be made by rolling,
+because in making such flat plates the ingot is simply rolled
+back and forth between a pair of plain cylindrical rolls, like
+BB of fig. 35, instead of being transferred from one grooved
+pass to another and smaller one. Moreover, a single pair of rolls
+suffices for armour plates of any width or thickness, whereas
+if shafts of different diameters were to be rolled, a special final
+groove would be needed for each different diameter, and, as
+there is room for only a few large grooves in a single set of rolls,
+this would imply not only providing but installing a separate
+set of rolls for almost every diameter of shaft. Finally the
+quantity of armour plate needed is so enormous that it justifies
+the expense of installing a great rolling mill. Krupp&rsquo;s armour-plate
+mill, with rolls 4 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. long, can roll
+an ingot 4 ft. thick.</p>
+
+<p>Pieces of very small cross section, like wire, are more conveniently
+made by drawing through a die than by rolling,
+essentially because a single draft reduces the cross section of a
+wire much more than a single pass between rolls can. This in
+turn is because the direct pull of the pincers on the protruding
+end of the wire is much stronger than the forward-drawing
+pull due to the friction of the cold rolls on the wire, which is
+necessarily cold because of its small section.</p>
+
+<p>Pieces which vary materially in cross section from point
+to point in their length cannot well be made by rolling, because
+the cross section of the piece as it emerges from the rolls is
+necessarily that of the aperture between the rolls from which
+it is emerging, and this aperture is naturally of constant size
+because the rolls are cylindrical. Of course, by making the rolls
+eccentric, and by varying the depth and shape of the different
+parts of a given groove cut in their surface, the cross section
+of the piece made in this groove may vary somewhat from point
+to point. But this and other methods of varying the cross section
+have been used but little, and they do not seem capable of wide
+application.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that rolling is so much cheaper than forging has led
+engineers to design their pieces so that they can be made by
+rolling, <i>i.e.</i> to make them straight and of uniform cross section.
+It is for this reason, for instance, that railroad rails are of constant
+uniform section throughout their length, instead of having those
+parts of their length which come between the supporting ties
+deeper and stronger than the parts which rest on the ties. When,
+as in the case of eye bars, it is imperative that one part should
+differ materially in section from the rest, this part may be
+locally thickened or thinned, or a special part may here be welded
+on. When we come to pieces of very irregular shape, such as
+crank-shafts, anchors, trunnions, &amp;c., we must resort to forging,
+except for purposes for which unforged castings are good
+enough.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:298px; height:464px" src="images/img832b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Steam Hammer.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Round bar to be hammered.</p>
+<p>B, Anvil.</p>
+<p>C, Anvil block or foundation.</p>
+<p>D, Falling tup.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>E, Steam piston.</p>
+<p>F, Piston-rod for lifting tup and driving it down.</p>
+<p>G, Steam cylinder.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">131. <i>Forging</i> proceeds by beating or squeezing the piece
+under treatment from its initial into its final shape, as for instance
+by hammering a square ingot or bloom first on one corner and
+then on another until it is
+reduced to a cylindrical
+shape as shown at A in
+fig. 37. As the ingot is
+reduced in section, it is of
+course lengthened proportionally.
+Much as in the
+smith&rsquo;s forge the object
+forged rests on a massive
+anvil and anvil block, B
+and C, and is struck by
+the tup D of the hammer.
+This tup is raised and
+driven down by steam
+pressure applied below or
+above the piston E of the
+steam cylinder mounted
+aloft, and connected with
+the tup by means of the
+strong piston-rod F. The
+demand for very large
+forgings, especially for
+guns and armour plate,
+led to the building of
+enormous steam hammers.
+The falling parts of the
+largest of these, that at
+Bethlehem, Pa., weigh 125
+tons.</p>
+
+<p>The first cost of a
+hammer of moderate size
+is much less than that of
+a hydraulic press of like capacity, as is readily understood
+when we stop to reflect what powerful pressure, if gradually
+applied, would be needed to drive the nail which a light blow
+from our hand hammer forces easily into the woodwork. Nevertheless
+the press uses much less power than the hammer, because
+much of the force of the latter is dissipated in setting up useless&mdash;indeed
+harmful, and at times destructive&mdash;vibrations in the
+foundations and the surrounding earth and buildings. Moreover,
+the effect of the sharp blow of the hammer is relatively superficial,
+and does not penetrate to the interior of a large piece as the
+slowly applied pressure of the hydraulic press does. Because of
+these facts the great hammers have given place to enormous
+forging presses, the 125-ton Bethlehem hammer, for instance, to a
+14,000-ton hydraulic press, moved by water under a pressure of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page833" id="page833"></a>833</span>
+7000 &#8468; per square inch, supplied by pumps of 16,000 horse
+power.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IV.</span>&mdash;<i>Reduction in Cost of Iron Manufacture in America&mdash;C. Kirchoff.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Place represented.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">Operation<br />represented.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Period<br />covered.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="7">Cost, Profit and Production, at End of Period in<br />Percentage of that at Beginning of Period.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">From</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">To</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Cost.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Profit<br />per<br />Ton.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Production<br />per<br />Furnace<br />&amp;c., per<br />Day.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Ore.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Fuel.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Labour.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />excluding<br />raw<br />Material.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">A large Southern Establishment</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manufacture of Pig Iron</td> <td class="tcc rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">64.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">51.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">63.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">47.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">167.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">North-eastern District</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">103.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">97</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">163.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pittsburg District</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">46&emsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eastern District</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manufacture of Bessemer Steel Ingots</td> <td class="tcc rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">75&emsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">64.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">107</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pittsburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Not stated</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Rolling Wire Rods</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">63.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">325</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>132. <i>Statistics.</i>&mdash;The cheapening of manufacture by improvements
+in processes and machinery, and by the increase in the scale of
+operations, has been very great. The striking examples of it shown
+in Table IV. are only typical of what has been going on continuously
+since 1868. Note, for instance, a reduction of some 35% in the
+total cost, and an even greater reduction in the cost of labour,
+reaching in one case 54%, in a period of between seven and ten
+years. This great economy is not due to reduction in wages. According
+to Mr Carnegie, in one of the largest American steel works
+the average wages in 1900 for all persons paid by the day, including
+labourers, mechanics and boys, were more than $4 (say, 16s. 6d.) a day
+for the 311 working days. How economical the methods of mining,
+transportation and manufacture have become is shown by the fact
+that steel billets have been sold at $13.96 (Ł2, 17s. 8d.) per ton, and
+in very large quantities at $15 (Ł3, 2s.) per ton in the latter case,
+according to Mr Carnegie, without further loss than that represented
+by interest, although the cost of each ton includes that of mining
+2 tons of ore and carrying them 1000 miles, mining and coking 1.3
+tons of coal and carrying its coke 50 m., and quarrying one-third
+of a ton of limestone and carrying it 140 m., besides the cost of
+smelting the ore, converting the resultant cast iron into steel, and
+rolling that steel into rails.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table V.</span>&mdash;<i>Reduction in Price of Certain Products.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Date.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Yearly average Price in Pennsylvania, gross tons.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Bar (Wrought)<br />Iron.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Wrought Iron<br />Rails.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Steel<br />Rails.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. 1<br />Foundry<br />Pig Iron.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr">$100.50</td> <td class="tccm rb bb cl" rowspan="4">Hammered</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1815</td> <td class="tcr">144.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1824</td> <td class="tcr">82.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1837</td> <td class="tcr">111.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr">59.54</td> <td class="tccm rb bb cl" rowspan="9">Best<br />refined<br />rolled</td> <td class="tcc rb">$47.88</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">$20.88</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865</td> <td class="tcr">106.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">98.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">$158.46<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">46.08</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr">78.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">72.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">106.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr">62.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">67.52</td> <td class="tcc rb">28.48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr">45.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">25.18<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">31.78</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.41</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr">28.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.39<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">17.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr">44.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.51<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">32.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.98</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">23.03<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">28.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.98</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1908<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr bb">31.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">18.25<span class="sp">2</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">28.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">17.25</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="sp">1</span> July 1st.<br />
+<span class="sp">2</span> Old. <i>i.e.</i> second-hand wrought iron rails.<br />
+<span class="sp">3</span> 1868.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">Table V. shows the reduction in prices. The price of wrought iron
+in Philadelphia reached $155 (Ł32, 0s. 8d.) in 1815, and, after
+declining to $80 (Ł16, 10s. 8d.), again reached $115 (Ł23, 15s. 4d.) in
+1837. Bessemer steel rails sold at $174 in the depreciated currency
+of 1868 (equivalent to about Ł25, 17s. 4d. in gold), and at $17
+(Ł3, 10s. 3d.) in 1898.</p>
+
+<p>133. <i>Increase in Production.</i>&mdash;In 1810 the United States made
+about 7%, and in 1830, 1850 and 1860 not far from 10% of the
+world&rsquo;s production of pig iron, though, indeed, in 1820 their production
+was only about one-third as great as in 1810. But after the
+close of the Civil War the production increased by leaps and bounds,
+till in 1907 it was thirty-one times as great as in 1865; and the
+percentage which it formed of the world&rsquo;s production rose to some
+14% in 1870, 21% in 1880, 35% in 1900 and 43% in 1907. In this
+last year the United States production of pig iron was nearly 7 times,
+and that of Germany and Luxemburg nearly 5 times, that of 1880.
+In this same period the production of Great Britain increased 28%,
+and that of the world more than tripled. The corresponding changes
+in the case of steel are even more striking. The United States production
+in 1907 was 1714 times that of 1865, and the proportion which it
+formed of the world&rsquo;s steel rose from 3% in 1865 to 10% in 1870,
+30% in 1880; 36% in 1890, 40% in 1899 and 46% in 1907. In
+1907 the British steel production was nearly five times, that of the
+United States, nearly nineteen times as great as in 1880. Of the
+combined wrought iron and steel of the United States, steel formed
+only 2% in 1865, but 37% in 1880, 85% in 1899 and 91% in 1907.
+Thus in the nineteen years between 1880 and 1899 the age of iron
+gave place to that of steel.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>per capita</i> consumption of iron in Great Britain, excluding
+exports, has been calculated as 144 &#8468; in 1855 and 250 &#8468; in 1890, that
+of the United States as 117 &#8468; for 1855, 300 &#8468; for 1890 and some
+378 &#8468; for 1899, and that of the United Kingdom, the United States
+and Germany for 1906 as about a quarter of a ton, so that the British
+<i>per capita</i> consumption is about four-fold and the American about
+five-fold that of 1855. This great increase in the <i>per capita</i> consumption
+of iron by the human race is of course but part of the
+general advance in wealth and civilization. Among the prominent
+causes of this increase is the diversion of mankind from agricultural
+to manufacturing, <i>i.e.</i> machinery-using work, nearly all machinery
+being necessarily made of iron. This diversion may be unwelcome,
+but it is inevitable for the two simple reasons that the wonderful
+improvements in agriculture decrease the number of men needed
+to raise a given quantity of food, <i>i.e.</i> to feed the rest of the race; and
+that with every decade our food forms a smaller proportion of our
+needs, so rapidly do these multiply and diversify. Among the other
+causes of the increase of the <i>per capita</i> consumption of iron are the
+displacement of wood by iron for ships and bridge-building; the
+great extension of the use of iron beams, columns and other pieces in
+constructing buildings of various kinds; the growth of steam and
+electric railways; and the introduction of iron fencing. The increased
+importance of Germany and Luxemburg may be referred in
+large part to the invention of the basic Bessemer and open-hearth
+processes by Thomas, who by them gave an inestimable value to the
+phosphoric ores of these countries. That of the United States is due
+in part to the growth of its population; to the introduction of
+labour-saving machinery in iron manufacture; to the grand scale on
+which this manufacture is carried on; and to the discovery of the
+cheap and rich ores of the Mesabi region of Lake Superior. But,
+given all these, the 1000 m. which separate the ore fields of Lake
+Superior from the cheap coal of Pennsylvania would have handicapped
+the American iron industry most seriously but for the remarkable
+cheapening of transportation which has occurred. As this
+in turn has been due to the very men who have developed the iron
+industry, it can hardly be questioned that, on further analysis, this
+development must in considerable part be referred to racial qualities.
+The same is true of the German iron development. We may note
+with interest that the three great iron producers so closely related
+by blood&mdash;Great Britain, the United States and Germany and
+Luxemburg&mdash;made in 1907 81% of the world&rsquo;s pig iron and 83% of
+its steel; and that the four great processes by which nearly all steel
+and wrought iron are made&mdash;the puddling, crucible and both the
+acid and basic varieties of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes,
+as well as the steam-hammer and grooved rolls for rolling iron and
+steel&mdash;were invented by Britons, though in the case of the open-hearth
+process Great Britain must share with France the credit of
+the invention.</p>
+
+<p>Tables VI., VII., VIII. and IX. are compiled mainly from figures
+given in J. M. Swank&rsquo;s <i>Reports</i> (American Iron and Steel Association).
+Other authorities are indicated as follows: <span class="sp">a</span>, <i>The Mineral
+Industry</i> (1892); <span class="sp">b</span>, <i>Idem</i> (1899); <span class="sp">c</span>, <i>Idem</i> (1907); <span class="sp">e</span>, <i>Journal Iron
+and Steel Institute</i> (1881), 2; <span class="sp">i</span>, Eckel in <i>Mineral Resources of the
+United States</i>, (published by the United States Geological Survey
+(1906), pp. 92-93.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page834" id="page834"></a>834</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VI.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Pig Iron (in thousands of long tons).</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">United States.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Great<br />Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Germany and<br />Luxemburg.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The World.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1800</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">825</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">677</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,825</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">565</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,750</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865</td> <td class="tcr rb">832</td> <td class="tcr rb">4825</td> <td class="tcr rb">972</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,250</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,665</td> <td class="tcr rb">5964</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,369</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,835</td> <td class="tcr rb">7749</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,685</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,950</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,203</td> <td class="tcr rb">7904</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,583</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,157</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,789</td> <td class="tcr rb">8960</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,386</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,973<span class="sp">c</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">25,781</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9924</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,672</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">59,721<span class="sp">c</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VII.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Pig Iron in the United States (in
+thousands of long tons).</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Anthracite.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Charcoal.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Coke and<br />Bituminous.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">1614</td> <td class="tcc rb">480</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;1,741</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,835</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">1299</td> <td class="tcc rb">357</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;2,389</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,045</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">2186</td> <td class="tcc rb">628</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,203</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">1271</td> <td class="tcc rb">225</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7,950</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,446</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1677</td> <td class="tcc rb">384</td> <td class="tcc rb">11,728</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,789</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1372</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">437</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">23,972</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">25,781</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Anthracite&rdquo; here includes iron made with anthracite and coke
+mixed, &ldquo;Bituminous&rdquo; includes iron made with coke, with raw
+bituminous coal, or with both, and &ldquo;Charcoal&rdquo; in 1900 and 1907
+includes iron made either with charcoal alone or with charcoal mixed
+with coke.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table VIII.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Wrought Iron, also that of Bloomary Iron
+(in thousands of long tons).</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Wrought Iron.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Bloomary Iron<br />direct from the Ore.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1870.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">1153</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">2083(<span class="sp">1</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">2518(<span class="sp">1</span>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1899.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">1202</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1907.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">2200</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;975</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="3"><span class="sp">1</span> Hammered products are excluded.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IX.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Steel (in thousands of long tons).</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Bessemer.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Open-<br />Hearth.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Crucible<br />and<br />Miscellaneous.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1870.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;31</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">292<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">(for 1873)</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">692<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1880.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,074</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;72</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,247</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,044</td> <td class="tcr rb">251</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;80</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,375</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Germany and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">608<span class="sp">a</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">87<span class="sp">a</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">728</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,205<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1890.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,689</td> <td class="tcr rb">513</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;75</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,277</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,015</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,564</td> <td class="tcc rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,679</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Germany and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,127</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,902<span class="sp">a</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1900.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,685</td> <td class="tcr rb">853</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">105</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">10,188</td></tr>
+       <tr><td class="tcl rb bb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,545</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb cl" rowspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,254</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">3,156</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">149</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">5,050</td></tr>
+       <tr><td class="tcl rb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">491</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">Germany and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,541</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,273</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb pt1" colspan="2">&emsp;&emsp;1907.</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="2">United States</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,668</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,270</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">145</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">23,363</td></tr>
+       <tr><td class="tcl rb bb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,279</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="2">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,280</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,385</td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">..</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">6,523<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr>
+       <tr><td class="tcl rb bb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">579</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,279</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tclm lb cl">Germany and</td> <td class="tcl rb">Acid</td> <td class="tcr rb">381<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">209<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tccm rb" rowspan="2">208<span class="sp">3</span></td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">11,873</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb cl">&emsp;Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Basic</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,098<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">3,976<span class="sp">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb" colspan="2">The World</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">50,375</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="sp">1</span> Ingots only.<br />
+ <span class="sp">2</span> Bessemer and open hearth only.<br />
+ <span class="sp">3</span> Castings.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table X.</span>&mdash;<i>Tonnage (gross register) of Iron and Steel Vessels built
+under Survey of Lloyd&rsquo;s Registry (in thousands of tons).</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">1877.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1880.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1885.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1906.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wrought Iron</td> <td class="tcr rb">443</td> <td class="tcr rb">460</td> <td class="tcr rb">304</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Steel</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">162</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1079</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">863</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1305</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1492</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table XI.</span>&mdash;<i>Production of Iron Ore (in thousands of long tons).</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1906.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1907.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Thousands of<br />Long Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands of<br />Long Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Per Cent.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Thousands of<br />Long Tons.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcc rb">42,526</td> <td class="tcc rb">37.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">47,750</td> <td class="tcc rb">38.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">51,721</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany and Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,074</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">26,312</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">27,260</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,591</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">15,732</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Spain</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8,934</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;9,299</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;7,279</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;8,347</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;6.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;5,954<span class="sp">1</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;5.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3,812</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,330<span class="sp">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,297</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,431</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3,639</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,024</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other Countries</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3,457</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;4,297</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;3.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total</td> <td class="tcc allb">113,751</td> <td class="tcc allb">100.0</td> <td class="tcc allb">123,773</td> <td class="tcc allb">100.1</td> <td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind" style="margin-left: 20em;"><span class="sp">1</span> Calculated from the production of pig iron.<br />
+ <span class="sp">2</span> Approximately.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="author">(H. M. H.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;iron&rdquo; was in O. Eng. <i>iren</i>, <i>isern</i> or <i>isen</i>, cf. Ger. <i>Eisen</i>,
+Dut. <i>ysen</i>, Swed. <i>järn</i>, Dan. <i>jern</i>; the original Teut. base is <i>isarn</i>, and
+cognates are found in Celtic, Ir. <i>iarun</i>, Gael, <i>iarunn</i>, Breton, <i>houarn</i>,
+&amp;c. The ulterior derivation is unknown; connexion has been
+suggested without much probability with <i>is</i>, ice, from its hard bright
+surface, or with Lat. <i>ars</i>, <i>aeris</i>, brass. The change from <i>isen</i> to <i>iren</i>
+(in 16th cent. <i>yron</i>) is due to rhotacism, but whether direct from
+<i>isen</i> or through <i>isern</i>, <i>irern</i> is doubtful. &ldquo;Steel&rdquo; represents the
+O. Eng. <i>stél</i> or <i>stéle</i> (the true form; only found, however, with spelling
+<i>stýle</i>, cf. <i>stýl-ecg</i>, steel-edged), cognate with Ger. <i>Stahl</i>, Dut. and Dan.
+<i>staal</i>, &amp;c.; the word is not found outside Teutonic. Skeat (<i>Etym.
+Dict.</i>, 1898) finds the ultimate origin in the Indo-European base
+<i>stak</i>-, to be firm or still, and compares Lat. <i>stagnum</i>, standing-water.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo; is the last-freezing part of an alloy, and corresponds
+to what the mother-liquor of a saline solution would become if such
+a solution, after the excess of saline matter had been crystallized out,
+were finally completely frozen. It is the mother-liquor or &ldquo;bittern&rdquo;
+frozen. Its striking characteristics are: (1) that for given metals
+alloyed together its composition is fixed, and does not vary with the
+proportions in which those metals are present, because any &ldquo;excess
+metal,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> so much of either metal as is present in excess over the
+eutectic ratio, freezes out before the eutectic; (2) that though thus
+constant, its composition is not in simple atomic proportions; (3)
+that its freezing-point is constant; and (4) that, when first formed, it
+habitually consists of interstratified plates of the metals which
+compose it. If the alloy has a composition very near that of its own
+eutectic, then when solidified it of course contains a large proportion
+of the eutectic, and only a small proportion of the excess metal. If
+it differs widely from the eutectic in composition, then when solidified
+it consists of only a small quantity of eutectic and a very large
+quantity of the excess metal. But, far below the freezing-point,
+transformations may take place in the solid metal, and follow a course
+quite parallel with that of freezing, though with no suggestion of
+liquidity. A &ldquo;eutectoid&rdquo; is to such a transformation in solid metal
+what a eutectic is to freezing proper. It is the last part of the metal
+to undergo this transformation and, when thus transformed, it is of
+constant though not atomic composition, and habitually consists
+of interstratified plates of its component metals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Note the distinction between the &ldquo;eutectic&rdquo; or alloy of lowest
+freezing-point, 1130°, B, with 4.30% of carbon, and the &ldquo;eutectoid,&rdquo;
+hardenite and pearlite, or alloy of lowest transformation-point,
+690° S, with 0.90% of carbon. (See § 17.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The length of the blow varies very greatly, in general increasing
+with the proportion of silicon and with the size of charge. Thus
+the small Swedish charges with but little silicon may be blown in
+5 minutes, but for a 20-ton charge the time is more likely to reach,
+or exceed 10 minutes, and sometimes reaches 20 minutes or even
+more.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> A &ldquo;billet&rdquo; is a bar, 5 in. sq. or smaller, drawn down from a
+bloom, ingot, or pile for further manufacture.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRON MASK<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<i>masque de fer</i>). The identity of the &ldquo;man in
+the iron mask&rdquo; is a famous historical mystery. The person
+so called was a political prisoner under Louis XIV., who died
+in the Bastille in 1703. To the mask itself no real importance
+attaches, though that feature of the story gave it a romantic
+interest; there is no historical evidence that the mask he was
+said always to wear was made of anything but black velvet
+(<i>velours</i>), and it was only afterwards that legend converted its
+material into iron. As regards the &ldquo;man,&rdquo; we have the contemporary
+official journals of Étienne du Junca (d. 1706), the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page835" id="page835"></a>835</span>
+king&rsquo;s lieutenant at the Bastille, from which we learn that on the
+18th of September 1698 a new governor, Bénigne D&rsquo;Auvergne
+de Saint-Mars, arrived from the fortress of the Isles Ste
+Marguerite (in the bay of Cannes), bringing with him &ldquo;un
+ancien prisonnier qu&rsquo;il avait ŕ Pignerol&rdquo; (Pinerolo, in Piedmont),
+whom he kept always masked and whose name remained untold.
+(Saint-Mars, it may here be noted, had been commandant at
+Pignerol from the end of 1664 till 1681; he was in charge there
+of such important prisoners as Fouquet, from 1665 to his death
+in 1680, and Lauzun, from 1671 till his release in 1681; he was
+then in authority at Exiles from 1681 to 1687, and at Ste
+Marguerite from 1687 to 1698). Du Junca subsequently records
+that &ldquo;on Monday the 19th of November 1703, the unknown
+prisoner, always masked with a black velvet mask, whom M. de
+Saint-Mars had brought with him from the islands of Ste
+Marguerite, and had kept for a long time,... died at about ten
+o&rsquo;clock in the evening.&rdquo; He adds that &ldquo;this unknown prisoner
+was buried on the 20th in the parish cemetery of Saint Paul,
+and was registered under a name also unknown&rdquo;&mdash;noting in the
+margin that he has since learnt that the name in the register
+was &ldquo;M. de Marchiel.&rdquo; The actual name in the register of
+the parish cemetery of Saint Paul (now destroyed, but a facsimile
+is still in existence) was &ldquo;Marchioly&rdquo;; and the age of the
+deceased was there given as &ldquo;about 45.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The identity of this prisoner was already, it will be observed,
+a mystery before he died in 1703, and soon afterwards we begin
+to see the fruit of the various legends concerning him which
+presumably started as early as 1670, when Saint-Mars himself
+(see below) found it necessary to circulate &ldquo;fairy tales&rdquo; (<i>contes
+jaunes</i>). In 1711 the Princess Palatine wrote to the Electress
+Sophia of Hanover, and suggested that he was an English
+nobleman who had taken part in a plot of the duke of Berwick
+against William III. Voltaire, in his <i>Sičcle de Louis XIV</i> (1751),
+told the story of the mysterious masked prisoner with many
+graphic details; and, under the heading of &ldquo;Ana&rdquo; in the
+<i>Questions sur l&rsquo;encyclopédie</i> (Geneva, 1771), he asserted that
+he was a bastard brother of Louis XIV., son of Mazarin and
+Anne of Austria. Voltaire&rsquo;s influence in creating public interest
+in the &ldquo;man in the mask&rdquo; was indeed enormous; he had himself
+been imprisoned in the Bastille in 1717 and again in 1726; as
+early as 1745 he is found hinting that he knows something;
+in the <i>Sičcle de Louis XIV</i> he justifies his account on the score
+of conversations with de Bernaville, who succeeded Saint-Mars
+(d. 1708) as governor of the Bastille, and others; and after Heiss
+in 1770 had identified the &ldquo;mask&rdquo; with Mattioli (see below),
+Voltaire was not above suggesting that he really knew more than
+he had said, but thought it sufficient to have given the clue to the
+enigma. According to the Abbé Soulavie, the duke of Richelieu&rsquo;s
+advice was to reflect on Voltaire&rsquo;s &ldquo;last utterances&rdquo; on the
+subject. In Soulavie&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i> of Richelieu (London, 1790)
+the masked man becomes (on the authority of an apocryphal
+note by Saint-Mars himself) the legitimate twin brother of Louis
+XIV. In 1801 the story went that this scion of the royal house of
+France had a son born to him in prison, who settled in Corsica
+under the name of &ldquo;De Buona Parte,&rdquo; and became the ancestor
+of Napoleon! Dumas&rsquo;s <i>Vicomte de Bragelonne</i> afterwards did
+much to popularize the theory that he was the king&rsquo;s brother.
+Meanwhile other identifications, earlier or later, were also
+supported, in whose case the facts are a sufficient refutation.
+He was Louis, count of Vermandois, son of Louise de la Valličre
+(<i>Mémoires secrets pour servir ŕ l&rsquo;histoire de Perse</i>, Amsterdam,
+1745); Vermandois, however, died in 1683. He was the duke
+of Monmouth (<i>Lettre de Sainte Foy</i> ... Amsterdam, 1768),
+although Monmouth was beheaded in 1685. He was François
+de Vendôme, duke of Beaufort, who disappeared (and pretty
+certainly died) at the siege of Candia (1669); Avedick, an
+Armenian patriarch seized by the Jesuits, who was not imprisoned
+till 1706 and died in 1711; Fouquet, who undoubtedly died at
+Pignerol in 1680; and even, according to A. Loquin (1883),
+Moličre!</p>
+
+<p>Modern criticism, however, has narrowed the issue. The
+&ldquo;man in the mask&rdquo; was either (1) Count Mattioli, who became
+the prisoner of Saint-Mars at Pignerol in 1679, or (2) the person
+called Eustache Dauger, who was imprisoned in July 1669
+in the same fortress. The evidence shows conclusively that
+these two were the only prisoners under Saint-Mars at Pignerol
+who could have been taken by him to the Bastille in 1698.
+The arguments in favour of Mattioli (first suggested by Heiss,
+and strongly supported by Topin in 1870) are summed up,
+with much weight of critical authority, by F. Funck-Brentano
+in vol. lvi. of the <i>Revue historique</i> (1894); the claims of Eustache
+Dauger were no less ably advocated by J. Lair in vol. ii. of his
+<i>Nicolas Foucquet</i> (1890). But while we know who Mattioli
+was, and why he was imprisoned, a further question still remains
+for supporters of Dauger, because his identity and the reason
+for his incarceration are quite obscure.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It need only be added, so far as other modern theories are concerned,
+that in 1873 M. Jung (<i>La Vérité sur la masque de fer</i>) had
+brought forward another candidate, with the attractive name of
+&ldquo;Marechiel,&rdquo; a soldier of Lorraine who had taken part in a poisoning
+plot against Louis XIV., and was arrested at Peronne by Louvois in
+1673, and said to be lodged in the Bastille and then sent to Pignerol.
+But Jung&rsquo;s arguments, though strong destructively against the
+Mattioli theory, break down as regards any valid proof either that the
+prisoner arrested at Peronne was a Bastille prisoner in 1673 or that
+he was ever at Pignerol, where indeed we find no trace of him.
+Another theory, propounded by Captain Bazeries (<i>La Masque de fer</i>,
+1883), identified the prisoner with General du Bulonde, punished for
+cowardice at the siege of Cuneo; but Bulonde only went to Pignerol
+in 1691, and has been proved to be living in 1705.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Mattioli Theory</i>.&mdash;Ercole Antonio Mattioli (born at
+Bologna on the 1st of December 1640) was minister of Charles
+IV., duke of Mantua, who as marquess of Montferrat was in
+possession of the frontier fortress of Casale, which was coveted
+by Louis XIV. He negotiated the sale of Casale to the French
+king for 100,000 crowns, and himself received valuable presents
+from Louis. But on the eve of the occupation of Casale by the
+French, Mattioli&mdash;actuated by a tardy sense of patriotism or
+by the hope of further gain&mdash;betrayed the transaction to the
+governments of Austria, Spain, Venice and Savoy. Louis,
+in revenge, had him kidnapped (1679) by the French envoy,
+J. F. d&rsquo;Estrades, abbé of Moissac, and Mattioli was promptly
+lodged in the fortress of Pignerol. This kidnapping of Mattioli,
+however, was no secret, and it was openly discussed in <i>La Prudenza
+trionfante di Casale</i> (Cologne, 1682), where it was stated
+that Mattioli was masked when he was arrested. In February
+1680 he is described as nearly mad, no doubt from the effects
+of solitary confinement. When Saint-Mars was made governor
+of Exiles in 1681 we know from one of his letters that Mattioli
+was left at Pignerol; but in March 1694, Pignerol being about
+to be given up by France to Savoy, he and two other prisoners
+were removed with much secrecy to Ste Marguerite, where
+Saint-Mars had been governor since 1687. Funck-Brentano
+emphasizes the fact that, although Eustache Dauger was then
+at Ste Marguerite, the king&rsquo;s minister Barbezieux, writing
+to Saint-Mars (March 20, 1694) about the transfer of these
+prisoners, says: &ldquo;You know that they are of more consequence
+(<i>plus de conséquence</i>), at least one&rdquo; (presumably Mattioli),
+&ldquo;than those who are at present at the island.&rdquo; From this
+point, however, the record is puzzling. A month after his
+arrival at Ste Marguerite, a prisoner who had a valet died there.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+Now Mattioli undoubtedly had a valet at Pignerol, and nobody
+else at Ste Marguerite is known at this time to have had one;
+so that he may well have been the prisoner who died. In that
+case he was clearly not &ldquo;the mask&rdquo; of 1698 and 1703. Funck-Brentano&rsquo;s
+attempt to prove that Mattioli did <i>not</i> die in 1604
+is far from convincing; but the assumption that he did is
+inferential, and to that extent arguable. &ldquo;Marchioly&rdquo; in the
+burial register of Saint Paul naturally suggests indeed at first
+that the &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo; taken by Saint-Mars to the
+Bastille in 1698 was Mattioli, Saint-Mars himself sometimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page836" id="page836"></a>836</span>
+writing the name &ldquo;Marthioly&rdquo; in his letters; but further
+consideration leaves this argument decidedly weak. In any
+case the age stated in the burial register, &ldquo;about 45,&rdquo; was
+fictitious, whether for Mattioli (63) or Dauger (at least 53);
+and, as Lair points out, Saint-Mars is known to have given
+false names at the burial of other prisoners. Monsignor Barnes,
+in <i>The Man of the Mask</i> (1908), takes the entry &ldquo;Marchioly&rdquo;
+as making it certain that the prisoner was not Mattioli, on the
+ground (1) that the law<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> explicitly ordered a false name to be
+given, and (2) that after hiding his identity so carefully the
+authorities were not likely to give away the secret by means
+of a burial register.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of Funck-Brentano it appears practically certain
+that Mattioli must be ruled out. If he was the individual
+who died in 1703 at the Bastille, the obscurity which gathered
+round the nameless masked prisoner is almost incomprehensible,
+for there was no real secret about Mattioli&rsquo;s incarceration.
+The existence of a &ldquo;legend&rdquo; as to Dauger can, however, be
+traced, as will be seen below, from the first. Any one who
+accepts the Mattioli theory must be driven, as Lang suggests,
+to suppose that the mystery which grew up about the unknown
+prisoner was somehow transferred to Mattioli from Dauger.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Dauger Theory.</i>&mdash;What then was Dauger&rsquo;s history?
+Unfortunately it is only in his capacity as a prisoner that we
+can trace it. On the 19th of July 1669 Louvois, Louis XIV.&rsquo;s
+minister, writes to Saint-Mars at Pignerol that he is sending
+him &ldquo;le nommé Eustache Dauger&rdquo; (Dauger, D&rsquo;Angers&mdash;the
+spelling is doubtful),<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> whom it is of the last importance to
+keep with special closeness; Saint-Mars is to threaten him with
+death if he speaks about anything except his actual needs.
+On the same day Louvois orders Vauroy, major of the citadel
+of Dunkirk, to seize Dauger and conduct him to Pignerol. Saint-Mars
+writes to Louvois (Aug. 21) that Vauroy had brought
+Dauger, and that people &ldquo;believe him to be a marshal of France.&rdquo;
+Louvois (March 26, 1670) refers to a report that one of Fouquet&rsquo;s
+valets&mdash;there was constant trouble about them&mdash;had spoken
+to Dauger, who asked to be left in peace, and he emphasizes
+the importance of there being no communication. Saint-Mars
+(April 12, 1670) reports Dauger as &ldquo;resigné ŕ la volonté de
+Dieu et du Roy,&rdquo; and (again the legend grows) says that &ldquo;there
+are persons who are inquisitive about my prisoner, and I am
+obliged to tell <i>contes jaunes pour me moquer d&rsquo;eux.</i>&rdquo; In 1672
+Saint-Mars proposes&mdash;the significance of this action is discussed
+later&mdash;to allow Dauger to act as &ldquo;valet&rdquo; to Lauzun; Louvois
+firmly refuses, but in 1675 allows him to be employed as valet
+to Fouquet, and he impresses upon Saint-Mars the importance
+of nobody learning about Dauger&rsquo;s &ldquo;past.&rdquo; After Fouquet&rsquo;s
+death (1680) Dauger and Fouquet&rsquo;s other (old-standing) valet
+La Rivičre are put together, by Louvois&rsquo;s special orders, in one
+lower dungeon; Louvois evidently fears their knowledge of
+things heard from Fouquet, and he orders Lauzun (who had
+recently been allowed to converse freely with Fouquet) to be
+told that they are released. When Saint-Mars is transferred
+to Exiles, he is ordered to take these two with him, as too
+important to be in other hands; Mattioli is left behind. At
+Exiles they are separated and guarded with special precautions;
+and in January 1687 one of them (all the evidence admittedly
+pointing to La Rivičre) dies. When Saint-Mars is again transferred,
+in May 1687, to Ste Marguerite, he takes his &ldquo;prisoner&rdquo;
+(apparently he now has only one&mdash;Dauger) with great show of
+caution; and next year (Jan. 8, 1688) he writes to Louvois
+that &ldquo;mon prisonnier&rdquo; is believed &ldquo;in all this province&rdquo; to
+be a son of Oliver Cromwell, or else the duke of Beaufort (a
+point which at once rules out Beaufort). In 1691 Louvois&rsquo;s
+successor, Barbezieux, writes to him about his &ldquo;prisonnier
+de vingt ans&rdquo; (Dauger was first imprisoned in 1669, Mattioli
+in 1679), and Saint-Mars replies that &ldquo;nobody has seen him
+but myself.&rdquo; Subsequently Barbezieux and the governor
+continue to write to one another about their &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo;
+(Jan. 6, 1696; Nov. 17, 1697). When, therefore, we come to
+Saint-Mars&rsquo;s appointment to the Bastille in 1698, Dauger appears
+almost certainly to be the &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo; he took with
+him.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> There is at least good ground for supposing Mattioli&rsquo;s
+death to have been indicated in 1694, but nothing is known that
+would imply Dauger&rsquo;s, unless it was he who died in 1703.</p>
+
+<p><i>Theories as to Dauger&rsquo;s Identity.</i>&mdash;Here we find not only
+sufficient indication of the growth of a legend as to Dauger,
+but also the existence in fact of a real mystery as to who he
+was and what he had done, two things both absent in Mattioli&rsquo;s
+case. The only &ldquo;missing link&rdquo; is the want of any precise
+allusion to a mask in the references to Dauger. But in spite
+of du Junca&rsquo;s emphasis on the mask, it is in reality very questionable
+whether the wearing of a mask was an unusual practice.
+It was one obvious way of enabling a prisoner to appear in
+public (for exercise or in travelling) without betrayal of identity.
+Indeed three years before the arrival of Saint-Mars we hear
+(<i>Gazette d&rsquo;Amsterdam</i>, March 14, 1695) of another masked man
+being brought to the Bastille, who eventually was known to be
+the son of a Lyons banker.</p>
+
+<p>Who then was Dauger, and what was his &ldquo;past&rdquo;? We will
+take first a theory propounded by Andrew Lang in <i>The Valet&rsquo;s
+Tragedy</i> (1903). As the result of research in the diplomatic
+correspondence at the Record Office in London<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Mr Lang finds
+a clue in the affairs of the French Huguenot, Roux de Marsilly,
+the secret agent for a Protestant league against France between
+Sweden, Holland, England and the Protestant cantons of
+Switzerland, who in February 1669 left London, where he had
+been negotiating with Arlington (apparently with Charles II.&rsquo;s
+knowledge), for Switzerland, his confidential valet Martin
+remaining behind. On the 14th of April 1669 Marsilly was
+kidnapped for Louis XIV. in Switzerland, in defiance of international
+right, taken to Paris and on the 22nd of June tortured
+to death on a trumped-up charge of rape. The duke of York
+is said to have betrayed him to Colbert, the French ambassador
+in London. The English intrigue was undoubtedly a serious
+matter, because the shifty Charles II. was at the same time
+negotiating with Louis XIV. a secret alliance against Holland,
+in support of the restoration of Roman Catholicism in England.
+It would therefore be desirable for both parties to remove
+anybody who was cognizant of the double dealing. Now
+Louvois&rsquo;s original letter to Saint-Mars concerning Dauger
+(July 19, 1669), after dealing with the importance of his being
+guarded with special closeness, and of Saint-Mars personally
+taking him food and threatening him with death if he speaks,
+proceeds as follows (in a second paragraph, as printed in Delort,
+i. 155, 156):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Je mande au Sieur Poupart de faire incessamment travailler ŕ ce
+que vous désirerez, et vous ferez préparer les meubles qui sont
+nécessaires pour la vie de celui que l&rsquo;on vous aménera, observant que
+comme ce n est qu&rsquo;un valet, il ne lui en faut pas de bien considérables,
+et je vous ferai rembourser tant de la déspenses des meubles, que de
+ce que vous désirerez pour sa nourriture.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Assuming the words here, &ldquo;as he is only a valet,&rdquo; to refer
+to Dauger, and taking into account the employment of Dauger
+from 1675 to 1680 as Fouquet&rsquo;s valet, Mr Lang now obtains a
+solution of the problem of why a mere valet should be a political
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page837" id="page837"></a>837</span>
+prisoner of so much concern to Louis XIV. at this time. He
+points out that Colbert, on the 3rd, 10th and 24th of June,
+writes from London to Louis XIV. about his efforts to get Martin,
+Roux de Marsilly&rsquo;s valet, to go to France, and on the 1st of July
+expresses a hope that Charles II. will surrender &ldquo;the valet.&rdquo;
+Then, on the 19th of July, Dauger is arrested at Dunkirk,
+the regular port from England. Mr Lang regards his conclusion
+as to the identity between these valets as irresistible. It is
+true that what is certainly known about Martin hardly seems
+to provide sufficient reason for Eustache Dauger being regarded
+for so long a time as a specially dangerous person. But Mr
+Lang&rsquo;s answer on that point is that this humble supernumerary
+in Roux de Marsilly&rsquo;s conspiracy simply became one more
+wretched victim of the &ldquo;red tape&rdquo; of the old French absolute
+monarchy.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately for this identification, it encounters at once a
+formidable, if not fatal, objection. Martin, the Huguenot
+conspirator Marsilly&rsquo;s valet, must surely have been himself a
+Huguenot. Dauger, on the other hand, was certainly a Catholic;
+indeed Louvois&rsquo;s second letter to Saint-Mars about him (Sept. 10,
+1669) gives precise directions as to his being allowed to attend
+mass at the same time as Fouquet. It may perhaps be argued
+that Dauger (if Martin) simply did not make bad worse by proclaiming
+his creed; but against this, Louvois must have <i>known</i>
+that Martin was a Huguenot. Apart from that, it will be observed
+that the substantial reason for connecting the two men is simply
+that both were &ldquo;valets.&rdquo; The identification is inspired by the
+apparent necessity of an explanation why Dauger, being a valet,
+should be a political prisoner of importance. The assumption,
+however, that Dauger was a valet when he was arrested is itself
+as unnecessary as the fact is intrinsically improbable. Neither
+Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19, 1669, nor Dauger&rsquo;s employment as
+valet to Fouquet in 1675 (six years later)&mdash;and these are the only
+grounds on which the assumption rests&mdash;prove anything of the
+sort.</p>
+
+<p>Was Dauger a valet? If Dauger was the &ldquo;mask,&rdquo; it is just
+as well to remove a misunderstanding which has misled too
+many commentators.</p>
+
+<p>1. If Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19 be read in connexion with
+the preceding correspondence it will be seen that ever since
+Fouquet&rsquo;s incarceration in 1665 Saint-Mars had had trouble
+over his valets. They fall ill, and there is difficulty in replacing
+them, or they play the traitor. At last, on the 12th of March
+1669, Louvois writes to Saint-Mars to say (evidently in answer
+to some suggestion from Saint-Mars in a letter which is not
+preserved): &ldquo;It is annoying that both Fouquet&rsquo;s valets should
+have fallen ill at the same time, but you have so far taken such
+good measures for avoiding inconvenience that I leave it to you
+to adopt whatever course is necessary.&rdquo; There are then no
+letters in existence from Saint-Mars to Louvois up to Louvois&rsquo;s
+letter of July 19, in which he first refers to Dauger; and for
+three months (from April 22 to July 19) there is a gap in the
+correspondence, so that the sequence is obscure. The portion,
+however, of the letter of the 19th of July, cited above, in which
+Louvois uses the words &ldquo;ce n&rsquo;est qu&rsquo;un valet,&rdquo; does not, in the
+present writer&rsquo;s judgment, refer to Dauger at all, but to something
+which had been mooted in the meanwhile with a view to obtaining
+a valet for Fouquet. This is indeed the natural reading of the
+letter as a whole. If Louvois had meant to write that Dauger
+was &ldquo;only a valet&rdquo; he would have started by saying so. On
+the contrary, he gives precise and apparently comprehensive
+directions in the first part of the letter about how he is to be
+treated: &ldquo;Je vous en donne advis par advance, afin que vous
+puissiez faire accomoder un cachot oů vous le mettrez surement,
+observant de faire en sorte que les jours qu&rsquo;aura le lieu oů il sera ne
+donnent point sur les lieux qui puissent estre abordez de personne,
+et qu&rsquo;il y ayt assez de portes fermées, les unes sur les autres, pour
+que vos sentinelles ne puissent bien entendre,&rdquo; &amp;c. Having
+finished his instructions about Dauger, he then proceeds in a fresh
+paragraph to tell Saint-Mars that orders have been given to &ldquo;Sieur
+Poupart&rdquo; to do &ldquo;whatever you shall desire.&rdquo; He is here dealing
+with a different question; and it is unreasonable to suppose.
+and indeed contrary to the style in which Louvois corresponds
+with Saint-Mars, that he devotes the whole letter to the one
+subject with which he started. The words &ldquo;et vous ferez préparer
+les meubles qui sont nécessaires pour la vie de celui que l&rsquo;on vous
+aménera&rdquo; are not at all those which Louvois would use with
+regard to Dauger, after what he has just said about him. Why
+&ldquo;celui que l&rsquo;on vous aménera,&rdquo; instead of simply &ldquo;Dauger,&rdquo;
+who was being brought, as he has said, by Vauroy? The clue
+to the interpretation of this phrase may be found in another
+letter from Louvois not six months later (Jan. 1, 1670), when he
+writes: &ldquo;Le roy se remet ŕ vous d&rsquo;en uzer comme vous le jugerez
+ŕ propos ŕ l&rsquo;esgard des valets de Monsieur Foucquet; il faut
+seulement observer que si vous luy donnez des valets que l&rsquo;on vous
+aménera d&rsquo;icy, il pourra bien arriver qu&rsquo;ils seront gaignez par
+avance, et qu&rsquo;ainsy ils feroient pis que ceux que vous en osteriez
+présentement.&rdquo; Here we have the identical phrase used of valets
+whom it is contemplated to bring in from outside for Fouquet;
+though it does not follow that any such valet was in fact brought
+in. The whole previous correspondence (as well as a good deal
+afterwards) is full of the valet difficulty; and it is surely more
+reasonable to suppose that when Louvois writes to Saint-Mars
+on the 19th of July that he is sending Dauger, a new prisoner
+of importance, as to whom &ldquo;il est de la derničre importance
+qu&rsquo;il soit gardé avec une grande seureté,&rdquo; his second paragraph
+as regards the instructions to &ldquo;Sieur Poupart&rdquo; refers to something
+which Saint-Mars had suggested about getting a valet
+from outside, and simply points out that in preparing furniture
+for &ldquo;celui que l&rsquo;on vous aménera&rdquo; he need not do much, &ldquo;comme
+ce n&rsquo;est qu&rsquo;un valet.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>2. But this is not all. If Dauger had been originally a valet,
+he might as well have been used as such at once, when one was
+particularly wanted. On the contrary, Louvois flatly refused
+Saint-Mars&rsquo;s request in 1672 to be allowed to do so, and was
+exceedingly chary of allowing it in 1675 (only &ldquo;en cas de nécessité,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;vous pouvez donner le dit prisonnier ŕ M. Foucquet, si
+son valet venoit ŕ luy manquer et non autrement&rdquo;). The words
+used by Saint-Mars in asking Louvois in 1672 if he might use
+Dauger as Lauzun&rsquo;s valet are themselves significant to the point
+of conclusiveness: &ldquo;Il ferait, ce me semble, un bon valet.&rdquo;
+Saint-Mars could not have said this if Dauger had all along been
+<i>known</i> to be a valet. The terms of his letter to Louvois (Feb 20,
+1672) show that Saint-Mars wanted to use Dauger as a valet
+simply because he was <i>not</i> a valet. That a person might be used
+as a valet who was not really a valet is shown by Louvois having
+told Saint-Mars in 1666 (June 4) that Fouquet&rsquo;s old doctor,
+Pecquet, was not to be allowed to serve him &ldquo;soit dans sa
+profession, soit dans le mestier d&rsquo;un simple valet.&rdquo; The fact
+was that Saint-Mars was hard put to it in the prison for anybody
+who could be trusted, and that he had convinced himself by this
+time that Dauger (who had proved a quiet harmless fellow)
+would give no trouble. Probably he wanted to give him some
+easy employment, and save him from going mad in confinement.
+It is worth noting that up to 1672 (when Saint-Mars suggested
+utilizing Dauger as valet to Lauzun) none of the references
+to Dauger in letters after that of July 19, 1669, suggests his
+being a valet; and their contrary character makes it all the
+more clear that the second part of the letter of July 19 does not
+refer to Dauger.</p>
+
+<p>In this connexion it may be remarked (and this is a point
+on which Funck-Brentano entirely misinterprets the allusion)
+that, even in his capacity as valet to Fouquet, Dauger was still
+regarded an as exceptional sort of prisoner; for in 1679 when
+Fouquet and Lauzun were afterwards allowed to walk freely
+all over the citadel, Louvois impresses on Saint-Mars that &ldquo;<i>le
+nommé Eustache</i>&rdquo; is never to be allowed to be in Fouquet&rsquo;s
+room when Lauzun or any other stranger, or anybody but
+Fouquet and the &ldquo;<i>ancien valet</i>,&rdquo; La Rivičre, is there, and that
+he is to stay in Fouquet&rsquo;s room when the latter goes out to walk
+in the citadel, and is only to go out walking with Fouquet and
+La Rivičre when they promenade in the special part of the
+fortress previously set apart for them (Louvois&rsquo;s letter to Saint-Mars,
+Jan. 30, 1670).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page838" id="page838"></a>838</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Was Dauger James de la Cloche?</i> In <i>The Man of the Mask</i>
+(1908) Monsignor Barnes, while briefly dismissing Mr Lang&rsquo;s
+identification with Martin, and apparently not realizing the
+possibility of reading Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19, 1669, as indicated
+above<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> deals in detail with the history of James de la
+Cloche, the natural son of Charles II. (acknowledged privately
+as such by the king) in whom he attempts to unmask the personality
+of Dauger. Mr Lang, in <i>The Valet&rsquo;s Tragedy</i>, had some
+years earlier ironically wondered why nobody made this suggestion,
+which, however, he regarded as untenable. The story of
+James de la Cloche is indeed itself another historical mystery;
+he abruptly vanishes as such at Rome at the end of 1668, and
+thus provides a disappearance of convenient date; but the
+question concerning him is complicated by the fact that a James
+Henry de Bovere Roano Stuardo, who married at Naples early
+in 1669 and undoubtedly died in the following August, claiming
+to be a son of Charles II., makes just afterwards an equally
+abrupt appearance; in many respects the two men seem to be
+the same, but Monsignor Barnes, following Lord Acton, here
+regards James Stuardo as an impostor who traded on a knowledge
+of James de la Cloche&rsquo;s secret. If the latter then did <i>not</i> die in
+1669, what became of him? According to Monsignor Barnes&rsquo;s
+theory, James de la Cloche, who had been brought up to be a
+Jesuit and knew his royal father&rsquo;s secret profession of Roman
+Catholicism, was being employed by Charles II. as an intermediary
+with the Catholic Church and with the object of making
+him his own private confessor; he returned from Rome at the
+beginning of 1669, and is then identified by Monsignor Barnes
+with a certain Abbé Pregnani, an &ldquo;astrologer&rdquo; sent by Louis
+in February 1669 to influence Charles II. towards the French
+alliance. Pregnani, however, made a bad start by &ldquo;tipping
+winners&rdquo; at Newmarket with disastrous results, and was
+quickly recalled to France, actually departing on July 5th
+(French 15th). But he too now disappears, though a letter
+from Lionne (the French foreign secretary) to Colbert of July 17
+(two days before Louvois&rsquo;s letter to Saint-Mars about Dauger) says
+that he is expected in Paris. Monsignor Barnes&rsquo;s theory is that
+Pregnani <i>alias</i> James de la Cloche, without the knowledge of
+Charles II., was arrested by order of Louis and imprisoned as
+Dauger on account of his knowing too much about the French
+schemes in regard to Charles II. This identification of Pregnani
+with James de la Cloche is, however, intrinsically incredible.
+We are asked to read into the Pregnani story a deliberate intrigue
+on Charles&rsquo;s part for an excuse for having James de la Cloche
+in England. But this does not at all seem to square with the
+facts given in the correspondence, and it is hard to understand
+why Charles should have allowed Pregnani to depart, and should
+not have taken any notice of his son&rsquo;s &ldquo;disappearance.&rdquo; There
+would still remain, no doubt, the possibility that Pregnani,
+though not James de la Cloche, was nevertheless the &ldquo;man in
+the mask.&rdquo; But even then the dates will not suit; for Lionne
+wrote to Colbert on July 27, saying, &ldquo;Pregnani has been so
+slow on his voyage that he has only given me (<i>m&rsquo;a rendu</i>) your
+despatch of July 4 several days after I had already received
+those of the 8th and the 11th.&rdquo; Allowing for the French style
+of dating this means that instead of arriving in Paris by July 18,
+Pregnani only saw Lionne there at earliest on July 25. This
+seems to dispose of his being sent to Pignerol on the 19th.
+Apart altogether, however, from such considerations, it now
+seems fairly certain, from Mr Lang&rsquo;s further research into the
+problem of James de la Cloche (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">La Cloche</a></span>), that the latter
+<i>was</i> identical with the &ldquo;Prince&rdquo; James Stuardo who died in
+Naples in 1669, and that he hoaxed the general of the Jesuits
+and forged a number of letters purporting to be from Charles II.
+which were relied on in Monsignor Barnes&rsquo;s book; so that the
+theory breaks down at all points.</p>
+
+<p>The identification of Dauger thus still remains the historical
+problem behind the mystery of the &ldquo;man in the mask.&rdquo; He
+was not the valet Martin; he was not a valet at all when he was
+sent to Pignerol; he was not James de la Cloche. The fact
+nevertheless that he was employed as a valet, even in special
+circumstances, for Fouquet, makes it difficult to believe that
+Dauger was a man of any particular social standing. We may
+be forced to conclude that the interest of the whole affair, so far
+as authentic history is concerned, is really nugatory, and that
+the romantic imagination has created a mystery in a fact of no
+importance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The correspondence between Saint-Mars and
+Louvois is printed by J. Delort in <i>Histoire de la détention des
+philosophes</i> (1829). Apart from the modern studies by Lair, Funck-Brentano,
+Lang and Barnes, referred to above, there is valuable
+historical matter in the work of Roux-Fazaillac, <i>Recherches historiques
+sur l&rsquo;homme au masque de fer</i> (1801); see also Marius Topin, <i>L&rsquo;Homme
+au masque de fer</i> (Paris, 1870), and Loiseleur, <i>Trois Énigmes historiques</i>
+(1882).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Barbezieux to Saint-Mars, May 10, 1694: &ldquo;J&rsquo;ai reçu la lettre que
+vous avez pris la peine de m&rsquo;écrire le 29 du mois passé; vous pouvez,
+suivant que vous le proposez, faire mettre dans la prison voűtée le
+valet du prisonnier qui est mort.&rdquo; It may be noted that Barbezieux
+had recently told Saint-Mars to designate his prisoners by circumlocutions
+in his correspondence, and not by name.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> He cites Bingham&rsquo;s <i>Bastille</i>, i. 27.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It was the common practice to give pseudonyms to prisoners,
+and this is clearly such a case. Mattioli&rsquo;s prison name was Lestang.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Funck-Brentano argues that &ldquo;un ancien prisonnier qu&rsquo;il avait
+ŕ Pignerol&rdquo; (du Junca&rsquo;s words) cannot apply to Dauger, because
+then du Junca would have added &ldquo;et ŕ Exiles.&rdquo; But this is decidedly
+far-fetched; du Junca would naturally refer specially to
+Pignerol, the fortress with which Saint-Mars had been originally and
+particularly associated. Funck-Brentano also insists that the
+references to the &ldquo;ancien prisonnier&rdquo; in 1696 and 1697 must be to
+Mattioli, giving <i>ancien</i> the meaning of &ldquo;late&rdquo; or &ldquo;former&rdquo; (as in the
+phrase &ldquo;ancien ministre&rdquo;), and regarding it as an expression
+pertinent to Mattioli, who had been at Pignerol with Saint-Mars but
+not at Exiles, and not to Dauger, who had always been with Saint-Mars.
+But when he attempts to force du Junca&rsquo;s phrase &ldquo;un
+ancien prisonnier qu&rsquo;il avait ŕ Pignerol&rdquo; into this sense, he is
+straining language. The natural interpretation of the word <i>ancien</i>
+is simply &ldquo;of old standing,&rdquo; and Barbezieux&rsquo;s use of it, coming after
+Louvois&rsquo;s phrase in 1691, clearly points to Dauger being meant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This identification had been previously suggested by H. Montaudon
+in <i>Revue de la société des études historiques</i> for 1888, p. 452, and
+by A. le Grain in <i>L&rsquo;Intermédiaire des chercheurs</i> for 1891, col.
+227-228.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The view taken by Monsignor Barnes of the phrase &ldquo;<i>Ce n&rsquo;est
+qu&rsquo;un valet</i>&rdquo; in Louvois&rsquo;s letter of July 19, is that (reading this part
+of the letter as a continuation of what precedes) the mere fact of
+Louvois&rsquo;s saying that Dauger is only a valet means that that was
+just what he was not! Monsignor Barnes is rather too apt to employ
+the method of interpretation by contraries, on the ground that in
+such letters the writer always concealed the real facts.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRON MOUNTAIN,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Dickinson
+county, Michigan, U.S.A., about 50 m. W. by N. of Escanaba,
+in the S.W. part of the Upper Peninsula. Pop. (1900) 9242,
+of whom 4376 were foreign-born; (1904) 8585; (1910) 9216. It
+is served by the Chicago &amp; North Western and the Chicago,
+Milwaukee &amp; Saint Paul railways. The city is situated about
+1160 ft. above sea-level in an iron-mining district, and the mining
+of iron ore (especially at the Great Chapin Iron Mine) is its
+principal industry. Iron Mountain was settled in 1879, and
+was chartered in 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRONSIDES,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a nickname given to one of great bravery, strength
+or endurance, particularly as exhibited in a soldier. In English
+history Ironside or Ironsides first appears as the name of Edmund
+II., king of the English. In the Great Rebellion it was first given
+by Prince Rupert to Cromwell, after the battle of Marston Moor
+in 1644 (see S. R. Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>History of the Great Civil War</i>,
+1893, vol. ii. p. 1, and <i>Mercurius civicus</i>, September 19-26, 1644,
+quoted there). From Cromwell it was transferred to the troopers
+of his cavalry, those &ldquo;God-fearing men,&rdquo; raised and trained
+by him in an iron discipline, who were the main instrument of
+the parliamentary victories in the field. This (see S. R. Gardiner,
+<i>op. cit.</i> iv. 179) was first given at the raising of the siege
+of Pontefract 1648, but did not become general till later.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRONTON,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,
+Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 142 m. E.S.E. of Cincinnati.
+Pop. (1890) 10,939; (1900) 11,868, of whom 924 were negroes
+and 714 foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,147. It is served by
+the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton,
+the Norfolk and Western, and the Detroit, Toledo and Ironton
+railways, and by river steamboats. The city is built on a plain
+at the base of hills rising from the river bottom and abounding
+in iron ore and bituminous coal; fire and pottery clay also
+occur in the vicinity. Besides mining, Ironton has important
+lumber interests, considerable river traffic, and numerous
+manufactures, among which are iron, wire, nails, machinery,
+stoves, fire-brick, pressed brick, terra-cotta, cement, carriages
+and wagons, and furniture. The total value of its factory
+product in 1905 was $4,755,304; in 1900, $5,410,528. The
+municipality owns and operates its water-works. Ironton was
+first settled in 1848, and in 1851 was incorporated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRONWOOD,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a city of Gogebic county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
+on the Montreal river, in the N.W. part of the upper peninsula.
+Pop. (1890) 7745; (1900) 9705, of whom 4615 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 12,821. It is served by the Chicago and Northwestern
+and the Wisconsin Central railways. The city is
+situated about 1500 ft. above sea-level in the Gogebic iron-district,
+and is principally a mining town; some of the largest
+iron mines in the United States are within the city limits.
+Ironwood was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in
+1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRON-WOOD,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> the name applied to several kinds of timber,
+the produce of trees from different parts of the tropics, and
+belonging to very different natural families. Usually the
+wood is extremely hard, dense and dark-coloured, and sinks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page839" id="page839"></a>839</span>
+in water. Several species of <i>Sideroxylon</i> (<i>Sapotaceae</i>) yield
+iron-wood, <i>Sideroxylon cinereum</i> or <i>Bojerianum</i> being the
+<i>bois de fer blanc</i> of Africa and Mauritius, and the name is
+also given to species of <i>Metrosideros</i> (<i>Myrtaceae</i>) and <i>Diospyros</i>
+(<i>Ebenaceae</i>).</p>
+
+<p>West Indian iron-wood is the produce of <i>Colubrina reclinata</i>
+(and <i>C. ferruginosa</i> (<i>Rhamnaceae</i>), and of <i>Aegiphila martinicensis
+Verbenacae</i>). <i>Ixora</i> (<i>Siderodendron</i>) <i>triflorum</i> (<i>Rubiaceae</i>) is
+the <i>bois de fer</i> of Martinique, and Zanthoxylum <i>Pterota</i> (<i>Rutaceae</i>)
+is the iron-wood of Jamaica, while <i>Robinia Ponacoco</i> (<i>Leguminosae</i>)
+is described as the iron-wood of Guiana. The iron-wood
+of India and Ceylon is the produce of <i>Mesua ferrea</i> (<i>Guttiferae</i>).
+The iron-wood tree of Pegu and Arracan is <i>Xylia dolabriformis</i>
+(<i>Leguminosae</i>), described as the most important timber-tree
+of Burma after teak, and known as <i>pyingado</i>. The endemic
+<i>bois de fer</i> of Mauritius, once frequent in the primeval woods,
+but now becoming very scarce, is <i>Stadtmannia Sideroxylon</i>
+(<i>Sapindaceae</i>), while <i>Cossignya pinnata</i> is known as the <i>bois
+de fer de Judas</i>. In Australia species of <i>Acacia</i>, <i>Casuarina</i>,
+<i>Eucalyptus</i>, <i>Melaleuca</i>, <i>Myrtus</i>, and other genera are known
+more or less widely as iron-wood. Tasmanian iron-wood is the
+produce of <i>Notelaea ligustrina</i> (<i>Oleaceae</i>), and is chiefly used for
+making ships&rsquo; blocks. The iron-wood or lever-wood of North
+America is the timber of the American hop hornbeam, <i>Ostrya
+virginica</i> (<i>Cupuliferae</i>). In Brazil <i>Apuleia ferrea</i> and <i>Caesalpinia
+ferrea</i> yield a kind of iron-wood, called, however, the <i>Pao ferro</i>
+or false iron-wood.</p>
+
+<p>IRON-WORK, as an ornament in medieval architecture,
+is chiefly confined to the hinges, &amp;c., of doors and of church
+chests, &amp;c. Specimens of Norman iron-work are very rare.
+Early English specimens are numerous and very elaborate.
+In some instances not only do the hinges become a mass of scroll
+work, but the surface of the doors is covered by similar ornaments.
+In both these periods the design evidently partakes of the feeling
+exhibited in the stone or wood carving. In the Decorated period
+the scroll work is more graceful, and, like the foliage of the time,
+more natural. As styles progressed, there was a greater desire
+that the framing of the doors should be richer, and the ledges
+were chamfered or raised, then panelled, and at last the doors
+became a mass of scroll panelling. This, of course, interfered
+with the design of the hinges, the ornamentation of which
+gradually became unusual. In almost all styles the smaller
+and less important doors had merely plain strap-hinges, terminating
+in a few bent scrolls, and latterly in <i>fleurs-de-lis</i>. Escutcheon
+and ring handles, and the other furniture, partook more or less
+of the character of the time. On the continent of Europe
+the knockers are very elaborate. At all periods doors have been
+ornamented with nails having projecting heads, sometimes
+square, sometimes polygonal, and sometimes ornamented with
+roses, &amp;c. The iron work of windows is generally plain, and the
+ornament confined to simple <i>fleur-de-lis</i> heads to the stanchions.
+For the iron-work of screens enclosing tombs and chapels see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grille</a></span>; and generally see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metal-Work</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRONY<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eirôneia">&#949;&#7984;&#961;&#969;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="eirôn">&#949;&#7988;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>, one who says less than he
+means, <span class="grk" title="eirein">&#949;&#7988;&#961;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to speak), a form of speech in which the real
+meaning is concealed or contradicted by the words used; it
+is particularly employed for the purpose of ridicule, mockery
+or contempt, frequently taking the form of sarcastic phrase.
+The word is frequently used figuratively, especially in such
+phrases as &ldquo;the irony of fate,&rdquo; of an issue or result that seems to
+contradict the previous state or condition. The Greek word was
+particularly used of an under-statement in the nature of dissimulation.
+It is especially exemplified in the assumed ignorance
+which Socrates adopted as a method of dialectic, the &ldquo;Socratic
+irony&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socrates</a></span>). In tragedy, what is called &ldquo;tragic
+irony&rdquo; is a device for heightening the intensity of a dramatic
+situation. Its use is particularly characteristic of the drama
+of ancient Greece, owing to the familiarity of the spectators
+with the legends on which so many of the plays were based.
+In this form of irony the words and actions of the characters
+belie the real situation, which the spectators fully realize. It
+may take several forms; the character speaking may be conscious
+of the irony of his words while the rest of the actors may
+not, or he may be unconscious and the actors share the knowledge
+with the spectators, or the spectators may alone realize irony.
+The <i>Oedipus Tyrannus</i> of Sophocles is the classic example of
+tragic irony at its fullest and finest.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IROQUOIS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Six Nations</span>, a celebrated confederation
+of North American Indians. The name is that given them
+by the French. It is suggested that it was formed of two ceremonial
+words constantly used by the tribesmen, meaning &ldquo;real
+adders,&rdquo; with the French addition of <i>ois</i>. The league was
+originally composed of five tribes or nations, viz. Mohawks,
+Oneidas, Onondagas, Senecas and Cayugas. The confederation
+probably took place towards the close of the 16th century and
+in 1722 the Tuscaroras were admitted, the league being then
+called that of &ldquo;the Six Nations.&rdquo; At that time their total
+number was estimated at 11,650, including 2150 warriors. They
+were unquestionably the most powerful confederation of Indians
+on the continent. Their home was the central and western
+parts of New York state. In the American War of Independence
+they fought on the English side, and in the repeated battles
+their power was nearly destroyed. They are now to the number
+of 17,000 or more scattered about on various reservations in
+New York state, Oklahoma, Wisconsin and Canada. The
+<i>Iroquoian stock</i>, the larger group of kindred tribes, of which
+the five nations were the most powerful, had their early home
+in the St Lawrence region. Besides the five nations, the
+Neutral nation, Huron, Erie, Conestoga, Nottoway, Meherrin,
+Tuscarora and Cherokee were the most important tribes of
+the stock. The hostility of the Algonquian tribes seems to
+have been the cause of the southward migration of the Iroquoian
+peoples. In 1535 Jacques Cartier found an Iroquoian tribe
+in possession of the land upon which now stand Montreal and
+Quebec; but seventy years later it was in the hands of Algonquians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. H. Morgan, <i>League of the Hodeno Swanee or Iroquois</i>
+(Rochester, N.Y., 1854); <i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington,
+1907). Also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indians, North American</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRRAWADDY,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Irawadi</span>, the principal river in the province
+of Burma, traversing the centre of the country, and practically
+running throughout its entire course in British territory. It
+is formed by the confluence of the Mali and N&rsquo;mai rivers (usually
+called Mali-kha and N&rsquo;mai-kha, the <i>kha</i> being the Kachin word
+for river) in 25° 45&prime; N. The N&rsquo;mai is the eastern branch. The
+definite position of its source is still uncertain, and it seems
+to be made up of a number of considerable streams, all rising
+within a short distance of each other in about 28° 30&prime; N. It
+is shown on some maps as the Lu river of Tibet; but it is now
+quite certain that the Tibetan Lu river is the Salween, and that
+the N&rsquo;mai has its source or sources near the southern boundary
+of Tibet, to the north-east or east of the source of the Mali.
+At the confluence the N&rsquo;mai is larger than the Mali. The general
+width of its channel seems to be 350 or 400 yds. during this
+part of its course. In the rains this channel is filled up, but
+in the cold weather the average breadth is from 150 to 200 yds.
+The N&rsquo;mai is practically unnavigable. The Mali is the western
+branch. Like the main river, it is called Nam Kiu by the Shans.
+It rises in the hills to the north of the Hkamti country, probably
+in about 28° 30&prime; N. Between Hkamti and the country comparatively
+close to the confluence little or nothing is known of it,
+but it seems to run in a narrow channel through continuous
+hills. The highest point on the Mali reached from the south
+by Major Hobday in 1891 was Ting Sa, a village a little off the
+river, in 26° 15&prime; N. About 1 m. above the confluence it is 150
+yds. wide in January and 17 ft. deep, with a current of 3ľ m.
+an hour. Steam launches can only ascend from Myitkyina
+to the confluence in the height of the rains. Native boats
+ascend to Laikaw or Sawan 26° 2&prime; N., all the year around, but
+can get no farther at any season. From the confluence the
+river flows in a southerly direction as far as Bhamo, then turns
+west as far as the confluence of the Kaukkwe stream, a little
+above Katha, where it again turns in a southerly direction,
+and maintains this in its general course through Upper and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page840" id="page840"></a>840</span>
+Lower Burma, though it is somewhat tortuous immediately
+below Mandalay. Just below the confluence of the Mali and
+N&rsquo;mai rivers the Irrawaddy is from 420 to 450 yds. wide and
+about 30 ft. deep in January at its deepest point. Here it
+flows between hills, and after passing the Manse and Mawkan
+rapids, reaches plain country and expands to nearly 500 yds.
+at Sakap. At Myitkyina it is split into two channels by Naungtalaw
+island, the western channel being 600 yds. wide and the
+eastern 200. The latter is quite dry in the hot season. At
+Kat-kyo, 5 or 6 m. below Myitkyina, the width is 1000 yds.,
+and below this it varies from 600 yds. to ľ m. at different points.
+Three miles below Sinbo the third defile is entered by a channel
+not more than 50 yds. wide, and below this, throughout the
+defile, it is never wider than 250 yds., and averages about 100.
+At the &ldquo;Gates of the Irrawaddy&rdquo; at Poshaw two prism-shaped
+rocks narrow the river to 50 yds., and the water banks up in
+the middle with a whirlpool on each side of the raised pathway.
+All navigation ceases here in the floods. The defile ends at
+Hpatin, and below this the river widens out to a wet-season
+channel of 2 m., and a breadth in the dry season of about 1 m.
+At Sinkan, below Bhamo, the second defile begins. It is not
+so narrow nor is the current so strong as in the third defile.
+The narrowest place is more than 100 yds. wide. The hills
+are higher, but the defile is much shorter. At Shwegu the river
+leaves the hills and becomes a broad stream, flowing through
+a wide plain. The first defile is tame compared with the others.
+The river merely flows between low hills or high wooded banks.
+The banks are covered at this point with dense vegetation,
+and slope down to the water&rsquo;s edge. Here and there are places
+which are almost perpendicular, but are covered with forest
+growth. The course of the Irrawaddy after receiving the waters
+of the Myit-nge at Sagaing, as far as 17° N. lat., is exceedingly
+tortuous; the line of Lower Burma is crossed in 19° 29&prime; 3&Prime; N.
+lat., 95° 15&prime; E. long., the breadth of the river here being ľ m.;
+about 11 m. lower down it is nearly 3 m. broad. At Akauk-taung,
+where a spur of the Arakan hills end in a precipice 300
+ft. high, the river enters the delta, the hills giving place to
+low alluvial plains, now protected on the west by embankments.
+From 17° N. lat. the Irrawaddy divides and subdivides,
+converting the lower portion of its valley into a network of
+intercommunicating tidal creeks. It reaches the sea in 15° 50&prime;
+N. lat. and 95° 8&prime; E. long., by nine principal mouths. The only
+ones used by sea-going ships are the Bassein and Rangoon
+mouths. The area of the catchment basin of the Irrawaddy
+is 158,000 sq. m.; its total length from its known source to the
+sea is about 1300 m. As far down as Akauk-taung in Henzada
+district its bed is rocky, but below this sandy and muddy. It
+is full of islands and sandbanks; its waters are extremely
+muddy, and the mud is carried far out to sea. The river commences
+to rise in March; about June it rises rapidly, and attains
+its maximum height about September. The total flood discharge
+is between four and five hundred million metre tons of 37 cub. ft.
+From Mandalay up to Bhamo the river is navigable a distance
+of nearly 1000 m. for large steamers all the year round; but
+small launches and steamers with weak engines are often unable
+to get up the second defile in the months of July, August and
+September, owing to the strong current. The Irrawaddy Flotilla
+Company&rsquo;s steamers go up and down twice a week all through
+the rains, and the mails are carried to Bhamo on intermediate
+days by a ferry-boat from the railway terminus at Katha.
+During the dry season the larger boats are always liable to run
+on sandbanks, more especially in November and December,
+when new channels are forming after the river has been in flood.
+From Bhamo up to Sinbo no steamers can ply during the rains,
+that is to say, usually from June to November. From November
+to June small steamers can pass through the third defile
+from Bhamo to Sinbo. Between Sinbo and Myitkyina small
+launches can run all the year round. Above Myitkyina small
+steamers can reach the confluence at the height of the flood
+with some difficulty, but when the water is lower they cannot
+pass the Mawkan rapid, just above Mawme, and the navigation
+of the river above Myitkyina is always difficult. The journey
+from Bhamo to Sinbo can be made during the rains in native
+boats, but it is always difficult and sometimes dangerous. It
+is never done in less than five days and often takes twelve or
+more. As a natural source of irrigation the value of the
+Irrawaddy is enormous, but the river supplies no artificial
+systems of irrigation. It is nowhere bridged, though crossed
+by two steam ferries to connect the railway system on either
+bank.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. G. Sc.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRREDENTISTS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> an Italian patriotic and political party,
+which was of importance in the last quarter of the 19th century.
+The name was formed from the words <i>Italia Irredenta</i>&mdash;Unredeemed
+Italy&mdash;and the party had for its avowed object the
+emancipation of all Italian lands still subject to foreign rule.
+The Irredentists took language as the test of the alleged Italian
+nationality of the countries they proposed to emancipate, which
+were South Tirol (Trentino), Görz, Istria, Trieste, Tessino,
+Nice, Corsica and Malta. The test was applied in the most
+arbitrary manner, and in some cases was not applicable at all.
+Italian is not universally spoken in South Tirol, Görz or Istria.
+Malta has a dialect of its own though Italian is used for literary
+and judicial purposes, while Dalmatia is thoroughly non-Italian
+though it was once under the political dominion of the ancient
+Republic of Venice. The party was of little note before 1878.
+In that year it sprang into prominence because the Italians were
+disappointed by the result of the conference at Berlin summoned
+to make a European settlement after the Russo-Turkish War
+of 1877. The Italians had hoped to share in the plunder of
+Turkey, but they gained nothing, while Austria was endowed
+with the protectorate of Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, the vitally
+important hinterland of her possessions on the Adriatic. Under
+the sting of this disappointment the cry of Italia Irredenta
+became for a time loud and apparently popular. It was in
+fact directed almost wholly against Austria, and was also used
+as a stalking-horse by discontented parties in Italian domestic
+politics&mdash;the Radicals, Republicans and Socialists. In addition
+to the overworked argument from language, the Irredentists
+made much of an unfounded claim that the Trentino had been
+conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the war of 1866, and
+they insisted that the district was an &ldquo;enclave&rdquo; in Italian
+territory which would give Austria a dangerous advantage in
+a war of aggression. It would be equally easy and no less accurate
+to call the Trentino an exposed and weak spot of the frontier of
+Austria. On the 21st of July 1878 a noisy public meeting was
+held at Rome with Menotti Garibaldi, the son of the famous
+Giuseppe, in the chair, and a clamour was raised for the formation
+of volunteer battalions to conquer the Trentino. Signor Cairoli,
+then prime minister of Italy, treated the agitation with tolerance.
+It was, however, mainly superficial, for the mass of the Italians
+had no wish to launch on a dangerous policy of adventure against
+Austria, and still less to attack France for the sake of Nice and
+Corsica, or Great Britain for Malta. The only practical consequences
+of the Irredentist agitation outside of Italy were such
+things as the assassination plot organized against the emperor
+Francis Joseph in Trieste in 1882 by Oberdank, which was
+detected and punished. When the Irredentist movement
+became troublesome to Italy through the activity of Republicans
+and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control by
+Signor Depretis. It sank into insignificance when the French
+occupation of Tunis in 1881 offended the Italians deeply, and
+their government entered into those relations with Austria
+and Germany which took shape by the formation of the Triple
+Alliance. In its final stages it provided a way in which Italians
+who sympathized with French republicanism, and who disliked
+the monarchical governments of Central Europe, could agitate
+against their own government. It also manifested itself in
+periodical war scares based on affected fears of Austrian aggression
+in northern Italy. Within the dominions of Austria Irredentism
+has been one form of the complicated language question
+which has disturbed every portion of the Austro-Hungarian
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Colonel von Haymerle, <i>Italicae res</i> (Vienna, 1879) for the
+early history of the Irredentists.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page841" id="page841"></a>841</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRRIGATION<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Lat. <i>in</i>, and <i>rigare</i>, to water or wet), the
+artificial application of water to land in order to promote vegetation;
+it is therefore the converse of &ldquo;drainage&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), which
+is the artificial withdrawal of water from lands that are
+over-saturated.
+In both cases the object is to promote vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>General.</i>&mdash;Where there is abundance of rainfall, and when
+it falls at the required season, there is in general no need for
+irrigation. But it often happens that, although there is sufficient
+rainfall to raise an inferior crop, there is not enough to raise
+a more valuable one.</p>
+
+<p>Irrigation is an art that has been practised from very early
+times. Year after year fresh discoveries are made that carry
+back our knowledge of the early history of Egypt. It is certain
+that, until the cultivator availed himself of the natural overflow
+of the Nile to saturate the soil, Egypt must have been a desert,
+and it is a very small step from that to baling up the water from
+the river and pouring it over lands which the natural flood has
+not touched. The sculptures and paintings of ancient Egypt
+bear no trace of anything approaching scientific irrigation, but
+they often show the peasant baling up the water at least as
+early as 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> By means of this simple plan of raising
+water and pouring it over the fields thousands of acres are
+watered every year in India, and the system has many advantages
+in the eyes of the peasant. Though there is great waste of
+labour, he can apply his labour when he likes; no permission
+is required from a government official; no one has to be bribed.
+The simplest and earliest form of water-raising machinery is
+the pole with a bucket suspended from one end of a crossbeam
+and a counterpoise at the other. In India this is known as the
+<i>denkli</i> or <i>paecottah</i>; in Egypt it is called the <i>shadúf</i>. All along
+the Nile banks from morning to night may be seen brown-skinned
+peasants working these <i>shadúfs</i>, tier above tier, so as to raise
+the water 15 or 16 ft. on to their lands. With a <i>shadúf</i> it is only
+possible to keep about 4 acres watered, so that a great number of
+hands are required to irrigate a large surface. Another method
+largely used is the shallow basket or bucket suspended to strings
+between two men, who thus bail up the water. A step higher
+than these is the rude water-wheel, with earthen pots on an
+endless chain running round it, worked by one or two bullocks.
+This is used everywhere in Egypt, where it is known as the
+<i>sakya</i>. In Northern India it is termed the <i>harat</i>, or Persian
+wheel. With one such water-wheel a pair of oxen can raise
+water any height up to 18 ft., and keep from 5 to 12 acres irrigated
+throughout an Egyptian summer. A very familiar means in
+India of raising water from wells in places where the spring
+level is as much sometimes as 100 ft. below the surface of the
+field is the <i>churras</i>, or large leather bag, suspended to a rope
+passing over a pulley, and raised by a pair of bullocks which go
+up and down a slope as long as the depth of the well. All these
+primitive contrivances are still in full use throughout India.</p>
+
+<p>It is not improbable that Assyria and Babylon, with their
+splendid rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, may have taken the
+idea from the Nile, and that Carthage and Phoenicia as well
+as Greece and Italy may have followed the same example.
+In spite of a certain amount of investigation, the early history of
+irrigation in Persia and China remains imperfectly known. In
+Spain irrigation may be traced directly to the Moorish occupation,
+and almost everywhere throughout Asia and Africa where the
+Moslem penetrated is to be found some knowledge of irrigation.</p>
+
+<p>Reservoirs are familiar everywhere for the water-supply of
+towns, but as the volume necessary, even for a large town, does
+not go far in irrigating land, many sites which would
+do admirably for the former would not contain water
+<span class="sidenote">Spain.</span>
+sufficient to be worth applying to the latter purpose. In the
+Mediterranean provinces of Spain there are some very remarkable
+irrigation dams. The great masonry dam of Alicante on
+the river Monegre, which dates from 1579, is situated in a narrow
+gorge, so that while 140 ft. high, it is only 190 ft. long at the
+crest. The reservoir is said to contain 130 million cub. ft. of
+water, and to serve for the irrigation of 9000 acres, but unless
+it refills several times a year, it is hardly possible that so much
+land can be watered in any one season. The Elche reservoir,
+in the same province, has a similar dam 55 ft. high. In neither
+case is there a waste-weir, the surplus water being allowed to
+pour over the crest of the dam. South of Elche is the province
+of Murcia, watered by the river Segura, on which there is a dam
+25 ft. high, said to be 800 years old, and to serve for the irrigation
+of 25,000 acres. The Lorca dam in the same neighbourhood
+irrigates 27,000 acres. In the jungles of Ceylon are to be found
+remains of gigantic irrigation dams, and on the neighbouring
+<span class="sidenote">India.</span>
+mainland of Southern India, throughout the provinces
+of Madras and Mysore, the country is covered with
+irrigation reservoirs, or, as they are locally termed, tanks. These
+vary from village ponds to lakes 14 or 15 m. long. Most of them
+are of old native construction, but they have been greatly
+improved and enlarged within the last half century. The
+casual traveller in southern India constantly remarks the
+ruins of old dams, and the impression is conveyed that at one
+time, before British rule prevailed, the irrigation of the country
+was much more perfect than it is now. That idea, however,
+is mistaken. An irrigation reservoir, like a human being, has
+a certain life. Quicker or slower, the water that fills it will wash
+in sand and mud, and year by year this process will go on till
+ultimately the whole reservoir is filled up. The embankment
+is raised, and raised again, but at last it is better to abandon
+it and make a new tank elsewhere, for it would never pay to dig
+out the silt by manual labour. It may safely be said that at
+no time in history were there more tanks in operation than at
+present. The ruins which are seen are the ruins of long centuries
+of tanks that once flourished and became silted up. But they
+did not all flourish at once.</p>
+
+<p>In the countries now being considered, the test of an irrigation
+work is how it serves in a season of drought and famine. It is
+evident that if there is a long cessation of rain, there can be none
+to fill the reservoirs. In September 1877 there were very few
+in all southern India that were not dry. But even so, they
+helped to shorten the famine period; they stored up the rain
+after it had ceased to fall, and they caught up and husbanded
+the first drops when it began again.</p>
+
+<p>Irrigation effected by river-fed canals naturally depends
+on the regimen of the rivers. Some rivers vary much in their
+discharge at different seasons. In some cases this
+variation is comparatively little. Sometimes the flood
+<span class="sidenote">Irrigation canals.</span>
+season recurs regularly at the same time of the year;
+sometimes it is uncertain. In some rivers the water is generally
+pure; in others it is highly charged with fertilizing alluvium,
+or, it may be, with barren silt. In countries nearly rainless, such
+as Egypt or Sind, there can be no cultivation without irrigation.
+Elsewhere the rainfall may be sufficient for ordinary crops, but
+not for the more valuable kinds. In ordinary years in southern
+India the maize and the millet, which form so large a portion of
+the peasants&rsquo; food, can be raised without irrigation, but it is
+required for the more valuable rice or sugar-cane. Elsewhere in
+India the rainfall is usually sufficient for all the cultivation of
+the district, but about every eleven years comes a season of
+drought, during which canal water is so precious as to make it
+worth while to construct costly canals merely to serve as a
+protection against famine. When a river partakes of the nature
+of a torrent, dwindling to a paltry stream at one season and
+swelling into an enormous flood at another, it is impossible to
+construct a system of irrigation canals without very costly
+engineering works, sluices, dams, waste-weirs, &amp;c., so as to give
+the engineer entire control of the water. Such may be seen on the
+canals of Cuttack, derived from the Mahanadi, a river of which
+the discharge does not exceed 400 cub. ft. per second in the dry
+season, and rises to 1,600,000 cub. ft. per second in the rainy
+season.</p>
+
+<p>Very differently situated are the great canals of Lombardy,
+drawn from the Ticino and Adda rivers, flowing from the Maggiore
+and Como lakes. The severest drought never exhausts these
+reservoirs, and the heaviest rain can never convert these rivers
+into the resistless floods which they would be but for the moderating
+influence of the great lakes. The Ticino and Adda do not
+rise in floods more than 6 or 7 ft. above their ordinary level
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page842" id="page842"></a>842</span>
+or fall in droughts more than 4 or 5 ft. below it, and their water
+is at all seasons very free from silt or mud. Irrigation cannot
+be practised in more favourable circumstances than these.
+The great lakes of Central Africa, Victoria and Albert
+Nyanza, and the vast swamp tract of the Sudan, do for the
+Nile on a gigantic scale what Lakes Maggiore and Como do for
+the rivers Ticino and Adda. But for these great reservoirs
+the Nile would decrease in summer to quite an insignificant
+stream. India possesses no great lakes from which to draw
+rivers and canals, but through the plains of northern India flow
+rivers which are fed from the glaciers of the Himalaya; and the
+Ganges, the Indus, and their tributaries are thus prevented from
+diminishing very much in volume. The greater the heat, the
+more rapidly melts the ice, and the larger the quantity of water
+available for irrigation. The canal system of northern India is
+the most perfect the world has yet seen, and contains works of
+hydraulic engineering which can be equalled in no other country.
+In the deltas of southern India irrigation is only practised during
+the monsoon season. The Godaveri, Kistna and Kaveri all
+take their rise on the Western Ghats, a region where the rainfall
+is never known to fail in the monsoon season. Across the apex
+of the deltas are built great weirs (that of the Godaveri being
+2˝ m. long), at the ends and centre of which is a system of sluices
+feeding a network of canals. For this monsoon irrigation there
+is always abundance of water, and so long as the canals and
+sluices are kept in repair, there is little trouble in distributing it
+over the fields. Similar in character was the ancient irrigation
+of Egypt practised merely during the Nile flood&mdash;a system which
+still prevails in part of Upper Egypt. A detailed description of
+it will be found below.</p>
+
+<p>Where irrigation is carried on throughout the whole year,
+even when the supply of the river is at its lowest, the distribution
+of the water becomes a very delicate operation. It
+is generally considered sufficient in such cases if during
+<span class="sidenote">Distribution of the water.</span>
+any one crop one-third of the area that can be commanded
+is actually supplied with water. This
+encourages a rotation of crops and enables the precious liquid
+to be carried over a larger area than could be done otherwise.
+It becomes then the duty of the engineer in charge to use every
+effort to get its full value out of every cubic foot of water. Some
+crops of course require water much oftener than others, and
+much depends on the temperature at the time of irrigation.
+During the winter months in northern India magnificent wheat
+crops can be produced that have been watered only twice or
+thrice. But to keep sugar-cane, or indigo, or cotton alive in
+summer before the monsoon sets in in India or the Nile rises
+in Egypt the field should be watered every ten days or fortnight,
+while rice requires a constant supply of water passing over it.</p>
+
+<p>Experience in these sub-tropical countries shows the absolute
+necessity of having, for successful irrigation, also a system of
+thorough drainage. It was some time before this was discovered
+in India, and the result has been the deterioration of much good
+land.</p>
+
+<p>In Egypt, prior to the British occupation in 1883, no attempt
+had been made to take the water off the land. The first impression
+of a great alluvial plain is that it is absolutely flat, with no
+drainage at all. Closer examination, however, shows that if
+the prevailing slopes are not more than a few inches in the mile,
+yet they do exist, and scientific irrigation requires that the canals
+should be taken along the crests and drains along the hollows.
+In the diagram (fig. 1) is shown to the right of the river a system
+of canals branching out and afterwards rejoining one another
+so as to allow of no means for the water that passes off the field to
+escape into the sea. Hence it must either evaporate or sink into
+the soil. Now nearly all rivers contain some small percentage
+of salt, which forms a distinct ingredient in alluvial plains.
+The result of this drainless irrigation is an efflorescence of salt
+on the surface of the field. The spring level rises, so that water
+can be reached by digging only a few feet, and the land, soured
+and water-logged, relapses into barrenness. Of this description
+was the irrigation of Lower Egypt previous to 1883. To the
+left of the diagram is shown (by firm lines) a system of canals
+laid out scientifically, and of drains (by dotted lines) flowing
+between them. It is the effort of the British engineers in Egypt
+to remodel the surface of the fields to this type.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Further information may be found in Sir C. C. Scott-Moncrieff,
+<i>Irrigation in Southern Europe</i> (London, 1868); Moncrieff, &ldquo;Lectures
+on Irrigation in Egypt,&rdquo; <i>Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal
+Engineers</i>, vol. xix. (London, 1893); W. Willcocks, <i>Egyptian Irrigation</i>
+(2nd ed., London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>II. <i>Water Meadows.</i>&mdash;Nowhere in England can it be said that
+irrigation is necessary to ordinary agriculture, but it is occasionally
+employed in stimulating the growth of grass and meadow
+herbage in what are known as water-meadows. These are in
+some instances of very early origin. On the Avon in Wiltshire
+and the Churn in Gloucestershire they may be traced back to
+Roman times. This irrigation is not practised in the drought
+of summer, but in the coldest and wettest months of the year,
+the water employed being warmer than the natural moisture of
+the soil and proving a valuable protection against frost.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:631px" src="images/img842.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing irrigation properly combined with
+drainage (<i>to left</i>), and laid out regardless of drainage required later
+(<i>to right</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Before the systematic conversion of a tract into water-meadows
+can be safely determined on, care must be taken to have good
+drainage, natural or artificial, a sufficient supply of water, and
+water of good quality. It might indeed have been thought
+that thorough drainage would be unnecessary, but it must be
+noted that porous subsoils or efficient drains do not act merely
+by carrying away stagnant water which would otherwise cool
+the earth, incrust the surface, and retard plant growth. They
+cause the soil to perform the office of a filter. Thus the earth
+and the roots of grasses absorb the useful matters not only from
+the water that passes over it, but from that which passes through
+it. These fertilizing materials are found stored up in the soil
+ready for the use of the roots of the plants. Stagnation of water
+is inimical to the action of the roots, and does away with the
+advantageous processes of flowing and percolating currents.
+Some of the best water-meadows in England have but a thin
+soil resting on gravel and flints, this constituting a most effectual
+system of natural drainage. The fall of the water supply must
+suffice for a fairly rapid current, say 10 in. or 1 ft. in from 100 to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page843" id="page843"></a>843</span>
+200 yds. If possible the water should be taken so far above the
+meadows as to have sufficient fall without damming up the river.
+If a dam be absolutely necessary, care must be taken so to build
+it as to secure the fields on both sides from possible inundation;
+and it should be constructed substantially, for the cost of repairing
+accidents to a weak dam is very serious.</p>
+
+<p>Even were the objects of irrigation always identical, the conditions
+under which it is carried on are so variable as to preclude
+calculations of quantity. Mere making up of necessary
+water in droughty seasons is one thing, protection
+<span class="sidenote">Quantity of water.</span>
+against frost is another, while the addition of soil
+material is a third. Amongst causes of variation in the quantity
+of water needed will be its quality and temperature and rate
+of flow, the climate, the season, the soil, the subsoil, the artificial
+drainage, the slope, the aspect and the crop. In actual practice
+the amount of water varies from 300 gallons per acre in the hour
+to no less than 28,000 gallons. Where water is used, as in dry
+and hot countries, simply as water, less is generally needed than
+in cold, damp and northerly climates, where the higher temperature
+and the action of the water as manure are of more consequence.
+But it is necessary to be thoroughly assured of a good
+supply of water before laying out a water-meadow. Except in
+a few places where unusual dryness of soil and climate indicate
+the employment of water, even in small quantity, merely to
+avoid the consequences of drought, irrigation works are not to
+be commenced upon a large area, if only a part can ever be
+efficiently watered. The engineer must not decide upon the plan
+till he has gauged at different seasons the stream which has to
+supply the water, and has ascertained the rain-collecting area
+available, and the rainfall of the district, as well as the proportion
+of storable to percolating and evaporating water. Reservoirs
+for storage, or for equalizing the flow, are rarely resorted to in
+England; but they are of absolute necessity in those countries
+in which it is just when there is least water that it is most wanted.
+It is by no means an injudicious plan before laying out a system
+of water-meadows, which is intended to be at all extensive,
+to prepare a small trial plot, to aid in determining a number of
+questions relating to the nature and quantity of the water,
+the porosity of the soil, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of the water employed for any of the purposes
+of irrigation is of much importance. Its dissolved and its suspended
+matters must both be taken into account. Clear
+water is usually preferable for grass land, thick for
+<span class="sidenote">Quality of water.</span>
+arable land. If it is to be used for warping, or in any way
+for adding to the solid material of the irrigated land, then the
+nature and amount of the suspended material are necessarily of
+more importance than the character of the dissolved substances,
+provided the latter are not positively injurious. For use on
+ordinary water-meadows, however, not only is very clear water
+often found to be perfectly efficient, but water having no more
+than a few grains of dissolved matter per gallon answers the
+purposes in view satisfactorily. Water from moors and peat-bogs
+or from gravel or ferruginous sandstone is generally of
+small utility so far as plant food is concerned. River water,
+especially that which has received town sewage, or the drainage
+of highly manured land, would naturally be considered most
+suitable for irrigation, but excellent results are obtained also
+with waters which are uncontaminated with manurial matters,
+and which contain but 8 or 10 grains per gallon of the usual
+dissolved constituents of spring water. Experienced English
+irrigators generally commend as suitable for water-meadows
+those streams in which fish and waterweeds abound. But the
+particular plants present in or near the water-supply afford
+further indications of quality. Water-cress, sweet flag, flowering
+rush, several potamogetons, water milfoil, water ranunculus,
+and the reedy sweet watergrass (<i>Glyceria aquatica</i>) rank amongst
+the criteria of excellence. Less favourable signs are furnished
+by such plants as <i>Arundo Donax</i> (in Germany), <i>Cicuta virosa</i> and
+<i>Typha latifolia</i>, which are found in stagnant and torpid waters.
+Water when it has been used for irrigation generally becomes
+of less value for the same purpose. This occurs with clear water
+as well as with turbid, and obviously arises mainly from the
+loss of plant food which occurs when water filters through or
+trickles over poor soil. By passing over or through rich soil
+the water may, however, actually be enriched, just as clear
+water passed through a charcoal filter which has been long
+used becomes impure. It has been contended that irrigation
+water suffers no change in composition by use, since by evaporation
+of a part of the pure water the dissolved matters in the
+remainder would be so increased as to make up for any matters
+removed. But it is forgotten that both the plant and the soil
+enjoy special powers of selective absorption, which remove
+and fix the better constituents of the water and leave the less
+valuable.</p>
+
+<p>Of the few leguminous plants which are in any degree suitable
+for water-meadows, <i>Lotus corniculatus major</i>, <i>Trifolium hybridum</i>,
+and <i>T. pratense</i> are those which generally flourish
+best; <i>T. repens</i> is less successful. Amongst grasses
+<span class="sidenote">Seeds for water-meadows.</span>
+the highest place must be assigned to ryegrass, especially
+to the Italian variety, commonly called <i>Lolium
+italicum</i>. The mixture of seeds for sowing a water-meadow
+demands much consideration, and must be modified according
+to local circumstances of soil, aspect, climate and drainage.
+From the peculiar use which is made of the produce of an
+irrigated meadow, and from the conditions to which it is subjected,
+it is necessary to include in our mixture of seeds some that
+produce an early crop, some that give an abundant growth,
+and some that impart sweetness and good flavour, while all the
+kinds sown must be capable of flourishing on irrigated soil.</p>
+
+<p>The following mixtures of seeds (stated in pounds per acre)
+have been recommended for sowing on water-meadows, Messrs
+Sutton of Reading, after considerable experience, regarding
+No. I. as the more suitable:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">II.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">I.</td> <td class="tcc">II.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Lolium perenne</i></td> <td class="tcc">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Festuca pratensis</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Lolium italicum</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">8</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Festuca loliacea</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Poa trivialis</i></td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Anthoxanthum odoratum</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Glyceria fluitans</i></td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phleum pratense</i></td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Glyceria aquatica</i></td> <td class="tcc">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Phalaris arundinacea</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Agrostis alba</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Lotus corniculatus major</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Agrostis stolonifera</i></td> <td class="tcc">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Trifolium hybridum</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Alopecurus pratensis</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Trifolium pratense</i></td> <td class="tcc">0</td> <td class="tcc">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Festuca elatior</i></td> <td class="tcc">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcl" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In irrigated meadows, though in a less degree than on sewaged
+land, the reduction of the amount or even the actual suppression
+of certain species of plants is occasionally well marked.
+Sometimes this action is exerted upon the finer grasses,
+<span class="sidenote">Changes in irrigated herbage.</span>
+but happily also upon some of the less profitable
+constituents of the miscellaneous herbage. Thus
+<i>Ranunculus bulbosus</i> has been observed to become quite rare
+after a few years&rsquo; watering of a meadow in which it had been
+most abundant, <i>R. acris</i> rather increasing by the same treatment;
+<i>Plantago media</i> was extinguished and <i>P. lanceolata</i> reduced
+70%. Amongst the grasses which may be spared, <i>Aira caespitosa</i>,
+<i>Briza media</i> and <i>Cynosurus cristatus</i> are generally much
+reduced by irrigation. Useful grasses which are increased are
+<i>Lolium perenne</i> and <i>Alopecurus pratensis</i>, and among those of
+less value <i>Avena favescens</i>, <i>Dactylis glomerata</i> and <i>Poa pratensis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Four ways of irrigating land with water are practised in
+England: (1) bedwork irrigation, which is the most efficient
+although it is also the most costly method by which
+currents of water can be applied to level land; (2)
+<span class="sidenote">Methods.</span>
+catchwork irrigation, in which the same water is caught and
+used repeatedly; (3) subterraneous or rather upward irrigation,
+in which the water in the drains is sent upwards through the
+soil towards the surface; and (4) warping, in which the water
+is allowed to stand over a level field until it has deposited the
+mud suspended in it.</p>
+
+<p>There are two things to be attended to most carefully in the
+construction of a water-meadow on the first or second of these
+plans. First, no portion of them whatever should be on a dead
+level, but every part should belong to one or other of a series of
+true inclined planes. The second point of primary importance
+is the size and slope of the main conductor, which brings the
+water from the river to the meadow. The size of this depends
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page844" id="page844"></a>844</span>
+upon the quantity of water required, but whatever its size
+its bottom at its origin should be as low as the bed of the river,
+in order that it may carry down as much as possible of the river
+mud. Its course should be as straight and as near a true inclined
+plane as possible. The stuff taken out of the conductor should
+be employed in making up its banks or correcting inequalities
+in the meadow.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In bedwork irrigation, which is eminently applicable to level
+ground, the ground is thrown into beds or ridges. Here the conductor
+should be led along the highest end or side of the
+meadow in an inclined plane; should it terminate in the
+<span class="sidenote">Bedwork.</span>
+meadow, its end should be made to taper when there are no feeders,
+or to terminate in a feeder. The main drain to carry off the water
+from the meadow should next be formed. It should be cut in the
+lowest part of the ground at the lower end or side of the meadow.
+Its dimensions should be capable of carrying off the whole water
+used so quickly as to prevent the least stagnation, and discharge it
+into the river. The next process is the forming of the ground intended
+for a water-meadow into beds or ridges. That portion of the
+ground which is to be watered by one conductor should be made into
+beds to suit the circumstances of that conductor; that is, instead
+of the beds over the meadow being all reduced to one common level,
+they should be formed to suit the different swells in the ground, and,
+should any of these swells be considerable, it will be necessary
+to give each side of them its respective conductor. The beds should
+run at or nearly at right angles to the line of the conductor. The
+breadth of the beds is regulated by the nature of the soil and the
+supply of water. Tenacious soils and subsoils, with a small supply
+of water, require beds as narrow as 30 ft. Porous soils and a large
+supply of water may have beds of 40 ft. The length of the beds is
+regulated by the supply of water and the fall from the conductor to
+the main drain. If the beds fall only in one direction longitudinally,
+their crowns should be made in the middle; but, should they fall
+laterally as well as longitudinally, as is usually the case, then the
+crowns should be made towards the upper sides, more or less according
+to the lateral slope of the ground. The crowns should rise
+1 ft. above the adjoining furrows. The beds thus formed should slope
+in an inclined plane from the conductor to the main drain, that the
+water may flow equably over them.</p>
+
+<p>The beds are watered by &ldquo;feeders,&rdquo; that is, channels gradually
+tapering to the lower extremities, and their crowns cut down, wherever
+these are placed. The depth of the feeders depends on their
+width, and the width on their length. A bed 200 yds. in length
+requires a feeder of 20 in. in width at its junction with the conductor,
+and it should taper gradually to the extremity, which should be 1 ft.
+in width. The taper retards the motion of the water, which constantly
+decreases by overflow as it proceeds, whilst it continues to
+fill the feeder to the brim. The water overflowing from the feeders
+down the sides of the beds is received into small drains formed in the
+furrows between the beds. These small drains discharge themselves
+into the main drain, and are in every respect the reverse of the
+feeders. The depth of the small drain at the junction is made about
+as great as that of the main drain, and it gradually lessens towards
+the taper to 6 in. in tenacious and to less in porous soils. The depth
+of the feeders is the same in relation to the conductor. For the more
+equal distribution of the water over the surface of the beds from the
+conductor and feeders, small masses, such as stones or solid portions
+of earth or turf fastened with pins, are placed in them, in order to
+retard the momentum which the water may have acquired. These
+&ldquo;stops,&rdquo; as they are termed, are generally placed at regular intervals,
+or rather they should be left where any inequality of the current is
+observed. Heaps of stones answer very well for stops in the conductor,
+particularly immediately below the points of junction with
+the feeders. The small or main drains require no stops. The descent
+of the water in the feeders will no doubt necessarily increase in
+rapidity, but the inclination of the beds and the tapering of the
+feeders should be so adjusted as to counteract the increasing rapidity.
+The distribution of the water over the whole meadow is regulated by
+the sluices, which should be placed at the origin of every conductor.
+By means of these sluices any portion of the meadow that is desired
+can be watered, whilst the rest remains dry; and alternate watering
+must be adopted when there is a scarcity of water. All the sluices
+should be substantially built at first with stones and mortar, to
+prevent the leakage of water; for, should water from a leak be
+permitted to find its way into the meadow, that portion of it will
+stagnate and produce coarse grasses. In a well-formed water-meadow
+it is as necessary to keep it perfectly dry at one time as it is
+to place it under water at another. A small sluice placed in the side
+of the conductor opposite to the meadow, and at the upper end of it,
+will drain away the leakage that may have escaped from the head
+sluice.</p>
+
+<p>To obtain a complete water-meadow, the ground will often require
+to be broken up and remodelled. This will no doubt be attended
+with cost; but it should be considered that the first cost is the
+least, and remodelling the only way of having a complete water-meadow
+which will continue for years to give satisfaction. To effect
+a remodelling when the ground is in stubble, let it be ploughed up,
+harrowed, and cleaned as in a summer fallow, the levelling-box
+employed when required, the stuff from the conductors and main
+drains spread abroad, and the beds ploughed into shape&mdash;all
+operations that can be performed at little expense. The meadow
+should be ready by August for sowing with one of the mixtures of
+grass-seeds already given. But though this plan is ultimately
+better, it is attended with the one great disadvantage that the soft
+ground cannot be irrigated for two or three years after it is sown
+with grass-seeds. This can only be avoided where the ground is
+covered with old turf which will bear to be lifted. On ground in
+that state a water-meadow may be most perfectly formed. Let the
+turf be taken off with the spade, and laid carefully aside for relaying.
+Let the stript ground then be neatly formed with the spade and
+barrow, into beds varying in breadth and shape according to the
+nature of the soil and the dip of the ground&mdash;the feeders from the
+conductor and the small drains to the main drain being formed at
+the same time. Then let the turf be laid down again and beaten
+firm, when the meadow will be complete at once, and ready for
+irrigation. This is the most beautiful and most expeditious method
+of making a complete water-meadow where the ground is not naturally
+sufficiently level to begin with.</p>
+
+<p>The water should be let on, and trial made of the work, whenever
+it is finished, and the motion of the water regulated by the introduction
+of a stop in the conductors and feeders where a change in
+the motion of the current is observed, beginning at the upper end
+of the meadow. Should the work be finished as directed by August,
+a good crop of hay may be reaped in the succeeding summer. There
+are few pieces of land where the natural descent of the ground will
+not admit of the water being collected a second time, and applied to
+the irrigation of a second and lower meadow. In such a case the
+main drain of a watered meadow may form the conductor of the one
+to be watered, or a new conductor may be formed by a prolongation
+of the main drain; but either expedient is only advisable where
+water is scarce. Where it is plentiful, it is better to supply the second
+meadow directly from the river, or by a continuation of the first
+main conductor.</p>
+
+<p>In the ordinary catch work water-meadow, the water is used over
+and over again. On the steep sides of valleys the plan is easily and
+cheaply carried out, and where the whole course of the
+water is not long the peculiar properties which give it
+<span class="sidenote">Catchwork.</span>
+value, though lessened, are not exhausted when it reaches
+that part of the meadow which it irrigates last. The design of any
+piece of catchwork will vary with local conditions, but generally it
+may be stated that it consists in putting each conduit save the first to
+the double use of a feeder or distributor and of a drain or collector.</p>
+
+<p>In upward or subterranean irrigation the water used rises upward
+through the soil, and is that which under ordinary circumstances
+would be carried off by the drains. The system has
+received considerable development in Germany, where the
+<span class="sidenote">Upward or subterranean.</span>
+elaborate method invented by Petersen is recommended
+by many agricultural authorities. In this system the
+well-fitting earthenware drain-pipes are furnished at intervals with
+vertical shafts terminating at the surface of the ground in movable
+caps. Beneath each cap, and near the upper end of the shaft, are a
+number of vertical slits through which the drainage water which
+rises passes out into the conduit or trench from which the irrigating
+streams originate. In the vertical shaft there is first of all a grating
+which intercepts solid matters, and then, lower down, a central
+valve which can be opened and closed at pleasure from the top of
+the shaft. In the ordinary English system of upward or drainage
+irrigation, ditches are dug all round the field. They act the part
+of conductors when the land is to be flooded, and of main drains
+when it is to be laid dry. The water flows from the ditches as
+conductors into built conduits formed at right angles to them in
+parallel lines through the fields; it rises upwards in them as high
+as the surface of the ground, and again subsides through the soil
+and the conduits into the ditches as main drains, and thence it
+passes at a lower level either into a stream or other suitable outfall.
+The ditches may be filled in one or other of several different ways.
+The water may be drainage-water from lands at a higher level; or
+it may be water from a neighbouring river; or it may be drainage-water
+accumulated from a farm and pumped up to the necessary
+level. But it may also be the drainage-water of the field itself.
+In this case the mouths of the underground main pipe-drains are
+stopped up, and the water in them and the secondary drains thus
+caused to stand back until it has risen sufficiently near the surface.
+Of course it is necessary to build the mouths of such main drains
+of very solid masonry, and to construct efficient sluices for the retention
+of the water in the drains. Irrigation of the kind now
+under discussion may be practised wherever a command of water
+can be secured, but the ground must be level. It has been successfully
+employed in recently drained morasses, which are apt to
+become too dry in summer. It is suitable for stiffish soils where
+the subsoil is fairly open, but is less successful in sand. The water
+used may be turbid or clear, and it acts, not only for moistening the
+soil, but as manure. For if, as is commonly the case, the water employed
+be drainage-water from cultivated lands, it is sure to contain
+a considerable quantity of nitrates, which, not being subject to
+retention by the soil, would otherwise escape. These coming into
+contact with the roots of plants during their season of active growth,
+are utilized as direct nourishment for the vegetation. It is necessary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span>
+in upward or subterranean irrigation to send the water on and
+to take it off very gently, in order to avoid the displacement and
+loss of the finer particles of the soil which a forcible current would
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>In warping the suspended solid matters are of importance, not
+merely for any value they may have as manure, but also as a material
+addition to the ground to be irrigated. The warping which
+is practised in England is almost exclusively confined to
+<span class="sidenote">Warping.</span>
+the overflowing of level ground within tide mark, and is conducted
+mostly within the districts commanded by estuaries or tidal rivers.
+The best notion of the process of warping may be gained by sailing
+up the Trent from the Humber to Gainsborough. Here the banks of
+the river were constructed centuries ago to protect the land within
+them from the encroachments of the tide. A great tract of country
+was thus laid comparatively dry. But while the wisdom of one age
+thus succeeded in restricting within bounds the tidal water of the
+river, it was left to the greater wisdom of a succeeding age to improve
+upon this arrangement by admitting these muddy waters to lay a
+fresh coat of rich silt on the exhausted soils. The process began more
+than a century ago, but has become a system in recent times. Large
+sluices of stone, with strong doors, to be shut when it is wished to
+exclude the tide, may be seen on both banks of the river, and from
+these great conduits are carried miles inward through the flat country
+to the point previously prepared by embankment over which the
+muddy waters are allowed to spread. These main conduits, being
+very costly, are constructed for the warping of large adjoining
+districts, and openings are made at such points as are then undergoing
+the operation. The mud is deposited and the waters return
+with the falling tide to the bed of the river. Spring-tides are preferred,
+and so great is the quantity of mud in these rivers that from
+10 to 15 acres have been known to be covered with silt from 1 to 3 ft.
+in thickness during one spring of ten or twelve tides. Peat-moss of
+the most sterile character has been by this process covered with soil
+of the greatest fertility, and swamps which used to be resorted to for
+leeches are now, by the effects of warping, converted into firm and
+fertile fields. The art is now so well understood that, by careful
+attention to the currents, the expert warp farmer can temper his soil
+as he pleases. When the tide is first admitted the heavier particles,
+which are pure sand, are first deposited; the second deposit is a
+mixture of sand and fine mud, which, from its friable texture, forms
+the most valuable soil; while lastly the pure mud subsides, containing
+the finest particles of all, and forms a rich but very tenacious soil.
+The great effort, therefore, of the warp farmer is to get the second or
+mixed deposit as equally over the whole surface as he can and to
+prevent the deposit of the last. This he does by keeping the water in
+constant motion, as the last deposit can only take place when the
+water is suffered to be still. Three years may be said to be spent in
+the process, one year warping, one year drying and consolidating,
+and one year growing the first crop, which is generally seed-hoed
+in by hand, as the mud at this time is too soft to admit of horse
+labour.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate effect, which is highly beneficial, is the deposition
+of silt from the tide. To ensure this deposition, it is necessary to
+surround the field to be warped with a strong embankment, in order
+to retain the water as the tide recedes. The water is admitted by
+valved sluices, which open as the tide flows into the field and shut
+by the pressure of the confined water when the tide recedes. These
+sluices are placed on as low a level as possible to permit the most
+turbid water at the bottom of the tide to pass through a channel in
+the base of the embankment. The silt deposited after warping is
+exceedingly rich and capable of carrying any species of crop. It
+may be admitted in so small a quantity as only to act as a manure
+to arable soil, or in such a large quantity as to form a new soil.
+This latter acquisition is the principal object of warping, and it
+excites astonishment to witness how soon a new soil may be formed.
+From June to September a soil of 3 ft. in depth may be formed under
+the favourable circumstances of a very dry season and long drought.
+In winter and in floods warping ceases to be beneficial. In ordinary
+circumstances on the Trent and Humber a soil from 6 to 16 in. in
+depth may be obtained and inequalities of 3 ft. filled up. But every
+tide generally leaves only 1/8 in. of silt, and the field which has only
+one sluice can only be warped every other tide. The silt, as deposited
+in each tide, does not mix into a uniform mass, but remains in distinct
+layers. The water should be made to run completely off and the
+ditches should become dry before the influx of the next tide, otherwise
+the silt will not incrust and the tide not have the same effect.
+Warp soil is of surpassing fertility. The expense of forming canals,
+embankments and sluices for warping land is from Ł10 to Ł20 an acre.
+A sluice of 6 ft. in height and 8 ft. wide will warp from 60 to 80 acres,
+according to the distance of the field from the river. The embankments
+may be from 3 to 7 ft. in height, as the field may stand in
+regard to the level of the highest tides. After the new land has been
+left for a year or two in seeds and clover, it produces great crops of
+wheat and potatoes.</p>
+
+<p>Warping is practised only in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, on the
+estuary of the Humber, and in the neighbourhood of the rivers
+which flow into it&mdash;the Trent, the Ouse and the Don. The silt
+and mud brought down by these rivers is rich in clay and organic
+matter, and sometimes when dry contains as much as 1% of
+nitrogen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Constant care is required if a water-meadow is to yield quite
+satisfactory results. The earliness of the feed, its quantity
+and its quality will all depend in very great measure
+upon the proper management of the irrigation. The
+<span class="sidenote">Management and advantages.</span>
+points which require constant attention are&mdash;the
+perfect freedom of all carriers, feeders and drains
+from every kind of obstruction, however minute; the state
+and amount of water in the river or stream, whether it be
+sufficient to irrigate the whole area properly or only a part of
+it; the length of time the water should be allowed to remain
+on the meadow at different periods of the season; the regulation
+of the depth of the water, its quantity and its rate of flow,
+in accordance with the temperature and the condition of the
+herbage; the proper times for the commencing and ending of
+pasturing and of shutting up for hay; the mechanical condition
+of the surface of the ground; the cutting out of any very large
+and coarse plants, as docks; and the improvement of the physical
+and chemical conditions of the soil by additions to it of sand,
+silt, loam, chalk, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the command of water, it is unwise to attempt
+to irrigate too large a surface at once. Even with a river supply
+fairly constant in level and always abundant, no attempt
+should be made to force on a larger volume of water than the
+feeders can properly distribute and the drains adequately remove,
+or one part of the meadow will be deluged and another
+stinted. When this inequality of irrigation once occurs, it is
+likely to increase from the consequent derangement of the
+feeders and drains. And one result on the herbage will be an
+irregularity of composition and growth, seriously detrimental
+to its food-value. The adjustment of the water by means
+of the sluices is a delicate operation when there is little water
+and also when there is much; in the latter case the fine earth
+may be washed away from some parts of the meadow; in
+the former case, by attempting too much with a limited water
+current, one may permit the languid streams to deposit their
+valuable suspended matters instead of carrying them forward
+to enrich the soil. The water is not to be allowed to remain
+too long on the ground at a time. The soil must get dry at
+stated intervals in order that the atmospheric air may come
+in contact with it and penetrate it. In this way as the water
+sinks down through the porous subsoil or into the subterranean
+drains oxygen enters and supplies an element which is needed,
+not only for the oxidation of organic matters in the earth,
+but also for the direct and indirect nutrition of the roots. Without
+this occasional drying of the soil the finer grasses and the
+leguminous plants will infallibly be lost; while a scum of
+confervae and other algae will collect upon the surface and
+choke the higher forms of vegetation. The water should be
+run off thoroughly, for a little stagnant water lying in places
+upon the surface does much injury. The practice of irrigating
+differs in different places with differences in the quality of
+the water, the soil, the drainage, &amp;c. As a general rule, when
+the irrigating season begins in November the water may flow
+for a fortnight continuously, but subsequent waterings, especially
+after December, should be shortened gradually in duration
+till the first week in April, when irrigation should cease. It
+is necessary to be very careful in irrigating during frosty weather.
+For, though grass will grow even under ice, yet if ice be formed
+under and around the roots of the grasses the plants may be
+thrown out by the expansion of the water at the moment of its
+conversion into ice. The water should be let off on the morning
+of a dry day, and thus the land will be dry enough at night
+not to suffer from the frost; or the water may be taken off in
+the morning and let on again at night. In spring the newly
+grown and tender grass will be easily destroyed by frost if
+it be not protected by water, or if the ground be not made
+thoroughly dry.</p>
+
+<p>Although in many cases it is easy to explain the reasons why
+water artificially applied to land brings crops or increases their
+yield, the theory of our ordinary water-meadow
+irrigation is rather obscure. For we are not dealing
+<span class="sidenote">Theory.</span>
+in these grass lands with a semi-aquatic plant like rice, nor are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span>
+we supplying any lack of water in the soil, nor are we restoring
+the moisture which the earth cannot retain under a burning
+sun. We irrigate chiefly in the colder and wetter half of the
+year, and we &ldquo;saturate&rdquo; with water the soil in which are growing
+such plants as are perfectly content with earth not containing
+more than one-fifth of its weight of moisture. We must look
+in fact to a number of small advantages and not to any one
+striking beneficial process in explaining the aggregate utility
+of water-meadow irrigation. We attribute the usefulness of
+water-meadow irrigation, then, to the following causes: (1)
+the temperature of the water being rarely less than 10° Fahr.
+above freezing, the severity of frosts in winter is thus obviated,
+and the growth, especially of the roots of grasses, is encouraged;
+(2) nourishment or plant food is actually brought on to the
+soil, by which it is absorbed and retained, both for the immediate
+and for the future use of the vegetation, which also itself obtains
+some nutrient material directly; (3) solution and redistribution
+of the plant food already present in the soil occur mainly through
+the solvent action of the carbonic acid gas present in a dissolved
+state in the irrigation-water; (4) oxidation of any excess
+of organic matter in the soil, with consequent production of
+useful carbonic acid and nitrogen compounds, takes place
+through the dissolved oxygen in the water sent on and through
+the soil where the drainage is good; and (5) improvement of
+the grasses, and especially of the miscellaneous herbage, of the
+meadow is promoted through the encouragement of some at
+least of the better species and the extinction or reduction of
+mosses and of the innutritious weeds.</p>
+
+<p>To the united agency of the above-named causes may safely
+be attributed the benefits arising from the special form of
+water-irrigation which is practised in England. Should it
+be thought that the traces of the more valuable sorts of plant
+food (such as compounds of nitrogen, phosphates, and potash
+salts) existing in ordinary brook or river water can never bring
+an appreciable amount of manurial matter to the soil, or exert
+an appreciable effect upon the vegetation, yet the quantity
+of water used during the season must be taken into account.
+If but 3000 gallons hourly trickle over and through an acre,
+and if we assume each gallon to contain no more than one-tenth
+of a grain of plant food of the three sorts just named
+taken together, still the total, during a season including ninety
+days of actual irrigation, will not be less than 9 &#8468; per acre. It
+appears, however, that a very large share of the benefits of
+water-irrigation is attributable to the mere contact of abundance
+of moving water, of an even temperature, with the roots
+of the grass. The growth is less checked by early frosts; and
+whatever advantages to the vegetation may accrue by occasional
+excessive warmth in the atmosphere in the early months of the
+year are experienced more by the irrigated than by the ordinary
+meadow grasses by reason of the abundant development of roots
+which the water has encouraged.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Italian Irrigation.</i>&mdash;The most highly developed irrigation
+in the world is probably that practised in the plains of Piedmont
+and Lombardy, where every variety of condition is to be found.
+The engineering works are of a very high class, and from long
+generations of experience the farmer knows how best to use
+his water. The principal river of northern Italy is the Po,
+which rises to the west of Piedmont and is fed not from glaciers
+like the Swiss torrents, but by rain and snow, so that the water
+has a somewhat higher temperature, a point to which much
+importance is attached for the valuable meadow irrigation
+known as <i>marcite</i>. This is only practised in winter when there
+is abundance of water available, and it much resembles the
+water-meadow irrigation of England. The great Cavour canal
+is drawn from the left bank of the Po a few miles below Turin,
+and it is carried right across the drainage of the country. Its
+full discharge is 3800 cub. ft. per second, but it is only from
+October to May, when the water is least required, that it carries
+anything like this amount. For the summer irrigation Italy
+depends on the glaciers of the Alps; and the great torrents
+of the Dora Baltea and Sesia can be counted on for a volume
+exceeding 6000 cub. ft. per second. Lombardy is quite as well
+off as Piedmont for the means of irrigation and, as already
+said, its canals have the advantage that being drawn from
+the lakes Maggiore and Como they exercise a moderating
+influence on the Ticino and Adda rivers, which is much wanted
+in the Dora Baltea. The Naviglio Grande of Lombardy is a
+very fine work drawn from the left bank of the Ticino and
+useful for navigation as well as irrigation. It discharges between
+3000 and 4000 cub. ft. per second, and probably nowhere is irrigation
+carried on with less expense. Another canal, the Villoresi,
+drawn from the same bank of the Ticino farther upstream, is
+capable of carrying 6700 cub. ft. per second. Like the Cavour
+canal, the Villoresi is taken across the drainage of the country,
+entailing a number of very bold and costly works.</p>
+
+<p>Interesting as these Italian works are, the administration and
+distribution of the water is hardly less so. The system is due
+to the ability of the great Count Cavour; what he originated
+in Piedmont has been also carried out in Lombardy. The Piedmontese
+company takes over from the government the control of
+all the irrigation within a triangle between the left bank of the
+Po and the right bank of the Sesia. It purchases from government
+about 1250 cub. ft. per second, and has also obtained
+the control of all private canals. Altogether it distributes about
+2275 cub. ft. of water and irrigates about 141,000 acres, on
+which rice is the most important crop. The association has
+14,000 members and controls nearly 10,000 m. of distributary
+channels. In each parish is a council composed of all landowners
+who irrigate. Each council sends two deputies to what
+may be called a water parliament. This assembly elects three
+small committees, and with them rests the whole management
+of the irrigation. An appeal may be made to the civil courts
+from the decision of these committees, but so popular are they
+that such appeals are never made. The irrigated area is
+divided into districts, in each of which is an overseer and a
+staff of watchmen to see to the opening and shutting of the
+<i>modules</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydraulics</a></span>, §§ 54 to 56) which deliver the water
+into the minor channels. In the November of each year it is
+decided how much water is to be given to each parish in the year
+following, and this depends largely on the number of acres of
+each crop proposed to be watered. In Lombardy the irrigation
+is conducted on similar principles. Throughout, the Italian
+farmer sets a very high example in the loyal way he submits
+to regulations which there must be sometimes a strong temptation
+to break. A sluice surreptitiously opened during a dark
+night and allowed to run for six hours may quite possibly
+double the value of his crop, but apparently the law is not often
+broken.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>Egypt.</i>&mdash;The very life of Egypt depends on its irrigation,
+and, ancient as this irrigation is, it was never practised on a
+really scientific system till after the British occupation.
+As every one knows, the valley of the Nile outside of
+<span class="sidenote">Characteristics of the Nile Valley and flood.</span>
+the tropics is practically devoid of rainfall. Yet it was
+the produce of this valley that formed the chief granary
+of the Roman Empire. Probably nowhere in the world
+is there so large a population per square mile depending solely
+on the produce of the soil. Probably nowhere is there an
+agricultural population so prosperous, and so free from the
+risks attending seasons of drought or of flood. This wealth
+and prosperity are due to two very remarkable properties of
+the Nile. First, the regimen of the river is nearly constant.
+The season of its rise and its fall, and the height attained by its
+waters during the highest flood and at lowest Nile vary to a
+comparatively small extent. Year after year the Nile rises at
+the same period, it attains its maximum in September and begins
+to diminish first rapidly till about the end of December, and then
+more slowly and more steadily until the following June. A late
+rise is not more than about three weeks behind an early rise.
+From the lowest to the highest gauge of water-surface the rise
+is on an average 25.5 ft. at the First Cataract. The highest flood
+is 3.5 ft. above this average, and this means peril, if not disaster,
+in Lower Egypt. The lowest flood on record has risen only to
+5.5 ft. below the average, or to 20 ft. above the mean water-surface
+of low Nile. Such a feeble Nile flood has occurred only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span>
+four times in modern history: in 1877, when it caused widespread
+famine and death throughout Upper Egypt, 947,000 acres
+remained barren, and the land revenue lost Ł1,112,000; in 1899
+and again in 1902 and 1907, when by the thorough remodelling
+of the whole system of canals since 1883 all famine and disaster
+were avoided and the loss of revenue was comparatively slight.
+In 1907, for instance, when the flood was nearly as low as in 1877,
+the area left unwatered was little more than 10% of the area
+affected in 1877.</p>
+
+<p>This regularity of flow is the first exceptional excellence of
+the river Nile. The second is hardly less valuable, and consists
+in the remarkable richness of the alluvium brought down the
+river year after year during the flood. The object of the engineer
+is so to utilize this flood-water that as little as possible of the
+alluvium may escape into the sea, and as much as possible may
+be deposited on the fields. It is the possession of these two
+properties that imparts to the Nile a value quite unique among
+rivers, and gives to the farmers of the Nile Valley advantages
+over those of any rain-watered land in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Until the 19th century irrigation in Egypt on a large scale
+was practised merely during the Nile flood. Along each edge
+of the river and following its course has been erected
+an earthen embankment high enough not to be
+<span class="sidenote">Irrigation during high Nile.</span>
+topped by the highest floods. In Upper Egypt,
+the valley of which rarely exceeds 6 m. in width,
+a series of cross embankments have been constructed, abutting
+at the inner ends on those along the Nile, and at the
+outer ends on the ascending sides of the valley. The whole
+country has thus been divided into a series of oblongs,
+surrounded by embankments on three sides and by the
+desert slopes on the fourth. These oblong areas vary from
+60,000 to 1500 or 2000 acres in extent. Throughout all
+Egypt the Nile is deltaic in character; that is, the slope
+of the country in the valley is away from the river and not
+towards it. It is easy, then, when the Nile is low, to cut
+short, deep canals in the river banks, which fill as the flood
+rises, and carry the precious mud-charged water into these
+great flats. There the water remains for a month or more,
+some 3 ft. deep, depositing its mud, and thence at the
+end of the flood the almost clear water may either be run
+off directly into the receding river, or cuts may be made
+in the cross embankments, and it may be allowed to
+flow from one flat to another and ultimately into the river.
+In November the waters have passed off; and whenever
+a man can walk over the mud with a pair of bullocks,
+it is roughly turned over with a wooden plough, or merely the
+branch of a tree, and the wheat or barley crop is immediately
+sown. So soaked is the soil after the flood, that the grain
+germinates, sprouts, and ripens in April, without a shower of
+rain or any other watering.</p>
+
+<p>In Lower Egypt this system was somewhat modified, but it
+was the same in principle. No other was known in the Nile
+Valley until the country fell, early in the 19th century, under the
+vigorous rule of Mehemet Ali Pasha. He soon recognized that
+with such a climate and soil, with a teeming population, and
+with the markets of Europe so near they might produce in
+Egypt something more profitable than wheat and maize. Cotton
+and sugar-cane would fetch far higher prices, but they could only
+be grown while the Nile was low, and they required water at
+all seasons.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been said that the rise of the Nile is about
+25˝ ft., so that a canal constructed to draw water out of the
+river while at its lowest must be 25˝ ft. deeper than
+if it is intended to draw off only during the highest
+<span class="sidenote">Irrigation during low Nile.</span>
+floods. Mehemet Ali began by deepening the canals
+of Lower Egypt by this amount, a gigantic and futile
+task; for as they had been laid out on no scientific principles,
+the deep channels became filled with mud during the first flood,
+and all the excavation had to be done over again, year after
+year. With a serf population even this was not impossible;
+but as the beds of the canals were graded to no even slope, it
+did not follow that if water entered the head it would flow
+evenly on. As the river daily fell, of course the water in the
+canals fell too, and since they were never dug deep enough to
+draw water from the very bottom of the river, they occasionally
+ran dry altogether in the month of June, when the river was at
+its lowest, and when, being the month of greatest heat, water
+was more than ever necessary for the cotton crop. Thus large
+tracts which had been sown, irrigated, weeded and nurtured for
+perhaps three months perished in the fourth, while all the time
+the precious Nile water was flowing useless to the sea. The
+obvious remedy was to throw a weir across each branch of the
+river to control the water and force it into canals taken from
+above it. The task of constructing this great work was committed
+to Mougel Bey, a French engineer of ability, who designed and
+<span class="sidenote">The Nile Barrage.</span>
+constructed the great barrage across the two branches
+of the Nile at the apex of the delta, about 12 m. north
+of Cairo (fig. 2). It was built to consist of two bridges&mdash;one
+over the eastern or Damietta branch of the river having
+71 arches, the other, over the Rosetta branch, having 61 arches,
+each arch being of 5 metres or 16.4 ft. span. The building was
+all of stone, the floors of the arches were inverts. The height of
+pier from edge of flooring to spring of arch was 28.7 ft., the
+spring of the arch being about the surface-level of maximum flood.
+The arches were designed to be fitted with
+self-acting drop gates; but they were not
+a success, and were only put into place on
+the Rosetta branch. The gates were intended
+to hold up the water 4.5 metres,
+or 14.76 ft., and to divert it into three main
+canals&mdash;the Behera on the west, the Menufia
+in the centre and the Tewfikia on the east.
+The river was thus to be emptied, and to
+flow through a whole network of canals,
+watering all Lower Egypt. Each barrage was provided with
+locks to pass Nile boats 160 by 28 ft. in area.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:583px; height:436px" src="images/img847.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Map showing the Damietta and
+Rosetta dams on the Nile.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Mougel&rsquo;s barrage, as it may now be seen, is a very imposing
+and stately work. Considering his want of experience of such
+rivers as the Nile, and the great difficulties he had to contend
+with under a succession of ignorant Turkish rulers, it would
+be unfair to blame him because, until it fell into the hands
+of British engineers in 1884, the work was condemned as a
+hopeless failure. It took long years to complete, at a cost
+which can never be estimated, since much of it was done by
+serf labour. In 1861 it was at length said to be finished; but
+it was not until 1863 that the gates of the Rosetta branch
+were closed, and they were reopened again immediately, as
+a settlement of the masonry took place. The experiment
+was repeated year after year till 1867, when the barrage cracked
+right across from foundation to top. A massive coffer-dam
+was then erected, covering the eleven arches nearest the crack;
+but the work was never trusted again, nor the water-surface
+raised more than about 3 ft.</p>
+
+<p>An essential part of the barrage project was the three canals,
+taking their water from just above it, as shown in fig. 2. The
+heads of the existing old canals, taken out of the river at intervals
+throughout the delta, were to be closed, and the canals themselves
+all put into connexion with the three high-level trunk lines
+taken from above the barrage. The central canal, or Menufia,
+was more or less finished, and, although full of defects, has
+done good service. The eastern canal was never dug at all until
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span>
+the British occupation. The western, or Behera, canal was dug,
+but within its first 50 m. it passes through desert, and sand drifted
+into it. <i>Corvées</i> of 20,000 men used to be forced to clear it out
+year after year, but at last it was abandoned. Thus the whole
+system broke down, the barrage was pronounced a failure,
+and attention was turned to watering Lower Egypt by a system
+of gigantic pumps, to raise the water from the river and discharge
+it into a system of shallow surface-canals, at an annual
+cost of about Ł250,000, while the cost of the pumps was estimated
+at Ł700,000. Negotiations were on foot for carrying out this
+system when the British engineers arrived in Egypt. They
+soon resolved that it would be very much better if the original
+scheme of using the barrage could be carried out, and after
+a careful examination of the work they were satisfied that this
+could be done. The barrage rests entirely on the alluvial bed
+of the Nile. Nothing more solid than strata of sand and mud
+is to be found for more than 200 ft. below the river. It was
+out of the question, therefore, to think of founding on solid
+material, and yet it was desired to have a head of water of
+13 or 14 ft. upon the work. Of course, with such a pressure
+as this, there was likely to be percolation under the foundations
+and a washing-out of the soil. It had to be considered
+whether this percolation could best be checked by laying a
+solid wall across the river, going down to 50 or 60 ft. below its
+bed, or by spreading out the foundations above and below the
+bridge, so as to form one broad water-tight flooring&mdash;a system
+practised with eminent success by Sir Arthur Cotton in Southern
+India. It was decided to adopt the latter system. As originally
+designed, the flooring of the barrage from up-stream to downstream
+face was 111.50 ft. wide, the distance which had to
+be travelled by water percolating under the foundations. This
+width of flooring was doubled to 223 ft., and along the upstream
+face a line of sheet piling was driven 16 ft. deep. Over
+the old flooring was superposed 15 in. of the best rubble masonry,
+an ashlar floor of blocks of close-grained trachyte being laid
+directly under the bridge, where the action was severest. The
+working season lasted only from the end of November to the
+end of June, while the Nile was low; and the difficulty of getting
+in the foundations was increased, as, in the interests of irrigation
+and to supply the Menufia canal, water was held up every
+season while the work was in progress to as much as 10 ft. The
+work was begun in 1886, and completed in June 1890. Moreover,
+in the meantime the eastern, or Tewfikia, canal was
+dug and supplied with the necessary masonry works for a
+distance of 23 m., to where it fed the network of old canals.
+The western, or Behera, canal was thoroughly cleared out and
+remodelled; and thus the whole delta irrigation was supplied
+from above the barrage.</p>
+
+<p>The outlay on the barrage between 1883 and 1891 amounted
+to about Ł460,000. The average cotton crop for the 5 years
+preceding 1884 amounted to 123,000 tons, for the 5 years ending
+1898 it amounted to 251,200 tons. At the low rate of Ł40 per
+ton, this means an annual increase to the wealth of Lower
+Egypt of Ł5,128,000. Since 1890 the barrage has done its
+duty without accident, but a work of such vast importance
+to Lower Egypt required to be placed beyond all risk. It
+having been found that considerable hollow spaces existed
+below the foundations of some of the piers, five bore-holes from
+the top of the roadway were pierced vertically through each
+pier of both barrages, and similar holes were drilled at intervals
+along all the lock walls. Down these holes cement grout was
+injected under high pressure on the system of Mr Kinipple.
+The work was successfully carried out during the seasons 1896
+to 1898. During the summer of 1898 the Rosetta barrage was
+worked under a pressure of 14 ft. But this was looked on as too
+near the limit of safety to be relied on, and in 1899 subsidiary weirs
+were started across both branches of the river a short distance
+below the two barrages. These were estimated to cost Ł530,000
+altogether, and were to stand 10.8 ft. above the river&rsquo;s bed,
+allowing the water-surface up-stream of the barrage to be raised
+7.2 ft., while the pressure on that work itself would not exceed
+10 ft. These weirs were satisfactorily completed in 1901.</p>
+
+<p>The barrage is the greatest, but by no means the only important
+masonry work in Lower Egypt. Numerous regulating
+bridges and locks have been built to give absolute control
+of the water and facilities for navigation; and since 1901 a
+second weir has been constructed opposite Zifta, across the
+Damietta branch of the Nile, to improve the irrigation of the
+Dakhilia province.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier section of this article it is explained how necessary
+it is that irrigation should always be accompanied by drainage.
+This had been totally neglected in Egypt; but very large sums
+have been spent on it, and the country is now covered with
+a network of drains nearly as complete as that of the canals.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient system of basin irrigation is still pursued in
+Upper Egypt, though by the end of 1907 over 320,000 feddans
+of land formerly under basin irrigation had been
+given, at a cost of over ŁE3,000,000, perennial irrigation.
+<span class="sidenote">Basin irrigation of Upper Egypt.</span>
+This conversion work was carried out in the
+provinces situated between Cairo and Assiut, a region
+sometimes designated Middle Egypt. The ancient system
+seems simple enough; but in order really to flood the whole
+Nile Valley during seasons of defective as well as favourable
+floods, a system of regulating sluices, culverts and syphons
+is necessary; and for want of such a system it was found, in
+the feeble flood of 1888, that there was an area of 260,000 acres
+over which the water never flowed. This cost a loss of land
+revenue of about Ł300,000, while the loss of the whole season&rsquo;s
+crop to the farmer was of course much greater. The attention
+of the British engineers was then called to this serious calamity;
+and fortunately for Egypt there was serving in the country
+Col. J. C. Ross, R.E., an officer who had devoted many years
+of hard work to the irrigation of the North-West Provinces
+of India, and who possessed quite a special knowledge as well
+as a glowing enthusiasm for the subject. Fortunately, too,
+it was possible to supply him with the necessary funds to complete
+and remodel the canal system. When the surface-water
+of a river is higher than the fields right and left, there is nothing
+easier than to breach the embankments and flood the fields&mdash;in
+fact, it may be more difficult to prevent their being flooded
+than to flood them&mdash;but in ordinary floods the Nile is never
+higher than all the bordering lands, and in years of feeble flood
+it is higher than none of them. To water the valley, therefore,
+it is necessary to construct canals having bed-slopes less
+than that of the river, along which the water flows until its
+surface is higher than that of the fields. If, for instance, the
+slope of the river be 4 in. per mile, and that of the canal 2 in.
+it is evident that at the end of a mile the water in the canal
+will be 2 in. higher than in the river; and if the surface of
+the land is 3 ft. higher than that of the river, the canal, gaining
+on it at 2 in. per mile, will reach the surface in 18 m., and from
+thence onwards will be above the adjoining fields. But to
+irrigate this upper 18 m., water must either be raised artificially,
+or supplied from another canal taking its source 18 m. farther
+up. This would, however, involve the country in great lengths
+of canal between the river and the field, and circumstances
+are not so unfavourable as this. Owing to the deltaic nature
+of the Nile Valley, the fields on the banks are 3 ft. above the
+flood, at 2 m. away from the banks they may not be more
+than 1 ft. above that level, so that the canal, gaining 2 in. per
+mile and receding from the river, will command the country
+in 6 m. The slope of the river, moreover, is taken in its winding
+course; and if it is 4 in. per mile, the slope of the axis of the
+valley parallel to which the canals may be made to flow is at
+least 6 in. per mile, so that a canal with a slope of 2 in. gains
+4 in. per mile.</p>
+
+<p>The system of having one canal overlapping another has one
+difficulty to contend with. Occasionally the desert cliffs and
+slopes come right down to the river, and it is difficult, if not
+impossible, to carry the higher-level canals past these obstructions.
+It should also be noticed that on the higher strip bordering the
+river it is the custom to take advantage of its nearness to raise
+water by pumps, or other machinery, and thereby to grow
+valuable crops of sugar-cane, maize or vegetables. When the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span>
+river rises, these crops, which often form a very important
+part of the year&rsquo;s produce and are termed <i>Nabári</i>, are still in
+the ground, and they require water in moderate and regulated
+quantities, in contradistinction to the wholesale flooding of the
+flats beyond. Fig. 3 will serve to explain this system of irrigation,
+the firm lines representing canals, the dotted lines embankments.
+It will be seen, beginning on the east or right bank of
+the river, that a high-level canal from an upper system is carried
+past a steep slope, where perhaps it is cut entirely out of rock,
+and it divides into two. The right branch waters all the desert
+slopes within its reach and level. The left branch passes, by
+a syphon aqueduct, under what is the main canal of the system,
+taken from the river close at hand (and therefore at a lower
+level). This left branch irrigates the <i>Nabári</i> on the high lands
+bordering the river. In years of very favourable flood this
+high-level canal would not be wanted at all; the irrigation could
+be done from the main canal, and with this great advantage,
+that the main canal water would carry with it much more
+fertilizing matter than would be got from the tail of the high-level
+canal, which left the river perhaps 25 m. up. The main
+canal flows freely over the flats C and D, and, if the flood is good,
+over B and part of A. It is carried round the next desert point,
+and to the north becomes the high-level canal. The masonry
+works required for this system are a syphon to pass the high
+level under the main canal near its head, bridges fitted with
+sluices where each canal passes under an embankment, and an
+escape weir at the tail of the system, just south of the desert
+point, to return surplus water to the river. Turning to the left
+bank, there is the same high-level canal from the upper system
+irrigating the basins K, P and L, as well as the large basin E
+in such years as it cannot be irrigated from the main canal.
+Here there are two main canals&mdash;one following the river, irrigating
+a series of smaller basins, and throwing out a branch to its
+left, the other passing under the desert slopes and supplying
+the basins F, G, H and S. For this system two syphons will be
+required near the head, regulating bridges under all the embankments,
+and an escape weir back into the river.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:750px; height:394px" src="images/img849.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Map of the Basin System of Irrigation.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the years following 1888 about 100 new masonry works of
+this kind were built in Upper Egypt, nearly 400 m. of new canal
+were dug, and nearly 300 m. of old canal were enlarged and
+deepened. The result has been, as already stated, that with a
+complete failure of the Nile flood the loss to the country has been
+trifling compared with that of 1877.</p>
+
+<p>The first exception in Upper Egypt to the basin system of
+irrigation was due to the Khedive Ismail. The khedive, having
+acquired vast estates in the provinces of Assiut, Miniah, Beni-Suef
+and the Fayúm, resolved to grow sugar-cane on a very large
+scale, and with this object constructed a very important perennial
+canal, named the Ibrahimia, taking out of the left bank of the
+Nile at the town of Assiut, and flowing parallel to the river for
+about 200 m., with an important branch which irrigates the
+Fayúm. This canal was badly constructed, and by entirely
+blocking the drainage of the valley did a great deal of harm
+to the lands. Most of its defects had been remedied, but one
+remained. There being at its head no weir across the Nile,
+the water in the Ibrahimia canal used to rise and fall with that
+of the river, and so the supply was apt to run short during the
+hottest months, as was the case with the canals of Lower Egypt
+before the barrage was built. To supply the Ibrahimia canal
+at all during low Nile, it had been necessary to carry on dredging
+operations at an annual cost of about Ł12,000. This has now
+been rectified, in the same way as in Lower Egypt, by the
+<span class="sidenote">Assiut Weir and Esna Barrage.</span>
+construction of a weir across the Nile, intended to
+give complete control over the river and to raise the
+water-surface 8.2 ft. The Assiut weir is constructed
+on a design very similar to that of the barrage in
+Lower Egypt. It consists of a bridge of 111 arches, each 5
+metres span, with piers of 2 metres thickness. In each arch are
+fitted two gates. There is a lock 80 metres long and 16 metres
+wide at the left or western end of the weir, and adjoining it
+are the regulating sluices of the Ibrahimia canal. The Assiut
+weir across the Nile is just about half a mile long. The work
+was begun at the end of 1898 and finished early in 1902&mdash;in
+time to avert over a large area the disastrous effects which
+would otherwise have resulted from the low Nile of that year.
+The money value of the crops saved by the closing of the weir
+was not less than ŁE690,000. The conversion of the lands north
+of Assiut from basin to perennial irrigation began
+immediately after the completion of the Assiut weir
+and was finished by the end of 1908. To render the
+basin lands of the Kena province independent of the
+flood being bad or good, another barrage was built
+across the Nile at Esna at a cost of Ł1,000,000. This
+work was begun in 1906 and completed in 1909.</p>
+
+<p>These works, as well as that in Lower Egypt, are
+intended to raise the water-surface above it, and to
+control the distribution of its supply, but in
+no way to store that supply. The idea of
+ponding up the superfluous flood discharge of the river
+is not a new one, and if Herodotus is to be believed,
+<span class="sidenote">Storage.</span>
+it was a system actually pursued at a very early
+period of Egyptian history, when Lake Moeris in the
+Fayúm was filled at each Nile flood, and drawn upon
+as the river ran down. When British engineers first
+undertook the management of Egyptian irrigation
+many representations were made to them of the advantage
+of storing the Nile water; but they consistently
+maintained that before entering on that subject it was their
+duty to utilize every drop of the water at their disposal. This
+seemed all the more evident, as at that time financial reasons
+made the construction of a costly Nile dam out of the question.
+Every year, however, between 1890 and 1902 the supply of the
+Nile during May and June was actually exhausted, no water
+at all flowing then out into the sea. In these years, too, owing
+to the extension of drainage works, the irrigable area of Egypt
+was greatly enlarged, so that if perennial cultivation was at all
+to be increased, it was necessary to increase the volume of the
+river, and this could only be done by storing up the flood supply.
+The first difficulty that presented itself in carrying this out,
+was that during the months of highest flood the Nile is so charged
+with alluvial matter that to pond it up then would inevitably
+lead to a deposit of silt in the reservoir, which would in no great
+number of years fill it up. It was found, however, that the
+flood water was comparatively free from deposit by the middle
+of November, while the river was still so high that, without
+injuring the irrigation, water might go on being stored up until
+March. Accordingly, when it was determined to construct
+a dam, it was decided that it should be supplied with sluices
+large enough to discharge unchecked the whole volume of the
+river as it comes down until the middle of November, and then
+to begin the storage.</p>
+
+<p>The site selected for the great Nile dam was at the head
+of the First Cataract above Assuan. A dyke of syenite granite
+here crosses the valley, so hard that the river had nowhere
+scoured a deep channel through it, and so it was found possible
+<span class="sidenote">The Assuan Dam.</span>
+to construct the dam entirely in the open air, without the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span>
+necessity of laying under-water foundations. The length of the
+dam is about 6400 ft.&mdash;nearly 1Ľ m. The greatest head of water
+in it is 65 ft. It is pierced by 140 under-sluices of
+150 sq. ft. each, and by 40 upper-sluices, each of 75 sq.
+ft. These, when fully open, are capable of discharging
+the ordinary maximum Nile flood of 350,000 cub. ft.
+per second, with a velocity of 15.6 ft. per second and a head
+of 6.6 ft. The top width of the dam is 23 ft., the bottom width
+at the deepest part about 82 ft. On the left flank of the dam
+there is a canal, provided with four locks, each 262 by 31 ft.
+in area, so that navigation is possible at all seasons. The
+storage capacity of the reservoir is about 3,750,000 millions
+of cub. ft., which creates a lake extending up the Nile Valley
+for about 200 m. The reservoir is filled yearly by March; after
+that the volume reaching the reservoir from the south is passed
+on through the sluices. In May, or earlier when the river is
+late in rising, when the demand for water increases, first the upper
+and then the under sluices are gradually opened, so as to increase
+the river supply, until July, when all the gates are open, to allow
+of the free passage of the flood. On the 10th of December
+1902 this magnificent work was completed. The engineer
+who designed it was Sir W. Willcocks. The contractors were
+Messrs John Aird &amp; Co., the contract price being Ł2,000,000.
+The financial treaties in which the Egyptian government were
+bound up prevented their ever paying so large a sum as this
+within five years; but a company was formed in London to
+advance periodically the sum due to the contractors, on receipt
+from the government of Egypt of promissory notes to pay sixty
+half-yearly instalments of Ł78,613, beginning on the 1st of July
+1903. Protective works downstream of the dam were completed
+in 1906 at a cost of about ŁE304,000. It had been at
+first intended to raise the dam to a height which would have
+involved the submergence, for some months of every year,
+of the Philae temples, situated on an island just upstream
+of the dam. Had the natives of Egypt been asked to choose
+between the preservation of Ptolemy&rsquo;s famed temple and the
+benefit to be derived from a considerable additional depth of
+water storage, there can be no question that they would have
+preferred the latter; but they were not consulted, and the
+classical sentiment and artistic beauty of the place, skilfully
+pleaded by archaeologists and artists, prevailed. In 1907,
+however, it was decided to carry out the plan as originally
+proposed and raise the dam 26 ft. higher. This would increase
+the storage capacity 2˝ times, or to about 9,375,000 millions
+of cubic feet.</p>
+
+<p>There is no middle course of farming in Egypt between
+irrigation and desert. No assessment can be levied on lands
+which have not been watered, and the law of Egypt requires
+that in order to render land liable to taxation the water during
+the Nile flood must have flowed naturally over it. It is not
+enough that it should be pumped on to the land at the expense
+of the landowner. The tax usually levied is from Ł1 to Ł2
+per acre.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir W. Willcocks, <i>Egyptian Irrigation</i> (2nd ed., 1899); Sir
+C. C. Scott-Moncrieff, <i>Lectures on Irrigation in Egypt. Professional
+Papers on the Corps of Royal Engineers</i>, vol. xix. (London, 1893);
+Sir W. Garstin, <i>Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile</i>. Egypt No. 2
+(1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>V. <i>India</i>.&mdash;Allusion has already been made to the irrigation
+of India. The year 1878, which saw the end of a most disastrous
+famine, may be considered as the commencement of a new era
+as regards irrigation. It had at last been recognized that such
+famines must be expected to occur at no very long intervals
+of time, and that the cost of relief operations must not be met
+by increasing the permanent debt on the country, but by the
+creation of a famine relief and a famine insurance fund. For
+this purpose it was fixed that there should be an annual provision
+of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,500,000, to be spent on: (1) relief, (2) protective works,
+(3) reduction of debt. Among protective works the first place
+was given to works of irrigation. These works were divided
+into three classes: (i.) productive works; (ii.) protective
+works; (iii.) minor works.</p>
+
+<p>Productive works, as their name implies, are such as may
+reasonably be expected to be remunerative, and they include
+all the larger irrigation systems. Their capital cost is provided
+from loan funds, and not from the relief funds mentioned above.
+In the seventeen years ending 1896-1897 the capital expenditure
+on such works was <span class="lt">R</span>x. 10,954,948, including a sum of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,742,246
+paid to the Madras Irrigation Company as the price of the
+Kurnool-Cuddapah canal, a work which can never be financially
+productive, but which nevertheless did good service in the
+famine of 1896-1897 by irrigating 87,226 acres. In the famine
+year 1877-1878 the area irrigated by productive canals was
+5,171,497 acres. In the famine year 1896-1897 the area was
+9,571,779 acres, including an area of 123,087 acres irrigated on
+the Swat river canal in the Punjab. The revenue of the year
+1879-1880 was nearly 6% on the capital outlay. In 1897-1898
+it was 7˝%. In the same seventeen years <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,099,253 were
+spent on the construction of protective irrigation works, not
+expected to be directly remunerative, but of great value during
+famine years. On four works of this class were spent <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,649,823,
+which in 1896-1897 irrigated 200,733 acres, a valuable return
+then, although in an ordinary year their gross revenue does
+not cover their working expenses. Minor works may be divided
+into those for which capital accounts have been kept and those
+where they have not. In the seventeen years ending 1896-1897,
+<span class="lt">R</span>x. 827,214 were spent on the former, and during that year
+they yielded a return of 9.13%. In the same year the irrigation
+effected by minor works of all sorts showed the large area
+of 7,442,990 acres. Such are the general statistics of outlay,
+revenue and irrigated area up to the end of 1896-1897. The
+government might well be congratulated on having through
+artificial means ensured in that year of widespread drought
+and famine the cultivation of 27,326 sq. m., a large tract even
+in so large a country as India. And progress has been steadily
+made in subsequent years.</p>
+
+<p>Some description will now be given of the chief of these
+irrigation works. Beginning with the Punjab, the province
+in which most progress has been made, the great Sutlej canal,
+which irrigates the country to the left of that river, was opened
+in 1882, and the Western Jumna canal (perhaps the oldest in
+India) was extended into the dry Hissar and Sirsa districts,
+and generally improved so as to increase by nearly 50% its
+area of irrigation between 1878 and 1897. Perhaps this is as
+much as can well be done with the water at command for the
+country between the Sutlej and the Jumna, and it is enough
+to secure it for ever from famine. The Bari Doab canal, which
+irrigates the Gurdaspur, Amritsar and Lahore districts, has been
+enlarged and extended so as to double its irrigation since it was
+projected in 1877-1878. The Chenab canal, the largest in India
+and the most profitable, was only begun in 1889. It was designed
+to command an area of about 2˝ million acres, and to irrigate
+annually rather less than half that area. This canal flows
+through land that in 1889 was practically desert. From the
+first arrangements were made for bringing colonists in from
+the more congested parts of India. The colonization began in
+1892. Nine years later this canal watered 1,830,525 acres.
+The population of the immigrant colony was 792,666, consisting
+mainly of thriving and prosperous peasants with occupancy
+rights in holdings of about 28 acres each. The direct revenue
+of this canal in 1906 was 26% on the capital outlay. The
+Jhelum canal was opened on the 30th of October, 1901. It is
+a smaller work than the Chenab, but it is calculated to command
+1,130,000 acres, of which at least half will be watered annually.
+A much smaller work, but one of great interest, is the Swat
+river canal in the Peshawar valley. It was never expected that
+this would be a remunerative work, but it was thought for
+political reasons expedient to construct it in order to induce
+turbulent frontier tribes to settle down into peaceful agriculture.
+This has had a great measure of success, and the canal itself
+has proved remunerative, irrigating 123,000 acres in 1896-1897.
+A much greater scheme than any of the above is that of the
+Sind Sagar canal, projected from the left bank of the Indus
+opposite Kalabagh, to irrigate 1,750,000 acres at a cost of
+<span class="lt">R</span>x. 6,000,000. Another great canal scheme for the Punjab
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span>
+proposed to take off from the right bank of the Sutlej, and to
+irrigate about 600,000 acres in the Montgomery and Multan
+districts, at a cost of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,500,000. These three last projects
+would add 2,774,000 acres to the irrigated area of the province,
+and as they would flow through tracts almost unpeopled, they
+would afford a most valuable outlet for the congested districts
+of northern India. In addition to these great perennial canals,
+much has been done since 1878 in enlarging and extending
+what are known as the &ldquo;inundation canals&rdquo; of the Punjab,
+which utilize the flood waters in the rivers during the monsoon
+season and are dry at other times. By these canals large portions
+of country throughout most of the Punjab are brought under
+cultivation, and the area thus watered has increased from
+about 180,000 to 500,000 acres since 1878.</p>
+
+<p>It is on inundation canals such as these that the whole cultivation
+of Sind depends. In 1878 the area was about 1,500,000
+acres; in 1896-1897 it had increased to 2,484,000 acres. This
+increase was not due to famine in Sind, for that rainless province
+depends always on the Indus, as Egypt does on the Nile, and
+where there is no rainfall there can be no drought. But the famine
+prices obtained for agricultural produce doubtless gave an impetus
+to cultivation. In Sind, too, there is room for much increase
+of irrigation. It has been proposed to construct two
+new canals, the Jamrao and the Shikárpur, and to improve and
+extend three existing canals&mdash;Nasrat, Naulakhi and Dad.
+The total cost of these five projects, some of which are now
+in progress, was estimated at <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,596,682, and the extension
+of irrigation at 660,563 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Turning from the basin of the
+Indus to that of the Ganges,
+the commissioners appointed to
+report on the famine of 1896-1897
+found that in the country between
+the Ganges and the Jumna
+little was left to be done beyond
+the completion of some distributary
+channels. The East India
+Company&rsquo;s great work, the Ganges
+canal, constructed between 1840
+and 1854 before there was a mile
+of railway open in India, still
+holds its place unsurpassed
+among later irrigation work for
+boldness of design and completeness
+of execution, a lasting monument
+to the genius of Sir Proby
+Cautley, an officer of the Bengal
+Artillery, but a born engineer.
+Ever since 1870 consideration has
+been given to projects for irrigating
+the fertile province of Oudh by
+means of a great canal to be drawn
+from the river Sarda. The water is there in abundance, the land is
+well adapted for irrigation, but as there is a considerable rainfall,
+it is doubtful whether the scheme would prove remunerative,
+and a large section of the landowners have hitherto opposed it, as
+likely to waterlog the country. Among the four protective works
+of irrigation which were said above to have irrigated 200,733
+acres in 1896-1897, one of the most important is the Betwa canal,
+in the parched district of Bundelkhand. This canal has cost
+<span class="lt">R</span>x. 428,086, and causes an annual loss to the state in interest
+and working expenses of about <span class="lt">R</span>x. 20,000. It irrigated, however,
+in 1896-1897 an area of 87,306 acres, raising crops valued
+at <span class="lt">R</span>x. 231,081, or half the cost of the canal, so it may be said
+to have justified its construction. A similar canal from the
+river Ken in the same district has been constructed. Proceeding
+farther east, we find very satisfactory progress in the
+irrigation of southern Behar, effected by the costly system of
+canals drawn from the river Sone. In 1877-1878 these canals
+irrigated 241,790 acres. Rapid progress was not expected
+here, and 792,000 acres was calculated as being the maximum
+area that could be covered with the water supply available.
+In the five years preceding 1901-1902 the average irrigated area
+was 463,181 acres, and during that year the area was 555,156
+acres, the maximum ever attained.</p>
+
+<p>The canal system of Orissa was never expected to be remunerative,
+since in five years out of six the local rainfall is
+sufficient for the rice crop. In 1878-1879 the area irrigated was
+111,250 acres, and the outlay up to date was <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,750,000. In
+1900-1901 the area was 203,540 acres, the highest ever attained,
+and the capital outlay amounted to <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,623,703. It should
+be mentioned in favour of these canals that although the irrigation
+is not of yearly value, they supply very important water
+communication through a province which, from its natural
+configuration, is not likely to be soon intersected by railways.
+If, moreover, such a famine were again to occur in Orissa as that
+of 1866-1867, there would be no doubt of the value of these fine
+canals.</p>
+
+<p>In the Madras presidency and in Mysore irrigation has long
+assumed a great importance, and the engineering works of
+the three great deltas of the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery,
+the outcome of the genius and indefatigable enthusiasm of
+Sir Arthur Cotton, have always been quoted as showing what
+a boon irrigation is to a country. In 1878 the total area of
+irrigation in the Madras presidency amounted to about 5,000,000
+acres. The irrigation of the eight productive systems was
+1,680,178 acres, and the revenue <span class="lt">R</span>x. 739,778. In 1898 there
+were ten of these systems, with an irrigation area, as shown
+by the accompanying table, of 2,685,915 acres, and a revenue
+of <span class="lt">R</span>x. 1,163,268:</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Irrigation.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area<br />Watered.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Expenditure.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Net<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital<br />and<br />Indirect<br />Charges.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Percentage<br />of Net<br />Revenue<br />to Capital.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><i>Major Works.</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">Acres.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb"><span class="lt">R</span>x.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1. Godavari Delta</td> <td class="tcr rb">779,435</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,443</td> <td class="tcr rb">68,376</td> <td class="tcr rb">260,067</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,297,807</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2. Kistna Delta</td> <td class="tcr rb">520,373</td> <td class="tcr rb">254,579</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,142</td> <td class="tcr rb">180,437</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,319,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3. Pennar Weir System</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,937</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,123</td> <td class="tcr rb">189,919</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.59</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">4. Sangam System</td> <td class="tcr rb">76,277</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,627</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,037</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,590</td> <td class="tcr rb">385,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.68</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">5. Kurnool Canal</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,008</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,622</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,404</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,218</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,171,740</td> <td class="tcr rb">.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">6. Barur Tank System</td> <td class="tcr rb"> 4,421</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,162</td> <td class="tcr rb">385</td> <td class="tcr rb">777</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">7. Cauvery Delta</td> <td class="tcr rb">989,808</td> <td class="tcr rb">434,346</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">390,882</td> <td class="tcr rb">199,458</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">8. Srivaikuntam System</td> <td class="tcr rb">41,668</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,349</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,680</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,669</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,192</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.45</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">9. Periyar Project</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,143</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,526</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,751</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,775</td> <td class="tcr rb">852,914</td> <td class="tcr rb">.27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">10. Rushikulya Canal</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">67,318</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11,454</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,678</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7,776</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">464,423</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.54</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,685,915</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,163,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">229,954</td> <td class="tcr rb">933,314</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,032,470</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.88</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><i>Minor Works.</i></td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">23 Works for which Capital and</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp;Revenue Accounts are kept</td> <td class="tcr rb">535,813</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,558</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,655</td> <td class="tcr rb">165,903</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,693,878</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.44</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minor Works for which such</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> &emsp;Accounts are not kept</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,131,009</td> <td class="tcr rb">830,175</td> <td class="tcr rb">193,295</td> <td class="tcr rb">636,880</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Grand Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">6,352,737</td> <td class="tcr allb">2,194,001</td> <td class="tcr allb">457,904</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,736,097</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the three great deltas, and the small southern one that
+depends on the Srivaikuntam weir over the river Tumbraparni,
+extension and improvement works have been carried on. The
+Sangam and Pennar systems depend on two weirs on the river
+Pennar in the Nellore district, the former about 18 m. above
+and the latter just below the town of Nellore. The former
+irrigates on the left, the latter on the right bank of the river.
+This district suffered severely in the famine of 1877-1878, and
+the irrigation works were started in consequence. The Barur
+tank system in the Salem district was also constructed after
+the famine of 1877-1878. As yet it has not fulfilled expectations.
+The Periyar scheme has for its object both the addition of
+new irrigation and the safeguarding of that which exists in
+the district of Madura, a plain watered by means of a great
+number of shallow tanks drawing their supply from a very
+uncertain river, the Vaigai. This river takes its rise on the
+eastern slopes of the Ghat range of mountains, and just opposite
+to it, on the western face of the range, is the source of the river
+Periyar. The rainfall on the west very much exceeds that on
+the east, and the Periyar used to find its way by a short torrent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span>
+course to the sea, rendering no service to mankind. Its upper
+waters are now stemmed by a masonry dam 178 ft. high, forming
+a large lake, at the eastern end of which is a tunnel 5700 ft.
+long, piercing the watershed and discharging 1600 cub. ft.
+per second down the eastern side of the mountains into the
+river Vaigai. No bolder or more original work of irrigation
+has been carried out in India, and the credit of it is due to
+Colonel J. Pennycuick, C.S.I. The dam and tunnel were works
+of unusual difficulty. The country was roadless and uninhabited
+save by wild beasts, and fever and cholera made sad havoc
+of the working parties; but it was successfully accomplished.
+The last of those given in the table above was not expected to
+be remunerative, but it should prove a valuable protective
+against famine. The system consists of weirs over the rivers
+Gulleri, Mahanadi and Rushikulya in the backward province
+of Ganjam, south of Orissa. From these weirs flow canals
+altogether about 127 m. long, which, in connexion with two
+large reservoirs, are capable of irrigating 120,000 acres. In 1901
+the works, though incomplete, already irrigated 67,318 acres.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to all these great engineering systems, southern
+India is covered with minor works of irrigation, some drawn
+from springs in the sandy beds of rivers, some from the rainfall
+of ˝ sq. m. ponded up in a valley. In other cases tanks are
+fed from neighbouring streams, and the greatest ingenuity
+is displayed in preventing the precious water from going to
+waste.</p>
+
+<p>Allusion has been already made to the canals of Sind. Elsewhere
+in the Bombay presidency, in the Deccan and Gujarat,
+there are fewer facilities for irrigation than in other parts of
+India. The rivers are generally of uncertain volume. The
+cost of storage works is very great. The population is backward,
+and the black soil is of a nature that in ordinary years
+can raise fair crops of cotton, millet and maize without artificial
+watering. Up to the end of 1896-1897 the capital spent on the
+irrigation works of the Deccan and Gujarat was <span class="lt">R</span>x. 2,616,959.
+The area irrigated that year was 262,830 acres. The most
+important works are the Mutha and Nira canals in the Poona
+district.</p>
+
+<p>In Upper Burma three productive irrigation works were
+planned at the opening of the century&mdash;the Mandalay, the
+Shwebo, and the Mon canals, of which the first was estimated
+to cost <span class="lt">R</span>x. 323,280, and to irrigate 72,000 acres. The area
+estimated from the whole three projects is 262,000 acres, situated
+in the only part of Burma that is considered liable to famine.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901, after years of disastrous drought and famine, the
+government of India appointed a commission to examine
+throughout all India what could be done by irrigation to alleviate
+the horrors of famine. Up to that time it had been the principle
+of the government not to borrow money for the execution of
+irrigation works unless there was a reasonable expectation that
+within a few years they would give a return of 4 or 5% on the
+capital outlay. In 1901 the government took larger views.
+It was found that although some irrigation works (especially
+in the Bombay Deccan) would never yield a direct return of
+4 or 5%, still in a famine year they might be the means of
+producing a crop which would go far to do away with the
+necessity for spending enormous sums on famine relief. In the
+Sholapur district of Bombay, for instance, about three years&rsquo;
+revenue was spent on relief during the famine of 1901. An
+expenditure of ten years&rsquo; revenue on irrigation works might
+have done away for all future time with the necessity for the
+greater part of this outlay. The Irrigation Commission of 1901-1903
+published a very exhaustive report after a careful study
+of every part of India. While emphatically asserting that
+irrigation alone could never prevent famine, they recommended
+an outlay of Ł45,000,000 spread over a period of 25 years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>Annual Reports Irrigation Department Local Governments of
+India</i>; <i>Reports of the Indian Famine Commissions of 1878, 1898 and
+1901</i>; Sir Hanbury Brown, <i>Irrigation, its Principles and Practice</i>
+(London, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>VI. <i>United States.</i>&mdash;At the opening of the 20th century,
+during Mr Roosevelt&rsquo;s presidency, the new &ldquo;Conservation&rdquo;
+policy (<i>i.e.</i> conservation of natural resources by federal initiative
+and control), to which he gave so much impetus and encouragement,
+brought the extension of irrigation works in the United
+States to the front in American statecraft (see Vrooman, <i>Mr
+Roosevelt, Dynamic Geographer</i>, 1909). Though the carrying
+out of this policy on a large scale was hampered by many
+difficulties, the subject was made definitely one of national
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the aridity of the climate throughout the greater
+part of the western third of the United States, the practice of
+agriculture is dependent upon an artificial supply of water.
+On most of the country west of the 97th meridian and extending
+to the Pacific Ocean less than 20 in. of rain falls each year.
+The most notable exceptions are in the case of a narrow strip
+west of the Cascade Range and of some of the higher mountain
+masses. In ordinary years the climate is too dry for successful
+cultivation of the field crops, although under favourable conditions
+of soil and cultivation there are certain areas where cereals
+are grown by what is known as &ldquo;dry farming.&rdquo; The progress
+in irrigation up to the end of the 19th century was spasmodic
+but on the whole steady. The eleventh census of the United
+States, 1890, showed that 3,564,416 acres were irrigated in 1889.
+This included only the lands from which crops were produced.
+Besides this, there were probably 10 million acres under irrigation
+systems constructed in whole or in part. In 1899 the
+irrigated area in the arid states and territories was more than
+twice as great as in 1889, the acreage being as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Arizona</td> <td class="tcr">185,936</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">California</td> <td class="tcr">1,445,872</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Colorado</td> <td class="tcr">1,611,271</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Idaho</td> <td class="tcr">602,568</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Montana</td> <td class="tcr">951,154</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nevada</td> <td class="tcr">504,168</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">New Mexico</td> <td class="tcr">203,893</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oregon</td> <td class="tcr">388,310</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Utah</td> <td class="tcr">629,293</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Washington</td> <td class="tcr">135,470</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Wyoming</td> <td class="tcr">605,878</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">7,263,813</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In addition to the area above given, in 1899, 273,117 acres
+were under irrigation in the semi-arid region, east of the states
+above mentioned and including portions of the states of North
+and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas and Oklahoma.
+The greater part of these lands was irrigated by canals or ditches
+built by individuals acting singly or in co-operation with their
+neighbours, or by corporations. The national and state governments
+had not built any works of reclamation excepting where
+the federal government, through the Indian department, had
+constructed irrigation ditches for Indian tribes, notably the
+Crow Indians of Montana. A few of the state governments,
+such, for example, as Colorado, had built small reservoirs
+or portions of canals from internal improvement funds.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of irrigation canals and ditches was for the
+most part brought about by farmers joining to plough out or
+dig ditches from the rivers, descending on a gentle grade. Some
+of the corporations constructing works for the sale of water built
+structures of notable size, such, for example, as the Sweet-water
+and Hemet dams of southern California, the Bear river canal
+of Utah, and the Arizona canal, taking water from Salt river,
+Arizona. The cost of bringing water to the land averaged
+about $8 per acre where the ordinary ditches were built. The
+owners of extensive works were charged from $12 to $20 per
+acre and upwards for so-called &ldquo;water rights,&rdquo; or the privilege
+to take water from the canal, this covering cost of construction.
+Besides the first cost of construction, the irrigator was usually
+called upon to pay annually a certain amount for maintenance,
+which might often be worked out by labour on the canal. The cost
+ranged from 50 cents to $1 per acre; or, with incorporated companies,
+from $1.50 to $2.50 per acre and upwards. The largest
+expense for water rights and for annual maintenance was incurred
+in southern California, where the character of the crops,
+such as citrus fruits, and the scarcity of the water make possible
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span>
+expensive construction and heavy charges. The legal expense
+for the maintenance of water rights was often large because
+of the interminable suits brought during the times of water
+scarcity. The laws regarding water in most of the arid states
+were indefinite or contradictory, being based partly on the
+common law regarding riparian rights, and partly upon the
+Spanish law allowing diversion of water from natural streams.
+Few fundamental principles were established, except in the
+case of the state of Wyoming, where an official was charged with
+the duty of ascertaining the amount of water in the streams and
+apportioning this to the claimants in the order of their priority
+of appropriation for beneficial use.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that, up to the year 1900, irrigation progressed
+to such an extent that there remained few ordinary localities
+where water could not be easily or cheaply diverted from creeks
+and rivers for the cultivation of farms. The claims for the available
+supply from small streams, however, exceeded the water
+to be had in the latter part of the irrigating season. There
+remained large rivers and opportunities for water storage
+which could be brought under irrigation at considerable expense.
+The large canals and reservoirs built by corporations had rarely
+been successful from a financial standpoint, and irrigation construction
+during the latter part of the decade 1890-1899 was
+relatively small. Owing to the difficulty and expense of securing
+water from running streams by gravity systems, a great
+variety of methods were developed of pumping water by windmills,
+gasoline or hot-air engines, and steam. Ordinary reciprocating
+pumps were commonly employed, and also air lifts and
+similar devices for raising great quantities of water to a height
+of from 20 to 50 ft. For greater depths the cost was usually
+prohibitive. Throughout the Great Plains region, east of the
+Rocky Mountains, and in the broad valleys to the west, windmills
+were extensively used, each pumping water for from 1 to
+5 acres of cultivated ground. In a few localities, notably in
+South Dakota, the Yakima valley of Washington, San Joaquin,
+and San Bernardino valleys of California, San Luis valley of
+Colorado, and Utah valley of Utah, water from artesian wells
+was also used for the irrigation of from 1 to 160 acres. The total
+acreage supplied by such means was probably less than 1% of
+that watered by gravity systems.</p>
+
+<p>The development of irrigation was in part retarded by the
+improper or wasteful use of water. On permeable soils, especially
+those of the terrace lands along the valleys, the soluble salts
+commonly known as alkali were gradually leached out and
+carried by the percolating waters towards the lower lands,
+where, reaching the surface, the alkali was left as a glistening
+crust or as pools of inky blackness. Farms adjacent to the rivers
+were for a time increased in richness by the alkaline salts,
+which in diffuse form might be valuable plant foods, and then
+suddenly become valueless when the concentration of alkali
+had reached a degree beyond that which the ordinary plants
+would endure.</p>
+
+<p>The situation as regards the further progress of irrigation
+on a large scale was however dominated in the early years of
+the 20th century by the new Conservation policy. Mr Roosevelt
+brought the whole subject before Congress in his message of
+the 3rd of December 1901, and thereby started what seemed
+likely to be a new sphere of Federal initiative and control.
+After referring to the effects of forests (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forests and
+Forestry</a></span>) on water-supply, he went on as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The forests alone cannot fully regulate and conserve the waters of
+the arid regions. Great storage works are necessary to equalize the
+flow of the streams and to save the flood waters. Their construction
+has been conclusively shown to be an undertaking too vast for private
+effort. Nor can it be best accomplished by the individual states
+acting alone.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Far-reaching interstate problems are involved, and the resources
+of single states would often be inadequate. It is properly
+a national function, at least in some of its features. It is as right for
+the National Government to make the streams and rivers of the arid
+regions useful by engineering works for water storage, as to make
+useful the rivers and harbours of the humid regions by engineering
+works of another kind. The storing of the floods in reservoirs at the
+headquarters of our rivers is but an enlargement of our present policy
+of river control, under which levees are built on the lower reaches of
+the same streams.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The government should construct and maintain these reservoirs
+as it does other public works. Where their purpose is to regulate the
+flow of streams, the water should be turned freely into the channels
+in the dry season, to take the same course under the same laws as the
+natural flow.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The reclamation of the unsettled arid public lands presents a
+different problem. Here it is not enough to regulate the flow of
+streams. The object of the government is to dispose of the land to
+settlers who will build homes upon it. To accomplish the object
+water must be brought within their reach.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The reclamation and settlement of the arid lands will enrich
+every portion of our country, just as the settlement of the Ohio and
+Mississippi valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic States. The
+increased demand for manufactured articles will stimulate industrial
+production, while wider home markets and the trade of Asia will
+consume the larger food supplies and effectually prevent Western
+competition with Eastern agriculture. Indeed, the products of
+irrigation will be consumed chiefly in upbuilding local centres of
+mining and other industries, which would otherwise not come into
+existence at all. Our people as a whole will profit, for successful
+home-making is but another name for the upbuilding of the nation.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1902, by Act of Congress, a &ldquo;reclamation fund&rdquo; was
+created from moneys received from the sale of public lands;
+it was to be used under a &ldquo;Reclamation Service&rdquo; (part of the
+Department of the Interior) for the reclamation of arid lands.
+The &ldquo;Truckee-Carson project&rdquo; for irrigation in Nevada was
+immediately begun. About thirty other government projects
+were taken in hand under the new Reclamation Service,
+in some cases involving highly interesting engineering
+problems, as in the Uncompahgre Project in Colorado. Here
+the Uncompahgre and Gunnison rivers flowed parallel, about
+10 m. apart, with a mountain range 2000 ft. high between them.
+The Uncompahgre, with only a small amount of water, flowed
+through a broad and fertile valley containing several hundred
+thousand acres of cultivable soil. The Gunnison, with far more
+water, flowed through a canyon with very little land. The
+problem was to get the water from the Gunnison over the
+mountain range into the Uncompahgre valley; and a tunnel,
+6 m. long, was cut through, resulting in 1909 in 148,000 acres
+of land being irrigated and thrown open to settlers. Similarly,
+near Yuma in Arizona, a project was undertaken for carrying
+the waters of the main canal on the California side under the
+Colorado river by a siphon. In the report for 1907 of the
+Reclamation Service it was stated that it had dug 1881 m. of
+canals, some carrying whole rivers, like the Truckee river in
+Nevada and the North Platte in Wyoming, and had erected
+281 large structures, including the great dams in Nevada and
+the Minidoka dam (80 ft. high and 650 ft. long) in Idaho. As
+the result of the operations eight new towns had been established,
+100 m. of branch railroads constructed, and 14,000 people
+settled in what had been the desert.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A White House conference of governors of states was held at
+Washington in May 1909, which drew up a &ldquo;declaration of
+principles&rdquo; for the conservation of natural resources, recommending
+the appointment of a commission by each state to co-operate with
+one another and with the Federal government; and by the end of
+the year thirty-six states had appointed Conservation committees.
+Thus, in the first decade of the 20th century a great advance had
+been made in the way in which the whole problem was being viewed
+in America, though the very immensity of the problem of bringing
+the Federal power to bear on operations on so vast a scale, involving
+the limitation of private land speculation in important areas, still
+presented political difficulties of considerable magnitude.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRULAS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (&ldquo;Benighted ones,&rdquo; from Tamil, <i>iral</i>, &ldquo;darkness&rdquo;),
+a semi-Hinduized forest-tribe of southern India, who are found
+mainly in North Arcot, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly,
+and the Malabar Wynaad. The typical Irulas of the Nilgiris
+live a wild life on the lower slopes of those hills. At the 1901
+census this branch of the Irulas numbered 1915, while the total
+of so-called Irulas was returned at 86,087.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. W. Breeks, <i>Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris</i> (1873); <i>Nilgiri
+Manual</i>, i. 214-217; <i>North Arcot Manual</i>, i. 248-249.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRUN,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a frontier town of northern Spain, in the province of
+Guipúzcoa, on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, opposite the
+French village of Hendaye. Pop. (1900) 9912. Irun is the
+northern terminus of the Spanish Northern railway, and a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span>
+thriving industrial town, with ironworks, tan-yards, potteries
+and paper mills. Its principal buildings are the fine Renaissance
+parish church and the fortress-like 17th-century town hall. It
+derives its prosperity from the fact that it is the most important
+custom-house in Spain for the overland trade with the rest of
+Europe. Irun is also on the chief highway for travellers and
+mails. It is the terminus of some important narrow-gauge
+mining railways and steam tramways, which place it in communication
+with the mining districts of Guipúzcoa and Navarre, and
+with the valuable oak, pine and beech forests of both provinces.
+There are hot mineral springs in the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRVINE,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport
+of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 9607. It is situated on the
+north bank of the estuary of the Irvine, 29˝ m. S.W. of Glasgow
+by the Caledonian railway, with a station also on the Glasgow
+&amp; South Western railway. It is connected with the suburb
+of Fullarton on the south side of the river by a stone bridge,
+which was built in 1746 and widened in 1827. Alexander II.
+granted it a charter, which was confirmed by Robert Bruce.
+Towards the end of the 17th century it was reckoned the third
+shipping port in Scotland (Port Glasgow and Leith being the
+leaders), and though its importance in this respect declined
+owing to the partial silting-up of the harbour, its water-borne
+trade revived after 1875, the sandy bar having been removed
+and the wharfage extended and improved. The public buildings
+include the town hall, academy (1814) and fever hospital. The
+principal historical remains are the square tower of Stanecastle
+and the ancient Seagate Castle, which contains some good specimens
+of Norman architecture. The industries include engine-making,
+shipbuilding, iron- and brass-founding, the manufacture
+of chemicals, brewing and soap-making. Irvine unites with
+Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Oban in sending one member
+to parliament. The exports consist principally of coal, iron
+and chemical products, and the imports of grain, timber, limestone,
+ores and general produce. At <span class="sc">Dreghorn</span>, 2 m. to the S.E.
+(pop. 1155) coal and iron are worked.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRVING, EDWARD<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1792-1834), Scottish church divine,
+generally regarded as the founder of the &ldquo;Catholic Apostolic
+Church&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Annan, Dumfriesshire, on the 4th
+of August 1792. By his father&rsquo;s side, who followed the occupation
+of a tanner, he was descended from a family long known
+in the district, and the purity of whose Scottish lineage had been
+tinged by alliance with French Protestant refugees; but it
+was from his mother&rsquo;s race, the Lowthers, farmers or small proprietors
+in Annandale, that he seems to have derived the most
+distinctive features of his personality. The first stage of his
+education was passed at a school kept by &ldquo;Peggy Paine,&rdquo; a
+relation of the well-known author of the <i>Age of Reason</i>, after
+which he entered the Annan academy, taught by Mr Adam
+Hope, of whom there is a graphic sketch in the <i>Reminiscences</i>
+of Thomas Carlyle. At the age of thirteen he entered the
+university of Edinburgh. In 1809 he graduated M.A.; and in
+1810, on the recommendation of Sir John Leslie, he was chosen
+master of an academy newly established at Haddington, where
+he became the tutor of Jane Welsh, afterwards famous as Mrs
+Carlyle. He became engaged in 1812 to Isabella Martin, whom
+in 1823 he married; but it may be at once stated here that
+meanwhile he gradually fell in love with Jane Welsh, and she
+with him. He tried to get out of his engagement with Miss
+Martin, but was prevented by her family. If he had married
+Miss Welsh, his life, as well as hers, would have been very different.
+It was Irving who in 1821 introduced Carlyle to her.</p>
+
+<p>His appointment at Haddington he exchanged for a similar
+one at Kirkcaldy in 1812. Completing his divinity studies by a
+series of partial sessions, he was &ldquo;licensed&rdquo; to preach in June
+1815, but continued to discharge his scholastic duties for three
+years. He devoted his leisure, not only to mathematical and
+physical science, but to a course of reading in English literature,
+his bias towards the antique in sentiment and style being
+strengthened by a perusal of the older classics, among whom
+Richard Hooker was his favourite author. At the same time
+his love of the marvellous found gratification in the wonders
+of the <i>Arabian Nights</i>, and it is further characteristically related
+of him that he used to carry continually in his waistcoat pocket
+a miniature copy of <i>Ossian</i>, passages from which he frequently
+recited with &ldquo;sonorous elocution and vehement gesticulation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 1818 he resigned his mastership, and, in
+order to increase the probability of obtaining a permanent
+appointment in the church, took up his residence in Edinburgh.
+Although his exceptional method of address seems to have gained
+him the qualified approval of certain dignitaries of the church,
+the prospect of his obtaining a settled charge seemed as remote
+as ever, and he was meditating a missionary tour in Persia when
+his departure was arrested by steps taken by Dr Chalmers,
+which, after considerable delay, resulted, in October 1819, in
+Irving being appointed his assistant and missionary in St John&rsquo;s
+parish, Glasgow. Except in the case of a select few, Irving&rsquo;s
+preaching awakened little interest among the congregation of
+Chalmers, Chalmers himself, with no partiality for its bravuras
+and flourishes, comparing it to &ldquo;Italian music, appreciated only
+by connoisseurs&rdquo;; but as a missionary among the poorer
+classes he wielded an influence that was altogether unique. The
+benediction &ldquo;Peace be to this house,&rdquo; with which, in accordance
+with apostolic usage, he greeted every dwelling he entered, was
+not inappropriate to his figure and aspect, and it is said &ldquo;took
+the people&rsquo;s attention wonderfully,&rdquo; the more especially after
+the magic of his personality found opportunity to reveal itself
+in close and homely intercourse. This half-success in a subordinate
+sphere was, however, so far from coinciding with his
+aspirations that he had again, in the winter of 1821, begun to
+turn his attention towards missionary labour in the East, when
+the possibility of fulfilling the dream of his life was suddenly
+revealed to him by an invitation from the Caledonian church,
+Hatton Garden, London, to &ldquo;make trial and proof&rdquo; of his
+gifts before the &ldquo;remnant of the congregation which held
+together.&rdquo; Over that charge he was ordained in July 1822.
+Some years previously he had expressed his conviction that
+&ldquo;one of the chief needs of the age was to make inroad after the
+alien, to bring in the votaries of fashion, of literature, of sentiment,
+of policy and of rank, who are content in their several
+idolatries to do without piety to God and love to Him whom He
+hath sent&rdquo;; and, with an abruptness which must have produced
+on him at first an effect almost astounding, he now had the
+satisfaction of beholding these various votaries thronging to
+hear from his lips the words of wisdom which would deliver them
+from their several idolatries and remodel their lives according
+to the fashion of apostolic times.</p>
+
+<p>This sudden leap into popularity seems to have been occasioned
+in connexion with a veiled allusion to Irving&rsquo;s striking eloquence
+made in the House of Commons by Canning, who had been
+induced to attend his church from admiration of an expression
+in one of his prayers, quoted to him by Sir James Mackintosh.
+His commanding stature, the symmetry of his form, the dark
+and melancholy beauty of his countenance, rather rendered
+piquant than impaired by an obliquity of vision, produced an
+imposing impression even before his deep and powerful voice
+had given utterance to its melodious thunders; and harsh and
+superficial half-truths enunciated with surpassing ease and
+grace of gesture, and not only with an air of absolute conviction
+but with the authority of a prophetic messenger, in tones whose
+magical fascination was inspired by an earnestness beyond
+all imitation of art, acquired a plausibility and importance
+which, at least while the orator spoke, made his audience entirely
+forgetful of their preconceived objections against them. The
+subject-matter of his orations, and his peculiar treatment of
+his themes, no doubt also, at least at first, constituted a considerable
+part of his attractive influence. He had specially
+prepared himself, as he thought, for &ldquo;teaching imaginative
+men, and political men, and legal men, and scientific men who
+bear the world in hand&rdquo;; and he did not attempt to win their
+attention to abstract and worn-out theological arguments,
+but discussed the opinions, the poetry, the politics, the manners
+and customs of the time, and this not with philosophical comprehensiveness,
+not in terms of warm eulogy or measured blame,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span>
+but of severe satire varied by fierce denunciation, and with
+a specific minuteness which was concerned primarily with
+individuals. A fire of criticism from pamphlets, newspapers and
+reviews opened on his volume of <i>Orations</i>, published in 1823;
+but the excitement produced was merely superficial and essentially
+evanescent. Though cherishing a strong antipathy to the
+received ecclesiastical formulas, Irving&rsquo;s great aim was to revive
+the antique style of thought and sentiment which had hardened
+into these formulas, and by this means to supplant the new
+influences, the accidental and temporary moral shortcomings
+of which he detected with instinctive certainty, but whose profound
+and real tendencies were utterly beyond the reach of his
+conjecture. Being thus radically at variance with the main
+current of the thought of his time, the failure of the commission
+he had undertaken was sooner or later inevitable; and shortly
+after the opening of his new church in Regent Square in 1827,
+he found that &ldquo;fashion had taken its departure,&rdquo; and the
+church, &ldquo;though always well filled,&rdquo; was &ldquo;no longer crowded.&rdquo;
+By this desertion his self-esteem, one of his strongest passions,
+though curiously united with singular sincerity and humility,
+was doubtless hurt to the quick; but the wound inflicted was
+of a deeper and deadlier kind, for it confirmed him finally in
+his despair of the world&rsquo;s gradual amelioration, and established
+his tendency towards supernaturalism.</p>
+
+<p>For years the subject of prophecy had occupied much of
+his thoughts, and his belief in the near approach of the second
+advent had received such wonderful corroboration by the
+perusal of the work of a Jesuit priest, writing under the assumed
+Jewish name of Juan Josafat Ben-Ezra, that in 1827 he published
+a translation of it, accompanied with an eloquent preface.
+Probably the religious opinions of Irving, originally in some
+respects more catholic and truer to human nature than generally
+prevailed in ecclesiastical circles, had gained breadth and
+comprehensiveness from his intercourse with Coleridge, but
+gradually his chief interest in Coleridge&rsquo;s philosophy centred
+round that which was mystical and obscure, and to it in all
+likelihood may be traced his initiation into the doctrine of
+millenarianism. The first stage of his later development,
+which resulted in the establishment of the &ldquo;Irvingite&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Holy Catholic Apostolic Church,&rdquo; in 1832, was associated
+with conferences at his friend Henry Drummond&rsquo;s seat at
+Albury concerning unfulfilled prophecy, followed by an almost
+exclusive study of the prophetical books and especially of the
+Apocalypse, and by several series of sermons on prophecy both
+in London and the provinces, his apocalyptic lectures in 1828
+more than crowding the largest churches of Edinburgh in the
+early summer mornings. In 1830, however, there was opened
+up to his ardent imagination a new vista into spiritual things,
+a new hope for the age in which he lived, by the seeming actual
+revival in a remote corner of Scotland of those apostolic gifts
+of prophecy and healing which he had already in 1828 persuaded
+himself had only been kept in abeyance by the absence of faith.
+At once he welcomed the new &ldquo;power&rdquo; with an unquestioning
+evidence which could be shaken by neither the remonstrances
+or desertion of his dearest friends, the recantation of some of
+the principal agents of the &ldquo;gifts,&rdquo; his own declension into a
+comparatively subordinate position, the meagre and barren
+results of the manifestations, nor their general rejection both
+by the church and the world. His excommunication by the
+presbytery of London, in 1830, for publishing his doctrines
+regarding the humanity of Jesus Christ, and the condemnation
+of these opinions by the General Assembly of the Church of
+Scotland in the following year, were secondary episodes which
+only affected the main issue of his career in so far as they tended
+still further to isolate him from the sympathy of the church;
+but the &ldquo;irregularities&rdquo; connected with the manifestation of
+the &ldquo;gifts&rdquo; gradually estranged the majority of his own congregation,
+and on the complaint of the trustees to the presbytery
+of London, whose authority they had formerly rejected, he was
+declared unfit to remain the minister of the National Scotch
+Church of Regent Square. After he and those who adhered
+to him (describing themselves as of the Holy Catholic Apostolic
+Church) had in 1832 removed to a new building in Newman
+Street, he was in March 1833 deposed from the ministry of the
+Church of Scotland by the presbytery of Annan on the original
+charge of heresy. With the sanction of the &ldquo;power&rdquo; he was
+now after some delay reordained &ldquo;chief pastor of the church
+assembled in Newman Street,&rdquo; but unremitting labours and
+ceaseless spiritual excitement soon completely exhausted the
+springs of his vital energy. He died, worn out and wasted
+with labour and absorbing care, while still in the prime of life,
+on the 7th of December 1834.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The writings of Edward Irving published during his lifetime were
+<i>For the Oracles of God, Four Orations</i> (1823); <i>For Judgment to come</i>
+(1823); <i>Babylon and Infidelity foredoomed</i> (1826); <i>Sermons</i>, &amp;c.
+(3 vols., 1828); <i>Exposition of the Book of Revelation</i> (1831); an introduction
+to a translation of Ben-Ezra; and an introduction to
+Horne&rsquo;s <i>Commentary on the Psalms</i>. His collected works were published
+in 5 volumes, edited by Gavin Carlyle. See also the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catholic Apostolic Church</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Life of Edward Irving</i>, by Mrs Oliphant, appeared in 1862 in
+2 vols. Among a large number of biographies published previously,
+that by Washington Wilks (1854) has some merit. See also Hazlitt&rsquo;s
+<i>Spirit of the Age</i>; Coleridge&rsquo;s <i>Notes on English Divines</i>; Carlyle&rsquo;s
+<i>Miscellanies</i>, and Carlyle&rsquo;s <i>Reminiscences</i>, vol. i. (1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRVING, SIR HENRY<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1838-1905), English actor, whose
+original name was John Brodribb, was born at Keinton-Mandeville,
+Somerset, on the 6th of February 1838. After a few years&rsquo;
+schooling he became a clerk to a firm of East India merchants
+in London, but he soon gave up a commercial career and
+started as an actor. On the 29th of September 1856 he made his
+first appearance at Sunderland as Gaston, duke of Orleans,
+in Bulwer Lytton&rsquo;s <i>Richelieu</i>, billed as Henry Irving. This
+name he eventually assumed by royal licence. For ten years
+he went through an arduous training in various provincial
+stock companies, acting in more than five hundred parts. By
+degrees his ability gained recognition, and in 1866 he obtained
+an engagement at the St James&rsquo;s Theatre, London, to play
+Doricourt in <i>The Belle&rsquo;s Stratagem</i>. A year later he joined the
+company of the newly-opened Queen&rsquo;s Theatre, where he acted
+with Charles Wyndham, J. L. Toole, Lionel Brough, John
+Clayton, Mr and Mrs Alfred Wigan, Ellen Terry and Nelly
+Farren. This was followed by short engagements at the Haymarket,
+Drury Lane and Gaiety. At last he made his first conspicuous
+success as Digby Grant in James Albery&rsquo;s <i>The Two
+Roses</i>, which was produced at the Vaudeville on the 4th of
+June 1870 and ran for 300 nights. In 1871 he began his
+association with the Lyceum Theatre by an engagement under
+Bateman&rsquo;s management. The fortunes of the house were at a
+low ebb when the tide was turned by Irving&rsquo;s immediate success
+as Mathias in <i>The Bells</i>, a version of Erckmann-Chatrian&rsquo;s <i>Le
+Juif Polonais</i> by Leopold Lewis. The play ran for 150 nights.
+With Miss Bateman, Irving was seen in W. G. Wills&rsquo;s <i>Charles I.</i>
+and <i>Eugene Aram</i>, in <i>Richelieu</i>, and in 1874 in <i>Hamlet</i>. The
+unconventionality of this last performance, during a run of
+200 nights, aroused keen discussion, and singled him out as the
+most interesting English actor of his day. In 1875, still with
+Miss Bateman, he was seen as Macbeth; in 1876 as Othello,
+and as Philip in Tennyson&rsquo;s <i>Queen Mary</i>; in 1877 in <i>Richard III.</i>
+and <i>The Lyons Mail</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 Irving opened the Lyceum under his own management.
+With Ellen Terry as Ophelia and Portia, he revived <i>Hamlet</i> and
+produced <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> (1879). His Shylock was as
+much discussed as his Hamlet had been, the dignity with which
+he invested the Jew marking a departure from the traditional
+interpretation of the rôle, and pleasing some as much as it
+offended others. After the production of Tennyson&rsquo;s <i>The Cup</i>,
+a revival of <i>Othello</i> (in which Irving played Iago to the Othello
+of Edwin Booth) and of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, there began a period
+at the Lyceum which had a potent effect on the English stage.
+The Lyceum stage management, and the brilliancy of its productions
+in scenery, dressing and accessories, were revelations in
+the art of <i>mise-en-scčne</i>. <i>Much Ado about Nothing</i> (1882) was
+followed by <i>Twelfth Night</i> (1884), <i>Olivia</i>&mdash;an adaptation of
+Goldsmith&rsquo;s <i>Vicar of Wakefield</i> by W. G. Wills (1885); <i>Faust</i>
+(1886); <i>Macbeth</i> (1888): <i>The Dead Heart</i>, by Watts Phillips
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span>
+(1889); and <i>Ravenswood</i>&mdash;Herman Merivale&rsquo;s dramatic version
+of Scott&rsquo;s <i>Bride of Lammermoor</i> (1890). Fine assumptions in 1892
+of the characters of Wolsey in <i>Henry VIII.</i> and of King Lear
+were followed in 1893 by a striking and dignified performance
+of Becket in Tennyson&rsquo;s play of that name. During these years
+too, Irving, with the whole Lyceum company, paid several visits to
+America, which met with conspicuous success, and were repeated
+in succeeding years. The chief remaining novelties at the Lyceum
+during Irving&rsquo;s sole managership (the theatre passed, at the
+beginning of 1899, into the hands of a limited liability company)
+were Comyns Carr&rsquo;s <i>King Arthur</i> in 1895; <i>Cymbeline</i>, in which
+Irving played Iachimo, in 1896; Sardou&rsquo;s <i>Madame Sans-Gęne</i>
+in 1897; <i>Peter the Great</i>, a play by Laurence Irving, the actor&rsquo;s
+second son, in 1898; and Conan Doyle&rsquo;s <i>Waterloo</i> (1894). The
+new <i>régime</i> at the Lyceum was signalized by the production of
+Sardou&rsquo;s <i>Robespierre</i> in 1899, in which Irving reappeared after
+a serious illness, and in 1901 by an elaborate revival of <i>Coriolanus</i>.
+Irving&rsquo;s only subsequent production in London was Sardou&rsquo;s
+<i>Dante</i> (1903), a vast spectacular drama, staged at Drury Lane.
+He died &ldquo;on tour&rdquo; at Bradford on the 13th of October 1905,
+and was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Both on and off the stage Irving always maintained a high
+ideal of his profession, and in 1895 he received the honour of
+knighthood, the first ever accorded an actor. He was also the
+recipient of honorary degrees from the universities of Dublin,
+Cambridge and Glasgow. His acting, apart from his genius
+as a presenter of plays, divided criticism, opinions differing as
+to the extent to which his mannerisms of voice and deportment
+interfered with or assisted the expression of his ideas. So strongly
+marked a personality as his could not help giving its own colouring
+to whatever part he might assume, but the richness and
+originality of this colouring at its best cannot be denied, any
+more than the spirit and intellect which characterized his renderings.
+At the least, extraordinary versatility must be conceded
+to an actor who could satisfy exacting audiences in rôles so
+widely different as Digby Grant and Louis XI., Richard III. and
+Becket, Benedick and Shylock, Mathias and Dr Primrose.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Henry Irving had two sons, Harry Brodribb (b. 1870)
+and Laurence (b. 1872). They were educated for other walks
+of life, the former for the bar, and the latter for the diplomatic
+service; but both turned to the stage, and the elder, who had
+already established himself as the most prominent of the younger
+English actors at the time of his father&rsquo;s death, went into
+management on his own account.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRVING, WASHINGTON<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1783-1859), American man of letters,
+was born at New York on the 3rd of April 1783. Both his
+parents were immigrants from Great Britain, his father, originally
+an officer in the merchant service, but at the time of Irving&rsquo;s
+birth a considerable merchant, having come from the Orkneys,
+and his mother from Falmouth. Irving was intended for the
+legal profession, but his studies were interrupted by an illness
+necessitating a voyage to Europe, in the course of which he proceeded
+as far as Rome, and made the acquaintance of Washington
+Allston. He was called to the bar upon his return, but made
+little effort to practise, preferring to amuse himself with literary
+ventures. The first of these of any importance, a satirical
+miscellany entitled <i>Salmagundi, or the Whim-Whams and
+Opinions of Launcelot Langstaff and others</i>, written in conjunction
+with his brother William and J. K. Paulding, gave ample proof
+of his talents as a humorist. These were still more conspicuously
+displayed in his next attempt, <i>A History of New York from the
+Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty</i>, by
+&ldquo;Diedrich Knickerbocker&rdquo; (2 vols., New York, 1809). The
+satire of <i>Salmagundi</i> had been principally local, and the original
+design of &ldquo;Knickerbocker&rsquo;s&rdquo; <i>History</i> was only to burlesque a
+pretentious disquisition on the history of the city in a guidebook
+by Dr Samuel Mitchell. The idea expanded as Irving
+proceeded, and he ended by not merely satirizing the pedantry
+of local antiquaries, but by creating a distinct literary type
+out of the solid Dutch burgher whose phlegm had long been an
+object of ridicule to the mercurial Americans. Though far from
+the most finished of Irving&rsquo;s productions, &ldquo;Knickerbocker&rdquo;
+manifests the most original power, and is the most genuinely
+national in its quaintness and drollery. The very tardiness and
+prolixity of the story are skilfully made to heighten the humorous
+effect.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the death of his father, Irving had become a sleeping
+partner in his brother&rsquo;s commercial house, a branch of which
+was established at Liverpool. This, combined with the restoration
+of peace, induced him to visit England in 1815, when he found
+the stability of the firm seriously compromised. After some
+years of ineffectual struggle it became bankrupt. This misfortune
+compelled Irving to resume his pen as a means of subsistence.
+His reputation had preceded him to England, and the
+curiosity naturally excited by the then unwonted apparition
+of a successful American author procured him admission into
+the highest literary circles, where his popularity was ensured
+by his amiable temper and polished manners. As an American,
+moreover, he stood aloof from the political and literary disputes
+which then divided England. Campbell, Jeffrey, Moore, Scott,
+were counted among his friends, and the last-named zealously
+recommended him to the publisher Murray, who, after at first
+refusing, consented (1820) to bring out <i>The Sketch Book of
+Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.</i> (7 pts., New York, 1819-1820). The
+most interesting part of this work is the description of an English
+Christmas, which displays a delicate humour not unworthy
+of the writer&rsquo;s evident model Addison. Some stories and
+sketches on American themes contribute to give it variety;
+of these Rip van Winkle is the most remarkable. It speedily
+obtained the greatest success on both sides of the Atlantic.
+<i>Bracebridge Hall, or the Humourists</i> (2 vols., New York), a work
+purely English in subject, followed in 1822, and showed to what
+account the American observer had turned his experience of
+English country life. The humour is, nevertheless, much more
+English than American. <i>Tales of a Traveller</i> (4 pts.) appeared
+in 1824 at Philadelphia, and Irving, now in comfortable circumstances,
+determined to enlarge his sphere of observation by a
+journey on the continent. After a long course of travel he
+settled down at Madrid in the house of the American consul
+Rich. His intention at the time was to translate the <i>Coleccion
+de los Viajes y Descubrimientos</i> (Madrid, 1825-1837) of Martin
+Fernandez de Navarrete; finding, however, that this was
+rather a collection of valuable materials than a systematic
+biography, he determined to compose a biography of his own
+by its assistance, supplemented by independent researches in
+the Spanish archives. His <i>History of the Life and Voyages of
+Christopher Columbus</i> (London, 4 vols.) appeared in 1828, and
+obtained a merited success. <i>The Voyages and Discoveries of
+the Companions of Columbus</i> (Philadelphia, 1831) followed;
+and a prolonged residence in the south of Spain gave Irving
+materials for two highly picturesque books, <i>A Chronicle of the
+Conquest of Granada from the MSS. of</i> [an imaginary] <i>Fray
+Antonio Agapida</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1829), and <i>The Alhambra:
+a series of tales and sketches of the Moors and Spaniards</i> (2 vols.,
+Philadelphia, 1832). Previous to their appearance he had been
+appointed secretary to the embassy at London, an office as
+purely complimentary to his literary ability as the legal degree
+which he about the same time received from the university of
+Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the United States in 1832, after seventeen
+years&rsquo; absence, he found his name a household word, and himself
+universally honoured as the first American who had won for his
+country recognition on equal terms in the literary republic.
+After the rush of fętes and public compliments had subsided,
+he undertook a tour in the western prairies, and returning to the
+neighbourhood of New York built for himself a delightful retreat
+on the Hudson, to which he gave the name of &ldquo;Sunnyside.&rdquo;
+His acquaintance with the New York millionaire John Jacob
+Astor prompted his next important work&mdash;<i>Astoria</i> (2 vols.,
+Philadelphia, 1836), a history of the fur-trading settlement
+founded by Astor in Oregon, deduced with singular literary
+ability from dry commercial records, and, without laboured
+attempts at word-painting, evincing a remarkable faculty for
+bringing scenes and incidents vividly before the eye. <i>The</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span>
+<i>Adventures of Captain Bonneville</i> (London and Philadelphia,
+1837), based upon the unpublished memoirs of a veteran explorer,
+was another work of the same class. In 1842 Irving was appointed
+ambassador to Spain. He spent four years in the country,
+without this time turning his residence to literary account;
+and it was not until two years after his return that Forster&rsquo;s
+life of Goldsmith, by reminding him of a slight essay of his own
+which he now thought too imperfect by comparison to be
+included among his collected writings, stimulated him to the
+production of his <i>Life of Oliver Goldsmith, with Selections from
+his Writings</i> (2 vols., New York, 1849). Without pretensions
+to original research, the book displays an admirable talent for
+employing existing material to the best effect. The same may
+be said of <i>The Lives of Mahomet and his Successors</i> (New York,
+2 vols., 1849-1850). Here as elsewhere Irving correctly discriminated
+the biographer&rsquo;s province from the historian&rsquo;s, and
+leaving the philosophical investigation of cause and effect to
+writers of Gibbon&rsquo;s calibre, applied himself to represent the
+picturesque features of the age as embodied in the actions and
+utterances of its most characteristic representatives. His last
+days were devoted to his <i>Life of George Washington</i> (5 vols.,
+1855-1859, New York and London), undertaken in an enthusiastic
+spirit, but which the author found exhausting and his
+readers tame. His genius required a more poetical theme,
+and indeed the biographer of Washington must be at least a
+potential soldier and statesman. Irving just lived to complete
+this work, dying of heart disease at Sunnyside, on the 28th
+of November 1859.</p>
+
+<p>Although one of the chief ornaments of American literature,
+Irving is not characteristically American. But he is one of the
+few authors of his period who really manifest traces of a vein
+of national peculiarity which might under other circumstances
+have been productive. &ldquo;Knickerbocker&rsquo;s&rdquo; <i>History of New
+York</i>, although the air of mock solemnity which constitutes the
+staple of its humour is peculiar to no literature, manifests nevertheless
+a power of reproducing a distinct national type. Had
+circumstances taken Irving to the West, and placed him amid a
+society teeming with quaint and genial eccentricity, he might
+possibly have been the first Western humorist, and his humour
+might have gained in depth and richness. In England, on the
+other hand, everything encouraged his natural fastidiousness;
+he became a refined writer, but by no means a robust one.
+His biographies bear the stamp of genuine artistic intelligence,
+equally remote from compilation and disquisition. In execution
+they are almost faultless; the narrative is easy, the style
+pellucid, and the writer&rsquo;s judgment nearly always in accordance
+with the general verdict of history. Without ostentation or
+affectation, he was exquisite in all things, a mirror of loyalty,
+courtesy and good taste in all his literary connexions, and
+exemplary in all the relations of domestic life. He never married,
+remaining true to the memory of an early attachment blighted
+by death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal edition of Irving&rsquo;s works is the &ldquo;Geoffrey Crayon,&rdquo;
+published at New York in 1880 in 26 vols. His <i>Life and Letters</i> was
+published by his nephew Pierre M. Irving (London, 1862-1864,
+4 vols.; German abridgment by Adolf Laun, Berlin, 1870, 2 vols.)
+There is a good deal of miscellaneous information in a compilation
+entitled <i>Irvingiana</i> (New York, 1860); and W. C. Bryant&rsquo;s memorial
+oration, though somewhat too uniformly laudatory, may be consulted
+with advantage. It was republished in <i>Studies of Irving</i> (1880)
+along with C. Dudley Warner&rsquo;s introduction to the &ldquo;Geoffrey
+Crayon&rdquo; edition, and Mr G. P. Putnam&rsquo;s personal reminiscences of
+Irving, which originally appeared in the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>. See also
+<i>Washington Irving</i> (1881), by C. D. Warner, in the &ldquo;American Men
+of Letters&rdquo; series; H. R. Haweis, <i>American Humourists</i> (London,
+1883).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">IRVINGTON<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span>, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
+bordering on the S.W. side of Newark. Pop. (1900) 5255, of
+whom 993 were foreign-born; (1905) 7180; (1910) 11,877.
+Irvington is served by the Lehigh Valley railroad and by electric
+railway to Newark. It is principally a residential suburb of
+Newark, but it has a small smelter (for gold and silver), and
+various manufactures, including textile working machinery,
+measuring rules and artisans&rsquo; tools. There are large strawberry
+farms here. Irvington was settled near the close of the 17th
+century, and was called Camptown until 1852, when the present
+name was adopted in honour of Washington Irving. It was
+incorporated as a village in 1874, and as a town in 1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISAAC<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Hebrew for &ldquo;he laughs,&rdquo; on explanatory references to
+the name, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abraham</a></span>), the only child of Abraham and Sarah,
+was born when his parents were respectively a hundred and
+ninety years of age (Gen. xvii. 17). Like his father, Isaac lived a
+nomadic pastoral life, but within much narrower local limits, south
+of Beersheba (Gen. xxvi., on the incidents here recorded, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abimelech</a></span>). After the death of his mother, when he was forty
+years old, he married Rebekah the Aramaean, by whom after
+twenty years of married life he became the father of Esau and
+Jacob. He died at the age of one hundred and eighty.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> &ldquo;Isaac&rdquo;
+is used as a synonym for &ldquo;Israel&rdquo; by Amos (vii. 9, 16), who
+also bears witness to the importance of Beersheba as a sanctuary.
+It was in this district, at the well Beer-Lahai-roi, that Isaac
+dwelt (Gen. xxiv. 62, xxv. 11), and the place was famous for an
+incident in the life of Hagar (xvi. 14). This was perhaps the
+original scene of the striking episode &ldquo;in the land of Moriah,&rdquo;
+when at the last moment he was by angelic interposition released
+from the altar on which he was about to be sacrificed by his
+father in obedience to a divine command (Gen. xxii).<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The
+narrative (which must be judged with due regard to the conditions
+of the age) shows that the sacrifice of the first-born, though
+not inconsistent with Yahweh&rsquo;s claims (Ex. xxii. 29), was neither
+required nor tolerated (cp. Micah vi. 6-8). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moloch</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Isaac is by general consent of the Christian church taken as a
+representative of the unobtrusive, restful, piously contemplative
+type of human character. By later Judaism, which fixed its attention
+chiefly on the altar scene, he was regarded as the pattern and
+prototype of all martyrs. The Mahommedan legends regarding him
+are curious, but trifling.</p>
+
+<p>The resemblance between incidents in the lives of Isaac and
+Abraham is noteworthy; in each case Isaac appears to be the more
+original. See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ishmael</a></span>, and note that the pair Isaac and
+Ishmael correspond to Abraham and Lot, Jacob and Esau. On
+general questions, see E. Meyer, <i>Israeliten</i> (<i>Index</i>, s.v.). For
+attempts to find a mythological interpretation of Isaac&rsquo;s life, see
+Goldziher, <i>Mythology of the Hebrews</i>; Winckler, <i>Gesch. Israels</i> (vol. ii.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The stories, including the delightful history of the courting of
+Rebekah by proxy, are due to the oldest narrators. The jarring
+chronological notices belong to the post-exilic framework of the
+book (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Genesis</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The name is hopelessly obscure, and the identification with
+the mountain of the temple in Jerusalem rests upon a late view
+(2 Chron. iii. 1). It is otherwise called &ldquo;Yahweh-yir&rsquo;eh&rdquo; (&ldquo;Y.
+sees&rdquo;) which is analogous to &ldquo;El-ro&rsquo;i&rdquo; (&ldquo;a God of Seeing&rdquo;) in
+xvi. 13. See further the commentaries.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISAAC I.<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Comnenus</span>), emperor of the East (1057-1059), was
+the son of an officer of Basil II. named Manuel Comnenus, who
+on his deathbed commended his two sons Isaac and John to the
+emperor&rsquo;s care. Basil had them carefully educated at the
+monastery of Studion, and afterwards advanced them to high
+official positions. During the disturbed reigns of Basil&rsquo;s seven
+immediate successors, Isaac by his prudent conduct won the
+confidence of the army; in 1057 he joined with the nobles of the
+capital in a conspiracy against Michael VI., and after the latter&rsquo;s
+deposition was invested with the crown, thus founding the new
+dynasty of the Comneni. The first care of the new emperor was
+to reward his noble partisans with appointments that removed
+them from Constantinople, and his next was to repair the
+beggared finances of the empire. He revoked numerous pensions
+and grants conferred by his predecessors upon idle courtiers,
+and, meeting the reproach of sacrilege made by the patriarch of
+Constantinople by a decree of exile, resumed a proportion of the
+revenues of the wealthy monasteries. Isaac&rsquo;s only military
+expedition was against the Hungarians and Petchenegs, who
+began to ravage the northern frontiers in 1059. Shortly after
+this successful campaign he was seized with an illness, and
+believing it mortal appointed as his successor Constantine Ducas,
+to the exclusion of his own brother John. Although he recovered
+Isaac did not resume the purple, but retired to the monastery of
+Studion and spent the remaining two years of his life as a monk,
+alternating menial offices with literary studies. His <i>Scholia</i> to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span>
+the <i>Iliad</i> and other works on the Homeric poems are still
+extant in MS. He died in the year 1061. Isaac&rsquo;s great aim was
+to restore the former strict organization of the government, and
+his reforms, though unpopular with the aristocracy and the
+clergy, and not understood by the people, certainly contributed
+to stave off for a while the final ruin of the Byzantine
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Gibbon, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (ed.
+J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. v.); G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i>
+(ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. ii. and iii.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISAAC II.<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Angelus</span>), emperor of the East 1185-1195, and
+again 1203-1204, was the successor of Andronicus I. He
+inaugurated his reign by a decisive victory over the Normans in
+Sicily, but elsewhere his policy was less successful. He failed in
+an attempt to recover Cyprus from a rebellious noble, and by the
+oppressiveness of his taxes drove the Bulgarians and Vlachs to
+revolt (1186). In 1187 Alexis Branas, the general sent against
+the rebels, treacherously turned his arms against his master, and
+attempted to seize Constantinople, but was defeated and slain.
+The emperor&rsquo;s attention was next demanded in the east, where
+several claimants to the throne successively rose and fell. In
+1189 Frederick Barbarossa of Germany sought and obtained leave
+to lead his troops on the third crusade through the Byzantine
+territory; but he had no sooner crossed the border than Isaac,
+who had meanwhile sought an alliance with Saladin, threw every
+impediment in his way, and was only compelled by force of arms
+to fulfil his engagements. The next five years were disturbed by
+fresh rebellions of the Vlachs, against whom Isaac led several
+expeditions in person. During one of these, in 1195, Alexius, the
+emperor&rsquo;s brother, taking advantage of the latter&rsquo;s absence from
+camp on a hunting expedition, proclaimed himself emperor, and
+was readily recognised by the soldiers. Isaac was blinded and
+imprisoned in Constantinople. After eight years he was raised
+for six months from his dungeon to his throne once more (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crusades</a></span>). But both mind and body had been enfeebled by
+captivity, and his son Alexius IV. was the actual monarch. Isaac
+died in 1204, shortly after the usurpation of his general, Mourzouphles.
+He was one of the weakest and most vicious princes
+that occupied the Byzantine throne. Surrounded by a crowd of
+slaves, mistresses and flatterers, he permitted his empire to be
+administered by unworthy favourites, while he squandered the
+money wrung from his provinces on costly buildings and expensive
+gifts to the churches of his metropolis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i> (ed. J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. vi.);
+G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. iii. and iv.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISAAC OF ANTIOCH<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span>, &ldquo;one of the stars of Syriac literature,&rdquo;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+the reputed author of a large number of metrical homilies,<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+many of which are distinguished by an originality and acumen
+rare among Syriac writers. As to the identity and history of the
+author considerable difficulty has arisen. The statements of
+ancient writers, Eastern and Western, were collected by Assemani
+(<i>B.O.</i> i. 207-214). According to these accounts Isaac flourished
+under Theodosius II. (408-450),<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and was a native either of Amid
+(Diarbekr) or of Edessa. Several writers identify him with Isaac,
+the disciple of S. Ephraim, who is mentioned in the anonymous
+<i>Life</i> of that father; but according to the patriarch Bar Sh&#363;shan
+(d. 1073), who made a collection of his homilies, his master was
+Ephraim&rsquo;s disciple Zenobius. He is supposed to have migrated
+to Antioch, and to have become abbot of one of the convents in
+its neighbourhood. According to Zacharias Rhetor he visited
+Rome and other cities, and the chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of
+Tell-Mahr&#275; informs us that he composed poems on the secular
+games of 404, and wrote on the destruction of Rome by Alaric in
+410. He also commemorated the destruction of Antioch by an
+earthquake in 459, so that he must have lived till about 460.
+Unfortunately these poems have perished. He is of course to be
+distinguished from Isaac of Nineveh, a Nestorian writer on the
+ascetic life who belongs to the second half of the 7th century.<a name="fa4f" id="fa4f" href="#ft4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>When we examine the collection of homilies attributed to Isaac,
+a difficulty arises on two grounds. (1) The author of some of the
+poems is fervently orthodox or Catholic (see especially Nos. 1-3 in
+Bickell&rsquo;s edition = 62-64 in Bedjan), in other and more important
+homilies (such as Bickell 6, 8 = Bedjan 59, 61, and especially
+Bedjan 60) the doctrine is monophysite, even though Eutyches and
+Nestorius are equally condemned. (2) One of the monophysite
+homilies, the famous poem of 2136 lines on the parrot which uttered
+the Trisagion in the streets of Antioch (Bickell, 8 = Bedjan 61),
+appears to have been written at Antioch after Peter the Fuller
+(patriarch 471-488) raised the dispute about the addition to the
+doxology of the words <i>qui crucifixus es pro nobis</i>. It is therefore
+scarcely possible that the author of this homily should be the same
+who composed the lost poems on the secular games in 404 and on the
+sack of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, Lamy (<i>S. Ephraemi hymni et sermones</i>, iv. 361-364) and
+Bedjan (<i>Homiliae S. Isaaci</i>, i. pp. iv-ix) have recently called attention
+to statements made by Jacob of Edessa (708) in a letter to John
+the Stylite. He says there were three Isaacs who wrote in Syriac:&mdash;two
+orthodox (<i>i.e.</i> monophysite), and one a Chalcedonian heretic
+(<i>i.e.</i> orthodox or Catholic). (<i>a</i>) The first, he says, a native of Amid,
+and pupil of S. Ephraim, visited Rome in the time of Arcadius
+(395-408), on his return journey suffered imprisonment at Byzantium,
+and afterwards became a priest in the church of Amid. (<i>b</i>) The
+second was a priest of Edessa, and flourished in the reign of Zeno
+(474-491). He went up to Antioch in the time of Peter the Fuller.
+Jacob then tells the story of the parrot (see above). (<i>c</i>) The third
+was also an Edessene. At first in the days of Bishop Paul (510-522)
+he was orthodox (monophysite): but afterwards in the time of the
+Chalcedonian (Catholic) bishop Asclepius he became Nestorian
+(Catholic) and wrote poems setting forth Nestorian doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>With such conflicting evidence it is impossible to arrive at a
+certain result. But Jacob is an early witness: and on the whole it
+seems safe to conclude with Bedjan (p. ix) that works by at least two
+authors have been included in the collection attributed to Isaac of
+Antioch. Still the majority of the poems are the work of one hand&mdash;the
+5th-century monophysite who wrote the poem on the parrot.<a name="fa5f" id="fa5f" href="#ft5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+A full list<a name="fa6f" id="fa6f" href="#ft6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> of the 191 poems existing in European MSS. is given by
+Bickell, who copied out 181 with a view to publishing them all:
+the other 10 had been previously copied by Zingerle. But the two
+volumes published by Bickell in his lifetime (Giessen, 1873 and 1877)
+contain only 37 homilies. Bedjan&rsquo;s edition, of which the first volume
+has alone appeared (Paris, 1903) contains 67 poems, viz. 24 previously
+published (18 by Bickell), and 43 that are new, though their titles are
+all included in Bickell&rsquo;s list.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The writer&rsquo;s main interest lies in the application of religion
+to the practical duties of life, whether in the church or in the
+world. He has a great command of forcible language and considerable
+skill in apt illustration. The zeal with which he
+denounces the abuses prevalent in the church of his day, and
+particularly in the monastic orders, is not unlike that of the
+Protestant reformers. He shows acquaintance with many
+phases of life. He describes the corruption of judges, the prevalence
+of usury and avarice, the unchastity which especially
+characterized the upper classes, and the general hypocrisy of
+so-called Christians. His doctrinal discussions are apt to be
+diffuse; but he seldom loses sight of the bearing of doctrine on
+practical life. He judges with extreme severity those who argue
+about religion while neglecting its practice, and those who though
+stupid and ignorant dare to pry into mysteries which are sealed
+to the angels. &ldquo;Not newly have we found Him, that we should
+search and pry into God. As He was He is: He changeth not with
+the times.... Confess that He formed thee of dust: search
+not the mode of His being: Worship Him that He redeemed thee
+by His only Son: inquire not the manner of His birth.&rdquo;<a name="fa7f" id="fa7f" href="#ft7f"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Some of Isaac&rsquo;s works have an interest for the historian of the 5th
+century. In two poems (Bickell 11, 12 = Bedjan 48, 49), written
+probably at Edessa, he commemorates the capture of B&#275;th-H&#363;r (a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span>
+city near Nisibis) by the Arabs. Although the historical allusions
+are far from clear, we gather that B&#275;th-&#7716;&#363;r, which in zealous
+paganism had been a successor to &#7716;aran, had been in earlier days
+devastated by the Persians:<a name="fa8f" id="fa8f" href="#ft8f"><span class="sp">8</span></a> but for the last 34 years the Persians
+had themselves suffered subjection.<a name="fa9f" id="fa9f" href="#ft9f"><span class="sp">9</span></a> And now had come a flood of
+Arab invaders, &ldquo;sons of Hagar,&rdquo; who had swept away the city and
+carried all its inhabitants captive. From these two poems, and from
+the 2nd homily on Fasting (Bickell 14 = Bedjan 17) we gain a vivid
+picture of the miseries borne by the inhabitants of that frontier region
+during the wars between Persia and the Romano-Greek empire.
+There are also instructive references to the heathen practices and
+the worship of pagan deities (such as Baalti, Uzzi, Gedlath and the
+planet Venus) prevalent in Mesopotamia. Two other poems (Bickell
+35, 36 = Bedjan 66, 67), written probably at Antioch,<a name="fa10f" id="fa10f" href="#ft10f"><span class="sp">10</span></a> describe the
+prevalence of sorcery and the extraordinary influence possessed by
+&ldquo;Chaldeans&rdquo; and enchanters over women who were nominally
+Christians.</p>
+
+<p>The metre of all the published homilies is heptasyllabic.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> W. Wright, <i>Short Hist. of Syr. Lit.</i> p. 51.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The fullest list, by G. Bickell, contains 191 which are extant in
+MSS.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The trustworthy <i>Chronicle of Edessa</i> gives his date as 451-452
+(Hallier, No. lxvii.); and the recently published <i>Chronicle</i> of Michael
+the Syrian makes him contemporary with Nonus, who became the
+31st bishop of Edessa in 449.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4f" id="ft4f" href="#fa4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The date of Isaac of Nineveh is now known from the <i>Liber
+fundatorum</i> of &#298;sh&#333;&rsquo;-d&#283;nah, an 8th-century writer; see Bedjan&rsquo;s
+edition, and Chabót, <i>Livre de la chasteté</i>, p. 63. Assemani (<i>B.O.</i> i.
+445) had placed him late in the 6th century, and Chabót (<i>De S.
+Isaaci Ninivitae vita</i>, &amp;c.) in the second half of the 5th.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5f" id="ft5f" href="#fa5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Lamy (<i>op. cit.</i> iv. 364-366) has pointed out that several of the
+poems are in certain MSS. attributed to Ephraim. Possibly the
+author of the orthodox poems was not named Isaac at all.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6f" id="ft6f" href="#fa6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Assemani&rsquo;s list of 104 poems (<i>B.O.</i> i. 214-234) is completely
+covered by Bickell&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7f" id="ft7f" href="#fa7f"><span class="fn">7</span></a> From a really noble poem (Bedjan 60) on the problem whether
+<i>God</i> suffered and died on the cross.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8f" id="ft8f" href="#fa8f"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Possibly in the war at the beginning of the reign of Bahr&#257;m V.:
+but on the uncertainty see Nöldeke, <i>Gesch. d. Perser und Araber</i>, 117.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9f" id="ft9f" href="#fa9f"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Probably at the hands of the Hephthalites or White Huns of
+K&#363;shan: cf. Isaac&rsquo;s mention of the Huns in 1. 420 of the 1st poem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10f" id="ft10f" href="#fa10f"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The author refers to the weeping for Tammuz (1. 125 of the 1st
+poem), and speaks of his city as illustrious throughout the world
+(<i>ib.</i> 1. 132).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1451-1504), surnamed <i>la Catolica</i>, &ldquo;the Catholic,&rdquo;
+queen of Castile, was the second child and only daughter
+of John II. of Castile by his second wife Isabella, granddaughter
+of John I. of Portugal (thus being through both parents a
+descendant of John of Gaunt), and was born at Madrigal on
+the 22nd of April 1451. On the death of her father, who was
+succeeded by her brother Henry IV. (1454), she was withdrawn
+by her mother to Arevalo, where her early education was conducted
+in the deepest seclusion; in 1462, however, along with
+her uterine brother Alphonso, she was removed by Henry to the
+court, where she showed a remarkable example of staidness
+and sobriety. Already more than one suitor had made application
+for her hand, Ferdinand of Aragon, who ultimately became her
+husband, being among the number; for some little time she
+was engaged to his elder brother Charles, who died in 1461.
+In her thirteenth year her brother promised her in marriage
+to Alphonso of Portugal, but she firmly refused to consent;
+her resistance seemed less likely to be effectual in the case
+of Pedro Giron, grand master of the order of Calatrava and
+brother of the marquis of Villena, to whom she was next affianced,
+when she was delivered from her fears by the sudden death of the
+bridegroom while on his way to the nuptials in 1466. After an
+offer of the crown of Castile, made by the revolutionary leaders
+in the civil war, had been declined by her, she was in 1468
+formally recognized by her brother as lawful heir, after himself,
+to the united crowns of Castile and Leon. New candidates for
+her hand now appeared in the persons of a brother of Edward IV.
+of England (probably Richard, duke of Gloucester), and the
+duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XI., and heir presumptive
+of the French monarchy. Finally however, in face of very
+great difficulties, she was married to Ferdinand of Aragon at
+Valladolid on the 19th of October 1469. Thence forward the
+fortunes of Ferdinand and Isabella were inseparably blended.
+For some time they held a humble court at Dueńas, and afterwards
+they resided at Segovia, where, on the death of Henry, she
+was proclaimed queen of Castile and Leon (December 13, 1474).
+Spain undoubtedly owed to Isabella&rsquo;s clear intellect, resolute
+energy and unselfish patriotism much of that greatness which
+for the first time it acquired under &ldquo;the Catholic sovereigns.&rdquo;
+The moral influence of the queen&rsquo;s personal character over the
+Castilian court was incalculably great; from the debasement
+and degradation of the preceding reign she raised it to being
+&ldquo;the nursery of virtue and of generous ambition.&rdquo; She did
+much for letters in Spain by founding the palace school and by
+her protection of Peter Martyr d&rsquo;Anghiera. The very sincerity
+of her piety and strength of her religious convictions led her
+more than once, however, into great errors of state policy, and into
+more than one act which offends the moral sense of a more
+refined age: her efforts for the introduction of the Inquisition into
+Castile, and for the proscription of the Jews, are outstanding
+evidences of what can only be called her bigotry. But not even
+the briefest sketch of her life can omit to notice that happy instinct
+or intuition which led her, when all others had heard with incredulity
+the scheme of Columbus, to recall the wanderer to her
+presence with the words, &ldquo;I will assume the undertaking for my
+own crown of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray
+the expenses of it, if the funds in the treasury should be found
+inadequate.&rdquo; She died at Medina del Campo on the 24th of
+November 1504, and was succeeded by her daughter Joanna
+&ldquo;la loca&rdquo; (the &ldquo;Crazy&rdquo;) and her husband, Philip of Habsburg.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. H. Prescott, <i>History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella</i>
+(1837), where the original authorities are exhaustively enumerated;
+and for later researches, Baron de Nervo, <i>Isabella the Catholic</i>,
+translated by Lieut.-Col. Temple-West (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA II.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1830-1904), queen of Spain, was born in
+Madrid on the 10th of October 1830. She was the eldest daughter
+of Ferdinand VII., king of Spain, and of his fourth wife, Maria
+Christina, a Neapolitan Bourbon, who became queen-regent
+on 29th September 1833, when her daughter, at the age of three
+years, was proclaimed on the death of the king. Queen Isabella
+succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII. induced the
+Cortes to assist him in setting aside the Salic law, which the
+Bourbons had introduced since the beginning of the 18th century,
+and to re-establish the older succession law of Spain. The
+brother of Ferdinand, Don Carlos, the first pretender, fought
+seven years, during the minority of Isabella, to dispute her
+title, and her rights were only maintained through the gallant
+support of the army, the Cortes and the Liberals and Progressists,
+who at the same time established constitutional and parliamentary
+government, dissolved the religious orders, confiscated the
+property of the orders and of the Jesuits, disestablished the
+Church property, and attempted to restore order in finances.
+After the Carlist war the queen-regent, Christina, resigned to
+make way for Espartero, the most successful and most popular
+general of the Isabelline armies, who only remained regent two
+years. He was turned out in 1843 by a military and political
+<i>pronunciamiento</i>, led by Generals O&rsquo;Donnell and Narvaez, who
+formed a cabinet, presided over by Joaquin Maria Lopez, and
+this government induced the Cortes to declare Isabella of age
+at thirteen. Three years later the Moderado party or Castilian
+Conservatives made their queen marry, at sixteen, her cousin,
+Prince Francisco de Assisi de Bourbon (1822-1902), on the same
+day (10th October 1846) on which her younger sister married
+the duke of Montpensier. These marriages suited the views of
+France and Louis Philippe, who nearly quarrelled in consequence
+with Great Britain; but both matches were anything but happy.
+Queen Isabella reigned from 1843 to 1868, and that period was
+one long succession of palace intrigues, back-stairs and ante-chamber
+influences, barrack conspiracies, military <i>pronunciamientos</i>
+to further the ends of the political parties&mdash;Moderados,
+who ruled from 1846 to 1854, Progressists from 1854 to 1856,
+Union Liberal from 1856 to 1863; Moderados and Union Liberal
+quickly succeeding each other and keeping out the Progressists
+so steadily that the seeds were sown which budded into the
+revolution of 1868. Queen Isabella II. often interfered in
+politics in a wayward, unscrupulous manner that made her
+very unpopular. She showed most favour to her reactionary
+generals and statesmen, to the Church and religious orders, and
+was constantly the tool of corrupt and profligate courtiers and
+favourites who gave her court a deservedly bad name. She
+went into exile at the end of September 1868, after her Moderado
+generals had made a slight show of resistance that was crushed at
+the battle of Alcolea by Marshals Serrano and Prim. The only
+redeeming traits of Queen Isabella&rsquo;s reign were a war against
+Morocco, which ended in an advantageous treaty and some cession
+of territory; some progress in public works, especially railways;
+a slight improvement in commerce and finance. Isabella was
+induced to abdicate in Paris on 25th June 1870 in favour of her
+son, Alphonso XII., and the cause of the restoration was thus
+much furthered. She had separated from her husband in the
+previous March. She continued to live in France after the
+restoration in 1874. On the occasion of one of her visits to Madrid
+during Alphonso XII.&rsquo;s reign she began to intrigue with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span>
+politicians of the capital, and was peremptorily requested to go
+abroad again. She died on the 10th of April 1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Isabeau</span>, or <span class="sc">Elizabeth of Bavaria</span> (1370-1435),
+wife of Charles VI. of France, was the daughter of Stephen II.,
+duke of Bavaria. She was born in 1370, was married to Charles
+VI. on the 17th of July 1385, and crowned at Paris on the 22nd
+of August 1389. After some years of happy married life she fell
+under the influence of the dissolute court in which she lived,
+and the king having become insane (August 1392) she consorted
+chiefly with Louis of Orleans. Frivolous, selfish, avaricious and
+fond of luxury, she used her influence, during the different
+periods when she was invested with the regency, not for the
+public welfare, but mainly in her own personal interest. After
+the assassination of the duke of Orleans (November 23, 1407)
+she attached herself sometimes to the Armagnacs, sometimes
+to the Burgundians, and led a scandalous life. Louis de Bosredon,
+the captain of her guards, was executed for complicity in her
+excesses; and Isabella herself was imprisoned at Blois and afterwards
+at Tours (1417). Having been set free towards the end of
+that year by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, whom she had
+called to her assistance, she went to Troyes and established her
+government there, returning afterwards to Paris when that city
+had capitulated to the Burgundians in July 1418. Once more
+in power, she now took up arms against her son, the dauphin
+Charles; and after the murder of John the Fearless she went over
+to the side of the English, into whose hands she surrendered
+France by the treaty of Troyes (May 21, 1420), at the same time
+giving her daughter Catherine in marriage to the king of England,
+Henry V. After her triumphal entry into Paris with the latter
+she soon became an object of loathing to the whole French
+nation. She survived her husband, her son-in-law, and eight
+out of her twelve children, and she passed the last miserable
+years of her life in poverty, solitude and ill-health. She died at
+the end of September 1435, and was interred without funeral
+honours in the abbey of St Denis, by the side of her husband,
+Charles VI.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Vallet de Viriville, <i>Isabeau de Bavičre</i> (1859); Marcel Thibault,
+<i>Isabeau de Bavičre, Reine de France, La Jeunesse</i>, 1370-1405 (1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISABELLA OF HAINAUT<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1170-1190), queen of France,
+was the daughter of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut, and Margaret,
+sister of Philip of Alsace, and was born in 1170 at Lille. She
+was married to Philip Augustus, and brought to him as her
+dowry the province of Artois. She was crowned at St Denis
+on the 29th of May 1180. As Baldwin V. claimed to be a
+descendant of Charlemagne, the chroniclers of the time saw in
+this marriage a union of the Carolingian and Capetian dynasties.
+Though she received extravagant praise from certain annalists,
+she failed to win the affections of Philip, who, in 1184, waging
+war against Flanders, was angered at seeing Baldwin support his
+enemies, and called a council at Sens for the purpose of repudiating
+her. Robert, the king&rsquo;s uncle, successfully interposed.
+She died in childbirth in 1190, and was buried in the church of
+Notre Dame in Paris. Her son became Louis VIII. of France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Cartellieri, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Avčnement de Phil. Aug.&rdquo; in <i>Rev. hist.</i> liii.
+262 et seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1767-1855), French painter, was
+born at Nancy on the 11th of April 1767. At nineteen, after
+some lessons from Dumont, miniature painter to Marie Antoinette,
+he became a pupil of David. Employed at Versailles on portraits
+of the dukes of Angoulęme and Berry, he was given a commission
+by the queen, which opens the long list of those which he received,
+up to the date of his death in 1855, from the successive rulers of
+France. Patronized by Josephine and Napoleon, he arranged
+the ceremonies of their coronation and prepared drawings for
+the publication intended as its official commemoration, a work
+for which he was paid by Louis XVIII., whose portrait (engraved,
+Debucourt) he executed in 1814. Although Isabey did
+homage to Napoleon on his return from Elba, he continued to
+enjoy the favour of the Restoration, and took part in arrangements
+for the coronation of Charles X. The monarchy of July
+conferred on him an important post in connexion with the royal
+collections, and Napoleon III. granted him a pension, and the
+cross of commander of the Legion of Honour. &ldquo;Review of
+Troops by the First Consul&rdquo; was one of his most important compositions,
+and &ldquo;Isabey&rsquo;s Boat,&rdquo;&mdash;a charming drawing of himself
+and family&mdash;produced at a time when he was much occupied
+with lithography&mdash;had an immense success at the Salon of 1820
+(engraved, Landon, <i>Annales</i>, i. 125). His portrait of &ldquo;Napoleon
+at Malmaison&rdquo; is held to be the best ever executed, and even
+his tiny head of the king of Rome, painted for a breast-pin, is
+distinguished by a decision and breadth which evidence the hand
+of a master.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A biography of Isabey was published by M. E. Taigny in 1859,
+and M. C. Lenormant&rsquo;s article, written for Michaud&rsquo;s <i>Biog. univ.</i>,
+is founded on facts furnished by Isabey&rsquo;s family.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 14, Slice 7, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 7
+       "Ireland" to "Isabey, Jean Baptiste"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39775]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE IRELAND: "The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 entirely
+      altered the parliamentary representation of Ireland. Twenty-two
+      small boroughs were disenfranchised." 'disenfranchised' amended
+      from 'disfranchized'.
+
+    ARTICLE IRELAND: "Catholics could not take longer leases than
+      thirty-one years at two-thirds of a rack rent; they were even
+      required to conform within six months of an inheritance accruing,
+      on pain of being ousted by the next Protestant heir." 'thirty'
+      amended from 'thiry'.
+
+    ARTICLE IRELAND: "It would be hard to name four other men who,
+      within the same period, used Shakespeare's language with equal
+      grace and force." 'four other' amended from 'other four'.
+
+    ARTICLE IRON AND STEEL: "This usefulness iron owes in part, indeed,
+      to its abundance, through which it has led us in the last few
+      thousands of years to adapt our ways to its properties; but still
+      in chief part first to the single qualities in which it excels,
+      such as its strength, its magnetism ..." Added 'properties'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XIV, SLICE VII
+
+       Ireland to Isabey, Jean Baptiste
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+  IRELAND                         IRONWOOD
+  IRELAND, CHURCH OF              IRON-WOOD
+  IRENAEUS                        IRONY
+  IRENE                           IROQUOIS
+  IRETON, HENRY                   IRRAWADDY
+  IRIARTE Y OROPESA, TOMAS DE     IRREDENTISTS
+  IRIDACEAE                       IRRIGATION
+  IRIDIUM                         IRULAS
+  IRIGA                           IRUN
+  IRIS (Greek mythology)          IRVINE
+  IRIS (botany)                   IRVING, EDWARD
+  IRISH MOSS                      IRVING, SIR HENRY
+  IRKUTSK (government of Russia)  IRVING, WASHINGTON
+  IRKUTSK (Russian town)          IRVINGTON
+  IRMIN                           ISAAC (child of Abraham)
+  IRNERIUS                        ISAAC I.
+  IRON                            ISAAC II.
+  IRON AGE                        ISAAC OF ANTIOCH
+  IRON AND STEEL                  ISABELLA (queen of Castile)
+  IRON MASK                       ISABELLA II.
+  IRON MOUNTAIN                   ISABELLA (wife of Charles VI)
+  IRONSIDES                       ISABELLA OF HAINAUT
+  IRONTON                         ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE
+
+
+
+
+IRELAND, an island lying west of Great Britain, and forming with it the
+United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It extends from 51 deg. 26'
+to 55 deg. 21' N., and from 5 deg. 25' to 10 deg. 30' W. It is encircled
+by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the east is separated from Great Britain
+by narrow shallow seas, towards the north by the North Channel, the
+width of which at the narrowest part between the Mull of Cantire
+(Scotland) and Torr Head is only 13(1/2) m.; in the centre by the Irish
+Sea, 130 m. in width, and in the south by St George's Channel, which has
+a width of 69 m. between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales) and of 47 m. at its
+southern extremity. The island has the form of an irregular rhomboid,
+the largest diagonal of which, from Torr Head in the north-east to Mizen
+Head in the south-west, measures 302 m. The greatest breadth due east
+and west is 174 m., from Dundrum Bay to Annagh Head, county Mayo; and
+the average breadth is about 110 m. The total area is 32,531 sq. m.
+
+Ireland is divided territorially into four provinces and thirty-two
+counties:--(a) _Ulster_ (northern division): Counties Antrim, Armagh,
+Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, Monaghan, Tyrone. (b)
+_Leinster_ (eastern midlands and south-east): Counties Carlow, Dublin,
+Kildare, Kilkenny, King's County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen's
+County, Westmeath, Wexford, Wicklow. (c) _Connaught_ (western midlands):
+Counties Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, Sligo. (d) _Munster_
+(south-western division): Counties Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick,
+Tipperary, Waterford.
+
+_Physical Geography._--Ireland stands on the edge of the European
+"continental shelf." Off the peninsula of Mullet (county Mayo) there are
+100 fathoms of water within 25 m. of the coast which overlooks the
+Atlantic; eastward, northward and southward, in the narrow seas, this
+depth is never reached. The average height of the island is about 400
+ft., but the distribution of height is by no means equal. The island has
+no spinal range or dominating mountain mass. Instead, a series of small,
+isolated clusters of mountains, reaching from the coast to an extreme
+distance of some 70 m. inland, almost surrounds a great central plain
+which seldom exceeds 250 ft. in elevation. A physical description of
+Ireland, therefore, falls naturally under three heads--the coasts, the
+mountain rim and the central plain.
+
+
+    Coasts.
+
+  The capital city and port of Dublin lies a little south of the central
+  point of the eastern coast, at the head of a bay which marks a sudden
+  change in the coastal formation. Southward from its northern horn, the
+  rocky headland of Howth, the coast is generally steep, occasionally
+  sheer, and the mountains of county Wicklow approach it closely.
+  Northward (the direction first to be followed) it is low, sandy and
+  fringed with shoals, for here is one point at which the central plain
+  extends to the coast. This condition obtains from 53 deg. 25' N. until
+  at 54 deg. N. the mountains close down again, and the narrow inlet or
+  fjord of Carlingford Lough separates the abrupt heights of the
+  Carlingford and Mourne Mountains. Then the low and sandy character is
+  resumed; the fine eastward sweep of Dundrum Bay is passed, the coast
+  turns north again, and a narrow channel gives entry to the
+  island-studded lagoon of Strangford Lough. Reaching county Antrim,
+  green wooded hills plunge directly into the sea; the deep Belfast
+  Lough strikes some 10 m. inland, and these conditions obtain nearly to
+  Fair Head, the north-eastern extremity of the island. Here the coast
+  turns westward, changing suddenly to sheer cliffs, where the basaltic
+  formation intrudes its strange regular columns, most finely developed
+  in the famous Giant's Causeway.
+
+  The low land surrounding the plain-track of the Bann intervenes
+  between this and the beginning of a coastal formation which is common
+  to the north-western and western coasts. From the oval indentation of
+  Lough Foyle a bluff coast trends north-westward to Malin Head, the
+  northernmost promontory of the island. Thence over the whole southward
+  stretch to Mizen Head in county Cork is found that physical appearance
+  of a cliff-bound coast fretted with deep fjord-like inlets and fringed
+  with many islands, which throughout the world is almost wholly
+  confined to western seaboards. Mountains impinge upon the sea almost
+  over the whole length, sometimes, as in Slieve League (county
+  Donegal), immediately facing it with huge cliffs. Eight dominant
+  inlets appear. Lough Foyle is divided from Lough Swilly by the
+  diamond-shaped peninsula of Inishowen. Following the coast southward,
+  Donegal Bay is divided from Galway Bay by the hammer-like projection
+  of county Mayo and Connemara, the square inlet of Clew Bay
+  intervening. At Galway Bay the mountain barrier is broken, where the
+  great central plain strikes down to the sea as it does on the east
+  coast north of Dublin. After the stern coast of county Clare there
+  follow the estuary of the great river Shannon, and then three large
+  inlets striking deep into the mountains of Kerry and Cork--Dingle Bay,
+  Kenmare river and Bantry Bay, separating the prongs of the forklike
+  south-western projection of the island. The whole of this coast is
+  wild and beautiful, and may be compared with the west coast of
+  Scotland and even that of Norway, though it has a strong individuality
+  distinct from either; and though for long little known to travellers,
+  it now possesses a number of small watering-places, and is in many
+  parts accessible by railway. The islands though numerous are not as in
+  Scotland and Norway a dominant feature of the coast, being generally
+  small and often mere clusters of reefs. Exceptions, however, are Tory
+  Island and North Aran off the Donegal coast, Achill and Clare off
+  Mayo, the South Arans guarding Galway Bay, the Blasquets and Valencia
+  off the Kerry coast. On many of these desolate rocks, which could have
+  afforded only the barest sustenance, there are remains of the
+  dwellings and churches of early religious settlers who sought solitude
+  here. The settlements on Inishmurray (Sligo), Aranmore in the South
+  Arans, and Scattery in the Shannon estuary, had a fame as retreats of
+  piety and learning far outside Ireland itself, and the significance of
+  a pilgrimage to their sites is not yet wholly forgotten among the
+  peasantry, while the preservation of their remains has come to be a
+  national trust.
+
+  The south coast strikes a mean between the east and the west. It is
+  lower than the west though still bold in many places; the inlets are
+  narrower and less deep, but more easily accessible, as appears from
+  the commercial importance of the harbours of Cork and Waterford.
+  Turning northward to the east of Waterford round Carnsore Point, the
+  lagoon-like harbour of Wexford is passed, and then a sweeping, almost
+  unbroken, line continues to Dublin Bay. But this coast, though
+  differing completely from the western, is not lacking in beauty, for,
+  like the Mournes in county Down, the mountains of Wicklow rise close
+  to the sea, and sometimes directly from it.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  Every mountain group in Ireland forms an individual mass, isolated by
+  complex systems of valleys in all directions. They seldom exceed 3000
+  ft. in height, yet generally possess a certain dignity, whether from
+  their commanding position or their bold outline. Every variety of form
+  is seen, from steep flat-topped table-mountains as near Loughs Neagh
+  and Erne, to peaks such as those of the Twelve Pins or Bens of
+  Connemara. Unlike the Scottish Highlands no part of them was capable
+  of sheltering a whole native race in opposition to the advance of
+  civilization, though early customs, tradition and the common use of
+  the Erse language yet survive in some strength in the wilder parts of
+  the west. From the coasts there is almost everywhere easy access to
+  the interior through the mountains by valley roads; and though the
+  plain exists unbroken only in the midlands, its ramifications among
+  the hills are always easy to follow. Plain and lowland of an elevation
+  below 500 ft. occupy nearly four-fifths of the total area; and if the
+  sea were to submerge these, four distinct archipelagos would appear, a
+  northern, eastern, western and south-western. The principal groups,
+  with their highest points, are the Mournes (Slieve Donard, 2796 ft.)
+  and the Wicklow mountains (Lugnaquilla, 3039) on the east; the
+  Sperrins (Sawel, 2240) in the north; the Derryveagh group in the
+  north-west (Errigal, 2466); the many groups or short ranges of Sligo,
+  Mayo and Galway (reaching 1695 ft. in the Twelve Pins of Connemara);
+  in the south-west those of Kerry and Cork, where in Carrantuohill or
+  Carntual (3414) the famous Macgillicuddy Reeks which beautify the
+  environs of Killarney include the highest point in the island; and
+  north-east from these, the Galtees of Tipperary (3018) and Slieve
+  Bloom, the farthest inland of the important groups. Nearer the south
+  coast are the Knockmealdown (2609) and Commeragh Mountains (2470) of
+  county Waterford.
+
+
+    Central plain.
+
+  It will be realized from the foregoing description that it is
+  impossible to draw accurate boundary lines to the great Irish plain,
+  yet it rightly carries the epithet central because it distinctly
+  divides the northern mountain groups from the southern. The plain is
+  closely correlated with the bogs which are the best known physical
+  characteristic of Ireland, but the centre of Ireland is not wholly
+  bog-land. Rather the bogs of the plain are intersected by strips of
+  low-lying firm ground, and the central plain consists of these bright
+  green expanses alternating with the brown of the bogs, of which the
+  best known and (with its offshoots) one of the most extensive is the
+  Bog of Allen in the eastern midlands. But the bogs are not confined to
+  the plain. They may be divided into black and red according to the
+  degree of moisture and the vegetable matter which formed them. The
+  black bogs are those of the plain and the deeper valleys, while the
+  red, firmer and less damp, occur on the mountains. The former supply
+  most of the peat, and some of the tree-trunks dug out of them have
+  been found so flexible from immersion that they might be twisted into
+  ropes. Owing to the quantity of tannin they contain, no harmful miasma
+  exhales from the Irish bogs.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The central plain and its offshoots are drained by rivers to all the
+  coasts, but chiefly eastward and westward, and the water-partings in
+  its midst are sometimes impossible to define. The main rivers,
+  however, have generally a mountain source, and according as they are
+  fed from bogs or springs may be differentiated as black and bright
+  streams. In this connexion the frequent use of the name Blackwater is
+  noticeable. The principal rivers are--from the Wicklow Mountains, the
+  Slaney, flowing S. to Wexford harbour, and the Liffey, flowing with a
+  tortuous course N. and E. to Dublin Bay; the Boyne, fed from the
+  central plain and discharging into Drogheda Bay; from the mountains of
+  county Down, the Lagan, to Belfast Lough, and the Bann, draining the
+  great Lough Neagh to the northern sea; the Foyle, a collection of
+  streams from the mountains of Tyrone and Donegal, flowing north to
+  Lough Foyle. On the west the rivers are generally short and
+  torrential, excepting the Erne, which drains the two beautiful loughs
+  of that name in county Fermanagh, and the Shannon, the chief river of
+  Ireland, which, rising in a mountain spring in county Cavan, follows a
+  bow-shaped course to the south and south-west, and draws off the major
+  part of the waters of the plain by tributaries from the east. In the
+  south, the Lee and the Blackwater intersect the mountains of Kerry and
+  Cork flowing east, and turn abruptly into estuaries opening south.
+  Lastly, rising in the Slieve Bloom or neighbouring mountains, the
+  Suir, Nore and Barrow follow widely divergent courses to the south to
+  unite in Waterford harbour.
+
+
+    Lakes
+
+  The lakes (called loughs--pronounced _lochs_) of Ireland are
+  innumerable, and (apart from their formation) are almost all contained
+  in two great regions, (1) The central plain by its nature abounds in
+  loughs--dark, peat-stained pools with low shores. The principal of
+  these lie in county Westmeath, such as Loughs Ennel, Owel and
+  Derravaragh, famed for their trout-fishing in the May-fly season. (2)
+  The Shannon, itself forming several large loughs, as Allen, Ree and
+  Derg; and the Erne, whose course lies almost wholly through
+  loughs--Gowna, Oughter and the Loughs Erne, irregular of outline and
+  studded with islands--separate this region from the principal
+  lake-region of Ireland, coincident with the province of Connaught. In
+  the north lie Loughs Melvin, close above Donegal Bay, and Gill near
+  Sligo, Lough Gara, draining to the Shannon, and Lough Conn near
+  Ballina (county Mayo), and in the south, the great expanses of Loughs
+  Mask and Corrib, joined by a subterranean channel. To the west of
+  these last, the mountains of Connemara and, to a more marked degree,
+  the narrow plain of bog-land between them and Galway Bay, are sown
+  with small lakes, nearly every hollow of this wild district being
+  filled with water. Apart from these two regions the loughs of Ireland
+  are few but noteworthy. In the south-west the lakes of Killarney are
+  widely famed for their exquisite scenic setting; in the north-east
+  Lough Neagh has no such claim, but is the largest lake in the British
+  Isles, while in the south-east there are small loughs in some of the
+  picturesque glens of county Wicklow.
+
+_Climate._--The climate of Ireland is more equable than that of Great
+Britain as regards both temperature and rainfall. No district in Ireland
+has a rainfall so heavy as that of large portions of the Highlands of
+Scotland, or so light as that of several large districts in the east of
+Great Britain. In January the mean temperature scarcely falls below 40
+deg. F. in any part of Ireland, whereas over the larger part of the
+eastern slope of Great Britain it is some 3 deg. lower; and in July the
+extremes in Ireland are 59 deg. in the north and 62 deg. in Kilkenny.
+The range from north to south of Great Britain in the same month is some
+10 deg., but the greater extent of latitude accounts only for a part of
+this difference, which is mainly occasioned by the physical
+configuration of the surface of Ireland in its relations to the
+prevailing moist W.S.W. winds. Ireland presents to these winds no
+unbroken mountain ridge running north and south, which would result in
+two climates as distinct as those of the east and west of Ross-shire;
+but it presents instead only a series of isolated groups, with the
+result that it is only a few limited districts which enjoy climates
+approaching in dryness the climates of the whole of the eastern side of
+Great Britain.     (O. J. R. H.)
+
+  _Geology._--Ireland, rising from shallow seas on the margin of the
+  submarine plateau of western Europe, records in its structure the
+  successive changes that the continent itself has undergone. The first
+  broad view of the country shows us a basin-shaped island consisting of
+  a central limestone plain surrounded by mountains; but the diverse
+  modes of origin of these mountains, and the differences in their
+  trend, suggest at once that they represent successive epochs of
+  disturbance. The north-west highlands of Donegal and the Ox Mountains,
+  with their axes of folding running north-east and south-west, invite
+  comparison with the great chain of Leinster, but also with the
+  Grampians and the backbone of Scandinavia. The ranges from Kerry to
+  Waterford, on the other hand, truncated by the sea at either end, are
+  clearly parts of an east and west system, the continuation of which
+  may be looked for in South Wales and Belgium. The hills of the
+  north-east are mainly the crests of lava-plateaux, which carry the
+  mind towards Skye and the volcanic province of the Faeroe Islands. The
+  two most important points of contrast between the geology of Ireland
+  and that of England are, firstly, the great exposure of Carboniferous
+  rocks in Ireland, Mesozoic strata being almost absent; and, secondly,
+  the presence of volcanic rocks in place of the marine Eocene of
+  England.
+
+  The fact that no Cambrian strata have been established by
+  palaeontological evidence in the west of Ireland has made it equally
+  difficult to establish any pre-Cambrian system. The great difference
+  in character, however, between the Silurian strata at Pomeroy in
+  county Tyrone and the adjacent metamorphic series makes it highly
+  probable that the latter masses are truly Archean. They form an
+  interesting and bleak moorland between Cookstown and Omagh, extending
+  north-eastward into Slieve Gallion in county Londonderry, and consist
+  fundamentally of mica-schist and gneiss, affected by earth-pressures,
+  and invaded by granite near Lough Fee. The axis along which they have
+  been elevated runs north-east and south-west, and on either flank a
+  series of "green rocks" appears, consisting of altered amygdaloidal
+  andesitic lavas, intrusive dolerites, coarse gabbros and diorites, and
+  at Beagh-beg and Creggan in central Tyrone ancient rhyolitic tuffs.
+  Red and grey cherts, which have not so far yielded undoubted organic
+  remains occur in this series, and it has in consequence been compared
+  with the Arenig rocks of southern Scotland. The granite invades this
+  "green-rock" series at Slieve Gallion and elsewhere, but is itself
+  pre-Devonian. Even if the volcanic and intrusive basic rocks prove to
+  be Ordovician (Lower Silurian), which is very doubtful, the
+  metamorphic series of the core is clearly distinct, and appears to be
+  "fundamental" so far as Ireland is concerned.
+
+  The other metamorphic areas of the north present even greater
+  difficulties, owing to the absence of any overlying strata older than
+  the Old Red Sandstone. Their rocks have been variously held to be
+  Archean, Cambrian and Silurian, and their general trend has
+  undoubtedly been determined by post-Silurian earth-movements. Hence it
+  is useful to speak of them merely as "Dalradian," a convenient term
+  invented by Sir A. Geikie for the metamorphic series of the old
+  kingdom of Dalriada. They come out as mica-schists under the
+  Carboniferous sandstones of northern Antrim, and disappear southward
+  under the basaltic plateaux. The red gneisses near Torr Head probably
+  represent intrusive granite; and this small north-eastern exposure is
+  representative of the Dalradian series which covers so wide a field
+  from central Londonderry to the coast of Donegal. The oldest rocks in
+  this large area are a stratified series of mica-schists, limestones
+  and quartzites, with numerous intrusive sheets of diorite, the whole
+  having been metamorphosed by pressure, with frequent overfolding.
+  Extensive subsequent metamorphism has been produced by the invasion of
+  great masses of granite. Similar rocks come up along the Ox Mountain
+  axis, and occupy the wild west of Mayo and Connemara. The quartzites
+  here form bare white cones and ridges, notably in Errigal and Aghla
+  Mt. in county Donegal, and in the group of the Twelve Bens in county
+  Galway.
+
+  Following on these rocks of unknown but obviously high antiquity, we
+  find fossiliferous Ordovician (Lower Silurian) strata near Killary
+  harbour on the west, graduating upwards into a complete Gotlandian
+  (Upper Silurian) system. Massive conglomerates occur in these series,
+  which are unconformable on the Dalradian rocks of Connemara. In the
+  Wenlock beds of the west of the Dingle promontory there are
+  contemporaneous tuffs and lavas. Here the Ludlow strata are followed
+  by a thick series of barren beds (the Dingle Beds), which have been
+  variously claimed as Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian. No certain
+  representative of the Dingle Beds has been traced elsewhere throughout
+  the south of Ireland, where the Old Red Sandstone succeeds the
+  uptilted Silurian strata with striking unconformity. The Silurian
+  rocks were indeed greatly folded before the Old Red Sandstone was laid
+  down, the general trend of the folds being from south-west to
+  north-east. The best example of these folds is the axis of Leinster,
+  its core being occupied by granite which is now exposed continuously
+  for 70 m., forming a moorland from Dublin to New Ross. On either flank
+  the Silurian shales, slates and sandstones, which are very rarely
+  fossiliferous, rise with steep dips. They are often contorted, and
+  near the contact with the granite pass into mica-schists and
+  quartzites. The foothills and lowlands throughout southern Wicklow and
+  almost the whole of Wexford, and the corresponding country of western
+  Wicklow and eastern Kildare, are thus formed of Silurian beds, in
+  which numerous contemporaneous and also intrusive igneous rocks are
+  intercalated, striking like the chain N.E. and S.W. In south-eastern
+  Wexford, in northern Wicklow (from Ashford to Bray), and in the
+  promontory of Howth on Dublin Bay, an apparently earlier series of
+  green and red slates and quartzites forms an important feature. The
+  quartzites, like those of the Dalradian series, weather out in cones,
+  such as the two Sugarloaves south of Bray, or in knob-set ridges, such
+  as the crest of Howth or Carrick Mt. in county Wicklow. The radial or
+  fan-shaped markings known as _Oldhamia_ were first detected in this
+  series, but are now known from Cambrian beds in other countries; in
+  default of other satisfactory fossils, the series of Bray and Howth
+  has long been held to be Cambrian.
+
+  All across Ireland, from the Ballyhoura Hills on the Cork border to
+  the southern shore of Belfast Lough, slaty and sandy Silurian beds
+  appear in the axes of the anticlinal folds, surrounded by Old Red
+  Sandstone scarps or Carboniferous Limestone lowlands. These Silurian
+  areas give rise to hummocky regions, where small hills abound, without
+  much relation to the trend of the axis of elevation. The most
+  important area appears north of the town of Longford, and extends
+  thence to the coast of Down. In Slieve Glah it reaches a height of
+  1057 ft. above the sea. Granite is exposed along its axis from near
+  Newry to Slieve Croob, and again appears at Crossdoney in county
+  Cavan. These occurrences of granite, with that of Leinster, in
+  connexion with the folding of the Silurian strata, make it highly
+  probable that many of the granites of the Dalradian areas, which have
+  a similar trend and which have invaded the schists so intimately as to
+  form with them a composite gneiss, date also from a post-Silurian
+  epoch of earth-movement. Certain western and northern granites are
+  however older, since granite boulders occur in Silurian conglomerates
+  derived from the Dalradian complex.
+
+  This group of N.E. and S.W. ridges and hollows, so conspicuous in the
+  present conformation of Donegal, Sligo and Mayo, in the axis of Newry,
+  and in the yet bolder Leinster Chain, was impressed upon the Irish
+  region at the close of Silurian times, and is clearly a part of the
+  "Caledonian" system of folds, which gave to Europe the guiding lines
+  of the Scottish Highlands and of Scandinavia.
+
+  [Illustration: Map of Ireland.]
+
+  On the land-surface thus formed the Devonian lakes gathered, while the
+  rivers poured into them enormous deposits of sand and conglomerate. A
+  large exposure of this Old Red Sandstone stretches from Enniskillen
+  to the Silurian beds at Pomeroy, and some contemporaneous andesites
+  are included, reminding us of the volcanic activity at the same epoch
+  in Scotland. The numerous "felstone" dikes, often lamprophyric,
+  occurring in the north and west of Ireland, are probably also of
+  Devonian age. The conglomerates appear at intervals through the
+  limestone covering of central Ireland, and usually weather out as
+  conspicuous scarps or "hog's-backs." The Slieve Bloom Mountains are
+  thus formed of a dome of Old Red Sandstone folded on a core of
+  unconformable Silurian strata; while in several cases the domes are
+  worn through, leaving rings of Old Red Sandstone hills, scarping
+  inwards towards broad exposures of Silurian shales. The Old Red
+  Sandstone is most fully manifest in the rocky or heather-clad ridges
+  that run from the west of Kerry to central Waterford, rising to 3414
+  ft. in Carrantuohill in Macgillicuddy's Reeks, and 3015 ft. in
+  Galtymore. In the Dingle Promontory the conglomerates of this period
+  rest with striking unconformity on the Dingle Beds and Upper Silurian
+  series. Here there may be a local break between Lower and Upper
+  Devonian strata. The highest beds of Old Red Sandstone type pass up
+  conformably in the south of Ireland into the Lower Carboniferous,
+  through the "Yellow Sandstone Series" and the "Coomhola Grits" above
+  it. The Yellow Sandstone contains _Archanodon_, the oldest known
+  fresh-water mollusc, and plant-remains; the Coomhola Grits are marine,
+  and are sometimes regarded as Carboniferous, sometimes as uppermost
+  Devonian.
+
+  [Illustration: Geological Map of Ireland.]
+
+  In the south, the Carboniferous deposits open with the Carboniferous
+  Slate, in the base of which the Coomhola Grits occur. Its lower part
+  represents the Lower Carboniferous Shales and Sandstones of the
+  central and northern areas, while its upper part corresponds with a
+  portion of the Carboniferous Limestone. The Carboniferous Limestone,
+  laid down in a sea which covered nearly the whole Irish area, appears
+  in the synclinal folds at Cork city and Kenmare, and is the prevalent
+  rock from the north side of the Knockmealdown Mountains to Enniskillen
+  and Donegal Bay. On the east it spreads to Drogheda and Dublin, and on
+  the west to the heart of Mayo and of Clare. Loughs Mask and Corrib are
+  thus bounded on the west by rugged Silurian and Dalradian highlands,
+  and on the east appear as mere water-filled hollows in the great
+  limestone plain.
+
+  The Lower Carboniferous Sandstones are conspicuous in the region from
+  Milltown near Inver Bay in southern Donegal to Ballycastle in county
+  Antrim. In the latter place they contain workable coal-seams. The
+  Carboniferous Limestone often contains black flint (chert), and at
+  some horizons conglomerates occur, the pebbles being derived from the
+  unconformable ridges of the "Caledonian" land. A black and often shaly
+  type called "calp" contains much clay derived from the same
+  land-surface. While the limestone has been mainly worn down to a
+  lowland, it forms fine scarps and table-lands in county Sligo and
+  other western regions. Subterranean rivers and water-worn caves
+  provide a special type of scenery below the surface. Contemporaneous
+  volcanic action is recorded by tuffs and lavas south-east of Limerick
+  and north of Philipstown. The beds above the limestone are shales and
+  sandstones, sometimes reaching the true Coal-Measures, but rarely
+  younger than the English Millstone Grit. They are well seen in the
+  high ground about Lough Allen, where the Shannon rises on them, round
+  the Castlecomer and Killenaule coalfields, and in a broad area from
+  the north of Clare to Killarney. Some coals occur in the Millstone
+  Grit horizons. The Upper Coal-Measures, as a rule, have been lost by
+  denudation, much of which occurred before Triassic times. South of the
+  line between Galway and Dublin the coal is anthracitic, while north of
+  this line it is bituminous. The northern coalfields are the L.
+  Carboniferous one at Ballycastle, the high outliers of Millstone Grit
+  and Coal-Measures round Lough Allen, and the Dungannon and Coalisland
+  field in county Tyrone. The last named is in part concealed by
+  Triassic strata. The only important occurrences of coal in the south
+  are in eastern Tipperary, near Killenaule, and in the Leinster
+  coalfield (counties Kilkenny and Carlow and Queen's County), where
+  there is a high synclinal field, including Lower and Middle
+  Coal-Measures, and resembling in structure the Forest of Dean area in
+  England.
+
+  The "Hercynian" earth-movements, which so profoundly affected
+  north-west and north-central Europe at the close of Carboniferous
+  times, gave rise to a series of east and west folds in the Irish
+  region. The Upper Carboniferous beds were thus lifted within easy
+  reach of denuding forces, while the Old Red Sandstone, and the
+  underlying "Caledonian" land-surface, were brought up from below in
+  the cores of domes and anticlines. In the south, even the
+  Carboniferous Limestone has been so far removed that it is found only
+  in the floors of the synclinals. The effect of the structure of these
+  folds on the courses of rivers in the south of Ireland is discussed in
+  the paragraphs dealing with the geology of county Cork. The present
+  central plain itself may be regarded as a vast shallow synclinal,
+  including a multitude of smaller folds. The earth-wrinkles of this
+  epoch were turned into a north-easterly direction by the pre-existing
+  Leinster Chain, and the trend of the anticlinal from Limerick to the
+  Slieve Bloom Mountains, and that of the synclinal of Millstone Grit
+  and Coal-Measures from Cashel through the Leinster coalfield, bear
+  witness to the resistance of this granite mass. The Triassic beds rest
+  on the various Carboniferous series in turn, indicating, as in
+  England, the amount of denudation that followed on the uplift of the
+  Hercynian land. Little encouragement can therefore be given in Ireland
+  to the popular belief in vast hidden coalfields.
+
+  The Permian sea has left traces at Holywood on Belfast Lough and near
+  Stewartstown in county Tyrone. Certain conglomeratic beds on which
+  Armagh is built are also believed to be of Permian age. The Triassic
+  sandstones and marls, with marine Rhaetic beds above, are preserved
+  mainly round the basaltic plateaus of the north-east, and extend for
+  some distance into county Down. An elongated outlier south of
+  Carrickmacross indicates their former presence over a much wider area.
+  Rock-salt occurs in these beds north of Carrickfergus.
+
+  The Jurassic system is represented in Ireland by the Lower Lias alone,
+  and it is probable that no marine beds higher than the Upper Lias were
+  deposited during this period. From Permian times onward, in fact, the
+  Irish area lay on the western margin of the seas that played so large
+  a part in determining the geology of Europe. The Lower Lias appears at
+  intervals under the scarp of the basaltic plateaus, and contributes,
+  as in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, to the formation of landslips along
+  the coast. The alteration of the fossiliferous Lias by dolerite at
+  Portrush into a flinty rock that looked like basalt served at one time
+  as a prop for the "Neptunist" theory of the origin of igneous rocks.
+  Denudation, consequent on the renewed uplift of the country, affected
+  the Jurassic beds until the middle of Cretaceous times. The sea then
+  returned, in the north-east at any rate, and the first Cretaceous
+  deposits indicate the nearness of a shore-line. Dark "green-sands,"
+  very rich in glauconite, are followed by yellow sandstones with some
+  flint. These two stages represent the Upper Greensand, or the sandy
+  type of the English Gault. Further sands represent the Cenomanian. The
+  Turonian is also sandy, but in most areas was not deposited, or has
+  been denuded away during a local uplift that preceded Senonian times.
+  The Senonian limestone itself, which rests in the extreme north on
+  Trias or even on the schists, is often conglomeratic and glauconitic
+  at the base, the pebbles being worn from the old metamorphic series.
+  The term "Hibernian Greensand" was used by Tate for all the beds below
+  the Senonian; the quarrymen know the conglomeratic Senonian as
+  "Mulatto-stone." The Senonian chalk, or "White Limestone," is hard,
+  with numerous bands of flint, and suffered from denudation in early
+  Eocene times. Probably its original thickness was not more than 150
+  ft., while now only from 40 to 100 ft. remain. This chalk appears to
+  underlie nearly the whole basaltic plateaus, appearing as a fringe
+  round them, and also in an inlier at Templepatrick. The western limit
+  was probably found in the edge of the old continental land in Donegal.
+  Chalk flints occur frequently in the surface-deposits of the south of
+  Ireland, associated with rocks brought from the north during the
+  glacial epoch, and probably also of northern origin. It is just
+  possible, however, that here and there the Cretaceous sea that spread
+  over Devonshire may have penetrated the Irish area.
+
+  After the Irish chalk had been worn into rolling downs, on which
+  flint-gravels gathered, the great epoch of volcanic activity opened,
+  which was destined to change the character of the whole north-west
+  European area. The critical time had arrived when the sea was to be
+  driven away eastward, while the immense ridges due to the "Alpine"
+  movements were about to emerge as the backbones of new continental
+  lands. Fissure after fissure, running with remarkable constancy N.W.
+  and S.E., broke through the region now occupied by the British Isles,
+  and basalt was pressed up along these cracks, forming thousands of
+  dikes, from the coast of Down to the Dalradian ridges of Donegal. One
+  of these on the north side of Lough Erne is 15 m. long. The more
+  deep-seated type of these rocks is seen in the olivine-gabbro mass of
+  Carlingford Mountain; but most of the igneous region became covered
+  with sheets of basaltic lava, which filled up the hollows of the
+  downs, baked the gravels into a layer of red flints, and built up,
+  pile upon pile, the great plateaus of the north. There was little
+  explosive action, and few of the volcanic vents can now be traced.
+  After a time, a quiet interval allowed of the formation of lakes, in
+  which red iron-ores were laid down. The plant-remains associated with
+  these beds form the only clue to the post-Cretaceous period in which
+  the volcanic epoch opened, and they have been placed by Mr Starkie
+  Gardner in recent years as early Eocene. During this time of
+  comparative rest, rhyolites were extruded locally in county Antrim;
+  and there is very strong evidence that the granite of the Mourne
+  Mountains, and that which cuts the Carlingford gabbro, were added at
+  the same time to the crust. The basalt again broke out, through dikes
+  that cut even the Mourne granite, and some of the best-known columnar
+  masses of lava overlie the red deposits of iron-ore and mark this
+  second basaltic epoch. The volcanic plateaus clearly at one time
+  extended far west and south of their present limits, and the
+  denudation of the lava-flows has allowed a large area of Mesozoic
+  strata also to disappear.
+
+  Volcanic activity may have extended into Miocene times; but the only
+  fossiliferous relics of Cainozoic periods later than the Eocene are
+  the pale clays and silicified lignites on the south shore of Lough
+  Neagh, and the shelly gravels of pre-glacial age in county Wexford.
+  Both these deposits may be Pliocene. Probably before this period the
+  movements of subsidence had set in which faulted the basalt plateaus,
+  lowered them to form the basin of Lough Neagh, and broke up the
+  continuity of the volcanic land of the North Atlantic area. As the
+  Atlantic spread into the valleys on the west of Ireland, forming the
+  well-known marine inlets, Europe grew, under the influence of the
+  "Alpine" movements, upon the east; and Ireland was caught in, as it
+  were, on the western edge of the new continent. It seems likely that
+  it was separated from the British region shortly before the glacial
+  epoch, and that some of the ice which then abutted on the country
+  travelled across shallow seas. The glacial deposits profoundly
+  modified the surface of the country, whether they resulted from the
+  melting of the ice-sheets of the time of maximum glaciation, or from
+  the movements of local glaciers. Boulder-clays and sands, and gravels
+  rearranged by water, occur throughout the lowlands; while the eskers
+  or "green hills," characteristic grass-covered ridges of gravel, rise
+  from the great plain, or run athwart valleys and over hill-sides,
+  marking the courses of sub-glacial streams. When the superficial
+  deposits are removed, the underlying rocks are found to be scored and
+  smoothed by ice-action, and whole mountain-sides in the south and west
+  have been similarly moulded during the Glacial epoch. In numerous
+  cases, lakelets have gathered under rocky cirques behind the terminal
+  moraines of the last surviving glaciers.
+
+  There is no doubt that at this epoch various movements of elevation
+  and subsidence affected the north-west of Europe, and modern Ireland
+  may have had extensions into warmer regions on the west and south,
+  while the area now left to us was almost buried under ice. In
+  post-Glacial times, a subsidence admitted the sea into the Lagan
+  valley and across the eastern shore in several places; but elevation,
+  in the days of early human occupation, brought these last marine
+  deposits to light, and raised the beaches and shore-terraces some 10
+  to 20 ft. along the coast. At Larne, Greenore and in the neck between
+  Howth and Dublin, these raised beaches remain conspicuous. To sum up,
+  then, while the main structural features of Ireland were impressed
+  upon her before the opening of the Mesozoic era, her present outline
+  and superficial contours date from an epoch of climatic and
+  geographical change which falls within the human period.
+
+  See maps and explanatory memoirs of the _Geological Survey of
+  Ireland_ (Dublin); G. Wilkinson, _Practical Geology and Ancient
+  Architecture of Ireland_ (London, 1845); R. Kane, _Industrial
+  Resources of Ireland_ (2nd ed., Dublin, 1845); G. H. Kinahan, _Manual
+  of the Geology of Ireland_ (London, 1878); E. Hull, _Physical Geology
+  and Geography of Ireland_ (2nd ed., London, 1891); G. H. Kinahan,
+  _Economic Geology of Ireland_ (Dublin, 1889); A. McHenry and W. W.
+  Watts, _Guide to the Collection of Rocks and Fossils, Geol. Survey of
+  Ireland_ (2nd ed., Dublin, 1898).     (G. A. J. C.)
+
+
+ECONOMICS AND ADMINISTRATION
+
+_Population._--Various computations are in existence of the population
+of Ireland prior to 1821, in which year the first government census was
+taken. According to Sir William Petty the number of inhabitants in 1672
+was 1,320,000. About a century later the tax-collectors estimated the
+population at a little over 2,500,000, and in 1791 the same officials
+calculated that the number had risen to over 4,200,000. The census
+commissioners returned the population in 1821 as 6,801,827, in 1831 as
+7,767,401, and in 1841 as 8,196,597. It is undoubted that a great
+increase of population set in towards the close of the 18th century and
+continued during the first 40 years or so of the 19th. This increase was
+due to a variety of causes--the improvement in the political condition
+of the country, the creation of leaseholds after the abolition of the
+40s. franchise, the productiveness and easy cultivation of the potato,
+the high prices during the war with France, and probably not least to
+the natural prolificness of the Irish people. But the census returns of
+1851 showed a remarkable alteration--a decrease during the previous
+decade of over 1,500,000--and since that date, as the following table
+shows, the continuous decrease in the number of its inhabitants has been
+the striking feature in the vital statistics of Ireland.
+
+  _Decrease per cent. of Population 1841-1901._
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |1841-1851.|1851-1861.|1861-1871.|1871-1881.|1881-1891.|1891-1901.|
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  | Leinster |   15.25  |   12.86  |    8.11  |    4.49  |    6.8   |    3.5   |
+  | Munster  |   22.47  |   18.53  |    7.93  |    4.98  |   11.8   |    8.4   |
+  | Ulster   |   15.69  |    4.85  |    4.23  |    5.11  |    7.07  |    2.4   |
+  | Connaught|   28.81  |    9.59  |    7.33  |    3.43  |   12.4   |    9.7   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  | Ireland  |   19.85  |   11.50  |    6.67  |    4.69  |    9.08  |    5.3   |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+The cause of the continuous though varying decrease which these figures
+reveal has been emigration. This movement of population took its first
+great impulse from the famine of 1846 and has continued ever since. When
+that disaster fell upon the country it found a teeming population
+fiercely competing for a very narrow margin of subsistence; and so
+widespread and devastating were its effects that between 1847 and 1852
+over 1,200,000 of the Irish people emigrated to other lands. More than
+1,000,000 of these went to the United States of America, and to that
+country the main stream has ever since been directed. Between 1851 and
+1905 4,028,589 emigrants left Ireland--2,092,154 males and 1,936,435
+females, the proportion of females to males being extraordinarily high
+as compared with the emigration statistics of other countries. Between
+these years the numbers fluctuated widely--1852 showing the highest
+total, 190,322 souls, and 1905 the lowest, 30,676 souls. Since 1892,
+however, the emigrants in any one year have never exceeded 50,000,
+probably because the process of exhaustion has been so long in
+operation. As Ireland is mainly an agricultural country the loss of
+population has been most marked in the rural districts. The urban
+population, indeed, has for some years shown a tendency to increase.
+Thus in 1841 the rural population was returned as 7,052,923 and the
+urban as 1,143,674, while the corresponding figures in 1901 were
+respectively 3,073,846 and 1,384,929. This is further borne out by the
+percentages given in the above table, from which it will be seen that
+the greatest proportional decrease of population has occurred in the two
+provinces of Munster and Connaught, which may be regarded as almost
+purely agricultural. That the United States remained the great centre of
+attraction for Irish emigrants is proved by the returns for 1905, which
+show that nearly 80% of the whole number for the year sailed for that
+country. Ireland does little to swell the rising tide of emigration
+that now flows from England and Scotland to British North America.
+
+Turning now to the census figures of 1901, we find that the population
+had diminished as compared with 1891 by 245,975. During the decade only
+three counties, Dublin, Down and Antrim, showed any increase, the
+increase being due to the growth of certain urban areas. Of the total
+population of 4,458,775, 2,200,040 were males and 2,258,735 were
+females. The inhabitants of the rural districts (3,073,846) decreased
+during the decade by over 380,000; that of the urban districts, i.e. of
+all towns of not less than 2000 inhabitants (1,384,929) increased by
+over 140,000. This increase was mainly due to the growth of a few of the
+larger towns, notably of Belfast, the chief industrial centre of
+Ireland. Between 1891 and 1901 Belfast increased from 273,079 to
+349,180; Dublin from 268,587 to 289,108; and Londonderry, another
+industrial centre in Ulster, from 33,200 to 39,873. On the other hand,
+towns like Cork (75,978), Waterford (26,743) and Limerick (38,085),
+remained almost stationary during the ten years, but the urban districts
+of Pembroke and of Rathmines and Rathgar, which are practically suburbs
+of Dublin, showed considerable increases.
+
+  From the returns of occupation in 1901, it appears that the indefinite
+  or non-productive class accounted for about 55% of the entire
+  population. The next largest class was the agricultural, which
+  numbered 876,062, a decrease of about 40,000 as compared with 1891.
+  The industrial class fell from 656,410 to 639,413, but this
+  represented a slight increase in the percentage of the population. The
+  professional class was 131,035, the domestic 219,418, and the
+  commercial had risen from 83,173 in 1891 to 97,889 in 1901. The
+  following table shows the number of births and deaths registered in
+  Ireland during the five years 1901-1905.
+
+    +------+---------+---------+
+    |      | Births. | Deaths. |
+    +------+---------+---------+
+    | 1901 | 100,976 |  79,119 |
+    | 1902 | 101,863 |  77,676 |
+    | 1903 | 101,831 |  77,358 |
+    | 1904 | 103,811 |  79,513 |
+    | 1905 | 102,832 |  75,071 |
+    +------+---------+---------+
+
+  The number of illegitimate births is always very small in proportion
+  to the legitimate. In 1905 illegitimate births numbered 2710 or 2.6 of
+  the whole, a percentage which has been very constant for a number of
+  years.
+
+_Railways._--The first act of parliament authorizing a railway in
+Ireland was passed in 1831. The railway was to run from Dublin to
+Kingstown, a distance of about 6 m., and was opened in 1834. In 1836 the
+Ulster railway to connect Belfast and Armagh, and the Dublin and
+Drogheda railway uniting these two towns were sanctioned. In the same
+year commissioners were nominated by the crown to inquire (_inter alia_)
+as to a general system for railways in Ireland, and as to the best mode
+of directing the development of the means of intercourse to the channels
+whereby the greatest advantage might be obtained by the smallest outlay.
+The commissioners presented a very valuable report in 1838, but its
+specific recommendations were never adopted by the government, though
+they ultimately proved of service to the directors of private
+enterprises. Railway development in Ireland progressed at first very
+slowly and by 1845 only some 65 m. of railway were open. During the next
+ten years, however, there was a considerable advance, and in 1855 the
+Irish railways extended to almost 1000 m. The total authorized capital
+of all Irish railways, exclusive of light railways, at the end of 1905
+was L42,881,201, and the paid-up capital, including loans and debenture
+stock, amounted to L37,238,888. The total gross receipts from all
+sources of traffic in 1905 were L4,043,368, of which L2,104,108 was
+derived from passenger traffic and L1,798,520 from goods traffic. The
+total number of passengers carried (exclusive of season and periodical
+ticket-holders) was 27,950,150. Under the various acts passed to
+facilitate the construction of light railways in backward districts some
+15 lines have been built, principally in the western part of the island
+from Donegal to Kerry. These railways are worked by existing companies.
+
+
+  The following table shows the principal Irish railways, their mileage
+  and the districts which they serve.
+
+    +-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+
+    |     Name of Railway.    |Mileage.|            Districts Served.            |
+    +-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+
+    |Great Southern & Western | 1083   |The southern half of Leinster, the whole |
+    |                         |        |  of Munster, and part of Connaught, the |
+    |                         |        |  principal towns served being Dublin,   |
+    |                         |        |  Cork, Waterford, Limerick and Sligo.   |
+    |Midland Great Western    |  538   |The central districts of Ireland and a   |
+    |                         |        |  great part of Connaught, the principal |
+    |                         |        |  towns served being Dublin, Athlone,    |
+    |                         |        |  Galway and Sligo.                      |
+    |Great Northern           |  533   |The northern half of Leinster and a      |
+    |                         |        |  great part of Ulster, the principal    |
+    |                         |        |  towns served being Dublin, Belfast,    |
+    |                         |        |  Londonderry, Dundalk, Drogheda, Armagh |
+    |                         |        |  and Lisburn.                           |
+    |Northern Counties^1 (now |  249   |The counties of Antrim,                  |
+    |  owned by the Midland   |        |  Tyrone and Londonderry.                |
+    |  Railway of England)    |        |                                         |
+    |Dublin & South Eastern^2 |  161   |The counties of Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford |
+    |                         |        |  and Waterford.                         |
+    |Donegal                  |  106   |The counties of Tyrone and Donegal.      |
+    |Londonderry & Lough      |   99   |The counties of Londonderry and Donegal. |
+    |  Swilly                 |        |                                         |
+    |Cork, Bandon & South     |   95   |The counties of Cork and Kerry.          |
+    |  Coast                  |        |                                         |
+    |Belfast & County Down    |   76   |The county of Down.                      |
+    +-------------------------+--------+-----------------------------------------+
+      ^1  Formerly Belfast and Northern Counties.
+      ^2  Formerly Dublin, Wicklow and Wexford.
+
+  There is no lack of cross-channel services between Ireland and Great
+  Britain. Belfast is connected by daily sailings with Glasgow,
+  Ardrossan, Liverpool, Feetwood, Barrow and Heysham Harbour, Dublin
+  with Holyhead and Liverpool, Greenore (Co. Down) with Holyhead, Larne
+  (Co. Antrim) with Stranraer, Rosslare (Co. Wexford) with Fishguard and
+  Kingstown (Co. Dublin) with Holyhead.
+
+  _Navigable Waterways._--Ireland is intersected by a network of canals
+  and waterways, which if efficiently managed and developed would prove
+  of immense service to the country by affording a cheap means for the
+  carriage of goods, especially agricultural produce. Two canals--the
+  Grand and the Royal--connect Dublin with the Shannon; the former
+  leading from the south of Dublin to Shannon Harbour and thence on the
+  other side of that river to Ballinasloe, with numerous branches; the
+  latter from the north side of Dublin to Cloondera on the Shannon, with
+  a branch to Longford. The Barrow Navigation connects a branch of the
+  Grand canal with the tidal part of the river Barrow. In Ulster the
+  Bann navigation connects Coleraine, by means of Lough Neagh, with the
+  Lagan navigation which serves Belfast; and the Ulster canal connects
+  Lough Neagh with Lough Erne. The river Shannon is navigable for a
+  distance of 143 m. in a direct course and occupies almost a central
+  position between the east and west coasts.
+
+_Agriculture._--Ireland possesses as a whole a soil which is naturally
+fertile and easily cultivated. Strong heavy clay soils, sandy and
+gravelly soils, are almost entirely absent; and the mixture of soil
+arising from the various stratifications and from the detritus carried
+down to the plains has created many districts of remarkable richness.
+The "Golden Vein" in Munster, which stretches from Cashel in Tipperary
+to near Limerick, probably forms the most fertile part of the country.
+The banks of the rivers Shannon, Suir, Nore, Barrow and Bann are lined
+with long stretches of flat lands capable of producing fine crops. In
+the districts of the Old and New Red Sandstone, which include the
+greater part of Cork and portions of Kerry, Waterford, Tyrone,
+Fermanagh, Monaghan, Mayo and Tipperary, the soil in the hollows is
+generally remarkably fertile. Even in the mountainous districts which
+are unsuitable for tillage there is often sufficient soil to yield, with
+the aid of the moist atmosphere, abundant pasturage of good quality. The
+excessive moisture in wet seasons in however hostile to cereal crops,
+especially in the southern and western districts, though improved
+drainage has done something to mitigate this evil, and might do a great
+deal more.
+
+Irish political history has largely affected the condition of
+agriculture. Confiscations and settlements, prohibitive laws (such as
+those which ruined the woollen industry), penal enactments against the
+Roman Catholics, absenteeism, the creation for political purposes of
+40s. freeholders, and other factors have combined to form a story which
+makes painful reading from whatever point of view, social or political,
+it be regarded. Happily, however, at the beginning of the 20th century
+Irish agriculture presented two new features which can be described
+without necessarily arousing any party question--the work of the
+Department of Agriculture and the spread of the principle of
+co-operation. Another outstanding feature has been the effect of the
+Land Purchase Acts in transferring the ownership of the land from the
+landlords to the tenants. Before dealing with these three features, some
+general statistics may be given bearing upon the condition of Irish
+agriculture.
+
+  _Number of Holdings._--Before 1846 the number of small holdings was
+  inordinately large. In 1841, for example, there were no less than
+  310,436 of between 1 and 5 acres in extent, and 252,799 of between 5
+  and 15 acres. This condition of affairs was due mainly to two
+  causes--to the 40s. franchise which prevailed between 1793 and 1829,
+  and after that date to the fierce competition for land by a rapidly
+  increasing population which had no other source of livelihood than
+  agriculture. But the potato famine and the repeal of the Corn Laws,
+  occurring almost simultaneously, caused an immediate and startling
+  diminution in the number of smaller holdings. In 1851 the number
+  between 1 and 5 acres in extent had fallen to 88,033 and the number
+  between 5 and 15 acres had fallen to 191,854. Simultaneously the
+  number between 15 and 30 acres had increased from 79,342 to 141,311,
+  and the number above 30 acres from 48,625 to 149,090.
+
+  Since 1851 these tendencies have not been so marked. Thus in 1905 the
+  number of holdings between 1 and 5 acres was 62,126, the number
+  between 5 and 15 acres 154,560, the number between 15 and 30 acres
+  134,370 and the number above 30 acres 164,747. Generally speaking,
+  however, it will be seen from the figures that since the middle of the
+  19th century holdings between 1 and 30 acres have decreased and
+  holdings over 30 acres have increased. Of the total holdings under 30
+  acres considerably more than one-third are in Ulster, and of the
+  holdings over 30 acres more than one-third are in Munster. The number
+  of holdings of over 500 acres is only 1526, of which 475 are in
+  Connaught. A considerable proportion, however, of these larger
+  holdings, especially in Connaught, consist of more or less waste land,
+  which at the best can only be used for raising a few sheep.
+
+  _Tillage and Pasturage._--The fact that probably about 1,000,000 acres
+  formerly under potatoes went out of cultivation owing to the potato
+  disease in 1847 makes a comparison between the figures for crops in
+  that year with present figures somewhat fallacious. Starting, however,
+  with that year as the most important in Irish economic history in
+  modern times, we find that between 1847 and 1905 the total area under
+  crops--cereals, green crops, flax, meadow and clover--decreased by
+  582,348 acres. Up to 1861, as the area formerly under potatoes came
+  back gradually into cultivation, the acreage under crops increased;
+  but since that year, when the total crop area was 5,890,536 acres,
+  there has been a steady and gradual decline, the area in 1905 having
+  fallen to 4,656,227 acres. An analysis of the returns shows that the
+  decline has been most marked in the acreage under cereal crops,
+  especially wheat. In 1847 the number of acres under wheat was 743,871
+  and there has been a steady and practically continuous decrease ever
+  since, the wheat acreage in 1905 being only 37,860 acres. In that year
+  the wheat area, excluding less than 5000 acres in Connaught, was
+  pretty equally divided between the other three provinces. Oats has
+  always been the staple cereal crop in Ireland, but since 1847 its
+  cultivation has declined by over 50%. In that year 2,200,870 acres
+  were under oats and in 1905 only 1,066,806 acres. Nearly one-half of
+  the area under oats is to be found in Ulster; Leinster and Munster are
+  fairly equal; and Connaught has something over 100,000 acres under
+  this crop. The area under barley and rye has also declined during the
+  period under review by about one-half--from 345,070 acres in 1847 to
+  164,800 in 1905. The growing of these crops is confined almost
+  entirely to Leinster and Munster. Taking all the cereal crops
+  together, their cultivation during the last 60 years has gradually
+  declined (from 3,313,579 acres in 1847 to 1,271,190 in 1905) by over
+  50%. The area, however, under green crops--potatoes, turnips,
+  mangel-wurzel, beet, cabbage, &c., shows during the same period a much
+  less marked decline--only some 300,000 acres. There has been a very
+  considerable decrease since about 1861 in the acreage under potatoes.
+  This is probably due to two causes--the emigration of the poorer
+  classes who subsisted on that form of food, and the gradual
+  introduction of a more varied dietary. The total area under potatoes
+  in 1905 was 616,755 acres as compared with 1,133,504 acres in 1861.
+  Since about 1885 the acreage under turnips has remained fairly
+  stationary in the neighbourhood of 300,000 acres, while the
+  cultivation of mangel-wurzel has considerably increased. Outside the
+  recognized cereal and green crops, two others may be considered, flax
+  and meadow and clover. The cultivation of the former is practically
+  confined to Ulster and as compared with 20 or 30 years ago has fallen
+  off by considerably more than 50%, despite the proximity of the linen
+  industry. The number of acres under flax in 1905 was only 46,158. The
+  Department of Agriculture has made efforts to improve and foster its
+  cultivation, but without any marked results as regards increasing the
+  area sown. During the period under review the area under meadow and
+  clover has increased by more than 50%, rising from 1,138,946 acres in
+  1847 to 2,294,506 in 1905. It would thus appear that a large
+  proportion of the land which has ceased to bear cereal or green crops
+  is now laid down in meadow and clover. The balance has become
+  pasturage, and the total area under grass in Ireland has so largely
+  increased that it now embraces more than one-half of the entire
+  country. This increase of the pastoral lands, with the corresponding
+  decrease of the cropped lands, has been the marked feature of Irish
+  agricultural returns since 1847. It is attributable to three chief
+  reasons, the dearth of labour owing to emigration, the greater fall in
+  prices of produce as compared with live stock, and the natural
+  richness of the Irish pastures. The following table shows the growth
+  of pasturage and the shrinkage of the crop areas since 1860.
+
+    +------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+
+    |      |            | Cultivated |Crops (other|  Meadow   |            |
+    | Year.| Total Area.| Area (Crops|than Meadow |   and     |   Grass.   |
+    |      |            | and Grass).|and Clover).|  Clover.  |            |
+    +------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+
+    | 1860 | 20,284,893 | 15,453,773 | 4,375,621  | 1,594,518 |  9,483,634 |
+    | 1880 | 20,327,764 | 15,340,192 | 3,171,259  | 1,909,825 | 10,259,108 |
+    | 1900 | 20,333,344 | 15,222,104 | 2,493,017  | 2,165,715 | 10,563,372 |
+    | 1905 | 20,350,725 | 15,232,699 | 2,410,813  | 2,224,165 | 10,597,721 |
+    +------+------------+------------+------------+-----------+------------+
+
+  One more table may be given showing the proportional areas under the
+  various kinds of crops, grass, woods and plantations, fallow, bog,
+  waste, &c., over a series of years.
+
+    +------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+
+    |      |Cereal|Green |Meadow |      |   Total    |      |       |      |
+    | Year.|Crops.|Crops.|  and  |Grass.|Agricultural|Woods.|Fallow.|Waste.|
+    |      |      |      |Clover.|      |   Land.    |      |       |      |
+    +------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+
+    | 1851 | 15.2 |  6.7 |  6.1  | 43.0 |    71.0    |  1.5 |  1.0  | 25.7 |
+    | 1880 |  8.1 |  5.5 |  8.1  | 50.5 |    72.2    |  1.7 |  0.0  | 22.8 |
+    | 1905 |  6.3 |  5.3 | 11.3  | 52.1 |    75.0    |  1.5 |  0.0  | 23.5 |
+    +------+------+------+-------+------+------------+------+-------+------+
+
+  _Produce and Live Stock._--With the decrease of the area under cereal
+  and green crops and the increase of pasturage there has naturally been
+  a serious fall in the amount of agricultural produce and a
+  considerable rise in the number of live stock since the middle of the
+  19th century. Thus in 1851 the number of cattle was returned as
+  2,967,461 and in 1905 as 4,645,215, the increase during the
+  intervening period having been pretty gradual and general. Sheep in
+  1851 numbered 2,122,128 and in 1905 3,749,352, but the increase in
+  this case has not been so continuous, several of the intervening years
+  showing a considerably higher total than 1905, and for a good many
+  years past the number of sheep has tended to decline. The number of
+  pigs has also varied considerably from year to year, 1905 showing an
+  increase of about 150,000 as compared with 1851.
+
+_The Department of Agriculture._--By an act of 1899 a Department of
+Agriculture and other industries and technical instruction was
+established in Ireland. To this department were transferred numerous
+powers and duties previously exercised by other authorities, including
+the Department of Science and Art. To assist the department the act also
+provided for the establishment of a council of agriculture, an
+agricultural board and a board of technical instruction, specifying the
+constitution of each of the three bodies. Certain moneys (exceeding
+L180,000 per annum) were placed by the act at the disposal of the
+department, provisions were made for their application, and it was
+enacted that local authorities might contribute funds. The powers and
+duties of the department are very wide, but under the present section
+its chief importance lies in its administrative work with regard to
+agriculture. In the annual reports of the department this work is
+usually treated under three heads: (1) agricultural instruction, (2)
+improvement of live stock, and (3) special investigations.
+
+  1. The ultimate aim of the department's policy in the matter of
+  agricultural instruction is, as defined by itself, to place within the
+  reach of a large number of young men and young women the means of
+  obtaining in their own country a good technical knowledge of all
+  subjects relating to agriculture, an object which prior to the
+  establishment of the department was for all practical purposes
+  unattainable. Before such a scheme could be put into operation two
+  things had to be done. In the first place, the department had to train
+  teachers of agricultural subjects; and secondly, it had to demonstrate
+  to farmers all over Ireland by a system of itinerant instruction some
+  of the advantages of such technical instruction, in order to induce
+  them to make some sacrifice to obtain a suitable education for their
+  sons and daughters. In order to accomplish the first of these two
+  preliminaries, the department established a Faculty of Agriculture at
+  the Royal College of Science in Dublin, and offered a considerable
+  number of scholarships the competition for which becomes increasingly
+  keen. They also reorganized the Albert Agricultural College at
+  Glasnevin for young men who have neither the time nor the means to
+  attend the highly specialized courses at the Royal College of Science;
+  and the Munster Institute at Cork is now devoted solely to the
+  instruction of girls in such subjects as butter-making,
+  poultry-keeping, calf-rearing, cooking, laundry-work, sewing and
+  gardening. In addition to these three permanent institutions, local
+  schools and classes have been established in different parts of the
+  country where systematic instruction in technical agriculture is given
+  to young men. In this and in other branches of its work the department
+  is assisted by agricultural committees appointed by the county
+  councils. The number of itinerant instructors is governed entirely by
+  the available supply of qualified men. The services of every available
+  student on completing his course at the Royal College of Science are
+  secured by some county council committee. The work of the itinerant
+  instructors is very varied. They hold classes and carry out field
+  demonstrations and experiments, the results of which are duly
+  published in the department's journal. The department has also
+  endeavoured to encourage the fruit-growing industry in Ireland by the
+  establishment of a horticultural school at Glasnevin, by efforts to
+  secure uniformity in the packing and grading of fruit, by the
+  establishment of experimental fruit-preserving factories, by the
+  planting of orchards on a large scale in a few districts, and by
+  pioneer lectures. As the result of all these efforts there has been an
+  enormous increase in the demand for fruit trees of all kinds.
+
+  2. The marked tendency which has been visible for so many years in
+  Ireland for pasturage to increase at the expense of tillage makes the
+  improvement of live-stock a matter of vital importance to all
+  concerned in agriculture. Elaborate schemes applicable to
+  horse-breeding, cattle-breeding and swine-breeding, have been drawn up
+  by the department on the advice of experts, but the working of the
+  schemes is for the most part left to the various county council
+  committees. The benefits arising from these schemes are being more and
+  more realized by farmers, and the department is able to report an
+  increase in the number of pure bred cattle and horses in Ireland.
+
+  3. The special investigations carried out by the department naturally
+  vary from year to year, but one of the duties of each instructor in
+  agriculture is to conduct a number of field experiments, mainly on the
+  influence of manures and seeds in the yield of crops. The results of
+  these experiments are issued in the form of leaflets and distributed
+  widely among farmers. One of the most interesting experiments, which
+  may have far-reaching economic effects, has been in the cultivation of
+  tobacco. So far it has been proved (1) that the tobacco plant can be
+  grown successfully in Ireland, and (2) that the crop when blended with
+  American leaf can be manufactured into a mixture suitable for smoking.
+  But whether Irish tobacco can be made a profitable crop depends upon a
+  good many other considerations.
+
+_Agricultural Co-operation._--In 1894 the efforts of a number of
+Irishmen drawn from all political parties were successfully directed
+towards the formation of the Irish Agricultural Organization Society,
+which has for its object the organizing of groups of farmers on
+co-operative principles and the provision of instruction in proper
+technical methods. The society had at first many difficulties to
+confront, but after the first two or three years of its existence its
+progress became more rapid, and co-operation became beyond all question
+one of the most hopeful features in Irish agriculture.
+
+  Perhaps the chief success of the society was seen in the establishment
+  of creameries, which at the end of 1905 numbered 275--123 in Ulster,
+  102 in Munster, 20 in Leinster and 30 in Connaught. The members
+  numbered over 42,000 and the trade turnover for the year was
+  L1,245,000. Agricultural societies have been established for the
+  purchase of seed, implements, &c., on co-operative lines and of these
+  there are 150, with a membership of some 14,000. The society was also
+  successful in establishing a large number of credit societies, from
+  which farmers can borrow at a low rate of interest. There are also
+  societies for poultry-rearing, rural industries, bee-keeping,
+  bacon-curing, &c., in connexion with the central organization. The
+  system is rounded off by a number of trade federations for the sale
+  and purchase of various commodities. The Department of Agriculture
+  encourages the work of the Organization Society by an annual grant.
+
+_Land Laws._--The relations of landlord and tenant in Ireland have been
+a frequent subject of legislation (see _History_ below). Under the act
+of 1881, down to the 31st of March 1906, the rents of 360,135 holdings,
+representing nearly 11,000,000 acres, had been fixed for the first
+statutory term of 15 years either by the land commissioners or by
+agreements between landlords and tenants, the aggregate reduction being
+over 20% as compared with the old rents. The rents of 120,515 holdings,
+representing over 3,500,000 acres, had been further fixed for the second
+statutory term, the aggregate reduction being over 19% as compared with
+the first term rents. Although the acts of 1870 and 1881 provided
+facilities for the purchase of holdings by the tenants, it was only
+after the passing of the Ashbourne Act in 1885 that the transfer of
+ownership to the occupying tenants began on an extended scale. Under
+this act between 1885 and 1902, when further proceedings were suspended,
+the number of loans issued was 25,367 (4221 in Leinster; 5204 in
+Munster; 12,954 in Ulster, and 2988 in Connaught) and the amount was
+L9,992,536. Between August 1891 and April 1906, the number of loans
+issued under the acts of 1891 and 1896 was 40,395 (7838 in Leinster;
+7512 in Munster; 14,955 in Ulster, and 10,090 in Connaught) and the
+amount was L11,573,952. Under the Wyndham Act of 1903 the process was
+greatly extended.
+
+  The following tables give summarized particulars, for the period from
+  the 1st of November 1903 to the 31st of March 1906, of (1) estates for
+  which purchase agreements were lodged in cases of sale direct from
+  landlords to tenants; (2) estates for the purchase of which the Land
+  Commission entered into agreements under sects. 6 and 8 of the act;
+  (3) estates in which the offers of the Land Commission to purchase
+  under sect. 7 were accepted by the land judge; and (4) estates for the
+  purchase of which, under sections 72 and 79, originating requests were
+  transmitted by the Congested Districts Board to the Land Commission:--
+
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+----------------------------------------+
+    |                   |        |         |           Purchase Money.              |
+    |                   | No. of | No. of  +------------+------------+--------------+
+    |  Classification.  |Estates.| Purchas-|            | Amount of  |  Amount of   |
+    |                   |        |   ers.  |   Price.   |  Advances  |   Proposed   |
+    |                   |        |         |            |applied for.|Cash Payments.|
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    | Direct Sales      |  3446  |86,898   |L32,811,564 |L32,692,066 |  L119,498    |
+    | Sections 6 and 8  |    54  | 3,567^1 |  1,231,014 |  1,226,832 |     4,182    |
+    | Section 7         |    29  | 1,174^1 |    383,388 |    381,722 |     1,666    |
+    | Sections 72 and 79|    67  | 5,606^1 |    975,211 |    975,211 |      ..      |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    |    Total          |  3596  |97,245   |L35,401,177 |L35,275,831 |  L125,346    |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+----------------------------------------+
+    |                   |        |         |           Purchase Money.              |
+    |                   | No. of | No. of  +------------+------------+--------------+
+    |  Classification.  |Estates.| Purchas-|            | Amount of  |  Amount of   |
+    |                   |        |   ers.  |   Price.   |  Advances  |Cash Payments.|
+    |                   |        |         |            |    made.   |              |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    | Direct Sales      |   925  | 16,732  | L8,317,063 | L8,226,736 |   L90,327    |
+    | Sections 6 and 8  |    40  |  3,047  |  1,048,459 |  1,047,007 |     1,452    |
+    | Section 7         |    29  |  1,174  |    383,388 |    381,722 |     1,666    |
+    | Sections 72 and 79|    12  |    763  |    199,581 |    199,581 |      ..      |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+    |    Total          |  1006  | 21,716  | L9,948,491 | L9,855,046 |   L93,445    |
+    +-------------------+--------+---------+------------+------------+--------------+
+      ^1 Estimated number of purchasers on resale.
+
+  It will be seen from these two tables that though the amount of
+  advances applied for during the period dealt with amounted to over
+  L35,000,000 the actual advances made were less than L10,000,000. It
+  will be seen further that the act operated almost entirely by means of
+  direct sales by landlords to tenants. Of the total amount advanced up
+  to March 31, 1906, almost one-half was in respect of estates in the
+  province of Leinster, the balance being divided pretty equally between
+  estates in the other three provinces.
+
+_Fisheries._--The deep-sea and coast fisheries of Ireland form a
+valuable national asset, which still admits of much development and
+improvement despite the fact that a considerable number of acts of
+parliament have been passed to promote and foster the fishing industry.
+In 1882 the Commissioners of Public Works were given further powers to
+lend money to fishermen on the recommendation of the inspectors of
+fisheries; and under an act of 1883 the Land Commission was authorized
+to pay from time to time such sums, not exceeding in all L250,000, as
+the Commissioners of Public Works might require, for the creation of a
+Sea Fishery Fund, such fund to be expended--a sum of about L240,000 has
+been expended--on the construction and improvement of piers and
+harbours. Specific acts have also been passed for the establishment and
+development of oyster, pollan and mussel fisheries. Under the Land
+Purchase Act 1891, a portion of the Sea Fisheries Fund was reserved for
+administration by the inspectors of fisheries in non-congested
+districts. Under this head over L36,000 had been advanced on loan up to
+December 31, 1905, the greater portion of which had been repaid. In 1900
+the powers and duties of the inspectors of fisheries were vested in the
+Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. Under the Marine
+Works Act 1902, which was intended to benefit and develop industries
+where the people were suffering from congestion, about L34,000 was
+expended upon the construction and improvement of fishery harbours in
+such districts.
+
+  For administrative purposes Ireland is divided into 31 deep-sea and
+  coast fisheries and during 1905, 6190 vessels were engaged in these
+  districts, giving employment to a total of 24,288 hands. Excluding
+  salmon, nearly one million hundredweights of fish were taken, and
+  including shell-fish the total money received by the fishermen
+  exceeded L414,000. In the same year 13,436 hands were engaged in the
+  25 salmon fishing districts into which the country is divided. In
+  addition to the organized industry which exists in these salmon
+  districts, there is a good deal of ordinary rod and line fishing in
+  the higher reaches of the larger rivers and good trout fishing is
+  obtainable in many districts.
+
+_Mining._--The mineral produce of Ireland is very limited, and its mines
+and quarries in 1905 gave employment to only about 6000 persons.
+Coal-fields are found in all the provinces, but in 1905 the total output
+was less than 100,000 tons and its value at the mines was given as
+L43,000. Iron ore is worked in Co. Antrim, over 113,000 tons having been
+produced in 1905. Alum clay or bauxite, from which aluminium is
+manufactured, is found in the same county. Clays of various kinds,
+mainly fire and brick clay, are obtained in several places and there are
+quarries of marble (notably in Connemara), slate, granite, limestone and
+sandstone, the output of which is considerable. Silver is obtained in
+small quantities from lead ore in Co. Donegal, and hopes have been
+entertained of the re-discovery of gold in Co. Wicklow, where regular
+workings were established about 1796 but were destroyed during the
+Rebellion.
+
+_Woollen Manufacture._--At an early period the woollen manufactures of
+Ireland had won a high reputation and were exported in considerable
+quantities to foreign countries. Bonifazio Uberti (d. c. 1367) refers in
+a posthumous poem called _Dita mundi_ to the "noble serge" which Ireland
+sent to Italy, and fine mantles of Irish frieze are mentioned in a list
+of goods exported from England to Pope Urban VI. In later times, the
+establishment of a colony from the German Palatinate at Carrick-on-Suir
+in the reign of James I. served to stimulate the manufacture, but in the
+succeeding reign the lord-deputy Strafford adopted the policy of
+fostering the linen trade at the expense of the woollen in order to
+prevent the latter from competing with English products. An act of the
+reign of Charles II. prohibited the export of raw wool to foreign
+countries from Ireland as well as England, while at the same time
+Ireland was practically excluded by heavy duties from the English
+markets, and as the Navigation Act of 1663 did not apply to her the
+colonial market was also closed against Irish exports. The foreign
+market, however, was still open, and after the prohibition of the export
+of Irish cattle to England the Irish farmers turned their attention to
+the breeding of sheep, with such good effect that the woollen
+manufacture increased with great rapidity. Moreover the improved quality
+of the wool showed itself in the improvement of the finished article, to
+the great alarm of the English manufacturer. So much trade jealousy was
+aroused that both Houses of Parliament petitioned William III. to
+interfere. In accordance with his wishes the Irish parliament in 1698
+placed heavy additional duties on all woollen clothing (except friezes)
+exported from Ireland, and in 1699 the English Parliament passed an act
+prohibiting the export from Ireland of all woollen goods to any country
+except England, to any port of England except six, and from any town in
+Ireland except six. The cumulative effect of these acts was practically
+to annihilate the woollen manufacture in Ireland and to reduce whole
+districts and towns, in which thousands of persons were directly or
+indirectly supported by the industry, to the last verge of poverty.
+According to Newenham's tables the annual average of new drapery
+exported from Ireland for the three years ending March 1702 was only 20
+pieces, while the export of woollen yarn, worsted yarn and wool, which
+to England was free, amounted to 349,410 stones. In his essay on the
+Trade of Ireland, published in 1729, Arthur Dobbs estimated the medium
+exports of wool, worsted and woollen yarn at 227,049 stones, and he
+valued the export of manufactured woollen goods at only L2353. On the
+other hand, the imports steadily rose. Between 1779 and 1782 the various
+acts which had hampered the Irish woollen trade were either repealed or
+modified, but after a brief period of deceptive prosperity followed by
+failure and distress, the expansion of the trade was limited to the
+partial supply of the home market. According to evidence laid before the
+House of Commons in 1822 one-third of the woollen cloth used in Ireland
+was imported from England. A return presented to Parliament in 1837
+stated that the number of woollen or worsted factories in Ireland was
+46, employing 1321 hands. In 1879 the number of factories was 76 and the
+number of hands 2022. Since then the industry has shown some tendency to
+increase, though the number of persons employed is still comparatively
+very small, some 3500 hands.
+
+_Linen Manufacture._--Flax was cultivated at a very early period in
+Ireland and was both spun into thread and manufactured into cloth. In
+the time of Henry VIII. the manufacture constituted one of the principal
+branches of Irish trade, but it did not prove a very serious rival to
+the woollen industry until the policy of England was directed to the
+discouragement of the latter. Strafford, lord-deputy in the reign of
+Charles I., did much to foster the linen industry. He invested a large
+sum of his own money in it, imported great quantities of flax seed from
+Holland and induced skilled workmen from France and the Netherlands to
+settle in Ireland. A similar policy was pursued with even more energy by
+his successor in office, the duke of Ormonde, at whose instigation an
+Irish act was passed in 1665 to encourage the growth of flax and the
+manufacture of linen. He also established factories and brought over
+families from Brabant and France to work in them. The English parliament
+in their desire to encourage the linen industry at the expense of the
+woollen, followed Ormonde's lead by passing an act inviting foreign
+workmen to settle in Ireland, and admitting all articles made of flax or
+hemp into England free of duty. In 1710, in accordance with an
+arrangement made between the two kingdoms, a board of trustees was
+appointed to whom a considerable sum was granted annually for the
+promotion of the linen manufacture; but the jealousy of English
+merchants interposed to check the industry whenever it threatened to
+assume proportions which might interfere with their own trade, and by an
+act of George II. a tax was imposed on Irish sail-cloth imported into
+England, which for the time practically ruined the hempen manufacture.
+Between 1700 and 1777 the board of trustees expended nearly L850,000 on
+the promotion of the linen trade, and in addition parliamentary
+bounties were paid on a considerable scale. In 1727 Arthur Dobbs
+estimated the value of the whole manufacture at L1,000,000. In 1830 the
+Linen Board ceased to exist, the trade having been for some time in a
+very depressed condition owing to the importation of machine-made yarns
+from Scotland and England. A year or two later, however, machinery was
+introduced on a large scale on the river Bann. The experiment proved
+highly successful, and from this period may be dated the rise of the
+linen trade of Ulster, the only great industrial manufacture of which
+Ireland can boast. Belfast is the centre and market of the trade, but
+mills and factories are to be found dotted all over the eastern counties
+of Ulster.
+
+  In 1850 the number of spindles was 396,338 and of power looms 58; in
+  1905 the corresponding figures were 826,528 and 34,498. In 1850 the
+  number of persons employed in flax mills and factories was 21,121; in
+  1901 the number in flax, hemp and jute textile factories was 64,802.
+
+_Cotton Manufacture._--This was introduced into Ireland in 1777 and
+under the protection of import duties and bounties increased so rapidly
+that in 1800 it gave employment to several thousand persons, chiefly in
+the neighbourhood of Belfast. The trade continued to grow for several
+years despite the removal of the duties; and the value of cotton goods
+exported from Ireland to Great Britain rose from L708 in 1814 to
+L347,606 in 1823. In 1822 the number of hands employed in the industry
+was stated to be over 17,000. The introduction of machinery, however,
+which led to the rise of the great cotton industry of Lancashire, had
+very prejudicial effects, and by 1839 the number of persons employed had
+fallen to 4622. The trade has dwindled ever since and is now quite
+insignificant.
+
+_Silk Manufacture._--About the end of the 17th century French Huguenots
+settled in Dublin and started the manufacture of Irish poplin, a mixture
+of silk and wool. In 1823 between 3000 and 4000 persons were employed.
+But with the abolition of the protective duties in 1826 a decline set
+in; and though Irish poplin is still celebrated, the industry now gives
+employment to a mere handful of people in Dublin.
+
+_Distilling and Brewing._--Whisky has been extensively distilled in
+Ireland for several centuries. An excise duty was first imposed in 1661,
+the rate charged being 4d. a gallon. The imposition of a duty gave rise
+to a large amount of illicit distillation, a practice which still
+prevails to some extent, though efficient police methods have largely
+reduced it. During recent years the amount of whisky produced has shown
+a tendency to decrease. In 1900 the number of gallons charged with duty
+was 9,589,571, in 1903 8,215,355, and in 1906 7,337,928. There are
+breweries in most of the larger Irish towns, and Dublin is celebrated
+for the porter produced by the firm of Arthur Guinness & Son, the
+largest establishment of the kind in the world. The number of barrels of
+beer--the inclusive term used by the Inland Revenue Department--charged
+with duty in 1906 was 3,275,309, showing an increase of over 200,000 as
+compared with 1900.
+
+  The following table shows the net annual amount of excise duties
+  received in Ireland in a series of years:--
+
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |   Articles.  |   1900.   |   1902.   |   1904.   |   1906.   |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Beer         |  L983,841 |L1,200,711 |L1,262,186 |L1,227,528 |
+    | Licences     |   209,577 |   213,092 |   213,964 |   214,247 |
+    | Spirits      | 4,952,061 | 4,292,286 | 4,311,763 | 3,952,509 |
+    | Other sources|       502 |       436 |       508 |       798 |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |    Total     |L6,145,981 |L5,706,525 |L5,788,421 |L5,395,082 |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+_Other Industries._--Shipbuilding is practically confined to Belfast,
+where the firm of Harland and Wolff, the builders of the great "White
+Star" liners, have one of the largest yards in the world, giving
+employment to several thousand hands. There are extensive engineering
+works in the same city which supply the machinery and other requirements
+of the linen industry. Paper is manufactured on a considerable scale in
+various places, and Balbriggan is celebrated for its hosiery.
+
+_Commerce and Shipping._--From allusions in ancient writers it would
+appear that in early times Ireland had a considerable commercial
+intercourse with various parts of Europe. When the merchants of Dublin
+fled from their city at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion it was
+given by Henry II. to merchants from Bristol, to whom free trade with
+other portions of the kingdom was granted as well as other advantages.
+In the Staple Act of Edward III., Dublin, Waterford, Cork and Drogheda
+are mentioned as among the towns where staple goods could be purchased
+by foreign merchants. During the 15th century the trade of these and
+other towns increased rapidly. With the 17th century began the
+restrictions on Irish trade. In 1637 duties were imposed on the chief
+commodities to foreign nations not in league with England. Ireland was
+left out of the Navigation Act of 1663 and in the same year was
+prohibited from exporting cattle to England in any month previous to
+July. Sir William Petty estimated the value of Irish exports in 1672 at
+L500,000 per annum, and owing principally to the prosperity of the
+woollen industry these had risen in value in 1698 to L996,000, the
+imports in the same year amounting to L576,000. A rapid fall in exports
+followed upon the prohibition of the export of woollen manufactures to
+foreign countries, but in about 20 years' time a recovery took place,
+due in part to the increase of the linen trade. Statistics of exports
+and imports were compiled for various years by writers like Newenham,
+Arthur Young and Cesar Moreau, but these are vitiated by being given in
+Irish currency which was altered from time to time, and by the fact that
+the method of rating at the custom-house also varied. Taking the
+figures, however, for what they are worth, it appears that between 1701
+and 1710 the average annual exports from Ireland to all parts of the
+world were valued at L553,000 (to Great Britain, L242,000) and the
+average annual imports at L513,000 (from Great Britain, L242,000).
+Between 1751 and 1760 the annual values had risen for exports to
+L2,002,000 (to Great Britain, L1,068,000) and for imports to L1,594,000
+(from Great Britain, L734,000). Between 1794 and 1803 the figures had
+further risen to L4,310,000 (to Great Britain, L3,667,000) and
+L4,572,000 (from Great Britain L3,404,000). It is clear, therefore, that
+during the 18th century the increase of commerce was considerable.
+
+In 1825 the shipping duties on the cross-Channel trade were abolished
+and since that date no official figures are available as to a large part
+of Irish trade with Great Britain. The export of cattle and other
+animals, however, is the most important part of this trade and details
+of this appear in the following table:--
+
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+    | Year.| Cattle. |  Sheep. |  Swine. |   Total.  |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+    | 1891 | 630,802 | 893,175 | 505,584 | 2,029,561 |
+    | 1900 | 745,519 | 862,263 | 715,202 | 2,322,984 |
+    | 1905 | 749,131 | 700,626 | 363,973 | 1,813,730 |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+
+
+  The value of the animals exported in 1905 was estimated (at certain
+  standard rates) at about L14,000,000.
+
+  Since 1870 the Board of Trade has ceased to give returns of the
+  foreign and colonial trade for each of the separate kingdoms of
+  England, Scotland and Ireland. Returns are given, however, for the
+  principal ports of each kingdom. Between 1886 and 1905 these imports
+  at the Irish ports rose from L6,802,000 in value to L12,394,000 and
+  the exports from L825,000 to L1,887,000.
+
+  The following table shows the value of the total imports and exports
+  of merchandise in the foreign and colonial trade at the ports of
+  Dublin, Belfast and Limerick in each of the years 1901-1905:--
+
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    |   Ports.  |   1901.  |   1902.  |   1903.  |   1904.  |   1905.  |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+    | Dublin--  |     L    |     L    |     L    |     L    |     L    |
+    |   Imports |2,666,000 |2,856,000 |3,138,000 |2,771,000 |2,664,000 |
+    |   Exports |   54,000 |   63,000 |  122,000 |   79,000 |   78,000 |
+    | Belfast-- |          |          |          |          |          |
+    |   Imports |6,626,000 |6,999,000 |7,773,000 |7,033,000 |6,671,000 |
+    |   Exports |1,442,000 |1,344,000 |1,122,000 |1,332,000 |1,780,000 |
+    | Cork--    |          |          |          |          |          |
+    |   Imports |1,062,000 |1,114,000 |1,193,000 |1,156,000 |1,010,000 |
+    |   Exports |   15,000 |   17,000 |    6,000 |    8,000 |    5,000 |
+    | Limerick--|          |          |          |          |          |
+    |   Imports |  826,000 |  913,000 |  855,000 |  935,000 |  854,000 |
+    |   Exports |    2,000 |      400 |    3,000 |      600 |    3,000 |
+    +-----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  The Department of Agriculture published in 1906 a report on the
+  imports and exports at Irish ports for the year 1904. In this report,
+  the compiling of which presented great difficulties in the absence of
+  official returns, are included (1) the direct trade between Ireland
+  and all countries outside of Great Britain, (2) the indirect trade of
+  Ireland with those same countries via Great Britain, and (3) the local
+  trade between Ireland and Great Britain. The value of imports in 1904
+  is put at L55,148,206, and of exports at L46,606,432. But it is
+  pointed out in the report that while the returns as regards farm
+  produce, food stuffs, and raw materials may be considered
+  approximately complete, the information as to manufactured
+  goods--especially of the more valuable grades--is rough and
+  inadequate. It was estimated that the aggregate value of the actual
+  import and export trade in 1904 probably exceeded a total of
+  L105,000,000. The following table gives some details:--
+
+    +-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+
+    |                                         |  Imports. |  Exports.  |
+    +-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+
+    | I. Farm Produce, Food and Drink Stuffs--|           |            |
+    |   (a) Live-stock, meat, bacon, fish and |           |            |
+    |       dairy produce                     |L3,028,170 |L23,445,122 |
+    |   (b) Crops, fruit, meal, flour, &c.    |11,859,201 |  1,721,753 |
+    |   (c) Spirits, porter, ale, &c.         |   919,161 |  4,222,194 |
+    |   (d) Tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, &c. | 4,230,478 |  1,121,267 |
+    | II. Raw Materials--                     |           |            |
+    |   (a) Coal                              | 2,663,523 |      ..    |
+    |   (b) Wood                              | 1,880,095 |    235,479 |
+    |   (c) Mineral                           | 1,012,822 |    282,081 |
+    |   (d) Animal and vegetable products     | 4,529,002 |  3,067,398 |
+    | III. Goods, partly manufactured or of   |           |            |
+    |       simple manufacture                | 7,996,143 |  2,576,993 |
+    | IV. Manufactured goods.                 |17,059,611 |  9,934,145 |
+    +-----------------------------------------+-----------+------------+
+
+  From the figures given in the report it would appear that there was in
+  1904 an excess of imports amounting to over L8,500,000. But owing to
+  the imperfect state of existing information, it is impossible to say
+  with any certainty what is the real state of the balance of visible
+  trade between Ireland and other countries.
+
+  Shipping returns also throw some light upon the commercial condition
+  of Ireland. Old figures are not of much value, but it may be stated
+  that Arthur Dobbs gives the number of ships engaged in the Irish trade
+  in 1721 as 3334 with a tonnage of 158,414. According to the statistics
+  of Cesar Moreau the number of ships belonging to Irish ports in 1788
+  was 1016 with a tonnage of over 60,000, and in 1826 they had
+  increased, according to the trade and navigation returns, to 1391 with
+  a tonnage of over 90,000. In 1905 the vessels registered at Irish
+  ports numbered 934 with a tonnage of over 259,000. In the same year
+  the vessels entering and clearing in the colonial and foreign trade
+  numbered 1199 with a tonnage of over 1,086,000, and the vessels
+  entering and clearing in the trade between Great Britain and Ireland
+  numbered 41,983 with a tonnage of over 9,776,000.
+
+_Government, &c._--The executive government of Ireland is vested in a
+lord-lieutenant, assisted by a privy council and by a chief secretary,
+who is always a member of the House of Commons and generally of the
+cabinet. There are a large number of administrative departments and
+boards, some, like the Board of Trade, discharging the same duties as
+the similar department in England; others, like the Congested Districts
+Board, dealing with matters of purely Irish concern.
+
+_Parliamentary Representation._--The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885
+entirely altered the parliamentary representation of Ireland. Twenty-two
+small boroughs were disenfranchised. The towns of Galway, Limerick and
+Waterford lost one member each, while Dublin and Belfast were
+respectively divided into four divisions, each returning one member. As
+a result of these changes 85 members now represent the counties, 16 the
+boroughs, and 2 Dublin University--a total of 103. The total number of
+electors (exclusive of Dublin University) in 1906 was 686,661; 113,595
+for the boroughs and 573,066 for the counties. Ireland is represented in
+the House of Lords by 28 temporal peers elected for life from among the
+Irish peers.
+
+_Local Government._--Irish local government was entirely remodelled by
+the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which conferred on Ireland the
+same system and measure of self-government enjoyed by Great Britain. The
+administrative and fiscal duties previously exercised by the grand jury
+in each county were transferred to a county council, new administrative
+counties being formed for the purposes of the act, in some cases by the
+alteration of existing boundaries. To the county councils were also
+assigned the power of assessing and levying the poor rate in rural
+districts, the management of lunatic asylums, and the administration of
+certain acts such as the Explosives Act, the Technical Education Act and
+the Diseases of Animals Act. Subordinate district councils, urban and
+rural, were also established as in England and Scotland to manage the
+various local areas within each county. The provisions made for the
+administration of the Poor Law by the act under consideration are very
+complicated, but roughly it may be said that it was handed over to these
+new subordinate local bodies. Six towns--Dublin, Belfast, Cork,
+Limerick, Londonderry and Waterford--were constituted county boroughs
+governed by separate county councils; and five boroughs--Kilkenny,
+Sligo, Clonmel, Drogheda and Wexford--retained their former
+corporations. The act provides facilities for the conversion into urban
+districts of (1) towns having town commissioners who are not sanitary
+authorities and (2) non-municipal towns with populations of over 1500
+and entitled to petition for town commissioners.
+
+_Justice._--The Supreme Court of Judicature is constituted as follows:
+the court of appeal, which consists of the lord chancellor, the lord
+chief justice, and the master of the rolls and the chief baron of the
+exchequer as _ex-officio_ members, and two lords justices of appeal; and
+the high court of justice which includes (1) the chancery division,
+composed of the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls and two
+justices, (2) the king's bench division composed of the lord chief
+justice, the chief baron of the exchequer and eight justices, and (3)
+the land commissions with two judicial commissioners. At the first
+vacancy the title and rank of chief baron of the exchequer will be
+abolished and the office reduced to a puisne judgeship. By the County
+Officers and Courts (Ireland) Act 1877, it was provided that the
+chairmen of quarter sessions should be called "county court judges and
+chairmen of quarter sessions" and that their number should be reduced to
+twenty-one, which was to include the recorders of Dublin, Belfast, Cork,
+Londonderry and Galway. At the same time the jurisdiction of the county
+courts was largely extended. There are 66 resident (stipendiary)
+magistrates, and four police magistrates in Dublin.
+
+_Police._--The Royal Irish Constabulary were established in 1822 and
+consisted at first of 5000 men under an inspector-general for each of
+the four provinces. In 1836 the entire force was amalgamated under one
+inspector-general. The force, at present consists of about 10,000 men of
+all ranks, and costs over L1,300,000 a year. Dublin has a separate
+metropolitan police force.
+
+_Crime._--The following table shows the number of persons committed for
+trial, convicted and acquitted in Ireland in 1886, 1891, 1900 and
+1905:--
+
+    +------+----------+----------+----------+
+    | Year.|Committed.|Convicted.|Acquitted.|
+    +------+----------+----------+----------+
+    | 1886 |  3,028   |   1,619  |   1286   |
+    | 1891 |  2,112   |   1,255  |    669   |
+    | 1900 |  1,682   |   1,087  |    331   |
+    | 1905 |  2,060   |   1,367  |    417   |
+    +------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+  Of the 1367 convicted in 1905, 375 were charged with offences against
+  the person, 205 with offences against property with violence, 545 with
+  offences against property without violence, 52 with malicious injury
+  to property, 44 with forgery and offences against the currency, and
+  146 with other offences. In 1904, 81,775 cases of drunkenness were
+  brought before Irish magistrates as compared with 227,403 in England
+  and 43,580 in Scotland.
+
+_Poor Law._--The following table gives the numbers in receipt of indoor
+and outdoor relief (exclusive of persons in institutions for the blind,
+deaf and dumb, and for idiots and imbeciles) in, the years 1902-1905,
+together with the total expenditure for relief of the poor:--
+
+    +------+-----------------------------+--------------+
+    |      |  Aggregate number relieved  |              |
+    | Year.|        during the year.     | Total Annual |
+    |      +---------+---------+---------+ Expenditure. |
+    |      | Indoor. | Outdoor.|  Total. |              |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+--------------+
+    | 1902 | 363,483 | 105,501 | 468,984 |  L1,026,691  |
+    | 1903 | 363,091 |  99,150 | 452,241 |     986,301  |
+    | 1904 | 390,047 |  98,607 | 488,654 |   1,033,168  |
+    | 1905 | 434,117 | 124,697 | 558,814 |   1,066,733  |
+    +------+---------+---------+---------+--------------+
+
+  The average daily number in receipt of relief of all kinds (except
+  outdoor relief) during the same years was as follows: 1902, 41,163;
+  1903, 43,600; 1904, 43,721; 1905, 43,911. The percentage of indoor
+  paupers to the estimated population in 1905 was 1.00.
+
+_Congested Districts Board._--This body was constituted by the Purchase
+of Land Act 1891, and is composed of the chief secretary, a member of
+the Land Commission and five other members. A considerable sum of money
+was placed at its disposal for carrying out the objects for which it was
+created. It was provided that where more than 20% of the population of a
+county lived in electoral divisions of which the total rateable value,
+when divided by the number of the population, gave a sum of less than
+L1, 10s. for each individual, these divisions should, for the purposes
+of the act, form a separate county, called a congested districts county,
+and should be subject to the operations of the board. In order to
+improve the condition of affairs in congested districts, the board was
+empowered (1) to amalgamate small holdings either by directly aiding
+migration or emigration of occupiers, or by recommending the Land
+Commission to facilitate amalgamation, and (2) generally to aid and
+develop out of its resources agriculture, forestry, the breeding of
+live-stock, weaving, spinning, fishing and any other suitable
+industries. Further provisions regulating the operations of funds of the
+board were enacted in 1893, 1896, 1899 and 1903; and by its constituting
+act the Department of Agriculture was empowered to exercise, at the
+request of the board, any of its powers and duties in congested
+districts.
+
+_Religion._--The great majority of the Irish people belong to the Roman
+Catholic Church. In 1891 the Roman Catholics numbered 3,547,307 or 75%
+of the total population, and in 1901 they numbered 3,308,661 or 74%. The
+adherents of the Church of Ireland come next in number (581,089 in 1901
+or 13% of the population), then the Presbyterians (443,276 in 1901 or
+10% of the population), the only other denomination with a considerable
+number of members being the Methodists (62,006 in 1901). As the result
+of emigration, which drains the Roman Catholic portion of the population
+more than any other, the Roman Catholics show a larger proportional
+decline in numbers than the Protestants; for example, between 1891 and
+1901 the Roman Catholics decreased by over 6%, the Church of Ireland by
+a little over 3%, the Presbyterians by less than 1%, while the
+Methodists actually increased by some 11%. The only counties in which
+the Protestant religion predominates are Antrim, Down, Armagh and
+Londonderry.
+
+  The Roman Catholic Church is governed in Ireland by 4 archbishops,
+  whose sees are in Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam, and 23 bishops, all
+  nominated by the pope. The episcopal emoluments arise from the mensal
+  parishes, the incumbency of which is retained by the bishops, from
+  licences and from an annual contribution, varying in amount, paid by
+  the clergy of the diocese. The clergy are supported by fees and the
+  voluntary contributions of their flocks. At the census of 1901 there
+  were 1084 parishes, and the clergy numbered 3711. In addition to the
+  secular clergy there are several communities of regular priests
+  scattered over the country, ministering in their own churches but
+  without parochial jurisdiction. There are also numerous monasteries
+  and convents, a large number of which are devoted to educational
+  purposes. The great majority of the secular clergy are educated at
+  Maynooth College (see below).
+
+  The Protestants of Ireland belong mainly to the Church of Ireland
+  (episcopalian) and the Presbyterian Church. (For the former see
+  IRELAND, CHURCH OF).
+
+  The Presbyterian Church, whose adherents are found principally in
+  Ulster and are the descendants of Scotch settlers, was originally
+  formed in the middle of the 17th century, and in 1840 a reunion took
+  place of the two divisions into which the Church had formerly
+  separated. The governing body is the General Assembly, consisting of
+  ministers and laymen. In 1906 there were 569 congregations, arranged
+  under 36 presbyteries, with 647 ministers. The ministers are supported
+  by a sustentation fund formed of voluntary contributions, the rents of
+  seats and pews, and the proceeds of the commutation of the Regium
+  Donum made by the commissioners under the Irish Church Act 1869. Two
+  colleges are connected with the denomination, the General Assembly's
+  College, Belfast, and the Magee College, Londonderry. In 1881 the
+  faculty of the Belfast College and the theological professors of the
+  Magee College were incorporated and constituted as a faculty with the
+  power of granting degrees in divinity.
+
+  The Methodist Church in Ireland was formed in 1878 by the Union of
+  the Wesleyan with the Primitive Wesleyan Methodists. The number of
+  ministers is over 250.
+
+  _Education._--The following table shows that the proportion per cent
+  of the total population of five years old and upwards able to read and
+  write has been steadily rising since 1861:--
+
+    +-----------------------+-----------------------------+
+    |                       |    Proportion per cent.     |
+    |                       +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |                       |1861.|1871.|1881.|1891.|1901.|
+    +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Read and write        |  41 |  49 |  59 |  71 |  79 |
+    | Read only             |  20 |  17 |  16 |  11 |   7 |
+    | Neither read nor write|  39 |  33 |  25 |  18 |  14 |
+    +-----------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+  Further details on the same subject, according to provinces and
+  religious denominations in 1901, are subjoined:--
+
+    +---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+
+    |                           |Leinster.|Munster.|Ulster.|Connaught.|
+    +---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+
+    | Roman Catholics--         |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    80   |   80   |   70  |    72    |
+    |   Read only               |     7   |    5   |   11  |     7    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |    13   |   15   |   19  |    21    |
+    | Protestant Episcopalians--|         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    95   |   95   |   81  |    93    |
+    |   Read only               |     1   |    2   |    9  |     3    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     4   |    3   |   10  |     4    |
+    | Presbyterians--           |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    97   |   96   |   88  |    95    |
+    |   Read only               |     1   |    2   |    7  |     3    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     2   |    2   |    5  |     2    |
+    | Methodists--              |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    97   |   97   |   90  |    96    |
+    |   Read only               |     1   |    1   |    5  |     2    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     2   |    2   |    5  |     2    |
+    | Others--                  |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    91   |   91   |   90  |    94    |
+    |   Read only               |     2   |    2   |    6  |     1    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |     7   |    7   |    4  |     5    |
+    | Total--                   |         |        |       |          |
+    |   Read and write          |    83   |   81   |   79  |    72    |
+    |   Read only               |     6   |    5   |    9  |     7    |
+    |   Neither read nor write  |    11   |   14   |   12  |    21    |
+    +---------------------------+---------+--------+-------+----------+
+
+  _Language._--The number of persons who speak Irish only continues to
+  decrease. In 1881 they numbered 64,167; in 1891, 38,192; and in 1901,
+  20,953. If to those who spoke Irish only are added the persons who
+  could speak both Irish and English, the total number who could speak
+  Irish in 1901 was 641,142 or about 14% of the population. The purely
+  Irish-speaking population is to be found principally in the province
+  of Connaught, where in 1901 they numbered over 12,000. The efforts of
+  the Gaelic League, founded to encourage the study of Gaelic literature
+  and the Irish language, produced results seen in the census returns
+  for 1901, which showed that the pupils learning Irish had very largely
+  increased as compared with 1891.
+
+
+  Universities and colleges.
+
+The university of Dublin (q.v.), which is for practical purposes
+identical with Trinity College, Dublin, was incorporated in 1591. The
+government is in the hands of a board consisting of the provost and the
+senior fellows, assisted by a council in the election of professors and
+in the regulation of studies. The council is composed of the provost
+(and, in his absence, the vice-provost) and elected members. There is
+also a senate, composed of the chancellor or vice-chancellor and all
+doctors and masters who have kept their names on the books of Trinity
+College. Religious tests were abolished in 1873, and the university is
+now open to all; but, as a matter of fact, the vast majority of the
+students, even since the abolition of tests, have always belonged to the
+Church of Ireland, and the divinity school is purely Protestant.
+
+In pursuance of the University Education (Ireland) Act 1879, the Queen's
+University in Ireland was superseded in 1882 by the Royal University of
+Ireland, it being provided that the graduates and students of the former
+should have similar rank in the new university. The government of the
+Royal University was vested in a senate consisting of a chancellor and
+senators, with power to grant all such degrees as could be conferred by
+any university in the United Kingdom, except in theology. Female
+students had exactly the same rights as male students. The university
+was simply an examining body, no residence in any college nor attendance
+at lectures being obligatory. All appointments to the senate and to
+fellowships were made on the principle that one half of those appointed
+should be Roman Catholics and the other half Protestants; and in such
+subjects as history and philosophy there were two courses of study
+prescribed, one for Roman Catholics and the other for Protestants. In
+1905 the number who matriculated was 947, of whom 218 were females, and
+the number of students who passed the academic examinations was 2190.
+The university buildings are in Dublin and the fellows were mostly
+professors in the various colleges whose students were undergraduates.
+
+The three Queen's Colleges, at Belfast, Cork and Galway, were founded in
+1849 and until 1882 formed the Queen's University. Their curriculum
+comprised all the usual courses of instruction, except theology. They
+were open to all denominations, but, as might be expected, the Belfast
+college (dissolved under the Irish Universities Act 1908; see below) was
+almost entirely Protestant. Its situation in a great industrial centre
+also made it the most important and flourishing of the three, its
+students numbering over 400. It possessed an excellent medical school,
+which was largely increased owing to private benefactions.
+
+The Irish Universities Act 1908 provided for the foundation of two new
+universities, having their seats respectively at Dublin and at Belfast.
+The Royal University of Ireland at Dublin and the Queen's College,
+Belfast, were dissolved. Provision was made for a new college to be
+founded at Dublin. This college and the existing Queen's Colleges at
+Cork and Galway were made constituent colleges of the new university at
+Dublin. Letters patent dated December 2, 1908, granted charters to these
+foundations under the titles of the National University of Ireland
+(Dublin), the Queen's University of Belfast and the University Colleges
+of Dublin, Cork and Galway. It was provided by the act that no test of
+religious belief should be imposed on any person as a condition of his
+holding any position in any foundation under the act. A body of
+commissioners was appointed for each of the new foundations to draw up
+statutes for its government; and for the purpose of dealing with any
+matter calling for joint action, a joint commission, half from each of
+the above commissions, was established. Regulations as to grants-in-aid
+were made by the act, with the stipulation that no sum from them should
+be devoted to the provision or maintenance of any building, or tutorial
+or other office, for religious purposes, though private benefaction for
+such purposes is not prohibited. Provisions were also made as to the
+transfer of graduates and students, so that they might occupy under the
+new regime positions equivalent to those which they occupied previously,
+in respect both of degrees and the keeping of terms. The commissioners
+were directed to work out schemes for the employment of officers already
+employed in the institutions affected by the new arrangements, and for
+the compensation of those whose employment could not be continued. A
+committee of the privy council in Ireland was appointed, to be styled
+the Irish Universities Committee.
+
+The Roman Catholic University College in Dublin may be described as a
+survival of the Roman Catholic University, a voluntary institution
+founded in 1854. In 1882 the Roman Catholic bishops placed the buildings
+belonging to the university under the control and direction of the
+archbishop of Dublin, who undertook to maintain a college in which
+education would be given according to the regulations of the Royal
+University. In 1883 the direction of the college was entrusted to the
+Jesuits. Although the college receives no grant from public funds, it
+has proved very successful and attracts a considerable number of
+students, the great majority of whom belong to the Church of Rome.
+
+The Royal College of Science was established in Dublin in 1867 under the
+authority of the Science and Art Department, London. Its object is to
+supply a complete course of instruction in science as applicable to the
+industrial arts. In 1900 the college was transferred from the Science
+and Art Department to the Department of Agriculture and Technical
+Instruction.
+
+Maynooth (q.v.) College was founded by an Irish act of parliament in
+1795 for the training of Roman Catholic students for the Irish
+priesthood. By an act of 1844 it was permanently endowed by a grant from
+the consolidated fund of over L26,000 a year. This grant was withdrawn
+by the Irish Church Act 1869, the college receiving as compensation a
+lump sum of over L372,000. The average number of students entering each
+year is about 100.
+
+There are two Presbyterian colleges, the General Assembly's College at
+Belfast, which is purely theological, and the Magee College,
+Londonderry, which has literary, scientific and theological courses. In
+1881 the Assembly's College and the theological professors of Magee
+College were constituted a faculty with power to grant degrees in
+divinity.
+
+  In addition to the foregoing, seven Roman Catholic institutions were
+  ranked as colleges in the census of 1901:--All Hallows (Drumcondra),
+  Holycross (Clonliffe), University College (Blackrock), St Patrick's
+  (Carlow), St Kieran's (Kilkenny), St Stanislaus's (Tullamore) and St
+  Patrick's (Thurles). In 1901 the aggregate number of students was 715,
+  of whom 209 were returned as under the faculty of divinity.
+
+
+    Schools.
+
+  As regards secondary schools a broad distinction can be drawn
+  according to religion. The Roman Catholics have diocesan schools,
+  schools under religious orders, monastic and convent schools, and
+  Christian Brothers' schools, which were attended, according to the
+  census returns in 1901, by nearly 22,000 pupils, male and female. On
+  the other hand are the endowed schools, which are almost exclusively
+  Protestant in their government. Under this heading may be included
+  royal and diocesan schools and schools upon the foundation of Erasmus
+  Smith, and others privately endowed. In 1901 these schools numbered 55
+  and had an attendance of 2653 pupils. To these must be added various
+  private establishments, which in the same year had over 8000 pupils,
+  mainly Protestants. Dealing with these secondary schools as a whole
+  the census of 1901 gives figures as to the number of pupils engaged
+  upon what the commissioners call the "higher studies," i.e. studies
+  involving instruction in at least one foreign language. In 1881 the
+  number of such pupils was 18,657; in 1891, 23,484; and in 1901,
+  28,484, of whom 17,103 were males and 11,381 females, divided as
+  follows among the different religions--Roman Catholics 18,248,
+  Protestant Episcopalians 5669, Presbyterians 3011, Methodists 760, and
+  others 567. This increase in the number of pupils engaged in the
+  higher studies is probably due to a large extent to the scheme for the
+  encouragement of intermediate education which was established by act
+  of parliament in 1879. A sum of L1,000,000, part of the Irish Church
+  surplus, was assigned by that act for the promotion of the
+  intermediate secular education of boys and girls in Ireland. The
+  administration of this fund was entrusted to a board of commissioners,
+  who were to apply its revenue for the purposes of the act (1) by
+  carrying on a system of public examinations, (2) by awarding
+  exhibitions, prizes and certificates to students, and (3) by the
+  payment of results fees to the manager of schools. An amending act was
+  passed in 1900 and the examinations are now held under rules made in
+  virtue of that act. The number of students who presented themselves
+  for examination in 1905 was 9677; the amount expended in exhibitions
+  and prizes was L8536; and the grants to schools amounted to over
+  L50,000. The examinations were held at 259 centres in 99 different
+  localities.
+
+  Primary education in Ireland is under the general control of the
+  commissioners of national education, who were first created in 1831 to
+  take the place of the society for the education of the poor, and
+  incorporated in 1845. In the year of their incorporation the schools
+  under the control of the commissioners numbered 3426, with 432,844
+  pupils, and the amount of the parliamentary grants was L75,000; while
+  in 1905 there were 8659 schools, with 737,752 pupils, and the grant
+  was almost L1,400,000. Of the pupils attending in the latter year, 74%
+  were Roman Catholics, 12% Protestant Episcopalians and 11%
+  Presbyterians. The schools under the commissioners include national
+  schools proper, model and workhouse schools and a number of monastic
+  and convent schools. The Irish Education Act of 1892 provided that the
+  parents of children of not less than 6 nor more than 14 years of age
+  should cause them to attend school in the absence of reasonable excuse
+  on at least 150 days in the year in municipal boroughs and in towns or
+  townships under commissioners; and provisions were made for the
+  partial or total abolition of fees in specified circumstances, for a
+  parliamentary school grant in lieu of abolished school fees, and for
+  the augmentation of the salaries of the national teachers.
+
+  There are 5 reformatory schools, 3 for boys and 2 for girls, and 68
+  industrial schools, 5 Protestant and 63 Roman Catholic.
+
+
+    Technical instruction.
+
+  By the constituting act of 1899 the control of technical education in
+  Ireland was handed over to the Department of Agriculture and Technical
+  Instruction and now forms an important part of its work. The annual
+  sum of L55,000 was allocated for the purpose, and this is augmented in
+  various ways. The department has devoted itself to (1) promoting
+  instruction in experimental science, drawing, manual instruction and
+  domestic economy in day secondary schools, (2) supplying funds to
+  country and urban authorities for the organization of schemes for
+  technical instruction in non-agricultural subjects--these subjects
+  embracing not only preparation for the highly organized industries but
+  the teaching of such rural industries as basket-making, (3) the
+  training of teachers by classes held at various centres, (4) the
+  provision of central institutions, and (5) the awarding of
+  scholarships.
+
+_Revenue and Expenditure._--The early statistics as to revenue and
+expenditure in Ireland are very fragmentary and afford little
+possibility of comparison. During the first 15 years of Elizabeth's
+reign the expenses of Ireland, chiefly on account of wars, amounted,
+according to Sir James Ware's estimate, to over L490,000, while the
+revenue is put by some writers at L8000 per annum and by others at less.
+In the reign of James I. the customs increased from L50 to over L9000;
+but although he obtained from various sources about L10,000 a year and a
+considerable sum also accrued from the plantation of Ulster, the revenue
+is supposed to have fallen short of the expenditure by about L16,000 a
+year. During the reign of Charles I. the customs increased fourfold in
+value, but it was found necessary to raise L120,000 by yearly subsidies.
+According to the report of the committee appointed by Cromwell to
+investigate the financial condition of Ireland, the revenue in 1654 was
+L197,304 and the expenditure L630,814. At the Restoration the Irish
+parliament granted an hereditary revenue to the king, an excise for the
+maintenance of the army, a subsidy of tonnage and poundage for the navy,
+and a tax on hearths in lieu of feudal burdens. "Additional duties" were
+granted shortly after the Revolution. "Appropriate duties" were imposed
+at different periods; stamp duties were first granted in 1773, and the
+post office first became a source of revenue in 1783. In 1706 the
+hereditary revenue with additional duties produced over L394,000.
+
+  Returns of the ordinary revenue were first presented to the Irish
+  parliament in 1730. From special returns to parliament the following
+  table shows net income and expenditure over a series of years up to
+  1868:--
+
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | Year.|  Income.  |Expenditure.|
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+    | 1731 |  L405,000 |   L407,000 |
+    | 1741 |   441,000 |    441,000 |
+    | 1761 |   571,000 |    773,000 |
+    | 1781 |   739,000 |  1,015,000 |
+    | 1800 | 3,017,757 |  6,615,000 |
+    | 1834 | 3,814,000 |  3,439,800 |
+    | 1850 | 4,332,000 |  4,120,000 |
+    | 1860 | 7,851,000 |  6,331,000 |
+    | 1868 | 6,176,000 |  6,621,000 |
+    +------+-----------+------------+
+
+  The amount of imperial revenue collected and expended in Ireland under
+  various heads for the five years 1902-1906 appears in the following
+  tables:--
+
+    _Revenue._
+
+    +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
+    |      |           |           |Estate, &c.| Property  |   Post   | Miscel- |   Total    | Estimated |
+    | Year.|  Customs. |  Excise.  |  Duties   |and Income |  Office. | laneous.|  Revenue.  |   True    |
+    |      |           |           |and Stamps.|    Tax.   |          |         |            |  Revenue. |
+    +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
+    | 1902 |L2,244,000 |L5,822,000 |L1,072,000 |L1,143,000 | L923,000 |L149,000 |L11,353,000 |L9,784,000 |
+    | 1903 | 2,717,000 | 6,011,000 |   922,000 | 1,244,000 |  960,000 | 148,500 | 12,002,500 |10,205,000 |
+    | 1904 | 2,545,000 | 5,904,000 | 1,033,000 | 1,038,000 |  980,000 | 146,500 | 11,646,500 | 9,748,500 |
+    | 1905 | 2,575,000 | 5,584,000 | 1,016,000 | 1,013,000 |1,002,000 | 150,500 | 11,340,500 | 9,753,500 |
+    | 1906 | 2,524,000 | 5,506,000 |   890,000 |   983,000 |1,043,000 | 150,000 | 11,096,000 | 9,447,000 |
+    +------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+---------+------------+-----------+
+
+    _Expenditure._
+
+    +------+---------+-----------+---------------------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |      |         |           |   Local Taxation    |           |          |           |           |           |
+    |      | Consoli-|           |       Accounts.     |   Total   |          |           |           | Estimated |
+    | Year.|  dated  |   Voted.  +---------+-----------+   Civil   |Collection|   Post    |   Total   |   True    |
+    |      |  Fund.  |           |  Local  | Exchequer |  Charges. | of Taxes.|  Office.  | Expended. |  Revenue. |
+    |      |         |           |Taxation |  Revenue. |           |          |           |           |           |
+    |      |         |           | Revenue.|           |           |          |           |           |           |
+    +------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | 1902 |L169,000 |L4,271,000 |L389,000 |L1,055,000 |L5,884,000 | L243,000 |L1,087,000 |L7,214,000 |L9,784,000 |
+    | 1903 | 168,500 | 4,357,500 | 383,000 | 1,058,000 | 5,967,000 |  246,000 | 1,140,000 | 7,353,000 |10,205,000 |
+    | 1904 | 170,000 | 4,569,000 | 376,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,174,000 |  248,000 | 1,126,000 | 7,548,000 | 9,784,500 |
+    | 1905 | 166,000 | 4,547,000 | 374,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,146,000 |  249,000 | 1,172,000 | 7,567,000 | 9,753,500 |
+    | 1906 | 164,000 | 4,582,500 | 385,000 | 1,059,000 | 6,191,500 |  245,000 | 1,199,000 | 7,635,500 | 9,447,000 |
+    +------+---------+-----------+---------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  Subtracting in each year the total expenditure from the estimated true
+  revenue it would appear from the foregoing table that Ireland
+  contributed to imperial services in the years under consideration the
+  following sums: L2,570,000, L2,852,000, L2,200,500, L2,186,500 and
+  L1,811,500.
+
+The financial relations between Great Britain and Ireland have long been
+a subject of controversy, and in 1894 a royal commission was appointed
+to consider them, which presented its report in 1896. The commissioners,
+though differing on several points, were practically agreed on the
+following five conclusions: (1) that Great Britain and Ireland must, for
+the purposes of a financial inquiry, be considered as separate entities;
+(2) that the Act of Union imposed upon Ireland a burden which, as events
+showed, she was unable to bear; (3) that the increase of taxation laid
+upon Ireland between 1853 and 1860 was not justified by the then
+existing circumstances; (4) that identity of rates of taxation did not
+necessarily involve equality of burden; (5) that, while the actual tax
+revenue of Ireland was about one-eleventh of that of Great Britain, the
+relative taxable capacity of Ireland was very much smaller, and was not
+estimated by any of the commissioners as exceeding one-twentieth. This
+report furnished the material for much controversy, but little practical
+outcome; it was avowedly based on the consideration of Ireland as a
+separate country, and was therefore inconsistent with the principles of
+Unionism.
+
+The public debt of Ireland amounted to over L134,000,000 in 1817, in
+which year it was consolidated with the British national debt.
+
+  _Local Taxation._--The Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 effected
+  considerable changes in local finance. The fiscal duties of the grand
+  jury were abolished, and the county council which took the place of
+  the grand jury for both fiscal and administrative purposes was given
+  three sources of revenue: (1) the agricultural grant, (2) the licence
+  duties and other imperial grants, and (3) the poor rate. These may be
+  considered separately. (1) It was provided that the Local Government
+  Board should ascertain the amount of county cess and poor rate levied
+  off agricultural land in Ireland during the year ending (as regards
+  the poor rate) on the 29th of September, and (as regards the county
+  cess) on the 21st of June 1897; and that half this amount, to be
+  called the agricultural grant, should be paid annually without any
+  variation from the original sum out of the consolidated fund to a
+  local taxation account. The amount of the agricultural grant was
+  ascertained to be over L727,000. Elaborate provisions were also made
+  in the act for fixing the proportion of the grant to which each county
+  should be entitled, and the lord-lieutenant was empowered to pay
+  half-yearly the proportion so ascertained to the county council. (2)
+  Before the passing of the act grants were made from the imperial
+  exchequer to the grand juries in aid of the maintenance of lunatics
+  and to boards of guardians for medical and educational purposes and
+  for salaries under the Public Health (Ireland) Act. In 1897 these
+  grants amounted to over L236,000. Under the Local Government Act they
+  ceased, and in lieu thereof it was provided that there should be
+  annually paid out of the consolidated fund to the local taxation
+  account a sum equal to the duties collected in Ireland on certain
+  specified local taxation licences. In addition, it was enacted that
+  a fixed sum of L79,000 should be forthcoming annually from the
+  consolidated fund. (3) The county cess was abolished, and the county
+  councils were empowered to levy a single rate for the rural districts
+  and unions, called by the name of poor rate, for all the purposes of
+  the act. This rate is made upon the occupier and not upon the
+  landlord, and the occupier is not entitled, save in a few specified
+  cases, to deduct any of the rate from his rent. For the year ending
+  the 31st of March 1905, the total receipts of the Irish county
+  councils, exclusive of the county boroughs, were L2,964,298 and their
+  total expenditure was L2,959,961, the two chief items of expenditure
+  being "Union Charges" L1,002,620 and "Road Expenditure" L779,174.
+  During the same period the total receipts from local taxation in
+  Ireland amounted to L4,013,303, and the amount granted from imperial
+  sources in aid of local taxation was L1,781,143.
+
+  _Loans._--The total amount issued on loan, exclusive of closed
+  sources, by the Commissioners of Public Works, up to the 31st of March
+  1906, was L26,946,393, of which L15,221,913 had been repaid to the
+  exchequer as principal and L9,011,506 as interest, and L1,609,694 had
+  been remitted. Of the sums advanced, about L5,500,000 was under the
+  Improvement of Lands Acts, nearly L3,500,000 under the Public Health
+  Acts, over L3,000,000 for lunatic asylums, and over L3,000,000 under
+  the various Labourers Acts.
+
+  _Banking._--The Bank of Ireland was established in Dublin in 1783 with
+  a capital of L600,000, which was afterwards enlarged at various times,
+  and on the renewal of its charter in 1821 it was increased to
+  L3,000,000. It holds in Ireland a position corresponding to the Bank
+  of England in England. There are eight other joint-stock banks in
+  Ireland. Including the Bank of Ireland, their subscribed capital
+  amounts to L26,349,230 and their paid-up capital to L7,309,230. The
+  authorized note circulation is L6,354,494 and the actual note
+  circulation in June 1906 was L6,310,243, two of the banks not being
+  banks of issue. The deposits in the joint-stock banks amounted in 1880
+  to L29,350,000; in 1890 to L33,061,000; in 1900 to L40,287,000; and in
+  1906 to L45,842,000. The deposits in the Post Office Savings Banks
+  rose from L1,481,000 in 1880 to L10,459,000 in 1906, and the deposits
+  in Trustee Savings Banks from L2,100,165 in 1880 to L2,488,740 in
+  1905.
+
+  _National Wealth._--To arrive at any estimate of the national wealth
+  is exceptionally difficult in the case of Ireland, since the largest
+  part of its wealth is derived from agriculture, and many important
+  factors, such as the amount of capital invested in the linen and other
+  industries, cannot be included, owing to their uncertainty. The
+  following figures for 1905-1906 may, however, be given: valuation of
+  lands, houses, &c., L15,466,000; value of principal crops,
+  L35,362,000; value of cattle, &c., L81,508,000; paid-up capital and
+  reserve funds of joint-stock banks, L11,300,000; deposits in
+  joint-stock and savings banks, L58,791,000; investments in government
+  stock, transferable at Bank of Ireland, L36,952,000; paid-up capital
+  and debentures of railway companies, L38,405,000; paid-up capital of
+  tramway companies, L2,074,000.
+
+  In 1906 the net value of property assessed to estate duty, &c., in
+  Ireland was L16,016,000 as compared with L306,673,000 in England and
+  L38,451,000 in Scotland; and in 1905 the net produce of the income tax
+  in Ireland was L983,000, as compared with L27,423,000 in England and
+  L2,888,000 in Scotland.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Agriculture: Accounts of the land systems of Ireland
+  will be found in James Godkin's _Land War in Ireland_ (1870);
+  Sigerson's _History of Land Tenure in Ireland_ (1871); Joseph Fisher's
+  _History of Land Holding in Ireland_ (1877); R. B. O'Brien's _History
+  of the Irish Land Question_ (1880); A. G. Richey's _Irish Land Laws_
+  (1880). General information will be found in J. P. Kennedy's Digest of
+  the evidence given before the Devon Commission (Dublin, 1847-1848);
+  the _Report_ of the Bessborough Commission, 1881, and of the
+  commission on the agriculture of the United Kingdom, 1881. The
+  Department of Agriculture publishes several official annual reports,
+  dealing very fully with Irish agriculture.
+
+  Manufactures and Commerce: _Discourse on the Woollen Manufacture of
+  Ireland_ (1698); _An Inquiry into the State and Progress of the Linen
+  Manufacture in Ireland_ (Dublin, 1757); G. E. Howard, _Treatise on the
+  Revenue of Ireland_ (1776); John Hely Hutchinson, _Commercial
+  Restraints of Ireland_ (1779); Lord Sheffield, _Observations on the
+  Manufactures, Trade and Present State of Ireland_ (1785); R. B.
+  Clarendon, _A Sketch of the Revenue and Finances of Ireland_ (1791);
+  the annual reports of the Flax Supply Association and other local
+  bodies, published at Belfast; reports by the Department of Agriculture
+  on Irish imports and exports (these are a new feature and contain much
+  valuable information).
+
+  Miscellaneous: Sir William Petty, _Political Anatomy of Ireland_
+  (1691); Arthur Dobbs, _Essay on the Trade of Ireland_ (1729);
+  _Abstract of the Number of Protestant and Popish Families in Ireland_
+  (1726); Arthur Young, _Tour in Ireland_ (1780); T. Newenham, _View of
+  the Circumstances of Ireland_ (1809), and _Inquiry into the Population
+  of Ireland_ (1805); Cesar Moreau, _Past and Present State of Ireland_
+  (1827); J. M. Murphy, _Ireland, Industrial, Political and Social_
+  (1870); R. Dennis, _Industrial Ireland_ (1887); Grimshaw, _Facts and
+  Figures about Ireland_ (1893); _Report of the Recess Committee_
+  (1896, published in Dublin); _Report of the Financial Relations
+  Commission_ (1897); Sir H. Plunkett, _Ireland in the New Century_
+  (London, 1905); Filson Young, _Ireland at the Cross-Roads_ (London,
+  1904); Thom's _Almanac_, published annually in Dublin, gives a very
+  useful summary of statistics and other information.     (W. H. Po.)
+
+
+EARLY HISTORY
+
+  Historical sources.
+
+On account of its isolated position we might expect to find Ireland in
+possession of a highly developed system of legends bearing on the
+origins of its inhabitants. Ireland remained outside the pale of the
+ancient Roman world, and a state of society which was peculiarly
+favourable to the preservation of national folk-lore survived in the
+island until the 16th century. The jealousy with which the hereditary
+antiquaries guarded the tribal genealogies naturally leads us to hope
+that the records which have come down to us may shed some light on the
+difficult problems connected with the early inhabitants of these islands
+and the west of Europe. Although innumerable histories of Ireland have
+appeared in print since the publication of Roderick O'Flaherty's
+_Ogygia_ (London, 1677), the authors have in almost every case been
+content to reproduce the legendary accounts without bringing any serious
+criticism to bear on the sources. This is partly to be explained by the
+fact that the serious study of Irish philology only dates from 1853 and
+much of the most important material has not yet appeared in print. In
+the middle of the 19th century O'Donovan and O'Curry collected a vast
+amount of undigested information about the early history of the island,
+but as yet J. B. Bury in his monograph on St Patrick is the only trained
+historian who has ever adequately dealt with any of the problems
+connected with ancient Ireland. Hence it is evident that our knowledge
+of the subject must remain extremely unsatisfactory until the chief
+sources have been properly sifted by competent scholars. A beginning has
+been made by Sir John Rhys in his "Studies in Early Irish History"
+(_Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol. i.), and by John MacNeill in
+a suggestive series of papers contributed to the _New Ireland Review_
+(March 1906-Feb. 1907). Much might reasonably be expected from the
+sciences of archaeology and anthropology. But although Ireland is as
+rich as, or even richer in monuments of the past than, most countries in
+Europe, comparatively little has been done owing in large measure to the
+lack of systematic investigation.
+
+It may be as well to specify some of the more important sources at the
+outset. Of the classical writers who notice Ireland Ptolemy is the only
+one who gives us any very definite information. The legendary origins
+first appear in Nennius and in a number of poems by such writers as
+Maelmura (d. 884), Cinaed Uah Artacain (d. 975), Eochaid Ua Flainn (d.
+984), Flann Mainistrech (d. 1056) and Gilla Coemgin (d. 1072). They are
+also embodied in the _Leabhar Gabhala_ or _Book of Invasions_, the
+earliest copy of which is contained in the _Book of Leinster_, a
+12th-century MS., Geoffrey Keating's _History_, Dugald MacFirbis's
+_Genealogies_ and various collections of annals such as those by the
+Four Masters. Of prime importance for the earlier period are the stories
+known collectively as the Ulster cycle, among which the lengthy epic the
+_Tain Bo Cualnge_ takes first place. Amongst the numerous chronicles the
+_Annals of Ulster_, which commence with the year 441, are by far the
+most trustworthy. The _Book of Rights_ is another compilation which
+gives valuable information with regard to the relations of the various
+kingdoms to one another. Finally, there are the extensive collections of
+genealogies preserved in Rawlinson B 502, the _Books of Leinster_ and
+_Ballymote_.
+
+_Earliest Inhabitants._--There is as yet no certain evidence to show
+that Ireland was inhabited during the palaeolithic period. But there are
+abundant traces of man in the neolithic state of culture (see Sir W. R.
+W. Wilde's _Catalogue_ of the antiquities in the Museum of the Royal
+Irish Academy). The use of bronze was perhaps introduced about 1450 B.C.
+The craniological evidence is unfortunately at present insufficient to
+show whether the introduction of metal coincided with any particular
+invasion either from Britain or the European continent. At any rate it
+was not until well on in the Bronze Age, perhaps about 600 or 500 B.C.,
+that the Goidels, the first invaders speaking a Celtic language, set
+foot in Ireland. The newcomers probably overran the whole island,
+subduing but not exterminating the older race with which they doubtless
+intermarried freely, as pre-Celtic types are frequent among the
+populations of Connaught and Munster at the present day. What the
+language was that was spoken by the neolithic aborigines is a question
+which will probably never be settled. The division into provinces or
+"fifths" (Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, E. Munster and W. Munster)
+appears to be older than the historical period, and may be due to the
+Goidels. Between 300 B.C. and 150 B.C. various Belgic and other
+Brythonic tribes established themselves in Britain bringing with them
+the knowledge of how to work in iron. Probably much about the same time
+certain Belgic tribes effected settlements in the S.E. of Ireland. Some
+time must have elapsed before any Brythonic people undertook to defy the
+powerful Goidelic states, as the supremacy of the Brythonic kingdom of
+Tara does not seem to have been acknowledged before the 4th century of
+our era. The early Belgic settlers constituted perhaps in the main
+trading states which acted as intermediaries of commerce between Ireland
+and Gaul.[1] In addition to these Brythonic colonies a number of Pictish
+tribes, who doubtless came over from Scotland, conquered for themselves
+parts of Antrim and Down where they maintained their independence till
+late in the historical period. Picts are also represented as having
+settled in the county of Roscommon; but we have at present no means of
+ascertaining when this invasion took place.
+
+_Classical Writers._--Greek and Roman writers seem to have possessed
+very little definite information about the island, though much of what
+they relate corresponds to the state of society disclosed in the older
+epics. Strabo held the inhabitants to be mere savages, addicted to
+cannibalism and having no marriage ties. Solinus speaks of the luxurious
+pastures, but the natives he terms an inhospitable and warlike nation.
+The conquerors among them having first drunk the blood of their enemies,
+afterwards besmear their faces therewith; they regard right and wrong
+alike. Whenever a woman brings forth a male child, she puts his first
+food on the sword of her husband, and lightly introduces the first
+_auspicium_ of nourishment into his little mouth with the point of the
+sword. Pomponius Mela speaks of the climate as unfit for ripening grain,
+but he, too, notices the luxuriance of the grass. However, it is not
+until we reach Ptolemy that we feel we are treading on firm ground. His
+description is of supreme importance for the study of early Irish
+ethnography. Ptolemy gives the names of sixteen peoples in Ireland,
+several of which can be identified. As we should expect from our
+knowledge of later Irish history scarcely any towns are mentioned. In
+the S.E., probably in Co. Wicklow, we find the Manapii--evidently a
+colony from N.E. Gaul. North of them, perhaps in Kildare, a similar
+people, the Cauci, are located. In Waterford and Wexford are placed the
+Brigantes, who also occur in Yorkshire. The territory to the west of the
+Brigantes is occupied by a people called by Ptolemy the Iverni. Their
+capital he gives as Ivernis, and in the extreme S.W. of the island he
+marks the mouth of the river Iernos, by which the top of Dingle Bay
+called Castlemaine Harbour is perhaps intended. The Iverni must have
+been a nation of considerable importance, as they play a prominent part
+in the historical period, where they are known as the Ernai or Eraind of
+Munster. It would seem that the Iverni were the first native tribe with
+whom foreign traders came in contact, as it is from them that the Latin
+name for the whole island is derived. The earliest form was probably
+_Iveriyo_ or _Iveriyu_, genitive _Iveryonos_, from which come Lat.
+_Iverio_, _Hiverio_ (Antonine Itinerary), _Hiberio_ (Confession of St
+Patrick), Old Irish _Eriu_, _Heriu_, gen. _Herenn_ with regular loss of
+intervocalic v, _Welsh Iwerddon_ (from the oblique cases). West of the
+Iverni in Co. Kerry Ptolemy mentions the Vellabori, and going in a
+northerly direction following the coast we find the Gangani, Autini
+(Autiri), Nagnatae (Magnatae). Erdini (cf. the name Lough Erne),
+Vennicnii, Rhobogdii, Darini and Eblanii, none of whom can be identified
+with certainty. In south Ulster Ptolemy locates a people called the
+Voluntii who seem to correspond to the Ulidians of a later period (Ir.
+_Ulaid_, in Irish Lat. _Uloti_). About Queen's county or Tipperary are
+situated the Usdiae, whose name is compared with the later Ossory (Ir.
+_Os-raige_). Lastly, in the north of Wexford we find the Coriondi who
+occur in Irish texts near the Boyne (Mid. Ir. _Coraind_). It would seem
+as if Ptolemy's description of Ireland answered in some measure to the
+state of affairs which we find obtaining in the older Ulster epic
+cycle.[2] Both are probably anterior to the foundation of a central
+state at Tara.
+
+_Legendary Origins._--We can unfortunately derive no further assistance
+from external sources and must therefore examine the native traditions.
+From the 9th century onwards we find accounts of various races who had
+colonized the island. These stories naturally become amplified as times
+goes on, and in what we may regard as the classical or standard versions
+to be found in Keating, the Four Masters, Dugald MacFirbis and
+elsewhere, no fewer than five successive invasions are enumerated. The
+first colony is represented as having arrived in Ireland in A.M. 2520,
+under the leadership of an individual named Partholan who hailed from
+Middle Greece. His company landed in Kenmare Bay and settled in what is
+now Co. Dublin. After occupying the island for 300 years they were all
+carried off by a plague and were buried at Tallaght (Ir. _Tamlacht_,
+"plague-grave"), at which place a number of ancient remains (probably
+belonging, however, to the Viking period) have come to light. In A.M.
+2850 a warrior from Scythia called Nemed reached Ireland with 900
+fighting men. Nemed's people are represented as having to struggle for
+their existence with a race of sea-pirates known as the Fomorians. The
+latter's stronghold was Tory Island, where they had a mighty fortress.
+After undergoing great hardship the Nemedians succeeded in destroying
+the fortress and in slaying the enemies' leaders, but the Fomorians
+received reinforcements from Africa. A second battle was fought in which
+both parties were nearly exterminated. Of the Nemedians only thirty
+warriors escaped, among them being three descendants of Nemed, who made
+their way each to a different country (A.M. 3066). One of them, Simon
+Brec, proceeded to Greece, where his posterity multiplied to such an
+extent that the Greeks grew afraid and reduced them to slavery. In time
+their position became so intolerable that they resolved to escape, and
+they arrived in Ireland A.M. 3266. This third body of invaders is known
+collectively as Firbolgs, and is ethnologically and historically very
+important. They are stated to have had five leaders, all brothers, each
+of whom occupied one of the provinces or "fifths." We find them landing
+in different places. One party, the Fir Galeoin, landed at Inber Slangi,
+the mouth of the Slaney, and occupied much of Leinster. Another, the Fir
+Domnand, settled in Mayo where their name survives in Irrus Domnand, the
+ancient name for the district of Erris. A third band, the Firbolg
+proper, took possession of Munster. Many authorities such as Keating and
+MacFirbis admit that descendants of the Firbolgs were still to be found
+in parts of Ireland in their own day, though they are characterized as
+"tattling, guileful, tale-bearing, noisy, contemptible, mean, wretched,
+unsteady, harsh and inhospitable." The Firbolgs had scarcely established
+themselves in the island when a fresh set of invaders appeared on the
+scene. These were the Tuatha De Danann ("tribes of the god Danu"), who
+according to the story were also descended from Nemed. They came
+originally from Greece and were highly skilled in necromancy. Having to
+flee from Greece on account of a Syrian invasion they proceeded to
+Scandinavia. Under Nuadu Airgetlaim they moved to Scotland, and finally
+arrived in Ireland (A.M. 3303), bringing with them in addition to the
+celebrated Lia Fail ("stone of destiny") which they set up at Tara, the
+cauldron of the Dagda and the sword and spear of Lugaid Lamfada.
+Eochaid, son of Erc, king of the Firbolgs, having declined to surrender
+the sovereignty of Ireland, a great battle was fought on the plain of
+Moytura near Cong (Co. Mayo), the site of a prehistoric cemetery. In
+this contest the Firbolgs were overthrown with great slaughter, and the
+remnants of the race according to Keating and other writers took refuge
+in Arran, Islay, Rathlin and the Hebrides, where they dwelt until driven
+out by Picts. Twenty-seven years later the Tuatha De had to defend
+themselves against the Fomorians, who were almost annihilated at the
+battle of north Moytura near Sligo. The Tuatha De then enjoyed
+undisturbed possession of Ireland until the arrival of the Milesians in
+A.M. 3500.
+
+All the early writers dwell with great fondness on the origin and
+adventures of this race. The Milesians came primarily from Scythia and
+after sojourning for some time in Egypt, Crete and in Scythia again,
+they finally arrived in Spain. In the line of mythical ancestors which
+extends without interruption up to Noah, the names of Fenius Farsaid,
+Goedel Glas, Eber Scot and Breogan constantly recur in Irish story. At
+length eight sons of Miled (Lat. _Milesius_) set forth to conquer
+Ireland. The spells of the Tuatha De accounted for most of their number.
+However, after two battles the newcomers succeeded in overcoming the
+older race; and two brothers, Eber Find and Eremon, divided the island
+between them, Eber Find taking east and west Munster, whilst Eremon
+received Leinster and Connaught. Lugaid, son of the brother of Miled,
+took possession of south-west Munster. At the same time Ulster was left
+to Eber son of Ir son of Miled. The old historians agree that Ireland
+was ruled by a succession of Milesian monarchs until the reign of
+Roderick O'Connor, the last native king. The Tuatha De are represented
+as retiring into the _sid_ or fairy mounds. Eber Find and Eremon did not
+remain long in agreement. The historians place the beginnings of the
+antithesis between north and south at the very commencement of the
+Milesian domination. A battle was fought between the two brothers in
+which Eber Find lost his life. In the reign of Eremon the Picts are
+stated to have arrived in Ireland, coming from Scythia. It will have
+been observed that Scythia had a peculiar attraction for medieval Irish
+chroniclers on account of its resemblance to the name Scotti, Scots. The
+Picts first settled in Leinster; but the main body were forced to remove
+to Scotland, only a few remaining behind in Meath. Among the numerous
+mythical kings placed by the annalists between Eremon and the Christian
+era we may mention Tigernmas (A.M. 3581), Ollam Fodla (A.M. 3922) who
+established the meeting of Tara, Cimbaeth (c. 305 B.C.) the reputed
+founder of Emain Macha, Ugaine Mor, Labraid Loingsech, and Eochaid
+Feidlech, who built Rath Cruachan for his celebrated daughter, Medb
+queen of Connaught. During the 1st century of our era we hear of the
+rising of the _aithech-tuatha_, i.e. subject or plebeian tribes, or in
+other words the Firbolgs, who paid _daer_- or base rent to the
+Milesians. From a resemblance in the name which is probably fortuitous
+these tribes have been identified with the Attecotti of Roman writers.
+Under Cairbre Cinnchait ("cathead") the oppressed peoples succeeded in
+wresting the sovereignty from the Milesians, whose princes and nobles
+were almost exterminated (A.D. 90). The line of Eremon was, however,
+restored on the accession of Tuathal Techtmar ("the legitimate"), who
+reigned A.D. 130-160. This ruler took measures to consolidate the power
+of the _ardri_ (supreme king). He constructed a number of fortresses on
+the great central plain and carved out the kingdom of Meath to serve as
+his mensal land. The new kingdom was composed of the present counties of
+Meath, Westmeath and Longford together with portions of Monaghan, Cavan,
+King's Co. and Kildare. He was also the first to levy the famous
+Leinster tribute, the _boroma_, in consequence of an insult offered to
+him by one of the kings of that province. This tribute, which was only
+remitted in the 7th century at the instance of St Moling, must have been
+the source of constant war and oppression. A grandson of Tuathal's, the
+famous Conn Cetchathach ("the hundred-fighter"), whose death is placed
+in the year 177 after a reign of about twenty years, was constantly at
+war with the Munster ruler Eogan Mor, also called Mog Nuadat, of the
+race of Eber Find. Eogan had subdued the Ernai and the Corco Laigde
+(descendants of Lugaid son of Ith) in Munster, and even the supreme king
+was obliged to share the island with him. Hence the well-known names
+Leth Cuinn or "Conn's half" (north Ireland), and Leth Moga or "Mug's
+half" (south Ireland). The boundary line ran from the Bay of Galway to
+Dublin along the great ridge of gravel known as Eiscir Riada which
+stretches across Ireland. Mog Nuadat had a son Ailill Aulom who plays a
+prominent part in the Irish sagas and genealogies, and his sons Eogan,
+Cian and Cormac Cas, all became the ancestors of well-known families.
+Conn's grandson, Cormac son of Art, is represented as having reigned in
+great splendour (254-266) and as having been a great patron of learning.
+It was during this reign that the sept of the Desi were expelled from
+Meath. They settled in Munster where their name still survives in the
+barony of Decies (Co. Waterford). A curious passage in Cormac's
+_Glossary_ connects one of the leaders of this sept, Cairpre Musc, with
+the settlements of the Irish in south Wales which may have taken place
+as early as the 3rd century. Of greater consequence was the invasion of
+Ulster by the three Collas, cousins of the ardri Muredach. The
+stronghold of Emain Macha was destroyed and the Ulstermen were driven
+across the Newry River into Dalriada, which was inhabited by Picts.
+
+The old inhabitants of Ulster are usually termed Ulidians to distinguish
+them from the Milesian peoples who overran the province. With the advent
+of Niall Noigiallach ("N. of the nine hostages" reigned 379-405) son of
+Eochaid Muigmedoin (358-366) we are treading safer ground. It was about
+this time that the Milesian kingdom of Tara was firmly established. Nor
+was Niall's activity confined to Ireland alone. Irish sources represent
+him as constantly engaged in marauding expeditions oversea, and it was
+doubtless on one of these that St Patrick was taken captive. These
+movements coincide with the inroads of the Picts and Scots recorded by
+Roman writers. It is probably from this period that the Irish colonies
+in south Wales, Somerset, Devon and Cornwall date. And the earliest
+migrations from Ulster to Argyll may also have taken place about this
+time. Literary evidence of the colonization of south Wales is preserved
+both in Welsh and Irish sources, and some idea of the extent of Irish
+oversea activity may be gathered from the distribution of the Ogam
+inscriptions in Wales, south-west England and the Isle of Man.
+
+_Criticism of the Legendary Origins._--It is only in recent years that
+the Irish legendary origins have been subjected to serious criticism.
+The fondly cherished theory which attributes Milesian descent to the
+bulk of the native population has at length been assailed. MacNeill
+asserts that in MacFirbis's genealogies the majority of the tribes in
+early Ireland do not trace their descent to Eremon and Eber Find; they
+are rather the descendants of the subject races, one of which figures in
+the list of conquests under the name of Firbolg. The stories of the
+Fomorians were doubtless suggested in part by the Viking invasions, but
+the origin of the Partholan legend has not been discovered. The Tuatha
+De do not appear in any of the earliest quasi-historical documents, nor
+in Nennius, and they scarcely correspond to any particular race. It
+seems more probable that a special invasion was assigned to them by
+later writers in order to explain the presence of mythical personages
+going by their name in the heroic cycles, as they were found
+inconvenient by the monkish historians. In the early centuries of our
+era Ireland would therefore have been occupied by the Firbolgs and
+kindred races and the Milesians. According to MacNeill the Firbolg
+tribal names are formed with the suffix -_raige_, e.g. _Ciarraige_,
+Kerry, _Osraige_, Ossory, or with the obscure words _Corcu_ and _mocu_
+(_maccu_), e.g. _Corco Duibne_, Corkaguiney, _Corco Mruad_, Corcomroe,
+_Macu Loegdae_, _Macu Teimne_. In the case of _corcu_ and _mocu_ the
+name which follows is frequently the name of an eponymous ancestor. The
+Milesians on the other hand named themselves after an historical
+ancestor employing terms such as _ui_, "descendants," _cland_,
+"children," _dal_, "division," _cinel_, "kindred," or _sil_, "seed." In
+this connexion it may be noted that practically all the Milesian
+pedigrees converge on three ancestors in the 2nd century--Conn
+Cetchathach king of Tara, Cathair Mor of Leinster, and Ailill Aulom of
+Munster,--whilst in scarcely any of them are mythological personages
+absent when we go farther back than A.D. 300. Special genealogies were
+framed to link up other races, e.g. the Eraind and Corcu Loegdi of
+Munster and the Ulidians with the Milesians of Tara.
+
+The peculiar characteristic of the Milesian conquest is the
+establishment of a central monarchy at Tara. No trace of such a state of
+affairs is to be found in the Ulster epic. In the _Tain Bo Cualnge_ we
+find Ireland divided into fifths, each ruled over by its own king. These
+divisions were: Ulster with Emain Macha as capital, Connaught with
+Cruachu as residence, north Munster from Slieve Bloom to north Kerry,
+south Munster from south Kerry to Waterford, and Leinster consisting of
+the two kingdoms of Tara and Ailinn. Moreover, the kings of Tara
+mentioned in the Ulster cycle do not figure in any list of Milesian
+kings. It would appear then that the central kingdom of Tara was an
+innovation subsequent to the state of society described in the oldest
+sagas and the political position reflected in Ptolemy's account. It was
+probably due to an invasion undertaken by Brythons[3] from Britain, but
+it is impossible to assign a precise date for their arrival. Until the
+end of the 3rd century the Milesian power must have been confined to the
+valley of the Boyne and the district around Tara. At the beginning of
+the 4th century the three Collas founded the kingdom of Oriel
+(comprising the present counties of Armagh, Monaghan, north Louth, south
+Fermanagh) and drove the Ulidians into the eastern part of the province.
+Brian and Fiachra, sons of Eochaid Muigmedoin, conquered for themselves
+the country of the Ui Briuin (Roscommon, Leitrim, Cavan) and Tir
+Fiachrach, the territory of the Firbolg tribe the Fir Domnann in the
+valley of the Moy (Co. Mayo). Somewhat later south Connaught was
+similarly wrested from the older race and colonized by descendants of
+Brian and Fiachra, later known as Ui Fiachrach Aidni and Ui Briuin
+Seola. The north of Ulster is stated to have been conquered and
+colonized by Conall and Eogan, sons of Niall Noigiallach. The former
+gave his name to the western portion, Tir Conaill (Co. Donegal), whilst
+Inishowen was called Tir Eogain after Eogan. The name Tir Eogain later
+became associated with south Ulster where it survives in the county name
+Tyrone. The whole kingdom of the north is commonly designated the
+kingdom of Ailech, from the ancient stronghold near Derry which the sons
+of Niall probably took over from the earlier inhabitants. At the end of
+the 5th century Maine, a relative of the king of Tara, was apportioned a
+tract of Firbolg territory to the west of the Suck in Connaught, which
+formed the nucleus of a powerful state known as Hy Maine (in English
+commonly called the "O'Kelly's country"). Thus practically the whole of
+the north and west gradually came under the sway of the Milesian rulers.
+Nevertheless one portion retained its independence. This was Ulidia,
+consisting of Dalriada, Dal Fiatach, Dal Araide, including the present
+counties of Antrim and Down. The bulk of the population here was
+probably Pictish; but the Dal Fiatach, representing the old Ulidians or
+ancient population of Ulster, maintained themselves until the 8th
+century when they were subdued by their Pictish neighbours. The
+relationship of Munster and Leinster to the Tara dynasty is not so easy
+to define. The small kingdom of Ossory remained independent until a very
+late period. As for Leinster none of the Brythonic peoples mentioned by
+Ptolemy left traces of their name, although it is possible that the
+ruling family may have been derived from them. It would seem that the
+Fir Galeoin who play such a prominent part in the _Tain_ had been
+crushed before authentic history begins. The king of Leinster was for
+centuries the most determined opponent of the _ardri_, an antithesis
+which is embodied in the story of the _boroma_ tribute. When we turn to
+Munster we find that Cashel was the seat of power in historical times.
+Now Cashel (a loanword from Lat. _castellum_) was not founded Until the
+beginning of the 5th century by Core son of Lugaid. The legendary
+account attributes the subjugation of the various peoples inhabiting
+Munster to Mog Nuadat, and the pedigrees are invariably traced up to his
+son Ailill Aulom. Rhys adopts the view that the race of Eber Find was
+not Milesian but a branch of the Ernai, and this theory has much in its
+favour. The allegiance of the rulers of Munster to Niall and his
+descendants can at the best of times only have been nominal.
+
+In this way we get a number of over-kingdoms acknowledging only the
+supremacy of the Tara dynasty. These were (1) Munster with Cashel as
+centre, (2) Connaught, (3) Ailech, (4) Oriel, (5) Ulidia, (6) Meath, (7)
+Leinster, (8) Ossory. Some of these states might be split up into
+various parts at certain periods, each part becoming for the time-being
+an over-kingdom. For instance, Ailech might be resolved into Tir Conaill
+and Tir Eogain according to political conditions. Hence the number of
+over-kingdoms is given variously in different documents. The supremacy
+was vested in the descendants of Niall Noigiallach without interruption
+until 1002; but as Niall's descendants were represented by four reigning
+families, the high-kingship passed from one branch to another.
+Nevertheless after the middle of the 8th century the title of _ardri_
+(high-king) was only held by the Cinel Eogain (northern Hy Neill) and
+the rulers of Meath (southern Hy Neill), as the kingdom of Oriel had
+dropped into insignificance. The supremacy of the _ardri_ was more often
+than not purely nominal. This must have been particularly the case in
+Leth Moga.
+
+_Religion in Early Ireland._--Our knowledge of the beliefs of the pagan
+Irish is very slight. The oldest texts belonging to the heroic cycle are
+not preserved in any MS. before 1100, and though the sagas were
+certainly committed to writing several centuries before that date, it is
+evident that the monkish transcribers have toned down or omitted
+features that savoured too strongly of paganism. Supernatural beings
+play an important part in the _Tain Bo Cualgne_, _Cuchulinn's Sickbed_,
+the _Wooing of Emer_ and similar stories, but the relations between
+ordinary mortals and such divine or semi-divine personages is not easy
+to establish. It seems unlikely that the ancient Irish had a highly
+developed pantheon. On the other hand there are abundant traces of
+animistic worship, which have survived in wells, often associated with a
+sacred tree (Ir. _bile_), bullans, pillar stones, weapons. There are
+also traces of the worship of the elements, prominent among which are
+sun and fire. The belief in earth spirits or fairies (Ir. _aes side_,
+_sid_) forms perhaps the most striking feature of Irish belief. The
+sagas teem with references to the inhabitants of the fairy mounds, who
+play such an important part in the mind of the peasantry of our own
+time. These supernatural beings are sometimes represented as immortal,
+but often they fall victims to the prowess of mortals. Numerous cases of
+marriage between fairies and mortals are recorded. The Tuatha De Danann
+is used as a collective name for the _aes side_. The representatives of
+this race in the _Tain Bo Cualgne_ play a somewhat similar part to the
+gods of the ancient Greeks in the _Iliad_, though they are of necessity
+of a much more shadowy nature. Prominent among them were Manannan mac
+Lir, who is connected with the sea and the Isle of Man, and the Dagda,
+the father of a numerous progeny. One of them, Bodb Derg, resided near
+Portumna on the shore of Lough Derg, whilst another, Angus Mac-in-og,
+dwelt at the Brug of the Boyne, the well-known tumulus at New Grange.
+The Dagda's daughter Brigit transmitted many of her attributes to the
+Christian saint of the same name (d. 523). The ancient Brigit seems to
+have been the patroness of the arts and was probably also the goddess of
+fertility. At any rate it is with her that the sacred fire at Kildare
+which burnt almost uninterruptedly until the time of the Reformation
+was associated; and she was commonly invoked in the Hebrides, and until
+quite recently in Donegal, to secure good crops. Well-known fairy queens
+are Clidna (south Munster) and Aibell (north Munster). We frequently
+hear of three goddesses of war--Ana, Bodb and Macha, also generally
+called Morrigu and Badb. They showed themselves in battles hovering over
+the heads of the combatants in the form of a carrion crow. The name Bodb
+appears on a Gaulish stone as (_Cathu_-)_bodvae_. The _Geniti glinni_
+and _demna aeir_ were other fierce spirits who delighted in carnage.
+
+When we come to treat of religious rites and worship, our sources leave
+us completely in the dark. We hear in several documents of a great idol
+covered with gold and silver named Cromm Cruach, or Cenn Cruaich, which
+was surrounded by twelve lesser idols covered with brass or bronze, and
+stood on Mag Slecht (the plain of prostrations) near Ballymagauran, Co.
+Cavan. In one text the Cromm Cruach is styled the chief idol of Ireland.
+According to the story St Patrick overthrew the idol, and one of the
+lives of the saint states that the mark of his crosier might still be
+seen on the stone. In the _Dindsenchus_ we are told that the worshippers
+sacrificed their children to the idol in order to secure corn, honey and
+milk in plenty. On the occasion of famine the druids advised that the
+son of a sinless married couple should be brought to Ireland to be
+killed in front of Tara and his blood mixed with the soil of Tara. We
+might naturally expect to find the druids active in the capacity of
+priests in Ireland. D'Arbois de Jubainville maintains that in Gaul the
+three classes of druids, vates and gutuatri, corresponded more or less
+to the pontifices, augurs and flamens of ancient Rome. In ancient Irish
+literature the functions of the druids correspond fairly closely to
+those of their Gaulish brethren recorded by Caesar and other writers of
+antiquity. Had we contemporary accounts of the position of the druid in
+Ireland prior to the introduction of Christianity, it may be doubted if
+any serious difference would be discovered. In early Irish literature
+the druids chiefly appear as magicians and diviners, but they are also
+the repositaries of the learning of the time which they transmitted to
+the disciples accompanying them (see DRUIDISM). The Druids were believed
+to have the power to render a person insane by flinging a magic wisp of
+straw in his face, and they were able to raise clouds of mist, or to
+bring down showers of fire and blood. They claimed to be able to
+foretell the future by watching the clouds, or by means of divining-rods
+made of yew. They also resorted to sacrifice. They possessed several
+means for rendering a person invisible, and various peculiar and
+complicated methods of divination, such as _Imbas forosna_, _tein
+laegda_, and _dichetal do chennaib_, are described in early authorities.
+Whether or not the Irish druids taught that the soul was immortal is a
+question which it is impossible to decide. There is one passage which
+seems to support the view that they agreed with the Gaulish druids in
+this respect, but it is not safe to deny the possible influence of
+Christian teaching in the document in question. The Irish, however,
+possessed some more or less definite notions about an abode of
+everlasting youth and peace inhabited by fairies. The latter either
+dwell in the sid, and this is probably the earlier conception, or in
+islands out in the ocean where they live a life of never-ending delight.
+These happy abodes were known by various names, as Tir Tairngiri (Land
+of Promise), Mag Mell (Plain of Pleasures). Condla Caem son of Conn
+Cetchathach was carried in a boat of crystal by a fairy maiden to the
+land of youth, and among other mortals who went thither Bran, son of
+Febal, and Ossian are the most famous. The doctrine of metempsychosis
+seems to have been familiar in early Ireland. Mongan king of Dalriada in
+the 7th century is stated to have passed after death into various
+shapes--a wolf, a stag, a salmon, a seal, a swan. Fintan, nephew of
+Partholan, is also reported to have survived the deluge and to have
+lived in various shapes until he was reborn as Tuan mac Cairill in the
+6th century. This legend appears to have been worked up, if not
+manufactured, by the historians of the 9th to 11th centuries to support
+their fictions. It may, however, be mentioned that Giraldus Cambrensis
+and the _Speculum Regale_ state in all seriousness that certain of the
+inhabitants of Ossory were able at will to assume the form of wolves,
+and similar stories are not infrequent in Irish romance.
+
+_Conversion to Christianity._--In the beginning of the 4th century there
+was an organized Christian church in Britain; and in view of the
+intimate relations existing between Wales and Ireland during that
+century it is safe to conclude that there were Christians in Ireland
+before the time of St Patrick. Returned colonists from south Wales,
+traders and the raids of the Irish in Britain with the consequent influx
+of British captives sold into slavery must have introduced the knowledge
+of Christianity into the island considerably before A.D. 400. In this
+connexion it is interesting to find an Irishman named Fith (also called
+Iserninus) associated with St Patrick at Auxerre. Further, the earliest
+Latin words introduced into Irish show the influence of British
+pronunciation (e.g. O. Ir. _trindoit_ from _trinitat-em_ shows the
+Brythonic change of a to o). Irish records preserve the names of three
+shadowy pre-Patrician saints who were connected with south-east Ireland,
+Declan, Ailbe and Ciaran.
+
+In one source the great heresiarch Pelagius is stated to have been a
+Scot. He may have been descended from an Irish family settled in south
+Wales. We have also the statement of Prosper of Aquitaine that Palladius
+was sent by Pope Celestine as first bishop to the Scots that believe in
+Christ. But though we may safely assume that a number of scattered
+communities existed in Ireland, and probably not in the south alone, it
+is unlikely that there was any organization before the time of St
+Patrick. This mission arose out of the visit of St Germanus of Auxerre
+to Britain. The British bishops had grown alarmed at the rapid growth of
+Pelagianism in Britain and sought the aid of the Gaulish church. A synod
+summoned for the occasion commissioned Germanus and Lupus to go to
+Britain, which they accordingly did in 429; Pope Celestine, we are told,
+had given his sanction to the mission through the deacon Palladius. The
+heresy was successfully stamped out in Britain, but distinct traces of
+it are to be found some three centuries later in Ireland, and it is to
+Irish monks on the European continent that we owe the preservation of
+the recently discovered copies of Pelagius's _Commentary_. Palladius's
+activity in Britain probably marked him out as the man to undertake the
+task of bringing Ireland into touch with Western Christianity. In any
+case Prosper and the Irish Annals represent him as arriving in Ireland
+in 431 with episcopal rank. His missionary activity unfortunately is
+extremely obscure. Tradition associates his name with Co. Wicklow, but
+Irish sources state that after a brief sojourn there he proceeded to the
+land of the Picts, among whom he was beginning to labour when his career
+was cut short by death.
+
+_St Patrick._--At this juncture Germanus of Auxerre decided to
+consecrate his pupil Patrick for the purpose of carrying on the work
+begun by Palladius. Patrick would possess several qualifications for the
+dignity of a missionary bishop to Ireland. Born in Britain about 389, he
+had been carried into slavery in Ireland when a youth of sixteen. He
+remained with his master for seven years, and must have had ample
+opportunity for observing the conditions, and learning the language, of
+the people around him; and such knowledge would have been indispensable
+to the Christian bishop in view of the peculiar state of Irish society
+(see PATRICK, ST). The new bishop landed in Wicklow in 432. Leinster was
+probably the province in which Christianity was already most strongly
+represented, and Patrick may have entrusted this part of his sphere to
+two fellow-workers from Gaul, Auxilius and Iserninus. At any rate he
+seems rather to have addressed himself more especially to the task of
+founding churches in Meath, Ulster and Connaught. In Ireland the land
+nominally belonged to the tribe, but in reality a kind of feudal system
+existed. In order to succeed with the body of the tribe it was necessary
+to secure the adherence of the chief. The conversion in consequence was
+in large measure only apparent; and such pagan superstitions and
+practices as did not run directly counter to the new teaching were
+tolerated by the saint. Thus, whilst the mass of the people practically
+still continued in heathendom, the apostle was enabled to found
+churches and schools and educate a priesthood which should provide the
+most effective and certain means of conversion. It would be a mistake to
+suppose that his success was as rapid or as complete as is generally
+assumed. There can be no doubt that he met with great opposition both
+from the high-king Loigaire and from the druids. But though Loigaire
+refused to desert the faith of his ancestors we are told that a number
+of his nearest kinsmen accepted Christianity; and if there be any truth
+in the story of the codification of the Brehon Laws we gather that he
+realized that the future belonged to the new religion. St Patrick's work
+seems to fall under two heads. In the first place he planted the faith
+in parts of the north and west which had probably not yet heard the
+gospel. He also organized the already existing Christian communities,
+and with this in view founded a church at Armagh as his metropolitan see
+(444). It is further due to him that Ireland became linked up with Rome
+and the Christian countries of the Western church, and that in
+consequence Latin was introduced as the language of the church. It seems
+probable that St Patrick consecrated a considerable number of bishops
+with small but definite dioceses which doubtless coincided in the main
+with the territories of the _tuatha_. In any case the ideal of the
+apostle from Britain was almost certainly very different from the
+monastic system in vogue in Ireland in the 6th and 7th centuries.
+
+_The Early Irish Church._--The church founded by St Patrick was
+doubtless in the main identical in doctrine with the churches of Britain
+and Gaul and other branches of the Western church; but after the recall
+of the Roman legions from Britain the Irish church was shut off from the
+Roman world, and it is only natural that there should not have been any
+great amount of scruple with regard to orthodox doctrine. This would
+explain the survival of the writings of Pelagius in Ireland until the
+8th century. Even Columba himself, in his Latin hymn _Altus prosator_,
+was suspected by Gregory the Great of favouring Arian doctrines. After
+the death of St Patrick there was apparently a relapse into paganism in
+many parts of the island. The church itself gradually became grafted on
+to the feudal organization, the result of which was the peculiar system
+which we find in the 6th and 7th centuries. Wherever Roman law and
+municipal institutions had been in force the church was modelled on the
+civil society. The bishops governed ecclesiastical districts co-ordinate
+with the civil divisions. In Ireland there were no cities and no
+municipal institutions; the nation consisted of groups of tribes
+connected by kinship, and loosely held together by a feudal system which
+we shall examine later. Although St Patrick endeavoured to organize the
+Irish church on regular diocesan lines, after his death an approximation
+to the lay system was under the circumstances almost inevitable. When a
+chief became a Christian and bestowed lands on the church, he at the
+same time transferred all his rights as a chief; but these rights still
+remained with his sept, albeit subordinate to the uses of the church. At
+first all church offices were exclusively confined to members of the
+sept. In this new sept there was consequently a twofold succession. The
+religious sept or family consisted in the first instance not only of the
+ecclesiastical persons to whom the gift was made, but of all the _celi_
+or vassals, tenants and slaves, connected with the land bestowed. The
+head was the coarb (Ir. _comarba_, "co-heir"), i.e. the inheritor both
+of the spiritual and temporal rights and privileges of the founder; he
+in his temporal capacity exacted rent and tribute like other chiefs, and
+made war not on temporal chiefs only, the spectacle of two coarbs making
+war on each other not being unusual. The ecclesiastical colonies that
+went forth from a parent family generally remained in subordination to
+it, in the same way that the spreading branches of a ruling family
+remained in general subordinate to it. The heads of the secondary
+families were also called the coarbs of the original founder. Thus there
+were coarbs of Columba at Iona, Kells, Derry, Durrow and other places.
+The coarb of the chief spiritual foundation was called the high coarb
+(ard-chomarba). The coarb might be a bishop or only an abbot, but in
+either case all the ecclesiastics in the family were subject to him; in
+this way it frequently happened that bishops, though their superior
+functions were recognized, were in subjection to abbots who were only
+priests, as in the case of St Columba, or even to a woman, as in the
+case of St Brigit. This singular association of lay and spiritual powers
+was liable to the abuse of allowing the whole succession to fall into
+lay hands, as happened to a large extent in later times. The temporal
+chief had his steward who superintended the collection of his rents and
+tributes; in like manner the coarb of a religious sept had his
+_airchinnech_ (Anglo-Irish _erenach_, _herenach_), whose office was
+generally, but not necessarily, hereditary. The office embodied in a
+certain sense the lay succession in the family.
+
+From the beginning the life of the converts must have been in some
+measure coenobitic. Indeed it could hardly have been otherwise in a
+pagan and half-savage land. St Patrick himself in his Confession makes
+mention of monks in Ireland in connexion with his mission, but the few
+glimpses we get of the monastic life of the decades immediately
+following his death prove that the earliest type of coenobium differed
+considerably from that known at a later period. The coenobium of the end
+of the 5th century consisted of an ordinary sept or family whose chief
+had become Christian. After making a gift of his lands the chief either
+retired, leaving it in the hands of a coarb, or remained as the
+religious head himself. The family went on with their usual avocations,
+but some of the men and women, and in some cases all, practised
+celibacy, and all joined in fasting and prayer. It may be inferred from
+native documents that grave disorders were prevalent under this system.
+A severer and more exclusive type of monasticism succeeded this
+primitive one, but apart from the separation of the sexes the general
+character never entirely changed.
+
+Diocesan organization as understood in countries under Roman Law being
+unknown, there was not that limitation of the number of bishops which
+territorial jurisdiction renders necessary, and consequently the number
+of bishops increased beyond all proportions. Thus, St Mochta, abbot of
+Louth, and a reputed disciple of St Patrick, is stated to have had no
+less than 100 bishops in his monastic family. All the bishops in a
+coenobium were subject to the abbot; but besides the bishop in the
+monastic families, every _tuath_ or tribe had its own bishop. The church
+in Ireland having been evolved out of the monastic nuclei already
+described the tribe bishop was an episcopal development of a somewhat
+later period. He was an important personage, his status being fixed in
+the Brehon laws, from which we learn that his honour price was seven
+_cumals_, and that he had the right to be accompanied by the same number
+of followers as a petty king. The power of the bishops was considerable,
+as they were strong enough to resist the kings with regard to the right
+of sanctuary, ever a fertile source of dissension. The _tuath_ bishop in
+later centuries corresponded to the diocesan bishop as closely as it was
+possible in two systems so different as tribal and municipal government.
+When diocesan jurisdiction was introduced into Ireland in the 12th
+century the _tuath_ became a diocese. Many of the old dioceses represent
+ancient _tuatha_, and even enlarged modern dioceses coincide with the
+territories of ancient tribal states. Thus the diocese of Kilmacduagh
+was the territory of the Hui Fiachrach Aidne; that of Kilfenora was the
+tribe land of Corco-Mruad or Corcomroe. Many deaneries also represent
+tribe territories. Thus the deanery of Musgrylin (Co. Cork) was the
+ancient Muscraige Mitaine, and no doubt had its tribe bishop in ancient
+times. Bishops without dioceses and monastic bishops were not unknown
+outside Ireland in the Eastern and Western churches in very early times,
+but they had disappeared with rare exceptions in the 6th century when
+the Irish reintroduced the monastic bishops and the monastic church into
+Britain and the continent.
+
+In the 8th and 9th centuries, when the great emigration of Irish
+scholars and ecclesiastics took place, the number of wandering bishops
+without dioceses became a reproach to the Irish church; and there can be
+no doubt that it led to much inconvenience and abuse, and was subversive
+of the stricter discipline that the popes had succeeded in establishing
+in the Western church. They were accused of ordaining serfs without the
+consent of their lords, consecrating bishops _per saltum_, i.e. of
+making men bishops who had not previously received the orders of
+priests, and of permitting bishops to be consecrated by a single bishop.
+This custom can hardly, however, be a reproach to the Irish church, as
+the practice was never held to be invalid; and besides, the Nicene
+canons of discipline were perhaps not known in Ireland until
+comparatively late times. The isolated position of Ireland, and the
+existence of tribal organization in full vigour, explain fully the
+anomalies of Irish discipline, many of which were also survivals of the
+early Christian practices before the complete organization of the
+church.
+
+After the death of St Patrick the bond between the numerous church
+families which his authority supplied was greatly relaxed; and the
+saint's most formidable opponents, the druids, probably regained much of
+their old power. The transition period which follows the loosening of a
+people's faith in its old religion and before the authority of the new
+is universally accepted is always a time of confusion and relaxation of
+morals. Such a period appears to have followed the fervour of St
+Patrick's time. To judge from the early literature the marriage-tie
+seems to have been regarded very lightly, and there can be little doubt
+that pagan marriage customs were practised long after the introduction
+of Christianity. The Brehon Laws assume the existence of married as well
+as unmarried clergy, and when St Patrick was seeking a bishop for the
+men of Leinster he asked for "a man of one wife." Marriage among the
+secular clergy went on in Ireland until the 15th century. Like the
+Gaulish druids described by Caesar, the poet (_fili_) and the druid
+possessed a huge stock of unwritten native lore, probably enshrined in
+verse which was learnt by rote by their pupils. The exalted position
+occupied by the learned class in ancient Ireland perhaps affords the key
+to the wonderful outbursts of scholarly activity in Irish monasteries
+from the 6th to the 9th centuries. That some of the _filid_ embraced
+Christianity from the outset is evident from the story of Dubthach. As
+early as the second half of the 5th century Enda, a royal prince of
+Oriel (c. 450-540), after spending some time at Whithorn betook himself
+to Aranmore, off the coast of Galway, and founded a school there which
+attracted scholars from all over Ireland. The connexion between Ireland
+and Wales was strong in the 6th century, and it was from south Wales
+that the great reform movement in the Irish monasteries emanated.
+Findian of Clonard (c. 470-548) is usually regarded as the institutor of
+the type of monastery for which Ireland became so famous during the next
+few centuries. He spent some time in Wales, where he came under the
+influence of St David, Gildas and Cadoc; and on returning to Ireland he
+founded his famous monastery at Clonard (Co. Meath) about 520. Here no
+less than 3000 students are said to have received instruction at the
+same time. Such a monastery consisted of countless tiny huts of wattles
+and clay (or, where stone was plentiful, of beehive cells) built by the
+pupils and enclosed by a fosse, or trench, like a permanent military
+encampment. The pupils sowed their own corn, fished in the streams, and
+milked their own cows. Instruction was probably given in the open air.
+Twelve of Findian's disciples became known as the twelve apostles of
+Ireland, the monastic schools they founded becoming the greatest centres
+of learning and religious instruction not only in Ireland, but in the
+whole of the west of Europe. Among the most famous were Moville (Co.
+Down), founded by another Findian, c. 540; Clonmacnoise, founded by
+Kieran, 541; Derry, founded by Columba, 546; Clonfert, founded by
+Brendan, 552; Bangor, founded in 558 by Comgall; Durrow, founded by
+Columba, c. 553. The chief reform due to the influence of the British
+church[4] seems to have been the introduction of monastic life in the
+strict sense of the word, i.e. communities entirely separated from the
+laity with complete separation of the sexes.
+
+One almost immediate outcome of the reformation effected by Findian was
+that wonderful spirit of missionary enterprise which made the name of
+Scot and of Ireland so well known throughout Europe, while at the same
+time the Irish were being driven out of their colonies in Wales and
+south-west Britain owing to the advance of the Saxon power. In 563
+Columba founded the monastery of Hi (Iona), which spread the knowledge
+of the Gospel among the Picts of the Scottish mainland. From this same
+solitary outpost went forth the illustrious Aidan to plant another Iona
+at Lindisfarne, which, "long after the poor parent brotherhood had
+fallen to decay, expanded itself into the bishopric of Durham." And
+Lightfoot claims for Aidan "the first place in the evangelization of the
+English race. Augustine was the apostle of Kent, but Aidan was the
+apostle of England." In 590 Columbanus, a native of Leinster (b. 543),
+went forth from Bangor, accompanied by twelve companions, to preach the
+Gospel on the continent of Europe. Columbanus was the first of the long
+stream of famous Irish monks who left their traces in Italy,
+Switzerland, Germany and France; amongst them being Gallus or St Gall,
+founder of St Gallen, Kilian of Wurzburg, Virgil of Salzburg, Cathald of
+Tarentum and numerous others. At the beginning of the 8th century a long
+series of missionary establishments extended from the mouths of the
+Meuse and Rhine to the Rhone and the Alps, whilst many others founded by
+Germans are the offspring of Irish monks. Willibrord, the apostle of the
+Frisians, for instance, spent twelve years in Ireland. Other Irishmen
+seeking remote places wherein to lead the lives of anchorites, studded
+the numerous islands on the west coast of Scotland with their little
+buildings. Cormac ua Liathain, a disciple of St Columba, visited the
+Orkneys, and when the Northmen first discovered Iceland they found there
+books and other traces of the early Irish church. It may be mentioned
+that the geographer Dicuil who lived at the court of Charlemagne gives a
+description of Iceland which must have been obtained from some one who
+had been there. The peculiarities which owing to Ireland's isolation had
+survived were brought into prominence when the Irish missionaries came
+into contact with Roman ecclesiastics. The chief points of difference
+were the calculation of Easter and the form of the tonsure, in addition
+to questions of discipline such as the consecration of bishops _per
+saltum_ and bishops without dioceses. With regard to tonsure it would
+seem that the druids shaved the front part of the head from ear to ear.
+St Patrick doubtless introduced the ordinary coronal tonsure, but in the
+period following his death the old druidical tonsure was again revived.
+In the calculation of Easter the Irish employed the old Roman and Jewish
+84-years' cycle which they may have received from St Patrick and which
+had once prevailed all over Europe. Shut off from the world, they were
+probably ignorant of the new cycle of 532 years which had been adopted
+by Rome in 463. This question aroused a controversy which waxed hottest
+in England, and as the Irish monks stubbornly adhered to their
+traditions they were vehemently attacked by their opponents. As early as
+633 the church of the south of Ireland, which had been more in contact
+with Gaul, had been won over to the Roman method of computation. The
+north and Iona on the other hand refused to give in until Adamnan
+induced the north of Ireland to yield in 697, while Iona held out until
+716, although by this time the monastery had lost its influence in
+Pictland. Owing to these controversies the real work of the early Irish
+missionaries in converting the pagans of Britain and central Europe, and
+sowing the seeds of culture there, is apt to be overlooked. Thus, when
+the Anglo-Saxon, Winfrid, surnamed Boniface, appeared in the kingdom of
+the Franks as papal legate in 723, to romanize the existing church of
+the time, neither the Franks, the Thuringians, the Alemanni nor the
+Bavarians could be considered as pagans. What Irish missionaries and
+their foreign pupils had implanted for more than a century quite
+independently of Rome, Winfrid organized and established under Roman
+authority partly by force of arms.
+
+During the four centuries which elapsed between the arrival of St
+Patrick and the establishment of a central state in Dublin by the
+Norsemen the history of Ireland is almost a blank as regards
+outstanding events. From the time that the Milesians of Tara had come to
+be recognized as suzerains of the whole island all political development
+ceases. The annals contain nothing save a record of intertribal warfare,
+which the high-king was rarely powerful enough to stay. The wonderful
+achievements of the Irish monks did not affect the body politic as a
+whole, and it may be doubted if there was any distinct advance in
+civilization in Ireland from the time of Niall Noigiallach to the
+Anglo-Norman invasion. Niall's posterity held the position of _ardri_
+uninterruptedly until 1002. Four of his sons, Loigaire, Conall
+Crimthand, Fiacc and Maine, settled in Meath and adjoining territories,
+and their posterity were called the southern Hy Neill. The other four,
+Eogan, Enna Find, Cairpre and Conall Gulban, occupied the northern part
+of Ulster. Their descendants were known as the northern Hy Neill.[5] The
+descendants of Eogan were the O'Neills and their numerous kindred septs;
+the posterity of Conall Gulban were the O'Donnells and their kindred
+septs. Niall died in 406 in the English Channel whilst engaged in a
+marauding expedition. He was succeeded by his nephew Dathi, son of
+Fiachra, son of Eochaid Muigmedoin, who is stated to have been struck by
+lightning at the foot of the Alps in 428. Loigaire, son of Niall
+(428-463), is identified with the story of St Patrick. According to
+tradition it was during his reign that the codification of the _Senchus
+Mor_ took place. A well-known story represents him as constantly at war
+with the men of Leinster. His successor, Ailill Molt (463-483), son of
+Dathi, is remarkable as being the last high-king for 500 years who was
+not a direct descendant of Niall.
+
+In 503 a body of colonists under Fergus, son of Erc, moved from Dalriada
+to Argyll and effected settlements there. The circumstances which
+enabled the Scots to succeed in occupying Kintyre and Islay cannot now
+be ascertained. The little kingdom had great difficulty to maintain
+itself, and its varying fortunes are very obscure. Neither is it clear
+that bodies of Scots had not already migrated to Argyll. Diarmait, son
+of Fergus Cerbaill (544-565), of the southern Hy Neill, undoubtedly
+professed Christianity though he still clung to many pagan practices,
+such as polygamy and the use of druidical incantations in battle. The
+annals represent him as getting into trouble with the Church on account
+of his violation of the right of sanctuary. At an assembly held at Tara
+in 554 Curnan, son of the king of Connaught, slew a nobleman, a crime
+punishable with death. The author of the deed fled for sanctuary to St
+Columba. But Diarmait pursued him, and disregarding the opposition of
+the saint seized Curnan and hanged him. St Columba's kinsmen, the
+northern Hy Neill, took up the quarrel, and attacked and defeated the
+king at Culdreimne in 561. In this battle Diarmait is stated to have
+employed druids to form an _airbe druad_ (fence of protection?) round
+his host. A few years later Diarmait seized by force the chief of Hy
+Maine, who had slain his herald and had taken refuge with St Ruadan of
+Lothra. According to the legend the saint, accompanied by St Brendan of
+Birr, followed the king to Tara and solemnly cursed it, from which time
+it was deserted. It has been suggested that Tara was abandoned during
+the plague of 548-549. Others have surmised that it was abandoned as a
+regular place of residence long before this, soon after the northern and
+southern branches of the Hy Neill had consolidated their power at Ailech
+and in Westmeath. Whatever truth there may be in the legend, it
+demonstrates conclusively the absence of a rallying point where the idea
+of a central government might have taken root. Aed, son of Ainmire
+(572-598) of the northern Hy Neill, figures prominently in the story of
+St Columba. It was during his reign that the famous assembly of Drumcet
+(near Newtown-limavaddy in Co. Derry) was held. The story goes that the
+_filid_ had increased in number to such an extent that they included
+one-third of the freemen. There was thus quite an army of impudent
+swaggering idlers roaming about the country and quartering themselves
+on the chiefs and nobles during the winter and spring, story-telling,
+and lampooning those who dared to hesitate to comply with their demands.
+
+Some idea of the style of living of the learned professions in early
+Ireland may be gathered from the income enjoyed in later times by the
+literati of Tir Conaill (Co. Donegal). It has been computed that no less
+than L2000 was set aside yearly in this small state for the maintenance
+of the class. No wonder, then, that Aed determined to banish them from
+Ireland. At the convention of Drumcet the number of _filid_ was greatly
+reduced, lands were assigned for their maintenance, the ollams were
+required to open schools and to support the inferior bards as teachers.
+This reform may have helped to foster the cultivation of the native
+literature, and it is possible that we owe to it the preservation of the
+Ulster epic. But the Irish were unfortunately incapable of rising above
+the saga, consisting of a mixture of prose and verse. Their greatest
+achievement in literature dates back to the dawn of history, and we find
+no more trace of development in the world of letters than in the
+political sphere. The Irishman, in his own language at any rate, seems
+incapable of a sustained literary effort, a consequence of which is that
+he invents the most intricate measures. Sense is thus too frequently
+sacrificed to sound. The influence of the professional literary class
+kept the clan spirit alive with their elaborate genealogies, and in
+their poems they only pandered to the vanity and vices of their patrons.
+That no new ideas came in may be gathered from the fact that the bulk of
+Irish literature so far published dates from before 800, though the MSS.
+which contain it are much later. Bearing in mind how largely the Finn
+cycle is modelled on the older Ulster epic, works of originality
+composed between 1000 and 1600 are with one or two exceptions
+conspicuously absent.
+
+At the convention of Drumcet the status of the Dalriadic settlement in
+Argyll was also regulated. The _ardri_ desired to make the colony an
+Irish state tributary to the high-king; but on the special pleading of
+St Columba it was allowed to remain independent. Aed lost his life in
+endeavouring to exact the _boroma_ tribute from Brandub, king of
+Leinster, who defeated him at Dunbolg in 598. After several short reigns
+the throne was occupied by Aed's son Domnall (627-641). His predecessor,
+Suibne Menn, had been slain by the king of Dalaraide, Congal Claen. The
+latter was driven out of the country by Domnall, whereupon Congal
+collected an army of foreign adventurers made up of Saxons, Dalriadic
+Scots, Britons and Picts to regain his lands and to avenge himself on
+the high-king. In a sanguinary encounter at Mag Raith (Moira in Co.
+Down), which forms the subject of a celebrated romance, Congal was slain
+and the power of the settlement in Kintyre weakened for a considerable
+period. A curious feature of Hy Neill rule about this time was joint
+kingship. From 563 to 656 there were no less than five such pairs. In
+681 St Moling of Ferns prevailed upon the _ardri_ Finnachta (674-690) to
+renounce for ever the _boroma_, tribute, which had always been a source
+of friction between the supreme king and the ruler of Leinster. This
+was, however, unfortunately not the last of the _boroma_. Fergal
+(711-722), in trying to enforce it again, was slain in a famous battle
+at Allen in Kildare. As a sequel Fergal's son, Aed Allan (734-743),
+defeated the men of Leinster with great slaughter at Ballyshannon (Co.
+Kildare) in 737. If there was so little cohesion among the various
+provinces it is small wonder that Ireland fell such an easy prey to the
+Vikings in the next century. In 697 an assembly was held at Tara in
+which a law known as _Cain Adamnain_ was passed, at the instance of
+Adamnan, prohibiting women from taking part in battle; a decision that
+shows how far Ireland with its tribal system lagged behind Teutonic and
+Latin countries in civilization. A similar enactment exempting the
+clergy, known as _Cain Patraic_, was agreed to in 803. The story goes
+that the _ardri_ Aed Oirdnigthe (797-819) made a hostile incursion into
+Leinster and forced the primate of Armagh and all his clergy to attend
+him. When representations were made to the king as to the impropriety of
+his conduct, he referred the matter to his adviser, Fothud, who was also
+a cleric. Fothud pronounced that the clergy should be exempted, and
+three verses purporting to be his decision are still extant.
+
+_Invasion of the Northmen._--The first incursion of the Northmen took
+place in A.D. 795, when they plundered and burnt the church of Rechru,
+now Lambay, an island north of Dublin Bay. When this event occurred, the
+power of the over-king was a mere shadow. The provincial kingdoms had
+split up into more or less independent principalities, almost constantly
+at war with each other. The oscillation of the centre of power between
+Meath and Tir Eogain, according as the _ardri_ belonged to the southern
+or northern Hy Neill, produced corresponding perturbations in the
+balance of parties among the minor kings. The army consisted of a number
+of tribes, each commanded by its own chief, and acting as so many
+independent units without cohesion. The tribesmen owed fealty only to
+their chiefs, who in turn owed a kind of conditional allegiance to the
+over-king, depending a good deal upon the ability of the latter to
+enforce it. A chief might through pique or other causes withdraw his
+tribe even on the eve of a battle without such defection being deemed
+dishonourable. What the tribe was to the nation or the province, the
+_fine_ or sept was to the tribe itself. The head of a sept had a voice
+not only in the question of war or peace, for that was determined by the
+whole tribe, but in all subsequent operations. However brave the
+individual soldiers of such an army might be, the army itself was
+unreliable against a well-organized and disciplined enemy. Again, such
+tribal forces were only levies gathered together for a few weeks at
+most, unprovided with military stores or the means of transport, and
+consequently generally unprepared to attack fortifications of any kind,
+and liable to melt away as quickly as they were gathered together.
+Admirably adapted for a sudden attack, such an army was wholly unfit to
+carry on a regular campaign or take advantage of a victory. These
+defects of the Irish military system were abundantly shown throughout
+the Viking period and also in Anglo-Norman times.
+
+The first invaders were probably Norwegians[6] from Hordaland in search
+of plunder and captives. Their attacks were not confined to the
+sea-coasts; they were able to ascend the rivers in their ships, and
+already in 801 they are found on the upper Shannon. At the outset the
+invaders arrived in small bodies, but as these met with considerable
+resistance large fleets commanded by powerful Vikings followed. With
+such forces it was possible to put fleets of boats on the inland lakes.
+Rude earthen or stockaded forts, serving as magazines and places of
+retreat, were erected; or in some cases use was made of strongholds
+already existing, such as Dun Almain in Kildare, Dunlavin in Wicklow and
+Fermoy in Cork. Some of these military posts in course of time became
+trading stations or grew into towns. During the first half of the 9th
+century attacks were incessant in most parts of the island. In 801 we
+find Norwegians on the upper Shannon; in 820 the whole of Ireland was
+harried; and five years later we hear of Vikings in Co. Dublin, Meath,
+Kildare, Wicklow, Queen's Co., Kilkenny and Tipperary. However, the
+invaders do not appear to have acted in concert until 830. About this
+time a powerful leader, named Turgeis (Turgesius), accompanied by two
+nobles, Saxolb and Domrair (Thorir), arrived with a "royal fleet."
+Sailing up the Shannon they built strongholds on Lough Ree and
+devastated Connaught and Meath. Eventually Turgeis established himself
+in Armagh, whilst his wife Ota settled at Clonmacnoise and profaned the
+monastery church with pagan rites. Indeed, the numerous ecclesiastical
+establishments appear to have been quite as much the object of the
+invaders' fury as the civil authorities. The monastery of Armagh was
+rebuilt ten times, and as often destroyed. It was sacked three times in
+one month. Turgeis himself is reported to have usurped the abbacy of
+Armagh. To escape from the continuous attacks on the monasteries, Irish
+monks and scholars fled in large numbers to the continent carrying with
+them their precious books. Among them were many of the greatest lights
+in the world of letters of the time, such as Sedulius Scottus and
+Johannes Scottus Erigena. The figure of Turgeis has given rise to
+considerable discussion, as there is no mention of him in Scandinavian
+sources. It seems probable that his Norwegian name was Thorgils and he
+was possibly related to Godfred, father of Olaf the White, who figures
+prominently in Irish history a little later. Turgeis apparently united
+the Viking forces, as he is styled the first king of the Norsemen in
+Ireland. A permanent sovereignty over the whole of Ireland, such as
+Turgeis seems to have aimed at, was then as in later times impossible
+because of the state of society. During his lifetime various cities were
+founded--the first on Irish soil. Dublin came into existence in 840, and
+Waterford and Limerick appear in history about the same time. Although
+the Norsemen were constantly engaged in conflict with the Irish, these
+cities soon became important commercial centres trading with England,
+France and Norway. Turgeis was captured and drowned by the _ardri_
+Maelsechlainn in 844, and two years later Domrair was slain. However
+cruel and rapacious the Vikings may have been, the work of disorder and
+ruin was not all theirs. The condition of the country afforded full
+scope for the jealousy, hatred, cupidity and vanity which characterize
+the tribal state of political society. For instance, Fedilmid, king of
+Munster and archbishop of Cashel, took the opportunity of the
+misfortunes of the country to revive the claims of the Munster dynasty
+to be kings of Ireland. To enforce this claim he ravaged and plundered a
+large part of the country, took hostages from Niall Caille the over-king
+(833-845), drove out the _comarba_ of St Patrick, or archbishop of
+Armagh, and for a whole year occupied his place as bishop. On his return
+he plundered the termon lands of Clonmacnoise "up to the church door,"
+an exploit which was repeated the following year. There is no mention of
+his having helped to drive out the foreigners.
+
+For some years after the death of Turgeis the Norsemen appear to have
+lacked a leader and to have been hard pressed. It was during this period
+that Dublin was chosen as the point of concentration for their forces.
+In 848 a Danish fleet from the south of England arrived in Dublin Bay.
+The Danes are called in Irish _Dubgaill_, or black foreigners, as
+distinguished from the _Findgaill_[7] or white foreigners, i.e.
+Norwegians. The origin of these terms, as also of the Irish name for
+Norway (_Lochlann_), is obscure. At first the Danes and Norwegians
+appear to have made common cause, but two years later the new city of
+Dublin was stormed by the Danes. In 851 the Dublin Vikings succeeded in
+vanquishing the Danes after a three days' battle at Snaim Aignech
+(Carlingford Lough), whereupon the defeated party under their leader
+Horm took service with Cerball, king of Ossory. Even in the first half
+of the 9th century there must have been a great deal of intermarriage
+between the invaders and the native population, due in part at any rate
+to the number of captive women who were carried off. A mixed race grew
+up, recruited by many Irish of pure blood, whom a love of adventure and
+a lawless spirit led away. This heterogeneous population was called
+_Gallgoidel_ or foreign Irish (whence the modern name Galloway), and
+like their northern kinsmen they betook themselves to the sea and
+practised piracy. The Christian element in this mixed society soon
+lapsed to a large extent, if not entirely, into paganism. The
+Scandinavian settlements were almost wholly confined to the seaport
+towns, and except Dublin included none of the surrounding territory.
+Owing to its position and the character of the country about it,
+especially the coast-land to the north of the Liffey which formed a kind
+of border-land between the territories of the kings of Meath and
+Leinster, a considerable tract passed into the possession of so powerful
+a city as Dublin.
+
+The social and political condition of Ireland, and the pastoral
+occupation of the inhabitants, were unfavourable to the development of
+foreign commerce, and the absence of coined money among them shows that
+it did not exist on an extensive scale. The foreign articles of luxury
+(dress, ornaments, wine, &c.) required by them were brought to the great
+_oenachs_ or fairs held periodically in various parts of the country. A
+flourishing commerce, however, soon grew up in the Scandinavian towns;
+mints were established, and many foreign traders--Flemings, Italians and
+others--settled there. It was through these Scandinavian trading
+communities that Ireland came into contact with the rest of Europe in
+the 11th and 12th centuries. If evidence were needed it is only
+necessary to point to the names of three of the Irish provinces, Ulster,
+Leinster, Munster, which are formed from the native names (_Ulaid_,
+_Laigin_, _Muma-n_) with the addition of Norse _staethr_; and the very
+name by which the island is now generally known is Scandinavian in form
+(_Ira-land_, the land of the Irish). The settlers in the Scandinavian
+towns early came to be looked upon by the native Irish as so many septs
+of a tribe added to the system of petty states forming the Irish
+political system. They soon mixed in the domestic quarrels of
+neighbouring tribes, at first selling their protection, but afterwards
+as vassals, sometimes as allies, like the septs and tribes of the Goidel
+among themselves. The latter in turn acted in similar capacities with
+the Irish-Norwegian chiefs, Irish tribes often forming part of the
+Scandinavian armies in Britain. This intercourse led to frequent
+intermarriage between the chiefs and nobility of the two peoples. As an
+instance, the case of Cerball, king of Ossory (d. 887), may be cited.
+Eyvindr, surnamed Austmaethr, "the east-man,"[8] son of Bjorn, agreed to
+defend Cerball's territory on condition of receiving his daughter
+Raforta in marriage. Among the children of this marriage were Helgi
+Magri, one of the early settlers in Iceland, and Thurida, wife of
+Thorstein the Red. Three other daughters of Cerball married
+Scandinavians: Gormflaith (Kormloeth) married Grimolf, who settled in
+Iceland, Fridgerda married Thorir Hyrna, and Ethne (Edna) married
+Hloethver, father of Earl Sigurd Digri who fell at Clontarf. Cerball's
+son Domnall (Dufnialr) was the founder of an Icelandic family, whilst
+the names Raudi and Baugr occur in the same family. Hence the occurrence
+of such essentially Irish names as Konall, Kjaran, Njall, Kormakr,
+Brigit, Kaethlin, &c., among Icelanders and Norwegians cannot be a
+matter for surprise; nor that a number of Norse words were introduced
+into Irish, notably terms connected with trade and the sea.
+
+The obscure contest between the Norwegians and Danes for supremacy in
+Dublin appears to have made the former feel the need of a powerful
+leader. At any rate, in 851-852 the king of Lochlann (Norway) sent his
+son Amlaib (Olaf the White) to assume sovereignty over the Norsemen in
+Ireland and to receive tribute and vassals. From this time it is
+possible to speak of a Scandinavian kingdom of Dublin, a kingdom which
+lasted almost without interruption until the Norman Conquest. The king
+of Dublin exercised overlordship over the other Viking communities in
+the island, and thus became the most dangerous opponent of the _ardri_,
+with whom he was constantly at variance. Amlaib was accompanied by Ivar,
+who is stated in one source to have been his brother. Some writers wish
+to identify this prince with the famous Ivar Beinlaus, son of Ragnar
+Lodbrok. Amlaib was opposed to the _ardri_ Maelsechlainn I. (846-863)
+who had overcome Turgeis. This brave ruler gained a number of victories
+over the Norsemen, but in true Irish fashion they were never followed
+up. Although his successor Aed Finnliath (863-879) gave his daughter in
+marriage to Amlaib, no better relations were established. The king of
+Dublin was certainly the most commanding figure in Ireland in his day,
+and during his lifetime the Viking power was greatly extended. In 870 he
+captured the strongholds of Dumbarton and Dunseverick (Co. Antrim). He
+disappears from the scene in 873. One source represents him as dying in
+Ireland, but the circumstances are quite obscure. Ivar only survived
+Olaf two or three years, and it is stated that he died a Christian.
+During the ensuing period Dublin was the scene of constant family feuds,
+which weakened its power to such an extent that in 901 Dublin and
+Waterford were captured by the Irish and were obliged to acknowledge the
+supremacy of the high-king. The Irish Annals state that there were no
+fresh invasions of the Northmen for about forty years dating from 877.
+During this period Ireland enjoyed comparative rest notwithstanding the
+intertribal feuds in which the Norse settlers shared, including the
+campaigns of Cormac, son of Cuilennan, the scholarly king-bishop of
+Cashel.
+
+Towards the end of this interval of repose a certain Sigtrygg, who was
+probably a great-grandson of the Ivar mentioned above, addressed himself
+to the task of winning back the kingdom of his ancestor. Waterford was
+retaken in 914 by Ivar, grandson of Ragnall and Earl Ottir, and Sigtrygg
+won a signal victory over the king of Leinster at Cenn Fuait (Co.
+Kilkenny?) two years later. Dublin was captured, and the high-king Niall
+Glundub (910-919) prepared to oppose the invaders. A battle of prime
+importance was gained by Sigtrygg over the _ardri_, who fell fighting
+gallantly at Kilmashogue near Dublin in 919. Between 920 and 970 the
+Scandinavian power in Ireland reached its zenith. The country was
+desolated and plundered by natives and foreigners alike. The lower
+Shannon was more thoroughly occupied by the Norsemen, with which fact
+the rise of Limerick is associated. Carlow, Kilkenny and the territory
+round Lough Neagh were settled, and after the capture of Lough Erne in
+932 much of Longford was colonized. The most prominent figures at this
+time were Muirchertach "of the leather cloaks," son of Niall Glundub,
+Cellachan of Cashel and Amlaib (Olaf) Cuaran. The first-named waged
+constant warfare against the foreigners and was the most formidable
+opponent the Scandinavians had yet met. In his famous circuit of Ireland
+(941) he took all the provincial kings, as well as the king of Dublin,
+as hostages, and after keeping them for five months at Ailech he handed
+them over to the feeble titular _ardri_, showing that his loyalty was
+greater than his ambition. Unlike Muirchertach, Cellachan of Cashel, the
+hero of a late romance, was not particular whether he fought for or
+against the Norsemen. In 920 Sigtrygg (d. 927) was driven out of Dublin
+by his brother Godfred (d. 934) and retired to York, where he became
+king of Northumbria. His sons Olaf and Godfred were expelled by
+Aethelstan. The former, better known as Amlaib (Olaf) Cuaran, married
+the daughter of Constantine, king of Scotland, and fought at Brunanburh
+(938). Born about 920, he perhaps became king of York in 941. Expelled
+in 944-945 he went to Dublin and drove out his cousin Blakare, son of
+Godfred. At the same time he held sway over the kingdom of Man and the
+Isles. We find this romantic character constantly engaged on expeditions
+in England, Ireland and Scotland. In 956 Congalach, the high-king, was
+defeated and slain by the Norse of Dublin. In 973 his son Domnall, in
+alliance with Amlaib, defeated the high-king Domnall O'Neill at Cell
+Mona (Kilmoon in Co. Meath). This Domnall O'Neill, son of Muirchertach,
+son of Niall Glundub, was the first to adopt the name O'Neill (Ir. _ua_,
+_o_ = "grandson"). The tanists or heirs of the northern and southern Hy
+Neill having died, the throne fell to Maelsechlainn II., of the Cland
+Colmain, the last of the Hy Neill who was undisputed king of Ireland.
+Maelsechlainn, who succeeded in 980, had already distinguished himself
+as king of Meath in war with the Norsemen. In the first year of his
+reign as high-king he defeated them in a bloody battle at Tara, in which
+Amlaib's son, Ragnall, fell. This victory, won over the combined forces
+of the Scandinavians of Dublin, Man and the Isles, compelled Amlaib to
+deliver up all his captives and hostages,--among whom were Domnall
+Claen, king of Leinster, and several notables--to forgo the tribute
+which he had imposed upon the southern Hy Neill and to pay a large
+contribution of cattle and money. Amlaib's spirit was so broken by this
+defeat that he retired to the monastery of Hi, where he died the same
+year.
+
+_The Dalcais Dynasty._--We have already seen that the dominant race in
+Munster traced descent from Ailill Aulom. The Cashel dynasty claimed to
+descend from his eldest son Eogan, whilst the Dalcassians of Clare
+derived their origin from a younger son Cormac Cas. Ailill Aulom is said
+to have ordained that the succession to the throne should alternate
+between the two lines, as in the case of the Hy Neill. This, however, is
+perhaps a fiction of later poets who wished to give lustre to the
+ancestry of Brian Boruma, as very few of the Dalcais princes appear in
+the list of the kings of Cashel. The Dalcassians play no prominent part
+in history until, in the middle of the 10th century, they were ruled by
+Kennedy (Cennetig), son of Lorcan, king of Thomond (d. 954), by whom
+their power was greatly extended. He left two sons, Mathgamain (Mahon)
+and Brian, called Brian Boruma, probably from a village near
+Killaloe.[9] About the year 920 a Viking named Tomrair, son of Elgi, had
+seized the lower Shannon and established himself in Limerick, from which
+point constant incursions were made into all parts of Munster. After a
+period of guerrilla warfare in the woods of Thomond, Mathgamain
+concluded a truce with the foreigners, in which Brian refused to join.
+Thereupon Mathgamain crossed the Shannon and gained possession of the
+kingdom of Cashel, as Dunchad, the representative of the older line, had
+just died. Receiving the support of several of the native tribes, he
+felt himself in a position to attack the settlements of the foreigners
+in Munster. This aroused the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, who determined to
+carry the war into Thomond. He was supported by Maelmuad, king of
+Desmond, and Donoban, king of Hy Fidgeinte, and Hy Cairpri. Their army
+was met by Mathgamain at Sulchoit near Tipperary, where the Norsemen
+were defeated with great slaughter (968). This decisive victory gave the
+Dalcais Limerick, which they sacked and burnt, and Mathgamain then took
+hostages of all the chiefs of Munster. Ivar escaped to Britain, but
+returned after a year and entrenched himself at Inis Cathaig (Scattery
+Island in the lower Shannon). A conspiracy was formed between Ivar and
+his son Dubcenn and the two Munster chieftains Donoban and Maelmuad.
+Donoban was married to the daughter of a Scandinavian king of Waterford,
+and his own daughter was married to Ivar of Waterford.[10] In 976 Inis
+Cathaig was attacked and plundered by the Dalcais and the garrison,
+including Ivar and Dubcenn, slain. Shortly before this Mathgamain had
+been murdered by Donoban, and Brian thus became king of Thomond, whilst
+Maelmuad succeeded to Cashel. In 977 Brian made a sudden and rapid
+inroad into Donoban's territory, captured his fortress and slew the
+prince himself with a vast number of his followers. Maelmuad, the other
+conspirator, met with a like fate at Belach Lechta in Barnaderg (near
+Ballyorgan). After this battle Brian was acknowledged king of all
+Munster (978). After reducing the Desi, who were in alliance with the
+Northmen of Waterford and Limerick, in 984 he subdued Ossory and took
+hostages from the kings of East and West Leinster. In this manner he
+became virtually king of Leth Moga.
+
+This rapid rise of the Dalcassian leader was bound to bring him into
+conflict with the _ardri_. Already in 982 Maelsechlainn had invaded
+Thomond and uprooted the venerable tree under which the Dalcais rulers
+were inaugurated. After the battle of Tara he had placed his
+half-brother Gluniarind, son of Amlaib Cuaran, in Dublin. This prince
+was murdered in 989 and was succeeded by Sigtrygg Silkiskeggi, son of
+Amlaib and Gormflaith, sister of Maelmorda, king of Leinster. In the
+same year Maelsechlainn took Dublin and imposed an annual tribute on the
+city. During these years there were frequent trials of strength between
+the _ardri_ and the king of Munster. In 992 Brian invaded Meath, and
+four years later Maelsechlainn defeated Brian in Munster. In 998 Brian
+ascended the Shannon with a large force, intending to attack Connaught,
+and Maelsechlainn, who received no support from the northern Hy Neill,
+came to terms with him. All hostages held by the over-king from the
+Northmen and Irish of Leth Moga were to be given up to Brian, which was
+a virtual surrender of all his rights over the southern half of Ireland;
+while Brian on his part recognized Maelsechlainn as sole king of Leth
+Cuinn. In 1000 Leinster revolted against Brian and entered into an
+alliance with the king of Dublin. Brian advanced towards the city,
+halting at a place called Glen Mama near Dunlavin (Co. Wicklow). He was
+attacked by the allied forces, who were repulsed with great slaughter.
+Maelmorda, king of Leinster, was taken prisoner, and Sigtrygg fled for
+protection to Ailech. The victor gave proof at once that he was not only
+a clever general but also a skilful diplomatist. Maelmorda was restored
+to his kingdom, Sigtrygg received Brian's daughter in marriage, whilst
+Brian took to himself the Dublin king's mother, the notorious
+Gormflaith, who had already been divorced by Maelsechlainn. After thus
+establishing peace and consolidating his power, Brian returned to his
+residence Cenn Corad and matured his plan of obtaining the high-kingship
+for himself. When everything was ready he entered Mag Breg with an army
+consisting of his own troops, those of Ossory, his South Connaught
+vassals and the Norsemen of Munster. The king of Dublin also sent a
+small force to his assistance. Maelsechlainn, taken by surprise and
+feeling himself unequal to the contest, endeavoured to gain time. An
+armistice was concluded, during which he was to decide whether he would
+give Brian hostages (i.e. abdicate) or not. He applied to the northern
+Hy Neill to come to his assistance, and even offered to abdicate in
+favour of the chief of the Cinel Eogain, but the latter refused unless
+Maelsechlainn undertook to cede to them half the territory of his own
+tribe, the Cland Colmain. The attempt to unite the whole of the
+Eremonian against the Eberian race and preserve a dynasty that had ruled
+Ireland for 600 years, having failed, Maelsechlainn submitted to Brian,
+and without any formal act of cession the latter became _ardri_. During
+a reign of twelve years (1002-1014) he is said to have effected much
+improvement in the country by the erection and repair of churches and
+schools, and the construction of bridges, causeways, roads and
+fortresses. We are also told that he administered rigid and impartial
+justice and dispensed royal hospitality. As he was liberal to the bards,
+they did not forget his merits.
+
+Towards the end of Brian's reign a conspiracy was entered into between
+Maelmorda, king of Leinster, and his nephew Sigtrygg of Dublin. The
+ultimate cause of this movement was an insult offered by Murchad,
+Brian's son, to the king of Leinster, who was egged on by his sister
+Gormflaith. Sigtrygg secured promises of assistance from Sigurd, earl of
+Orkney, and Brodir of Man. In the spring of 1014 Maelmorda and Sigtrygg
+had collected a considerable army in Dublin, consisting of contingents
+from all the Scandinavian settlements in the west in addition to
+Maelmorda's own Leinster forces, the whole being commanded by Sigurd,
+earl of Orkney. This powerful prince, whose mother was a daughter of
+Cerball of Ossory (d. 887), appears to have aimed at the supreme command
+of all the Scandinavian settlements of the west, and in the course of a
+few years conquered the kingdom of the Isles, Sutherland, Ross, Moray
+and Argyll. To meet such formidable opponents, Brian, now an old man
+unable to lead in person, mustered all the forces of Munster and
+Connaught, and was joined by Maelsechlainn in command of the forces of
+Meath. The northern Hy Neill and the Ulaid took no part in the struggle.
+Brian advanced into the plain of Fingall, north of Dublin, where a
+council of war was held. The longest account of the battle that followed
+occurs in a source very partial to Brian and the deeds of Munstermen, in
+which Maelsechlainn is accused of treachery, and of holding his troops
+in reserve. The battle, generally known as the battle of Clontarf,
+though the chief fighting took place close to Dublin, about the small
+river Tolka, was fought on Good Friday 1014. After a stout and
+protracted resistance the Norse forces were routed. Maelsechlainn with
+his Meathmen came down on the fugitives as they tried to cross the
+bridge leading to Dublin or to reach their ships. On both sides the
+slaughter was terrible, and most of the leaders lost their lives. Brian
+himself perished along with his son Murchad and Maelmorda. This great
+struggle finally disposed of the possibility of Scandinavian supremacy
+in Ireland, but in spite of this it can only be regarded as a national
+misfortune. The power of the kingdom of Dublin had been already broken
+by the defeat of Amlaib Cuaran at Tara in 980, and the main result of
+the battle of Clontarf was to weaken the central power and to throw the
+whole island into a state of anarchy. Although beaten on the field of
+battle the Norsemen still retained possession of their fortified cities,
+and gradually they assumed the position of native tribes. The Dalcassian
+forces had been so much weakened by the great struggle that
+Maelsechlainn was again recognized as king of Ireland. However, the
+effects of Brian's revolution were permanent; the prescriptive rights of
+the Hy Neill were disputed, and from the battle of Clontarf until the
+coming of the Normans the history of Ireland consisted of a struggle for
+ascendancy between the O'Brians of Munster, the O'Neills of Ulster and
+the O'Connors of Connaught.
+
+_From the Battle of Clontarf to the Anglo-Norman Invasion._--The death
+of Maelsechlainn in 1022 afforded an opportunity for an able and
+ambitious man to subdue Ireland, establish a strong central government,
+break up the tribal system and further the gradual fusion of factions
+into a homogeneous nation. Such a man did not arise; those who
+afterwards claimed to be _ardri_ lacked the qualities of founders of
+strong dynasties, and are termed by the annalists "kings with
+opposition." Brian was survived by two sons, Tadg and Donnchad, the
+elder of whom was slain in 1023. Donnchad (d. 1064) was certainly the
+most distinguished figure in Ireland in his day. He subdued more than
+half of Ireland, and almost reached the position once held by his
+father. His strongest opponent was his son-in-law Diarmait Mael-na-mBo,
+king of Leinster, who was also the foster-father of his brother Tadg's
+son, Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Brian. On the death of Diarmait in 1072
+Tordelbach (d. 1086) reigned supreme in Leth Moga; Meath and Connaught
+also submitted to him, but he failed to secure the allegiance of the
+northern Hy Neill. He was succeeded by his son Muirchertach (d. 1119),
+who spent most of his life contending against his formidable opponent
+Domnall O'Lochlainn, king of Tir Eogain (d. 1121). The struggle for the
+sovereignty between these two rivals continued, with intervals of truce
+negotiated by the clergy, without any decisive advantage on either side.
+In 1102 Magnus Barefoot made his third and last expedition to the west
+with the express design of conquering Ireland. Muirchertach opposed him
+with a large force, and a conference was arranged at which a son of
+Magnus was betrothed to Biadmuin, daughter of the Irish prince. He was
+also mixed up in English affairs, and as a rule maintained cordial
+relations with Henry I. After the death of Domnall O'Lochlainn there was
+an interregnum of about fifteen years with no _ardri_, until Tordelbach
+(Turlough) O'Connor, king of Connaught, resolved to reduce the other
+provinces. Munster and Meath were repeatedly ravaged, and in 1151 he
+crushed Tordelbach (Turlough) O'Brian, king of Thomond, at Moanmor.
+O'Connor's most stubborn opponent was Muirchertach O'Lochlainn, with
+whom he wrestled for supremacy until the day of his death (1156).
+Tordelbach, who enjoyed a great reputation even after his death, was
+remembered as having thrown bridges over the Shannon, and as a patron of
+the arts. However, war was so constant in Ireland at this time that
+under the year 1145 the Four Masters describe the island as a "trembling
+sod." Tordelbach was succeeded by his son Ruadri (Roderick, q.v.), who
+after some resistance had to acknowledge Muirchertach O'Lochlainn's
+supremacy. The latter, however, was slain in 1166 in consequence of
+having wantonly blinded the king of Dal Araide. Ruadri O'Connor, now
+without a serious rival, was inaugurated with great pomp at Dublin.
+
+Diarmait MacMurchada (Dermod MacMurrough), great-grandson of Diarmait
+Mael-na-mBo, as king of Leinster was by descent and position much mixed
+up with foreigners, and generally in a state of latent if not open
+hostility to the high-kings of the Hy Neill and Dalcais dynasties. He
+was a tyrant and a bad character. In 1152 Tigernan O'Rourke, prince of
+Breifne, had been dispossessed of his territory by Tordelbach O'Connor,
+aided by Diarmait, and the latter is accused also of carrying off
+Derbforgaill, wife of O'Rourke. On learning that O'Rourke was leading an
+army against him with the support of Ruadri, he burnt his castle of
+Ferns and went to Henry II. to seek assistance. The momentous
+consequences of this step belong to the next section, and it now
+remains for us to state the condition of the church and society in the
+century preceding the Anglo-Norman invasion.
+
+Although the Irish Church conformed to Roman usage in the matter of
+Easter celebration and tonsure in the 7th century, the bond between
+Ireland and Rome was only slight until several centuries later. Whatever
+co-ordination may have existed in the church of the 8th century was
+doubtless destroyed during the troubled period of the Viking invasions.
+It is probable that St Patrick established Armagh as a metropolitan see,
+but the history of the primacy, which during a long period can only have
+been a shadow, is involved in obscurity. Its supremacy was undoubtedly
+recognized by Brian Boruma in 1004, when he laid 20 oz. of gold upon the
+high altar. In the 11th century a competitor arose in the see of Dublin.
+The Norse rulers were bound to come under the influence of Christianity
+at an early date. For instance, Amlaib Cuaran was formally converted in
+England in 942 and was baptized by Wulfhelm of Canterbury. The
+antithesis between the king of Dublin and the _ardri_ seems to have had
+the effect of linking the Dublin Christian community rather with
+Canterbury than Armagh. King Sigtrygg founded the bishopric of Dublin in
+1035, and the early bishops of Dublin, Waterford and Limerick were all
+consecrated by the English primate. As Lanfranc and Anselm were both
+anxious to extend their jurisdiction over the whole of Ireland, the
+submission of Dublin opened the way for Norman and Roman influences. At
+the beginning of the 12th century Gilbert, bishop of Limerick and papal
+legate, succeeded in winning over Celsus, bishop of Armagh (d. 1129), to
+the reform movement. Celsus belonged to a family which had held the see
+for 200 years; he was grandson of a previous primate and is said to have
+been himself a married man. Yet he became, in the skilful hands of
+Gilbert and Maelmaedoc O'Morgair, the instrument of overthrowing the
+hereditary succession to the primatial see. In 1118 the important synod
+of Rathbressil was held, at which Ireland was divided into dioceses,
+this being the first formal attempt at getting rid of that anarchical
+state of church government which had hitherto prevailed. The work begun
+under Celsus was completed by his successor Maelmaedoc (Malachy). At a
+national synod held about 1134 Maelmaedoc, in his capacity as bishop of
+Armagh, was solemnly elected to the primacy; and armed with full power
+of church and state he was able to overcome all opposition. Under his
+successor Gelasius, Cardinal Paparo was despatched as supreme papal
+legate. At the synod of Kells (1152) there was established that diocesan
+system which has ever since continued without material alteration.
+Armagh was constituted the seat of the primacy, and Cashel, Tuam and
+Dublin were raised to the rank of archbishoprics. It was also ordained
+that tithes should be levied for the support of the clergy.
+
+_Social Conditions._--In the middle ages there were considerable forests
+in Ireland encompassing broad expanses of upland pastures and marshy
+meadows. It is traditionally stated that fences first came into general
+use in the 7th century. There were no cities or large towns before the
+arrival of the Norsemen; no stone bridges spanned the rivers; stepping
+stones or hurdle bridges at the fords or shallows offered the only mode
+of crossing the broadest streams, and connecting the unpaved roads or
+bridle paths which crossed the country over hill and dale from the
+principal _duns_. The forests abounded in game, the red deer and wild
+boar were common, whilst wolves ravaged the flocks. Scattered over the
+country were numerous small hamlets, composed mainly of wicker cabins,
+among which were some which might be called houses; other hamlets were
+composed of huts of the rudest kind. Here and there were large villages
+that had grown up about groups of houses surrounded by an earthen mound
+or rampart; similar groups enclosed in this manner were also to be found
+without any annexed hamlet. Sometimes there were two or three
+circumvallations or even more, and where water was plentiful the ditch
+between was flooded. The simple rampart enclosed a space called
+_lis_[11] which contained the agricultural buildings and the groups of
+houses of the owners. The enclosed houses belonged to the free men
+(_aire_, pl. _airig_). The size of the houses and of the enclosing mound
+and ditch marked the wealth and rank of the _aire_. If his wealth
+consisted of chattels only, he was a _bo-aire_ (cow-_aire_). When he
+possessed ancestral land he was a _flaith_ or lord, and was entitled to
+let his lands for grazing, to have a hamlet in which lived labourers and
+to keep slaves. The larger fort with several ramparts was a _dun_, where
+the _ri_ (chieftain) lived and kept his hostages if he had subreguli.
+The houses of all classes were of wood, chiefly wattles and wicker-work
+plastered with clay. In shape they were most frequently cylindrical,
+having conical roofs thatched with rushes or straw. The oratories were
+of the same form and material, but the larger churches and kingly
+banqueting halls were rectangular and made of sawn boards. Bede,
+speaking of a church built by Finan at Lindisfarne, says, "nevertheless,
+after the manner of the Scots, he made it not of stone but of hewn oak
+and covered it with reeds." When St Maelmaedoc in the first half of the
+12th century thought of building a stone oratory at Bangor it was deemed
+a novelty by the people, who exclaimed, "we are Scotti not Galli." Long
+before this, however, stone churches had been built in other parts of
+Ireland, and many round towers. In some of the stone-forts of the
+south-west (Ir. _cathir_) the houses within the rampart were made of
+stone in the form of a beehive, and similar cloghans, as they are
+called, are found in the western isles of Scotland.
+
+Here and there in the neighbourhood of the hamlets were patches of corn
+grown upon allotments which were gavelled, or redistributed, every two
+or three years. Around the _duns_ and _raths_, where the corn land was
+the fixed property of the lord, the cultivation was better. Oats was the
+chief corn crop, but wheat, barley and rye were also grown. Much
+attention was paid to bee-keeping and market-gardening, which had
+probably been introduced by the church. The only industrial plants were
+flax and the dye-plants, chief among which were woad and rud, roid (a
+kind of bed-straw?). Portions of the pasture lands were reserved as
+meadows; the tilled land was manured. There are native names for the
+plough, so it may be assumed that some form of that implement, worked by
+oxen, yoked together with a simple straight yoke, was in use in early
+times. Wheeled carts were also known; the wheels were often probably
+only solid disks, though spoked wheels were used for chariots. Droves of
+swine under the charge of swineherds wandered through the forests; some
+belonged to the _ri_, others to lords (_flaith_) and others again to
+village communities. The house-fed pig was then as now an important
+object of domestic economy, and its flesh was much prized. Indeed, fresh
+pork was one of the inducements held out to visitors to the Irish
+Elysium. Horned cattle constituted the chief wealth of the country, and
+were the standard for estimating the worth of anything, for the Irish
+had no coined money and carried on all commerce by barter. The unit of
+value was called a _set_, a word denoting a jewel or precious object of
+any kind. The normal _set_ was an average milch-cow. Gold, silver,
+bronze, tin, clothes and all other kinds of property were estimated in
+_sets_. Three _sets_ were equal to a _cumal_ (female slave). Sheep were
+kept everywhere for their flesh and their wool, and goats were numerous.
+Horses were extensively employed for riding, working in the fields and
+carrying loads. Irish horsemen rode without saddle or stirrups. So
+important a place did bee-culture hold in the rural economy of the
+ancient Irish that a lengthy section is devoted to the subject in the
+Brehon Laws. The honey was used both in cooking and for making mead, as
+well as for eating.
+
+The ancient Irish were in the main a pastoral people. When they had sown
+their corn, they drove their herds and flocks to the mountains, where
+such existed, and spent the summer there, returning in autumn to reap
+their corn and take up their abode in their more sheltered winter
+residences. This custom of "booleying" (Ir. _buaile_, "shieling") is not
+originally Irish, according to some writers, but was borrowed from the
+Scandinavians. Where the tribe had land on the sea-coast they also
+appear to have migrated thither in summer. The chase in the summer
+occupied the freemen, not only as a source of enjoyment but also as a
+matter of necessity, for wolves were very numerous. For this purpose
+they bred dogs of great swiftness, strength and sagacity, which were
+much admired by the Romans.
+
+The residences within enclosing ramparts did not consist of one house
+with several apartments, but every room was a separate house. Thus the
+buildings forming the residence of a well-to-do farmer of the _bo-aire_
+class as described in the Laws, consisted of a living-house in which he
+slept and took his meals, a cooking-house, a kiln for drying corn, a
+barn, a byre for calves, a sheep-fold and a pigsty. In the better
+classes the women had a separate house known as _grianan_ (sun-chamber).
+The round houses were constructed in the following manner. The wall was
+formed of long stout poles placed in a circle close to one another, with
+their ends fixed firmly in the ground. The spaces between were closed in
+with rods (usually hazel) firmly interwoven. The poles were peeled and
+polished smooth. The whole surface of the wicker-work was plastered on
+the outside and made brilliantly white with lime, or occasionally
+striped in various colours, leaving the white poles exposed to view.
+There was no chimney; the fire was made in the centre of the house and
+the smoke escaped through a hole in the roof, or through the door as in
+Hebridean houses of the present day. Near the fire, fixed in a kind of
+holder, was a candle of tallow or raw beeswax. Around the wall in the
+houses of the wealthy were arranged the bedsteads, or rather
+compartments, with testers and fronts, sometimes made of carved yew. At
+the foot of each compartment, and projecting into the main room, there
+was a low fixed seat, often stuffed with some soft material, for use
+during the day. Besides these there were on the floor of the main
+apartment a number of detached movable couches or seats, all low, with
+one or more low tables of some sort. In the halls of the kings the
+position of each person's bed and seat, and the portion of meat which he
+was entitled to receive from the distributor, were regulated according
+to a rigid rule of precedence. Each person who had a seat in the king's
+house had his shield suspended over him. Every king had hostages for the
+fealty of his vassals; they sat unarmed in the hall, and those who had
+become forfeited by a breach of treaty or allegiance were placed along
+the wall in fetters. There were places in the king's hall for the judge,
+the poet, the harper, the various craftsmen, the juggler and the fool.
+The king had his bodyguard of four men always around him; these were
+commonly men whom he had saved from execution or redeemed from slavery.
+Among the miscellaneous body of attendants about the house of a king or
+noble were many Saxon slaves, in whom there was a regular trade until it
+was abolished by the action of the church in 1171. The slaves slept on
+the ground in the kitchen or in cabins outside the fort.
+
+The children of the upper classes in Ireland, both boys and girls, were
+not reared at home but were sent elsewhere to be fostered. It was usual
+for a chief to send his child to one of his own sub-chiefs, but the
+parents often chose a chief of their own rank. For instance, the _ollam
+fili_, or chief poet, who ranked in some respects with a tribe-king,
+sent his sons to be fostered by the king of his own territory. Fosterage
+might be undertaken out of affection or for payment. In the latter case
+the fee varied according to rank, and there are numerous laws extant
+fixing the cost and regulating the food and dress of the child according
+to his position. Sometimes a chief acted as foster-father to a large
+number of children. The cost of the fosterage of boys seems to have been
+borne by the mother's property, that of the daughters by the father's.
+The ties created by fosterage were nearly as close and as binding on
+children as those of blood.
+
+There is ample evidence that great laxity prevailed with regard to the
+marriage tie even after the introduction of Christianity, as marrying
+within the forbidden degrees and repudiation continued to be very
+frequent in spite of the efforts of the church. Marriage by purchase was
+universal, and the wealth of the contracting parties constituted the
+primary element of a legitimate union. The bride and bridegroom should
+be provided with a joint fortune proportionate to their rank. When they
+were of equal rank, and the family of each contributed an equal share
+to the marriage portion, the marriage was legal in the full sense and
+the wife was a wife of equal rank. The church endeavoured to make the
+wife of a first marriage the only true wife; but concubinage was known
+as an Irish institution until long after the Anglo-Norman invasion, and
+it is recognized in the Laws. If a concubine had sons her position did
+not differ materially in some respects from that of a chief wife. As the
+tie of the sept was blood, all the acknowledged children of a man,
+whether legitimate or illegitimate, belonged equally to his sept. Even
+adulterine bastardy was no bar to a man becoming chief of his tribe, as
+in the case of Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. (See O'NEILL.)
+
+The food of the Irish was very simple, consisting in the main of oaten
+cakes, cheese, curds, milk, butter, and the flesh of domestic animals
+both fresh and salted. The better classes were acquainted with wheaten
+bread also. The food of the inhabitants of the Land of Promise consisted
+of fresh pork, new milk and ale. Fish, especially salmon, and game
+should of course be added to the list. The chief drinks were ale and
+mead.
+
+The dress of the upper classes was similar to that of a Scottish
+Highlander before it degenerated into the present conventional garb of a
+highland regiment. Next the skin came a shirt (_leine_) of fine texture
+often richly embroidered. Over this was a tightly fitting tunic (_inar_,
+_lend_) reaching below the hips with a girdle at the waist. In the case
+of women the _inar_ fell to the feet. Over the left shoulder and
+fastened with a brooch hung the loose cloak (_brat_), to which the
+Scottish plaid corresponds. The kilt seems to have been commonly worn,
+especially by soldiers, whose legs were usually bare, but we also hear
+of tight-fitting trousers extending below the ankles. The feet were
+either entirely naked or encased in shoes of raw hide fastened with
+thongs. Sandals and shoes of bronze are mentioned in Irish literature,
+and quite a number are to be seen in museums. A loose flowing garment,
+intermediate between the _brat_ and _lend_, usually of linen dyed
+saffron, was commonly worn in outdoor life, and was still used in the
+Hebrides about 1700. A modified form of this over-tunic with loose
+sleeves and made of frieze formed probably the general covering of the
+peasantry. Among the upper classes the garments were very costly and
+variously coloured. It would seem that the number of colours in the
+dress indicated the rank of the wearer. The hair was generally worn long
+by men as well as women, and ringlets were greatly admired. Women
+braided their hair into tresses, which they confined with a pin. The
+beard was also worn long. Like all ancient and semi-barbarous people,
+the Irish were fond of ornaments. Indeed the profusion of articles of
+gold which have been found is remarkable; in the Dublin Museum may be
+seen bracelets, armlets, finger-rings, torques, crescents, gorgets,
+necklets, fibulae and diadems, all of solid gold and most exquisite
+workmanship.
+
+The principal weapons of the Irish soldiers were a lance, a sword and a
+shield; though prior to the Anglo-Norman invasion they had adopted the
+battle-axe from the Scandinavians. The shields were of two kinds. One
+was the _sciath_, oval or oblong in shape, made of wicker-work covered
+with hide, and often large enough to cover the whole body. This was
+doubtless the form introduced by the Brythonic invaders. But round
+shields, smaller in size, were also commonly employed. These were made
+of bronze backed with wood, or of yew covered with hide. This latter
+type scarcely goes back to the round shield of the Bronze age. Armour
+and helmets were not generally employed at the time of the Anglo-Norman
+invasion.
+
+In the Brehon Laws the land belongs in theory to the tribe, but this did
+not by any means correspond to the state of affairs. We find that the
+power of the petty king has made a very considerable advance, and that
+all the elements of feudalism are present, save that there was no
+central authority strong enough to organize the whole of Irish society
+on a feudal basis. The _tuath_ or territory of a _ri_ (represented
+roughly by a modern barony) was divided among the septs. The lands of a
+sept consisted of the estates in severally of the lords (_flathi_), and
+of the _ferand duthaig_, or common lands of the sept. The dwellers on
+each of these kinds of land differed materially from each other. On the
+former lived a motley population of slaves, horse-boys, and mercenaries
+composed of broken men of other clans, many of whom were fugitives from
+justice, possessing no rights either in the sept or tribe and entirely
+dependent on the bounty of the lord, and consequently living about his
+fortified residence. The poorer servile classes or cottiers,
+wood-cutters, swine-herds, &c., who had a right of domicile (acquired
+after three generations), lived here and there in small hamlets on the
+mountains and poorer lands of the estate. The good lands were let to a
+class of tenants called _fuidirs_, of whom there were several kinds,
+some grazing the land with their own cattle, others receiving both land
+and cattle from the lord. _Fuidirs_ had no rights in the sept; some were
+true serfs, others tenants-at-will; they lived in scattered homesteads
+like the farmers of the present time. The lord was responsible before
+the law for the acts of all the servile classes on his estates, both
+new-comers and _senchleithe_, i.e. descendants of _fuidirs_, slaves,
+&c., whose families had lived on the estate during the time of three
+lords. He paid their blood-fines and received compensation for their
+slaughter, maiming or plunder. The _fuidirs_ were the chief source of a
+lord's wealth, and he was consequently always anxious to increase them.
+
+The freemen were divided into freemen pure and simple, freemen
+possessing a quantity of stock, and nobles (_flathi_) having vassals.
+Wealth consisted in cattle. Those possessed of large herds of kine lent
+out stock under various conditions. In the case of a chief such an offer
+could not be refused. In return, a certain customary tribute was paid.
+Such a transaction might be of two kinds. By the one the freemen took
+_saer_-stock and retained his status. But if he accepted _daer_-stock he
+at once descended to the rank of a vassal. In this way it was possible
+for the chief to extend his power enormously. Rent was commonly paid in
+kind. As a consequence of this, in place of receiving the farm produce
+at his own home the chief or noble reserved to himself the right of
+quartering himself and a certain number of followers in the house of his
+vassal, a practice which must have been ruinous to the small farmers.
+Freemen who possessed twenty-one cows and upwards were called _airig_
+(sing, _aire_), or, as we should say, had the franchise, and might
+fulfil the functions of bail, witness, &c. As the chief sought to extend
+his power in the _tuath_, he also endeavoured to aggrandize his position
+at the expense of other _tuatha_ by compelling them to pay tribute to
+him. Such an aggregate of _tuatha_ acknowledging one _ri_ was termed a
+_morthuath_. The ruler of a _morthuath_ paid tribute to the provincial
+king, who in his turn acknowledged at any rate in theory the
+overlordship of the _ardri_.
+
+The privileges and tributes of the provincial kings are preserved in a
+remarkable 10th century document, the _Book of Rights_. The rules of
+succession were extraordinarily complicated. Theoretically the members
+of a sept claimed common descent from the same ancestor, and the land
+belonged to the freemen. The chief and nobles, however, from various
+causes had come to occupy much of the territory as private property: the
+remainder consisted of tribe-land and commons-land. The portions of the
+tribe-land were not occupied for a fixed term, as the land of the sept
+was liable to gavelkind or redistribution from time to time. In some
+cases, however, land which belonged originally to a _flaith_ was owned
+by a family; and after a number of generations such property presented a
+great similarity to the gavelled land. A remarkable development of
+family ownership was the _geilfine_ system, under which four groups of
+persons, all nearly related to each other, held four adjacent tracts of
+land as a sort of common property, subject to regulations now very
+difficult to understand.[12] The king's mensal land, as also that of the
+tanist or successor to the royal office appointed during the king's
+lifetime, was not divided up but passed on in its entirety to the next
+individual elected to the position. When the family of an _aire_
+remained in possession of his estate in a corporate capacity, they
+formed a "joint and undivided family," the head of which was an aire,
+and thus kept up the rank of the family. Three or four poor members of a
+sept might combine their property and agree to form a "joint family,"
+one of whom as the head would be an _aire_. In consequence of this
+organization the homesteads of airig commonly included several families,
+those of his brothers, sons, &c. (see BREHON LAWS).
+
+The ancient Irish never got beyond very primitive notions of justice.
+Retaliation for murder and other injuries was a common method of
+redress, although the church had endeavoured to introduce various
+reforms. Hence we find in the Brehon Laws a highly complicated system of
+compensatory payment; but there was no authority except public opinion
+to enforce the payment of the fines determined by the brehon in cases
+submitted to him.
+
+There were many kinds of popular assemblies in ancient Ireland. The sept
+had its special meeting summoned by its chief for purposes such as the
+assessment of blood-fines due from the sept, and the distribution of
+those due to it. At larger gatherings the question of peace and war
+would be deliberated. But the most important of all such assemblies was
+the fair (_oenach_), which was summoned by a king, those summoned by the
+kings of provinces having the character of national assemblies. The most
+famous places of meeting were Tara, Telltown and Carman. The _oenach_
+had many objects. The laws were publicly promulgated or rehearsed; there
+were councils to deal with disputes and matters of local interest;
+popular sports such as horse-racing, running and wrestling were held;
+poems and tales were recited, and prizes were awarded to the best
+performers of every _dan_ or art; while at the same time foreign traders
+came with their wares, which they exchanged for native produce, chiefly
+skins, wool and frieze. At some of these assemblies match-making played
+a prominent part. Tradition connects the better known of these fairs
+with pagan rites performed round the tombs of the heroes of the race;
+thus the assembly of Telltown was stated to have been instituted by
+Lugaid Lamfada. Crimes committed at an _oenach_ could not be commuted by
+payment of fines. Women and men assembled for deliberation in separate
+_airechta_ or gatherings, and no man durst enter the women's _airecht_
+under pain of death.
+
+The noble professions almost invariably ran in families, so that members
+of the same household devoted themselves for generations to one
+particular science or art, such as poetry, history, medicine, law. The
+heads of the various professions in the _tuath_ received the title of
+_ollam_. It was the rule for them to have paying apprentices living with
+them. The literary _ollam_ or _fili_ was a person of great distinction.
+He was provided with mensal land for the support of himself and his
+scholars, and he was further entitled to free quarters for himself and
+his retinue. The harper, the metal-worker (_cerd_), and the smith were
+also provided with mensal land, in return for which they gave to the
+chief their skill and the product of their labour as customary tribute
+(_bestigi_).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Annals of the Four Masters_, ed. J. O'Donovan (7
+  vols., Dublin, 1856); _Annals of Ulster_ (4 vols., London, 1887-1892);
+  Keating's _Forus Feasa ar Eirinn_ (3 vols., ed. D. Comyn and P.
+  Dinneen, London, 1902-1908); E. Windisch, _Tain Bo Cualnge_ (Leipzig,
+  1905), with a valuable introduction; P. W. Joyce, _A Social History of
+  Ancient Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1903), also _A Short History of
+  Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1608_ (London, 1895); A. G. Richey,
+  _A Short History of the Irish People_ (Dublin, 1887); W. F. Skene,
+  _Celtic Scotland_ (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1876-1880); J. Rhys, "Studies
+  in Early Irish History," in _Proceedings of the British Academy_, vol.
+  i.; John MacNeill, papers in _New Ireland Review_ (March 1906-February
+  1907); _Leabhar na gCeart_, ed. O'Donovan (Dublin, 1847); E. O'Curry,
+  _The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish_, ed. W. K. Sullivan (3
+  vols., London, 1873); G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_,
+  revised by H. J. Lawlor (London^6, 1907); J. Healy, _Ireland's Ancient
+  Schools and Scholars_ (Dublin^3, 1897); H. Zimmer, article "Keltische
+  Kirche" in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und
+  Kirche_ (trans. A. Meyer, London, 1902), cf. H. Williams, "H. Zimmer
+  on the History of the Celtic Church," _Zeitschr. f. celt. Phil._ iv.
+  527-574; H. Zimmer, "Die Bedeutung des irischen Elements in der
+  mittelalterlichen Kultur," _Preussische Jahrbucher_, vol. lix., trans.
+  J. L. Edmands, _The Irish Element in Medieval Culture_ (New York,
+  1891); J. H. Todd, _St Patrick, the Apostle of Ireland_ (Dublin,
+  1864); J. B. Bury, _Life of St Patrick_ (London, 1905); W. Reeves,
+  _Adamnan's Life of Columba_ (Dublin, 1857; also ed. with introd. by J.
+  T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894); M. Roger, _L'Enseignement des lettres
+  classiques d'Ausone a Alcuin_ (Paris, 1905); J. H. Todd, _The War
+  of the Gaedhil with the Gall_ (London, 1867); L. J. Vogt, _Dublin som
+  Norsk By_ (Christiania, 1897); J. Steenstrup, _Normannerne_, vols.
+  ii., iii. (Copenhagen, 1878-1882); W. G. Collingwood, _Scandinavian
+  Britain_ (London, 1908).     (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+_History from the Anglo-Norman Invasion._
+
+  "Bull" of Adrian IV.
+
+According to the _Metalogus_ of John of Salisbury, who in 1155 went on a
+mission from King Henry II. to Pope Adrian IV., the only Englishman who
+has ever occupied the papal chair, the pope in response to the envoy's
+prayers granted to the king of the English the hereditary lordship of
+Ireland, sending a letter, with a ring as the symbol of investiture.
+Giraldus Cambrensis, in his _Expugnatio Hibernica_, gives what purports
+to be the text of this letter, known as "the Bull Laudabiliter," and
+adds further a _Privilegium_ of Pope Alexander III. confirming Adrian's
+grant. The _Privilegium_ is undoubtedly spurious, a fact which lends
+weight to the arguments of those who from the 19th century onwards have
+attacked the genuineness of the "Bull." This latter, indeed, appears to
+have been concocted by Gerald, an ardent champion of the English cause
+in Ireland, from genuine letters of Pope Alexander III., still preserved
+in the _Black Book of the Exchequer_, which do no more than commend King
+Henry for reducing the Irish to order and extirpating _tantae
+abominationis spurcitiam_, and exhort the Irish bishops and chiefs to be
+faithful to the king to whom they had sworn allegiance.[13]
+
+Henry was, indeed, at the outset in a position to dispense with the
+moral aid of a papal concession, of which even if it existed he
+certainly made no use. In 1156 Dermod MacMurrough (Diarmait
+MacMurchada), deposed for his tyranny from the kingdom of Leinster,
+repaired to Henry in Aquitaine (see _Early History_ above). The king was
+busy with the French, but gladly seized the opportunity, and gave Dermod
+a letter authorizing him to raise forces in England. Thus armed, and
+provided with gold extorted from his former subjects in Leinster, Dermod
+went to Bristol and sought the acquaintance of Richard de Clare, earl of
+Pembroke, a Norman noble of great ability but broken fortunes. Earl
+Richard, whom later usage has named Strongbow, agreed to reconquer
+Dermod's kingdom for him. The stipulated consideration was the hand of
+Eva his only child, and according to feudal law his sole heiress, to
+whose issue lands and kingdoms would naturally pass. But Irish customs
+admitted no estates of inheritance, and Eva had no more right to the
+reversion of Leinster than she had to that of Japan. It is likely that
+Strongbow had no conception of this, and that his first collision with
+the tribal system was an unpleasant surprise. Passing through Wales,
+Dermod agreed with Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice Fitzgerald to invade
+Ireland in the ensuing spring.
+
+
+  The invasion of Strongbow.
+
+About the 1st of May 1169 Fitzstephen landed on the Wexford shore with a
+small force, and next day Maurice de Prendergast brought another band
+nearly to the same spot. Dermod joined them, and the Danes of Wexford
+soon submitted. According to agreement Dermod granted the territory of
+Wexford, which had never belonged to him, to Robert and Maurice and
+their heirs for ever; and here begins the conflict between feudal and
+tribal law which was destined to deluge Ireland in blood. Maurice
+Fitzgerald soon followed with a fresh detachment. About a year after the
+first landing Raymond Le Gros was sent over by Earl Richard with his
+advanced guard, and Strongbow himself landed near Waterford on the 23rd
+of August 1170 with 200 knights and about 1000 other troops.
+
+The natives did not understand that this invasion was quite different
+from those of the Danes. They made alliances with the strangers to aid
+them in their intestine wars, and the annalist writing in later years
+(_Annals of Lough Ce_) describes with pathetic brevity the change
+wrought in Ireland:--"Earl Strongbow came into Erin with Dermod
+MacMurrough to avenge his expulsion by Roderick, son of Turlough
+O'Connor; and Dermod gave him his own daughter and a part of his
+patrimony, and Saxon foreigners have been in Erin since then."
+
+Most of the Norman leaders were near relations, many being descended
+from Nesta, daughter of Rhys Ap Tudor, prince of South Wales, the most
+beautiful woman of her time, and mistress of Henry I. Her children by
+that king were called Fitzhenry. She afterwards married Gerald de
+Windsor, by whom she had three sons--Maurice, ancestor of all the
+Geraldines; William, from whom sprang the families of Fitzmaurice,
+Carew, Grace and Gerard; and David, who became bishop of St David's.
+Nesta's daughter, Angareth, married to William de Barri, bore the
+chronicler Giraldus Cambrensis, and was ancestress of the Irish Barries.
+Raymond le Gros, Hervey de Montmorency, and the Cogans were also
+descendants of Nesta, who, by her second husband, Stephen the Castellan,
+was mother of Robert Fitzstephen.
+
+While waiting for Strongbow's arrival, Raymond and Hervey were attacked
+by the Danes of Waterford, whom they overthrew. Strongbow himself took
+Waterford and Dublin, and the Danish inhabitants of both readily
+combined with their French-speaking kinsfolk, and became firm supporters
+of the Anglo-Normans against the native Irish.
+
+Alarmed at the principality forming near him, Henry invaded Ireland in
+person, landing near Waterford on the 18th of October 1172. Giraldus
+says he had 500 knights and many other soldiers; Regan, the metrical
+chronicler, says he had 4000 men, of whom 400 were knights; the _Annals
+of Lough Ce_ that he had 240 ships. The Irish writers tell little about
+these great events, except that the king of the Saxons took the hostages
+of Munster at Waterford, and of Leinster, Ulster, Thomond and Meath at
+Dublin. They did not take in the grave significance of doing homage to a
+Norman king, and becoming his "man."
+
+
+  Henry II. in Ireland.
+
+Henry's farthest point westward was Cashel, where he received the homage
+of Donald O'Brien, king of Thomond, but he does not appear to have been
+present at the famous synod. Christian O'Conarchy, bishop of Lismore and
+papal legate, presided, and the archbishops of Dublin, Cashel and Tuam
+attended with their suffragans, as did many abbots and other
+dignitaries. The primate of Armagh, the saintly Gelasius, was absent,
+and presumably his suffragans also, but Giraldus says he afterwards came
+to the king at Dublin, and favoured him in all things. Henry's
+sovereignty was acknowledged, and constitutions made which drew Ireland
+closer to Rome. In spite of the "enormities and filthinesses," which
+Giraldus says defiled the Irish Church, nothing worse could be found to
+condemn than marriages within the prohibited degrees and trifling
+irregularities about baptism. Most of the details rest on the authority
+of Giraldus only, but the main facts are clear. The synod is not
+mentioned by the Irish annalists, nor by Regan, but it is by Hoveden and
+Ralph de Diceto. The latter says it was held at Lismore, an error
+arising from the president having been bishop of Lismore. Tradition says
+the members met in Cormac's chapel.
+
+Henry at first tried to be suzerain without displacing the natives, and
+received the homage of Roderick O'Connor, the high king. But the
+adventurers were uncontrollable, and he had to let them conquer what
+they could, exercising a precarious authority over the Normans only
+through a viceroy. The early governors seemingly had orders to deal as
+fairly as possible with the natives, and this involved them in quarrels
+with the "conquerors," whose object was to carve out principalities for
+themselves, and who only nominally respected the sovereign's wishes. The
+mail-clad knights were not uniformly successful against the natives, but
+they generally managed to occupy the open plains and fertile valleys.
+Geographical configuration preserved centres of resistance--the O'Neills
+in Tyrone and Armagh, the O'Donnells in Donegal, and the Macarthies in
+Cork being the largest tribes that remained practically unbroken. On the
+coast from Bray to Dundalk, and by the navigable rivers of the east and
+south coasts, the Norman put his iron foot firmly down.
+
+Prince John landed at Waterford in 1185, and the neighbouring chiefs
+hastened to pay their respects to the king's son. Prince and followers
+alike soon earned hatred, the former showing the incurable vices of his
+character, and pulling the beards of the chieftains. After eight
+disgraceful months he left the government to John de Courci, but
+retained the title "Dominus Hiberniae." It was even intended to crown
+him; and Urban III. sent a licence and a crown of peacock's feathers,
+which was never placed on his head. Had Richard I. had children Ireland
+might have become a separate kingdom.
+
+Henry II. had granted Meath, about 800,000 acres, to Hugh de Lacy (d.
+1186), reserving scarcely any prerogative to the crown, and making his
+vassal almost independent. De Lacy sublet the land among kinsmen and
+retainers, and to his grants the families of Nugent, Tyrell, Nangle,
+Tuyt, Fleming and others owe their importance in Irish history. It is
+not surprising that the Irish bordering on Meath should have thought De
+Lacy the real king of Ireland.
+
+
+  King John.
+
+During his brother Richard I.'s reign, John's viceroy was William
+Marshal, earl of Pembroke, who married Strongbow's daughter, and thus
+succeeded to his claims in Leinster. John's reputation was no better in
+Ireland than in England. He thwarted or encouraged the Anglo-Normans as
+best suited him, but on the whole they increased their possessions. In
+1210 John, now king, visited Ireland again, and being joined by Cathal
+Crovderg O'Connor, king of Connaught, marched from Waterford by Dublin
+to Carrickfergus without encountering any serious resistance from Hugh
+de Lacy (second son of the Hugh de Lacy mentioned above), who had been
+made earl of Ulster in 1205. John did not venture farther west than
+Trim, but most of the Anglo-Norman lords swore fealty to him, and he
+divided the partially obedient districts into twelve counties--Dublin
+(with Wicklow), Meath (with Westmeath), Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny,
+Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Limerick, Kerry and Tipperary. John's
+resignation of his kingdom to the pope in 1213 included Ireland, and
+thus for the second time was the papal claim to Ireland formally
+recorded.
+
+
+  Henry III. (1216-1272).
+
+During Henry III.'s long reign the Anglo-Norman power increased, but
+underwent great modifications. Richard Marshal, grandson of Strongbow,
+and to a great extent heir of his power, was foully murdered by his own
+feudatories--men of his own race; and the colony never quite recovered
+this blow. On the other hand, the De Burghs, partly by alliance with the
+Irish, partly by sheer hard fighting, made good their claims to the
+lordship of Connaught, and the western O'Connors henceforth play a very
+subordinate part in Irish history. Tallage was first imposed on the
+colony in the first year of this reign, but yielded little, and tithes
+were not much better paid.
+
+
+  Objections to Irish clergy.
+
+
+  Separation of the two races.
+
+On the 14th of January 1217 the king wrote from Oxford to his
+justiciary, Geoffrey de Marisco, directing that no Irishman should be
+elected or preferred in any cathedral in Ireland, "since by that means
+our land might be disturbed, which is to be deprecated." This order was
+annulled in 1224 by Honorius III., who declared it "destitute of all
+colour of right and honesty." The pope's efforts failed, for in the 14th
+century several Cistercian abbeys excluded Irishmen, and as late as 1436
+the monks of Abingdon complained bitterly that an Irish abbot had been
+imposed on them by lay violence. Parliament was not more liberal, for
+the statute of Kilkenny, passed in 1366, ordained that "no Irishman be
+admitted into any cathedral or collegiate church, nor to any benefice
+among the English of the land," and also "that no religious house
+situated among the English shall henceforth receive an Irishman to their
+profession." This was confirmed by the English parliament in 1416, and
+an Irish act of Richard III. enabled the archbishop of Dublin to collate
+Irish clerks for two years, an exception proving the rule. Many Irish
+monasteries admitted no Englishmen, and at least one attempt was made,
+in 1250, to apply the same rule to cathedrals. The races remained nearly
+separate, the Irish simply staying outside the feudal system. If an
+Englishman slew an Irishman (except one of the five regal and
+privileged bloods) he was not to be tried for murder, for Irish law
+admitted composition (_eric_) for murder. In Magna Charta there is a
+proviso that foreign merchants shall be treated as English merchants are
+treated in the country whence the travellers came. Yet some enlightened
+men strove to fuse the two nations together, and the native Irish, or
+that section which bordered on the settlements and suffered great
+oppression, offered 8000 marks to Edward I. for the privilege of living
+under English law. The justiciary supported their petition, but the
+prelates and nobles refused to consent.
+
+
+  Edward I. (1272-1307).
+
+There is a vague tradition that Edward I. visited Ireland about 1256,
+when his father ordained that the prince's seal should have regal
+authority in that country. A vast number of documents remain to prove
+that he did not neglect Irish business. Yet this great king cannot be
+credited with any specially enlightened views as to Ireland. Hearing
+with anger of enormities committed in his name, he summoned the viceroy,
+Robert de Ufford (d. 1298), to explain, who coolly said that he thought
+it expedient to wink at one knave cutting off another, "whereat the king
+smiled and bade him return into Ireland." The colonists were strong
+enough to send large forces to the king in his Scottish wars, but as
+there was no corresponding immigration this really weakened the English,
+whose best hopes lay in agriculture and the arts of peace, while the
+Celtic race waxed proportionally numerous. Outwardly all seemed fair.
+The De Burghs were supreme in Connaught, and English families occupied
+eastern Ulster. The fertile southern and central lands were dominated by
+strong castles. But Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and the mountains everywhere,
+sheltered the Celtic race, which, having reached its lowest point under
+Edward I., began to recover under his son.
+
+
+  Edward II. (1307-1327).
+
+In 1315, the year after Bannockburn, Edward Bruce landed near Larne with
+6000 men, including some of the best knights in Scotland. Supported by
+O'Neill and other chiefs, and for a time assisted by his famous brother,
+Bruce gained many victories. There was no general effort of the natives
+in their favour; perhaps the Irish thought one Norman no better than
+another, and their total incapacity for national organization forbade
+the idea of a native sovereign. The family quarrels of the O'Connors at
+this time, and their alliances with the Burkes, or De Burghs, and the
+Berminghams, may be traced in great detail in the annalists--the general
+result being fatal to the royal tribe of Connaught, which is said to
+have lost 10,000 warriors in the battle of Templetogher. In other places
+the English were less successful, the Butlers being beaten by the
+O'Carrolls in 1318, and Richard de Clare falling about the same time in
+the decisive battle of Dysert O'Dea. The O'Briens re-established their
+sway in Thomond and the illustrious name of Clare disappears from Irish
+history. Edward Bruce fell in battle near Dundalk, and most of his army
+recrossed the channel, leaving behind a reputation for cruelty and
+rapacity. The colonists were victorious, but their organization was
+undermined, and the authority of the crown, which had never been able to
+keep the peace, grew rapidly weaker. Within twenty years after the great
+victory of Dundalk, the quarrels of the barons allowed the Irish to
+recover much of the land they had lost.
+
+
+  Edward III. (1327-1377).
+
+John de Bermingham, earl of Louth, the conqueror of Bruce, was murdered
+in 1329 by the Gernons, Cusacks, Everards and other English of that
+county, who disliked his firm government. They were never brought to
+justice. Talbot of Malahide and two hundred of Bermingham's relations
+and adherents were massacred at the same time. In 1333, William de
+Burgh, the young earl of Ulster, was murdered by the Mandevilles and
+others; in this case signal vengeance was taken, but the feudal dominion
+never recovered the blow, and on the north-east coast the English laws
+and language were soon confined to Drogheda and Dundalk. The earl left
+one daughter, Elizabeth, who was of course a royal ward. She married
+Lionel, duke of Clarence, and from her springs the royal line of
+England from Edward IV., as well as James V. of Scotland and his
+descendants.
+
+The two chief men among the De Burghs were loth to hold their lands of a
+little absentee girl. Having no grounds for opposing the royal title to
+the wardship of the heiress, they abjured English law and became Irish
+chieftains. As such they were obeyed, for the king's arm was short in
+Ireland. The one appropriated Mayo as the Lower (Oughter) M'William, and
+the earldom of Mayo perpetuates the memory of the event. The other as
+the Upper (Eighter) M'William took Galway, and from him the earls of
+Clanricarde afterwards sprung.
+
+Edward III. being busy with foreign wars had little time to spare for
+Ireland, and the native chiefs everywhere seized their opportunity.
+Perhaps the most remarkable of these aggressive chiefs was Lysaght
+O'More, who reconquered Leix. Clyn the Franciscan annalist, whose
+Latinity is so far above the medieval level as almost to recall Tacitus,
+sums up Lysaght's career epigrammatically: "He was a slave, he became a
+master; he was a subject, he became a prince (de servo dominus, de
+subjecto princeps effectus)." The two great earldoms whose contests form
+a large part of the history of the south of Ireland were created by
+Edward III. James Butler, eldest son of Edmund, earl of Carrick, became
+earl of Ormonde and palatine of Tipperary in 1328. Next year Maurice
+Fitzgerald was made earl of Desmond, and from his three brethren
+descended the historic houses of the White Knight, the knight of Glin,
+and the knight of Kerry. The earldom of Kildare dates from 1316. In this
+reign too was passed the statute of Kilkenny (q.v.), a confession by the
+crown that obedient subjects were the minority. The enactments against
+Irish dress and customs, and against marriage and fostering proved a
+dead letter.
+
+
+  Richard II. (1377-1399).
+
+In two expeditions to Ireland Richard II. at first overcame all
+opposition, but neither had any permanent effect. Art MacMurrough, the
+great hero of the Leinster Celts, practically had the best of the
+contest. The king in his despatches divided the population into Irish
+enemies, Irish rebels and English subjects. As he found them so he left
+them, lingering in Dublin long enough to lose his own crown. But for
+MacMurrough and his allies the house of Lancaster might never have
+reigned. No English king again visited Ireland until James II., declared
+by his English subjects to have abdicated, and by the more outspoken
+Scots to have forfeited the crown, appealed to the loyalty or piety of
+the Catholic Irish.
+
+
+  Henry IV. (1399-1413).
+
+Henry IV. had a bad title, and his necessities were conducive to the
+growth of the English constitution, but fatal to the Anglo-Irish. His
+son Thomas, duke of Clarence, was viceroy in 1401, but did very little.
+"Your son," wrote the Irish council to Henry, "is so destitute of money
+that he has not a penny in the world, nor can borrow a single penny,
+because all his jewels and his plate that he can spare, and those which
+he must of necessity keep, are pledged to lie in pawn." The nobles waged
+private war unrestrained, and the game of playing off one chieftain
+against another was carried on with varying success. The provisions of
+the statute of Kilkenny against trading with the Irish failed, for
+markets cannot exist without buyers.
+
+
+  Henry V. (1413-1422).
+
+  Henry VI. (1422-1461).
+
+The brilliant reign of Henry V. was a time of extreme misery to the
+colony in Ireland. Half the English-speaking people fled to England,
+where they were not welcome. The disastrous reign of the third
+Lancastrian completed the discomfiture of the original colony in
+Ireland. Quarrels between the Ormonde and Talbot parties paralysed the
+government, and a "Pale" of 30 m. by 20 was all that remained. Even the
+walled towns, Kilkenny, Ross, Wexford, Kinsale, Youghal, Clonmel,
+Kilmallock, Thomastown, Fethard and Cashel, were almost starved out;
+Waterford itself was half ruined and half deserted. Only one parliament
+was held for thirty years, but taxation was not remitted on that
+account. No viceroy even pretended to reside continuously. The north and
+west were still worse off than the south. Some thoughtful men saw
+clearly the danger of leaving Ireland to be seized by the first chance
+comer, and the _Libel of English Policy_, written about 1436, contains a
+long and interesting passage declaring England's interests in protecting
+Ireland as "a boterasse and a poste" of her own power. Sir John Talbot,
+immortalized by Shakespeare, was several times viceroy; he was almost
+uniformly successful in the field, but feeble in council. He held a
+parliament at Trim which made one law against men of English race
+wearing moustaches, lest they should be mistaken for Irishmen, and
+another obliging the sons of agricultural labourers to follow their
+father's vocation under pain of fine and imprisonment. The earls of
+Shrewsbury are still earls of Waterford, and retain the right to carry
+the white staff as hereditary stewards, but the palatinate jurisdiction
+over Wexford was taken away by Henry VIII. The Ulster annalists give a
+very different estimate of the great Talbot from that of Shakespeare: "A
+son of curses for his venom and a devil for his evils; and the learned
+say of him that there came not from the time of Herod, by whom Christ
+was crucified, any one so wicked in evil deeds" (O'Donovan's _Four
+Masters_).
+
+
+  Richard of York in Ireland.
+
+In 1449 Richard, duke of York, right heir by blood to the throne of
+Edward III., was forced to yield the regency of France to his rival
+Somerset, and to accept the Irish viceroyalty. He landed at Howth with
+his wife Cicely Neville, and Margaret of Anjou hoped thus to get rid of
+one who was too great for a subject. The Irish government was given to
+him for ten years on unusually liberal terms. He ingratiated himself
+with both races, taking care to avoid identification with any particular
+family. At the baptism of his son George--"false, fleeting, perjured
+Clarence"--who was born in Dublin Castle, Desmond and Ormonde stood
+sponsors together. In legislation Richard fared no better than others.
+The rebellion of Jack Cade, claiming to be a Mortimer and cousin to the
+duke of York, took place at this time. This adventurer, at once
+ludicrous and formidable, was a native of Ireland, and was thought to be
+put forward by Richard to test the popularity of the Yorkist cause.
+Returning suddenly to England in 1450, Richard left the government to
+James, earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire, who later married Eleanor,
+daughter of Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and was deeply engaged on
+the Lancastrian side. This earl began the deadly feud with the house of
+Kildare, which lasted for generations. After Blore Heath Richard was
+attainted by the Lancastrian parliament, and returned to Dublin, where
+the colonial parliament acknowledged him and assumed virtual
+independence. A separate coinage was established, and the authority of
+the English parliament was repudiated. William Overy, a bold squire of
+Ormonde's, offered to arrest Richard as an attainted traitor, but was
+seized, tried before the man whom he had come to take, and hanged, drawn
+and quartered. The duke only maintained his separate kingdom about a
+year. His party triumphed in England, but he himself fell at Wakefield.
+
+
+  Edward IV. (1461-1483).
+
+Among the few prisoners taken on the bloody field of Towton was Ormonde,
+whose head long adorned London Bridge. He and his brothers were
+attainted in England and by the Yorkist parliament in Ireland, but the
+importance of the family was hardly diminished by this. For the first
+six years of Edward's reign the two Geraldine earls engrossed official
+power. The influence of Queen Elizabeth Woodville, whom Desmond had
+offended, then made itself felt. Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, became
+deputy. He was an accomplished Oxonian, who made a speech at Rome in
+such good Latin as to draw tears from the eyes of that great patron of
+letters Pope Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius). But his Latinity did not soften
+his manners, and he was thought cruel even in that age. Desmond was
+beheaded, ostensibly for using Irish exactions, really, as the partisans
+of his family hold, to please Elizabeth. The remarkable lawlessness of
+this reign was increased by the practice of coining. Several mints had
+been established since Richard of York's time; the standards varied and
+imitation was easy.
+
+
+  Richard III.
+
+  Henry VII. (1485-1509).
+
+During Richard III.'s short reign the earl of Kildare, head of the Irish
+Yorkists, was the strongest man in Ireland. He espoused the cause of
+Lambert Simnel (1487), whom the Irish in general seem always to have
+thought a true Plantagenet. The Italian primate, Octavian de Palatio,
+knew better, and incurred the wrath of Kildare by refusing to officiate
+at the impostor's coronation. The local magnates and several
+distinguished visitors attended, and Lambert was shown to the people
+borne aloft on "great D'Arcy of Platten's" shoulders. His enterprise
+ended in the battle of Stoke, near Newark, where the flower of the
+Anglo-Irish soldiery fell. "The Irish," says Bacon, "did not fail in
+courage or fierceness, but, being almost naked men, only armed with
+darts and skeins, it was rather an execution than a fight upon them."
+Conspicuous among Henry VII.'s adherents in Ireland were the citizens of
+Waterford, who, with the men of Clonmel, Callan, Fethard and the Butler
+connexion generally, were prepared to take the field in his favour.
+Waterford was equally conspicuous some years later in resisting Perkin
+Warbeck, who besieged it unsuccessfully, and was chased by the citizens,
+who fitted out a fleet at their own charge. The king conferred honour
+and rewards on the loyal city, to which he gave the proud title of _urbs
+intacta_. Other events of this reign were the parliament of Drogheda,
+held by Sir Edward Poynings, which gave the control of Irish legislation
+to the English council ("Poynings's Act"--the great bone of contention
+in the later days of Flood and Grattan), and the battle of Knockdoe, in
+which the earl of Kildare used the viceregal authority to avenge a
+private quarrel.
+
+
+  Henry VIII. (1509-1547).
+
+Occupied in pleasure or foreign enterprise, Henry VIII. at first paid
+little attention to Ireland. The royal power was practically confined to
+what in the previous century had become known as the "Pale," that is
+Dublin, Louth, Kildare and a part of Meath, and within this narrow limit
+the earls of Kildare were really more powerful than the crown.
+Waterford, Drogheda, Dundalk, Cork, Limerick and Galway were not Irish,
+but rather free cities than an integral part of the kingdom; and many
+inland towns were in the same position. The house of Ormonde had created
+a sort of small Pale about Kilkenny, and part of Wexford had been
+colonized by men of English race. The Desmonds were Irish in all but
+pride of blood. The Barretts, Condons, Courcies, Savages, Arundels,
+Carews and others had disappeared or were merged in the Celtic mass.
+Anglo-Norman nobles became chiefs of pseudo-tribes, which acknowledged
+only the Brehon law, and paid dues and services in kind. These
+pseudo-tribes were often called "nations," and a vast number of
+exactions were practised by the chiefs. "Coyne and livery"--the right of
+free-quarters for man and beast--arose among the Anglo-Normans, and
+became more oppressive than any native custom. When Henry took to
+business, he laid the foundation of reconquest. The house of Kildare,
+which had actually besieged Dublin (1534), was overthrown, and the Pale
+saved from a standing danger (see FITZGERALD). But the Pale scarcely
+extended 20 m. from Dublin, a march of uncertain width intervening
+between it and the Irish districts. Elsewhere, says an elaborate report,
+all the English folk were of "Irish language and Irish condition,"
+except in the cities and walled towns. Down and Louth paid black rent to
+O'Neill, Meath and Kildare to O'Connor, Wexford to the Kavanaghs,
+Kilkenny and Tipperary to O'Carroll, Limerick to the O'Briens, and Cork
+to the MacCarthies. MacMurrough Kavanagh, in Irish eyes the
+representative of King Dermod, received an annual pension from the
+exchequer. Henry set steadily to work to reassert the royal title. He
+assumed the style of king of Ireland, so as to get rid of the notion
+that he held the island of the pope. The Irish chiefs acknowledged his
+authority and his ecclesiastical supremacy, abjuring at the same time
+that of the Holy See. The lands of the earl of Shrewsbury and other
+absentees, who had performed no duties, were resumed; and both Celtic
+and feudal nobles were encouraged to come to court. Here begins the long
+line of official deputies, often men of moderate birth and fortune.
+Butler and Geraldine, O'Neill and O'Donnell, continued to spill each
+other's blood, but the feudal and tribal systems were alike doomed. In
+the names of these Tudor deputies and other officers we see the origin
+of many great Irish families--Skeffington, Brabazon, St Leger,
+Fitzwilliam, Wingfield, Bellingham, Carew, Bingham, Loftus and others.
+Nor were the Celts overlooked. O'Neill and O'Brien went to London to be
+invested as earls of Tyrone and Thomond respectively. O'Donnell, whose
+descendants became earls of Tyrconnel, went to court and was well
+received. The pseudo-chief MacWilliam became earl of Clanricarde, and
+others reached lower steps in the peerage, or were knighted by the
+king's own hand. All were encouraged to look to the crown for redress of
+grievances, and thus the old order slowly gave place to the new.
+
+
+  The Irish Church.
+
+The moment when Protestantism and Ultramontanism are about to begin
+their still unfinished struggle is a fit time to notice the chief points
+in medieval Irish church history. Less than two years before Strongbow's
+arrival Pope Eugenius had established an ecclesiastical constitution in
+Ireland depending on Rome, but the annexation was very imperfectly
+carried out, and the hope of fully asserting the Petrine claims was a
+main cause of Adrian's gift to Henry II. Hitherto the Scandinavian
+section of the church in Ireland had been most decidedly inclined to
+receive the hierarchical and diocesan as distinguished from the monastic
+and quasi-tribal system. The bishops or abbots of Dublin derived their
+succession from Canterbury from 1038 to 1162, and the bishops of
+Waterford and Limerick also sought consecration there. But both Celt and
+Northman acknowledged the polity of Eugenius, and it was chiefly in the
+matters of tithe, Peter's pence, canonical degrees and the observance of
+festivals that Rome had still victories to gain. Between churchmen of
+Irish and English race there was bitter rivalry; but the theory that the
+ancient Celtic church remained independent, and as it were Protestant,
+while the English colony submitted to the Vatican, is a mere
+controversial figment. The crown was weak and papal aggression made
+rapid progress. It was in the Irish church, about the middle of the 13th
+century, that the system of giving jurisdiction to the bishops "in
+temporalibus" was adopted by Innocent IV. The vigour of Edward I.
+obtained a renunciation in particular cases, but the practice continued
+unabated. The system of provisions was soon introduced at the expense of
+free election, and was acknowledged by the statute of Kilkenny. In the
+more remote districts it must have been almost a matter of necessity.
+Many Irish parishes grew out of primitive monasteries, but other early
+settlements remained monastic, and were compelled by the popes to adopt
+the rule of authorized orders, generally that of the Augustinian canons.
+That order became much the most numerous in Ireland, having not less
+than three hundred houses. Of other sedentary orders the Cistercians
+were the most important, and the mendicants were very numerous. Both
+Celtic chiefs and Norman nobles founded convents after Henry II. 's
+time, but the latter being wealthier were most distinguished in this
+way. Religious houses were useful as abodes of peace in a turbulent
+country, and the lands attached were better cultivated than those of lay
+proprietors. Attempts to found a university at Dublin (1311) or Drogheda
+(1465) failed for want of funds. The work of education was partially
+done by the great abbeys, boys of good family being brought up by the
+Cistercians of Dublin and Jerpoint, and by the Augustinians of Dublin,
+Kells and Connel, and girls by the canonesses of Gracedieu. A strong
+effort was made to save these six houses, but Henry VIII. would not hear
+of it, and there was no Irish Wolsey partially to supply the king's
+omissions.
+
+Ample evidence exists that the Irish church was full of abuses before
+the movement under Henry VIII. We have detailed accounts of three
+sees--Clonmacnoise, Enaghdune and Ardagh. Ross, also in a wild district,
+was in rather better case. But even in Dublin strange things happened;
+thus the archiepiscopal crozier was in pawn for eighty years from 1449.
+The morals of the clergy were no better than in other countries, and we
+have evidence of many scandalous irregularities. But perhaps the most
+severe condemnation is that of the report to Henry VIII. in 1515. "There
+is," says the document, "no archbishop, ne bishop, abbot, ne prior,
+parson, ne vicar, ne any other person of the church, high or low, great
+or small, English or Irish, that useth to preach the word of God, saving
+the poor friars beggars ... the church of this land use not to learn any
+other science, but the law of canon, for covetise of lucre transitory."
+Where his hand reached Henry had little difficulty in suppressing the
+monasteries or taking their lands, which Irish chiefs swallowed as
+greedily as men of English blood. But the friars, though pretty
+generally turned out of doors, were themselves beyond Henry's power, and
+continued to preach everywhere among the people. Their devotion and
+energy may be freely admitted; but the mendicant orders, especially the
+Carmelites, were not uniformly distinguished for morality. Monasticism
+was momentarily suppressed under Oliver Cromwell, but the Restoration
+brought the monks back to their old haunts. The Jesuits, placed by Paul
+III. under the protection of Conn O'Neill, "prince of the Irish of
+Ulster," came to Ireland towards the end of Henry's reign, and helped to
+keep alive the Roman tradition. Anglicanism was regarded as a symbol of
+conquest and intrusion. The _Four Masters_ thus describes the
+Reformation: "A heresy and new error arising in England, through pride,
+vain glory, avarice, and lust, and through many strange sciences, so
+that the men of England went into opposition to the pope and to Rome."
+The destruction of relics and images and the establishment of a
+schismatic hierarchy is thus recorded: "Though great was the persecution
+of the Roman emperors against the church, scarcely had there ever come
+so great a persecution from Rome as this."
+
+
+  Edward VI. (1547-1553).
+
+The able opportunist Sir Anthony St Leger, who was accused by one party
+of opposing the Reformation and by the other of lampooning the
+Sacrament, continued to rule during the early days of Edward VI. To him
+succeeded Sir Edward Bellingham, a Puritan soldier whose hand was heavy
+on all who disobeyed the king. He bridled Connaught by a castle at
+Athlone, and Munster by a garrison at Leighlin Bridge. The O'Mores and
+O'Connors were brought low, and forts erected where Maryborough and
+Philipstown now stand. Both chiefs and nobles were forced to respect the
+king's representative, but Bellingham was not wont to flatter those in
+power, and his administration found little favour in England. Sir
+Francis Bryan, Henry VIII.'s favourite, succeeded him, and on his death
+St Leger was again appointed. Neither St Leger nor his successor Sir
+James Croft could do anything with Ulster, where the papal primate
+Wauchop, a Scot by birth, stirred up rebellion among the natives and
+among the Hebridean invaders. But little was done under Edward VI. to
+advance the power of the crown, and that little was done by Bellingham.
+
+
+  The Reformation.
+
+The English government long hesitated about the official establishment
+of Protestantism, and the royal order to that effect was withheld until
+1551. Copies of the new liturgy were sent over, and St Leger had the
+communion service translated into Latin, for the use of priests and
+others who could read, but not in English. The popular feeling was
+strong against innovation, as Edward Staples, bishop of Meath, found to
+his cost. The opinions of Staples, like those of Cranmer, advanced
+gradually until at last he went to Dublin and preached boldly against
+the mass. He saw men shrink from him on all sides. "My lord," said a
+beneficed priest, whom he had himself promoted, and who wept as he
+spoke, "before ye went last to Dublin ye were the best beloved man in
+your diocese that ever came in it, now ye are the worst beloved.... Ye
+have preached against the sacrament of the altar and the saints, and
+will make us worse than Jews.... The country folk would eat you.... Ye
+have more curses than ye have hairs of your head, and I advise you for
+Christ's sake not to preach at Navan." Staples answered that preaching
+was his duty, and that he would not fail; but he feared for his life. On
+the same prelate fell the task of conducting a public controversy with
+the archbishop of Armagh, George Dowdall, which of course ended in the
+conversion of neither. Dowdall fled; his see was treated as vacant, and
+Cranmer cast about him for a Protestant to fill St Patrick's chair. His
+first nominee, Dr Richard Turner, resolutely declined the honour,
+declaring that he would be unintelligible to the people; and Cranmer
+could only answer that English was spoken in Ireland, though he did
+indeed doubt whether it was spoken in the diocese of Armagh. John Bale,
+a man of great learning and ability, became bishop of Ossory. There is
+no reason to doubt his sincerity, but he was coarse and
+intemperate--Froude roundly calls him a foul-mouthed ruffian--without
+the wisdom of the serpent or the harmlessness of the dove. His choice
+rhetoric stigmatized the dean of St Patrick's as ass-headed, a blockhead
+who cared only for his kitchen and his belly.
+
+
+  Mary (1553-1558).
+
+The Reformation having made no real progress, Mary found it easy to
+recover the old ways. Dowdall was restored; Staples and others were
+deprived. Bale fled for bare life, and his see was treated as vacant.
+Yet the queen found it impossible to restore the monastic lands, though
+she showed some disposition to scrutinize the titles of grantees. She
+was Tudor enough to declare her intention of maintaining the old
+prerogatives of the crown against the Holy See, and assumed the royal
+title without papal sanction. Paul IV. was fain to curb his fiery
+temper, and to confer graciously what he could not withhold. English
+Protestants fled to Ireland to escape the Marian persecution; but had
+the reign continued a little longer, Dublin would probably have been no
+safe place of refuge.
+
+Mary scarcely varied the civil policy of her brother's ministers. Gerald
+of Kildare, who had been restored to his estates by Edward VI., was
+created earl of Kildare. The plan of settling Leix and Offaly by
+dividing the country between colonists and natives holding by English
+tenure failed, owing to the unconquerable love of the people for their
+own customs. But resistance gradually grew fainter, and we hear little
+of the O'Connors after this. The O'Mores, reduced almost to brigandage,
+gave trouble till the end of Elizabeth's reign, and a member of the clan
+was chief contriver of the rebellion of 1641. Maryborough and
+Philipstown, King's county and Queen's county, commemorate Mary's
+marriage.
+
+
+  Elizabeth (1558-1603).
+
+Anne Boleyn's daughter succeeded quietly, and Sir Henry Sidney was sworn
+lord-justice with the full Catholic ritual. When Thomas Radclyffe, earl
+of Sussex, superseded him as lord-lieutenant, the litany was chanted in
+English, both cathedrals having been painted, and scripture texts
+substituted for "pictures and popish fancies." At the beginning of 1560
+a parliament was held which restored the ecclesiastical legislation of
+Henry and Edward. In two important points the Irish Church was made more
+dependent on the state than in England: _conges d'elire_ were abolished
+and heretics made amenable to royal commissioners or to parliament
+without reference to any synod or convocation. According to a
+contemporary list, this parliament consisted of 3 archbishops, 17
+bishops, 23 temporal peers, and members returned by 10 counties and 28
+cities and boroughs. Some of the Irish bishops took the oath of
+supremacy, some were deprived. In other cases Elizabeth connived at what
+she could not prevent, and hardly pretended to enforce uniformity except
+in the Pale and in the large towns.
+
+
+  Rebellion of Shane O'Neill.
+
+Ulster demanded the immediate attention of Elizabeth. Her father had
+conferred the earldom of Tyrone on Conn Bacach O'Neill, with remainder
+to his supposed son Matthew, created baron of Dungannon, the offspring
+of a smith's wife at Dundalk, who in her husband's lifetime brought the
+child to Conn as his own. When the chief's legitimate son Shane grew up
+he declined to be bound by this arrangement, which the king may have
+made in partial ignorance of the facts. "Being a gentleman," he said,
+"my father never refusid no child that any woman namyd to be his." When
+Tyrone died, Matthew's son, Brian O'Neill, baron of Dungannon, claimed
+his earldom under the patent. Shane being chosen O'Neill by his tribe
+claimed to be chief by election, and earl as Conn's lawful son. Thus
+the English government was committed to the cause of one who was at best
+an adulterine bastard, while Shane appeared as champion of hereditary
+right (See O'NEILL). Shane maintained a contest which had begun under
+Mary until 1567, with great ability and a total absence of morality, in
+which Sussex had no advantage over him. The lord-lieutenant twice tried
+to have Shane murdered; once he proposed to break his safe-conduct; and
+he held out hopes of his sister's hand as a snare. Shane was induced to
+visit London, where the government detained him for some time. On his
+return to Ireland, Sussex was outmatched both in war and diplomacy; the
+loyal chiefs were crushed one by one; and the English suffered checks of
+which the moral effect was ruinous. Shane diplomatically acknowledged
+Elizabeth as his sovereign, and sometimes played the part of a loyal
+subject, wreaking his private vengeance under colour of expelling the
+Scots from Ulster. At last, in 1566, the queen placed the sword of state
+in Sidney's strong grasp. Shane was driven helplessly from point to
+point, and perished miserably at the hands of the MacDonnells, whom he
+had so often oppressed and insulted.
+
+
+  First Desmond Rebellion, 1574.
+
+Peace was soon broken by disturbances in the south. The earl of Desmond
+having shown rebellious tendencies was detained for six years in London.
+Treated leniently, but grievously pressed for money, he tried to escape,
+and, the attempt being judged treasonable, he was persuaded to surrender
+his estates--to receive them back or not at the queen's discretion.
+Seizing the opportunity, English adventurers proposed to plant a
+military colony in the western half of Munster, holding the coast from
+the Shannon to Cork harbour. Some who held obsolete title-deeds were
+encouraged to go to work at once by the example of Sir Peter Carew, who
+had established his claims in Carlow. Carew's title had been in abeyance
+for a century and a half, yet most of the Kavanaghs attorned to him.
+Falling foul of Ormonde's brothers, seizing their property and using
+great cruelty and violence, Sir Peter drove the Butlers, the only one
+among the great families really loyal, into rebellion. Ormonde, who was
+in London, could alone restore peace; all his disputes with Desmond were
+at once settled in his favour, and he was even allowed to resume the
+exaction of coyne and livery, the abolition of which had been the
+darling wish of statesmen. The Butlers returned to their allegiance, but
+continued to oppose Carew, and great atrocities were committed on both
+sides. Sir Peter had great but undefined claims in Munster also, and the
+people there took warning. His imitators in Cork were swept away. Sidney
+first, and after him Humphrey Gilbert, could only circumscribe the
+rebellion. The presidency of Munster, an office the creation of which
+had long been contemplated, was then conferred on Sir John Perrot, who
+drove James "Fitzmaurice" Fitzgerald into the mountains, reduced castles
+everywhere, and destroyed a Scottish contingent which had come from
+Ulster to help the rebels. Fitzmaurice came in and knelt in the mud at
+the president's feet, confessing his sins; but he remained the real
+victor. The colonizing scheme was dropped, and the first presidency of
+Munster left the Desmonds and their allies in possession. Similar plans
+were tried unsuccessfully in Ulster, first by a son of Sir Thomas Smith,
+afterwards by Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, a knight-errant rather
+than a statesman, who was guilty of many bloody deeds. He treacherously
+captured Sir Brian O'Neill and massacred his followers. The Scots in
+Rathlin were slaughtered wholesale. Essex struggled on for more than
+three years, seeing his friends gradually drop away, and dying ruined
+and unsuccessful.
+
+Towards the end of 1575 Sidney was again persuaded to become viceroy.
+The Irish recognized his great qualities, and he went everywhere without
+interruption. Henceforth presidencies became permanent institutions. Sir
+William Drury in Munster hanged four hundred persons in one year, Sir
+Nicholas Malby in reducing the Connaught Burkes spared neither young nor
+old, and burned all corn and houses. The Desmonds determined on a great
+effort. A holy war was declared. Fitzmaurice landed in Kerry with a few
+followers, and accompanied by the famous Nicholas Sanders, who was
+armed with a legate's commission and a banner blessed by the pope.
+Fitzmaurice fell soon after in a skirmish near Castleconnell, but
+Sanders and Desmond's brothers still kept the field. When it was too
+late to act with effect, Desmond himself, a vain man, neither frankly
+loyal nor a bold rebel, took the field. He surprised Youghal, then an
+English town, by night, sacked it, and murdered the people. Roused at
+last, Elizabeth sent over Ormonde as general of Munster, and after long
+delay gave him the means of conducting a campaign. It was as much a war
+of Butlers against Geraldines as of loyal subjects against rebels, and
+Ormonde did his work only too well. Lord Baltinglass raised a hopeless
+subsidiary revolt in Wicklow (1580), which was signalized by a crushing
+defeat of the lord deputy, Lord Grey de Wilton (Arthegal) in Glenmalure.
+A force of Italians and Spaniards landing at Smerwick in Kerry, Grey
+hurried thither, and the foreigners, who had no commission, surrendered
+at discretion, and were put to the sword. Neither Grey nor the Spanish
+ambassador seems to have seen anything extraordinary in thus disposing
+of inconvenient prisoners. Spenser and Raleigh were present. Sanders
+perished obscurely in 1581, and in 1583 Desmond himself was hunted down
+and killed in the Kerry mountains. More than 500,000 Irish acres were
+forfeited to the crown. The horrors of this war it is impossible to
+exaggerate. The _Four Masters_ says that the lowing of a cow or the
+voice of a ploughman could scarcely be heard from Cashel to the farthest
+point of Kerry; Ormonde, who, with all his severity, was honourably
+distinguished by good faith, claimed to have killed 5000 men in a few
+months. Spenser, an eye-witness, says famine slew far more than the
+sword. The survivors were unable to walk, but crawled out of the woods
+and glens. "They looked like anatomies of death; they did eat the dead
+carrion and one another soon after, insomuch as the very carcasses they
+spared not to scrape out of their graves; ... to a plot of watercresses
+or shamrocks they flocked as to a feast."
+
+In 1584 Sir John Perrot, the ablest man available after Sidney's
+retirement, became lord-deputy. Sir John Norris, famed in the Netherland
+wars, was president of Munster, and so impressed the Irish that they
+averred him to be in league with the devil. Perrot held a parliament in
+1585 in which the number of members was considerably increased. He made
+a strenuous effort to found a university in Dublin, and proposed to
+endow it with the revenues of St Patrick's, reasonably arguing that one
+cathedral was enough for any city. Here he was opposed by Adam Loftus,
+archbishop of Dublin and chancellor, who had expressed his anxiety for a
+college, but had no idea of endowing it at his own expense. The
+colonization of the Munster forfeitures was undertaken at this time. It
+failed chiefly from the grants to individuals who neglected to plant
+English farmers, and were often absentees themselves. Raleigh obtained
+42,000 acres. The quit rents reserved to the crown were less than one
+penny per acre. Racked with the stone, hated by the official clique,
+thwarted on all sides, Perrot was goaded into using words capable of a
+treasonable interpretation. Archbishop Loftus pursued him to the end. He
+died in the Tower of London under sentence for treason, and we may
+charitably hope that Elizabeth would have pardoned him. In his will,
+written after sentence, he emphatically repudiates any treasonable
+intention--"I deny my Lord God if ever I proposed the same."
+
+
+  Last Desmond Rebellion.
+
+In 1584 Hugh O'Neill, if O'Neill he was (being second son of Matthew,
+mentioned above), became chief of part of Tyrone; in 1587 he obtained
+the coveted earldom, and in 1593 was the admitted head of the whole
+tribe. A quarrel with the government was inevitable, and, Hugh Roe
+O'Donnell having joined him, Ulster was united against the crown. In
+1598 James Fitzthomas Fitzgerald assumed the title of Desmond, to which
+he had some claims by blood, and which he pretended to hold as Tyrone's
+gift. Tyrone had received a crown of peacock's feathers from the pope,
+who was regarded by many as king of Ireland. The title of _Sugan_ or
+straw-rope earl has been generally given to the Desmond pretender. Both
+ends of the island were soon in a blaze, and the _Four Masters_ says
+that in seventeen days there was not one son of a Saxon left alive in
+the Desmond territories. Edmund Spenser lost his all, escaping only to
+die of misery in a London garret. Tyrone more than held his own in the
+north, completely defeated Sir Henry Bagnal in the battle of the Yellow
+Ford (1598), invaded Munster, and ravaged the lands of Lord Barrymore,
+who had remained true to his allegiance. Tyrone's ally, Hugh Roe
+O'Donnell, overthrew the president of Connaught, Sir Conyers Clifford.
+"The Irish of Connaught," says the _Four Masters_, "were not pleased at
+Clifford's death; ... he had never told them a falsehood." Robert
+Devereux, earl of Essex, came over in 1599 with a great army, but did
+nothing of moment, was outgeneralled and outwitted by Tyrone, and threw
+up his command to enter on the mad and criminal career which led to the
+scaffold. In 1600 Sir George Carew became president of Munster, and, as
+always happened when the crown was well served, the rebellion was
+quickly put down. Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy (afterwards earl of
+Devonshire), who succeeded Essex, joined Carew, and a Spanish force
+which landed at Kinsale surrendered. The destruction of their crops
+starved the people into submission, and the contest was only less
+terrible than the first Desmond war because it was much shorter. In
+Ulster Mountjoy was assisted by Sir Henry Docwra, who founded the second
+settlement at Derry, the first under Edward Randolph having been
+abandoned. Hugh O'Donnell sought help in Spain, where he died. Tyrone
+submitted at last, craving pardon on his knees, renouncing his Celtic
+chiefry, and abjuring all foreign powers; but still retaining his
+earldom, and power almost too great for a subject. Scarcely was the
+compact signed when he heard of the great queen's death. He burst into
+tears, not of grief, but of vexation at not having held out for better
+terms.
+
+
+  Elizabethan Conquest of Ireland.
+
+  Religious policy.
+
+In reviewing the Irish government of Elizabeth we shall find much to
+blame, a want of truth in her dealings and of steadiness in her policy.
+Violent efforts of coercion were succeeded by fits of clemency, of
+parsimony or of apathy. Yet it is fair to remember that she was
+surrounded by enemies, that her best energies were expended in the
+death-struggle with Spain, and that she was rarely able to give
+undivided attention to the Irish problem. After all she conquered
+Ireland, which her predecessors had failed to do, though many of them
+were as crooked in action and less upright in intention. Considering the
+times, Elizabeth cannot be called a persecutor. "Do not," she said to
+the elder Essex, "seek too hastily to bring people that have been
+trained in another religion from that in which they have been brought
+up." Elizabeth saw that the Irish could only be reached through their
+own language. But for that harvest the labourers were necessarily few.
+The fate of Bishop Daly of Kildare, who preached in Irish, and who
+thrice had his house burned over his head, was not likely to encourage
+missionaries. In all wild parts divine service was neglected, and
+wandering friars or subtle Jesuits, supported by every patriotic or
+religious feeling of the people, kept Ireland faithful to Rome. Against
+her many shortcomings we must set the queen's foundation of the
+university of Dublin, which has been the most successful English
+institution in Ireland, and which has continually borne the fairest
+fruit.
+
+
+  James I. (1603-1625).
+
+Great things were expected of James I. He was Mary Stuart's son, and
+there was a curious antiquarian notion afloat that, because the Irish
+were the original "Scoti," a Scottish king would sympathize with
+Ireland. Corporate towns set up the mass, and Mountjoy, who could argue
+as well as fight, had to teach them a sharp lesson. Finding Ireland
+conquered and in no condition to rise again, James established circuits
+and a complete system of shires. Sir John Davies was sent over as
+solicitor-general. His famous book (_Discoverie of the State of
+Ireland_) in which he glorifies his own and the king's exploits gives
+far too much credit to the latter and far too little to his great
+predecessor.
+
+
+  Plantation of Ulster.
+
+Two legal decisions swept away the customs of tanistry and of Irish
+gavelkind, and the English land system was violently substituted. The
+earl of Tyrone was harassed by sheriffs and other officers, and the
+government, learning that he was engaged in an insurrectionary design,
+prepared to seize him. The information was probably false, but Tyrone
+was growing old and perhaps despaired of making good his defence. By
+leaving Ireland he played into his enemies' hands. Rory O'Donnell,
+created earl of Tyrconnel, accompanied him. Cuconnaught Maguire had
+already gone. The "flight of the earls," as it is called, completed the
+ruin of the Celtic cause. Reasons or pretexts for declaring forfeitures
+against O'Cahan were easily found. O'Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, and
+foreman of the grand jury which found a bill for treason against the
+earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, was insulted by Sir George Paulet, the
+governor of Derry. O'Dogherty rose, Derry was sacked, and Paulet
+murdered. O'Dogherty having been killed and O'Hanlon and others being
+implicated, the whole of northern Ulster was at the disposal of the
+government. Tyrone, Donegal, Armagh, Cavan, Fermanagh and Derry were
+parcelled out among English and Scottish colonists, portions being
+reserved to the natives. The site of Derry was granted to the citizens
+of London, who fortified and armed it, and Londonderry became the chief
+bulwark of the colonists in two great wars. Whatever may have been its
+morality, in a political point of view the plantation of Ulster was
+successful. The northern province, which so severely taxed the energies
+of Elizabeth, has since been the most prosperous and loyal part of
+Ireland. But the conquered people remained side by side with the
+settlers; and Sir George Carew, who reported on the plantation in 1611,
+clearly foresaw that they would rebel again. Those natives who retained
+land were often oppressed by their stronger neighbours, and sometimes
+actually swindled out of their property. It is probable that in the
+neglect of the grantees to give proper leases to their tenants arose the
+Ulster tenant-right custom which attracted so much notice in more modern
+times.
+
+
+  The Irish Parliament.
+
+The parliamentary history of the English colony in Ireland corresponds
+pretty closely to that of the mother country. First there are informal
+meetings of eminent persons; then, in 1295, there is a parliament of
+which some acts remain, and to which only knights of the shire were
+summoned to represent the commons. Burgesses were added as early as
+1310. The famous parliament of Kilkenny in 1366 was largely attended,
+but the details of its composition are not known. That there was
+substantial identity in the character of original and copy may be
+inferred from the fact that the well-known tract called _Modus tenendi
+parliamentum_ was exemplified under the Great Seal of Ireland in 6 Hen.
+V. The most ancient Irish parliament remaining on record was held in
+1374, twenty members in all being summoned to the House of Commons, from
+the counties of Dublin, Louth, Kildare and Carlow, the liberties and
+crosses of Meath, the city of Dublin, and the towns of Drogheda and
+Dundalk. The liberties were those districts in which the great vassals
+of the crown exercised palatinate jurisdiction, and the crosses were the
+church lands, where alone the royal writ usually ran. Writs for another
+parliament in the same year were addressed in addition to the counties
+of Waterford, Cork and Limerick; the liberties and crosses of Ulster,
+Wexford, Tipperary and Kerry; the cities of Waterford, Cork and
+Limerick; and the towns of Youghal, Kinsale, Ross, Wexford and Kilkenny.
+The counties of Clare and Longford, and the towns of Galway and Athenry,
+were afterwards added, and the number of popular representatives does
+not appear to have much exceeded sixty during the later middle ages. In
+the House of Lords the temporal peers were largely outnumbered by the
+bishops and mitred abbots. In the parliament which conferred the royal
+title on Henry VIII. it was finally decided that the proctors of the
+clergy had no voice or votes. Elizabeth's first parliament, held in
+1559, was attended by 76 members of the Lower House, which increased to
+122 in 1585. In 1613 James I. by a wholesale creation of new boroughs,
+generally of the last insignificance, increased the House of Commons to
+232, and thus secured an Anglican majority to carry out his policy. He
+told those who remonstrated to mind their own business. "What is it to
+you if I had created 40 noblemen and 400 boroughs? The more the merrier,
+the fewer the better cheer." In 1639 the House of Commons had 274
+members, a number which was further increased to 300 at the Revolution,
+and so it remained until the Union.
+
+
+  Religious policy of James I.
+
+Steeped in absolutist ideas, James was not likely to tolerate religious
+dissent. He thought he could "mak what liked him law and gospel." A
+proclamation for banishing Romish priests issued in 1605, and was
+followed by an active and general persecution, which was so far from
+succeeding that they continued to flock in from abroad, the lord-deputy
+Arthur Chichester admitting that every house and hamlet was to them a
+sanctuary. The most severe English statutes against the Roman Catholic
+laity had never been re-enacted in Ireland, and, in the absence of law,
+illegal means were taken to enforce uniformity. Privy seals addressed to
+men of wealth and position commanded their attendance at church before
+the deputy or the provincial president, on pain of unlimited fine and
+imprisonment by the Irish Star Chamber. The Roman Catholic gentry and
+lawyers, headed by Sir Patrick Barnewall, succeeded in proving the
+flagrant illegality of these mandates, and the government had to yield.
+On the whole Protestantism made little progress, though the number of
+Protestant settlers increased. As late as 1622, when Sir Henry Cary,
+Viscount Falkland, was installed as deputy, the illustrious James
+Ussher, then bishop of Meath, preached from the text "he beareth not the
+sword in vain," and descanted on the over-indulgence shown to recusants.
+The primate, Christopher Hampton, in a letter which is a model of
+Christian eloquence, mildly rebuked his eminent suffragan.
+
+
+  Charles I. (1625-1649).
+
+  Administration of Strafford.
+
+The necessities of Charles I. induced his ministers to propose that a
+great part of Connaught should be declared forfeited, owing to mere
+technical flaws in title, and planted like Ulster. Such was the general
+outcry that the scheme had to be given up; and, on receiving a large
+grant from the Irish parliament, the king promised certain graces, of
+which the chief were security for titles, free trade, and the
+substitution of an oath of allegiance for that of supremacy. Having got
+the money, Charles as usual broke his word; and in 1635 the lord-deputy
+Strafford began a general system of extortion. The Connaught and Munster
+landowners were shamelessly forced to pay large fines for the
+confirmation of even recent titles. The money obtained by oppressing the
+Irish nation was employed to create an army for the oppression of the
+Scottish and English nations. The Roman Catholics were neither awed nor
+conciliated. Twelve bishops, headed by the primate Ussher, solemnly
+protested that "to tolerate popery is a grievous sin." The Ulster
+Presbyterians were rigorously treated. Of the prelates employed by
+Strafford in this persecution the ablest was John Bramhall (1594-1663)
+of Derry, who not only oppressed the ministers but insulted them by
+coarse language. The "black oath," which bound those who took it never
+to oppose Charles in anything, was enforced on all ministers, and those
+who refused it were driven from their manses and often stripped of their
+goods.
+
+
+  Rebellion of 1641.
+
+Strafford was recalled to expiate his career on the scaffold; the army
+was disbanded; and the helm of the state remained in the hands of a
+land-jobber and of a superannuated soldier. Disbanded troops are the
+ready weapons of conspiracy, and the opportunity was not lost. The Roman
+Catholic insurgents of 1641 just failed to seize Dublin, but quickly
+became masters of nearly the whole country. That there was no definite
+design of massacring the Protestants is likely, but it was intended to
+drive them out of the country. Great numbers were killed, often in cold
+blood and with circumstances of great barbarity. The English under Sir
+Charles Coote and others retaliated. In 1642 a Scottish army under
+General Robert Monro landed in Ulster, and formed a rallying point for
+the colonists. Londonderry, Enniskillen, Coleraine, Carrickfergus and
+some other places defied Sir Phelim O'Neill's tumultuary host. Trained
+in foreign wars, Owen Roe O'Neill gradually formed a powerful army among
+the Ulster Irish, and showed many of the qualities of a skilful general.
+But like other O'Neills, he did little out of Ulster, and his great
+victory over Monro at Benburb on the Blackwater (June 5, 1646) had no
+lasting results. The English of the Pale were forced into rebellion, but
+could never get on with the native Irish, who hated them only less than
+the new colonists. Ormonde throughout maintained the position of a loyal
+subject, and, as the king's representative, played a great but hopeless
+part. The Celts cared nothing for the king except as a weapon against
+the Protestants; the old Anglo-Irish Catholics cared much, but the
+nearer Charles approached them the more completely he alienated the
+Protestants. In 1645 Rinuccini reached Ireland as papal legate. He could
+never co-operate with the Roman Catholic confederacy at Kilkenny, which
+was under old English influence, and by throwing in his lot with the
+Celts only widened the gulf between the two sections. The state of
+parties at this period in Ireland has been graphically described by
+Carlyle. "There are," he says, "Catholics of the Pale, demanding freedom
+of religion, under my lord this and my lord that. There are Old-Irish
+Catholics, under pope's nuncios, under Abba O'Teague of the
+excommunications, and Owen Roe O'Neill, demanding not religious freedom
+only, but what we now call 'repeal of the union,' and unable to agree
+with Catholics of the English Pale. Then there are Ormonde Royalists, of
+the Episcopalian and mixed creeds, strong for king without covenant;
+Ulster and other Presbyterians strong for king _and_ covenant; lastly,
+Michael Jones and the Commonwealth of England, who want neither king nor
+covenant."
+
+In all their negotiations with Ormonde and Glamorgan, Henrietta Maria
+and the earl of Bristol, the pope and Rinuccini stood out for an
+arrangement which would have destroyed the royal supremacy and
+established Romanism in Ireland, leaving to the Anglicans bare
+toleration, and to the Presbyterians not even that. Charles behaved with
+his usual weakness. Ormonde was forced to surrender Dublin to the
+Parliamentarians (July 1647), and the inextricable knot awaited
+Cromwell's sword.
+
+
+  Cromwell.
+
+Cromwell's campaign (1640-1650) showed how easily a good general with an
+efficient army might conquer Ireland. Resistance in the field was soon
+at an end; the starving-out policy of Carew and Mountjoy was employed
+against the guerrillas, and the soldiers were furnished with scythes to
+cut down the green corn. Bibles were also regularly served out to them.
+Oliver's severe conduct at Drogheda and elsewhere is not morally
+defensible, but such methods were common in the wars of the period, and
+much may be urged in his favour. Strict discipline was maintained,
+soldiers being hanged for stealing chickens; faith was always kept; and
+short, sharp action was more merciful in the long run than a milder but
+less effective policy. Cromwell's civil policy, to use Macaulay's words,
+was "able, straightforward, and cruel." He thinned the disaffected
+population by allowing foreign enlistment, and 40,000 are said to have
+been thus got rid of. Already Irish Catholics of good family had learned
+to offer their swords to foreign princes. In Spain, France and the
+Empire they often rose to the distinction which they were denied at
+home. About 9000 persons were sent to the West Indies, practically into
+slavery. Thus, and by the long war, the population was reduced to some
+850,000, of whom 150,000 were English and Scots. Then came the
+transplantation beyond the Shannon. The Irish Catholic gentry were
+removed bodily with their servants and such tenants as consented to
+follow them, and with what remained of their cattle. They suffered
+dreadful hardships. To exclude foreign influences, a belt of 1 m. was
+reserved to soldiers on the coast from Sligo to the Shannon, but the
+idea was not fully carried out. The derelict property in the other
+provinces was divided between adventurers who had advanced money and
+soldiers who had fought in Ireland. Many of the latter sold their claims
+to officers or speculators, who were thus enabled to form estates. The
+majority of Irish labourers stayed to work under the settlers, and the
+country gradually became peaceful and prosperous. Some fighting
+Catholics haunted woods and hills under the name of tories, afterwards
+given in derision to a great party, and were hunted down with as little
+compunction as the wolves to which they were compared. Measures of great
+severity were taken against Roman Catholic priests; but it is said that
+Cromwell had great numbers in his pay, and that they kept him well
+informed. All classes of Protestants were tolerated, and Jeremy Taylor
+preached unmolested. Commercial equality being given to Ireland, the
+woollen trade at once revived, and a shipping interest sprang up. A
+legislative union was also effected, and Irish members attended at
+Westminster.
+
+
+  Charles II. (1660-1685).
+
+Charles II. was bound in honour to do something for such Irish Catholics
+as were innocent of the massacres of 1641, and the claims were not
+scrutinized too severely. It was found impossible to displace the
+Cromwellians, but they were shorn of about one-third of their lands.
+When the Caroline settlement was complete it was found that the great
+rebellion had resulted in reducing the Catholic share of the fertile
+parts of Ireland from two-thirds to one-third. Ormonde, whose wife had
+been allowed by Cromwell's clemency to make him some remittances from
+the wreck of his estate, was largely and deservedly rewarded. A revenue
+of L30,000 was settled on the king, in consideration of which Ireland
+was in 1663 excluded from the benefit of the Navigation Act, and her
+nascent shipping interest ruined. In 1666 the importation of Irish
+cattle and horses into England was forbidden, the value of the former at
+once falling five-fold, of the latter twenty-fold. Dead meat, butter and
+cheese were also excluded, yet peace brought a certain prosperity. The
+woollen manufacture grew and flourished, and Macaulay is probably
+warranted in saying that under Charles II. Ireland was a pleasanter
+place of residence than it has been before or since. But it was pleasant
+only for those who conformed to the state religion. Roman Catholicism
+was tolerated, or rather connived at; but its professors were subject to
+frequent alarms, and to great severities during the ascendancy of Titus
+Oates. Bramhall became primate, and his hand was heavy against the
+Ulster Presbyterians. Jeremy Taylor began a persecution which stopped
+the influx of Scots into Ireland. Deprived of the means of teaching, the
+Independents and other sectaries soon disappeared. In a military colony
+women were scarce, and the "Ironsides" had married natives. Roman
+Catholicism held its own. The Quakers became numerous during this reign,
+and their peaceful industry was most useful. They venerate as their
+founder William Edmundson (1627-1712), a Westmorland man who had borne
+arms for the Parliament, and who settled in Antrim in 1652.
+
+
+  James II. (1685-1689).
+
+The duke of Ormonde was lord-lieutenant at the death of Charles II. At
+seventy-five his brain was as clear as ever, and James saw that he was
+no fit tool for his purpose. "See, gentlemen," said the old chief,
+lifting his glass at a military dinner-party, "they say at court I am
+old and doting. But my hand is steady, nor doth my heart fail.... To the
+king's health." Calculating on his loyal subservience, James appointed
+his brother-in-law, Lord Clarendon, to succeed Ormonde. Monmouth's
+enterprise made no stir, but gave an excuse for disarming the Protestant
+militia. The tories at once emerged from their hiding-places, and
+Clarendon found Ireland in a ferment. It was now the turn of the
+Protestants to feel persecution. Richard Talbot, one of the few
+survivors of Drogheda, governed the king's Irish policy, while the
+lord-lieutenant was kept in the dark. Finally Talbot, created earl of
+Tyrconnel, himself received the sword of state. Protestants were weeded
+out of the army, Protestant officers in particular being superseded by
+idle Catholics of gentle blood, where they could be found, and in any
+case by Catholics. Bigotry rather than religion was Tyrconnel's ruling
+passion, and he filled up offices with Catholics independently of
+character. Sir Alexander Fitton, a man convicted of forgery, became
+chancellor, and but three Protestant judges were left on the bench. The
+outlawries growing out of the affairs of 1641 were reversed as quickly
+as possible. Protestant corporations were dissolved by "quo warrantos";
+but James was still Englishman enough to refuse an Irish parliament,
+which might repeal Poyning's Act and the Act of Settlement.
+
+
+  William III.
+
+At the close of 1688 James was a fugitive in France. By this time
+Londonderry and Enniskillen had closed their gates, and the final
+struggle had begun. In March 1689 James reached Ireland with some French
+troops, and summoned a parliament which repealed the Act of Settlement.
+The estates of absentees were vested in the crown, and, as only two
+months law was given, this was nearly equivalent to confiscating the
+property of all Protestants. Between 2000 and 3000 Protestants were
+attainted by name, and moreover the act was not published. The appalling
+list may be read in the _State of the Protestants_ by William King,
+archbishop of Dublin, one of many divines converted by the logic of
+events to believe in the lawfulness of resistance. Interesting details
+may be gleaned from Edmundson's _Diary_. The dispossessed Protestants
+escaped by sea or flocked into Ulster, where a gallant stand was made.
+The glories of Londonderry and Enniskillen will live as long as the
+English language. The Irish cause produced one great achievement--the
+defence of Limerick, and one great leader--Patrick Sarsfield. The Roman
+Catholic Celts aided by France were entirely beaten, the Protestant
+colonists aided by England were entirely victorious at the battle of the
+Boyne, on the 1st of July 1690; and at the battle of Aughrim on the 12th
+of July 1691. Even the siege of Limerick showed the irreconcilable
+divisions which had nullified the efforts of 1641. Hugh Baldearg
+O'Donnell, last of Irish chiefs, sold his services to William for L500 a
+year. But it was their king that condemned the Irish to hopeless
+failure. He called them cowards, whereas the cowardice was really his
+own, and he deserted them in their utmost need. They repaid him with the
+opprobrious nickname of "Sheemas-a-Cacagh," or dirty James.
+
+Irish rhetoric commonly styles Limerick "the city of the violated
+treaty." The articles of capitulation (Oct. 3, 1691) may be read in
+Thomas Leland's _History of Ireland_ (1773) or in F. P. Plowden's
+_History of Ireland_ (1809); from the first their interpretation was
+disputed. Hopes of religious liberty were held out, but were not
+fulfilled. Lords Justices Porter and Coningsby promised to do their
+utmost to obtain a parliamentary ratification, but the Irish parliament
+would not be persuaded. There was a paragraph in the original draft
+which would have protected the property of the great majority of Roman
+Catholics, but this was left out in the articles actually signed.
+William thought the omission accidental, but this is hardly possible. At
+all events he ratified the treaty in the sense most favourable to the
+Catholics, while the Irish parliament adhered to the letter of the
+document. Perhaps no breach of faith was intended, but the sorrowful
+fact remains that the modern settlement of Ireland has the appearance of
+resting on a broken promise. More than 1,000,000 Irish acres were
+forfeited, and, though some part returned to Catholic owners, the
+Catholic interest in the land was further diminished. William III. was
+the most liberally minded man in his dominions; but the necessities of
+his position, such is the awful penalty of greatness, forced him into
+intolerance against his will, and he promised to discourage the Irish
+woollen trade. His manner of disposing of the Irish forfeitures was
+inexcusable. The lands were resumed by the English parliament, less
+perhaps from a sense of justice than from a desire to humiliate the
+deliverer of England, and were resold to the highest bidder.
+Nevertheless it became the fashion to reward nameless English services
+at the expense of Ireland. Pensions and sinecures which would not bear
+the light in England were charged on the Irish establishment, and even
+bishoprics were given away on the same principle. The tremendous uproar
+raised by Swift about Wood's halfpence was heightened by the fact that
+Wood shared his profits with the duchess of Kendal, the mistress of
+George I.
+
+
+  Penal laws.
+
+From the first the victorious colonists determined to make another 1641
+impossible, and the English government failed to moderate their
+severity. In 1708 Swift declared that the Papists were politically as
+inconsiderable as the women and children. In despair of effecting
+anything at home, the young and strong enlisted in foreign armies, and
+the almost incredible number of 450,000 are said to have emigrated for
+this purpose between 1691 and 1745. This and the hatred felt towards
+James II. prevented any rising in 1715 or 1745. The panic-stricken
+severity of minorities is proverbial, but it is not to be forgotten that
+the Irish Protestants had been turned out of house and home twice within
+fifty years. The restrictions on Irish commerce provoked Locke's friend
+William Molyneux (1656-1698) to write his famous plea for legislative
+independence (1698). Much of the learning contained in it now seems
+obsolete, but the question is less an antiquarian one than he supposed.
+Later events have shown that a mother country must have supreme
+authority, or must relax the tie with self-governing colonies merely
+into a close alliance. In the case of Ireland the latter plan has always
+been impossible. In 1703 the Irish parliament begged for a legislative
+union, but as that would have involved at least partial free trade the
+English monopolists prevented it. By Poynings's law (see above) England
+had control of all Irish legislation, and was therefore an accomplice in
+the penal laws. These provided that no Papist might teach a school or
+any child but his own, or send children abroad, the burden of proof
+lying on the accused, and the decision being left to magistrates without
+a jury. Mixed marriages were forbidden between persons of property, and
+the children might be forcibly brought up Protestants. A Catholic could
+not be a guardian, and all wards in chancery were brought up
+Protestants. The Protestant eldest son of a Catholic landed proprietor
+might make his father tenant for life and secure his own inheritance.
+Among Catholic children land went in compulsory gavelkind. Catholics
+could not take longer leases than thirty-one years at two-thirds of a
+rack rent; they were even required to conform within six months of an
+inheritance accruing, on pain of being ousted by the next Protestant
+heir. Priests from abroad were banished, and their return declared
+treason. All priests were required to register and to remain in their
+own parishes, and informers were to be rewarded at the expense of the
+Catholic inhabitants. No Catholic was allowed arms, two justices being
+empowered to search; and if he had a good horse any Protestant might
+claim it on tendering L5.
+
+These laws were of course systematically evaded. The property of Roman
+Catholics was often preserved through Protestant trustees, and it is
+understood that faith was generally kept. Yet the attrition if slow was
+sure, and by the end of the century the proportion of land belonging to
+Roman Catholics was probably not more than one-tenth of the whole. We
+can see now that if the remaining Roman Catholic landlords had been
+encouraged they would have done much to reconcile the masses to the
+settlement. Individuals are seldom as bad as corporations, and the very
+men who made the laws against priests practically shielded them. The
+penal laws put a premium on hypocrisy, and many conformed only to
+preserve their property or to enable them to take office. Proselytizing
+schools, though supported by public grants, entirely failed.
+
+
+  Commercial restraints.
+
+The restraints placed by English commercial jealousy on Irish trade
+destroyed manufacturing industry in the south and west (see the section
+_Economics_ above). Driven by the Caroline legislation against cattle
+into breeding sheep, Irish graziers produced the best wool in Europe.
+Forbidden to export it, or to work it up profitably at home, they took
+to smuggling, for which the indented coast gave great facilities. The
+enormous profits of the contraband trade with France enabled Ireland to
+purchase English goods to an extent greater than her whole lawful
+traffic. The moral effect was disastrous. The religious penal code it
+was thought meritorious to evade; the commercial penal code was
+ostentatiously defied; and both tended to make Ireland the least
+law-abiding country in Europe. The account of the smugglers is the most
+interesting and perhaps the most valuable part of J. A. Froude's work in
+Ireland, and should be compared with the Irish and Scottish chapters of
+Lecky's _History_.
+
+
+  Ulster prosperous.
+
+When William III. promised to depress the Irish woollen trade, he
+promised to do all he could for Irish linen. England did not fulfil the
+second promise; still the Ulster weavers were not crushed, and their
+industry flourished. Some Huguenot refugees, headed by Louis Crommelin
+(1652-1727), were established by William III. at Lisburn, and founded
+the manufacturing prosperity of Ulster. Other Huguenots attempted other
+industries, but commercial restraints brought them to nought. The
+peculiar character of the flax business has prevented it from crossing
+the mountains which bound the northern province. Wool was the natural
+staple of the south.
+
+
+  Dissenters.
+
+The Scottish Presbyterians who defended Londonderry were treated little
+better than the Irish Catholics who besieged it--the sacramental test of
+1704 being the work of the English council rather than of the Irish
+parliament. In 1715 the Irish House of Commons resolved that any one who
+should prosecute a Presbyterian for accepting a commission in the army
+without taking the test was an enemy to the king and to the Protestant
+interest. Acts of indemnity were regularly passed throughout the reign
+of George II., and until 1780, when the Test Act was repealed. A bare
+toleration had been granted in 1720. Various abuses, especially forced
+labour on roads which were often private jobs, caused the Oakboy
+Insurrection in 1764. Eight years later the Steelboys rose against the
+exactions of absentee landlords, who often turned out Protestant yeomen
+to get a higher rent from Roman Catholic cottiers. The dispossessed men
+carried to America an undying hatred of England which had much to say to
+the American revolution, and that again reacted on Ireland. Lawless
+Protestant associations, called Peep o' Day Boys, terrorized the north
+and were the progenitors of the Orangemen (1789). Out of the rival
+"defenders" Ribbonism in part sprung, and the United Irishmen drew from
+both sources (1791).
+
+
+  Poverty of the peasantry.
+
+The Ulster peasants were never as badly off as those of the south and
+west. Writers the most unlike each other--Swift and Hugh Boulter, George
+Berkeley and George Stone, Arthur Young and Dr Thomas Campbell--all tell
+the same tale. Towards the end of the 17th century Raleigh's fatal gift
+had already become the food of the people. When Sir Stephen Rice
+(1637-1715), chief baron of the Irish exchequer, went to London in 1688
+to urge the Catholic claims on James II., the hostile populace escorted
+him in mock state with potatoes stuck on poles. Had manufactures been
+given fair play in Ireland, population might have preserved some
+relation to capital. As it was, land became almost the only property,
+and the necessity of producing wool for smuggling kept the country in
+grass. The poor squatted where they could, receiving starvation wages,
+and paying exorbitant rents for their cabins, partly with their own
+labour. Unable to rise, the wretched people multiplied on their potato
+plots with perfect recklessness. During the famine which began in the
+winter of 1739 one-fifth of the population is supposed to have perished;
+yet it is hardly noticed in literature, and seems not to have touched
+the conscience of that English public which in 1755 subscribed L100,000
+for the sufferers by the Lisbon earthquake. As might be expected where
+men were allowed to smuggle and forbidden to work, redress was sought in
+illegal combinations and secret societies. The dreaded name of Whiteboy
+was first heard in 1761; and agrarian crime has never since been long
+absent. Since the Union we have had the Threshers, the Terry Alts, the
+Molly Maguires, the Rockites, and many others. Poverty has been the real
+cause of all these disturbances, which were often aggravated by the
+existence of factions profoundly indicative of barbarism. Communism,
+cupidity, scoundrelism of all kinds have contributed to every
+disturbance. The tendency shown to screen the worst criminals is
+sometimes the result of sympathy, but more often of fear. The cruelties
+which have generally accompanied Whiteboyism is common to servile
+insurrections all over the world. No wonder if Irish landlords were
+formerly tyrannical, for they were in the position of slave-owners. The
+steady application of modern principles, by extending legal protection
+to all, has altered the slavish character of the oppressed Irish. The
+cruelty has not quite died out, but it is much rarer than formerly; and,
+generally speaking, the worst agrarianism has of late years been seen in
+the districts which retain most of the old features.
+
+The medieval colony in Ireland was profoundly modified by the pressure
+of the surrounding tribes. While partially adopting their laws and
+customs, the descendants of the conquerors often spoke the language of
+the natives, and in so doing nearly lost their own. The _Book of Howth_
+and many documents composed in the Pale during the 16th century show
+this clearly. Those who settled in Ireland after 1641 were in a very
+different mood. They hated, feared and despised the Irish, and took
+pride in preserving their pure English speech. Molyneux and Petty, who
+founded the Royal Society of Dublin in 1683, were equally Englishmen,
+though the former was born in Ireland. Swift and Berkeley did not
+consider themselves Irishmen at all. Burke and Goldsmith, coming later,
+though they might not call themselves Englishmen, were not less free
+from provincialism. It would be hard to name four other men who, within
+the same period, used Shakespeare's language with equal grace and force.
+They were all educated at Trinity College, Dublin. The Sheridans were
+men of Irish race, but with the religion they adopted the literary tone
+of the dominant caste, which was small and exclusive, with the virtues
+and the vices of an aristocracy. Systematic infringement of English
+copyright was discreditable in itself, but sure evidence of an appetite
+for reading. "The bookseller's property," says Gibbon of his first
+volume, "was twice invaded by the pirates of Dublin." The oratory of the
+day was of a high order, and incursions into the wide field of pamphlet
+literature often repay the student. Handel was appreciated in Dublin at
+a time when it was still the fashion to decry him in London. The public
+buildings of the Irish capital have great architectural merit, and
+private houses still preserve much evidence of a refined taste. Angelica
+Kauffmann worked long in Ireland; James Barry and Sir Martin Archer Shee
+were of Irish birth; and on the whole, considering the small number of
+educated inhabitants, it must be admitted that the Ireland of Flood and
+Grattan was intellectually fertile.
+
+
+  Struggle for independence.
+
+The volunteers (see FLOOD, HENRY) extorted partial free trade (1779),
+but manufacturing traditions had perished, and common experience shows
+how hard these are to recover. The demand for union was succeeded by a
+craving for independence. Poynings's law was repealed, and in 1782, in
+Grattan's opinion, Ireland was at last a nation. The ensuing period of
+eighteen years is the best known in Irish history. The quarrel and
+reconciliation of Flood and Grattan (q.v.), the kindly patriotism of
+Lord Charlemont, the eloquence, the devotion, the corruption, are
+household words. (Details will be found in the biographical articles on
+these and other men of the period.) In the parliament of 1784, out of
+300 members 82 formed the regular opposition, of whom 30 were the
+nominees of Whig potentates and 52 were really elected. The majority
+contained 29 members considered independent, 44 who expected to be
+bought, 44 placemen, 12 sitting for regular government boroughs, and 12
+who were supposed to support the government on public grounds. The
+remaining seats were proprietary, and were let to government for
+valuable consideration. The House of Lords, composed largely of borough
+mongers and controlled by political bishops, was even less independent.
+Only Protestant freeholders had votes, which encouraged leases for
+lives, about the worst kind of tenure, and the object of each proprietor
+was to control as many votes as possible. The necessity of finding
+Protestants checked subdivision for a time, but in 1793 the Roman
+Catholics received the franchise, and it became usual to make leases in
+common, so that each lessee should have a freehold interest of 40s. The
+landlord indeed had little choice, for his importance depended on the
+poll-book. Salaries, sinecures, even commissions in the army were
+reserved for those who contributed to the return of some local magnate.
+
+
+  Dependence on the potato.
+
+But no political cause swelled the population as much as the potato.
+Introduced by Raleigh in 1610, the cultivation of this important tuber
+developed with extraordinary rapidity. The Elizabethan wars were most
+injurious to industry, for men will not sow unless they hope to reap,
+and the very essence of military policy had been to deprive a
+recalcitrant people of the means of living. The Mantuan peasant was
+grieved at the notion of his harvest being gathered by barbarian
+soldiers, and the Irishman could not be better pleased to see his
+destroyed. There was no security for any one, and every one was tempted
+to live from hand to mouth. The decade of anarchy which followed 1641
+stimulated this tendency fearfully. The labour of one man could plant
+potatoes enough to feed forty, and they could neither be destroyed nor
+carried away easily. When Petty wrote, early in Charles II.'s reign,
+this demoralizing esculent was already the national food. Potatoes
+cannot be kept very long, but there was no attempt to keep them at all;
+they were left in the ground, and dug as required. A frost which
+penetrated deep caused the famine of 1739. Even with the modern system
+of storing in pits the potato does not last through the summer, and the
+"meal months"--June, July and August--always brought great hardship. The
+danger increased as the growing population pressed ever harder upon the
+available land. Between 1831 and 1842 there were six seasons of dearth,
+approaching in some places to famine.
+
+The population increased from 2,845,932 in 1785 to 5,356,594 in 1803.
+They married and were given in marriage. Wise men foresaw the deluge,
+but people who were already half-starved every summer did not think
+their case could well be worse. In 1845 the population had swelled to
+8,295,061, the greater part of whom depended on the potato only. There
+was no margin, and when the "precarious exotic" failed an awful famine
+was the result.
+
+Great public and private efforts were made to meet the case, and relief
+works were undertaken, on which, in March 1847, 734,000 persons,
+representing a family aggregate of not less than 3,000,000, were
+employed. It was found that labour and exposure were not good for
+half-starved men. The jobbing was frightful, and is probably inseparable
+from wholesale operations of this kind. The policy of the government was
+accordingly changed, and the task of feeding a whole people was
+undertaken. More than 3,000,000 rations, generally cooked, were at one
+time distributed, but no exertions could altogether avert death in a
+country where the usual machinery for carrying, distributing and
+preparing food was almost entirely wanting. From 200,000 to 300,000
+perished of starvation or of fever caused by insufficient food. An
+exodus followed which, necessary as it was, caused dreadful hardship,
+and among the Roman Catholic Irish in America Fenianism took its rise.
+One good result of the famine was thoroughly to awaken Englishmen to
+their duty towards Ireland. Since then, purse-strings have been even too
+readily untied at the call of Irish distress.
+
+
+  Rebellion of 1798.
+
+Great brutalities disgraced the rebellion of 1798, but the people had
+suffered much and had French examples before them. The real originator
+of the movement was Theobald Wolfe Tone (q.v.), whose proffered services
+were rejected by Pitt, and who founded the United Irishmen. His Parisian
+adventures detailed by himself are most interesting, and his tomb is
+still the object of an annual pilgrimage. Tone was a Protestant, but he
+had imbibed socialist ideas, and hated the priests whose influence
+counteracted his own. In Wexford, where the insurrection went farthest,
+the ablest leaders were priests, but they acted against the policy of
+their church.
+
+
+  Union of Great Britain and Ireland.
+
+  Catholic Emancipation.
+
+  Repeal agitation.
+
+The inevitable union followed (1st January 1801). From this period the
+history of Ireland naturally becomes intermingled with English politics
+(see ENGLISH HISTORY), and much of the detail will also be found in the
+biographical articles on prominent Irishmen and other politicians. Pitt
+had some time before (1785) offered a commercial partnership, which had
+been rejected on the ground that it involved the ultimate right of
+England to tax Ireland. He was not less liberally inclined in religious
+matters, but George III. stood in the way, and like William III. the
+minister would not risk his imperial designs. Carried in great measure
+by means as corrupt as those by which the constitution of '82 had been
+worked, the union earned no gratitude. But it was a political necessity,
+and Grattan never gave his countrymen worse advice than when he urged
+them to "keep knocking at the union." The advice has, however, been
+taken. Robert Emmet's insurrection (1803) was the first emphatic
+protest. Then came the struggle for emancipation. It was proposed to
+couple the boon with a veto on the appointment of Roman Catholic
+bishops. It was the ghost of the old question of investitures. The
+remnant of the Roman Catholic aristocracy would have granted it; even
+Pius VII. was not invincibly opposed to it; but Daniel O'Connell took
+the lead against it. Under his guidance the Catholic association became
+a formidable body. At last the priests gained control of the elections;
+the victor of Waterloo was obliged to confess that the king's government
+could no longer be carried on, and Catholic emancipation had to be
+granted in 1829. The tithe war followed, and this most oppressive of all
+taxes was unfortunately commuted (1838) only in deference to clamour and
+violence. The repeal agitation was unsuccessful, but let us not be
+extreme to mark the faults of O'Connell's later years. He doubtless
+believed in repeal at first; probably he ceased to believe in it, but he
+was already deeply committed, and had abandoned a lucrative profession
+for politics. With some help from Father Mathew he kept the monster
+meetings in order, and his constant denunciations of lawless violence
+distinguish him from his imitators. His trial took place in 1844. There
+is a sympathetic sketch of O'Connell's career in Lecky's _Leaders of
+Public Opinion in Ireland_ (1871); Sir Thomas Wyse's _Historical Sketch
+of the late Catholic Association_ (1829) gives the best account of the
+religious struggle, and much may be learned from W. J. Fitzpatrick's
+_Life of Bishop Doyle_ (1880).
+
+The national system of education introduced in 1833 was the real
+recantation of intolerant opinions, but the economic state of Ireland
+was fearful. The famine, emigration and the new poor law nearly got rid
+of starvation, but the people never became frankly loyal, feeling that
+they owed more to their own importunity and to their own misfortunes
+than to the wisdom of their rulers. The literary efforts of young
+Ireland eventuated in another rebellion (1848); a revolutionary wave
+could not roll over Europe without touching the unlucky island. After
+the failure of that outbreak there was peace until the close of the
+American civil war released a number of adventurers trained to the use
+of arms and filled with hatred to England.
+
+Already in 1858 the discovery of the Phoenix conspiracy had shown that
+the policy of John Mitchel (1815-1875) and his associates was not
+forgotten. John O'Mahony, one of the men of '48, organized a formidable
+secret society in America, which his historical studies led him to call
+the Fenian brotherhood (see FENIANS).
+
+The Fenian movement disclosed much discontent, and was attended by
+criminal outrages in England. The disestablishment of the Irish Church,
+the privileged position of which had long been condemned by public
+opinion, was then decreed (1869) and the land question was next taken in
+hand (1870). These reforms did not, however, put an end to Irish
+agitation. The Home Rule party which demanded the restoration of a
+separate Irish parliament, showed increased activity, and the general
+election of 1874 gave it a strong representation at Westminster, where
+one section of the party developed into the "obstructionists" (see the
+articles on ISAAC BUTT and C. S. PARNELL).
+
+Isaac Butt, who died in May 1879, led a parliamentary party of
+fifty-four, but the Conservatives were strong enough to outvote them and
+the Liberals together. His procedure was essentially lawyer-like, for he
+respected the House of Commons and dreaded revolutionary violence. His
+death left the field clear for younger and bolder men. William Shaw
+succeeded him as chairman of the Irish party in Parliament; but after
+the election of 1880, Parnell, who had the Land League at his back,
+ousted him by 23 votes to 18.
+
+
+  The Land League.
+
+The Land Law of 1860, known as Deasy's Act, had been based on the
+principle that every tenancy rested on contract either expressed or
+implied. The act of 1870, admitting the divergence between theory and
+practice, protected the tenants' improvements and provided compensation
+for disturbance within certain limits, but not where the ejectment was
+for non-payment of rent. In good times this worked well enough, but
+foreign competition began to tell, and 1879 was the worst of several bad
+seasons. A succession of wet summers told against all farmers, and in
+mountainous districts it was difficult to dry the turf on which the
+people depended for fuel. A famine was feared, and in the west there was
+much real distress. The Land League, of which Michael Davitt (q.v.) was
+the founder, originated in Mayo in August, and at a meeting in Dublin in
+October the organization was extended to all Ireland, with Parnell as
+president. The country was thickly covered with branches before the end
+of the year, and in December Parnell went to America to collect money.
+He was absent just three months, visiting over sixty cities and towns;
+and 200,000 dollars were subscribed. Parnell had to conciliate the
+Clan-na-Gael and the Fenians generally, both in Ireland and America,
+while abstaining from action which would make his parliamentary position
+untenable. He did not deny that he would like an armed rebellion, but
+acknowledged that it was an impossibility. Speaking at Cincinnati on the
+23rd of February 1880, he declared that the first thing necessary was to
+undermine English power by destroying the Irish landlords. Ireland might
+thus become independent. "And let us not forget," he added, "that that
+is the ultimate goal at which all we Irishmen aim. None of us, whether
+we be in America or in Ireland, or wherever we may be, will be satisfied
+until we have destroyed the last link which keeps Ireland bound to
+England." At Galway in October of the same year he said that he "would
+not have taken off his coat" to help the tenant farmers had he not known
+that that was the way to legislative independence. Fenianism and
+agrarianism, essentially different as they are, might be worked to the
+same end.
+
+
+  Boycotting.
+
+To meet the partial failure of the potatoes in Connaught and Donegal,
+very large sums were subscribed and administered by two committees, one
+under the duchess of Marlborough and the other under the lord mayor of
+Dublin. When Lord Beaconsfield appealed to the country in March 1880, he
+reminded the country in a letter to the viceroy, the duke of
+Marlborough, that there was a party in Ireland "attempting to sever the
+constitutional tie which unites it to Great Britain in that bond which
+has favoured the power and prosperity of both," and that such an
+agitation might in the end be "scarcely less disastrous than pestilence
+and famine." But the general election did not turn mainly upon Ireland,
+and the result gave Gladstone a majority of 50 over Conservatives and
+Home Rulers combined. Earl Cowper became lord-lieutenant, with W. E.
+Forster (q.v.) as chief secretary, and Parnell remained chairman of his
+own party in parliament. The Compensation for Disturbance Bill, even
+where the ejectment was for non-payment of rent, passed the House of
+Commons, but the Lords threw it out, and this has often been represented
+as the great cause of future trouble. Probably it made little real
+difference, for the extreme party in Ireland were resolved to stop at
+nothing. It is not easy to defend the principle that a landlord who has
+already lost his rent should also have to pay the defaulter before
+getting a new tenant or deriving a profit from the farm by working it
+himself. Speaking at Ennis on the 19th of September, Parnell told the
+people to punish a man for taking a farm from which another had been
+evicted "by isolating him from his kind as if he was a leper of old."
+The advice was at once taken and its scope largely extended. For
+refusing to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants, Captain
+Boycott (1832-1897), Lord Erne's agent in Mayo, was severely
+"boycotted," the name of the first victim being given to the new system.
+His servants were forced to leave him, his crops were left unsaved, even
+the post and telegraph were interfered with. The Ulster Orangemen
+resolved to get in the crops, and to go in armed force sufficient for
+the purpose. The government allowed 50 of them to go under the
+protection of about 900 soldiers. The cost seemed great, but the work
+was done and the law vindicated. In Cork William Bence-Jones (1812-1882)
+was attacked. The men in the service of the steam-packet companies
+refused to put his cattle on board, and they were eventually smuggled
+across the Channel in small lots. Several associations were formed which
+had more or less success against the League, and at last a direct attack
+was made. Parnell with four other members of parliament and the chief
+officers of the Land League were indicted for conspiracy in the Queen's
+Bench. No means of intimidating the jurors was neglected, and in the
+then state of public feeling a verdict was hardly to be expected. On the
+25th of January 1881 the jury disagreed, and Parnell became stronger
+than ever.
+
+Then followed a reign of terror which lasted for years. No one was safe,
+and private spite worked freely in the name of freedom. The system
+originated by Parnell's Ennis speech became an all-devouring tyranny. In
+the House of Commons, on the 24th of May 1882, Gladstone said that
+boycotting required a sanction like every other creed, and that the
+sanction which alone made it effective "is the murder which is not to be
+denounced." The following description by a resident in Munster was
+published in _The Times_ of the 5th of November 1885: "Boycotting means
+that a peaceable subject of the queen is denied food and drink, and that
+he is ruined in his business; that his cattle are unsaleable at fairs;
+that the smith will not shoe his horse, nor the carpenter mend his cart;
+that old friends pass him by on the other side, making the sign of the
+cross; that his children are hooted at the village school; that he sits
+apart like an outcast in his usual place of public worship: all for
+doing nothing but what the law says he has a perfect right to do. I know
+of a man who is afraid to visit his own son. A trader who is even
+suspected of dealing with such a victim of tyranny may be ruined by the
+mere imputation; his customers shun him from fear, and he is obliged to
+get a character from some notorious leaguer. Membership of the National
+League is, in many cases, as necessary a protection as ever was a
+certificate of civism under Robespierre. The real Jacobins are few, but
+the masses groan and submit." Medicine was refused by a shopkeeper even
+for the sick child of a boycotted person. A clergyman was threatened for
+visiting a parishioner who was under the ban of the League. Sometimes no
+one could be found to dig a grave. The League interfered in every
+relation of life, and the mere fact of not belonging to it was often
+severely punished. "The people," says the report of the Cowper
+Commission, "are more afraid of boycotting, which depends for its
+success on the probability of outrage, than they are of the judgments of
+the courts of justice. This unwritten law in some districts is supreme."
+
+
+  Coercion.
+
+The session of parliament of 1881 was chiefly occupied with Ireland.
+"With fatal and painful precision," Gladstone told the House of Commons
+on the 28th of January, "the steps of crime dogged the steps of the Land
+League," and the first thing was to restore the supremacy of the law. In
+1871 there had been an agrarian war in Westmeath, and an act had been
+passed authorizing the arrest of suspected persons and their detention
+without trial. The ringleaders disappeared and the county became quiet
+again. It was now proposed to do the same thing for the whole of
+Ireland, the power of detention to continue until the 30th of September
+1882. Parnell cared nothing for the dignity of the House of Commons. His
+leading idea was that no concession could be got from England by fair
+means, and he made himself as disagreeable as possible. Parliamentary
+forms were used with great success to obstruct parliamentary action. The
+"Coercion Bill" was introduced on the 24th of January 1881. There was a
+sitting of 22 hours and another of 41 hours, and on the 2nd of February
+the debate was closured by the Speaker on his own responsibility and
+the bill read a first time. The Speaker's action was approved by the
+House generally, but acrimonious debates were raised by Irish members.
+Parnell and 35 of his colleagues were suspended, and the bill became law
+on the 2nd of March, but not before great and permanent changes were
+made in parliamentary procedure. An Arms Bill, which excited the same
+sort of opposition, was also passed into law.
+
+
+  Land Act, 1881.
+
+  Kilmainham "Treaty."
+
+That a Land Act should be passed was a foregone conclusion as soon as
+the result of the general election was known. There were many drafts and
+plans which never saw the light, but it was at last resolved to adopt
+the policy known as the "Three F's"--free sale, fixity of tenure and
+fair rents. By the first tenants at will were empowered to sell their
+occupation interests, the landlord retaining a right of pre-emption. By
+the second the tenant was secured from eviction except for non-payment
+of rent. By the third the tenant was given the right to have a "fair
+rent" fixed by a newly formed Land Commission Court, the element of
+competition being entirely excluded. There were several exceptions and
+qualifying clauses, but most of them have been swept away by later acts.
+The act of 1881 can scarcely be said to have worked well or smoothly,
+but it is not easy to see how any sort of settlement could have been
+reached without accepting the principle of having the rent fixed by a
+third party. Drastic as the bill was, Parnell refused to be a party to
+it, and on the second reading, which was carried by 352 to 176, he
+walked out of the House with 35 of his followers. When the bill became
+law in August he could not prevent the tenants from using it, but he did
+what he could to discourage them in order to please his American
+paymasters, who repudiated all parliamentary remedies. In September a
+convention was held in Dublin, and Parnell reported its action to the
+American Land League: "Resolutions were adopted for national
+self-government, the unconditional liberation of the land for the
+people, tenants not to use the rent-fixing clauses of the Land Act, but
+follow old Land League lines, and rely on the old methods to reach
+justice. The executive of the League is empowered to select test cases,
+in order that tenants in surrounding districts may realize, by the
+results of cases decided, the hollowness of the act" (Barry O'Brien,
+_Life of C. S. Parnell_, i. 306). His organ _United Ireland_ declared
+that the new courts must be cowed into giving satisfactory decisions.
+The League, however, could not prevent the farmers from using the
+fair-rent clauses. It was more successful in preventing free sale,
+maintaining the doctrine that, rent or no rent, no evictions were to be
+allowed. At the first sitting of the Land Commission in Dublin the
+crier, perhaps by accident, declared "the court of the Land League to be
+open." Speaking at Leeds on the 7th of October, Gladstone said "the
+resources of civilization were not exhausted," adding that Parnell
+"stood between the living and the dead, not like Aaron to stay the
+plague, but to spread the plague." Two days later Parnell called the
+prime minister a "masquerading knight-errant," ready to oppress the
+unarmed, but submissive to the Boers as soon as he found "that they were
+able to shoot straighter than his own soldiers." Four days after this
+Parnell was arrested under the Coercion Act and lodged in Kilmainham
+gaol. The Land League having retorted by ordering the tenants to pay no
+rent, it was declared illegal, and suppressed by proclamation. Parnell
+is said to have disapproved of the no-rent manifesto, as also Mr John
+Dillon, who was in Kilmainham with him, but both of them signed it (ib.
+i. 319). At Liverpool on the 27th of October Gladstone described Parnell
+and his party as "marching through rapine to the disintegration and
+dismemberment of the empire." In 1881, 4439 agrarian outrages were
+reported; nothing attracted more attention in England than the cruel
+mutilations of cattle, which became very frequent. The Ladies' Land
+League tried to carry on the work of the suppressed organization and
+there was even an attempt at a Children's League. Sex had no effect in
+softening the prevalent style of oratory, but the government thought it
+better to take no notice. The imprisonment of suspects under the
+Coercion Act had not the expected result, and outrages were incessant,
+the agitation being supported by constant supplies of money from
+America. Gladstone resolved on a complete change of policy. It was
+decided to check evictions by an Arrears Bill, and the three imprisoned
+members of parliament--Messrs Parnell, Dillon and O'Kelly--were released
+on the 2nd of May 1882, against the wishes of the Irish government. This
+was known as the Kilmainham Treaty. Lord Cowper and Forster at once
+resigned, and were succeeded by Lord Spencer and Lord Frederick
+Cavendish, who entered Dublin on the 6th of May.
+
+
+  Phoenix Park murders.
+
+That same evening Lord Frederick and the permanent under-secretary
+Thomas Henry Burke were murdered in the Phoenix Park in broad daylight.
+The weapons were amputating knives imported for the purpose. The
+assassins drove rapidly away; no one, not even those who saw the deed
+from a distance, knew what had been done. A Dublin tradesman named
+Field, who had been a juror in a murder trial, was attacked by the same
+gang and stabbed in many places. He escaped with life, though with
+shattered health, and it was the identification of the man who drove his
+assailants' car that afterwards led to the discovery of the whole
+conspiracy. The clue was obtained by a private examination of suspected
+persons under the powers given by the Crimes Act. To obtain convictions
+the evidence of an informer was wanted, and the person selected was
+James Carey, a member of the Dublin Corporation and a chief contriver of
+the murders. He swore that they had been ordered immediately after the
+appearance of an article in the _Freeman's Journal_ which declared that
+a "clean sweep" should be made of Dublin Castle officials. The evidence
+disclosed the fact that several abortive attempts had been previously
+made to murder Forster. Out of twenty persons, subsequently arraigned,
+five were hanged, and others sentenced to long terms of imprisonment.
+Carey embarked for South Africa in the following July, and was murdered
+on board ship by Patrick O'Donnell, who was brought to England,
+convicted, and hanged on the 17th of December 1883.
+
+
+  National League.
+
+  Dynamite.
+
+  Labourers Act.
+
+Mr (afterwards Sir) G. O. Trevelyan had been appointed chief secretary
+in May 1882, and in July the Crimes Prevention Act was passed for three
+years on lines indicated by Lord Cowper. In the first six months of the
+year 2597 agrarian outrages were reported, and in the last six months
+836. They fell to 834 in 1883, and to 744 in 1884. The Arrears Bill also
+became law. Money enough was advanced out of the surplus property of the
+Irish Church to pay for tenants of holdings under L30 one year's rent
+upon all arrears accruing before November 1880, giving them a clear
+receipt to that date on condition of their paying another year
+themselves; of the many reasons against the measure the most important
+was that it was a concession to agrarian violence. But the same could be
+and was said of the Land Act of 1881. That had been passed, and it was
+probably impossible to make it work at all smoothly without checking
+evictions by dealing with old arrears. The Irish National League was,
+however, founded in October to take up the work of the defunct Land
+League, and the country continued to be disturbed. The law was
+paralysed, for no jury could be trusted to convict even on the clearest
+evidence, and the National League branches assumed judicial functions.
+Men were openly tried all over the country for disobeying the
+revolutionary decrees, and private spite was often the cause of their
+being accused. "Tenants," to quote the Cowper Commission again, "who
+have paid even the judicial rents have been summoned to appear before
+self-constituted tribunals, and if they failed to do so, or on appearing
+failed to satisfy those tribunals, have been fined or boycotted." In
+February 1883 Mr Trevelyan gave an account of his stewardship at Hawick,
+and said that all law-abiding Irishmen, whether Conservative or Liberal,
+were on one side, while on the other were those who "planned and
+executed the Galway and Dublin murders, the boycotting and firing into
+houses, the mutilation of cattle and intimidation of every sort." In
+this year the campaign of outrage in Ireland was reinforced by one of
+dynamite in Great Britain. The home secretary, Sir W. Harcourt, brought
+in an Explosives Bill on the 9th of April, which was passed through all
+its stages in one day and received the royal assent on the next. The
+dynamiters were for the most part Irish-Americans, who for obvious
+reasons generally spared Ireland, but one land-agent's house in Kerry
+was shaken to its foundations in November 1884. At Belfast in the
+preceding June Lord Spencer, who afterwards became a Home Ruler, had
+announced that the secret conspirators would "not terrify the English
+nation." On the 22nd of February 1883 Forster made his great attack on
+Parnell in the House of Commons, accusing him of moral complicity with
+Irish crime. A detailed answer was never attempted, and public attention
+was soon drawn to the trial of the "Invincibles" who contrived the
+Phoenix Park murders. On the 11th of December Parnell received a present
+of L37,000 from his followers in Ireland. The tribute, as it was called,
+was raised in spite of a papal prohibition. As a complement to the Land
+Act and Arrears Act, boards of guardians were this year empowered to
+build labourers' cottages with money borrowed on the security of the
+rates and repayable out of them. Half an acre of land went with the
+cottage, and by a later act this was unwisely extended to one acre. That
+the labourers had been badly housed was evident, and there was little
+chance of improvement by private capitalists, for cottage property is
+not remunerative. But the working of the Labourers Acts was very costly,
+cottages being often assigned to people who were not agricultural
+labourers at all. In many districts the building was quite overdone, and
+the rent obtainable being far less than enough to recoup the guardians,
+the system operated as out-door relief for the able-bodied and as a rate
+in aid of wages.
+
+
+  Ashbourne Act.
+
+  Home Rule Bill, 1886.
+
+The Explosives Act, strong as it was, did not at once effect its object.
+In February 1884 there was a plot to blow up four London railway
+stations by means of clockwork infernal machines containing dynamite,
+brought from America. Three Irish-Americans were convicted, of whom one,
+John Daly, who was sentenced to penal servitude for life, lived to be
+mayor of Limerick in 1899. In January 1885 Parnell visited Thurles,
+where he gave a remarkable proof of his power by breaking down local
+opposition to his candidate for Tipperary. In April the prince and
+princess of Wales visited Ireland. At Dublin they were well received,
+and at Belfast enthusiastically, but there were hostile demonstrations
+at Mallow and Cork. In May it was intended to renew the Crimes
+Prevention Act, but before that was done the government was beaten on a
+financial question by 264 to 252, Parnell and 39 of his followers voting
+with the Conservatives. The Crimes Prevention Act expired on the 12th of
+July, and the want of it was at once felt. The number of agrarian
+outrages reported in the first six months of the year was 373; in the
+last six months they rose to 543, and the number of persons boycotted
+was almost trebled. Lord Salisbury came into office, with Lord Carnarvon
+as lord-lieutenant and Sir W. Hart Dyke as chief secretary. The
+lord-lieutenant had an interview with Parnell, of which very conflicting
+accounts were given, but the Irish leader issued a manifesto advising
+his friends to vote against the Liberals as oppressors and coercionists,
+who promised everything and did nothing. The constitutional Liberal
+party in Ireland was in fact annihilated by the extension of the
+franchise to agricultural labourers and very small farmers. The most
+important Irish measure of the session was the Ashbourne Act, by which
+L5,000,000 was allotted on the security of the land for the creation of
+an occupying proprietary. Later the same sum was again granted, and
+there was still a good deal unexpended when the larger measure of 1891
+became law. In December 1885, when the general election was over, an
+anonymous scheme of Home Rule appeared in some newspapers, and in spite
+of disclaimers it was at once believed that Gladstone had made up his
+mind to surrender. In October 1884, only fourteen months before, he had
+told political friends that he had a sneaking regard for Parnell, and
+that Home Rule might be a matter for serious consideration within ten
+years (Sir A. West's _Recollections_, 1899, ii. 206). The shortening of
+the time was perhaps accounted for by the fact that the new House of
+Commons consisted of 331 Liberals, 249 Conservatives, 86 Home Rulers and
+Independents, Parnell thus holding the balance of parties. In Ireland
+there had been 66 elections contested, and out of 451,000 voters 93,000
+were illiterates. Such were the constituencies to whom it was proposed
+to hand Ireland over. On the 26th of January 1886 the government were
+defeated by a combination of Liberal and Nationalists on an issue not
+directly connected with Ireland, and their resignation immediately
+followed. Gladstone became prime minister, with Lord Aberdeen as
+lord-lieutenant and Mr John Morley as chief secretary. Lord Hartington
+and Mr Goschen were not included in this administration. In February
+Parnell again showed his power by forcing Captain O'Shea upon the
+unwilling electors of Galway. He introduced a Land Bill to relieve
+tenants from legal process if they paid half their rent, and foretold
+disorder in consequence of its rejection. In April the Government of
+Ireland Bill was brought in, Mr Chamberlain (q.v.), Mr Trevelyan and
+others leaving the ministry. The bill attempted to safeguard British
+interests, while leaving Ireland at the mercy of the native politicians.
+Irish members were excluded from the imperial parliament. The local
+legislature was to consist of two orders sitting and voting together,
+but with the power of separating on the demand of either order present.
+The 28 representative peers, with 75 other members having an income of
+L200, or a capital of L4000, elected for ten years by L25 occupiers,
+were to constitute the first order. The second was to have 204 members
+returned for five years by the usual parliamentary electorate. The
+status of the lord-lieutenant was unalterable by this legislature.
+Holders of judicial offices and permanent civil servants had the option
+of retiring with pensions, but the constabulary, whom the Home Rulers
+had openly threatened to punish when their time came, were to come after
+an interval under the power of the Irish Parliament. Parnell accepted
+the bill, but without enthusiasm.
+
+The Government of Ireland Bill gave no protection to landowners, but as
+the crisis was mainly agrarian, it would have been hardly decent to make
+no show of considering them. A Land Purchase Bill was accordingly
+introduced on the 16th of April by the prime minister under "an
+obligation of honour and policy," to use his own words. Fifty millions
+sterling in three years was proposed as payment for what had been
+officially undervalued at 113 millions. It was assumed that there would
+be a rush to sell, the choice apparently lying between that and
+confiscation, and priority was to be decided by lot. The Irish
+landlords, however, showed no disposition to sell their country, and the
+Purchase Bill was quickly dropped, though Gladstone had declared the two
+measures to be inseparable. He reminded the landlords that the "sands
+were running in the hour-glass," but this threat had no effect. The
+Unionists of Ireland had been taken by surprise, and out of Ulster they
+had no organization capable of opposing the National League and the
+government combined. Individuals went to England and spoke wherever they
+could get a hearing, but it was uphill work. In Ulster the Orange lodges
+were always available, and the large Protestant population made itself
+felt. Terrible riots took place at Belfast in June, July and August. In
+October there was an inquiry by a royal commission with Mr Justice Day
+at its head, and on the report being published in the following January
+there were fresh riots. Foolish and criminal as these disturbances were,
+they served to remind the English people that Ireland would not cease to
+be troublesome under Home Rule. In parliament the Home Rule Bill soon
+got into rough water; John Bright declared against it. The "dissentient
+Liberals," as Gladstone always called them, were not converted by the
+abandonment of the Purchase Bill, and on the 7th of June 93 of them
+voted against the second reading, which was lost by 30 votes. A general
+election followed in July, and 74 Liberal Unionists were returned,
+forming with the Conservatives a Unionist party, which outnumbered
+Gladstonians and Parnellites together by over a hundred. Gladstone
+resigned, and Lord Salisbury became prime minister, with Lord
+Londonderry as lord-lieutenant and Sir M. Hicks-Beach (afterwards Lord
+St Aldwyn) as chief secretary.
+
+
+  The "Plan of Campaign."
+
+The political stroke having failed, agrarianism again occupied the
+ground. The "plan of campaign" was started, against Parnell's wishes,
+towards the end of 1886. The gist of this movement was that tenants
+should offer what they were pleased to consider a fair rent, and if it
+was refused, should pay the money into the hands of a committee. In
+March 1887 Sir M. Hicks-Beach resigned on account of illness, and Mr
+Arthur Balfour (q.v.) became chief secretary. The attempt to govern
+Ireland under what was called "the ordinary law" was necessarily
+abandoned, and a perpetual Crimes Act was passed which enabled the
+lord-lieutenant to proclaim disturbed districts and dangerous
+associations, and substituted trial by magistrates for trial by jury in
+the case of certain acts of violence. In August the National League was
+suppressed by proclamation. The conservative instincts of the Vatican
+were alarmed by the lawless state of Ireland, and an eminent
+ecclesiastic, Monsignor Persico, arrived in the late summer on a special
+commission of inquiry. He made no secret of his belief that the
+establishment of an occupying proprietary was the only lasting cure, but
+the attitude of the clergy became gradually more moderate. The
+government passed a bill giving leaseholders the benefit of the act of
+1881, and prescribing a temporary reduction upon judicial rents already
+fixed. This last provision was open to many great and obvious
+objections, but was more or less justified by the fall in prices which
+had taken place since 1881.
+
+The steady administration of the Crimes Act by Mr Balfour gradually
+quieted the country. Parnell had now gained the bulk of the Liberal
+party, including Lord Spencer (in spite of all that he had said and
+done) and Sir G. Trevelyan (in spite of his Hawick speech). In the
+circumstances the best chance for Home Rule was not to stir the land
+question. Cecil Rhodes, hoping to help imperial federation, gave Parnell
+L10,000 for the cause. In September 1887 a riot arising out of the "plan
+of campaign" took place at Mitchelstown. The police fired, and two lives
+were lost, Mr Henry Labouchere and Mr (afterwards Sir John) Brunner,
+both members of parliament, being present at the time. The coroner's
+jury brought in a verdict against the police, but that was a matter of
+course, and the government ignored it. A telegram sent by Gladstone a
+little later, ending with the words "remember Mitchelstown," created a
+good deal of feeling, but it did the Home Rulers no good. In October Mr
+Chamberlain visited Ulster, where he was received with enthusiasm, and
+delivered several stirring Unionist speeches. In November Lord
+Hartington and Mr Goschen were in Dublin, and addressed a great loyalist
+meeting there.
+
+
+  Parnell Commission.
+
+In July 1888 an act was passed appointing a commission, consisting of
+Sir James Hannen, Mr Justice Day and Mr Justice A. L. Smith, to inquire
+into certain charges made by _The Times_ against Parnell and his party.
+What caused most excitement was the publication by _The Times_ on the
+15th of May 1887 of a _facsimile_ letter purporting to have been written
+by Parnell on the 15th of May 1882, nine days after the Phoenix Park
+murders. The writer of this letter suggested that his open condemnation
+of the murders had been a matter of expediency, and that Burke deserved
+his fate. Parnell at once declared that this was a forgery, but he did
+nothing more at the time. Other alleged incriminating letters followed.
+The case of _O'Donnell_ v. _Walter_, tried before the Lord Chief Justice
+of England in July 1888, brought matters to a head, and the special
+commission followed. The proceedings were necessarily of enormous
+length, and the commissioners did not report until the 13th of February
+1890, but the question of the letters was decided just twelve months
+earlier, Richard Pigott, who shot himself at Madrid, having confessed
+to the forgeries. A few days later, on the 8th of March 1889, Parnell
+was entertained at dinner by the Eighty Club, Lords Spencer and Rosebery
+being present; and he was well received on English platforms when he
+chose to appear. Yet the special commission shed a flood of light on the
+agrarian and Nationalist movement in Ireland. Eight members of
+parliament were pronounced by name to have conspired for the total
+political separation of the two islands. The whole party were proved to
+have disseminated newspapers tending to incite to sedition and the
+commission of crime, to have abstained from denouncing the system of
+intimidation, and to have compensated persons injured in committing
+crime. (See PARNELL.)
+
+
+  New Tipperary.
+
+The conduct of the agrarian war had in the meantime almost passed from
+Parnell's hands. The "plan of campaign" was not his work, still less its
+latest and most remarkable exploit. To punish Mr Smith-Barry (afterwards
+Lord Barrymore) for his exertions in favour of a brother landlord, his
+tenants in Tipperary were ordered to give up their holdings. A sum of
+L50,000 was collected to build "New Tipperary," and the fine shops and
+flourishing concerns in the town were deserted to avoid paying small
+ground-rents. The same course was pursued with the farmers, some of whom
+had large capitals invested. Mr William O'Brien presided at the
+inaugural dinner on the 12th of April, and some English M.P.'s were
+present, but his chief supporter throughout was Father Humphreys.
+Parnell was invited, but neither came nor answered. No shopkeeper nor
+farmer had any quarrel with his landlord. "Heretofore," a tenant wrote
+in _The Times_ in the following December, "people were boycotted for
+taking farms; I am boycotted for not giving up mine, which I have held
+for twenty-five years. A neighbour of mine, an Englishman, is undergoing
+the same treatment, and we alone. We are the only Protestant tenants on
+the Cashel estate. The remainder of the tenants, about thirty, are
+clearing everything off their land, and say they will allow themselves
+to be evicted." In the end the attack on Mr Smith-Barry completely
+failed, and he took back his misguided tenants. But the town of
+Tipperary has not recovered its old prosperity.
+
+
+  Land purchase.
+
+The principal Irish measure passed in 1891 was Mr Balfour's Purchase
+Act, to extend and modify the operation of the Ashbourne acts.
+L30,000,000 were provided to convert tenants into proprietors, the
+instalments paid being again available, so that all the tenanted land in
+Ireland might ultimately be passed through if desired. The land itself
+in one shape or another formed the security, and guaranteed stock was
+issued which the holder might exchange for consols. The 40th clause of
+the Land Act of 1896 greatly stimulated the creation of occupying owners
+in the case of over-incumbered estates, but solvent landlords were not
+in a hurry to sell. The interests of the tenant were so carefully
+guarded that the prices obtainable were ruinous to the vendor unless he
+had other resources. The security of the treasury was also so jealously
+scrutinized that even the price which the tenant might be willing to pay
+was often disallowed. Thus the Land Commission really fixed the price of
+all property, and the last vestige of free contract was obliterated.
+Compulsory purchase became a popular cry, especially in Ulster. Owners,
+however, could not with any pretence of justice be forced to sell at
+ruinous prices, nor tenants be forced to give more than they thought
+fair. If the state, for purposes of its own, insisted upon expropriating
+all landlords, it was bound to find the difference, or to enter upon a
+course of undisguised confiscation. The Purchase Act was not the only
+one relied on by Mr Balfour. The Light Railways Act, passed by him in
+1890, did much to open up some of the poorest parts of the west, and the
+temporary scarcity of that year was dealt with by relief works.
+
+
+  Parnell's downfall.
+
+An action begun by Parnell against _The Times_ was settled by the
+payment of a substantial sum. The Nationalist leader seemed to stand
+higher than ever, but the writ in the divorce proceedings, brought by
+Captain O'Shea against his wife, with the Irish leader as co-respondent,
+was hanging over him. To public astonishment, when the case came on for
+trial there was no defence, and on the 17th of November 1890 a decree
+nisi was granted. Parnell's subsequent marriage with the respondent
+before a registrar did him no good with his Roman Catholic supporters.
+The Irish bishops remained silent, while in England the "Nonconformist
+conscience" revolted. Three days after the verdict a great meeting was
+held in the Leinster Hall, Dublin, attended by 25 members of the Irish
+parliamentary party. The result was an enthusiastic vote of confidence
+in Parnell, moved by Mr Justin M'Carthy and seconded by Mr T. M. Healy.
+Five days later he was unanimously re-elected chairman by his party in
+parliament, but the meeting was scarcely over when Gladstone's famous
+letter to Mr Morley became public. The writer in effect demanded
+Parnell's resignation of the leadership as the condition upon which he
+could continue at the head of the Liberal party. He had to choose
+between the Nonconformist vote and the Irish leader, and he preferred
+the former. Next day the secession of the Irish members from their chief
+began. Long and acrimonious debates followed in committee-room 15, and
+on the 6th of December Parnell was left in the chair with only 26
+supporters. The majority of 45 members--Anti-Parnellites, as they came
+to be called--went into another room, unanimously deposed him, and
+elected Mr Justin M'Carthy in his place. Parnell then began a campaign
+as hopeless as that of Napoleon after Leipzig. He seized the office of
+_United Ireland_ in person. The Fenian element was with him, as he
+admitted, but the clergy were against him, and the odds were too great,
+especially against a Protestant politician. His candidate in a
+by-election at Kilkenny was beaten by nearly two to one, and he himself
+was injured in the eyes by lime being thrown at him. Similar defeats
+followed at Sligo and Carlow. He went over to France to meet Messrs
+Dillon and O'Brien, who had not yet taken sides, but nothing was agreed
+to, and in the end both these former followers went against him. Every
+Saturday he went from London to Dublin and addressed some Sunday meeting
+in the country. The last was on the 27th of September. On the 6th of
+October 1891 he died at Brighton, from the effects of a chill following
+on overwork and excitement. His funeral at Glasnevin was attended by
+200,000 people. At the general election of 1892, however, only 9
+Parnellites--the section which under Mr John Redmond remained staunch to
+his memory--were returned to parliament.
+
+
+  Home Rule Bill 1893.
+
+The "Parnellite split," as it was called, proved fatal to the cause of
+Home Rule, for the Nationalist party broke up into factions. No one of
+the sectional leaders commanded general confidence, and personal
+rivalries were of the bitterest kind. An important result of these
+quarrels was to stop the supply of American money, without which neither
+the Land League nor the Home Rule agitation could have been worked. The
+Unionist party had adopted a policy of local government for Ireland
+while opposing legislative independence, and a bill was introduced into
+the House of Commons by Mr Balfour in February 1892. The principle was
+affirmed by a great majority, but the measure could not then be
+proceeded with. At the general election in July the Gladstonians and
+Nationalists together obtained a majority of 40 over Conservatives and
+Liberal Unionists. Lord Salisbury resigned in August, and was succeeded
+by Gladstone, with Lord Houghton (afterwards earl of Crewe) as
+lord-lieutenant and Mr John Morley as chief secretary. The Crimes Act,
+which had already been relaxed, was altogether suspended, and the
+proclamation declaring the National League illegal was revoked. The
+lord-lieutenant, on taking up his quarters in Dublin, refused a loyal
+address because of its Unionist tone; and in October the government
+issued a commission, with Mr Justice Mathew as chairman, which had the
+restoration of the evicted tenants as its avowed object. Two of the
+commissioners very shortly resigned, and the whole inquiry became
+somewhat farcical. It was given in evidence that out of L234,431
+collected under the plan of campaign only L125,000 had been given to
+evicted tenants. In February 1893, on the application of the sheriff of
+Kerry, an order from Dublin Castle, refusing protection, was pronounced
+illegal in the Queen's Bench, and persons issuing it were declared
+liable to criminal prosecution. In the same month Gladstone introduced
+his second Home Rule Bill, which proposed to retain 80 Irish members in
+the imperial parliament instead of 103, but they were not to vote on any
+proceedings expressly confined to Great Britain. On the 8th of April
+1886 he had told the House of Commons that it "passed the wit of man" to
+draw a practical distinction between imperial and non-imperial affairs.
+On the 20th of July 1888 he informed the same assembly that there was no
+difficulty in doing so. It had become evident, in the meantime, to
+numberless Englishmen that the exclusion of the Irish members would mean
+virtual separation. The plan now proposed met with no greater favour,
+for a good many English Home Rulers had been mainly actuated all along
+by the wish to get the Irish members out of their way. The financial
+provisions of the bill were objected to by the Nationalists as tending
+to keep Ireland in bondage.
+
+During the year 1892 a vast number of Unionist meetings were held
+throughout Ireland, the most remarkable being the great Ulster
+convention in Belfast, and that of the three other provinces in Dublin,
+on the 14th and 23rd of June. On the 22nd of April 1893, the day after
+the second reading of the bill, the Albert Hall in London was filled by
+enthusiastic Unionist delegates from all parts of Ireland. Next day the
+visitors were entertained by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield, the duke of
+Devonshire, Mr Balfour, Mr Goschen and Mr Chamberlain being present.
+Between the second reading and the third on 1st September the government
+majority fell from 43 to 34. A great part of the bill was closured by
+what was known as the device of the "gag" without discussion, although
+it occupied the House of Commons altogether eighty-two nights. It was
+thrown out by the Lords by 419 to 41, and the country undoubtedly
+acquiesced in their action. On the 3rd of March 1894 Gladstone resigned,
+and Lord Rosebery (q.v.) became prime minister. A bill to repeal the
+Crimes Act of 1887 was read a second time in the Commons by 60, but went
+no farther. A committee on the Irish Land Acts was closured at the end
+of July by the casting vote of the chairman, Mr Morley, and the minority
+refused to join in the report. The bill to restore the evicted tenants,
+which resulted from the Mathew Commission, was rejected in the Lords by
+249 to 30. In March 1895 Mr Morley introduced a Land Bill, but the
+government majority continued to dwindle. Another Crimes Act Repeal Bill
+passed the second reading in May by only 222 to 208. In July, however,
+the government were defeated on the question of the supply of small-arms
+ammunition. A general election followed, which resulted in a Unionist
+majority of 150. The Liberal Unionists, whose extinction had once been
+so confidently foretold, had increased from 46 to 71, and the
+Parnellites, in spite of the most violent clerical opposition, from 9 to
+12. Lord Cadogan became lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Mr Gerald
+Balfour--who announced a policy of "killing Home Rule by
+kindness"--chief secretary.
+
+
+  Land Act 1896.
+
+In the session of 1896 a new Land Act was added to the statute-book. The
+general effect was to decide most disputed points in favour of the
+tenants, and to repeal the exceptions made by former acts in the
+landlord's favour. Dairy farms, to mention only a few of the most
+important points which had been hitherto excluded, were admitted within
+the scope of the Land Acts, and purely pastoral holdings of between L50
+and L100 were for the first time included. A presumption of law in the
+tenant's favour was created as to improvements made since 1850. The 40th
+clause introduced the principle of compulsory sale to the tenants of
+estates in the hands of receivers. The tendency of this provision to
+lower the value of all property was partly, but only partly, neutralized
+by the firmness of the land judge. The landlords of Ireland, who had
+made so many sacrifices and worked so hard to return Lord Salisbury to
+power, felt that the measure was hardly what they had a right to expect
+from a Unionist administration. In their opinion it unsettled the
+agricultural mind, and encouraged judicial tenants to go to law at the
+expiration of the first fifteen years' term instead of bargaining
+amicably with their landlords.
+
+
+  Financial relations.
+
+In the autumn of this year was published the report of the royal
+commission on the financial relations between England and Ireland. Mr
+Hugh C. E. Childers was the original chairman of this commission, which
+was appointed in 1894 with the object of determining the fiscal
+contribution of Ireland under Home Rule, and after his death in 1896 The
+O'Conor Don presided. The report--or rather the collection of minority
+reports--gave some countenance to those who held that Ireland was
+overtaxed, and there was a strong agitation on the subject, in which
+some Irish Unionists joined without perceiving the danger of treating
+the two islands as "separate entities." No individual Irishman was taxed
+on a higher scale than any corresponding citizen of Great Britain. No
+tax, either on commodities or property, was higher in Ireland than in
+England. The alleged grievance was, however, exploited to the utmost
+extent by the Nationalist party. In 1897 a royal commission, with Sir
+Edward Fry as chairman, was appointed to inquire into the operation of
+the Land Acts. Voluminous evidence was taken in different parts of
+Ireland, and the commissioners reported in the following year. The
+methods and procedure of the Land Commission were much criticized, and
+many recommendations were made, but no legislation followed. This
+inquiry proved, what few in Ireland doubted, that the prices paid for
+occupancy interest or tenant right increased as the landlord's rent was
+cut down.
+
+
+  Local Government Act 1898.
+
+The session of 1898 was largely occupied with the discussion of a bill
+to establish county and district councils on the lines of the English
+Act of 1888. The fiscal jurisdiction of grand juries, which had lasted
+for more than two centuries and a half, was entirely swept away. Local
+government for Ireland had always been part of the Unionist programme,
+and the vote on the abortive bill of 1892 had committed parliament to
+legislation. It may, nevertheless, be doubted whether enough attention
+was paid to the local peculiarities of Ireland, and whether English
+precedents were not too closely followed. In Ireland the poor-rate used
+to be divided between landlord and tenant, except on holdings valued at
+L4 and under, in which the landlord paid the whole. Councils elected by
+small farmers were evidently unfit to impose taxes so assessed. The
+poor-rate and the county cess, which latter was mostly paid by the
+tenants, were consolidated, and an agricultural grant of L730,000 was
+voted by parliament in order to relieve both parties. The consolidated
+rate was now paid by the occupier, who would profit by economy and lose
+by extravagance. The towns gained nothing by the agricultural grant, but
+union rating was established for the first time. The net result of the
+county council elections in the spring of 1899 was to displace, except
+in some northern counties, nearly all the men who had hitherto done the
+local business. Nationalist pledges were exacted, and long service as a
+grand juror was an almost certain bar to election. The Irish gentry,
+long excluded, as landlords and Unionists, from political life, now felt
+to a great extent that they had no field for activity in local affairs.
+The new councils very generally passed resolutions of sympathy with the
+Boers in the South African war. The one most often adopted, though
+sometimes rejected as too mild, was that of the Limerick corporation,
+hoping "that it may end in another Majuba Hill." Efforts not wholly
+unsuccessful were made to hinder recruiting in Ireland, and every
+reverse or repulse of British arms was greeted with Nationalist
+applause.
+
+The scheme for a Roman Catholic University--of which Mr Arthur Balfour,
+speaking for himself and not for the government, made himself a
+prominent champion--was much canvassed in 1899, but it came to nothing.
+It had not been forgotten that this question wrecked the Liberal party
+in 1874.
+
+
+  Board of Agriculture.
+
+The chief Irish measure of 1899 was an Agricultural and Technical
+Instruction Act, which established a new department (see the section
+_Economics_ above) with the chief secretary at its head and an elaborate
+system of local committees. Considerable funds were made available, and
+Mr (afterwards Sir) Horace Plunkett, who as an independent Conservative
+member had been active in promoting associations for the improvement of
+Irish methods in this direction, became the first vice-president. The
+new county councils were generally induced to further attempts at
+technical instruction and to assist them out of the rates, but progress
+in this direction was necessarily slow in a country where organized
+industries have hitherto been so few. In agriculture, and especially in
+cattle-breeding, improvement was formerly due mainly to the landlords,
+who had now been deprived by law of much of their power. The gap has
+been partly filled by the new department, and a good deal has been done.
+Some experience has been gained not only through the voluntary
+associations promoted by Sir H. Plunkett, but also from the Congested
+Districts Board founded under the Land Purchase Act of 1891. This board
+has power within the districts affected by it to foster agriculture and
+fisheries, to enlarge holdings, and to buy and hold land. In March 1899
+it had from first to last laid out a little more than half a million.
+The principal source of income was a charge of L41,250 a year upon the
+Irish Church surplus, but the establishment expenses were paid by
+parliament.
+
+
+  1900.
+
+At the opening of the session in January 1900 there was a formal
+reconciliation of the Dillonite, Healyite, and Redmondite or Parnellite
+factions. It was evident from the speeches made on the occasion that
+there was not much cordiality between the various leaders, but the
+outward solidarity of the party was calculated to bring in renewed
+subscriptions both at home and from America. It was publicly agreed that
+England's difficulty in South Africa was Ireland's opportunity, and that
+all should abstain from supporting an amendment to the address which
+admitted that the war would have to be fought out. Mr John Redmond was
+chosen chairman, and the alliance of Nationalists and Gladstonian
+Liberals was dissolved. The United Irish League, founded in Mayo in 1898
+by Mr William O'Brien, had recently become a sort of rival to the
+parliamentary party, its avowed object being to break up the great grass
+farms, and its methods resembling those of the old Land League.
+
+The most striking event, however, in Ireland in the earlier part of 1900
+was Queen Victoria's visit. Touched by the gallantry of the Irish
+regiments in South Africa, and moved to some extent, no doubt, by the
+presence of the duke of Connaught in Dublin as commander-in-chief, the
+queen determined in April to make up for the loss of her usual spring
+holiday abroad by paying a visit to Ireland. The last time the queen had
+been in Dublin was in 1861 with the Prince Consort. Since then, besides
+the visit of the prince and princess of Wales in 1885, Prince Albert
+Victor and Prince George of Wales had visited Ireland in 1887, and the
+duke and duchess of York (afterwards prince and princess of Wales) in
+1897; but the lack of any permanent royal residence and the
+long-continued absence of the sovereign in person had aroused repeated
+comment. Directly the announcement of the queen's intention was made the
+greatest public interest was taken in the project. Shortly before St
+Patrick's Day the queen issued an order which intensified this interest,
+that Irish soldiers might in future wear a sprig of shamrock in their
+headgear on this national festival. For some years past the "wearing of
+the green" had been regarded by the army authorities as improper, and
+friction had consequently occurred, but the queen's order put an end in
+a graceful manner to what had formerly been a grievance. The result was
+that St Patrick's Day was celebrated in London and throughout the empire
+as it never had been before, and when the queen went over to Dublin at
+the beginning of April she was received with the greatest enthusiasm.
+
+The general election later in the year made no practical difference in
+the strength of parties, but Mr George Wyndham took Mr Gerald Balfour's
+place as chief secretary, without a seat in the Cabinet. Both before and
+after the election the United Irish League steadily advanced, fresh
+branches continually springing up.
+
+
+  Recent years.
+
+The visit of Mr Redmond and others to America in 1901 was not believed
+to have brought in much money, and the activity of the League was more
+or less restrained by want of funds. Boycotting, however, became rife,
+especially in Sligo, and paid agents also promoted an agitation against
+grass farms in Tipperary, Clare and other southern counties. In
+Roscommon there was a strike against rent, especially on the property of
+Lord De Freyne. This was due to the action of the Congested Districts
+Board in buying the Dillon estate and reducing all the rents without
+consulting the effect upon others. It was argued that no one else's
+tenants could be expected to pay more. Some prosecutions were
+undertaken, but the government was much criticized for not using the
+special provisions of the Crimes Act; and in April 1902 certain counties
+were "proclaimed" under it. In February 1902 Lord Rosebery definitely
+repudiated Home Rule, and steps to oppose his followers were at once
+taken among Irish voters in English constituencies.
+
+Lord Cadogan resigned the viceroyalty in July 1902, and was succeeded by
+Lord Dudley. In November Sir Antony Macdonnell (b. 1844), a member of
+the Indian Council, became under-secretary to the lord-lieutenant.
+During a long and successful career in India (1865-1901) Sir Antony had
+never concealed his Nationalist proclivities, but his appointment, about
+the form of which there was nothing peculiar, was favoured by Lord
+Lansdowne and Lord George Hamilton, and ultimately sanctioned by Mr
+Balfour, who had been prime minister since Lord Salisbury's resignation
+in July. About the same time a conference took place in Dublin between
+certain landlords and some members of the Nationalist party, of whom Mr
+W. O'Brien was the most conspicuous. Lord Dunraven presided, and it was
+agreed to recommend a great extension of the Land Purchase system with a
+view to give the vendor as good an income as before, while decreasing
+the tenants' annual burden. This was attempted in Mr Wyndham's Land
+Purchase Act of 1903, which gave the tenants a material reduction, a
+bonus of 12% on the purchase-money being granted to vendors from funds
+provided by parliament. A judicial decision made it doubtful whether
+this percentage became the private property of tenants for life on
+settled estates, but a further act passed in 1904 answered the question
+in the affirmative. After this the sale of estates proceeded rapidly. In
+March 1903 was published the report of the Royal Commission on Irish
+University Education appointed two years before with Lord Robertson as
+chairman, Trinity College, Dublin, being excluded from the inquiry. The
+report, which was not really unanimous, was of little value as a basis
+for legislation. It recommended an examining university with the Queen's
+Colleges at Belfast, Cork and Galway, and with a new and well-endowed
+Roman Catholic college in Dublin.
+
+
+  The "Devolution" question.
+
+In August was formed the Irish Reform Association out of the wreckage of
+the late Land Conference and under Lord Dunraven's presidency, and it
+was seen that Sir A. Macdonnell took a great interest in the
+proceedings. Besides transferring private bill legislation to Dublin on
+the Scottish plan, to which no one in Ireland objected, it was proposed
+to hand over the internal expenditure of Ireland to a financial council
+consisting half of nominated and half of elected members, and to give an
+Irish assembly the initiative in public Irish bills. This policy, which
+was called Devolution, found little support anywhere, and was ultimately
+repudiated both by Mr Wyndham and by Mr Balfour. But a difficult
+parliamentary crisis, caused by Irish Unionist suspicions on the
+subject, was only temporarily overcome by Mr Wyndham's resignation in
+March 1905. Mr Walter Long succeeded him. One of the chief questions at
+issue was the position actually occupied by Sir Antony Macdonnell. The
+new chief secretary, while abstaining from displacing the
+under-secretary, whose encouragement of "devolution" had caused
+considerable commotion among Unionists, announced that he considered him
+as on the footing of an ordinary and subordinate civil servant, but Mr
+Wyndham had said that he was "invited by me rather as a colleague than
+as a mere under-secretary to register my will," and Lord Lansdowne that
+he "could scarcely expect to be bound by the narrow rules of routine
+which are applicable to an ordinary member of the civil service." While
+Mr Long remained in office no further complication arose, but in 1906
+(Sir A. Macdonnell being retained in office by the Liberal government)
+his Nationalist leanings again became prominent, and the responsibility
+of the Unionist government in introducing him into the Irish
+administration became a matter of considerable heart-burning among the
+Unionist party.
+
+Mr Balfour resigned in December 1905 and was succeeded by Sir Henry
+Campbell-Bannerman, Lord Aberdeen becoming lord-lieutenant for the
+second time, with Mr James Bryce as chief secretary. The general
+election at the beginning of 1906 was disastrous to the Unionist party,
+and the Liberal government secured an enormous majority. Mr Walter Long,
+unseated at Bristol, had made himself very popular among Irish
+Unionists, and a seat was found him in the constituency of South Dublin.
+Speaking in August 1906 he raised anew the Macdonnell question and
+demanded the production of all correspondence connected with the
+under-secretary's appointment. Sir A. Macdonnell at once admitted
+through the newspapers that he had in his possession letters (rumoured
+to be "embarrassing" to the Unionist leaders) which he might publish at
+his own discretion; and the discussion as to how far his appointment by
+Mr Wyndham had prejudiced the Unionist cause was reopened in public with
+much bitterness, in view of the anticipation of further steps in the
+Home Rule direction by the Liberal ministry. In 1908 Sir Antony resigned
+and was created a peer as Baron Macdonnell. Soon after the change of
+government in 1906 a royal commission, with ex-Lord Justice Fry as
+chairman, was appointed to investigate the condition of Trinity College,
+Dublin, and another under Lord Dudley to inquire into the question of
+the congested districts.
+
+Mr Bryce being appointed ambassador to Washington, Mr Birrell faced the
+session of 1907 as chief secretary. Before he left office Mr Bryce
+publicly sketched a scheme of his own for remodelling Irish University
+Education, but his scheme was quietly put on the shelf by his successor
+and received almost universal condemnation. Mr Birrell began by
+introducing a bill for the establishment of an Irish Council, which
+would have given the Home Rulers considerable leverage, but, to the
+surprise of the English Liberals, it was summarily rejected by a
+Nationalist convention in Dublin, and was forthwith abandoned. The
+extreme party of Sinn Fein ("ourselves alone") were against it because
+of the power it gave to the government officials, and the Roman Catholic
+clergy because it involved local control of primary education, which
+would have imperilled their position as managers. An Evicted Tenants
+Bill was however passed at the end of the session, which gave the
+Estates Commissioners unprecedented powers to take land compulsorily. In
+the late summer and autumn, agitation in Ireland (led by Mr Ginnell,
+M.P.) took the form of driving cattle off large grass farms, as part of
+a campaign against what was known as "ranching." This reckless and
+lawless practice extended to several counties, but was worst in Galway
+and Roscommon. The government was determined not to use the Crimes Act,
+and the result was that offenders nearly always went unpunished, benches
+of magistrates being often swamped by the chairmen of district councils
+who were _ex officio_ justices under the act of 1898.
+
+The general election of 1910 placed the Liberal and Unionist parties in
+a position of almost exact equality in the House of Commons, and it was
+at once evident that the Nationalists under Mr Redmond's leadership
+would hold the balance of power and control the fortunes of Mr Asquith's
+government. A small body of "independent Nationalists," led by Mr
+William O'Brien and Mr T. M. Healy, voiced the general dislike in
+Ireland of the Budget of 1909, the rejection of which by the House of
+Lords had precipitated the dissolution of parliament. But although this
+band of free-lances was a menace to Mr Redmond's authority and to the
+solidarity of the "pledge-bound" Irish parliamentary party, the two
+sections did not differ in their desire to get rid of the "veto" of the
+House of Lords, which they recognized as the standing obstacle to Home
+Rule, and which it was the avowed policy of the government to abolish.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Ancient: The _Annals of the Four Masters_, ed. J.
+  O'Donovan (1851), compiled in Donegal under Charles I., gives a
+  continuous account of Celtic Ireland down to 1616. The independent
+  _Annals of Lough Ce_ (Rolls series) end with 1590. The _Topographia
+  and Expugnatio_ of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls series) are chiefly
+  valuable for his account of the Anglo-Norman invaders and for
+  descriptions of the country. Sir J. T. Gilbert's _Viceroys of Ireland_
+  (Dublin, 1865) gives a connected view of the feudal establishment to
+  the accession of Henry VIII. The _Calendar of Documents relating to
+  Ireland_ in the Public Record Office extends from 1171 to 1307.
+  Christopher Pembridge's _Annals from 1162 to 1370_ were published by
+  William Camden and reprinted in Sir J. T. Gilbert's _Chartularies of
+  St Mary's Abbey_ (Dublin, 1884). _The Annals of Clyn, Dowling and
+  Grace_ have been printed by the Irish Archaeological Society and the
+  Celtic Society.
+
+  For the 16th century see volumes ii. and iii. of the _Printed State
+  Papers_ (1834), and the _Calendars of State Papers, Ireland_,
+  including that of the Carew MSS. 1515 to 1603. See also Richard
+  Stanihurst's _Chronicle_, continued by John Hooker, which is included
+  in Holinshed's _Chronicles_; E. Spenser, _View of the State of
+  Ireland_, edited by H. Morley (1890); Fynes Moryson, _History of
+  Ireland_ (1735); Thomas Stafford, _Pacata Hibernia_ (1810); and R.
+  Bagwell, _Ireland under the Tudors_ (1885-1890).
+
+  For the 17th century see the _Calendars of Irish State Papers,
+  1603-1665_ (Dublin, 1772); _Strafford Letters_, edited by W. Knowler
+  (1739): Thomas Carte, _Life of Ormonde_ (1735-1736), and _Ormonde
+  Papers_ (1739); Roger Boyle, earl of Orrery, _State letters_ (1743);
+  the _Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland, 1641-1652_
+  (1879-1880), and _History of the Irish Confederation and the War in
+  Ireland, 1641-1649_ (1882-1891), both edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert;
+  Edmund Ludlow's _Memoirs_, edited by C. H. Firth (1894); the _Memoirs_
+  of James Touchet, earl of Castlehaven (1815); and _Cromwell's Letters
+  and Speeches_, edited by T. Carlyle (1904). See also J. P.
+  Prendergast, _The Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland_ (1870); Denis
+  Murphy, _Cromwell in Ireland_ (1885): M. A. Hickson, _Ireland in the
+  17th Century_ (1884); Sir John Temple, _History of the Irish
+  Rebellion_ (1812); P. Walsh, _History of the Remonstrance_ (1674);
+  George Story, _Impartial History of the Wars of Ireland_ (1693);
+  Thomas Witherow, _Derry and Enniskillen_ (1873); Philip Dwyer, _Siege
+  of Derry_ (1893); Lord Macaulay, _History of England_; and S. R.
+  Gardiner, _History of England, 1603-1656_. Further writings which may
+  be consulted are: _The Embassy in Ireland of Rinuccini, 1645-1649_,
+  translated from the Italian by A. Hutton (1873); Sir William Petty's
+  _Down Survey_, edited by T. A. Larcom (1851), and his _Economic
+  Writings_, edited by C. H. Hull (1899); Charles O'Kelly's _Macariae
+  Excidium_, edited by J. C. O'Callaghan (1850); and _A Jacobite
+  Narrative of the War in Ireland, 1688-91_, edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert
+  (1892).
+
+  For the 18th century J. A. Froude's _English in Ireland_ and W. E. H.
+  Lecky's _History of England_ cover the whole ground. See also the
+  _Letters 1724-1738_ of Archbishop Hugh Boulter, edited by G. Faulkner
+  (1770); the _Works_ of Dean Swift; John Campbell's _Philosophical
+  Survey of Ireland_ (1778); Arthur Young's _Tour in Ireland_ (1780);
+  Henry Grattan's _Life of the Right Hon. Henry Grattan_ (1839-1846);
+  the _Correspondence_ of the Marquess Cornwallis, edited by C. Ross
+  (1859); Wolfe Tone's _Autobiography_, edited by R. B. O'Brien (1893);
+  and R. R. Madden's _United Irishmen_ (1842-1846).
+
+  For the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century see the _Annual
+  Register_; R. M. Martin, _Ireland before and after the Union_ (1848);
+  Sir T. Wyse, _Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association_
+  (1829); G. L. Smyth, _Ireland, Historical and Statistical_
+  (1844-1849); Sir C. E. Trevelyan, _The Irish Crisis_ (1880); N. W.
+  Senior, _Journals, Conversations and Essays relating to Ireland_
+  (1868); Sir G. C. Lewis, _On Local Disturbances in Ireland and on the
+  Irish Church Question_ (1836); John Morley, _Life of W. E. Gladstone_;
+  Lord Fitzmaurice, _Life of Lord Granville_ (1905); and R. Barry
+  O'Brien, _Life of Parnell_ (1898). Other authorities are Isaac Butt,
+  _Irish Federalism_ (1870); H. O. Arnold-Forster, _The Truth about the
+  Land League_ (1883); A. V. Dicey, _England's Case against Home Rule_
+  (1886); W. E. Gladstone, _History of an Idea_ (1886), and a reply to
+  this by J. E. Webb entitled _The Queen's Enemies in America_ (1886);
+  and Mrs E. Lynn Linton, _About Ireland_ (1890). See also the _Report
+  of the Parnell Special Commission_ (1890); the _Report_ of the
+  Bessborough Commission (1881), of the Richmond Commission (1881), of
+  the Cowper Commission (1887), and of the Mathew Commission (1893),
+  and the _Report_ of the Congested Districts Board (1899).
+
+  For the church in Ireland see: Henry Cotton, _Fasti ecclesiae
+  hibernicae_ (1848-1878); W. M. Brady, _The Episcopal Succession_
+  (Rome, 1876); R. Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (1840); J.
+  T. Ball, _The Reformed Church in Ireland, 1537-1886_ (1886); and W. D.
+  Killen, _Ecclesiastical History of Ireland_ (1875). A. Theiner's
+  _Vetera Monumenta_ (Rome, 1864) contains documents concerning the
+  medieval church, and there are many others in Ussher's Works, and for
+  a later period in Cardinal Moran's _Spicilegium Ossoriense_
+  (1874-1884). The _Works_ of Sir James Ware, edited by Walter Harris,
+  are generally useful, and Alice S. Green's _The Making of Ireland and
+  its Undoing_ (1908), although written from a partisan standpoint, may
+  also be consulted.     (R. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The importance of the commerce between Ireland and Gaul in early
+    times, and in particular the trade in wine, has been insisted upon by
+    H. Zimmer in papers in the _Abh. d. Berl. Akad. d. Wissenschaften_
+    (1909).
+
+  [2] On the subject of Ptolemy's description of Ireland see articles
+    by G. H. Orpen in the _Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of
+    Ireland_ (June 1894), and John MacNeill in the _New Ireland Review_
+    (September 1906).
+
+  [3] Scholars are only beginning to realize how close was the
+    connexion between Ireland and Wales from early times. Pedersen has
+    recently pointed out the large number of Brythonic and Welsh loan
+    words received into Irish from the time of the Roman occupation of
+    Britain to the beginning of the literary period. Welsh writers now
+    assume an Irish origin for much of the contents of the Mabinogion.
+
+  [4] It seems probable that the celebrated monastery of Whithorn in
+    Galloway played some part in the reform movement, at any rate in the
+    north of Ireland. Findian of Moville spent some years there.
+
+  [5] The O'Neills who played such an important part in later Irish
+    history do not take their name from Niall Noigiallach, though they
+    are descended from him. They take their name from Niall Glundub (d.
+    919).
+
+  [6] At this period it is extremely difficult to distinguish between
+    Norwegians and Danes on account of the close connexion between the
+    ruling families of both countries.
+
+  [7] This name survives in Fingall, the name of a district north of
+    Dublin city. Dubgall is contained in the proper names MacDougall,
+    MacDowell.
+
+  [8] In Anglo-Norman times the Scandinavians of Dublin and other
+    cities are always called Ostmen, i.e. Eastmen; hence the name
+    Ostmanstown, now Oxmanstown, a part of the city of Dublin.
+
+  [9] On the name see K. Meyer _Erin_, iv. pp. 71-73.
+
+  [10] Donaban, the son of this Ivar of Waterford, is the ancestor of
+    the O'Donavans, Donoban that of the O'Donovans.
+
+  [11] The term _rath_ was perhaps applied to the rampart, but both
+    _lis_ and _rath_ are used to denote the whole structure.
+
+  [12] See D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Revue celtique_, xxv. 1 ff., 181
+    ff.
+
+  [13] The whole question is discussed by Mr J. H. Round in his article
+    on "The Pope and the Conquest of Ireland" (_Commune of London_, 1899,
+    pp. 171-200), where further references will be found.
+
+
+
+
+IRELAND, CHURCH OF. The ancient Church of Ireland (described in the
+Irish Church Act 1869 by this its historic title) has a long and
+chequered history, which it will be interesting to trace in outline. The
+beginnings of Christianity in Ireland are difficult to trace, but there
+is no doubt that the first Christian missionary whose labours were
+crowned with any considerable success was Patrick (fl. c. 450), who has
+always been reckoned the patron saint of the country. For six centuries
+the Church of which he was the founder occupied a remarkable position in
+Western Christendom. Ireland, in virtue at once of its geographical
+situation and of the spirit of its people, was less affected than other
+countries by the movements of European thought; and thus its
+development, social and religious, was largely independent of foreign
+influences, whether Roman or English. In full communion with the Latin
+Church, the Irish long preserved many peculiarities, such as their
+monastic system and the date at which Easter was kept, which
+distinguished them in discipline, though not conspicuously in doctrine,
+from the Christians of countries more immediately under papal control
+(see IRELAND: _Early History_). The incessant incursions of the Danes,
+who were the scourge of the land for a period of nearly three hundred
+years, prevented the Church from redeeming the promise of her infancy;
+and at the date of the English conquest of Ireland (1172) she had lost
+much of her ancient zeal and of her independence. By this time she had
+come more into line with the rest of Europe, and the Synod of Cashel put
+the seal to a new policy by its acknowledgment of the papal jurisdiction
+and by its decrees assimilating the Church, in ritual and usages, to
+that of England. There was no thought of a breach of continuity, but the
+distinctive features of Celtic Christianity gradually disappeared from
+this time onwards. English influence was strong only in the region round
+Dublin (known as the Pale); and beyond this district the Irish were not
+disposed to view with favour any ecclesiastical reforms which had their
+origin in the sister country. Thus from the days of Henry VIII. the
+Reformation movement was hindered in Ireland by national prejudice, and
+it never succeeded in gaining the allegiance of the Irish people as a
+whole. The policy which directed its progress was blundering and stupid,
+and reflects little credit on the English statesmen who were responsible
+for it. No attempt was made to commend the principles of the Reformation
+to the native Irish by conciliating national sentiment; and the policy
+which forbade the translation of the Prayer Book into the Irish
+language, and suggested that where English was not understood Latin
+might be used as an alternative, was doomed to failure from the
+beginning. And, in fact, the reformed church of Ireland is to this day
+the church of a small section only of the population.
+
+The Reformation period begins with the passing of the Irish Supremacy
+Act 1537. As in England, the changes in religion of successive
+sovereigns alternately checked and promoted the progress of the
+movement, although in Ireland the mass of the people were less deeply
+affected by the religious controversies of the times than in Great
+Britain. At Mary's accession five bishops either abandoned, or were
+deprived of, their sees; but the Anglo-Irish who remained faithful to
+the Reformation were not subjected to persecution such as would have
+been their fate on the other side of the Channel. Again, under
+Elizabeth, while two bishops (William Walsh of Meath and Thomas Leverous
+of Kildare) were deprived for open resistance to the new order of
+things, and while stern measures were taken to suppress treasonable
+plotting against the constitution, the uniform policy of the government
+in ecclesiastical matters was one of toleration. James I. caused the
+Supremacy Act to be rigorously enforced, but on political rather than on
+religious grounds. In distant parts of Ireland, indeed, the unreformed
+order of service was often used without interference from the secular
+authority, although the bishops had openly accepted the Act of
+Uniformity.
+
+The episcopal succession, then, was unbroken at the Reformation. The
+Marian prelates are admitted on all hands to have been the true bishops
+of the Church, and in every case they were followed by a line of lawful
+successors, leading down to the present occupants of the several sees.
+The rival lines of Roman Catholic titulars are not in direct succession
+to the Marian bishops, and cannot be regarded as continuous with the
+medieval Church. The question of the continuity of the pre-Reformation
+Church with the Church of the Celtic period before the Anglo-Norman
+conquest of Ireland is more difficult. Ten out of eleven archbishops of
+Armagh who held office between 1272 and 1439 were consecrated outside
+Ireland, and there is no evidence forthcoming that any one of them
+derived his apostolic succession through bishops of the Irish Church. It
+may be stated with confidence that the present Church of Ireland is the
+direct and legitimate successor of the Church of the 14th and 15th
+centuries, but it cannot so clearly be demonstrated that any existing
+organization is continuous with the Church of St Patrick. In the reign
+of James I. the first Convocation of the clergy was summoned in Ireland,
+of which assembly the most notable act was the adoption of the "Irish
+Articles" (1615). These had been drawn up by Usher, and were more
+decidedly Calvinistic in tone than the Thirty-nine Articles, which were
+not adopted as standards in Ireland until 1634, when Strafford forced
+them on Convocation. During the Commonwealth period the bishoprics which
+became vacant were not filled; but on the accession of Charles II. the
+Church was strengthened by the translation of John Bramhall (the most
+learned and zealous of the prelates) from Derry to the primatial see of
+Armagh, and the consecration of twelve other bishops, among whom was
+Jeremy Taylor. The short period during which the policy of James II.
+prevailed in Ireland was one of disaster to the Church; but under
+William and Mary she regained her former position. She had now been
+reformed for more than 100 years, but had made little progress; and the
+tyrannical provisions of the Penal Code introduced by the English
+government made her more unpopular than ever. The clergy, finding their
+ministrations unacceptable to the great mass of the population, were
+tempted to indolence and non-residence; and although bright exceptions
+could be named, there was much that called for reform. To William King
+(1650-1729), bishop of Derry, and subsequently archbishop of Dublin, it
+was mainly due that the work of the Church was reorganized, and the
+impulse which he gave it was felt all through the 18th century. His
+ecclesiastical influence was exerted in direct opposition to Primate
+Hugh Boulter and his school, who aimed at making the Established Church
+the instrument for the promotion of English political opinions rather
+than the spiritual home of the Irish people. In 1800 the Act of Union
+was passed by the Legislature; and thenceforward, until
+Disestablishment, there was but one "United Church of England and
+Ireland."
+
+Continuous agitation for the removal of Roman Catholic disabilities
+brought about in 1833 the passing of the Church Temporalities Act, one
+of the most important provisions of which was the reduction of the
+number of Irish archbishoprics from four to two, and of bishoprics from
+eighteen to ten, the funds thus released being administered by
+commissioners. In 1838 the Tithe Rentcharge Act, which transferred the
+payment of tithes from the occupiers to the owners of land, was passed,
+and thus a substantial grievance was removed. It became increasingly
+plain, however, as years passed, that all such measures of relief were
+inadequate to allay the dissatisfaction felt by the majority of Irishmen
+because of the continued existence of the Established Church. Her
+position had been pledged to her by the Act of Union, and she was
+undoubtedly the historical representative of the ancient Church of the
+land; but such arguments proved unavailing in view of the visible fact
+that she had not gained the affections of the people. The census of 1861
+showed that out of a total population of 5,798,967 only 693,357 belonged
+to the Established Church, 4,505,265 being Roman Catholics; and once
+this had been made clear, the passing of the Act of Disestablishment was
+only a question of time. Introduced by Mr Gladstone, and passed in 1869,
+it became law on the 1st of January 1871.
+
+The Church was thus suddenly thrown on her own resources, and called on
+to reorganize her ecclesiastical system, as well as to make provision
+for the maintenance of her future clergy. A convention of the bishops,
+clergy, and laity was summoned in 1870, and its first act was to declare
+the adherence of the Church of Ireland to the ancient standards, and her
+determination to uphold the doctrine and discipline of the Catholic and
+Apostolic Church, while reaffirming her witness, as Protestant and
+Reformed, against the innovations of Rome. Under the constitution then
+agreed on, the supreme governing body of the Church is the General
+Synod, consisting of the bishops and of 208 clerical and 416 lay
+representatives of the several dioceses, whose local affairs are managed
+by subordinate Diocesan Synods. The bishops are elected as vacancies
+arise, and, with certain restrictions, by the Diocesan Synods, the
+Primate, whose see is Armagh, being chosen by the bishops out of their
+own number. The patronage of benefices is vested in boards of
+nomination, on which both the diocese and the parish are represented.
+The Diocesan Courts, consisting of the bishop, his chancellor, and two
+elected members, one clerical and the other lay, deal as courts of first
+instance with legal questions; but there is an appeal to the Court of
+the General Synod, composed of three bishops and four laymen who have
+held judicial office. During the years 1871 to 1878 the revision of the
+Prayer Book mainly occupied the attention of the General Synod; but
+although many far-reaching resolutions were proposed by the then
+predominant Evangelical party, few changes of moment were carried, and
+none which affected the Church's doctrinal position. A two-thirds
+majority of both the lay and clerical vote is necessary before any
+change can be made in the formularies, and an ultimate veto rests, on
+certain conditions, with the house of bishops.
+
+The effects of Disestablishment have been partly good and partly evil.
+On the one hand, the Church has now all the benefits of autonomy and is
+free from the anomalies incidental to state control. Her laws are
+definite, and the authority of her judicial courts is recognized by all
+her members. The place given to the laity in her synods has quickened in
+them the sense of responsibility so essential to the Church's progress.
+And although there are few worldly inducements to men to take orders in
+Ireland, the clergy are, for the most part, the equals of their
+predecessors in social standing and in intellectual equipment, while the
+standard of clerical activity is higher than in pre-Disestablishment
+days. On the other hand, the vesting of patronage in large bodies like
+synods, or (as is the case in some districts) in nominators with little
+knowledge of the Church beyond the borders of their own parish, is not
+an ideal system, although it is working better as the dangers of
+parochialism and provinciality are becoming more generally recognized
+than in the early years of Disestablishment.
+
+The finances are controlled by the Representative Church Body, to which
+the sum of L7,581,075, sufficient to provide life annuities for the
+existing clergy (2043 in number), amounting to L596,913, was handed over
+by the Church Temporalities Commissioners in 1870. So skilfully was this
+fund administered, and so generous were the contributions of clergy and
+laity, at and since Disestablishment, that while on 31st December 1906
+only 136 annuitants were living, the total assets in the custody of the
+Representative Church Body amounted at that date to L8,729,941. Of this
+sum no less than L6,525,952 represented the free-will offerings of the
+members of the Church for the thirty-seven years ending 31st December
+1906. Out of the interest on capital, augmented by the annual parochial
+assessments, which are administered by the central office, provision has
+to be made for two archbishops at L2500 per annum, eleven bishops, who
+receive about L1500 each, and over 1500 parochial clergy. Of the clergy
+only 338 are curates, while 1161 are incumbents, the average annual
+income of a benefice being about L240, with (in most cases) a house. The
+large majority of the clergy receive their training in the Divinity
+School of Trinity College, Dublin. At the census of 1901 the members of
+the Church of Ireland numbered 579,385 out of a total population of
+4,456,546.
+
+  See R. Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (2 vols., London,
+  1840); _Essays on the Irish Church_, by various writers (Oxford,
+  1866); Maziere Brady, _The Alleged Conversion of the Irish Bishops_
+  (London, 1877); A. T. Lee, _The Irish Episcopal Succession_ (Dublin,
+  1867); G. T. Stokes, _Ireland and the Celtic Church_ (London, 1888),
+  _Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church_ (London, 1892), _Some Worthies
+  of the Irish Church_ (London, 1900); T. Olden, _The Church of Ireland_
+  (London, 1892); J. T. Ball, _The Reformed Church of Ireland_ (London,
+  1890); H. C. Groves, _The Titular Archbishops of Ireland_ (Dublin,
+  1897); W. Lawlor, _The Reformation in Ireland_ (London, 1906);
+  _Reports of the Representative Church Body_ (Dublin, 1872-1905).
+       (J. H. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+IRENAEUS, bishop of Lyons at the end of the 2nd century, was one of the
+most distinguished theologians of the ante-Nicene Church. Very little is
+known of his early history. His childhood was spent in Asia Minor,
+probably at or near Smyrna; for he himself tells us (_Adv. haer._ iii.
+3, 4, and Euseb. _Hist. Eccl._ v. 20) that as a child he heard the
+preaching of Polycarp, the aged bishop of Smyrna (d. February 22, 156).
+But we do not know when this was. He can hardly have been born very long
+after 130, for later on he frequently mentions having met certain
+Christian presbyters who had actually seen John, the disciple of our
+Lord. The circumstances under which he came into the West are also
+unknown to us; the only thing which is certain is that at the time of
+the persecution of the Gallic Church under Marcus Aurelius (177) he was
+a presbyter of the church at Lyons. In 177 or 178 he went to Rome on a
+mission from this church, to make representations to Bishop Eleutherius
+in favour of a more lenient treatment of the Montanists (see MONTANISM.;
+Eus. v. 4. 2). On his return he was called upon to undertake the
+direction of the church at Lyons in the place of Bishop Pothinus, who
+had perished in the persecution (Eus. v. 5. 8). As bishop he carried on
+a great and fruitful work. Though the statement of Gregory of Tours
+(_Hist. Franc._ i. 29), that within a short time he succeeded in
+converting all Lyons to Christianity, is probably exaggerated, from him
+at any rate dates the wide spread of Christianity in Lyons and its
+neighbourhood. He devoted particular attention to trying to reconcile
+the numerous sects which menaced the existence of the church (see
+below). In the dispute on the question of Easter, which for a long time
+disturbed the Christian Church both in West and East, he endeavoured by
+means of many letters to effect a compromise, and in particular to
+exercise a moderating influence on Victor, the bishop of Rome, and his
+unyielding attitude towards the dissentient churches of Africa, thus
+justifying his name of "peace-maker" (Eirenaios) (Eus. _H. E._ v. 24.
+28). The date of his death is unknown. His martyrdom under Septimius
+Severus is related by Gregory of Tours, but by no earlier writer.
+
+The chief work of Irenaeus, written about 180, is his "Refutation and
+Overthrow of Gnosis, falsely so called" (usually indicated by the name
+_Against the Heresies_). Of the Greek original of this work only
+fragments survive; it only exists in full in an old Latin translation,
+the slavish fidelity of which to a certain extent makes up for the loss
+of the original text. The treatise is divided into five books: of these
+the first two contain a minute and well-informed description and
+criticism of the tenets of various heretical sects, especially the
+Valentinians; the other three set forth the true doctrines of
+Christianity, and it is from them that we find out the theological
+opinions of the author. Irenaeus admits himself that he is not a good
+writer. And indeed, as he worked, his materials assumed such
+unmanageable proportions that he could not succeed in throwing them
+into a satisfactory form. But however clumsily he may have handled his
+material, he has produced a work which is even nowadays rightly valued
+as the first systematic exposition of Catholic belief. The foundation
+upon which Irenaeus bases his system consists in the episcopate, the
+canon of the Old and New Testaments, and the rule of faith. With their
+assistance he sets forth and upholds, in opposition to the gnostic
+dualism, i.e. the severing of the natural and the supernatural, the
+Catholic monism, i.e. the unity of the life of faith as willed by God.
+The "grace of truth" (the _charisma_), which the apostles had called
+down upon their first disciples by prayer and laying-on of hands, and
+which was to be imparted anew by way of succession ([Greek: diadoche],
+_successio_) to the bishops from generation to generation without a
+break, makes those who receive it living witnesses of the salvation
+offered to the faithful by written and spoken tradition. The Scriptures
+of the Old and New Testaments, rightly expounded by the church alone,
+give us an insight into God's plan of salvation for mankind, and explain
+to us the covenant which He made on various occasions (Moses and Christ;
+or Noah, Abraham, Moses and Christ). Finally, the "rule of faith"
+(_regula fidei_), received at baptism, contains in itself all the riches
+of Christian truth. To distribute these, i.e. to elucidate the rule of
+faith as set forth in the creed, and further to point out its agreement
+with the Scriptures, is the object of Irenaeus as a theologian. Hence he
+lays the greatest stress on the conception of God's disposition of
+salvation towards mankind (_oeconomia_), the object of which is that
+mankind, who in Adam were sunk in sin and death, should in Christ,
+comprised as it were in his person, be brought back to life. God, as the
+head of the family, so to speak, disposes of all. The Son, the Word
+(_Logos_) for ever dwelling with the Father, carries out His behests.
+The Holy Ghost (_Pneuma_), however, as the Spirit of wisdom for ever
+dwelling with the Father, controls what the Father has appointed and the
+Son fulfilled, and this Spirit lives in the church. The climax of the
+divine plan of salvation is found in the incarnation of the Word. God
+was to become man, and in Christ he became man. Christ must be God; for
+if not, the devil would have had a natural claim on him, and he would
+have been no more exempt from death than the other children of Adam; he
+must be _man_, if his blood were indeed to redeem us. On God incarnate
+the power of the devil is broken, and in Him is accomplished the
+reconciliation between God and man, who henceforth pursues his true
+object, namely, to become like unto God. In the God-man God has drawn
+men up to Himself. Into their human, fleshly and perishable nature
+imperishable life is thereby engrafted; it has become deified, and death
+has been changed into immortality. In the sacrament of the Lord's Supper
+it is the heavenly body of the God-man which is actually partaken of in
+the elements. This exposition by Irenaeus of the divine economy and the
+incarnation was taken as a criterion by later theologians, especially in
+the Greek Church (cf. Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, Cyril of Alexandria,
+John of Damascus). He himself was especially influenced by St John and
+St Paul. Before him the Fourth Gospel did not seem to exist for the
+Church; Irenaeus made it a living force. His conception of the Logos is
+not that of the philosophers and apologists; he looks upon the Logos not
+as the "reason" of God, but as the "voice" with which the Father speaks
+in the revelation to mankind, as did the writer of the Fourth Gospel.
+And the Pauline epistles are adopted almost bodily by Irenaeus,
+according to the ideas contained in them; his expositions often present
+the appearance of a patchwork of St Paul's ideas. Certainly, it is only
+one side of Paul's thought that he displays to us. The great conceptions
+of justification and atonement are hardly ever touched by Irenaeus. In
+Irenaeus is no longer heard the Jew, striving about and against the law,
+who has had to break free from his early tradition of Pharisaism.
+
+Till recent times whatever other writings and letters of Irenaeus are
+mentioned by Eusebius appeared to be lost, with the exception of a
+fragment here or there. Recently, however, two Armenian scholars,
+Karapet Ter-Mekerttschian and Erwand Ter-Minassianz, have published
+from an Armenian translation a German edition (Leipzig, 1907; minor
+edition 1908) of the work "in proof of the apostolic teaching" mentioned
+by Eusebius _(H. E._ v. 26). This work, which is in the form of a
+dialogue with one Marcianus, otherwise unknown to us, contains a
+statement of the fundamental truths of Christianity. It is the oldest
+catechism extant, and an excellent example of how Bishop Irenaeus was
+able not only to defend Christianity as a theologian and expound it
+theoretically, but also to preach it to laymen.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The edition of the Benedictine R. Massuet (Paris, 1710
+  and 1734, reprinted in Migne, _Cursus patrologiae_, Series Graeca,
+  vol. v., Paris, 1857) long continued to be the standard one, till it
+  was superseded by the editions of Adolph Stieren (2 vols., Leipzig,
+  1848-1853) and of W. Wigan Harvey (2 vols., Cambridge, 1857), the
+  latter being the only edition which contains the Syriac fragments. For
+  an English translation see the _Ante-Nicene Library_. Of modern
+  monographs consult H. Ziegler, _Irenaeus, der Bischof von Lyon_
+  (Berlin, 1871); Friedrich Loofs, _Irenaeus-Handschriften_ (Leipzig,
+  1888); Johannes Werner, _Der Paulinismus des Irenaeus_ (Leipzig,
+  1889); Johannes Kunze, _Die Gotteslehre des Irenaeus_ (Leipzig, 1891);
+  Ernst Klebba, _Die Anthropologie des heiligen Irenaeus_ (Munster,
+  1894); Albert Dufourcq, _Saint Irenee_ (Paris, 1904); Franz Stoll,
+  _Die Lehre des Heil. Irenaeus von der Erlosung und Heiligung_ (Mainz,
+  1905); also the histories of dogma, especially Harnack, and
+  Bethune-Baker, _An Introduction to the Early History of Christian
+  Doctrine_ (London, 1903).     (G. K.)
+
+
+
+
+IRENE, the name of several Byzantine empresses.
+
+1. IRENE (752-803), the wife of Leo IV., East Roman emperor. Originally
+a poor but beautiful Athenian orphan, she speedily gained the love and
+confidence of her feeble husband, and at his death in 780 was left by
+him sole guardian of the empire and of their ten-year-old son
+Constantine VI. Seizing the supreme power in the name of the latter,
+Irene ruled the empire at her own discretion for ten years, displaying
+great firmness and sagacity in her government. Her most notable act was
+the restoration of the orthodox image-worship, a policy which she always
+had secretly favoured, though compelled to abjure it in her husband's
+lifetime. Having elected Tarasius, one of her partisans, to the
+patriarchate (784), she summoned two church councils. The former of
+these, held in 786 at Constantinople, was frustrated by the opposition
+of the soldiers. The second, convened at Nicaea in 787, formally revived
+the adoration of images and reunited the Eastern church with that of
+Rome. As Constantine approached maturity he began to grow restive under
+her autocratic sway. An attempt to free himself by force was met and
+crushed by the empress, who demanded that the oath of fidelity should
+thenceforward be taken in her name alone. The discontent which this
+occasioned swelled in 790 into open resistance, and the soldiers, headed
+by the Armenian guard, formally proclaimed Constantine VI. as the sole
+ruler. A hollow semblance of friendship was maintained between
+Constantine and Irene, whose title of empress was confirmed in 792; but
+the rival factions remained, and Irene, by skilful intrigues with the
+bishops and courtiers, organized a powerful conspiracy on her own
+behalf. Constantine could only flee for aid to the provinces, but even
+there he was surrounded by participants in the plot. Seized by his
+attendants on the Asiatic shore of the Bosporus, the emperor was carried
+back to the palace at Constantinople; and there, by the orders of his
+mother, his eyes were stabbed out. An eclipse of the sun and a darkness
+of seventeen days' duration were attributed by the common superstition
+to the horror of heaven. Irene reigned in prosperity and splendour for
+five years. She is said to have endeavoured to negotiate a marriage
+between herself and Charlemagne; but according to Theophanes, who alone
+mentions it, the scheme was frustrated by Aetius, one of her favourites.
+A projected alliance between Constantine and Charlemagne's daughter,
+Rothrude, was in turn broken off by Irene. In 802 the patricians, upon
+whom she had lavished every honour and favour, conspired against her,
+and placed on the throne Nicephorus, the minister of finance. The
+haughty and unscrupulous princess, "who never lost sight of political
+power in the height of her religious zeal," was exiled to Lesbos and
+forced to support herself by spinning. She died the following year. Her
+zeal in restoring images and monasteries has given her a place among
+the saints of the Greek church.
+
+  See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. J.
+  Bury, London, 1896), vol. v.; G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed.
+  1877, Oxford,) vol. ii.; F. C. Schlosser, _Geschichte der
+  bildersturmenden Kaiser des ostromischen Reiches_ (Frankfort, 1812);
+  J. D. Phoropoulos, [Greek: Eirene he autokrateira Rhomaion] (Leipzig,
+  1887); J. B. Bury, _The Later Roman Empire_ (London, 1889), ii.
+  480-498; C. Diehl, _Figures byzantines_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 77-109.
+       (M. O. B. C.)
+
+2. IRENE (c. 1066-c. 1120), the wife of Alexius I. The best-known fact
+of her life is the unsuccessful intrigue by which she endeavoured to
+divert the succession from her son John to Nicephorus Bryennius, the
+husband of her daughter Anna. Having failed to persuade Alexius, or,
+upon his death, to carry out a _coup d'etat_ with the help of the palace
+guards, she retired to a monastery and ended her life in obscurity.
+
+3. IRENE (d. 1161), the first wife of Manuel Comnenus. She was the
+daughter of the count of Sulzbach, and sister-in-law of the Roman
+emperor Conrad II., who arranged her betrothal. The marriage was
+celebrated at Constantinople in 1146. The new empress, who had exchanged
+her earlier name of Bertha for one more familiar to the Greeks, became a
+devoted wife, and by the simplicity of her manner contrasted favourably
+with most Byzantine queens of the age.
+
+  H. v. Kap-Herr, _Die abendlandische Politik des Kaisers Manuel_
+  (Strassburg, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+IRETON, HENRY (1611-1651), English parliamentary general, eldest son of
+German Ireton of Attenborough, Nottinghamshire, was baptized on the 3rd
+of November 1611, became a gentleman commoner of Trinity College,
+Oxford, in 1626, graduated B.A. in 1629, and entered the Middle Temple
+the same year. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the
+parliamentary army, fought at Edgehill and at Gainsborough in July 1643,
+was made by Cromwell deputy-governor of the Isle of Ely, and next year
+served under Manchester in the Yorkshire campaign and at the second
+battle of Newbury, afterwards supporting Cromwell in his accusations of
+incompetency against the general. On the night before the battle of
+Naseby, in June 1645, he succeeded in surprising the Royalist army and
+captured many prisoners, and next day, on the suggestion of Cromwell, he
+was made commissary-general and appointed to the command of the left
+wing, Cromwell himself commanding the right. The wing under Ireton was
+completely broken by the impetuous charge of Rupert, and Ireton was
+wounded and taken prisoner, but after the rout of the enemy which ensued
+on the successful charge of Cromwell he regained his freedom. He was
+present at the siege of Bristol in the September following, and took an
+active part in the subsequent victorious campaign which resulted in the
+overthrow of the royal cause. On the 30th of October 1645 Ireton entered
+parliament as member for Appleby, and while occupied with the siege of
+Oxford he was, on the 15th of June 1646, married to Bridget, daughter of
+Oliver Cromwell. This union brought Ireton into still closer connexion
+with Cromwell, with whose career he was now more completely identified.
+But while Cromwell's policy was practically limited to making the best
+of the present situation, and was generally inclined to compromise,
+Ireton's attitude was based on well-grounded principles of
+statesmanship. He was opposed to the destructive schemes of the extreme
+party, disliked especially the abstract and unpractical theories of the
+Republicans and the Levellers, and desired, while modifying their mutual
+powers, to retain the constitution of King, Lords and Commons. He urged
+these views in the negotiations of the army with the parliament, and in
+the conferences with the king, being the person chiefly entrusted with
+the drawing up of the army proposals, including the manifesto called
+"The Heads of the Proposals." He endeavoured to prevent the breach
+between the army and the parliament, but when the division became
+inevitable took the side of the former. He persevered in supporting the
+negotiations with the king till his action aroused great suspicion and
+unpopularity. He became at length convinced of the hopelessness of
+dealing with Charles, and after the king's flight to the Isle of Wight
+treated his further proposals with coldness and urged the parliament to
+establish an administration without him. Ireton served under Fairfax in
+the second civil war in the campaigns in Kent and Essex, and was
+responsible for the executions of Lucas and Lisle at Colchester. After
+the rejection by the king of the last offers of the army, he showed
+special zeal in bringing about his trial, was one of the chief promoters
+of "Pride's Purge," attended the court regularly, and signed the
+death-warrant. The regiment of Ireton having been chosen by lot to
+accompany Cromwell in his Irish campaign, Ireton was appointed
+major-general; and on the recall of his chief to take the command in
+Scotland, he remained with the title and powers of lord-deputy to
+complete Cromwell's work of reduction and replantation. This he
+proceeded to do with his usual energy, and as much by the severity of
+his methods of punishment as by his military skill was rapidly bringing
+his task to a close, when he died on the 26th of November 1651 of fever
+after the capture of Limerick. His loss "struck a great sadness into
+Cromwell," and perhaps there was no one of the parliamentary leaders who
+could have been less spared, for while he possessed very high abilities
+as a soldier, and great political penetration and insight, he resembled
+in stern unflinchingness of purpose the protector himself. By his wife,
+Bridget Cromwell, who married afterwards General Charles Fleetwood,
+Ireton left one son and three daughters.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article by C. H Firth in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ with
+  authorities there quoted; Wood's _Ath. Oxon._ iii. 298, and _Fasti_,
+  i. 451; Cornelius Brown's _Lives of Notts Worthies_, 181; _Clarke
+  Papers_ published by Camden Society; Gardiner's _History of the Civil
+  War and of the Commonwealth_.
+
+
+
+
+IRIARTE (or YRIARTE) Y OROPESA, TOMAS DE (1750-1791), Spanish poet, was
+born on the 18th of September 1750, at Orotava in the island of
+Teneriffe, and received his literary education at Madrid under the care
+of his uncle, Juan de Iriarte, librarian to the king of Spain. In his
+eighteenth year the nephew began his literary career by translating
+French plays for the royal theatre, and in 1770, under the anagram of
+Tirso Imarete, he published an original comedy entitled _Hacer que
+hacemos_. In the following year he became official translator at the
+foreign office, and in 1776 keeper of the records in the war department.
+In 1780 appeared a dull didactic poem in _silvas_ entitled _La Musica_,
+which attracted some attention in Italy as well as at home. The _Fabulas
+literarias_ (1781), with which his name is most intimately associated,
+are composed in a great variety of metres, and show considerable
+ingenuity in their humorous attacks on literary men and methods; but
+their merits have been greatly exaggerated. During his later years,
+partly in consequence of the _Fabulas_, Iriarte was absorbed in personal
+controversies, and in 1786 was reported to the Inquisition for his
+sympathies with the French philosophers. He died on the 17th of
+September 1791.
+
+  He is the subject of an exhaustive monograph (1897) by Emilio Cotarelo
+  y Mori.
+
+
+
+
+IRIDACEAE (the iris family), in botany, a natural order of flowering
+plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class Monocotyledons,
+containing about 800 species in 57 genera, and widely distributed in
+temperate and tropical regions. The members of this order are generally
+perennial herbs growing from a corm as in _Crocus_ and _Gladiolus_, or a
+rhizome as in _Iris_; more rarely, as in the Spanish iris, from a bulb.
+A few South African representatives have a shrubby habit. The flowers
+are hermaphrodite and regular as in _Iris_ (fig. 1) and _Crocus_ (fig.
+3), or with a symmetry in the median plane as in _Gladiolus_. The
+petaloid perianth consists of two series, each with three members, which
+are joined below into a longer or shorter tube, followed by one whorl of
+three stamens; the inferior ovary is three-celled and contains numerous
+ovules on an axile placenta; the style is branched and the branches are
+often petaloid. The fruit (fig. 2) is a capsule opening between the
+partitions and containing generally a large number of roundish or
+angular seeds. The arrangement of the parts in the flower resembles that
+in the nearly allied order Amaryllidaceae (_Narcissus_, _Snowdrop_,
+&c.), but differs in the absence of the inner whorl of stamens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Yellow Iris, _Iris Pseudacorus_.
+
+  1. Flower, from which the outer petals and the stigmas have been
+    removed, leaving the inner petals (a) and stamens.
+  2. Pistil with petaloid stigmas.
+  3. Fruit cut across showing the three chambers containing seeds.
+  4. A seed. 1-4 about 1/2 nat. size.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Seed-vessel (capsule) of the Flower-de-Luce
+(_iris_), opening in a loculicidal manner. The three valves bear the
+septa in the centre and the opening takes place through the back of the
+chambers. Each valve is formed by the halves of contiguous carpels.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--1. Crocus in flower, reduced. 2. Flower
+dissected. b, b', Upper and lower membranous spathe-like bracts; c, Tube
+of perianth; d, Ovary; e, Style; f, Stigmas.]
+
+The most important genera are _Crocus_ (q.v.), with about 70 species,
+_Iris_ (q.v.), with about 100, and _Gladiolus_ (q.v.), with 150. _Ixia_,
+_Freesia_ (q.v.) and _Tritonia_ (including _Montbretia_), all natives of
+South Africa, are well known in cultivation. _Sisyrinchium_, blue-eyed
+grass, is a new-world genus extending from arctic America to Patagonia
+and the Falkland Isles. One species, _S. angustifolium_, an arctic and
+temperate North American species, is also native in Galway and Kerry in
+Ireland. Other British representatives of the order are: _Iris
+Pseudacorus_, (yellow iris), common by river-banks and ditches, _I.
+foetidissima (stinking iris), _Gladiolus communis_, a rare plant found
+in the New Forest and the Isle of Wight, and _Romulea Columnae_, a small
+plant with narrow recurved leaves a few inches long and a short scape
+bearing one or more small regular funnel-shaped flowers, which occurs at
+Dawlish in Devonshire.
+
+
+
+
+IRIDIUM (symbol Ir.; atomic weight 193.1), one of the metals of the
+platinum group, discovered in 1802 by Smithson Tennant during the
+examination of the residue left when platinum ores are dissolved in
+_aqua regia_; the element occurs in platinum ores in the form of alloys
+of platinum and iridium, and of osmium and iridium. Many methods have
+been devised for the separation of these metals (see PLATINUM), one of
+the best being that of H. St. C Deville and H. J. Debray (_Comptes
+rendus_, 1874, 78, p. 1502). In this process the osmiridium is fused
+with zinc and the excess of zinc evaporated; the residue is then ignited
+with barium nitrate, extracted with water and boiled with nitric acid.
+The iridium is then precipitated from the solution (as oxide) by the
+addition of baryta, dissolved in _aqua regia_, and precipitated as
+iridium ammonium chloride by the addition of ammonium chloride. The
+double chloride is fused with nitre, the melt extracted with water and
+the residue fused with lead, the excess of lead being finally removed by
+solution in nitric acid and _aqua regia_. It is a brittle metal of
+specific gravity 22.4 (Deville and Debray), and is only fusible with
+great difficulty. It may be obtained in the spongy form by igniting
+iridium ammonium chloride, and this variety of the metal readily
+oxidizes when heated in air.
+
+  Two oxides of iridium are known, namely the _sesquioxide_, Ir2O3, and
+  the _dioxide_, IrO2, corresponding to which there are two series of
+  salts, the sesqui-salts and the iridic salts; a third series of salts
+  is also known (the iridious salts) derived from an oxide IrO. _Iridium
+  sesquioxide_, Ir2O3, is obtained when potassium iridium chloride is
+  heated with sodium or potassium carbonates, in a stream of carbon
+  dioxide. It is a bluish-black powder which at high temperatures
+  decomposes into the metal, dioxide and oxygen. The hydroxide, Ir(OH)3,
+  may be obtained by the addition of caustic potash to iridium sodium
+  chloride, the mixture being then heated with alcohol. _Iridium
+  dioxide_, IrO2, may be obtained as small needles by heating the metal
+  to bright redness in a current of oxygen (G. Geisenheimer, _Comptes
+  rendus_, 1890, 110, p. 855). The corresponding hydroxide, Ir(OH)4, is
+  formed when potassium iridate is boiled with ammonium chloride, or
+  when the tetrachloride is boiled with caustic potash or sodium
+  carbonate. It is an indigo-blue powder, soluble in hydrochloric acid,
+  but insoluble in dilute nitric and sulphuric acids. On the oxides see
+  L. Wohler and W. Witzmann, _Zeit. anorg. Chem._ (1908), 57, p. 323.
+  _Iridium sesquichloride_, IrCl3, is obtained when one of the
+  corresponding double chlorides is heated with concentrated sulphuric
+  acid, the mixture being then thrown into water. It is thus obtained as
+  an olive green precipitate which is insoluble in acids and alkalis.
+  _Potassium iridium sesquichloride_, K3IrCl6.3H2O, is obtained by
+  passing sulphur dioxide into a suspension of potassium chloriridate in
+  water until all dissolves, and then adding potassium carbonate to the
+  solution (C. Claus, _Jour. prak. Chem._, 1847, 42, p. 351). It forms
+  green prisms which are readily soluble in water. Similar sodium and
+  ammonium compounds are known. _Iridium tetrachloride_, IrCl4, is
+  obtained by dissolving the finely divided metal in _aqua regia_; by
+  dissolving the hydroxide in hydrochloric acid; and by digesting the
+  hydrated sesquichloride with nitric acid. On evaporating the solution
+  (not above 40 deg. C.) a dark mass is obtained, which contains a little
+  sesquichloride. It forms double chlorides with the alkaline chlorides.
+  For a bromide see A. Gautbier and M. Riess, _Ber._, 1909, 42, p. 3905.
+  _Iridium sulphide_, IrS, is obtained when the metal is ignited in
+  sulphur vapour. The _sesquisulphide_, Ir2S3, is obtained as a brown
+  precipitate when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into a solution of
+  one of the sesqui-salts. It is slightly soluble in potassium sulphide.
+  The _disulphide_, IrS2, is formed when powdered iridium is heated with
+  sulphur and an alkaline carbonate. It is a dark brown powder. Iridium
+  forms many ammine derivatives, which are analogous to the
+  corresponding platinum compounds (see M. Skoblikoff, _Jahresb._, 1852,
+  p. 428; W. Palmer, _Ber._, 1889, 22, p. 15; 1890, 23, p. 3810; 1891,
+  24, p. 2090; _Zeit. anorg. Chem._, 1896, 13, p. 211).
+
+  Iridium is always determined quantitatively by conversion into the
+  metallic state. The atomic weight of the element has been determined
+  in various ways, C. Seubert (_Ber._, 1878, 11, p. 1770), by the
+  analysis of potassium chloriridate obtaining the value 192.74, and A.
+  Joly (_Comptes rendus_, 1890, 110, p. 1131) from analyses of potassium
+  and ammonium chloriridites, the value 191.78 (O = 15.88).
+
+
+
+
+IRIGA, a town of the province of Ambos Camarines, Luzon, Philippine
+Islands, on the Bicol river, about 20 m. S.E. of Nueva Caceres and near
+the S.W. base of Mt. Iriga, a volcanic peak reaching a height of 4092
+ft. above the sea. Pop. (1903) 19,297. Iriga has a temperate climate.
+The soil in its vicinity is rich, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar,
+pepper, cacao, cotton, abaca, tobacco and copra. The neighbouring
+forests furnish ebony, molave, tindalo and other very valuable
+hardwoods. The language is Bicol.
+
+
+
+
+IRIS, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thaumas and the Ocean nymph
+Electra (according to Hesiod), the personification of the rainbow and
+messenger of the gods. As the rainbow unites earth and heaven, Iris is
+the messenger of the gods to men; in this capacity she is mentioned
+frequently in the _Iliad_, but never in the _Odyssey_, where Hermes
+takes her place. She is represented as a youthful virgin, with wings of
+gold, who hurries with the swiftness of the wind from one end of the
+world to the other, into the depths of the sea and the underworld. She
+is especially the messenger of Zeus and Hera, and is associated with
+Hermes, whose caduceus or staff she often holds. By command of Zeus she
+carries in a ewer water from the Styx, with which she puts to sleep all
+who perjure themselves. Her attributes are the caduceus and a vase.
+
+
+
+
+IRIS, in botany. The iris flower belongs to the natural order Iridaceae
+of the class Monocotyledons, which is characterized by a petaloid
+six-parted perianth, an inferior ovary and only three stamens (the outer
+series), being thus distinguished from the Amaryllidaceae family, which
+has six stamens. They are handsome showy-flowered plants, the Greek name
+having been applied on account of the hues of the flowers. The genus
+contains about 170 species widely distributed throughout the north
+temperate zone. Two of the species are British. _I. Pseudacorus_, the
+yellow flag or iris, is common in Britain on river-banks, and in marshes
+and ditches. It is called the "water-flag" or "bastard floure de-luce"
+by Gerard, who remarks that "although it be a water plant of nature, yet
+being planted in gardens it prospereth well." Its flowers appear in June
+and July, and are of a golden-yellow colour. The leaves are from 2 to 4
+ft. long, and half an inch to an inch broad. Towards the latter part of
+the year they are eaten by cattle. The seeds are numerous and
+pale-brown; they have been recommended when roasted as a substitute for
+coffee, of which, however, they have not the properties. The astringent
+rhizome has diuretic, purgative and emetic properties, and may, it is
+said, be used for dyeing black, and in the place of galls for
+ink-making. The other British species, _I. foetidissima_, the fetid
+iris, gladdon or roast-beef plant, the _Xyris_ or stinking gladdon of
+Gerard, is a native of England south of Durham, and also of Ireland,
+southern Europe and North Africa. Its flowers are usually of a dull,
+leaden-blue colour; the capsules, which remain attached to the plant
+throughout the winter, are 2 to 3 in. long; and the seeds scarlet. When
+bruised this species emits a peculiar and disagreeable odour.
+
+_Iris florentina_, with white or pale-blue flowers, is a native of the
+south of Europe, and is the source of the violet-scented orris root used
+in perfumery. _Iris versicolor_, or blue flag, is indigenous to North
+America, and yields "iridin," a powerful hepatic stimulant. _Iris
+germanica_ of central Europe, "the most common purple Fleur de Luce" of
+Ray, is the large common blue iris of gardens, the bearded iris or fleur
+de luce and probably the Illyrian iris of the ancients. From the flowers
+of _Iris florentina_ a pigment--the "verdelis," "vert d'iris," or
+iris-green, formerly used by miniature painters--was prepared by
+maceration, the fluid being left to putrefy, when chalk or alum was
+added. The garden plants known as the Spanish iris and the English iris
+are both of Spanish origin, and have very showy flowers. Along with some
+other species, as _I. reticulata_ and _I. persica_, both of which are
+fragrant, they form great favourites with florists. All these just
+mentioned differ from those formerly named in the nature of the
+underground stem, which forms a bulb and not a strict creeping rhizome
+as in _I. Pseudacorus_, _germanica_, _florentina_, &c. Some botanists
+separate these bulbous irises from the genus _Iris_, and place them
+apart in the genus _Xiphium_, the Spanish iris, including about 30
+species, all from the Mediterranean region and the East.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Gynoecium of Iris, consisting of an inferior
+ovary o, and a style, with three petaloid segments s, bearing stigmas
+st.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of Trimerous Symmetrical Flower of Iris,
+with two whorls of perianth, three stamens in one whorl and an ovary
+formed of three carpels. The three dots indicate the position of an
+inner whorl of stamens which is present in the allied families
+Amaryllidaceae and Liliaceae but absent in Iridaceae.]
+
+The iris flower is of special interest as an example of the relation
+between the shape of the flower and the position of the pollen-receiving
+and stigmatic surfaces on the one hand and the visits of insects on the
+other. The large outer petals form a landing-stage for a flying insect
+which in probing the perianth-tube for honey will first come in contact
+with the stigmatic surface which is borne on the outer face of a
+shelf-like transverse projection on the under side of the petaloid
+style-arm. The anther, which opens towards the outside, is sheltered
+beneath the over-arching style arm below the stigma, so that the insect
+comes in contact with its pollen-covered surface only after passing the
+stigma, while in backing out of the flower it will come in contact only
+with the non-receptive lower face of the stigma. Thus an insect bearing
+pollen from one flower will in entering a second deposit the pollen on
+the stigma, while in backing out of a flower the pollen which it bears
+will not be rubbed off on the stigma of the same flower.
+
+  The hardier bulbous irises, including the Spanish iris (_I. Xiphium_)
+  and the English iris (_I. xiphioides_, so called, which is also of
+  Spanish origin), require to be planted in thoroughly drained beds in
+  very light open soil, moderately enriched, and should have a rather
+  sheltered position. Both these present a long series of beautiful
+  varieties of the most diverse colours, flowering in May, June and
+  July, the smaller Spanish iris being the earlier of the two. There are
+  many other smaller species of bulbous iris. Being liable to perish
+  from excess of moisture, they should have a well-drained bed of good
+  but porous soil made up for them, in some sunny spot, and in winter
+  should be protected by a 6-in. covering of half-decayed leaves or
+  fresh coco-fibre refuse. To this set belong _I. persica_,
+  _reticulata_, _filifolia_, _Histrio_, _juncea_, _Danfordiae_
+  _Rosenbachiana_ and others which flower as early as February and
+  March.
+
+  The flag irises are for the most part of the easiest culture; they
+  grow in any good free garden soil, the smaller and more delicate
+  species only needing the aid of turfy ingredients, either peaty or
+  loamy, to keep it light and open in texture. The earliest to bloom are
+  the dwarf forms of _Iris pumila_, which blossom during March, April
+  and May; and during the latter month and the following one most of the
+  larger growing species, such as _I. germanica_, _florentina_,
+  _pallida_, _variegata_, _amoena_, _flavescens_, _sambucina_,
+  _neglecta_, _ruthenica_, &c., produce their gorgeous flowers. Of many
+  of the foregoing there are, besides the typical form, a considerable
+  number of named garden varieties. _Iris unguicularis_ (or _stylosa_)
+  is a remarkable winter flowering species from Algeria, with sky-blue
+  flowers blotched with yellow, produced at irregular intervals from
+  November to March, the bleakest period of the year.
+
+  The beautiful Japanese _Iris Kaempferi_ (or _I. laevigata_) is of
+  comparatively modern introduction, and though of a distinct type is
+  equally beautiful with the better-known species. The outer segments
+  are rather spreading than deflexed, forming an almost circular flower,
+  which becomes quite so in some of the very remarkable duplex
+  varieties, in which six of these broad segments are produced instead
+  of three. Of this too there are numberless varieties cultivated under
+  names. They require a sandy peat soil on a cool moist subsoil.
+
+  What are known as _Oncocyclus_, or cushion irises, constitute a
+  magnificent group of plants remarkable for their large, showy and
+  beautifully marked flowers. Compared with other irises the "cushion"
+  varieties are scantily furnished with narrow sickle-shaped leaves and
+  the blossoms are usually borne singly on the stalks. The best-known
+  kinds are _atrofusca_, _Barnumae_, _Bismarckiana_, _Gatesi_,
+  _Heylandiana_, _iberica_, _Lorteti_, _Haynei_, _lupina_, _Mariae_,
+  _meda_, _paradoxa_, _sari_, _sofarana_ and _susiana_--the last-named
+  being popularly called the "mourning" iris owing to the dark silvery
+  appearance of its huge flowers. All these cushion irises are somewhat
+  fastidious growers, and to be successful with them they must be
+  planted rather shallow in very gritty well-drained soil. They should
+  not be disturbed in the autumn, and after the leaves have withered the
+  roots should be protected from heavy rains until growth starts again
+  naturally.
+
+  A closely allied group to the cushion irises are those known as
+  _Regelia_, of which _Korolkowi_, _Leichtlini_ and _vaga_ are the best
+  known. Some magnificent hybrids have been raised between these two
+  groups, and a hardier and more easily grown race of garden irises has
+  been produced under the name of _Regelio-Cyclus_. They are best
+  planted in September or October in warm sunny positions, the rhizomes
+  being lifted the following July after the leaves have withered.
+
+
+
+
+IRISH MOSS, or CARRAGEEN (Irish _carraigeen_, "moss of the rock"), a
+sea-weed (_Chondrus crispus_) which grows abundantly along the rocky
+parts of the Atlantic coast of Europe and North America. In its fresh
+condition the plant is soft and cartilaginous, varying in colour from a
+greenish-yellow to a dark purple or purplish-brown; but when washed and
+sun-dried for preservation it has a yellowish translucent horn-like
+aspect and consistency. The principal constituent of Irish moss is a
+mucilaginous body, of which it contains about 55%; and with that it has
+nearly 10% of albuminoids and about 15% of mineral matter rich in iodine
+and sulphur. When softened in water it has a sea-like odour, and from
+the abundance of its mucilage it will form a jelly on boiling with from
+20 to 30 times its weight of water. The jelly of Irish moss is used as
+an occasional article of food. It may also be used as a thickener in
+calico-printing and for fining beer. Irish moss is frequently mixed with
+_Gigartina mammillosa_, _G. acicularis_ and other sea-weeds with which
+it is associated in growth.
+
+
+
+
+IRKUTSK, a government of Asiatic Russia, in East Siberia, bounded on the
+W. by the government of Yeniseisk, on the N. by Yakutsk, on the E. by
+Lake Baikal and Transbaikalia and on the S. and S.W. by Mongolia; area,
+287,061 sq. m. The most populous region is a belt of plains 1200 to 2000
+ft. in altitude, which stretch north-west to south-east, having the
+Sayan mountains on the south and the Baikal mountains on the north, and
+narrowing as it approaches the town of Irkutsk. The high road, now the
+Trans-Siberian railway, follows this belt. The south-western part of the
+government is occupied by mountains of the Sayan system, whose exact
+orography is as yet not well known. From the high plateau of Mongolia,
+fringed by the Sayan mountains, of which the culminating point is the
+snow-clad Munko-sardyk (11,150 ft.), a number of ranges, 7500 to 8500
+ft. high, strike off in a north-east direction. Going from south to
+north they are distinguished as the Tunka Alps, the Kitoi Alps (both
+snow-clad nearly all the year round), the Ida mountains and the Kuitun
+mountains. These are, however, by no means regular chains, but on the
+contrary are a complex result of upheavals which took place at different
+geological epochs, and of denudation on a colossal scale. A beautiful,
+fertile valley, drained by the river Irkut, stretches between the Tunka
+Alps and the Sayan, and another somewhat higher plain, but not so wide,
+stretches along the river Kitoi. A succession of high plains, 2000 to
+2500 ft. in altitude, formed of horizontal beds of Devonian (or Upper
+Silurian) sandstone and limestone, extends to the north of the railway
+along the Angara, or Verkhnyaya (i.e. upper) Tunguzka, and the upper
+Lena, as far as Kirensk. The Bratskaya Steppe, west of the Angara, is a
+prairie peopled by Buriats. A mountain region, usually described as the
+Baikal range, but consisting in reality of several ranges running
+north-eastwards, across Lake Baikal, and scooped out to form the
+depression occupied by the lake, is fringed on its north-western slope
+by horizontal beds of sandstone and limestone. Farther north-east the
+space between the Lena and the Vitim is occupied by another mountain
+region belonging to the Olekma and Vitim system, composed of several
+parallel mountain chains running north-eastwards (across the lower
+Vitim), and auriferous in the drainage area of the Mama (N.E. of Lake
+Baikal). Lake Baikal separates Irkutsk from Transbaikalia. The principal
+rivers of the government are the Angara, which flows from this lake
+northwards, with numerous sharp windings, and receives from the left
+several large tributaries. as the Irkut, Kitoi, Byelaya, Oka and Iya.
+The Lena is the principal means of communication both with the
+gold-mines on its own tributary, the lower Vitim, and with the province
+of Yakutsk. The Nizhnyaya Tunguzka flows northwards, to join the Yenisei
+in the far north, and the mountain streams tributary to the Vitim drain
+the north-east.
+
+  The post-Tertiary formations are represented by glacial deposits in
+  the highlands and loess on their borders. Jurassic deposits are met
+  with in a zone running north-westwards from Lake Baikal to
+  Nizhne-udinsk. The remainder of this region is covered by vast series
+  of Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian deposits--the first two but
+  slightly disturbed over wide areas. All the highlands are built up of
+  older, semi-crystalline Cambro-Silurian strata, which attain a
+  thickness of 2500 ft., and of crystalline slates and limestones of the
+  Laurentian system, with granites, syenites, diorites and diabases
+  protruding from beneath them. Very extensive beds of basaltic lavas
+  and other volcanic deposits are spread along the border ridge of the
+  high plateau, about Munko-sardyk, up the Irkut, and on the upper Oka,
+  where cones of extinct volcanoes are found (Jun-bulak). Earthquakes
+  are frequent in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal and the surrounding
+  region. Gold is extracted in the Nizhne-udinsk district; graphite is
+  found on the Botu-gol and Alibert mountains (abandoned many years
+  since) and on the Olkhon island of Lake Baikal. Brown coal (Jurassic)
+  is found in many places, and coal on the Oka. The salt springs of
+  Usoliye (45 m. west of Irkutsk), as also those on the Ilim and of
+  Ust-Kutsk (on the Lena), yield annually about 7000 tons of salt.
+  Fireclay, grindstones, marble and mica, lapis-lazuli, granites and
+  various semi-precious stones occur on the Sludyanka (south-west corner
+  of the Baikal).
+
+  The climate is severe; the mean temperatures being at Irkutsk (1520
+  ft), for the year 31 deg. Fahr., for January -6 deg., for July 65
+  deg.; at Shimki (valley of the Irkut, 2620 ft.), for the year 24 deg.,
+  for January -17 deg., for July 63 deg. The average rainfall is 15 in.
+  a year. Virgin forests cover all the highlands up to 6500 ft.
+
+The population which was 383,578 in 1879, was 515,132 in 1897, of whom
+238,997 were women and 60,396 were urban; except about 109,000 Buriats
+and 1700 Tunguses, they are Russians. The estimated population in 1906
+was 552,700. Immigration contributes about 14,000 every year. Schools
+are numerous at Irkutsk, but quite insufficient in the country
+districts, and only 12% of the children receive education. The soil is
+very fertile in certain parts, but meagre elsewhere, and less than a
+million acres are under crops (rye, wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat,
+potatoes). Grain has to be imported from West Siberia and cattle from
+Transbaikalia. Fisheries on Lake Baikal supply every year about
+2,400,000 Baikal herring (_omul_). Industry is only beginning to be
+developed (iron-works, glass- and pottery-works and distilleries, and
+all manufactured goods are imported from Russia). The government is
+divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Irkutsk
+(q.v.), Balagansk (pop., 1313 in 1897), Kirensk (2253), Nizhne-udinsk
+and Verkholensk.     (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
+
+
+
+
+IRKUTSK, the chief town of the above government, is the most important
+place in Siberia, being not only the largest centre of population and
+the principal commercial depot north of Tashkent, but a fortified
+military post, an archbishopric of the Orthodox Greek Church and the
+seat of several learned societies. It is situated in 52 deg. 17' N. and
+104 deg. 16' E., 3792 m. by rail from St Petersburg. Pop. (1875) 32,512,
+(1900) 49,106. The town proper lies on the right bank of the Angara, a
+tributary of the Yenisei, 45 m. below its outflow from Lake Baikal, and
+on the opposite bank is the Glaskovsk suburb. The river, which has a
+breadth of 1900 ft., is crossed by a flying bridge. The Irkut, from
+which the town takes its name, is a small river which joins the Angara
+directly opposite the town, the main portion of which is separated from
+the monastery, the castle, the port and the suburbs by another
+confluent, the Ida or Ushakovka. Irkutsk has long been reputed a
+remarkably fine city--its streets being straight, broad, well paved and
+well lighted; but in 1879, on the 4th and 6th of July, the palace of the
+(then) governor-general, the principal administrative and municipal
+offices and many of the other public buildings were destroyed by fire;
+and the government archives, the library and museum of the Siberian
+section of the Russian Geographical Society were utterly ruined. A
+cathedral (built of wood in 1693 and rebuilt of stone in 1718), the
+governor's palace, a school of medicine, a museum, a military hospital,
+and the crown factories are among the public institutions and
+buildings. An important fair is held in December. Irkutsk grew out of
+the winter-quarters established (1652) by Ivan Pokhabov for the
+collection of the fur tax from the Buriats. Its existence as a town
+dates from 1686.
+
+
+
+
+IRMIN, or IRMINUS, in Teutonic mythology, a deified eponymic hero of the
+Herminones. The chief seat of his worship was Irminsal, or Ermensul, in
+Westphalia, destroyed in 772 by Charlemagne. Huge wooden posts (Irmin
+pillars) were raised to his honour, and were regarded as sacred by the
+Saxons.
+
+
+
+
+IRNERIUS (Hirnerius, Hyrnerius, Iernerius, Gernerius, Guarnerius,
+Warnerius, Wernerius, Yrnerius), Italian jurist, sometimes referred to
+as "lucerna juris." He taught the "free arts" at Bologna, his native
+city, during the earlier decades of the 12th century. Of his personal
+history nothing is known, except that it was at the instance of the
+countess Matilda, Hildebrand's friend, who died in 1115, that he
+directed his attention and that of his students to the _Institutes_ and
+_Code_ of Justinian; that after 1116 he appears to have held some office
+under the emperor Henry V.; and that he died, perhaps during the reign
+of the emperor Lothair II., but certainly before 1140. He was the first
+of the Glossators (see GLOSS), and according to ancient opinion (which,
+however, has been much controverted) was the author of the epitome of
+the _Novellae_ of Justinian, called the _Authentica_, arranged according
+to the titles of the _Code_. His _Formularium tabellionum_ (a directory
+for notaries) and _Quaestiones_ (a book of decisions) are no longer
+extant. (See ROMAN LAW.)
+
+  See Savigny, _Gesch. d. rom. Rechts im Mittelalter_, iii. 83; Vecchio,
+  _Notizie di Irnerio e della sua scuola_ (Pisa, 1869); Ficker, _Forsch,
+  z. Reichs- u. Rechtsgesch. Italiens_, vol. iii. (Innsbruck, 1870); and
+  Fitting, _Die Anfange der Rechtsschule zu Bologna_ (Berlin, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (O = 16)], a metallic chemical
+element. Although iron occurs only sparingly in the free state, the
+abundance of ores from which it may be readily obtained led to its
+application in the arts at a very remote period. It is generally agreed,
+however, that the Iron Age, the period of civilization during which this
+metal played an all-important part, succeeded the ages of copper and
+bronze, notwithstanding the fact that the extraction of these metals
+required greater metallurgical skill. The Assyrians and Egyptians made
+considerable use of the metal; and in Genesis iv. 22 mention is made of
+Tubal-cain as the instructor of workers in iron and copper. The earlier
+sources of the ores appear to have been in India; the Greeks, however,
+obtained it from the Chalybes, who dwelt on the south coast of the Black
+Sea; and the Romans, besides drawing from these deposits, also exploited
+Spain, Elba and the province of Noricum. (See METAL-WORK.)
+
+The chief occurrences of metallic iron are as minute spiculae
+disseminated through basaltic rocks, as at Giant's Causeway and in the
+Auvergne, and, more particularly, in meteorites (q.v.). In combination
+it occurs, usually in small quantity, in most natural waters, in plants,
+and as a necessary constituent of blood. The economic sources are
+treated under IRON AND STEEL below; in the same place will be found
+accounts of the manufacture, properties, and uses of the metal, the
+present article being confined to its chemistry. The principal iron ores
+are the oxides and carbonates, and these readily yield the metal by
+smelting with carbon. The metal so obtained invariably contains a
+certain amount of carbon, free or combined, and the proportion and
+condition regulate the properties of the metal, giving origin to the
+three important varieties: cast iron, steel, wrought iron. The perfectly
+pure metal may be prepared by heating the oxide or oxalate in a current
+of hydrogen; when obtained at a low temperature it is a black powder
+which oxidizes in air with incandescence; produced at higher
+temperatures the metal is not pyrophoric. Peligot obtained it as minute
+tetragonal octahedra and cubes by reducing ferrous chloride in hydrogen.
+It may be obtained electrolytically from solutions of ferrous and
+magnesium sulphates and sodium bicarbonate, a wrought iron anode and a
+rotating cathode of copper, thinly silvered and iodized, being employed
+(S. Maximowitsch, _Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1905, 11, p. 52).
+
+In bulk, the metal has a silvery white lustre and takes a high polish.
+Its specific gravity is 7.84; and the average specific heat over the
+range 15 deg.-100 deg. is 0.10983; this value increases with temperature
+to 850 deg., and then begins to diminish. It is the most tenacious of
+all the ductile metals at ordinary temperatures with the exception of
+cobalt and nickel; it becomes brittle, however, at the temperature of
+liquid air. It softens at a red heat, and may be readily welded at a
+white heat; above this point it becomes brittle. It fuses at about 1550
+deg.-1600 deg., and may be distilled in the electric furnace (H.
+Moissan, _Compt. rend._, 1906, 142, p. 425). It is attracted by a magnet
+and may be magnetized, but the magnetization is quickly lost. The
+variation of physical properties which attends iron on heating has led
+to the view that the metal exists in allotropic forms (see IRON AND
+STEEL, below).
+
+Iron is very reactive chemically. Exposed to atmospheric influences it
+is more or less rapidly corroded, giving the familiar rust (q.v.). S.
+Burnie (_Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, ii. p. 469) has shown that water is
+decomposed at all temperatures from 0 deg. to 100 deg. by the finely
+divided metal with liberation of hydrogen, the action being accelerated
+when oxides are present. The decomposition of steam by passing it
+through a red-hot gun-barrel, resulting in the liberation of hydrogen
+and the production of magnetic iron oxide, Fe3O4, is a familiar
+laboratory method for preparing hydrogen (q.v.). When strongly heated
+iron inflames in oxygen and in sulphur vapour; it also combines directly
+with the halogens. It dissolves in most dilute acids with liberation of
+hydrogen; the reaction between sulphuric acid and iron turnings being
+used for the commercial manufacture of this gas. It dissolves in dilute
+cold nitric acid with the formation of ferrous and ammonium nitrates, no
+gases being liberated; when heated or with stronger acid ferric nitrate
+is formed with evolution of nitrogen oxides.
+
+It was observed by James Keir (_Phil. Trans._, 1790, p. 359) that iron,
+after having been immersed in strong nitric acid, is insoluble in acids,
+neither does it precipitate metals from solutions. This "passivity" may
+be brought about by immersion in other solutions, especially by those
+containing such oxidizing anions as NO'3, ClO'3, less strongly by the
+anions SO"4 CN', CNS', C2H3O'2, OH', while Cl', Br' practically inhibit
+passivity; H' is the only cation which has any effect, and this tends to
+exclude passivity. It is also occasioned by anodic polarization of iron
+in sulphuric acid. Other metals may be rendered passive; for example,
+zinc does not precipitate copper from solutions of the double cyanides
+and sulphocyanides, nickel and cadmium from the nitrates, and iron from
+the sulphate, but it immediately throws down nickel and cadmium from the
+sulphates and chlorides, and lead and copper from the nitrates (see O.
+Sackur, _Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1904, 10, p. 841). Anodic polarization in
+potassium chloride solution renders molybdenum, niobium, ruthenium,
+tungsten, and vanadium passive (W. Muthmann and F. Frauenberger, _Sitz.
+Bayer. Akad. Wiss._, 1904, 34, p. 201), and also gold in commercial
+potassium cyanide solution (A. Coehn and C. L. Jacobsen, _Abs. J.C.S._,
+1907, ii. p. 926). Several hypotheses have been promoted to explain this
+behaviour, and, although the question is not definitely settled, the
+more probable view is that it is caused by the formation of a film of an
+oxide, a suggestion made many years ago by Faraday (see P. Krassa,
+_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1909, 15, p. 490). Fredenhagen (_Zeit. physik.
+Chem._, 1903, 43, p. 1), on the other hand, regarded it as due to
+surface films of a gas; submitting that the difference between iron made
+passive by nitric acid and by anodic polarization was explained by the
+film being of nitrogen oxides in the first case and of oxygen in the
+second case. H. L. Heathcote and others regard the passivity as
+invariably due to electrolytic action (see papers in the _Zeit. physik.
+Chem._, 1901 et seq.).
+
+
+_Compounds of Iron._
+
+_Oxides and Hydroxides._--Iron forms three oxides: ferrous oxide, FeO,
+ferric oxide, Fe2O3, and ferroso-ferric oxide, Fe3O4. The first two give
+origin to well-defined series of salts, the ferrous salts, wherein the
+metal is divalent, and the ferric salts, wherein the metal is trivalent;
+the former readily pass into the latter on oxidation, and the latter
+into the former on reduction.
+
+_Ferrous oxide_ is obtained when ferric oxide is reduced in hydrogen at
+300 deg. as a black pyrophoric powder. Sabatier and Senderens (_Compt.
+rend._, 1892, 114, p. 1429) obtained it by acting with nitrous oxide on
+metallic iron at 200 deg., and Tissandier by heating the metal to 900
+deg. in carbon dioxide; Donau (_Monats._, 1904, 25, p. 181), on the
+other hand, obtained a magnetic and crystalline-ferroso-ferric oxide at
+1200 deg. It may also be prepared as a black velvety powder which
+readily takes up oxygen from the air by adding ferrous oxalate to
+boiling caustic potash. Ferrous hydrate, Fe(OH)2, when prepared from a
+pure ferrous salt and caustic soda or potash free from air, is a white
+powder which may be preserved in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Usually,
+however, it forms a greenish mass, owing to partial oxidation. It
+oxidizes on exposure with considerable evolution of heat; it rapidly
+absorbs carbon dioxide; and readily dissolves in acids to form ferrous
+salts, which are usually white when anhydrous, but greenish when
+hydrated.
+
+_Ferric oxide_ or iron sesquioxide, Fe2O3, constitutes the valuable ores
+red haematite and specular iron; the minerals brown haematite or
+limonite, and gothite and also iron rust are hydrated forms. It is
+obtained as a steel-grey crystalline powder by igniting the oxide or any
+ferric salt containing a volatile acid. Small crystals are formed by
+passing ferric chloride vapour over heated lime. When finely ground
+these crystals yield a brownish red powder which dissolves slowly in
+acids, the most effective solvent being a boiling mixture of 8 parts of
+sulphuric acid and 3 of water. Ferric oxide is employed as a pigment, as
+jeweller's rouge, and for polishing metals. It forms several hydrates,
+the medicinal value of which was recognized in very remote times. Two
+series of synthetic hydrates were recognized by Muck and Tommasi: the
+"red" hydrates, obtained by precipitating ferric salts with alkalis, and
+the "yellow" hydrates, obtained by oxidizing moist ferrous hydroxide or
+carbonates. J. van Bemmelen has shown that the red hydrates are really
+colloids, the amount of water retained being such that its vapour
+pressure equals the pressure of the aqueous vapour in the superincumbent
+atmosphere. By heating freshly prepared red ferric hydrate with water
+under 5000 atmospheres pressure Ruff (_Ber._, 1901, 34, p. 3417)
+obtained definite hydrates corresponding to the minerals limonite (30
+deg.-42.5 deg.), gothite (42.5 deg.-62.5 deg.), and hydrohaematite
+(above 62.5 deg.). Thomas Graham obtained a soluble hydrate by
+dissolving the freshly prepared hydrate in ferric chloride and dialysing
+the solution, the soluble hydrate being left in the dialyser. All the
+chlorine, however, does not appear to be removed by this process, the
+residue having the composition 82Fe(OH)3.FeCl3; but it may be by
+electrolysing in a porous cell (Tribot and Chretien, _Compt. rend._,
+1905, 140, p. 144). On standing, the solution usually gelatinizes, a
+process accelerated by the addition of an electrolyte. It is employed in
+medicine under the name _Liquor ferri dialysati_. The so-called soluble
+meta-ferric hydroxide, FeO(OH)(?), discovered by Pean de St Gilles in
+1856, may be obtained by several methods. By heating solutions of
+certain iron salts for some time and then adding a little sulphuric acid
+it is precipitated as a brown powder. Black scales, which dissolve in
+water to form a red solution, are obtained by adding a trace of
+hydrochloric acid to a solution of basic ferric nitrate which has been
+heated to 100 deg. for three days. A similar compound, which, however,
+dissolves in water to form an orange solution, results by adding salt to
+a heated solution of ferric chloride. These compounds are insoluble in
+concentrated, but dissolve readily in dilute acids.
+
+Red ferric hydroxide dissolves in acids to form a well-defined series of
+salts, the ferric salts, also obtained by oxidizing ferrous salts; they
+are usually colourless when anhydrous, but yellow or brown when
+hydrated. It has also feebly acidic properties, forming _ferrites_ with
+strong bases.
+
+_Magnetite_, Fe3O4, may be regarded as ferrous ferrite, FeO.Fe2O3. This
+important ore of iron is most celebrated for its magnetic properties
+(see MAGNETISM and COMPASS), but the mineral is not always magnetic,
+although invariably attracted by a magnet. It may be obtained
+artificially by passing steam over red-hot iron. It dissolves in acids
+to form a mixture of a ferrous and ferric salt,[1] and if an alkali is
+added to the solution a black precipitate is obtained which dries to a
+dark brown mass of the composition Fe(OH)2.Fe2O3; this substance is
+attracted by a magnet, and thus may be separated from the admixed ferric
+oxide. Calcium ferrite, magnesium ferrite and zinc ferrite, RO.Fe2O3 (R
+= Ca, Mg, Zn), are obtained by intensely heating mixtures of the oxides;
+magnesium ferrite occurs in nature as the mineral magnoferrite, and zinc
+ferrite as franklinite, both forming black octahedra.
+
+_Ferric acid_, H2FeO4. By fusing iron with saltpetre and extracting the
+melt with water, or by adding a solution of ferric nitrate in nitric
+acid to strong potash, an amethyst or purple-red solution is obtained
+which contains potassium ferrate. E. Fremy investigated this discovery,
+made by Stahl in 1702, and showed that the same solution resulted when
+chlorine is passed into strong potash solution containing ferric hydrate
+in suspension. Haber and Pick (_Zeit. Elektrochem._, 1900, 7, p. 215)
+have prepared potassium ferrate by electrolysing concentrated potash
+solution, using an iron anode. A temperature of 70 deg., and a reversal
+of the current (of low density) between two cast iron electrodes every
+few minutes, are the best working conditions. When concentrated the
+solution is nearly black, and on heating it yields a yellow solution of
+potassium ferrite, oxygen being evolved. Barium ferrate, BaFeO4.H2O,
+obtained as a dark red powder by adding barium chloride to a solution of
+potassium ferrate, is fairly stable. It dissolves in acetic acid to form
+a red solution, is not decomposed by cold sulphuric acid, but with
+hydrochloric or nitric acid it yields barium and ferric salts, with
+evolution of chlorine or oxygen (Baschieri, _Gazetta_, 1906, 36, ii. p.
+282).
+
+  _Halogen Compounds._--Ferrous fluoride, FeF2, is obtained as
+  colourless prisms (with 8H2O) by dissolving iron in hydrofluoric acid,
+  or as anhydrous colourless rhombic prisms by heating iron or ferric
+  chloride in dry hydrofluoric acid gas. Ferric fluoride, FeF3, is
+  obtained as colourless crystals (with 4(1/2)H2O) by evaporating a
+  solution of the hydroxide in hydrofluoric acid. When heated in air it
+  yields ferric oxide. Ferrous chloride, FeCl2, is obtained as shining
+  scales by passing chlorine, or, better, hydrochloric acid gas, over
+  red-hot iron, or by reducing ferric chloride in a current of hydrogen.
+  It is very deliquescent, and freely dissolves in water and alcohol.
+  Heated in air it yields a mixture of ferric oxide and chloride, and in
+  steam magnetic oxide, hydrochloric acid, and hydrogen. It absorbs
+  ammonia gas, forming the compound FeCl2.6NH2, which on heating loses
+  ammonia, and, finally, yields ammonium chloride, nitrogen and iron
+  nitride. It fuses at a red-heat, and volatilizes at a yellow-heat; its
+  vapour density at 1300 deg.-1400 deg. corresponds to the formula
+  FeCl2. By evaporating in vacuo the solution obtained by dissolving
+  iron in hydrochloric acid, there results bluish, monoclinic crystals
+  of FeCl2.4H2O, which deliquesce, turning greenish, on exposure to air,
+  and effloresce in a desiccator. Other hydrates are known. By adding
+  ammonium chloride to the solution, evaporating in vacuo, and then
+  volatilizing the ammonium chloride, anhydrous ferrous chloride is
+  obtained. The solution, in common with those of most ferrous salts,
+  absorbs nitric oxide with the formation of a brownish solution.
+
+  Ferric chloride, FeCl3, known in its aqueous solution to Glauber as
+  _oleum martis_, may be obtained anhydrous by the action of dry
+  chlorine on the metal at a moderate red-heat, or by passing
+  hydrochloric acid gas over heated ferric oxide. It forms iron-black
+  plates or tablets which appear red by transmitted and a metallic green
+  by reflected light. It is very deliquescent, and readily dissolves in
+  water, forming a brown or yellow solution, from which several hydrates
+  may be separated (see SOLUTION). The solution is best prepared by
+  dissolving the hydrate in hydrochloric acid and removing the excess of
+  acid by evaporation, or by passing chlorine into the solution obtained
+  by dissolving the metal in hydrochloric acid and removing the excess
+  of chlorine by a current of carbon dioxide. It also dissolves in
+  alcohol and ether; boiling point determinations of the molecular
+  weight in these solutions point to the formula FeCl3. Vapour density
+  determinations at 448 deg. indicate a partial dissociation of the
+  double molecule Fe2Cl6; on stronger heating it splits into ferrous
+  chloride and chlorine. It forms red crystalline double salts with the
+  chlorides of the metals of the alkalis and of the magnesium group. An
+  aqueous solution of ferric chloride is used in pharmacy under the name
+  _Liquor ferri perchloridi_; and an alcoholic solution constitutes the
+  quack medicine known as "Lamotte's golden drops." Many oxychlorides
+  are known; soluble forms are obtained by dissolving precipitated
+  ferric hydrate in ferric chloride, whilst insoluble compounds result
+  when ferrous chloride is oxidized in air, or by boiling for some time
+  aqueous solutions of ferric chloride.
+
+  Ferrous bromide, FeBr2, is obtained as yellowish crystals by the union
+  of bromine and iron at a dull red-heat, or as bluish-green rhombic
+  tables of the composition FeBr2.6H2O by crystallizing a solution of
+  iron in hydrobromic acid. Ferric bromide, FeBr3, is obtained as dark
+  red crystals by heating iron in an excess of bromine vapour. It
+  closely resembles the chloride in being deliquescent, dissolving
+  ferric hydrate, and in yielding basic salts. Ferrous iodide, FeI2, is
+  obtained as a grey crystalline mass by the direct union of its
+  components. Ferric iodide does not appear to exist.
+
+  _Sulphur Compounds._--Ferrous sulphide, FeS, results from the direct
+  union of its elements, best by stirring molten sulphur with a
+  white-hot iron rod, when the sulphide drops to the bottom of the
+  crucible. It then forms a yellowish crystalline mass, which readily
+  dissolves in acids with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen.
+  Heated in air it at first partially oxidizes to ferrous sulphate, and
+  at higher temperatures it yields sulphur dioxide and ferric oxide. It
+  is unaltered by ignition in hydrogen. An amorphous form results when a
+  mixture of iron filings and sulphur are triturated with water. This
+  modification is rapidly oxidized by the air with such an elevation of
+  temperature that the mass may become incandescent. Another black
+  amorphous form results when ferrous salts are precipitated by ammonium
+  sulphide.
+
+  Ferric sulphide, Fe2S3, is obtained by gently heating a mixture of its
+  constituent elements, or by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on
+  ferric oxide at temperatures below 100 deg. It is also prepared by
+  precipitating a ferric salt with ammonium sulphide; unless the alkali
+  be in excess a mixture of ferrous sulphide and sulphur is obtained. It
+  combines with other sulphides to form compounds of the type M'2Fe2S4.
+  Potassium ferric sulphide, K2Fe2S4, obtained by heating a mixture of
+  iron filings, sulphur and potassium carbonate, forms purple glistening
+  crystals, which burn when heated in air. Magnetic pyrites or
+  pyrrhotite has a composition varying between Fe7S8 and Fe8S9, i.e.
+  5FeS.Fe2S3 and 6FeS.Fe2S3. It has a somewhat brassy colour, and occurs
+  massive or as hexagonal plates; it is attracted by a magnet and is
+  sometimes itself magnetic. The mineral is abundant in Canada, where
+  the presence of about 5% of nickel makes it a valuable ore of this
+  metal. Iron disulphide, FeS2, constitutes the minerals pyrite and
+  marcasite (q.v.); copper pyrites is (Cu, Fe)S2. Pyrite may be prepared
+  artificially by gently heating ferrous sulphide with sulphur, or as
+  brassy octahedra and cubes by slowly heating an intimate mixture of
+  ferric oxide, sulphur and sal-ammoniac. It is insoluble in dilute
+  acids, but dissolves in nitric acid with separation of sulphur.
+
+  Ferrous sulphite, FeSO3. Iron dissolves in a solution of sulphur
+  dioxide in the absence of air to form ferrous sulphite and
+  thio-sulphate; the former, being less soluble than the latter,
+  separates out as colourless or greenish crystals on standing.
+
+  Ferrous sulphate, green vitriol or copperas, FeSO4.7H2O, was known to,
+  and used by, the alchemists; it is mentioned in the writings of
+  Agricola, and its preparation from iron and sulphuric acid occurs in
+  the _Tractatus chymico-philosophicus_ ascribed to Basil Valentine. It
+  occurs in nature as the mineral melanterite, either crystalline or
+  fibrous, but usually massive; it appears to have been formed by the
+  oxidation of pyrite or marcasite. It is manufactured by piling pyrites
+  in heaps and exposing to atmospheric oxidation, the ferrous sulphate
+  thus formed being dissolved in water, and the solution run into tanks,
+  where any sulphuric acid which may be formed is decomposed by adding
+  scrap iron. By evaporation the green vitriol is obtained as large
+  crystals. The chief impurities are copper and ferric sulphates; the
+  former may be removed by adding scrap iron, which precipitates the
+  copper; the latter is eliminated by recrystallization. Other
+  impurities such as zinc and manganese sulphates are more difficult to
+  remove, and hence to prepare the pure salt it is best to dissolve pure
+  iron wire in dilute sulphuric acid. Ferrous sulphate forms large green
+  crystals belonging to the monoclinic system; rhombic crystals,
+  isomorphous with zinc sulphate, are obtained by inoculating a solution
+  with a crystal of zinc sulphate, and triclinic crystals of the formula
+  FeSO4.5H2O by inoculating with copper sulphate. By evaporating a
+  solution containing free sulphuric acid in a vacuum, the
+  hepta-hydrated salt first separates, then the penta-, and then a
+  tetra-hydrate, FeSO4.4H2O, isomorphous with manganese sulphate. By
+  gently heating in a vacuum to 140 deg., the hepta-hydrate loses 6
+  molecules of water, and yields a white powder, which on heating in the
+  absence of air gives the anhydrous salt. The monohydrate also results
+  as a white precipitate when concentrated sulphuric acid is added to a
+  saturated solution of ferrous sulphate. Alcohol also throws down the
+  salt from aqueous solution, the composition of the precipitate varying
+  with the amount of salt and precipitant employed. The solution absorbs
+  nitric oxide to form a dark brown solution, which loses the gas on
+  heating or by placing in a vacuum. Ferrous sulphate forms double salts
+  with the alkaline sulphates. The most important is ferrous ammonium
+  sulphate, FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O, obtained by dissolving equivalent
+  amounts of the two salts in water and crystallizing. It is very
+  stable and is much used in volumetric analysis.
+
+  Ferric sulphate, Fe2(SO4)3, is obtained by adding nitric acid to a hot
+  solution of ferrous sulphate containing sulphuric acid, colourless
+  crystals being deposited on evaporating the solution. The anhydrous
+  salt is obtained by heating, or by adding concentrated sulphuric acid
+  to a solution. It is sparingly soluble in water, and on heating it
+  yields ferric oxide and sulphur dioxide. The mineral coquimbite is
+  Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O. Many basic ferric sulphates are known, some of which
+  occur as minerals; carphosiderite is Fe(FeO)5(SO4)4.10H2O; amarantite
+  is Fe(FeO)(SO4)2.7H2O; utahite is 3(FeO)2SO4.4H2O; copiapite is
+  Fe3(FeO)(SO4)5.18H2O; castanite is Fe(FeO)(SO4)2.8H2O; romerite is
+  FeSO4.Fe2(SO4)3.12H2O. The iron alums are obtained by crystallizing
+  solutions of equivalent quantities of ferric and an alkaline sulphate.
+  Ferric potassium sulphate, the common iron alum,
+  K2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O, forms bright violet octahedra.
+
+  _Nitrides, Nitrates, &c._--Several nitrides are known. Guntz (_Compt.
+  rend._, 1902, 135, p. 738) obtained ferrous nitride, Fe3N2, and ferric
+  nitride, FeN, as black powders by heating lithium nitride with ferrous
+  potassium chloride and ferric potassium chloride respectively. Fowler
+  (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1901, p. 285) obtained a nitride Fe2N by acting
+  upon anhydrous ferrous chloride or bromide, finely divided reduced
+  iron, or iron amalgam with ammonia at 420 deg.; and, also, in a compact
+  form, by the action of ammonia on red-hot iron wire. It oxidizes on
+  heating in air, and ignites in chlorine; on solution in mineral acids
+  it yields ferrous and ammonium salts, hydrogen being liberated. A
+  nitride appears to be formed when nitrogen is passed over heated iron,
+  since the metal is rendered brittle. Ferrous nitrate, Fe(NO3)2.6H2O,
+  is a very unstable salt, and is obtained by mixing solutions of
+  ferrous sulphate and barium nitrate, filtering, and crystallizing in a
+  vacuum over sulphuric acid. Ferric nitrate, Fe(NO3)3, is obtained by
+  dissolving iron in nitric acid (the cold dilute acid leads to the
+  formation of ferrous and ammonium nitrates) and crystallizing, when
+  cubes of Fe(NO3)3.6H2O or monoclinic crystals of Fe(NO3)3.9H2O are
+  obtained. It is used as a mordant.
+
+  Ferrous solutions absorb nitric oxide, forming dark green to black
+  solutions. The coloration is due to the production of unstable
+  compounds of the ferrous salt and nitric oxide, and it seems that in
+  neutral solutions the compound is made up of one molecule of salt to
+  one of gas; the reaction, however, is reversible, the composition
+  varying with temperature, concentration and nature of the salt.
+  Ferrous chloride dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid absorbs two
+  molecules of the gas (Kohlschutter and Kutscheroff, _Ber._, 1907, 40,
+  p. 873). Ferric chloride also absorbs the gas. Reddish brown amorphous
+  powders of the formulae 2FeCl3.NO and 4FeCl3.NO are obtained by
+  passing the gas over anhydrous ferric chloride. By passing the gas
+  into an ethereal solution of the salt, nitrosyl chloride is produced,
+  and on evaporating over sulphuric acid, black needles of FeCl2.NO.2H2O
+  are obtained, which at 60 deg. form the yellow FeCl2.NO. Complicated
+  compounds, discovered by Roussin in 1858, are obtained by the
+  interaction of ferrous sulphate and alkaline nitrites and sulphides.
+  Two classes may be distinguished:--(1) the ferrodinitroso salts, e.g.
+  K[Fe(NO)2S], potassium ferrodinitrososulphide, and (2) the
+  ferroheptanitroso salts, e.g. K[Fe4(NO)7S8], potassium
+  ferroheptanitrososulphide. These salts yield the corresponding acids
+  with sulphuric acid. The dinitroso acid slowly decomposes into
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and the heptanitroso
+  acid. The heptanitroso acid is precipitated as a brown amorphous mass
+  by dilute sulphuric acid, but if the salt be heated with strong acid
+  it yields nitrogen, nitric oxide, sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, and
+  ferric, ammonium and potassium sulphates.
+
+  _Phosphides, Phosphates._--H. Le Chatelier and S. Wologdine (_Compt.
+  rend._, 1909, 149, p. 709) have obtained Fe3P, Fe2P, FeP, Fe2P3, but
+  failed to prepare five other phosphides previously described. Fe3P
+  occurs as crystals in the product of fusing iron with phosphorus; it
+  dissolves in strong hydrochloric acid. Fe2P forms crystalline needles
+  insoluble in acids except aqua regia; it is obtained by fusing copper
+  phosphide with iron. FeP is obtained by passing phosphorus vapour over
+  Fe2P at a red-heat. Fe2P3 is prepared by the action of phosphorus
+  iodide vapour on reduced iron. Ferrous phosphate, Fe3(PO4)2.8H2O,
+  occurs in nature as the mineral vivianite. It may be obtained
+  artificially as a white precipitate, which rapidly turns blue or green
+  on exposure, by mixing solutions of ferrous sulphate and sodium
+  phosphate. It is employed in medicine. Normal ferric phosphate,
+  FePO4.2H2O, occurs as the mineral strengite, and is obtained as a
+  yellowish-white precipitate by mixing solutions of ferric chloride and
+  sodium phosphate. It is insoluble in dilute acetic acid, but dissolves
+  in mineral acids. The acid salts Fe(H2PO4)3 and 2FeH3(PO4)2.5H2O have
+  been described. Basic salts have been prepared, and several occur in
+  the mineral kingdom; dufrenite is Fe2(OH)3PO4.
+
+  _Arsenides, Arsenites, &c._--Several iron arsenides occur as minerals;
+  lolingite, FeAs2, forms silvery rhombic prisms; mispickel or arsenical
+  pyrites, Fe2AsS2, is an important commercial source of arsenic. A
+  basic ferric arsenite, 4Fe2O3.As2O3.5H2O, is obtained as a flocculent
+  brown precipitate by adding an arsenite to ferric acetate, or by
+  shaking freshly prepared ferric hydrate with a solution of arsenious
+  oxide. The last reaction is the basis of the application of ferric
+  hydrate as an antidote in arsenical poisoning. Normal ferric
+  arsenate, FeAsO4.2H2O, constitutes the mineral scorodite;
+  pharmacosiderite is the basic arsenate 2FeAsO4.Fe(OK)3.5H2O. An acid
+  arsenate, 2Fe2(HAsO4)3.9H2O, is obtained as a white precipitate by
+  mixing solutions of ferric chloride and ordinary sodium phosphate. It
+  readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
+
+  _Carbides, Carbonates._--The carbides of iron play an important part
+  in determining the properties of the different modifications of the
+  commercial metal, and are discussed under IRON AND STEEL.
+
+  Ferrous carbonate, FeCO3, or spathic iron ore, may be obtained as
+  microscopic rhombohedra by adding sodium bicarbonate to ferrous
+  sulphate and heating to 150 deg. for 36 hours. Ferrous sulphate and
+  sodium carbonate in the cold give a flocculent precipitate, at first
+  white but rapidly turning green owing to oxidation. A soluble
+  carbonate and a ferric salt give a precipitate which loses carbon
+  dioxide on drying. Of great interest are the carbonyl compounds.
+  Ferropentacarbonyl, Fe(CO)5, obtained by L. Mond, Quincke and Langer
+  (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1891; see also ibid. 1910, p. 798) by treating
+  iron from ferrous oxalate with carbon monoxide, and heating at 150
+  deg., is a pale yellow liquid which freezes at about -20 deg., and
+  boils at 102.5 deg. Air and moisture decompose it. The halogens give
+  ferrous and ferric haloids and carbon monoxide; hydrochloric and
+  hydrobromic acids have no action, but hydriodic decomposes it. By
+  exposure to sunlight, either alone or dissolved in ether or ligroin,
+  it gives lustrous orange plates of diferrononacarbonyl, Fe2(CO)9. If
+  this substance be heated in ethereal solution to 50 deg., it deposits
+  lustrous dark-green tablets of ferrotetracarbonyl, Fe(CO)4, very
+  stable at ordinary temperatures, but decomposing at 140 deg.-150 deg.
+  into iron and carbon monoxide (J. Dewar and H. O. Jones, _Abst.
+  J.C.S._, 1907, ii. 266). For the cyanides see PRUSSIC ACID.
+
+  Ferrous salts give a greenish precipitate with an alkali, whilst
+  ferric give a characteristic red one. Ferrous salts also give a bluish
+  white precipitate with ferrocyanide, which on exposure turns to a dark
+  blue; ferric salts are characterized by the intense purple coloration
+  with a thiocyanate. (See also CHEMISTRY, S _Analytical_). For the
+  quantitative estimation see ASSAYING.
+
+  A recent atomic weight determination by Richards and Baxter (_Zeit.
+  anorg. Chem._, 1900, 23, p. 245; 1904, 38, p. 232), who found the
+  amount of silver bromide given by ferrous bromide, gave the value
+  55.44 [O = 16].
+
+
+  _Pharmacology._
+
+  All the official salts and preparations of iron are made directly or
+  indirectly from the metal. The pharmacopoeial forms of iron are as
+  follow:--
+
+  1. _Ferrum_, annealed iron wire No. 35 or wrought iron nails free from
+  oxide; from which we have the preparation _Vinum ferri_, iron wine,
+  iron digested in sherry wine for thirty days. (Strength, 1 in 20.)
+
+  2. _Ferrum redactum_, reduced iron, a powder containing at least 75%
+  of metallic iron and a variable amount of oxide. A preparation of it
+  is _Trochiscus ferri redacti_ (strength, 1 grain of reduced iron in
+  each).
+
+  3. _Ferri sulphas_, ferrous sulphate, from which is prepared _Mistura
+  ferri composita_, "Griffiths' mixture," containing ferrous sulphate 25
+  gr., potassium carbonate 30 gr., myrrh 60 gr., sugar 60 gr., spirit of
+  nutmeg 50 m., rose water 10 fl. oz.
+
+  4. _Ferri sulphas exsiccatus_, which has two subpreparations: (a)
+  _Pilula ferri_, "Blaud's pill" (exsiccated ferrous sulphate 150,
+  exsiccated sodium carbonate 95, gum acacia 50, tragacanth 15, glycerin
+  10, syrup 150, water 20, each to contain about 1 grain of ferrous
+  carbonate); (b) _Pilula aloes et ferri_ (Barbadoes aloes 2, exsiccated
+  ferrous sulphate 1, compound powder of cinnamon 3, syrup of glucose
+  3).
+
+  5. _Ferri carbonas saccharatus_, saccharated iron carbonate. The
+  carbonate forms about one-third and is mixed with sugar into a greyish
+  powder.
+
+  6. _Ferri arsenas_, iron arsenate, ferrous and ferric arsenates with
+  some iron oxides, a greenish powder.
+
+  7. _Ferri phosphas_, a slate-blue powder of ferrous and ferric
+  phosphates with some oxide. Its preparations are: (a) _Syrupus ferri
+  phosphatis_ (strength, 1 gr. of ferrous phosphate in each fluid
+  drachm); (b) _Syrupus ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina_,
+  "Easton's syrup" (iron wire 75 grs., concentrated phosphoric acid 10
+  fl. dr., powdered strychnine 5 gr., quinine sulphate 130 gr., syrup 14
+  fl. oz., water to make 20 fl. oz.), in which each fluid drachm
+  represents 1 gr. of ferrous phosphate, 4/5 gr. of quinine sulphate,
+  and 1/32 gr. of strychnine.
+
+  8. _Syrupus ferri iodidi_, iron wire, iodine, water and syrup
+  (strength, 5.5 gr. of ferrous iodide in one fl. dr.).
+
+  9. _Liquor ferri perchloridi fortis_, strong solution of ferric
+  chloride (strength, 22.5% of iron); its preparations only are
+  prescribed, viz. _Liquor ferri perchloridi_ and _Tinctura ferri
+  perchloridi_.
+
+  10. _Liquor ferri persulphatis_, solution of ferric sulphate.
+
+  11. _Liquor ferri pernitratus_, solution of ferric nitrate (strength,
+  3.3% of iron).
+
+  12. _Liquor ferri acetatis_, solution of ferric acetate.
+
+  13. The scale preparations of iron, so called because they are dried
+  to form scales, are three in number, the base of all being ferric
+  hydrate:
+
+  (a) _Ferrum tartaratum_, dark red scales, soluble in water.
+
+  (b) _Ferri et quininae citratis_, greenish yellow scales soluble in
+  water.
+
+  (c) _Ferri et ammonii citratis_, red scales soluble in water, from
+  which is prepared _Vinum ferri citratis_ (ferri et ammonii citratis 1
+  gr., orange wine 1 fl. dr.).
+
+  Substances containing tannic or gallic acid turn black when compounded
+  with a ferric salt, so it cannot be used in combination with vegetable
+  astringents except with the infusion of quassia or calumba. Iron may,
+  however, be prescribed in combination with digitalis by the addition
+  of dilute phosphoric acid. Alkalis and their carbonates, lime water,
+  carbonate of calcium, magnesia and its carbonate give green
+  precipitates with ferrous and brown with ferric salts.
+
+  Unofficial preparations of iron are numberless, and some of them are
+  very useful. Ferri hydroxidum (U.S.P.), the hydrated oxide of iron,
+  made by precipitating ferric sulphate with ammonia, is used solely as
+  an antidote in arsenical poisoning. The Syrupus ferri phosphatis Co.
+  is well known as "Parrish's" syrup or chemical food, and the Pilulae
+  ferri phosphatis cum quinina et strychnina, known as Easton's pills,
+  form a solid equivalent to Easton's syrup.
+
+  There are numerous organic preparations of iron. Ferratin is a reddish
+  brown substance which claims to be identical with the iron substance
+  found in pig's liver. Carniferrin is another tasteless powder
+  containing iron in combination with the phosphocarnic acid of muscle
+  preparations, and contains 35% of iron. Ferratogen is prepared from
+  ferric nuclein. Triferrin is a paranucleinate of iron, and contains
+  22% of iron and 2(1/2)% of organically combined phosphorus, prepared
+  from the casein of cow's milk. Haemoglobin is extracted from the blood
+  of an ox and may be administered in bolus form. Dieterich's solution
+  of peptonated iron contains about 2 gr. of iron per oz. Vachetta has
+  used the albuminate of iron with striking success in grave cases of
+  anaemia. Succinate of iron has been prepared by Hausmann. Haematogen,
+  introduced by Hommel, claims to contain the albuminous constituents of
+  the blood serum and all the blood salts as well as pure haemoglobin.
+  Sicco, the name given to dry haematogen, is a tasteless powder.
+  Haemalbumen, introduced by Dahmen, is soluble in warm water.
+
+
+  _Therapeutics._
+
+  Iron is a metal which is used both as a food and as a medicine and has
+  also a definite local action. Externally, it is not absorbed by the
+  unbroken skin, but when applied to the broken skin, sores, ulcers and
+  mucous surfaces, the ferric salts are powerful astringents, because
+  they coagulate the albuminous fluids in the tissues themselves. The
+  salts of iron quickly cause coagulation of the blood, and the clot
+  plugs the bleeding vessels. They thus act locally as haemostatics or
+  styptics, and will often arrest severe haemorrhage from parts which
+  are accessible, such as the nose. They were formerly used in the
+  treatment of _post partum_ haemorrhage. The perchloride, sulphate and
+  pernitrate are strongly astringent; less extensively they are used in
+  chronic discharges from the vagina, rectum and nose, while injected
+  into the rectum they destroy worms.
+
+  Internally, a large proportion of the various articles of ordinary
+  diet contains iron. When given medicinally preparations of iron have
+  an astringent taste, and the teeth and tongue are blackened owing to
+  the formation of sulphide of iron. It is therefore advisable to take
+  liquid iron preparations through a glass tube or a quill.
+
+  In the stomach all salts of iron, whatever their nature, are converted
+  into ferric chloride. If iron be given in excess, or if the
+  hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice be deficient, iron acts
+  directly as an astringent upon the mucous membrane of the stomach
+  wall. Iron, therefore, may disorder the digestion even in healthy
+  subjects. Acid preparations are more likely to do this, and the acid
+  set free after the formation of the chloride may act as an irritant.
+  Iron, therefore, must not be given to subjects in whom the gastric
+  functions are disturbed, and it should always be given after meals.
+  Preparations which are not acid, or are only slightly acid, such as
+  reduced iron, dialysed iron, the carbonate and scale preparations, do
+  not disturb the digestion. If the sulphate is prescribed in the form
+  of a pill, it may be so coated as only to be soluble in the intestinal
+  digestive fluid. In the intestine the ferric chloride becomes changed
+  into an oxide of iron; the sub-chloride is converted into a ferrous
+  carbonate, which is soluble. Lower down in the bowel these compounds
+  are converted into ferrous sulphide and tannate, and are eliminated
+  with the faeces, turning them black. Iron in the intestine causes an
+  astringent or constipating effect. The astringent salts are therefore
+  useful occasionally to check diarrhoea and dysentery. Thus most salts
+  of iron are distinctly constipating, and are best used in combination
+  with a purgative. The pill of iron and aloes (B.P.) is designed for
+  this purpose. Iron is certainly absorbed from the intestinal canal. As
+  the iron in the food supplies all the iron in the body of a healthy
+  person, there is no doubt that it is absorbed in the organic form.
+  Whether inorganic salts are directly absorbed has been a matter of
+  much discussion; it has, however, been directly proved by the
+  experiments of Kunkel (_Archiv fur die gesamte Physiologie des
+  Menschen und der Tiere_, lxi.) and Gaule. The amount of iron existing
+  in the human blood is only 38 gr.; therefore, when an excess of iron
+  is absorbed, part is excreted immediately by the bowel and kidneys,
+  and part is stored in the liver and spleen.
+
+  Iron being a constituent part of the blood itself, there is a direct
+  indication for the physician to prescribe it when the amount of
+  haemoglobin in the blood is lowered or the red corpuscles are
+  diminished. In certain forms of anaemia the administration of iron
+  rapidly improves the blood in both respects. The exact method in which
+  the prescribed iron acts is still a matter of dispute. Ralph Stockman
+  points out that there are three chief theories as to the action of
+  iron in anaemia. The first is based on the fact that the iron in the
+  haemoglobin of the blood must be derived from the food, therefore iron
+  medicinally administered is absorbed. The second theory is that there
+  is no absorption of iron given by the mouth, but it acts as a local
+  stimulant to the mucous membrane, and so improves anaemia by
+  increasing the digestion of the food. The third theory is that of
+  Bunge, who says that in chlorotic conditions there is an excess of
+  sulphuretted hydrogen in the bowel, changing the food iron into
+  sulphide of iron, which Bunge states cannot be absorbed. He believes
+  that inorganic iron saves the organic iron of the food by combining
+  with the sulphur, and improves anaemia by protecting the organic food
+  iron. Stockman's own experiments are, however, directly opposed to
+  Bunge's view. Wharfinger states that in chlorosis the specific action
+  of iron is only obtained by administering those inorganic preparations
+  which give a reaction with the ordinary reagents; the iron ions in a
+  state of dissociation act as a catalytic agent, destroying the
+  hypothetical toxin which is the cause of chlorosis. Practical
+  experience teaches every clinician that, whatever the mode of action,
+  iron is most valuable in anaemia, though in many cases, where there is
+  well-marked toxaemia from absorption of the intestinal products, not
+  only laxatives in combination with iron but intestinal antiseptics are
+  necessary. That form of neuralgia which is associated with anaemia
+  usually yields to iron.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] By solution in concentrated hydrochloric acid, a yellow liquid is
+    obtained, which on concentration over sulphuric acid gives yellow
+    deliquescent crusts of ferroso-ferric chloride, Fe3Cl8.18H2O.
+
+
+
+
+IRON AGE, the third of the three periods, Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages,
+into which archaeologists divide prehistoric time; the weapons, utensils
+and implements being as a general rule made of iron (see ARCHAEOLOGY).
+The term has no real chronological value, for there has been no
+universal synchronous sequence of the three epochs in all quarters of
+the world. Some countries, such as the islands of the South Pacific, the
+interior of Africa, and parts of North and South America, have passed
+direct from the Stone to the Iron Age. In Europe the Iron Age may be
+said to cover the last years of the prehistoric and the early years of
+the historic periods. In Egypt, Chaldaea, Assyria, China, it reaches far
+back, to perhaps 4000 years before the Christian era. In Africa, where
+there has been no Bronze Age, the use of iron succeeded immediately the
+use of stone. In the Black Pyramid of Abusir (VIth Dynasty), at least
+3000 B.C., Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron, and in the funeral
+text of Pepi I. (about 3400 B.C.) the metal is mentioned. The use of
+iron in northern Europe would seem to have been fairly general long
+before the invasion of Caesar. But iron was not in common use in Denmark
+until the end of the 1st century A.D. In the north of Russia and Siberia
+its introduction was even as late as A.D. 800, while Ireland enters upon
+her Iron Age about the beginning of the 1st century. In Gaul, on the
+other hand, the Iron Age dates back some 800 years B.C.; while in
+Etruria the metal was known some six centuries earlier. Homer represents
+Greece as beginning her Iron Age twelve hundred years before our era.
+The knowledge of iron spread from the south to the north of Europe. In
+approaching the East from the north of Siberia or from the south of
+Greece and the Troad, the history of iron in each country eastward is
+relatively later; while a review of European countries from the north
+towards the south shows the latter becoming acquainted with the metal
+earlier than the former It is suggested that these facts support the
+theory that it is from Africa that iron first came into use. The finding
+of worked iron in the Great Pyramids seems to corroborate this view. The
+metal, however, is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian
+antiquities. The explanation of this would seem to lie in the fact that
+the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funereal
+vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the
+ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for
+any religious purposes. This idea of impurity would seem a further proof
+of the African origin of iron. It was attributed to Seth, the spirit of
+evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of
+Africa. The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of
+designs in weapons, implements and utensils. These are no longer cast
+but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather
+than simple rectilinear, the forms and character of the ornamentation
+of the northern European weapons resembling in some respects Roman arms,
+while in others they are peculiar and evidently representative of
+northern art. The dead were buried in an extended position, while in the
+preceding Bronze Age cremation had been the rule.
+
+  See Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric Times_ (1865; 1900); Sir J. Evans,
+  _Ancient Stone Implements_ (1897); _Horae Ferales, or Studies in the
+  Archaeology of Northern Nations_, by Kemble (1863); Gaston C. C.
+  Maspero, _Guide du Musee de Boulaq_, 296; _Scotland in Pagan
+  Times--The Iron Age_, by Joseph Anderson (1883).
+
+
+
+
+IRON AND STEEL.[1] 1. Iron, the most abundant and the cheapest of the
+heavy metals, the strongest and most magnetic of known substances, is
+perhaps also the most indispensable of all save the air we breathe and
+the water we drink. For one kind of meat we could substitute another;
+wool could be replaced by cotton, silk or fur; were our common silicate
+glass gone, we could probably perfect and cheapen some other of the
+transparent solids; but even if the earth could be made to yield any
+substitute for the forty or fifty million tons of iron which we use each
+year for rails, wire, machinery, and structural purposes of many kinds,
+we could not replace either the steel of our cutting tools or the iron
+of our magnets, the basis of all commercial electricity. This usefulness
+iron owes in part, indeed, to its abundance, through which it has led us
+in the last few thousands of years to adapt our ways to its properties;
+but still in chief part first to the single qualities in which it
+excels, such as its strength, its magnetism, and the property which it
+alone has of being made at will extremely hard by sudden cooling and
+soft and extremely pliable by slow cooling; second, to the special
+combinations of useful properties in which it excels, such as its
+strength with its ready welding and shaping both hot and cold; and
+third, to the great variety of its properties. It is a very Proteus. It
+is extremely hard in our files and razors, and extremely soft in our
+horse-shoe nails, which in some countries the smith rejects unless he
+can bend them on his forehead; with iron we cut and shape iron. It is
+extremely magnetic and almost non-magnetic; as brittle as glass and
+almost as pliable and ductile as copper; extremely springy, and
+springless and dead; wonderfully strong, and very weak; conducting heat
+and electricity easily, and again offering great resistance to their
+passage; here welding readily, there incapable of welding; here very
+infusible, there melting with relative ease. The coincidence that so
+indispensable a thing should also be so abundant, that an iron-needing
+man should be set on an iron-cored globe, certainly suggests design. The
+indispensableness of such abundant things as air, water and light is
+readily explained by saying that their very abundance has evolved a
+creature dependent on them. But the indispensable qualities of iron did
+not shape man's evolution, because its great usefulness did not arise
+until historic times, or even, as in case of magnetism, until modern
+times.
+
+These variations in the properties of iron are brought about in part by
+corresponding variations in mechanical and thermal treatment, by which
+it is influenced profoundly, and in part by variations in the
+proportions of certain foreign elements which it contains; for, unlike
+most of the other metals, it is never used in the pure state. Indeed
+pure iron is a rare curiosity. Foremost among these elements is carbon,
+which iron inevitably absorbs from the fuel used in extracting it from
+its ores. So strong is the effect of carbon that the use to which the
+metal is put, and indeed its division into its two great classes, the
+malleable one, comprising steel and wrought iron, with less than 2.20%
+of carbon, and the unmalleable one, cast iron, with more than this
+quantity, are based on carbon-content. (See Table I.)
+
+TABLE 1.--_General Classification of Iron and Steel according (1) to
+Carbon-Content and (2) to Presence or Absence of Inclosed Slag._
+
+  +---------------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                     | Containing very little | Containing an Inter- |Containing much Carbon |
+  |                     | Carbon (say, less than | mediate Quantity of  | Carbon (say, from 2.2 |
+  |                     |          0.30%).       | Carbon (say, between |       2.2 to 5%).     |
+  |                     |                        | 0.30 and 2.2%).      |                       |
+  +---------------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------|
+  |   Slag-bearing or   |     WROUGHT IRON.      |      WELD STEEL.     |                       |
+  | "Weld-metal" Series.|  Puddled and bloomary, | Puddled and blister  |                       |
+  |                     |   or Charcoal-hearth   |  steel belong here.  |                       |
+  |                     |    iron belong here.   |                      |                       |
+  +---------------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                     |  LOW-CARBON or MILD    | HALF-HARD and HIGH-  |      CAST IRON.       |
+  |                     |STEEL, sometimes called | CARBON STEELS, some- |                       |
+  |                     |     "ingot-iron."      | times called "ingot- |                       |
+  |                     |                        |        steel."       |                       |
+  |                     |    It may be either    | They may be either   | Normal cast iron,     |
+  |                     | Bessemer, open-hearth, |  Bessemer, open-     |  "washed" metal, and  |
+  | Slagless or "Ingot- |   or crucible steel.   |  hearth, or crucible |  and most "malleable  |
+  |    Metal" Series.   |                        |  steel. Malleable    |  cast iron" belong    |
+  |                     |                        |  cast iron also often|  here.                |
+  |                     |                        |  belongs here.       |                       |
+  |                     +------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------+
+  |                     |                        |     ALLOY STEELS.    |  ALLOY CAST IRONS.*   |
+  |                     |                        |  Nickel, manganese,  | Spiegeleisen, ferro-  |
+  |                     |                        | tungsten, and chrome | manganese, and silico-|
+  |                     |                        |  steels belong here. |  spiegel belong here. |
+  +---------------------+------------------------+------------------ ---+-----------------------+
+    * The term "Alloy Cast Irons" is not actually in frequent use, not
+    because of any question as to its fitness or meaning, but because
+    the need of such a generic term rarely arises in the industry.
+
+2. _Nomenclature._--Until about 1860 there were only three important
+classes of iron--wrought iron, steel and cast iron. The essential
+characteristic of wrought iron was its nearly complete freedom from
+carbon; that of steel was its moderate carbon-content (say between 0.30
+and 2.2%), which, though great enough to confer the property of being
+rendered intensely hard and brittle by sudden cooling, yet was not so
+great but that the metal was malleable when cooled slowly; while that of
+cast iron was that it contained so much carbon as to be very brittle
+whether cooled quickly or slowly. This classification was based on
+carbon-content, or on the properties which it gave. Beyond this, wrought
+iron, and certain classes of steel which then were important,
+necessarily contained much slag or "cinder," because they were made by
+welding together pasty particles of metal in a bath of slag, without
+subsequent fusion. But the best class of steel, crucible steel, was
+freed from slag by fusion in crucibles; hence its name, "cast steel."
+Between 1860 and 1870 the invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth
+processes introduced a new class of iron to-day called "mild" or
+"low-carbon steel," which lacked the essential property of steel, the
+hardening power, yet differed from the existing forms of wrought iron in
+freedom from slag, and from cast iron in being very malleable. Logically
+it was wrought iron, the essence of which was that it was (1) "iron" as
+distinguished from steel, and (2) malleable, i.e. capable of being
+"wrought." This name did not please those interested in the new product,
+because existing wrought iron was a low-priced material. Instead of
+inventing a wholly new name for the wholly new product, they
+appropriated the name "steel," because this was associated in the public
+mind with superiority. This they did with the excuse that the new
+product resembled one class of steel--cast steel--in being free from
+slag; and, after a period of protest, all acquiesced in calling it
+"steel," which is now its firmly established name. The old varieties of
+wrought iron, steel and cast iron preserve their old names; the new
+class is called steel by main force. As a result, certain varieties,
+such as blister steel, are called "steel" solely because they have the
+hardening power, and others, such as low-carbon steel, solely because
+they are free from slag. But the former lack the essential quality,
+slaglessness, which makes the latter steel, and the latter lack the
+essential quality, the hardening power, which makes the former steel.
+"Steel" has come gradually to stand rather for excellence than for any
+specific quality. These anomalies, however confusing to the general
+reader, in fact cause no appreciable trouble to important makers or
+users of iron and steel, beyond forming an occasional side-issue in
+litigation.
+
+3. _Definitions._--_Wrought iron_ is slag-bearing malleable iron,
+containing so little carbon (0.30% or less), or its equivalent, that it
+does not harden greatly when cooled suddenly.
+
+_Steel_ is iron which is malleable at least in some one range of
+temperature, and also is either (a) cast into an initially malleable
+mass, or (b) is capable of hardening greatly by sudden cooling, or (c)
+is both so cast and so capable of hardening. (Tungsten steel and certain
+classes of manganese steel are malleable only when red-hot.) Normal or
+carbon steel contains between 0.30 and 2.20% of carbon, enough to make
+it harden greatly when cooled suddenly, but not enough to prevent it
+from being usefully malleable when hot.
+
+_Cast iron_ is, generically, iron containing so much carbon (2.20% or
+more) or its equivalent that it is not usefully malleable at any
+temperature. Specifically, it is cast iron in the form of castings other
+than pigs, or remelted cast iron suitable for such castings, as
+distinguished from pig iron, i.e. the molten cast iron as it issues from
+the blast furnace, or the pigs into which it is cast.
+
+_Malleable cast iron_ is iron which has been cast in the condition of
+cast iron, and made malleable by subsequent treatment without fusion.
+
+_Alloy steels_ and _cast irons_ are those which owe their properties
+chiefly to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon.
+
+_Ingot iron_ is slagless steel with less than 0.30% of carbon.
+
+_Ingot steel_ is slagless steel containing more than 0.30% of carbon.
+
+_Weld steel_ is slag-bearing iron malleable at least at some one
+temperature, and containing more than 0.30% of carbon.
+
+4. _Historical Sketch._--The iron oxide of which the ores of iron
+consist would be so easily deoxidized and thus brought to the metallic
+state by the carbon, i.e. by the glowing coals of any primeval savage's
+wood fire, and the resulting metallic iron would then differ so
+strikingly from any object which he had previously seen, that its very
+early use by our race is only natural. The first observing savage who
+noticed it among his ashes might easily infer that it resulted from the
+action of burning wood on certain extremely heavy stones. He could pound
+it out into many useful shapes. The natural steps first of making it
+intentionally by putting such stones into his fire, and next of
+improving his fire by putting it and these stones into a cavity on the
+weather side of some bank with an opening towards the prevalent wind,
+would give a simple forge, differing only in size, in lacking forced
+blast, and in details of construction, from the Catalan forges and
+bloomaries of to-day. Moreover, the coals which deoxidized the iron
+would inevitably carburize some lumps of it, here so far as to turn it
+into the brittle and relatively useless cast iron, there only far enough
+to convert it into steel, strong and very useful even in its unhardened
+state. Thus it is almost certain that much of the earliest iron was in
+fact steel. How soon after man's discovery, that he could beat iron and
+steel out while cold into useful shapes, he learned to forge it while
+hot is hard to conjecture. The pretty elaborate appliances, tongs or
+their equivalent, which would be needed to enable him to hold it
+conveniently while hot, could hardly have been devised till a very much
+later period; but then he may have been content to forge it
+inconveniently, because the great ease with which it mashes out when
+hot, perhaps pushed with a stout stick from the fire to a neighbouring
+flat stone, would compensate for much inconvenience. However this may
+be, very soon after man began to practise hot-forging he would
+inevitably learn that sudden cooling, by quenching in water, made a
+large proportion of his metal, his steel, extremely hard and brittle,
+because he would certainly try by this very quenching to avoid the
+inconvenience of having the hot metal about. But the invaluable and
+rather delicate art of tempering the hardened steel by a very careful
+and gentle reheating, which removes its extreme brittleness though
+leaving most of its precious hardness, needs such skilful handling that
+it can hardly have become known until very long after the art of
+hot-forging.
+
+The oxide ores of copper would be deoxidized by the savage's wood fire
+even more easily than those of iron, and the resulting copper would be
+recognized more easily than iron, because it would be likely to melt and
+run together into a mass conspicuous by its bright colour and its very
+great malleableness. From this we may infer that copper and iron
+probably came into use at about the same stage in man's development,
+copper before iron in regions which had oxidized copper ores, whether
+they also had iron ores or not, iron before copper in places where there
+were pure and easily reduced ores of iron but none of copper. Moreover,
+the use of each metal must have originated in many different places
+independently. Even to-day isolated peoples are found with their own
+primitive iron-making, but ignorant of the use of copper.
+
+If iron thus preceded copper in many places, still more must it have
+preceded bronze, an alloy of copper and tin much less likely than either
+iron or copper to be made unintentionally. Indeed, though iron ores
+abound in many places which have neither copper nor tin, yet there are
+but few places which have both copper and tin. It is not improbable
+that, once bronze became known, it might replace iron in a measure,
+perhaps even in a very large measure, because it is so fusible that it
+can be cast directly and easily into many useful shapes. It seems to be
+much more prominent than iron in the Homeric poems; but they tell us
+only of one region at one age. Even if a nation here or there should
+give up the use of iron completely, that all should is neither probable
+nor shown by the evidence. The absence of iron and the abundance of
+bronze in the relics of a prehistoric people is a piece of evidence to
+be accepted with caution, because the great defect of iron, its
+proneness to rust, would often lead to its complete disappearance, or
+conversion into an unrecognizable mass, even though tools of bronze
+originally laid down beside it might remain but little corroded. That
+the ancients should have discovered an art of hardening bronze is
+grossly improbable, first because it is not to be hardened by any simple
+process like the hardening of steel, and second because, if they had,
+then a large proportion of the ancient bronze tools now known ought to
+be hard, which is not the case.
+
+Because iron would be so easily made by prehistoric and even by primeval
+man, and would be so useful to him, we are hardly surprised to read in
+Genesis that Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent from Adam, discovered it;
+that the Assyrians had knives and saws which, to be effective, must have
+been of hardened steel, i.e. of iron which had absorbed some carbon from
+the coals with which it had been made, and had been quenched in water
+from a red heat; that an iron tool has been found embedded in the
+ancient pyramid of Kephron (probably as early as 3500 B.C.); that iron
+metallurgy had advanced at the time of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. (about
+1500 B.C.) so far that bellows were used for forcing the forge fire;
+that in Homer's time (not later than the 9th century B.C.) the delicate
+art of hardening and tempering steel was so familiar that the poet used
+it for a simile, likening the hissing of the stake which Ulysses drove
+into the eye of Polyphemus to that of the steel which the smith quenches
+in water, and closing with a reference to the strengthening effect of
+this quenching; and that at the time of Pliny (A.D. 23-79) the relative
+value of different baths for hardening was known, and oil preferred for
+hardening small tools. These instances of the very early use of this
+metal, intrinsically at once so useful and so likely to disappear by
+rusting away, tell a story like that of the single foot-print of the
+savage which the waves left for Robinson Crusoe's warning. Homer's
+familiarity with the art of tempering could come only after centuries of
+the wide use of iron.
+
+3. _Three Periods._--The history of iron may for convenience be divided
+into three periods: a first in which only the direct extraction of
+wrought iron from the ore was practised; a second which added to this
+primitive art the extraction of iron in the form of carburized or cast
+iron, to be used either as such or for conversion into wrought iron; and
+a third in which the iron worker used a temperature high enough to melt
+wrought iron, which he then called molten steel. For brevity we may call
+these the periods of wrought iron, of cast iron, and of molten steel,
+recognizing that in the second and third the earlier processes continued
+in use. The first period began in extremely remote prehistoric times;
+the second in the 14th century; and the third with the invention of the
+Bessemer process in 1856.
+
+  6. _First Period._--We can picture to ourselves how in the first
+  period the savage smith, step by step, bettered his control over his
+  fire, at once his source of heat and his deoxidizing agent. Not
+  content to let it burn by natural draught, he would blow it with his
+  own breath, would expose it to the prevalent wind, would urge it with
+  a fan, and would devise the first crude valveless bellows, perhaps the
+  pigskin already familiar as a water-bottle, of which the psalmist
+  says: "I am become as a bottle in the smoke." To drive the air out of
+  this skin by pressing on it, or even by walking on it, would be easy;
+  to fill it again with air by pulling its sides apart with his fingers
+  would be so irksome that he would soon learn to distend it by means of
+  strings. If his bellows had only a single opening, that through which
+  they delivered the blast upon the fire, then in inflating them he
+  would draw back into them the hot air and ashes from the fire. To
+  prevent this he might make a second or suction hole, and thus he would
+  have a veritable engine, perhaps one of the very earliest of all.
+  While inflating the bellows he would leave the suction port open and
+  close the discharge port with a pinch of his finger; and while blowing
+  the air against the fire he would leave the discharge port open and
+  pinch together the sides of the suction port.
+
+  The next important step seems to have been taken in the 4th century
+  when some forgotten Watt devised valves for the bellows. But in spite
+  of the activity of the iron manufacture in many of the Roman
+  provinces, especially England, France, Spain, Carinthia and near the
+  Rhine, the little forges in which iron was extracted from the ore
+  remained, until the 14th century, very crude and wasteful of labour,
+  fuel, and iron itself: indeed probably not very different from those
+  of a thousand years before. Where iron ore was found, the local smith,
+  the _Waldschmied_, converted it with the charcoal of the surrounding
+  forest into the wrought iron which he worked up. Many farmers had
+  their own little forges or smithies to supply the iron for their
+  tools.
+
+  The fuel, wood or charcoal, which served both to heat and to deoxidize
+  the ore, has so strong a carburizing action that it would turn some of
+  the resultant metal into "natural steel," which differs from wrought
+  iron only in containing so much carbon that it is relatively hard and
+  brittle in its natural state, and that it becomes intensely hard when
+  quenched from a red heat in water. Moreover, this same carburizing
+  action of the fuel would at times go so far as to turn part of the
+  metal into a true cast iron, so brittle that it could not be worked at
+  all. In time the smith learnt how to convert this unwelcome product
+  into wrought iron by remelting it in the forge, exposing it to the
+  blast in such a way as to burn out most of its carbon.
+
+  7. _Second Period._--With the second period began, in the 14th
+  century, the gradual displacement of the direct extraction of wrought
+  iron from the ore by the intentional and regular use of this indirect
+  method of first carburizing the metal and thus turning it into cast
+  iron, and then converting it into wrought iron by remelting it in the
+  forge. This displacement has been going on ever since, and it is not
+  quite complete even to-day. It is of the familiar type of the
+  replacing of the simple but wasteful by the complex and economical,
+  and it was begun unintentionally in the attempt to save fuel and
+  labour, by increasing the size and especially the height of the forge,
+  and by driving the bellows by means of water-power. Indeed it was the
+  use of water-power that gave the smith pressure strong enough to force
+  his blast up through a longer column of ore and fuel, and thus enabled
+  him to increase the height of his forge, enlarge the scale of his
+  operations, and in turn save fuel and labour. And it was the
+  lengthening of the forge, and the length and intimacy of contact
+  between ore and fuel to which it led, that carburized the metal and
+  turned it into cast iron. This is so fusible that it melted, and,
+  running together into a single molten mass, freed itself mechanically
+  from the "gangue," as the foreign minerals with which the ore is mixed
+  are called. Finally, the improvement in the quality of the iron which
+  resulted from thus completely freeing it from the gangue turned out to
+  be a great and unexpected merit of the indirect process, probably the
+  merit which enabled it, in spite of its complexity, to drive out the
+  direct process. Thus we have here one of these cases common in the
+  evolution both of nature and of art, in which a change, made for a
+  specific purpose, has a wholly unforeseen advantage in another
+  direction, so important as to outweigh that for which it was made and
+  to determine the path of future development.
+
+  With this method of making molten cast iron in the hands of a people
+  already familiar with bronze founding, iron founding, i.e. the casting
+  of the molten cast iron into shapes which were useful in spite of its
+  brittleness, naturally followed. Thus ornamental iron castings were
+  made in Sussex in the 14th century, and in the 16th cannons weighing
+  three tons each were cast.
+
+  The indirect process once established, the gradual increase in the
+  height and diameter of the high furnace, which has lasted till our own
+  days, naturally went on and developed the gigantic blast furnaces of
+  the present time, still called "high furnaces" in French and German.
+  The impetus which the indirect process and the acceleration of
+  civilization in the 15th and 16th centuries gave to the iron industry
+  was so great that the demands of the iron masters for fuel made
+  serious inroads on the forests, and in 1558 an act of Queen
+  Elizabeth's forbade the cutting of timber in certain parts of the
+  country for iron-making. Another in 1584 forbade the building of any
+  more iron-works in Surrey, Kent, and Sussex. This increasing scarcity
+  of wood was probably one of the chief causes of the attempts which the
+  iron masters then made to replace charcoal with mineral fuel. In 1611
+  Simon Sturtevant patented the use of mineral coal for iron-smelting,
+  and in 1619 Dud Dudley made with this coal both cast and wrought iron
+  with technical success, but through the opposition of the charcoal
+  iron-makers all of his many attempts were defeated. In 1625 Stradda's
+  attempts in Hainaut had no better success, and it was not till more
+  than a century later that iron-smelting with mineral fuel was at last
+  fully successful. It was then, in 1735, that Abraham Darby showed how
+  to make cast iron with coke in the high furnace, which by this time
+  had become a veritable blast furnace.
+
+  The next great improvement in blast-furnace practice came in 1811,
+  when Aubertot in France used for heating steel the furnace gases rich
+  in carbonic oxide which till then had been allowed to burn uselessly
+  at the top of the blast furnace. The next was J. B. Neilson's
+  invention in 1828 of heating the blast, which increased the production
+  and lessened the fuel-consumption of the furnace wonderfully. Very
+  soon after this, in 1832, the work of heating the blast was done by
+  means of the waste gases, at Wasseralfingen in Bavaria.
+
+  Meanwhile Henry Cort had in 1784 very greatly simplified the
+  conversion of cast iron into wrought iron. In place of the old forge,
+  in which the actual contact between the iron and the fuel, itself an
+  energetic carburizing agent, made decarburization difficult, he
+  devised the reverberatory puddling furnace (see fig. 14 below), in
+  which the iron lies in a chamber apart from the fire-place, and is
+  thus protected from the carburizing action of the fuel, though heated
+  by the flame which that fuel gives out.
+
+  The rapid advance in mechanical engineering in the latter part of this
+  second period stimulated the iron industry greatly, giving it in 1728
+  Payn and Hanbury's rolling mill for rolling sheet iron, in 1760 John
+  Smeaton's cylindrical cast-iron bellows in place of the wooden and
+  leather ones previously used, in 1783 Cort's grooved rolls for rolling
+  bars and rods of iron, and in 1838 James Nasmyth's steam hammer. But
+  even more important than these were the advent of the steam engine
+  between 1760 and 1770, and of the railroad in 1825, each of which gave
+  the iron industry a great impetus. Both created a great demand for
+  iron, not only for themselves but for the industries which they in
+  turn stimulated; and both directly aided the iron master: the steam
+  engine by giving him powerful and convenient tools, and the railroad
+  by assembling his materials and distributing his products.
+
+  About 1740 Benjamin Huntsman introduced the "crucible process" of
+  melting steel in small crucibles, and thus freeing it from the slag,
+  or rich iron silicate, with which it, like wrought iron, was
+  mechanically mixed, whether it was made in the old forge or in the
+  puddling furnace. This removal of the cinder very greatly improved the
+  steel; but the process was and is so costly that it is used only for
+  making steel for purposes which need the very best quality.
+
+  8. _Third Period._--The third period has for its great distinction the
+  invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes, which are like
+  Huntsman's crucible process in that their essence is their freeing
+  wrought iron and low carbon steel from mechanically entangled cinder,
+  by developing the hitherto unattainable temperature, rising to above
+  1500 deg. C., needed for melting these relatively infusible products.
+  These processes are incalculably more important than Huntsman's, both
+  because they are incomparably cheaper, and because their products are
+  far more useful than his.
+
+  Thus the distinctive work of the second and third periods is freeing
+  the metal from mechanical impurities by fusion. The second period, by
+  converting the metal into the fusible cast iron and melting this, for
+  the first time removed the gangue of the ore; the third period by
+  giving a temperature high enough to melt the most infusible forms of
+  iron, liberated the slag formed in deriving them from cast iron.
+
+  In 1856 Bessemer not only invented his extraordinary process of making
+  the heat developed by the rapid oxidation of the impurities in pig
+  iron raise the temperature above the exalted melting-point of the
+  resultant purified steel, but also made it widely known that this
+  steel was a very valuable substance. Knowing this, and having in the
+  Siemens regenerative gas furnace an independent means of generating
+  this temperature, the Martin brothers of Sireuil in France in 1864
+  developed the open-hearth process of making steel of any desired
+  carbon-content by melting together in this furnace cast and wrought
+  iron. The great defect of both these processes, that they could not
+  remove the baneful phosphorus with which all the ores of iron are
+  associated, was remedied in 1878 by S. G. Thomas, who showed that, in
+  the presence of a slag rich in lime, the whole of the phosphorus could
+  be removed readily.
+
+  9. After the remarkable development of the blast furnace, the
+  Bessemer, and the open-hearth processes, the most important work of
+  this, the third period of the history of iron, is the birth and growth
+  of the science and art of iron metallography. In 1868 Tschernoff
+  enunciated its chief fundamental laws, which were supplemented in 1885
+  by the laws of Brinell. In 1888 F. Osmond showed that the wonderful
+  changes which thermal treatment and the presence of certain foreign
+  elements cause were due to allotropy, and from these and like
+  teachings have come a rapid growth of the use of the so-called "alloy
+  steels" in which, thanks to special composition and treatment, the
+  iron exists in one or more of its remarkable allotropic states. These
+  include the austenitic or gamma non-magnetic manganese steel, already
+  patented by Robert Hadfield in 1883, the first important known
+  substance which combined great malleableness with great hardness, and
+  the martensitic or beta "high speed tool steel" of White and Taylor,
+  which retains its hardness and cutting power even at a red heat.
+
+10. _Constitution of Iron and Steel._--The constitution of the various
+classes of iron and steel as shown by the microscope explains readily
+the great influence of carbon which was outlined in SS 2 and 3. The
+metal in its usual slowly cooled state is a conglomerate like the
+granitic rocks. Just as a granite is a conglomerate or mechanical
+mixture of distinct crystalline grains of three perfectly definite
+minerals, mica, quartz, and felspar, so iron and steel in their usual
+slowly cooled state consist of a mixture of microscopic particles of
+such definite quasi-minerals, diametrically unlike. These are cementite,
+a definite iron carbide, Fe3C, harder than glass and nearly as brittle,
+but probably very strong under gradually and axially applied stress; and
+ferrite, pure or nearly pure metallic [alpha]-iron, soft, weak, with
+high electric conductivity, and in general like copper except in colour.
+In view of the fact that the presence of 1% of carbon implies that 15%
+of the soft ductile ferrite is replaced by the glass-hard cementite, it
+is not surprising that even a little carbon influences the properties of
+the metal so profoundly.
+
+But carbon affects the properties of iron not only by giving rise to
+varying proportions of cementite, but also both by itself shifting from
+one molecular state to another, and by enabling us to hold the iron
+itself in its unmagnetic allotropic forms, [beta]- and [gamma]-iron, as
+will be explained below. Thus, sudden cooling from a red heat leaves the
+carbon not in definite combination as cementite, but actually dissolved
+in [beta]- and [gamma]-allotropic iron, in the conditions known as
+martensite and austenite, not granitic but glass-like bodies, of which
+the "hardened" and "tempered" steel of our cutting tools in large part
+consists. Again, if more than 2% of carbon is present, it passes readily
+into the state of pure graphitic carbon, which, in itself soft and weak,
+weakens and embrittles the metal as any foreign body would, by breaking
+up its continuity.
+
+11. The _Roberts-Austen_ or _carbon-iron diagram_ (fig. 1), in which
+vertical distances represent temperatures and horizontal ones the
+percentage of carbon in the iron, aids our study of these constituents
+of iron. If, ignoring temporarily and for simplicity the fact that part
+of the carbon may exist in the state of graphite, we consider the
+behaviour of iron in cooling from the molten state, AB and BC give the
+temperature at which, for any given percentage of carbon, solidification
+begins, and A_a_, _a_B, and B_c_ that at which it ends. But after
+solidification is complete and the metal has cooled to a much lower
+range of temperature, usually between 900 deg. and 690 deg. C., it
+undergoes a very remarkable series of transformations. GHSa gives the
+temperature at which, for any given percentage of carbon, these
+transformations begin, and PSP' that at which they end.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Roberts-Austen or Carbon-Iron diagram. The
+Cementite-Austenite or Metastable form.]
+
+These freezing-point curves and transformation curves thus divide the
+diagram into 8 distinct regions, each with its own specific state or
+constitution of the metal, the molten state for region 1, a mixture of
+molten metal and of solid austenite for region 2, austenite alone for
+region 4 and so on. This will be explained below. If the metal followed
+the laws of equilibrium, then whenever through change of temperature it
+entered a new region, it would forthwith adopt the constitution normal
+to that region. But in fact the change of constitution often lags
+greatly, so that the metal may have the constitution normal to a region
+higher than that in which it is, or even a patchwork constitution,
+representing fragments of those of two or more regions. It is by taking
+advantage of this lagging that thermal treatment causes such wonderful
+changes in the properties of the cold metal.
+
+12. With these facts in mind we may now study further these different
+constituents of iron.
+
+  _Austenite, gamma_ ([gamma]) _iron._--Austenite is the name of the
+  solid solution of an iron carbide in allotropie [gamma]-iron of which
+  the metal normally consists when in region 4. In these solid
+  solutions, as in aqueous ones, the ratios in which the different
+  chemical substances are present are not fixed or definite, but vary
+  from case to case, not _per saltum_ as between definite chemical
+  compounds, but by infinitesimal steps. The different substances are as
+  it were dissolved in each other in a state which has the
+  indefiniteness of composition, the absolute merging of identity, and
+  the weakness of reciprocal chemical attraction, characteristic of
+  aqueous solutions.
+
+  On cooling into region 6 or 8 austenite should normally split up into
+  ferrite and cementite, after passing through the successive stages of
+  martensite, troostite and sorbite, Fe_xC = Fe3C + Fe_(x-3). But this
+  change may be prevented so as to preserve the austenite in the cold,
+  either very incompletely, as when high-carbon steel is "hardened,"
+  i.e. is cooled suddenly by quenching in water, in which case the
+  carbon present seems to act as a brake to retard the change; or
+  completely, by the presence of a large quantity of manganese, nickel,
+  tungsten or molybdenum, which in effect sink the lower boundary GHS_a_
+  of region 4 to below the atmospheric temperature. The important
+  manganese steels of commerce and certain nickel steels are
+  manganiferous and niccoliferous austenite, unmagnetic and hard but
+  ductile.
+
+  Austenite may contain carbon in any proportion up to about 2.2%. It is
+  non-magnetic, and, when preserved in the cold either by quenching or
+  by the presence of manganese, nickel, &c., it has a very remarkable
+  combination of great malleability with very marked hardness, though it
+  is less hard than common carbon steel is when hardened, and probably
+  less hard than martensite. When of eutectoid composition, it is called
+  "hardenite." Suddenly cooled carbon steel, even if rich in austenite,
+  is strongly magnetic because of the very magnetic [alpha]-iron which
+  inevitably forms even in the most rapid cooling from region 4. Only in
+  the presence of much manganese, nickel, or their equivalent can the
+  true austenite be preserved in the cold so completely that the steel
+  remains non-magnetic.
+
+  13. _Beta_ ([beta]) _iron_, an unmagnetic, intensely hard and brittle
+  allotropic form of iron, though normal and stable only in the little
+  triangle GHM, is yet a state through which the metal seems always to
+  pass when the austenite of region 4 changes into the ferrite and
+  cementite of regions 6 and 8. Though not normal below MHSP', yet like
+  [gamma]-iron it can be preserved in the cold by the presence of about
+  5% of manganese, which, though not enough to bring the lower boundary
+  of region 4 below the atmospheric temperature and thus to preserve
+  austenite in the cold, is yet enough to make the transformation of
+  [beta] into [alpha] iron so sluggish that the former remains
+  untransformed even during slow cooling.
+
+  Again, [beta]-iron may be preserved incompletely as in the "hardening
+  of steel," which consists in heating the steel into the austenite
+  state of region 4, and then cooling it so rapidly, e.g. by quenching
+  it in cold water, that, for lack of the time needed for the completion
+  of the change from austenite into ferrite and cementite, much of the
+  iron is caught in transit in the [beta] state. According to our
+  present theory, it is chiefly to beta iron, preserved in one of these
+  ways, that all of our tool steel proper, i.e. steel used for cutting
+  as distinguished from grinding, seems to owe its hardness.
+
+  14. _Martensite_, _Troostite_ and _Sorbite_ are the successive stages
+  through which the metal passes in changing from austenite into ferrite
+  and cementite. _Martensite_, very hard because of its large content of
+  [beta]-iron, is characteristic of hardened steel, but the two others,
+  far from being definite substances, are probably only roughly bounded
+  stages of this transition. _Troostite_ and _sorbite_, indeed, seem to
+  be chiefly very finely divided mixtures of ferrite and cementite, and
+  it is probably because of this fineness that sorbitic steel has its
+  remarkable combination of strength and elasticity with ductility which
+  fits it for resisting severe vibratory and other dynamic stresses,
+  such as those to which rails and shafting are exposed.
+
+  15. _Alpha_ ([alpha]) _iron_ is the form normal and stable for regions
+  5, 6 and 8, i.e. for all temperatures below MHSP'. It is the common,
+  very magnetic form of iron, in itself ductile but relatively soft and
+  weak, as we know it in wrought iron and mild or low-carbon steel.
+
+  16. _Ferrite_ and _cementite_, already described in S 10, are the
+  final products of the transformation of austenite in slow-cooling.
+  [beta]-ferrite and austenite are the normal constituents for the
+  triangle GHM, [alpha]-ferrite (i.e. nearly pure [alpha]-iron) with
+  austenite for the space MHSP, cementite with austenite for region 7,
+  and [alpha]-ferrite and cementite jointly for regions 6 and 8. Ferrite
+  and cementite are thus the normal and usual constituents of slowly
+  cooled steel, including all structural steels, rail steel, &c., and of
+  white cast iron (see S 18).
+
+  17. _Pearlite._--The ferrite and cementite present interstratify
+  habitually as a "eutectoid"[2] called "pearlite" (see ALLOYS, Pl.,
+  fig. 11), in the ratio of about 6 parts of ferrite to 1 of cementite,
+  and hence containing about 0.90% of carbon. Slowly cooled steel
+  containing just 0.90% of carbon (S in fig. 1) consists of pearlite
+  alone. Steel and white cast iron with more than this quantity of
+  carbon consist typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
+  envelopes of free cementite (see ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 13) sufficient in
+  quantity to represent their excess of carbon over the eutectoid ratio;
+  they arc called "hyper-eutectoid," and are represented by region 8 of
+  Fig. 1. Steel containing less than this quantity of carbon consists
+  typically of kernels of pearlite surrounded by envelopes of ferrite
+  (see ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 12) sufficient in quantity to represent their
+  excess of iron over this eutectoid ratio; is called "hypo-eutectoid";
+  and is represented by region 6 of Fig. 1. This typical "envelope and
+  kernel" structure is often only rudimentary.
+
+  The percentage of pearlite and of free ferrite or cementite in these
+  products is shown in fig. 2, in which the ordinates of the line ABC
+  represent the percentage of pearlite corresponding to each percentage
+  of carbon, and the intercept ED, MN or KF, of any point H, P or L,
+  measures the percentage of the excess of ferrite or cementite for
+  hypo- and hyper-eutectic steel and white cast iron respectively.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Relation between the carbon-content and the
+  percentage of the several constituents of slowly cooled steel and
+  white cast iron.]
+
+  18. _The Carbon-Content, i.e. the Ratio of Ferrite to Cementite, of
+  certain typical Steels._--Fig. 3 shows how, as the carbon-content
+  rises from 0 to 4.5%, the percentage of the glass-hard cementite,
+  which is 15 times that of the carbon itself, rises, and that of the
+  soft copper-like ferrite falls, with consequent continuous increase of
+  hardness and loss of malleableness and ductility. The tenacity or
+  tensile strength increases till the carbon-content reaches about
+  1.25%, and the cementite about 19%, and then in turn falls, a result
+  by no means surprising. The presence of a small quantity of the hard
+  cementite ought naturally to strengthen the mass, by opposing the
+  tendency of the soft ferrite to flow under any stress applied to it;
+  but more cementite by its brittleness naturally weakens the mass,
+  causing it to crack open under the distortion which stress inevitably
+  causes. The fact that this decrease of strength begins shortly after
+  the carbon-content rises above the eutectoid or pearlite ratio of
+  0.90% is natural, because the brittleness of the cementite which, in
+  hyper-eutectoid steels, forms a more or less continuous skeleton
+  (ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 13) should be much more effective in starting
+  cracks under distortion than that of the far more minute particles of
+  cementite which lie embedded, indeed drowned, in the sixfold greater
+  mass of ferrite with which they are associated in the pearlite itself.
+  The large massive plates of cementite which form the network or
+  skeleton in hyper-eutectoid steels should, under distortion, naturally
+  tend to cut, in the softer pearlite, chasms too serious to be healed
+  by the inflowing of the plastic ferrite, though this ferrite flows
+  around and immediately heals over any cracks which form in the small
+  quantity of cementite interstratified with it in the pearlite of
+  hypo-eutectoid steels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Physical properties and assumed microscopic
+  constitution of the pearlite series, graphiteless steel slowly cooled
+  and white cast iron. By "total ferrite" is meant both that which forms
+  part of the pearlite and that which is in excess of the pearlite,
+  taken jointly. So with the "total cementite."]
+
+  As the carbon-content increases the welding power naturally decreases
+  rapidly, because of the rapid fall of the "solidus curve" at which
+  solidification is complete (Aa of fig. 1), and hence of the range in
+  which the steel is coherent enough to be manipulated, and, finally, of
+  the attainable pliancy and softness of the metal. Clearly the mushy
+  mixture of solid austenite and molten iron of which the metal in
+  region 2 consists cannot cohere under either the blows or the pressure
+  by means of which welding must be done. Rivet steel, which above all
+  needs extreme ductility to endure the distortion of being driven home,
+  and tube steel which must needs weld easily, no matter at what
+  sacrifice of strength, are made as free from carbon, i.e. of as nearly
+  pure ferrite, as is practicable. The distortion which rails undergo in
+  manufacture and use is incomparably less than that to which rivets are
+  subjected, and thus rail steel may safely be much richer in carbon and
+  hence in cementite, and therefore much stronger and harder, so as to
+  better endure the load and the abrasion of the passing wheels. Indeed,
+  its carbon-content is made small quite as much because of the violence
+  of the shocks from these wheels as because of any actual distortion to
+  be expected, since, within limits, as the carbon-content increases
+  the shock-resisting power decreases. Here, as in all cases, the
+  carbon-content must be the result of a compromise, neither so small
+  that the rail flattens and wears out like lead, nor so great that it
+  snaps like glass. Boiler plates undergo in shaping and assembling an
+  intermediate degree of distortion, and therefore they must be given an
+  intermediate carbon-content, following the general rule that the
+  carbon-content and hence the strength should be as great as is
+  consistent with retaining the degree of ductility and the
+  shock-resisting power which the object will need in actual use. Thus
+  the typical carbon-content may be taken as about 0.05% for rivets and
+  tubes, 0.20% for boiler plates, and 0.50 to 0.75% for rails, implying
+  the presence of 0.75% of cementite in the first two, 3% in the third
+  and 7.5% to 11.25% in the last.
+
+  19. _Carbon-Content of Hardened Steels._--Turning from these cases in
+  which the steel is used in the slowly cooled state, so that it is a
+  mixture of pearlite with ferrite or cementite, i.e. is pearlitic, to
+  those in which it is used in the hardened or martensitic state, we
+  find that the carbon-content is governed by like considerations.
+  Railway car springs, which are exposed to great shock, have typically
+  about 0.75% of carbon; common tool steel, which is exposed to less
+  severe shock, has usually between 0.75 and 1.25%; file steel, which is
+  subject to but little shock, and has little demanded of it but to bite
+  hard and stay hard, has usually from 1.25 to 1.50%. The carbon-content
+  of steel is rarely greater than this, lest the brittleness be
+  excessive. But beyond this are the very useful, because very fusible,
+  cast irons with from 3 to 4% of carbon, the embrittling effect of
+  which is much lessened by its being in the state of graphite.
+
+  20. _Slag or Cinder_, a characteristic component of wrought iron,
+  which usually contains from 0.20 to 2.00% of it, is essentially a
+  silicate of iron (ferrous silicate), and is present in wrought iron
+  simply because this product is made by welding together pasty granules
+  of iron in a molten bath of such slag, without ever melting the
+  resultant mass or otherwise giving the envelopes of slag thus
+  imprisoned a chance to escape completely.
+
+  21. _Graphite_, nearly pure carbon, is characteristic of "gray cast
+  iron," in which it exists as a nearly continuous skeleton of very thin
+  laminated plates or flakes (fig. 27), usually curved, and forming from
+  2.50% to 3.50% of the whole. As these flakes readily split open, when
+  a piece of this iron is broken rupture passes through them, with the
+  result that, even though the graphite may form only some 3% of the
+  mass by weight (say 10% by volume), practically nothing but graphite
+  is seen in the fracture. Hence the weakness and the dark-grey fracture
+  of this iron, and hence, by brushing this fracture with a wire brush
+  and so detaching these loosely clinging flakes of graphite, the colour
+  can be changed nearly to the very light-grey of pure iron. There is
+  rarely any important quantity of graphite in commercial steels. (See S
+  26.)
+
+  22. _Further Illustration of the Iron-Carbon Diagram._--In order to
+  illustrate further the meaning of the diagram (fig. 1), let us follow
+  by means of the ordinate QUw the undisturbed slow cooling of molten
+  hyper-eutectoid steel containing 1% of carbon, for simplicity assuming
+  that no graphite forms and that the several transformations occur
+  promptly as they fall due. When the gradually falling temperature
+  reaches 1430 deg. (q), the mass begins to freeze as [gamma]-iron or
+  austenite, called "primary" to distinguish it from that which forms
+  part of the eutectic. But the freezing, instead of completing itself
+  at a fixed temperature as that of pure water does, continues until the
+  temperature sinks to r on the line Aa. Thus the iron has rather a
+  freezing-range than a freezing-point. Moreover, the freezing is
+  "selective." The first particles of austenite to freeze contain about
+  0.33% of carbon (p). As freezing progresses, at each successive
+  temperature reached the frozen austenite has the carbon-content of the
+  point on Aa which that temperature abscissa cuts, and the still molten
+  part or "mother-metal" has the carbon-content horizontally opposite
+  this on the line AB. In other words, the composition of the frozen
+  part and that of the mother-metal respectively are p and q at the
+  beginning of the freezing, and r and t' at the end; and during
+  freezing they slide along Aa and AB from p to r and from q to t'.
+  This, of course, brings the final composition of the frozen austenite
+  when freezing is complete exactly to that which the molten mass had
+  before freezing began.
+
+  The heat evolved by this process of solidification retards the fall of
+  temperature; but after this the rate of cooling remains regular until
+  T (750 deg.) on the line Sa (Ar3) is reached, when a second
+  retardation occurs, due to the heat liberated by the passage within
+  the pasty mass of part of the iron and carbon from a state of mere
+  solution to that of definite combination in the ratio Fe3C, forming
+  microscopic particles of cementite, while the remainder of the iron
+  and carbon continue dissolved in each other as austenite. This
+  formation of cementite continues as the temperature falls, till at
+  about 690 deg. C., (U, called Ar_(2-1)) so much of the carbon (in this
+  case about 0.10%) and of the iron have united in the form of
+  cementite, that the composition of the remaining solid-solution or
+  "mother-metal" of austenite has reached that of the eutectoid,
+  hardenite; i.e. it now contains 0.90 % of carbon. The cementite which
+  has thus far been forming may be called "pro-eutectoid" cementite,
+  because it forms before the remaining austenite reaches the eutectoid
+  composition. As the temperature now falls past 690 deg., this
+  hardenite mother-metal in turn splits up, after the fashion of
+  eutectics, into alternate layers of ferrite and cementite grouped
+  together as pearlite, so that the mass as a whole now becomes a
+  mixture of pearlite with cementite. The iron thus liberated, as the
+  ferrite of this pearlite, changes simultaneously to [alpha]-ferrite.
+  The passage of this large quantity of carbon and iron, 0.90% of the
+  former and 12.6 of the latter, from a state of mere solution as
+  hardenite to one of definite chemical union as cementite, together
+  with the passage of the iron itself from the [gamma] to the [alpha]
+  state, evolves so much heat as actually to heat the mass up so that it
+  brightens in a striking manner. This phenomenon is called the
+  "recalescence."
+
+  This change from austenite to ferrite and cementite, from the [gamma]
+  through the [beta] to the [alpha] state, is of course accompanied by
+  the loss of the "hardening power," i.e. the power of being hardened by
+  sudden cooling, because the essence of this hardening is the retention
+  of the [beta] state. As shown in ALLOYS, Pl., fig. 13, the slowly
+  cooled steel now consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded by
+  envelopes of the cementite which was born of the austenite in cooling
+  from T to U.
+
+  23. To take a second case, molten hypo-eutectoid steel of 0.20% of
+  carbon on freezing from K to x passes in the like manner to the state
+  of solid austenite, [gamma]-iron with this 0.20% of carbon dissolved
+  in it. Its further cooling undergoes three spontaneous retardations,
+  one at K' (Ar3 about 820 deg.), at which part of the iron begins to
+  isolate itself within the austenite mother-metal in the form of
+  envelopes of [beta]-ferrite, i.e. of free iron of the [beta]
+  allotropic modification, which surrounds the kernels or grains of the
+  residual still undecomposed part of the austenite. At the second
+  retardation, K" (Ar2, about 770 deg.) this ferrite changes to the
+  normal magnetic [alpha]-ferrite, so that the mass as a whole becomes
+  magnetic. Moreover, the envelopes of ferrite which began forming at
+  Ar3 continue to broaden by the accession of more and more ferrite born
+  from the austenite progressively as the temperature sinks, till, by
+  the time when Ar1 (about 690 deg.) is reached, so much free ferrite
+  has been formed that the remaining mother-metal has been enriched to
+  the composition of hardenite, i.e. it now contains 0.90% of carbon.
+  Again, as the temperature in turn falls past Ar1 this hardenite
+  mother-metal splits up into cementite and ferrite grouped together as
+  pearlite, with the resulting recalescence, and the mass, as shown in
+  Alloys, Pl., fig. 12, then consists of kernels of pearlite surrounded
+  by envelopes of ferrite. All these phenomena are parallel with those
+  of 1.00% carbon steel at this same critical point Ar1. As such steel
+  cools slowly past Ar3, Ar2 and Ar1, it loses its hardening power
+  progressively.
+
+  In short, from Ar3 to Ar1 the excess substance ferrite or cementite,
+  in hypo- and hyper-eutectoid steels respectively, progressively
+  crystallizes out as a network or skeleton within the austenite
+  mother-metal, which thus progressively approaches the composition of
+  hardenite, reaching it at Ar1, and there splitting up into ferrite and
+  cementite interstratified as pearlite. Further, any ferrite liberated
+  at Ar3 changes there from [gamma] to [beta], and any present at Ar2
+  changes from [beta] to [alpha]. Between H and S, Ar3 and Ar2 occur
+  together, as do Ar2 and Ar1 between S and P' and Ar3, Ar2 and Ar1 at S
+  itself; so that these critical points in these special cases are
+  called Ar_(3-2), Ar_(2-1) and Ar_(3-2-1) respectively. The
+  corresponding critical points which occur during rise of temperature,
+  with the reverse transformations, are called Ac1, Ac2, Ac3, &c. A
+  (Tschernoff) is the generic name, r refers to falling temperature
+  (_refroidissant_) and c to rising temperature (_chauffant_, Osmond).
+
+  24. The freezing of molten cast iron of 2.50% of carbon goes on
+  selectively like that of these steels which we have been studying,
+  till the enrichment of the molten mother-metal in carbon brings its
+  carbon-contents to B, 4.30%, the eutectic[3] carbon-content, i.e. that
+  of the greatest fusibility or lowest melting-point. At this point
+  selection ceases; the remaining molten metal freezes as a whole, and
+  in freezing splits up into a conglomerate eutectic of (1) austenite of
+  about 2.2 % of carbon, and therefore saturated with that element, and
+  (2) cementite; and with this eutectic is mixed the "primary" austenite
+  which froze out as the temperature sank from v to v'. The white-hot,
+  solid, but soft mass is now a conglomerate of (1) "primary" austenite,
+  (2) "eutectic" austenite and (3) "eutectic" cementite. As the
+  temperature sinks still farther, pro-eutectoid cementite (see S 22)
+  forms progressively in the austenite both primary and eutectic, and
+  this pro-eutectoid cementite as it comes into existence tends to
+  assemble in the form of a network enveloping the kernels or grains of
+  the austenite from which it springs. The reason for its birth, of
+  course, is that the solubility of carbon in austenite progressively
+  decreases as the temperature falls, from about 2.2% at 1130 deg. (a),
+  to 0.90% at 690 deg. (Ar1), as shown by the line aS, with the
+  consequence that the austenite keeps rejecting in the form of this
+  pro-eutectoid cementite all carbon in excess of its saturation-point
+  for the existing temperature. Here the mass consists of (1) primary
+  austenite, (2) eutectic austenite and cementite interstratified and
+  (3) pro-eutectoid cementite.
+
+  This formation of cementite through the rejection of carbon by both
+  the primary and the eutectic austenite continues quite as in the case
+  of 1.00% carbon steel, with impoverishment of the austenite to the
+  hardenite or eutectoid ratio, and the splitting up of that hardenite
+  into pearlite at Ar1, so that the mass when cold finally consists of
+  (1) the primary austenite now split up into kernels of pearlite
+  surrounded by envelopes of pro-eutectoid cementite, (2) the eutectic
+  of cementite plus austenite, the latter of which has in like manner
+  split up into a mixture of pearlite plus cementite. Such a mass is
+  shown in fig. 4. Here the black bat-like patches are the masses of
+  pearlite plus pro-eutectoid cementite resulting from the splitting up
+  of the primary austenite. The magnification is too small to show the
+  zebra striping of the pearlite. In the black-and-white ground mass the
+  white is the eutectic cementite, and the black the eutectic austenite,
+  now split up into pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, which cannot
+  here be distinguished from each other.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--The constitution of hypo-eutectic white or
+  cementitiferous cast iron (washed metal), W. Campbell. The black
+  bat-like areas are the primary austenite, the zebra-marked ground mass
+  the eutectic, composed of white stripes of cementite and black stripes
+  of austenite. Both the primary and eutectic austenite have changed in
+  cooling into a mixture of pearlite and pro-eutectoid cementite, too
+  fine to be distinguished here.]
+
+  25. As we pass to cases with higher and higher carbon-content, the
+  primary austenite which freezes in cooling across region 2 forms a
+  smaller and smaller proportion of the whole, and the
+  austenite-cementite eutectic which forms at the eutectic
+  freezing-point, 1130 deg. (aB), increases in amount until, when the
+  carbon-content reaches the eutectic ratio, 4.30%, there is but a
+  single freezing-point, and the whole mass when solid is made up of
+  this eutectic. If there is more than 4.30% of carbon, then in cooling
+  through region 3 the excess of carbon over this ratio freezes out as
+  "primary" cementite. But in any event the changes which have just been
+  described for cast iron of 2.50% of carbon occur in crossing region 7,
+  and at Ar1 (PSP').
+
+  Just as variations in the carbon-content shift the temperature of the
+  freezing-range and of the various critical points, so do variations in
+  the content of other elements, notably silicon, phosphorus, manganese,
+  chromium, nickel and tungsten. Nickel and manganese lower these
+  critical points, so that with 25% of nickel Ar3 lies below the common
+  temperature 20 deg. C. With 13% of manganese Ar3 is very low, and the
+  austenite decomposes so slowly that it is preserved practically intact
+  by sudden cooling. These steels then normally consist of [gamma]-iron,
+  modified by the large amount of nickel or manganese with which it is
+  alloyed. They are non-magnetic or very feebly magnetic. But the
+  critical points of such nickel steel though thus depressed, are not
+  destroyed; and if it is cooled in liquid air below its Ar2, it passes
+  to the [alpha] state and becomes magnetic.
+
+  26. _Double Nature of the Carbon-Iron Diagram._--The part played by
+  graphite in the constitution of the iron-carbon compounds, hitherto
+  ignored for simplicity, is shown in fig. 5. Looking at the matter in a
+  broad way, in all these carbon-iron alloys, both steel and cast irons,
+  part of the carbon may be dissolved in the iron, usually as austenite,
+  e.g. in regions 2, 4, 5 and 7 of Fig. 1; the rest, i.e. the carbon
+  which is not dissolved, or the "undissolved carbon," forms either the
+  definite carbide, cementite, Fe3C, or else exists in the free state as
+  graphite. Now, just as fig. 1 shows the constitution of these
+  iron-carbon alloys for all temperatures and all percentages of carbon
+  when the undissolved carbon exists as cementite, so there should be a
+  diagram showing this constitution when all the undissolved carbon
+  exists as graphite. In short, there are two distinct carbon-iron
+  diagrams, the iron-cementite one shown in fig. 1 and studied at length
+  in SS 22 to 25, and the iron-graphite one shown in fig. 5 in unbroken
+  lines, with the iron-cementite diagram reproduced in broken lines for
+  comparison. What here follows represents our present rather
+  ill-established theory. These two diagrams naturally have much the
+  same general shape, but though the boundaries of the several regions
+  in the iron-cementite diagram are known pretty accurately, and though
+  the relative positions of the boundaries of the two diagrams are
+  probably about as here shown, the exact topography of the
+  iron-graphite diagram is not yet known. In it the normal constituents
+  are, for region II., molten metal + primary austenite; for region
+  III., molten metal + primary graphite; for region IV., primary
+  austenite; for region VII., eutectic austenite, eutectic graphite, and
+  a quantity of pro-eutectoid graphite which increases as we pass from
+  the upper to the lower part of the region, together with primary
+  austenite at the left of the eutectic point B' and primary graphite at
+  the right of that point. Thus when iron containing 2.50% of carbon (v.
+  fig. 1) solidifies, its carbon may form cementite following the
+  cementite-austenite diagram so that white, i.e. cementitiferous, cast
+  iron results; or graphite, following the graphite-austenite diagram,
+  so that ultra-grey, i.e. typical graphitic cast iron results; or, as
+  usually happens, certain molecules may follow one diagram while the
+  rest follow the other diagram, so that cast iron which has both
+  cementite and graphite results, as in most commercial grey cast iron,
+  and typically in "mottled cast iron," in which there are distinct
+  patches of grey and others of white cast iron.
+
+  Though carbon passes far more readily under most conditions into the
+  state of cementite than into that of graphite, yet of the two graphite
+  is the more stable and cementite the less stable, or the "metastable"
+  form. Thus cementite is always tending to change over into graphite by
+  the reaction Fe3C = 3Fe + Gr, though this tendency is often held in
+  check by different causes; but graphite never changes back directly
+  into cementite, at least according to our present theory. The fact
+  that graphite may dissolve in the iron as austenite, and that when
+  this latter again breaks up it is more likely to yield cementite than
+  graphite, is only an apparent and not a real exception to this law of
+  the greater stability of graphite than of cementite.
+
+  Slow cooling, slow solidification, the presence of an abundance of
+  carbon, and the presence of silicon, all favour the formation of
+  graphite; rapid cooling, the presence of sulphur, and in most cases
+  that of manganese, favour the formation of cementite. For instance,
+  though in cast iron, which is rich in carbon, that carbon passes
+  comparatively easily into the state of graphite, yet in steel, which
+  contains much less carbon, but little graphite forms under most
+  conditions. Indeed, in the common structural steels which contain only
+  very little carbon, hardly any of that carbon exists as graphite.
+
+  27. _Thermal Treatment._--The hardening, tempering and annealing of
+  steel, the chilling and annealing of cast iron, and the annealing of
+  malleable cast iron are explained readily by the facts just set forth.
+
+  28. _The hardening of steel_ consists in first transforming it into
+  austenite by heating it up into region 4 of fig. 1, and then quenching
+  it, usually in cold water, so as to cool it very suddenly, and thus to
+  deny the time which the complete transformation of the austenite into
+  ferrite and cementite requires, and thereby to catch much of the iron
+  in transit in the hard brittle [beta] state. In the cold this
+  transformation cannot take place, because of molecular rigidity or
+  some other impediment. The suddenly cooled metal is hard and brittle,
+  because the cold [beta]-iron which it contains is hard and brittle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Graphite-austenite or stable carbon-iron,
+  diagram.]
+
+  The degree of hardening which the steel undergoes increases with its
+  carbon-content, chiefly because, during sudden cooling, the presence
+  of carbon acts like a brake to impede the transformations, and thus to
+  increase the quantity of [beta]-iron caught in transit, but probably
+  also in part because the hardness of this [beta]-iron increases with
+  its carbon-content. Thus, though sudden cooling has very little effect
+  on steel of 0.10% of carbon, it changes that of 1.50% from a somewhat
+  ductile body to one harder and more brittle than glass.
+
+  29. _The Tempering and Annealing of Steel._--But this sudden cooling
+  goes too far, preserving so much [beta]-iron as to make the steel too
+  brittle for most purposes. This brittleness has therefore in general
+  to be mitigated or "tempered," unfortunately at the cost of losing
+  part of the hardness proper, by reheating the hardened steel slightly,
+  usually to between 200 deg. and 300 deg. C., so as to relax the
+  molecular rigidity and thereby to allow the arrested transformation to
+  go on a little farther, shifting a little of the [beta]-iron over into
+  the [alpha] state. The higher the tempering-temperature, i.e. that to
+  which the hardened steel is thus reheated, the more is the molecular
+  rigidity relaxed, the farther on does the transformation go, and the
+  softer does the steel become; so that, if the reheating reaches a
+  dull-red heat, the transformation from austenite into ferrite and
+  cementite completes itself slowly, and when now cooled the steel is as
+  soft and ductile as if it had never been hardened. It is now said to
+  be "annealed."
+
+  30. _Chilling cast iron_, i.e. hastening its cooling by casting it in
+  a cool mould, favours the formation of cementite rather than of
+  graphite in the freezing of the eutectic at aBc, and also, in case of
+  hyper-eutectic iron, in the passage through region 3. Like the
+  hardening of steel, it hinders the transformation of the austenite,
+  whether primary or eutectic, into pearlite + cementite, and thus
+  catches part of the iron in transit in the hard [beta] state. The
+  annealing of such iron may occur in either of two degrees--a small
+  one, as in making common chilled cast iron objects, such as railway
+  car wheels, or a great one, as in making malleable cast iron. In the
+  former case, the objects are heated only to the neighbourhood of Ac1,
+  say to 730 deg. C., so that the [beta]-iron may slip into the a state,
+  and the transformation of the austenite into pearlite and cementite
+  may complete itself. The joint effect of such chilling and such
+  annealing is to make the metal much harder than if slowly cooled,
+  because for each 1% of graphite which the chilling suppresses, 15% of
+  the glass-hard cementite is substituted. Thus a cast iron which, if
+  cooled slowly, would have been "grey," i.e. would have consisted
+  chiefly of graphite with pearlite and ferrite (which are all
+  relatively soft bodies), if thus chilled and annealed consists of
+  cementite and pearlite. But in most such cases, in spite of the
+  annealing, this hardness is accompanied by a degree of brittleness too
+  great for most purposes. The process therefore is so managed that only
+  the outer shell of the casting is chilled, and that the interior
+  remains graphitic, i.e. grey cast iron, soft and relatively malleable.
+
+  31. In making _malleable castings_ the annealing, i.e. the change
+  towards the stable state of ferrite + graphite, is carried much
+  farther by means of a much longer and usually a higher heating than in
+  the manufacture of chilled castings. The castings, initially of white
+  cast iron, are heated for about a week, to a temperature usually above
+  730 deg. C. and often reaching 900 deg. C. (1346 deg. and 1652 deg.
+  F.). For about 60 hours the heat is held at its highest point, from
+  which it descends extremely slowly. The molecular freedom which this
+  high temperature gives enables the cementite to change gradually into
+  a mixture of graphite and austenite with the result that, after the
+  castings have been cooled and their austenite has in cooling past Ac1
+  changed into pearlite and ferrite, the mixture of cementite and
+  pearlite of which they originally consisted has now given place to one
+  of fine or "temper" graphite and ferrite, with more or less pearlite
+  according to the completeness of the transfer of the carbon to the
+  state of graphite.
+
+  Why, then, is this material malleable, though the common grey cast
+  iron, which is made up of about the same constituents and often in
+  about the same proportion, is brittle? The reason is that the
+  particles of temper graphite which are thus formed within the solid
+  casting in its long annealing are so finely divided that they do not
+  break up the continuity of the mass in a very harmful way; whereas in
+  grey cast iron both the eutectic graphite formed in solidifying, and
+  also the primary graphite which, in case the metal is hyper-eutectic,
+  forms in cooling through region 3 of fig. 1, surrounded as it is by
+  the still molten mother-metal out of which it is growing, form a
+  nearly continuous skeleton of very large flakes, which do break up in
+  a most harmful way the continuity of the mass of cast iron in which
+  they are embedded.
+
+  In carrying out this process the castings are packed in a mass of iron
+  oxide, which at this temperature gradually removes the fine or
+  "temper" graphite by oxidizing that in the outer crust to carbonic
+  oxide, whereon the carbon farther in begins diffusing outwards by
+  "molecular migration," to be itself oxidized on reaching the crust.
+  This removal of graphite doubtless further stimulates the formation of
+  graphite, by relieving the mechanical and perhaps the osmotic
+  pressure. Thus, first, for the brittle glass-hard cementite there is
+  gradually substituted the relatively harmless temper graphite; and,
+  second, even this is in part removed by surface oxidation.
+
+  32. _Fineness of Structure._--Each of these ancient processes thus
+  consists essentially in so manipulating the temperature that, out of
+  the several possible constituents, the metal shall actually consist of
+  a special set in special proportions. But in addition there is another
+  very important principle underlying many of our thermal processes,
+  viz. that the state of aggregation of certain of these constituents,
+  and through it the properties of the metal as a whole, are profoundly
+  affected by temperature manipulations. Thus, prior exposure to a
+  temperature materially above Ac3 coarsens the structure of most steel,
+  in the sense of giving it when cold a coarse fracture, and enlarging
+  the grains of pearlite, &c., later found in the slowly cooled metal.
+  This coarsening and the brittleness which accompanies it increase with
+  the temperature to which the metal has been exposed. Steel which after
+  a slow cooling from about 722 deg. C. will bend 166 deg. before
+  breaking, will, after slow cooling from about 1050 deg. C., bend only
+  18 deg. before breaking. This injury fortunately can be cured either
+  by _reheating_ the steel to Ac3 when it "refines," i.e. returns
+  spontaneously to its fine-grained ductile state (_cooling_ past Ar3
+  does not have this effect); or by breaking up the coarse grains by
+  _mechanical distortion_, e.g. by forging or rolling. For instance, if
+  steel has been coarsened by heating to 1400 deg. C., and if, when it
+  has cooled to a lower temperature, say 850 deg. C. we forge it, its
+  grain-size and ductility when cold will be approximately those which
+  it would have had if heated only to 850 deg. Hence steel which has
+  been heated very highly, whether for welding, or for greatly softening
+  it so that it can be rolled to the desired shape with but little
+  expenditure of power, ought later to be refined, either by reheating
+  it from below Ar3 to slightly above Ac3 or by rolling it after it has
+  cooled to a relatively low temperature, i.e. by having a low
+  "finishing temperature." Steel castings have initially the extremely
+  coarse structure due to cooling without mechanical distortion from
+  their very high temperature of solidification; they are "annealed,"
+  i.e. this coarseness and the consequent brittleness are removed, by
+  reheating them much above Ac3, which also relieves the internal
+  stresses due to the different rates at which different layers cool,
+  and hence contract, during and after solidification. For steel
+  containing less than about 0.13% of carbon, the embrittling
+  temperature is in a different range, near 700 deg. C., and such steel
+  refines at temperatures above 900 deg. C.
+
+33. _The Possibilities of Thermal Treatment._--When we consider the
+great number of different regions in fig. 1, each with its own set of
+constitutents, and remember that by different rates of cooling from
+different temperatures we can retain in the cold metal these different
+sets of constituents in widely varying proportions; and when we further
+reflect that not only the proportion of each constituent present but
+also its state of aggregation can be controlled by thermal treatment, we
+see how vast a field is here opened, how great a variety of different
+properties can be induced in any individual piece of steel, how enormous
+the variety of properties thus attainable in the different varieties
+collectively, especially since for each percentage of carbon an
+incalculable number of varieties of steel may be made by alloying it
+with different proportions of such elements as nickel, chromium, &c. As
+yet there has been only the roughest survey of certain limited areas in
+this great field, the further exploration of which will enormously
+increase the usefulness of this wonderful metal.
+
+34. _Alloy steels_ have come into extensive use for important special
+purposes, and a very great increase of their use is to be expected. The
+chief ones are nickel steel, manganese steel, chrome steel and
+chrome-tungsten steel. The general order of merit of a given variety or
+specimen of iron or steel may be measured by the degree to which it
+combines strength and hardness with ductility. These two classes of
+properties tend to exclude each other, for, as a general rule, whatever
+tends to make iron and steel hard and strong tends to make it
+correspondingly brittle, and hence liable to break treacherously,
+especially under shock. Manganese steel and nickel steel form an
+important exception to this rule, in being at once very strong and hard
+and extremely ductile. _Nickel steel_, which usually contains from 3 to
+3.50% of nickel and about 0.25% of carbon, combines very great tensile
+strength and hardness, and a very high limit of elasticity, with great
+ductility. Its combination of ductility with strength and hardening
+power has given it very extended use for the armour of war-vessels. For
+instance, following Krupp's formula, the side and barbette armour of
+war-vessels is now generally if not universally made of nickel steel
+containing about 3.25% of nickel, 0.40% of carbon, and 1.50% of
+chromium, deeply carburized on its impact face. Here the merit of nickel
+steel is not so much that it resists perforation, as that it does not
+crack even when deeply penetrated by a projectile. The combination of
+ductility, which lessens the tendency to break when overstrained or
+distorted, with a very high limit of elasticity, gives it great value
+for shafting, the merit of which is measured by its endurance of the
+repeated stresses to which its rotation exposes it whenever its
+alignment is not mathematically straight. The alignment of marine
+shafting, changing with every passing wave, is an extreme example. Such
+an intermittently applied stress is far more destructive to iron than a
+continuous one, and even if it is only half that of the limit of
+elasticity, its indefinite repetition eventually causes rupture. In a
+direct competitive test the presence of 3.25% of nickel increased nearly
+sixfold the number of rotations which a steel shaft would endure before
+breaking.
+
+35. As actually made, _manganese steel_ contains about 12% of manganese
+and 1.50% of carbon. Although the presence of 1.50% of manganese makes
+steel relatively brittle, and although a further addition at first
+increases this brittleness, so that steel containing between 4 and 5.5%
+can be pulverized under the hammer, yet a still further increase gives
+very great ductility, accompanied by great hardness--a combination of
+properties which was not possessed by any other known substance when
+this remarkable alloy, known as Hadfield's manganese steel, was
+discovered. Its ductility, to which it owes its value, is profoundly
+affected by the rate of cooling. Sudden cooling makes the metal
+extremely ductile, and slow cooling makes it brittle. Its behaviour in
+this respect is thus the opposite of that of carbon steel. But its great
+hardness is not materially affected by the rate of cooling. It is used
+extensively for objects which require both hardness and ductility, such
+as rock-crushing machinery, railway crossings, mine-car wheels and
+safes. The burglar's blow-pipe locally "draws the temper," i.e. softens
+a spot on a hardened carbon steel or chrome steel safe by simply heating
+it, so that as soon as it has again cooled he can drill through it and
+introduce his charge of dynamite. But neither this nor any other
+procedure softens manganese steel rapidly. Yet this very fact that it is
+unalterably hard has limited its use, because of the great difficulty of
+cutting it to shape, which has in general to be done with emery wheels
+instead of the usual iron-cutting tools. Another defect is its
+relatively low elastic limit.
+
+36. _Chrome steel_, which usually contains about 2% of chromium and 0.80
+to 2% of carbon, owes its value to combining, when in the "hardened" or
+suddenly cooled state, intense hardness with a high elastic limit, so
+that it is neither deformed permanently nor cracked by extremely violent
+shocks. For this reason it is the material generally if not always used
+for armour-piercing projectiles. It is much used also for certain
+rock-crushing machinery (the shoes and dies of stamp-mills) and for
+safes. These are made of alternate layers of soft wrought iron and
+chrome steel hardened by sudden cooling. The hardness of the hardened
+chrome steel resists the burglar's drill, and the ductility of the
+wrought iron the blows of his sledge.
+
+Vanadium in small quantities, 0.15 or 0.20%, is said to improve steel
+greatly, especially in increasing its resistance to shock and to
+often-repeated stress. But the improvement may be due wholly to the
+considerable chromium content of these so-called vanadium steels.
+
+37. _Tungsten steel_, which usually contains from 5 to 10% of tungsten
+and from 1 to 2% of carbon, is used for magnets, because of its great
+retentivity.
+
+38. _Chrome-tungsten or High-speed Steel._--Steel with a large content
+of both chromium and tungsten has the very valuable property of
+"red-hardness," i.e. of retaining its hardness and hence its power of
+cutting iron and other hard substances, even when it is heated to dull
+redness, say 600 deg. C. (1112 deg. F.) by the friction of the work
+which it is doing. Hence a machinist can cut steel or iron nearly six
+times as fast with a lathe tool of this steel as with one of carbon
+steel, because with the latter the cutting speed must be so slow that
+the cutting tool is not heated by the friction above say 250 deg. C.
+(482 deg. F.), lest it be unduly softened or "tempered" (S 29). This
+effect of chromium, tungsten and carbon jointly consists essentially in
+raising the "tempering temperature," i.e. that to which the metal, in
+which by suitable thermal treatment the iron molecules have been brought
+to the allotropic [gamma] or [beta] state or a mixture of both, can be
+heated without losing its hardness through the escape of that iron into
+the [alpha] state. In short, these elements seem to impede the
+allotropic change of the iron itself. The composition of this steel is
+as follows:--
+
+               The usual limits.   Apparently the best.
+  Carbon        0.32 to  1.28         0.68 to  0.67
+  Manganese     0.03  "  0.30         0.07  "  0.11
+  Chromium      2.23  "  7.02         5.95  "  5.47
+  Tungsten      9.25  " 25.45        17.81  " 18.19
+
+39. _Impurities._--The properties of iron and steel, like those of most
+of the metals, are profoundly influenced by the presence of small and
+sometimes extremely small quantities of certain impurities, of which the
+most important are phosphorus and sulphur, the former derived chiefly
+from apatite (phosphate of lime) and other minerals which accompany the
+iron ore itself, the latter from the pyrite found not only in most iron
+ores but in nearly all coal and coke. All commercial iron and steel
+contain more or less of both these impurities, the influence of which is
+so strong that a variation of 0.01%, i.e. of one part in 10,000, of
+either of them has a noticeable effect. The best tool steel should not
+contain more than 0.02% of either, and in careful practice it is often
+specified that the phosphorus and sulphur respectively shall not exceed
+0.04 and 0.05% in the steel for important bridges, or 0.06 and 0.07% in
+rail steel, though some very prudent engineers allow as much as .085% or
+even 0.10% of phosphorus in rails.
+
+40. The specific effect of _phosphorus_ is to make the metal cold-short,
+i.e. brittle in the cold, apparently because it increases the size and
+the sharpness of demarcation of the crystalline grains of which the mass
+is made up. The specific effect of _sulphur_ is to make the metal
+red-short, i.e. brittle, when at a red heat, by forming a network of
+iron sulphide which encases these crystalline grains and thus plays the
+part of a weak link in a strong chain.
+
+41. _Oxygen_, probably dissolved in the iron as ferrous oxide FeO, also
+makes the metal red-short.
+
+42. _Manganese_ by itself rather lessens than increases the
+malleableness and, indeed, the general merit of the metal, but it is
+added intentionally, in quantities even as large as 1.5% to palliate the
+effects of sulphur and oxygen. With sulphur it forms a sulphide which
+draws together into almost harmless drops, instead of encasing the
+grains of iron. With oxygen it probably forms manganous oxide, which is
+less harmful than ferrous oxide. (See S 35.)
+
+43. _Ores of Iron._--Even though the earth seems to be a huge iron
+meteor with but a thin covering of rocks, the exasperating proneness of
+iron to oxidize explains readily why this metal is only rarely found
+native, except in the form of meteorites. They are four important iron
+ores, magnetite, haematite, limonite and siderite, and one of less but
+still considerable importance, pyrite or pyrites.
+
+  44. _Magnetite_, Fe3O4, contains 72.41% of iron. It crystallizes in
+  the cubical system, often in beautiful octahedra and rhombic
+  dodecahedra. It is black with a black streak. Its specific gravity is
+  5.2, and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5. It is very magnetic, and sometimes
+  polar.
+
+  45. _Haematite_, or red haematite, Fe2O3, contains 70% of iron. It
+  crystallizes in the rhombohedral system. Its colour varies from
+  brilliant bluish-grey to deep red. Its streak is always red. Its
+  specific gravity is 5.3 and its hardness 5.5 to 6.5.
+
+  46. _Limonite_, 2Fe2O3, 3H2O, contains 59.9% of iron. Its colour
+  varies from light brown to black. Its streak is yellowish-black, its
+  specific gravity 3.6 to 4.0, and its hardness 5 to 5.5. Limonite and
+  the related minerals, turgite, 2Fe2O3 + H2O, and gothite, Fe2O3 + H2O,
+  are grouped together under the term "brown haematite."
+
+  47. _Siderite_, or spathic iron ore, FeCO3, crystallizes in the
+  rhombohedral system and contains 48.28% of iron. Its colour varies
+  from yellowish-brown to grey. Its specific gravity is 3.7 to 3.9, and
+  its hardness 3.5 to 4.5. The clayey siderite of the British coal
+  measures is called "clay band," and that containing bituminous matter
+  is called "black band."
+
+  48. _Pyrite_, FeS2, contains 46.7% of iron. It crystallizes in the
+  cubic system, usually in cubes, pentagonal dodecahedra or octahedra,
+  often of great beauty and perfection. It is golden-yellow, with a
+  greenish or brownish-black streak. Its specific gravity is 4.83 to
+  5.2, its hardness 6 to 6.5. Though it contains far too much sulphur to
+  be used in iron manufacture without first being desulphurized, yet
+  great quantities of slightly cupriferous pyrite, after yielding nearly
+  all their sulphur in the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and most of
+  the remainder in the wet extraction of their copper, are then used
+  under the name of "blue billy" or "purple ore," as an ore of iron, a
+  use which is likely to increase greatly in importance with the gradual
+  exhaustion of the richest deposits of the oxidized ores.
+
+49. _The Ores actually Impure._--As these five minerals actually exist
+in the earth's crust they are usually more or less impure chemically,
+and they are almost always mechanically mixed with barren mineral
+matter, such as quartz, limestone and clay, collectively called "the
+gangue." In some cases the iron-bearing mineral, such as magnetite or
+haematite, can be separated from the gangue after crashing, either
+mechanically or magnetically, so that the part thus enriched or
+"concentrated" alone need be smelted.
+
+50. _Geological Age._--The Archaean crystalline rocks abound in deposits
+of magnetite and red haematite, many of them very large and rich. These
+of course are the oldest of our ores, and from deposits of like age,
+especially those of the more readily decomposed silicates, has come the
+iron which now exists in the siderites and red and brown haematites of
+the later geological formations.
+
+51. _The World's Supply of Iron Ore._--The iron ores of the earth's
+crust will probably suffice to supply our needs for a very long period,
+perhaps indeed for many thousand years. It is true that an official
+statement, which is here reproduced, given in 1905 by Professor
+Tornebohm to the Swedish parliament, credited the world with only
+10,000,000,000 tons of ore, and that, if the consumption of iron should
+continue to increase hereafter as it did between 1893 and 1906, this
+quantity would last only until 1946. How then can it be that there is a
+supply for thousands of years? The two assertions are not to be
+reconciled by pointing out that Professor Tornebohm underestimated, for
+instance crediting the United States with only 1.1 billion tons, whereas
+the United States Geological Survey's expert credits that country with
+from ten to twenty times this quantity; nor by pointing out that only
+certain parts of Europe and a relatively small part of North America
+have thus far been carefully explored for iron ore, and that the rest of
+these two continents and South America, Asia and Africa may reasonably
+be expected to yield very great stores of iron, and that pyrite, one of
+the richest and most abundant of ores, has not been included. Important
+as these considerations are, they are much less important than the fact
+that a very large proportion of the rocks of the earth's crust contain
+more or less iron, and therefore are potential iron ores.
+
+  TABLE II.--_Professor Tornebohm's Estimate of the World's Ore Supply._
+
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |      Country.      |   Workable    |   Annual   |   Annual   |
+  |                    |   Deposits.   |   Output.  |Consumption.|
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |                    |     tons.     |    tons.   |    tons.   |
+  | United States      | 1,100,000,000 | 35,000,000 | 35,000,000 |
+  | Great Britain      | 1,000,000,000 | 14,000,000 | 20,000,000 |
+  | Germany            | 2,200,000,000 | 21,000,000 | 24,000,900 |
+  | Spain              |   500,000,000 |  8,000,000 |  1,000,000 |
+  | Russia and Finland | 1,500,000,000 |  4,000,000 |  6,000,000 |
+  | France             | 1,500,000,000 |  6,000,000 |  8,000,000 |
+  | Sweden             | 1,000,000,000 |  4,000,000 |  1,000,000 |
+  | Austria-Hungary    | 1,200,000,000 |  3,000,000 |  4,000,000 |
+  | Other countries    |               |  5,000,000 |  1,000,000 |
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+  |   Total            |10,000,000,000 |100,000,000 |100,000,000 |
+  +--------------------+---------------+------------+------------+
+
+  _Note to Table._--Though this estimate seems to be near the truth as
+  regards the British ores, it does not credit the United States with
+  one-tenth, if indeed with one-twentieth, of their true quantity as
+  estimated by that country's Geological Survey in 1907.
+
+52. _What Constitutes an Iron Ore._--Whether a ferruginous rock is or is
+not ore is purely a question of current demand and supply. That is ore
+from which there is reasonable hope that metal can be extracted with
+profit, if not to-day, then within a reasonable length of time. Rock
+containing 2(1/2)% of gold is ah extraordinarily rich gold ore; that
+with 2(1/2)% of copper is a profitable one to-day; that containing
+2(1/2)% of iron is not so to-day, for the sole reason that its iron
+cannot be extracted with profit in competition with the existing richer
+ores. But it will become a profitable ore as soon as the richer ore
+shall have been exhausted. Very few of the ores which, are mined to-day
+contain less than 25% of iron, and some of them contain over 60%. As
+these richest ores are exhausted, poorer and poorer ones will be used,
+and the cost of iron will increase progressively if measured either in
+units of the actual energy used in mining and smelting it, or in its
+power of purchasing animal and vegetable products, cotton, wool, corn,
+&c., the supply of which is renewable and indeed capable of very great
+increase, but probably not if measured in its power of purchasing the
+various mineral products, e.g. the other metals, coal, petroleum and the
+precious stones, of which the supply is limited. This is simply one
+instance of the inevitable progressive increase in cost of the
+irrecreatable mineral relatively to the recreatable animal and
+vegetable. When, in the course of centuries, the exhaustion of richer
+ores shall have forced us to mine, crush and concentrate mechanically or
+by magnetism the ores which contain only 2 or 3% of iron, then the cost
+of iron in the ore, measured in terms of the energy needed to mine and
+concentrate it, will be comparable with the actual cost of the copper in
+the ore of the copper-mines of to-day. But, intermediate in richness
+between these two extremes, the iron ores mined to-day and these 2 and
+3% ores, there is an incalculably great quantity of ore capable of
+mechanical concentration, and another perhaps vaster store of ore which
+we do not yet know how to concentrate mechanically, so that the day when
+a pound of iron in the ore will cost as much as a pound of copper in the
+ore costs to-day is immeasurably distant.
+
+53. _Future Cost of Ore._--The cost of iron ore is likely to rise much
+less rapidly than that of coal, because the additions to our known
+supply are likely to be very much greater in the case of ore than in
+that of coal, for the reason that, while rich and great iron ore beds
+may exist anywhere, those of coal are confined chiefly to the
+Carboniferous formation, a fact which has led to the systematic survey
+and measurement of this formation in most countries. In short, a very
+large part of the earth's coal supply is known and measured, but its
+iron ore supply is hardly to be guessed. On the other hand, the cost of
+iron ore is likely to rise much faster than that of the potential
+aluminium ores, clay and its derivatives, because of the vast extent and
+richness of the deposits of this latter class. It is possible that, at
+some remote day, aluminium, or one of its alloys, may become the great
+structural material, and iron be used chiefly for those objects for
+which it is especially fitted, such as magnets, springs and cutting
+tools.
+
+  In passing, it may be noted that the cost of the ore itself forms a
+  relatively small part of the cost even of the cruder forms of steel,
+  hardly a quarter of the cost of such simple products as rails, and an
+  insignificant part of the cost of many most important finished
+  objects, such as magnets, cutting tools, springs and wire, for which
+  iron is almost indispensable. Thus, if the use of ores very much
+  poorer than those we now treat, and the need of concentrating them
+  mechanically, were to double the cost of a pound of iron in the
+  concentrated ore ready for smelting, that would increase the cost of
+  rails by only one quarter. Hence the addition to the cost of finished
+  steel objects which is due to our being forced to use progressively
+  poorer and poorer ores is likely to be much less than the addition due
+  to the progressive rise in the cost of coal and in the cost of labour,
+  because of the ever-rising scale of living. The effect of each of
+  these additions will be lessened by the future improvements in
+  processes of manufacture, and more particularly by the progressive
+  replacement of that ephemeral source of energy, coal, by the secular
+  sources, the winds, waves, tides, sunshine, the earth's heat and,
+  greatest of all, its momentum.
+
+54. _Ore Supply of the Chief Iron-making Countries._--The United States
+mine nearly all of their iron ores, Austria-Hungary, Russia and France
+mine the greater part of theirs, but none of these countries exports
+much ore. Great Britain and Germany, besides mining a great deal of ore,
+still have to import much from Spain, Sweden and in the case of Germany
+from Luxemburg, although, because of the customs arrangement between
+these last two countries, this importation is not usually reported.
+Belgium imports nearly all of its ore, while Sweden and Spain export
+most of the ore which they mine.
+
+  55. _Great Britain_ has many valuable ore beds, some rich in iron,
+  many of them near to beds of coal and to the sea-coast, to canals or
+  to navigable rivers. They extend from Northamptonshire to near
+  Glasgow. About two-thirds of the ore mined is clayey siderite. In 1905
+  the Cleveland district in North Yorkshire supplied 41% of the total
+  British product of iron ores; Lincolnshire, 14.8%; Northamptonshire,
+  13.9%; Leicestershire, 4.7%; Cumberland, 8.6%; North Lancashire, 2.7%;
+  Staffordshire, 6.1%; and Scotland, 5.7%. The annual production of
+  British iron ore reached 18,031,957 tons in 1882, but in 1905 it had
+  fallen to 14,590,703 tons, valued at L3,482,184. In addition
+  7,344,786 tons, or about half as much as was mined in Great Britain,
+  were imported, 78.5% of it from Spain. The most important British ore
+  deposit is the Lower Cleveland bed of oolitic siderite in the Middle
+  Lias, near Middlesborough. It is from 10 to 17 ft. thick, and its ore
+  contains about 30% of iron.
+
+  56. _Geographical Distribution of the British Works._--Most of the
+  British iron works lie in and near the important coal-fields in
+  Scotland between the mouth of the Clyde and the Forth, in Cleveland
+  and Durham, in Cumberland and Lancashire, in south Yorkshire,
+  Derbyshire, and Lincolnshire, in Staffordshire and Northamptonshire,
+  and in south Wales in spite of its lack of ore.
+
+  The most important group is that of Cleveland and Durham, which makes
+  about one-third of all the British pig iron. It has the great
+  Cleveland ore bed and the excellent Durham coal near tidewater at
+  Middlesbrough. The most important seat of the manufacture of cutlery
+  and the finer kinds of steel is at Sheffield.
+
+  57. The _United States_ have great deposits of ore in many different
+  places. The rich beds near Lake Superior, chiefly red haematite,
+  yielding at present about 55% of iron, are thought to contain between
+  1(1/2) and 2 billion tons, and the red and brown haematites of the
+  southern states about 10 billion tons. The middle states, New York,
+  New Jersey and Pennsylvania, are known to have many great deposits of
+  rich magnetite, which supplied a very large proportion of the American
+  ores till the discovery of the very cheaply mined ores of Lake
+  Superior. In 1906 these latter formed 80% of the American production,
+  and the southern states supplied about 13% of it, while the rich
+  deposits of the middle states are husbanded in accordance with the law
+  that ore bodies are drawn on in the order of their apparent
+  profitableness.
+
+  The most important American iron-making district is in and about
+  Pittsburg, to whose cheap coal the rich Lake Superior ores are brought
+  nearly 1000 m., about four-fifths of the distance in the large ore
+  steamers of the Great Lakes. Chicago, nearer to the Lake ores, though
+  rather far from the Pittsburg coal-field, is a very important centre
+  for rail-making for the railroads of the western states. Ohio, the
+  Lake Erie end of New York State, eastern Pennsylvania and Maryland
+  have very important works, the ore for which comes in part from Lake
+  Superior and in part from Pennsylvania, New York and Cuba, and the
+  fuel from Pennsylvania and its neighbourhood. Tennessee and Alabama in
+  the south rely on southern ore and fuel.
+
+  58. _Germany_ gets about two-thirds of her total ore supply from the
+  great Jurassic "Minette" ore deposit of Luxemburg and Lorraine, which
+  reaches also into France and Belgium. In spite of its containing only
+  about 36% of iron, this deposit is of very great value because of its
+  great size, and of the consequent small cost of mining. It stretches
+  through an area of about 8 m. wide and 40 m. long, and in some places
+  it is nearly 60 ft. thick. There are valuable deposits also in
+  Siegerland and in many other parts of the country.
+
+  59. _Sweden_ has abundant, rich and very pure iron ores, but her lack
+  of coal has restricted her iron manufacture chiefly to the very purest
+  and best classes of iron and steel, in making which her thrifty and
+  intelligent people have developed very rare skill. The magnetite ore
+  bodies which supply this industry lie in a band about 180 m. long,
+  reaching from a little north of Stockholm westerly toward the
+  Norwegian frontier, between the latitudes 59 deg. and 61 deg. N. In
+  Swedish Lapland, near the Arctic circle, are the great Gellivara,
+  Kirunavara and Luossavara magnetite beds, among the largest in Europe.
+  From these beds, which in some parts are about 300 ft. thick, much ore
+  is sent to Germany and Great Britain.
+
+  60. _Other Countries._--Spain has large, rich and pure iron ore beds,
+  near both her northern and her southern sea coast. She exports about
+  90% of all the iron ore which she mines, most of it to England. France
+  draws most of her iron ore from her own part of the great Minette ore
+  deposit, and from those parts of it which were taken from her when she
+  lost Alsace and Lorraine. Russia's most valuable ore deposit is the
+  very large and easily mined one of Krivoi Rog in the south, from which
+  comes about half of the Russian iron ore. It is near the Donetz
+  coal-field, the largest in Europe. There are also important ore beds
+  in the Urals, near the border of Finland, and at the south of Moscow.
+  In Austria-Hungary, besides the famous Styrian Erzberg, with its
+  siderite ore bed about 450 ft. thick, there are cheaply mined but poor
+  and impure ores near Prague, and important ore beds in both northern
+  and southern Hungary. Algeria, Canada, Cuba and India have valuable
+  ore bodies.
+
+  61. _Richness of Iron Ores._--The American ores now mined are
+  decidedly richer than those of most European countries. To make a ton
+  of pig iron needs only about 1.9 tons of ore in the United States, 2
+  tons in Sweden and Russia, 2.4 tons in Great Britain and Germany, and
+  about 2.7 tons in France and Belgium, while about 3 tons of the native
+  British ores are needed per ton of pig iron.
+
+62. _The general scheme of iron manufacture_ is shown diagrammatically
+in fig. 6. To put the iron contained in iron ore into a state in which
+it can be used as a metal requires essentially, first its deoxidation,
+and second its separation from the other mineral matter, such as clay,
+quartz, &c. with which it is found associated. These two things are done
+simultaneously by heating and melting the ore in contact with coke,
+charcoal or anthracite, in the iron blast furnace, from which issue
+intermittently two molten streams, the iron now deoxidized and
+incidentally carburized by the fuel with which it has been in contact,
+and the mineral matter, now called "slag." This crude cast iron, called
+"pig iron," may be run from the blast furnace directly into moulds,
+which give the metal the final shape in which it is to be used in the
+arts; but it is almost always either remelted, following path 1 of fig.
+6, and then cast into castings of cast iron, or converted into wrought
+iron or steel by purifying it, following path 2.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--General Scheme of Iron Manufacture.]
+
+  If it is to follow path 1, the castings into which it is made may be
+  either (a) grey or (b) chilled or (c) malleable. Grey iron castings
+  are made by remelting the pig iron either in a small shaft or "cupola"
+  furnace, or in a reverberatory or "air" furnace, with very little
+  change of chemical composition, and then casting it directly into
+  suitable moulds, usually of either "baked," i.e. oven-dried, or
+  "green," i.e. moist undried, sand, but sometimes of iron covered with
+  a refractory coating to protect it from being melted or overheated by
+  the molten cast iron. The general procedure in the manufacture of
+  chilled and of malleable castings has been described in SS 30 and 31.
+
+  If the pig iron is to follow path 2, the purification which converts
+  it into wrought iron or steel consists chiefly in oxidizing and
+  thereby removing its carbon, phosphorus and other impurities, while it
+  is molten, either by means of the oxygen of atmospheric air blown
+  through it as in the Bessemer process, or by the oxygen of iron ore
+  stirred into it as in the puddling and Bell-Krupp processes, or by
+  both together as in the open hearth process.
+
+  On its way from the blast furnace to the converter or open hearth
+  furnace the pig iron is often passed through a great reservoir called
+  a "mixer," which acts also as an equalizer, to lessen the variation in
+  composition of the cast iron, and as a purifier, removing part of the
+  sulphur and silicon.
+
+63. _Shaping and Adjusting Processes._--Besides these extraction and
+purification processes there are those of adjustment and shaping. The
+_adjusting processes_ adjust either the ultimate composition, e.g.
+carburizing wrought iron by long heating in contact with charcoal
+(cementation), or the proximate composition or constitution, as in the
+hardening, tempering and annealing of steel already described (SS 28,
+29), or both, as in the process of making malleable cast iron (S 31).
+The _shaping processes_ include the _mechanical_ ones, such as rolling,
+forging and wire-drawing, and the _remelting_ ones such as the crucible
+process of melting wrought iron or steel in crucibles and casting it in
+ingots for the manufacture of the best kinds of tool steel. Indeed, the
+remelting of cast iron to make grey iron castings belongs here. This
+classification, though it helps to give a general idea of the subject,
+yet like most of its kind cannot be applied rigidly. Thus the crucible
+process in its American form both carburizes and remelts, and the open
+hearth process is often used rather for remelting than for purifying.
+
+64. The _iron blast furnace_, a crude but very efficient piece of
+apparatus, is an enormous shaft usually about 80 ft. high and 20 ft.
+wide at its widest part. It is at all times full from top to bottom,
+somewhat as sketched in figs. 7 and 8, of a solid column of lumps of
+fuel, ore and limestone, which are charged through a hopper at the top,
+and descend slowly as the lower end of the column is eaten off through
+the burning away of its coke by means of very hot air or "blast" blown
+through holes or "tuyeres" near the bottom or "hearth," and through the
+melting away, by the heat thus generated, both of the iron itself which
+has been deoxidized in its descent, and of the other minerals of the
+ore, called the "gangue," which unite with the lime of the limestone and
+the ash of the fuel to form a complex molten silicate called the
+"cinder" or "slag."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Section of Duquesne Blast Furnace.
+
+  GG, Flanges on the ore bucket;
+  HH, Fixed flanges on the top of the furnace;
+  J,  Counterweighted false bell;
+  K,  Main bell;
+  O,  Tuyere;
+  P,  Cinder notch;
+  RR', Water cooled boxes;
+  S,  Blast pipe;
+  T,  Cable for allowing conical bottom of bucket to drop.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Lower Part of the Blast Furnace.
+
+  Lumps of Coke          [symbol]
+  Lumps* of Iron Ore     [symbol]
+  Lumps* of Lime         [symbol]
+  Drops of Slag          [symbol]
+  Drops of Iron          [symbol]
+  Layer of Molten Slag   [symbol]
+  Layer of Molten Iron   [symbol]
+
+    * The ore and lime actually exist here in powder. They are shown in
+    lump form because of the difficulty of presenting to the eye their
+    powdered state.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Method of transferring charge from bucket to
+main charging bell, without permitting escape of furnace gas (lettering
+as in fig. 7).]
+
+Interpenetrating this descending column of solid ore, limestone and
+coke, there is an upward rushing column of hot gases, the atmospheric
+nitrogen of the blast from the tuyeres, and the carbonic oxide from the
+combustion of the coke by that blast. The upward ascent of the column of
+gases is as swift as the descent of the solid charge is slow. The former
+occupies but a very few seconds, the latter from 12 to 15 hours.
+
+In the upper part of the furnace the carbonic oxide deoxidizes the iron
+oxide of the ore by such reactions as xCO + FeO_x = Fe + xCO2. Part of
+the resultant carbonic acid is again deoxidized to carbonic oxide by the
+surrounding fuel, CO2 + C = 2CO, and the carbonic oxide thus formed
+deoxidizes more iron oxide, &c. As indicated in fig. 7, before the iron
+ore has descended very far it has given up nearly the whole of its
+oxygen, and thus lost its power of oxidizing the rising carbonic oxide,
+so that from here down the atmosphere of the furnace consists
+essentially of carbonic oxide and nitrogen.
+
+But the transfer of heat from the rising gases to the sinking solids,
+which has been going on in the upper part of the furnace, continues as
+the solid column gradually sinks downward to the hearth, till at the
+"fusion level" (A in fig. 7) the solid matter has become so hot that the
+now deoxidized iron melts, as does the slag as fast as it is formed by
+the union of its three constituents, the gangue, the lime resulting from
+the decomposition of the limestone and the ash of the fuel. Hence from
+this level down the only solid matter is the coke, in lumps which are
+burning rapidly and hence shrinking, while between them the molten iron
+and slag trickle, somewhat as sketched in fig. 8, to collect in the
+hearth in two layers as distinct as water and oil, the iron below, the
+slag above.
+
+As they collect, the molten iron is drawn off at intervals through a
+hole A (fig. 8), temporarily stopped with clay, at the very bottom, and
+the slag through another hole a little higher up, called the "cinder
+notch." Thus the furnace may be said to have four zones, those of (1)
+deoxidation, (2) heating, (3) melting, and (4) collecting, though of
+course the heating is really going on in all four of them.
+
+In its slow descent the deoxidized iron nearly saturates itself with
+carbon, of which it usually contains between 3.5 and 4%, taking it in
+part from the fuel with which it is in such intimate contact, and in
+part from the finely divided carbon deposited within the very lumps of
+ore, by the reaction 2CO = C + CO2. This carburizing is an indispensable
+part of the process, because through it alone can the iron be made
+fusible enough to melt at the temperature which can be generated in the
+furnace, and only when liquid can it be separated readily and completely
+from the slag. In fact, the molten iron is heated so far above its
+melting point that, instead of being run at once into pigs as is usual,
+it may, without solidifying, be carried even several miles in large
+clay-lined ladles to the mill where it is to be converted into steel.
+
+65. The _fuel_ has, in addition to its duties of deoxidizing and
+carburizing the iron and yielding the heat needed for melting both the
+iron and slag, the further task of desulphurizing the iron, probably by
+the reaction FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO.
+
+  The desulphurizing effect of this transfer of the sulphur from union
+  with iron to union with calcium is due to the fact that, whereas iron
+  sulphide dissolves readily in the molten metallic iron, calcium
+  sulphide, in the presence of a slag rich in lime, does not, but by
+  preference enters the slag, which may thus absorb even as much as 3%
+  of sulphur. This action is of great importance whether the metal is to
+  be used as cast iron or is to be converted into wrought iron or steel.
+  In the former case there is no later chance to remove sulphur, a
+  minute quantity of which does great harm by leading to the formation
+  of cementite instead of graphite and ferrite, and thus making the
+  cast-iron castings too hard to be cut to exact shape with steel tools;
+  in the latter case the converting or purifying processes, which are
+  essentially oxidizing ones, though they remove the other impurities,
+  carbon, silicon, phosphorus and manganese, are not well adapted to
+  desulphurizing, which needs rather deoxidizing conditions, so as to
+  cause the formation of calcium sulphide, than oxidizing ones.
+
+66. The _duty of the limestone_ (CaCO3) is to furnish enough lime to
+form with the gangue of the ore and the ash of the fuel a lime silicate
+or slag of such a composition (1) that it will melt at the temperature
+which it reaches at about level A, of fig. 7, (2) that it will be fluid
+enough to run out through the cinder notch, and (3) that it will be rich
+enough in lime to supply that needed for the desulphurizing reaction FeS
++ CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO. In short, its duty is to "flux" the gangue
+and ash, and wash out the sulphur.
+
+67. In order that the _slag_ shall have these properties its composition
+usually lies between the following limits: silica, 26 to 35%; lime,
+_plus_ 1.4 times the magnesia, 45 to 55%; alumina, 5 to 20%. Of these
+the silica and alumina are chiefly those which the gangue of the ore and
+the ash of the fuel introduce, whereas the lime is that added
+intentionally to form with these others a slag of the needed physical
+properties.
+
+  Thus the more gangue the ore contains, i.e. the poorer it is in iron,
+  the more limestone must in general be added, and hence the more slag
+  results, though of course an ore the gangue of which initially
+  contains much lime and little silica needs a much smaller addition of
+  limestone than one of which the gangue is chiefly silica. Further, the
+  more sulphur there is to remove, the greater must be the quantity of
+  slag needed to dissolve it as calcium sulphide. In smelting the rich
+  Lake Superior ores the quantity of slag made was formerly as small as
+  28% of that of the pig iron, whereas in smelting the Cleveland ores of
+  Great Britain it is usually necessary to make as much as 1(1/2) tons of
+  slag for each ton of iron.
+
+68. _Shape and Size of the Blast-Furnace._--Large size has here, as in
+most metallurgical operations, not only its usual advantage of economy
+of installation, labour and administration per unit of product, but the
+further very important one that it lessens the proportion which the
+outer heat-radiating and hence heat-wasting surface bears to the whole.
+The limits set to the furnace builder's natural desire to make his
+furnace as large as possible, and its present shape (an obtuse inverted
+cone set below an acute upright one, both of them truncated), have been
+reached in part empirically, and in part by reasoning which is open to
+question, as indeed are the reasons which will now be offered reservedly
+for both size and shape.
+
+First the width at the tuyeres (fig. 7) has generally been limited to
+about 12(1/2) ft. by the fear that, if it were greater, the blast would
+penetrate so feebly to the centre that the difference in conditions
+between centre and circumference would be so great as to cause serious
+unevenness of working. Of late furnaces have been built even as wide as
+17 ft. in the hearth, and it may prove that a width materially greater
+than 12(1/2) ft. can profitably be used. With the width at the bottom
+thus limited, the furnace builder naturally tries to gain volume as
+rapidly as possible by flaring or "battering" his walls outwards, i.e.
+by making the "bosh" or lower part of his furnace an inverted cone as
+obtuse as is consistent with the free descent of the solid charge. In
+practice a furnace may be made to work regularly if its boshes make an
+angle of between 73 deg. and 76 deg. with the horizontal, and we may
+assume that one element of this regularity is the regular easy sliding
+of the charge over this steep slope. A still steeper one not only gives
+less available room, but actually leads to irregular working, perhaps
+because it unduly favours the passage of the rising gas along the walls
+instead of up and through the charge, and thus causes the deoxidation of
+the central core to lag behind that of the periphery of the column, with
+the consequence that this central core arrives at the bottom
+incompletely deoxidized.
+
+In the very swift-running furnaces of the Pittsburg type this outward
+flare of the boshes ceases at about 12 ft. above the tuyeres, and is
+there reversed, as in fig. 7, so that the furnace above this is a very
+acute upright cone, the walls of which make an angle of about 4 deg.
+with the vertical, instead of an obtuse inverted cone.
+
+  In explanation or justification of this it has been said that a much
+  easier descent must be provided above this level than is needed below
+  it. Below this level the solid charge descends easily, because it
+  consists of coke alone or nearly alone, and this in turn because the
+  temperature here is so high as to melt not only the iron now
+  deoxidized and brought to the metallic state, but also the gangue of
+  the ore and the limestone, which here unite to form the molten slag,
+  and run freely down between the lumps of coke. This coke descends
+  freely even through this fast-narrowing space, because it is perfectly
+  solid and dry without a trace of pastiness. But immediately above this
+  level the charge is relatively viscous, because here the temperature
+  has fallen so far that it is now at the melting or formation point of
+  the slag, which therefore is pasty, liable to weld the whole mass
+  together as so much tar would, and thus to obstruct the descent of the
+  charge, or in short to "scaffold."
+
+  The reason why at this level the walls must form an upright instead of
+  an inverted cone, why the furnace must widen downward instead of
+  narrowing, is, according to some metallurgists, that this shape is
+  needed in order that, in spite of the pastiness of the slag in this
+  formative period of incipient fusion, this layer may descend freely as
+  the lower part of the column is gradually eaten away. To this very
+  plausible theory it may be objected that in many slow-running
+  furnaces, which work very regularly and show no sign of scaffolding,
+  the outward flare of the boshes continues (though steepened) far above
+  this region of pastiness, indeed nearly half-way to the top of the
+  furnace. This proves that the regular descent of the material in its
+  pasty state can take place even in a space which is narrowing
+  downwards. To this objection it may in turn be answered that, though
+  this degree of freedom of descent may suffice for a slow-running
+  furnace, particularly if the slag is given such a composition that it
+  passes quickly from the solid state to one of decided fluidity, yet it
+  is not enough for swift-running ones, especially if the composition of
+  the slag is such that, in melting, it remains long in a very sticky
+  condition. In limiting the diameter at the tuyeres to 12(1/2) ft., the
+  height of the boshes to one which will keep their upper end below the
+  region of pastiness, and their slope to one over which the burning
+  coke will descend freely, we limit the width of the furnace at the top
+  of the boshes and thus complete the outline of the lower part of the
+  furnace.
+
+The height of the furnace is rarely as great as 100 ft., and in the
+belief of many metallurgists it should not be much more than 80 ft.
+There are some very evident disadvantages of excessive height; for
+instance, that the weight of an excessively high column of solid coke,
+ore and limestone tends to crush the coke and jam the charge in the
+lower and narrowing part of the furnace, and that the frictional
+resistance of a long column calls for a greater consumption of power for
+driving the blast up through it. Moreover, this resistance increases
+much more rapidly than the height of the furnace, even if the rapidity
+with which the blast is forced through is constant; and it still further
+increases if the additional space gained by lengthening the furnace is
+made useful by increasing proportionally the rate of production, as
+indeed would naturally be done, because the chief motive for gaining
+this additional space is to increase production.
+
+  The reason why the frictional resistance would be further increased is
+  the very simple one that the increase in the rate of production
+  implies directly a corresponding increase in the quantity of blast
+  forced through, and hence in the velocity of the rising gases, because
+  the chemical work of the blast furnace needs a certain quantity of
+  blast for each ton of iron made. In short, to increase the rate of
+  production by lengthening the furnace increases the frictional
+  resistance of the rising gases, both by increasing their quantity and
+  hence their velocity and by lengthening their path.
+
+  Indeed, one important reason for the difficulties in working very high
+  furnaces, e.g. those 100 ft. high, may be that this frictional
+  resistance becomes so great as actually to interrupt the even descent
+  of the charge, parts of which are at times suspended like a ball in
+  the rising jet of a fountain, to fall perhaps with destructive
+  violence when some shifting condition momentarily lessens the
+  friction. We see how powerful must be the lifting effect of the rising
+  gases when we reflect that their velocity in a 100 ft. furnace rapidly
+  driven is probably at least as great as 2000 ft. per minute, or that
+  of a "high wind." Conceive these gases passing at this great velocity
+  through the narrow openings between the adjoining lumps of coke and
+  ore. Indeed, the velocity must be far greater than this where the edge
+  or corner of one lump touches the side of another, and the only room
+  for the passage of this enormous quantity of gas is that left by the
+  roughness and irregularity of the individual lumps.
+
+The furnace is made rather narrow at the top or "stock line," in order
+that the entering ore, fuel and flux may readily be distributed evenly.
+But extreme narrowness would not only cause the escaping gases to move
+so swiftly that they would sweep much of the fine ore out of the
+furnace, but would also throw needless work on the blowing engines by
+throttling back the rising gases, and would lessen unduly the space
+available for the charge in the upper part of the furnace.
+
+From its top down, the walls of the furnace slope outward at an angle of
+between 3 deg. and 8 deg., partly in order to ease the descent of the
+charge, here impeded by the swelling of the individual particles of ore
+caused by the deposition within them of great quantities of fine carbon,
+by the reaction of 2CO = C + CO2. To widen it more abruptly would indeed
+increase the volume of the furnace, but would probably lead to grave
+irregularities in the distribution of the gas and charge, and hence in
+the working of the furnace.
+
+When we have thus fixed the height of the furnace, its diameter at its
+ends, and the slope of its upper and lower parts, we have completed its
+outline closely enough for our purpose here.
+
+69. _Hot Blast and Dry Blast._--On its way from the blowing engine to
+the tuyeres of the blast-furnace, the blast, i.e. the air forced in for
+the purpose of burning the fuel, is usually pre-heated, and in some of
+the most progressive works is dried by Gayley's refrigerating process.
+These steps lead to a saving of fuel so great as to be astonishing at
+first sight--indeed in case of Gayley's blast-drying process incredible
+to most writers, who proved easily and promptly to their own
+satisfaction that the actual saving was impossible. But the explanation
+is really so very simple that it is rather the incredulity of these
+writers that is astonishing. In the hearth of the blast furnace the heat
+made latent by the fusion of the iron and slag must of course be
+supplied by some body which is itself at a temperature above the melting
+point of these bodies, which for simplicity of exposition we may call
+the critical temperature of the blast-furnace process, because heat will
+flow only from a hotter to a cooler object. Much the same is true of the
+heat needed for the deoxidation of the silica, SiO2 + 2C = Si + 2CO2.
+Now the heat developed by the combustion of coke to carbonic oxide with
+cold air containing the usual quantity of moisture, develops a
+temperature only slightly above this critical point; and it is only the
+heat represented by this narrow temperature-margin that is available for
+doing this critical work of fusion and deoxidation. That is the crux of
+the matter. If by pre-heating the blast we add to the sum of the heat
+available; or if by drying it we subtract from the work to be done by
+that heat the quantity needed for decomposing the atmospheric moisture;
+or if by removing part of its nitrogen we lessen the mass over which the
+heat developed has to be spread--if by any of these means we raise the
+temperature developed by the combustion of the coke, it is clear that we
+increase the proportion of the total heat which is available for this
+critical work in exactly the way in which we should increase the
+proportion of the water of a stream, initially 100 in. deep, which
+should flow over a waste weir initially 1 in. beneath the stream's
+surface, by raising the upper surface of the water 10 in. and thus
+increasing the depth of the water to 110 in. Clearly this raising the
+level of the water by 10% increases tenfold, or by 1000%, the volume of
+water which is above the level of the weir.
+
+  The special conditions of the blast-furnace actually exaggerate the
+  saving due to this widening of the available temperature-margin, and
+  beyond this drying the blast does great good by preventing the serious
+  irregularities in working the furnace caused by changes in the
+  humidity of the air with varying weather.
+
+70. _Means of Heating the Blast._--After the ascending column of gases
+has done its work of heating and deoxidizing the ore, it still
+necessarily contains so much carbonic oxide, usually between 20 and 26%
+by weight, that it is a very valuable fuel, part of which is used for
+raising steam for generating the blast itself and driving the rolling
+mill engines, &c., or directly in gas engines, and the rest for heating
+the blast. This heating was formerly done by burning part of the gases,
+after their escape from the furnace top, in a large combustion chamber,
+around a series of cast iron pipes through which the blast passed on its
+way from the blowing engine to the tuyeres. But these "iron pipe stoves"
+are fast going out of use, chiefly because they are destroyed quickly if
+an attempt is made to heat the blast above 1000 deg. F. (538 deg. C.),
+often a very important thing. In their place the regenerative stoves of
+the Whitwell and Cowper types (figs. 10 and 11) are used. With these the
+regular temperature of the blast at some works is about 1400 deg. F.
+(760 deg. C.), and the usual blast temperature lies between 900 deg. and
+1200 deg. F. (480 deg. and 650 deg. C.).
+
+Like the Siemens furnace, described in S 99, they have two distinct
+phases: one, "on gas," during which part of the waste gas of the
+blast-furnace is burnt within the stove, highly heating the great
+surface of brickwork which for that purpose is provided within it; the
+other, "on wind," during which the blast is heated by passing it back
+over these very surfaces which have thus been heated. They are
+heat-filters or heat-traps for impounding the heat developed by the
+combustion of the furnace gas, and later returning it to the blast. Each
+blast-furnace is now provided with three or even four of these stoves,
+which collectively may be nearly thrice as large as the furnace itself.
+At any given time one of these is "on wind" and the others "on gas."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Whitwell Hot-Blast Stove, as modified by H.
+Kennedy. When "on wind," the cold blast is forced in at A, and passes
+four times up and down, as shown by means of unbroken arrows, escaping
+as hot-blast at B. When "on gas," the gas and air enter at the bottom of
+each of the three larger vertical chambers, pass once up through the
+stove, and escape at the top, as shown by means of broken arrows. Hence
+this is a four-pass stove when on wind, but a one-pass stove when on
+gas.]
+
+  The Whitwell stove (fig. 10), by means of the surface of several
+  fire-brick walls, catches in one phase the heat evolved by the burning
+  gas as it sweeps through, and in the other phase returns that heat to
+  the entering blast as it sweeps through from left to right. In the
+  original Whitwell stove, which lacks the chimneys shown at the top of
+  fig. 10, both the burning gas and the blast pass up and down
+  repeatedly. In the H. Kennedy modification, shown in fig. 10, the gas
+  and air in one phase enter at the bottom of all three of the large
+  vertical chambers, burn in passing upwards, and escape at once at the
+  top, as shown by the broken arrows. In the other phase the cold blast,
+  forced in at A, passes four times up and down, as shown by the
+  unbroken arrows, and escapes as hot blast at B. This, then, is a
+  "one-pass" stove when on gas but a "four-pass" one when on wind.
+
+  The Cowper stove (Fig. 11) differs from the Whitwell (1) in having not
+  a series of flat smooth walls, but a great number of narrow vertical
+  flues, E, for the alternate absorption and emission of the heat, with
+  the consequence that, for given outside dimensions, it offers about
+  one-half more heating surface than the true Whitwell stove; and (2) in
+  that the gas and the blast pass only once up and once down through it,
+  instead of twice up and twice down as in the modern true Whitwell
+  stoves. As regards frictional resistance, this smaller number of
+  reversals of direction compensates in a measure for the smaller area
+  of the Cowper flues. The large combustion chamber B permits thorough
+  combustion of the gas.
+
+71. _Preservation of the Furnace Walls._--The combined fluxing and
+abrading action of the descending charge tends to wear away the lining
+of the furnace where it is hottest, which of course is near its lower
+end, thus changing its shape materially, lessening its efficiency, and
+in particular increasing its consumption of fuel. The walls, therefore,
+are now made thin, and are thoroughly cooled by water, which circulates
+through pipes or boxes bedded in them. James Gayley's method of cooling,
+shown in fig. 7, is to set in the brickwork walls several horizontal
+rows of flat water-cooled bronze boxes, RR', extending nearly to the
+interior of the furnace, and tapered so that they can readily be
+withdrawn and replaced in case they burn through. The brickwork may wear
+back to the front edges of these boxes, or even, as is shown at R', a
+little farther. But in the latter case their edges still determine the
+effective profile of the furnace walls because the depressions at the
+back of these edges become filled with carbon and scoriaceous matter
+when the furnace is in normal working. Each of these rows, of which five
+are shown in fig. 7, consists of a great number of short segmental
+boxes.
+
+72. _Blast-furnace Gas Engines._--When the gas which escapes from the
+furnace top is used in gas engines it generates about four times as much
+power as when it is used for raising steam. It has been calculated that
+the gas from a pair of old-fashioned blast-furnaces making 1600 tons of
+iron per week would in this way yield some 16,000 horse-power in excess
+of their own needs, and that all the available blast-furnace gas in the
+United States would develop about 1,500,000 horse-power, to develop
+which by raising steam would need about 20,000,000 tons of coal a year.
+Of this power about half would be used at the blast-furnaces themselves,
+leaving 750,000 horse-power available for driving the machinery of the
+rolling mills, &c.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagram of Cowper Hot-Blast Stove at Duquesne.
+(After J. Kennedy.) Broken arrows show the path of the gas and air while
+the stove is "on gas," and solid arrows that of the blast while it is
+"on wind."
+
+  A, Entrance for blast-furnace gas.
+  B, B, Combustion chamber.
+  C, Chimney valve.
+  D, Cold blast main.
+  E, Hollow bricks.]
+
+  This use of the gas engine is likely to have far-reaching results. In
+  order to utilize this power, the converting mill, in which the pig
+  iron is converted into steel, and the rolling mills must adjoin the
+  blast-furnace. The numerous converting mills which treat pig iron made
+  at a distance will now have the crushing burden of providing in other
+  ways the power which their rivals get from the blast-furnace, in
+  addition to the severe disadvantage under which they already suffer,
+  of wasting the initial heat of the molten cast iron as it runs from
+  the blast-furnace. Before its use in the gas engine, the blast-furnace
+  gas has to be freed carefully from the large quantity of fine ore dust
+  which it carries in suspension.
+
+73. _Mechanical Appliances._--Moving the raw materials and the products:
+In order to move economically the great quantity of materials which
+enter and issue from each furnace daily, mechanical appliances have at
+many works displaced hand labour wholly, and indeed that any of the
+materials should be shovelled by hand is not to be thought of in
+designing new works.
+
+  The arrangement at the Carnegie Company's Duquesne works (fig. 12) may
+  serve as an example of modern methods of handling. The standard-gauge
+  cars which bring the ore and coke to Duquesne pass over one of three
+  very long rows of bins, A, B, and C (fig. 12), of which A and B
+  receive the materials (ore, coke and limestone) for immediate use,
+  while C receives those to be stored for winter use. From A and B the
+  materials are drawn as they are needed into large buckets D standing
+  on cars, which carry them to the foot of the hoist track EE, up which
+  they are hoisted to the top of the furnace. Arrived here, the material
+  is introduced into the furnace by an ingenious piece of mechanism
+  which completely prevents the furnace gas from escaping into the air.
+  The hoist-engineer in the house F at the foot of the furnace, when
+  informed by means of an indicator that the bucket has arrived at the
+  top, lowers it so that its flanges GG (fig. 7) rest on the
+  corresponding fixed flanges HH, as shown in fig. 9. The farther
+  descent of the bucket being thus arrested, the special cable T is now
+  slackened, so that the conical bottom of the bucket drops down,
+  pressing down by its weight the counter-weighted false cover J of the
+  furnace, so that the contents of the bucket slide down into the space
+  between this false cover and the true charging bell, K. The special
+  cable T is now tightened again, and lifts the bottom of the bucket so
+  as both to close it and to close the space between J and K, by
+  allowing J to rise back to its initial place. The bucket then descends
+  along the hoist-track to make way for the next succeeding one, and K
+  is lowered, dropping the charge into the furnace. Thus some 1700 tons
+  of materials are charged daily into each of these furnaces without
+  being shovelled at all, running by gravity from bin to bucket and from
+  bucket to furnace, and being hoisted and charged into the furnace by a
+  single engineer below, without any assistance or supervision at the
+  furnace-top.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram of the Carnegie Blast-Furnace Plant
+  at Duquesne, Pa.
+
+    A  and B, Bins for stock for immediate use.
+    C, Receiving bin for winter stock pile.
+    D, D, Ore bucket.
+    EE, Hoist-track.
+    F,  Hoist-engine house.
+    LL, Travelling crane commanding stock pile.
+    M,  Ore bucket receiving ore for stock pile.
+    M', Bucket removing ore from stock pile.
+    N, N, N, Ladles carrying the molten cast iron to the works, where
+      it is converted into steel by the open hearth process.]
+
+  The winter stock of materials is drawn from the left-hand row of bins,
+  and distributed over immense stock piles by means of the great crane
+  LL (fig. 12), which transfers it as it is needed to the row A of bins,
+  whence it is carried to the furnace, as already explained.
+
+74. _Casting the Molten Pig Iron._--The molten pig iron at many works is
+still run directly from the furnace into sand or iron moulds arranged in
+a way which suggests a nursing litter of pigs; hence the name "pig
+iron." These pigs are then usually broken by hand. The Uehling casting
+machine (fig. 13) has displaced this method in many works. It consists
+essentially of a series of thin-walled moulds, BB, carried by endless
+chains past the lip of a great ladle A. This pours into them the molten
+cast iron which it has just received directly from the blast-furnace. As
+the string of moulds, each thus containing a pig, moves slowly forward,
+the pigs solidify and cool, the more quickly because in transit they are
+sprayed with water or even submerged in water in the tank EE. Arrived at
+the farther sheave C, the now cool pigs are dumped into a railway car.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagram of Pig-Casting Machine.
+
+  A,  Ladle bringing the cast iron from the blast-furnace.
+  BB, The moulds.
+  C, D, Sheaves carrying the endless chain of moulds.
+  EE, Tank in which the moulds are submerged.
+  F,  Car into which the cooled pigs are dropped.
+  G,  Distributing funnel.]
+
+  Besides a great saving of labour, only partly offset by the cost of
+  repairs, these machines have the great merit of making the management
+  independent of a very troublesome set of labourers, the hand
+  pig-breakers, who were not only absolutely indispensable for every
+  cast and every day, because the pig iron must be removed promptly to
+  make way for the next succeeding cast of iron, but very difficult to
+  replace because of the great physical endurance which their work
+  requires.
+
+75. _Direct Processes for making Wrought Iron and Steel._--The present
+way of getting the iron of the ore into the form of wrought iron and
+steel by first making cast iron and then purifying it, i.e. by first
+putting carbon and silicon into the iron and then taking them out again
+at great expense, at first sight seems so unreasonably roundabout that
+many "direct" processes of extracting the iron without thus charging it
+with carbon and silicon have been proposed, and some of them have at
+times been important. But to-day they have almost ceased to exist.
+
+  That the blast-furnace process must be followed by a purifying one,
+  that carburization must at once be undone by decarburization, is
+  clearly a disadvantage, but it is one which is far out weighed by five
+  important incidental advantages. (1) The strong deoxidizing action
+  incidental to this carburizing removes the sulphur easily and cheaply,
+  a thing hardly to be expected of any direct process so far as we can
+  see. (2) The carburizing incidentally carburizes the brickwork of the
+  furnace, and thus protects it against corrosion by the molten slag.
+  (3) It protects the molten iron against reoxidation, the greatest
+  stumbling block in the way of the direct processes hitherto. (4) This
+  same strong deoxidizing action leads to the practically complete
+  deoxidation and hence extraction of the iron. (5) In that carburizing
+  lowers the melting point of the iron greatly, it lowers somewhat the
+  temperature to which the mineral matter of the ore has to be raised in
+  order that the iron may be separated from it, because this separation
+  requires that both iron and slag shall be very fluid. Indeed, few if
+  any of the direct processes have attempted to make this separation, or
+  to make it complete, leaving it for some subsequent operation, such as
+  the open hearth process.
+
+  In addition, the blast-furnace uses a very cheap source of energy,
+  coke, anthracite, charcoal, and even certain kinds of raw bituminous
+  coal, and owing first to the intimacy of contact between this fuel and
+  the ore on which it works, and second to the thoroughness of the
+  transfer of heat from the products of that fuel's combustion in their
+  long upward journey through the descending charge, even this cheap
+  energy is used most effectively.
+
+  Thus we have reasons enough why the blast-furnace has displaced all
+  competing processes, without taking into account its further advantage
+  in lending itself easily to working on an enormous scale and with
+  trifling consumption of labour, still further lessened by the general
+  practice of transferring the molten cast iron in enormous ladles into
+  the vessels in which its conversion into steel takes place.
+  Nevertheless, a direct process may yet be made profitable under
+  conditions which specially favour it, such as the lack of any fuel
+  suitable for the blast-furnace, coupled with an abundance of cheap
+  fuel suitable for a direct process and of cheap rich ore nearly free
+  from sulphur.
+
+76. The chief difficulty in the way of modifying the blast-furnace
+process itself so as to make it accomplish what the direct processes aim
+at, by giving its product less carbon and silicon than pig iron as now
+made contains, is the removal of the sulphur. The processes for
+converting cast iron into steel can now remove phosphorus easily, but
+the removal of sulphur in them is so difficult that it has to be
+accomplished for the most part in the blast-furnace itself. As
+desulphurizing seems to need the direct and energetic action of carbon
+on the molten iron itself, and as molten iron absorbs carbon most
+greedily, it is hard to see how the blast-furnace is to desulphurize
+without carburizing almost to saturation, i.e. without making cast iron.
+
+77. _Direct Metal and the Mixer._--Until relatively lately the cast iron
+for the Bessemer and open-hearth processes was nearly always allowed to
+solidify in pigs, which were next broken up by hand and remelted at
+great cost. It has long been seen that there would be a great saving if
+this remelting could be avoided and "direct metal," i.e. the molten cast
+iron direct from the blast-furnace, could be treated in the conversion
+process. The obstacle is that, owing to unavoidable irregularities in
+the blast-furnace process, the silicon- and sulphur-content of the cast
+iron vary to a degree and with an abruptness which are inconvenient for
+any conversion process and intolerable for the Bessemer process. For the
+acid variety of this process, which does not remove sulphur, this most
+harmful element must be held below a limit which is always low, though
+it varies somewhat with the use to which the steel is to be put.
+Further, the point at which the process should be arrested is recognized
+by the appearance of the flame which issues from the converter's mouth,
+and variations in the silicon-content of the cast iron treated alter
+this appearance, so that the indications of the flame become confusing,
+and control over the process is lost. Moreover, the quality of the
+resultant steel depends upon the temperature of the process, and this in
+turn depends upon the proportion of silicon, the combustion of which is
+the chief source of the heat developed. Hence the importance of having
+the silicon-content constant. In the basic Bessemer process, also,
+unforeseen variations in the silicon-content are harmful, because the
+quantity of lime added should be just that needed to neutralize the
+resultant silica and the phosphoric acid and no more. Hence the
+importance of having the silicon-content uniform. This uniformity is now
+given by the use of the "mixer" invented by Captain W. R. Jones.
+
+This "mixer" is a great reservoir into which successive lots of molten
+cast iron from all the blast-furnaces available are poured, forming a
+great molten mass of from 200 to 750 tons. This is kept molten by a
+flame playing above it, and successive lots of the cast iron thus mixed
+are drawn off, as they are needed, for conversion into steel by the
+Bessemer or open-hearth process. An excess of silicon or sulphur in the
+cast iron from one blast-furnace is diluted by thus mixing this iron
+with that from the other furnaces. Should several furnaces
+simultaneously make iron too rich in silicon, this may be diluted by
+pouring into the mixer some low-silicon iron melted for this purpose in
+a cupola furnace. This device not only makes the cast iron much more
+uniform, but also removes much of its sulphur by a curious slow
+reaction. Many metals have the power of dissolving their own oxides and
+sulphides, but not those of other metals. Thus iron, at least highly
+carburetted, i.e. cast iron, dissolves its own sulphide freely, but not
+that of either calcium or manganese. Consequently, when we deoxidize
+calcium in the iron blast-furnace, it greedily absorbs the sulphur which
+has been dissolved in the iron as iron sulphide, and the sulphide of
+calcium thus formed separates from the iron. In like manner, if the
+molten iron in the mixer contains manganese, this metal unites with the
+sulphur present, and the manganese sulphide, insoluble in the iron,
+slowly rises to the surface, and as it reaches the air, its sulphur
+oxidizes to sulphurous acid, which escapes. Further, an important part
+of the silicon may be removed in the mixer by keeping it very hot and
+covering the metal with a rather basic slag. This is very useful if the
+iron is intended for either the basic Bessemer or the basic open-hearth
+process, for both of which silicon is harmful.
+
+78. _Conversion or Purifying Processes for converting Cast Iron into
+Steel or Wrought Iron._--As the essential difference between cast iron
+on one hand and wrought iron and steel on the other is that the former
+contains necessarily much more carbon, usually more silicon, and often
+more phosphorus that are suitable or indeed permissible in the latter
+two, the chief work of all these conversion processes is to remove the
+excess of these several foreign elements by oxidizing them to carbonic
+oxide CO, silica SiO2, and phosphoric acid P2O5, respectively. Of these
+the first escapes immediately as a gas, and the others unite with iron
+oxide, lime, or other strong base present to form a molten silicate or
+silico-phosphate called "cinder" or "slag," which floats on the molten
+or pasty metal. The ultimate source of the oxygen may be the air, as in
+the Bessemer process, or rich iron oxide as in the puddling process, or
+both as in the open-hearth process; but in any case iron oxide is the
+chief immediate source, as is to be expected, because the oxygen of the
+air would naturally unite in much greater proportion with some of the
+great quantity of iron offered to it than with the small quantity of
+these impurities. The iron oxide thus formed immediately oxidizes these
+foreign elements, so that the iron is really a carrier of oxygen from
+air to impurity. The typical reactions are something like the following:
+Fe3O4 + 4C = 4CO + 3Fe; Fe3O4 + C = 3FeO + CO; 2P + 5Fe3O4 = 12FeO +
+3FeO,P2O5; Si + 2Fe3O4 = 3FeO,SiO2 + 3FeO. Beside this their chief and
+easy work of oxidizing carbon, silicon and phosphorus, the conversion
+processes have the harder task of removing sulphur, chiefly by
+converting it into calcium sulphide, CaS, or manganous sulphide, MnS,
+which rise to the top of the molten metal and there enter the overlying
+slag, from which the sulphur may escape by oxidizing to the gaseous
+compound, sulphurous acid, SO2.
+
+79. In the _puddling process_ molten cast iron is converted into wrought
+iron, i.e. low-carbon slag-bearing iron, by oxidizing its carbon,
+silicon and phosphorus, by means of iron oxide stirred into it as it
+lies in a thin shallow layer in the "hearth" or flat basin of a
+reverberatory furnace (fig. 14), itself lined with iron ore. As the iron
+oxide is stirred into the molten metal laboriously by the workman or
+"puddler" with his hook or "rabble," it oxidizes the silicon to silica
+and the phosphorus to phosphoric acid, and unites with both these
+products, forming with them a basic iron silicate rich in phosphorus,
+called "puddling" or "tap cinder." It oxidizes the carbon also, which
+escapes in purple jets of burning carbonic oxide. As the melting point
+of the metal is gradually raised by the progressive decarburization, it
+at length passes above the temperature of the furnace, about 1400 deg.
+C., with the consequence that the metal, now below its melting point,
+solidifies in pasty grains, or "comes to nature." These grains the
+puddler welds together by means of his rabble into rough 80-lb. balls,
+each like a sponge of metallic iron particles with its pores filled with
+the still molten cinder. These balls are next worked into merchantable
+shape, and the cinder is simultaneously expelled in large part, first by
+hammering them one at a time under a steam hammer (fig. 37) or by
+squeezing them, and next by rolling them. The squeezing is usually done
+in the way shown in fig. 15.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Puddling Furnace.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Plan of Burden's Excentric Revolving Squeezer
+for Puddled Balls.]
+
+  Here BB is a large fixed iron cylinder, corrugated within, and C an
+  excentric cylinder, also corrugated, which, in turning to the right,
+  by the friction of its corrugated surface rotates the puddled ball D
+  which has just entered at A, so that, turning around its own axis, it
+  travels to the right and is gradually changed from a ball into a
+  bloom, a rough cylindrical mass of white hot iron, still dripping with
+  cinder. This bloom is immediately rolled down into a long flat bar,
+  called "muck bar," and this in turn is cut into short lengths which,
+  piled one on another, are reheated and again rolled down, sometimes
+  with repeated cutting, piling and re-rolling, into the final shape in
+  which it is actually to be used. But, roll and re-roll as often as we
+  like, much cinder remains imbedded in the iron, in the form of threads
+  and rods drawn out in the direction of rolling, and of course
+  weakening the metal in the transverse direction.
+
+80. _Machine Puddling._--The few men who have, and are willing to
+exercise, the great strength and endurance which the puddler needs when
+he is stirring the pasty iron and balling it up, command such high
+wages, and with their little 500-lb. charges turn out their iron so
+slowly, that many ways of puddling by machinery have been tried. None
+has succeeded permanently, though indeed one offered by J. P. Roe is not
+without promise. The essential difficulty has been that none of them
+could subdivide the rapidly solidifying charge into the small balls
+which the workman dexterously forms by hand, and that if the charge is
+not thus subdivided but drawn as a single ball, the cinder cannot be
+squeezed out of it thoroughly enough.
+
+81. _Direct Puddling._--In common practice the cast iron as it runs from
+the blast-furnace is allowed to solidify and cool completely in the form
+of pigs, which are then graded by their fracture, and remelted in the
+puddling furnace itself. At Hourpes, in order to save the expense of
+this remelting, the molten cast iron as it comes from the blast-furnace
+is poured directly into the puddling furnace, in large charges of about
+2200 lb., which are thus about four times as large as those of common
+puddling furnaces. These large charges are puddled by two gangs of four
+men each, and a great saving in fuel and labour is effected.
+
+  Attractive as are these advances in puddling, they have not been
+  widely adopted, for two chief reasons: First, owners of puddling works
+  have been reluctant to spend money freely in plant for a process of
+  which the future is so uncertain, and this unwillingness has been the
+  more natural because these very men are in large part the more
+  conservative fraction, which has resisted the temptation to abandon
+  puddling and adopt the steel-making processes. Second, in puddling
+  iron which is to be used as a raw material for making very fine steel
+  by the crucible process, quality is the thing of first importance.
+  Now in the series of operations, the blast-furnace, puddling and
+  crucible processes, through which the iron passes from the state of
+  ore to that of crucible tool steel, it is so difficult to detect just
+  which are the conditions essential to excellence in the final product
+  that, once a given procedure has been found to yield excellent steel,
+  every one of its details is adhered to by the more cautious
+  ironmasters, often with surprising conservatism. Buyers of certain
+  excellent classes of Swedish iron have been said to object even to the
+  substitution of electricity for water-power as a means of driving the
+  machinery of the forge. In case of direct puddling and the use of
+  larger charges this conservatism has some foundation, because the
+  established custom of allowing the cast iron to solidify gives a
+  better opportunity of examining its fracture, and thus of rejecting
+  unsuitable iron, than is afforded in direct puddling. So, too, when
+  several puddlers are jointly responsible for the thoroughness of their
+  work, as happens in puddling large charges, they will not exercise
+  such care (nor indeed will a given degree of care be so effective) as
+  when responsibility for each charge rests on one man.
+
+82. The _removal of phosphorus_, a very important duty of the puddling
+process, requires that the cinder shall be "basic," i.e. that it shall
+have a great excess of the strong base, ferrous oxide, FeO, for the
+phosphoric acid to unite with, lest it be deoxidized by the carbon of
+the iron as fast as it forms, and so return to the iron, following the
+general rule that oxidized bodies enter the slag and unoxidized ones the
+metallic iron. But this basicity implies that for each part of the
+silica or silicic acid which inevitably results from the oxidation of
+the silicon of the pig iron, the cinder shall contain some three parts
+of iron oxide, itself a valuable and expensive substance. Hence, in
+order to save iron oxide the pig iron used should be nearly free from
+silicon. It should also be nearly free from sulphur, because of the
+great difficulty of removing this element in the puddling process. But
+the strong deoxidizing conditions needed in the blast-furnace to remove
+sulphur tend strongly to deoxidize silica and thus to make the pig iron
+rich in silicon.
+
+83. The _"refinery process"_ of fitting pig iron for the puddling
+process by removing the silicon without the carbon, is sometimes used
+because of this difficulty in making a pig iron initially low in both
+sulphur and silicon. In this process molten pig iron with much silicon
+but little sulphur has its silicon oxidized to silica and thus slagged
+off, by means of a blast of air playing on the iron through a blanket of
+burning coke which covers it. The coke thus at once supplies by its
+combustion the heat needed for melting the iron and keeping it hot, and
+by itself dissolving in the molten metal returns carbon to it as fast as
+this element is burnt out by the blast, so that the "refined" cast iron
+which results, though still rich in carbon and therefore easy to melt in
+the puddling process, has relatively little silicon.
+
+84. In the _Bessemer or "pneumatic" process_, which indeed might be
+called the "fuel-less" process, molten pig iron is converted into steel
+by having its carbon, silicon and manganese, and often its phosphorus
+and sulphur, oxidized and thus removed by air forced through it in so
+many fine streams and hence so rapidly that the heat generated by the
+oxidation of these impurities suffices in and by itself, unaided by
+burning any other fuel, not only to keep the iron molten, but even to
+raise its temperature from a point initially but little above the
+melting point of cast iron, say 1150 deg. to 1250 deg. C., to one well
+above the melting point of the resultant steel, say 1500 deg. C. The
+"Bessemer converter" or "vessel" (fig. 16) in which this wonderful
+process is carried out is a huge retort, lined with clay, dolomite or
+other refractory material, hung aloft and turned on trunnions, DD,
+through the right-hand one of which the blast is carried to the
+gooseneck E, which in turn delivers it to the tuyeres Q at the bottom.
+
+There are two distinct varieties of this process, the original
+undephosphorizing or "acid" Bessemer process, so called because the
+converter is lined with acid materials, i.e. those rich in silicic acid,
+such as quartz and clay, and because the slag is consequently acid, i.e.
+siliceous; and the dephosphorizing or "Thomas" or "basic Bessemer"
+process, so called because the converter is lined with basic materials,
+usually calcined dolomite, a mixture of lime and magnesia, bound
+together with tar, and because the slag is made very basic by adding
+much lime to it. In the basic Bessemer process phosphorus is readily
+removed by oxidation, because the product of its oxidation, phosphoric
+acid, P2O5, in the presence of an excess of base forms stable phosphates
+of lime and iron which pass into the slag, making it valuable as an
+artificial manure. But this dephosphorization by oxidation can be
+carried out only in the case slag is basic. If it is acid, i.e. if it
+holds much more than 20% of so powerful an acid as silica, then the
+phosphoric acid has so feeble a hold on the base in the slag that it is
+immediately re-deoxidized by the carbon of the metal, or even by the
+iron itself, P2O5 + 5Fe = 2P + 5FeO, and the resultant deoxidized
+phosphorus immediately recombines with the iron. Now in an acid-lined
+converter the slag is necessarily acid, because even an initially basic
+slag would immediately corrode away enough of the acid lining to make
+itself acid. Hence phosphorus cannot be removed in an acid-lined
+converter. Though all this is elementary to-day, not only was it
+unknown, indeed unguessed, at the time of the invention of the Bessemer
+process, but even when, nearly a quarter of a century later, a young
+English metallurgical chemist, Sidney Gilchrist Thomas (1850-1885),
+offered to the British Iron and Steel Institute a paper describing his
+success in dephosphorizing by the Bessemer process with a basic-lined
+converter and a basic slag, that body rejected it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--12-15 ton Bessemer Converter.
+
+  A, Trunnion-ring.        O, Tuyere-plate.
+  B, Main shell.           P, False plate.
+  C, Upper part of shell.  Q, Tuyeres.
+  D, Trunnions.            R, Keys holding lid of tuyere-box.
+  E, Goose-neck.           S, Refractory lining.
+  F, Tuyere-box.           U, Key-link holding bottom.
+  N, Lid of tuyere-box.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Bessemer Converter, turned down in position to
+receive and discharge the molten metal.]
+
+85. In carrying out the acid Bessemer process, the converter, preheated
+to about 1200 deg. C. by burning coke in it, is turned into the position
+shown in fig. 17, and the charge of molten pig iron, which sometimes
+weighs as much as 20 tons, is poured into it through its mouth. The
+converter is then turned upright into the position shown in fig. 16, so
+that the blast, which has been let on just before this, entering through
+the great number of tuyere holes in the bottom, forces its way up
+through the relatively shallow layer of iron, throwing it up within the
+converter as a boiling foam, and oxidizing the foreign elements so
+rapidly that in some cases their removal is complete after 5 minutes.
+The oxygen of the blast having been thus taken up by the molten metal,
+its nitrogen issues from the mouth of the converter as a pale
+spark-bearing cone. Under normal conditions the silicon oxidizes first.
+Later, when most of it has been oxidized, the carbon begins to oxidize
+to carbonic oxide, which in turn burns to carbonic acid as it meets the
+outer air on escaping from the mouth of the converter, and generates a
+true flame which grows bright, then brilliant, then almost blinding, as
+it rushes and roars, then "drops," i.e. shortens and suddenly grows
+quiet when the last of the carbon has burnt away, and no flame-forming
+substance remains. Thus may a 20-ton charge of cast iron be converted
+into steel in ten minutes.[4] It is by the appearance of the flame that
+the operator or "blower" knows when to end the process, judging by its
+brilliancy, colour, sound, sparks, smoke and other indications.
+
+86. _Recarburizing._--The process may be interrupted as soon as the
+carbon-content has fallen to that which the final product is to have, or
+it may be continued till nearly the whole of the carbon has been burned
+out, and then the needed carbon may be added by "recarburizing." The
+former of these ways is followed by the very skilful and intelligent
+blowers in Sweden, who, with the temperature and all other conditions
+well under control, and with their minds set on the quality rather than
+on the quantity of their product, can thus make steel of any desired
+carbon-content from 0.10 to 1.25%. But even with all their skill and
+care, while the carbon-content is still high the indications of the
+flame are not so decisive as to justify them in omitting to test the
+steel before removing it from the converter, as a check on the accuracy
+of their blowing. The delay which this test causes is so unwelcome that
+in all other countries the blower continues the blow until
+decarburization is nearly complete, because of the very great accuracy
+with which he can then read the indications of the flame, an accuracy
+which leaves little to be desired. Then, without waiting to test the
+product, he "recarburizes" it, i.e. adds enough carbon to give it the
+content desired, and then immediately pours the steel into a great
+clay-lined casting ladle by turning the converter over, and through a
+nozzle in the bottom of this ladle pours the steel into its ingot
+moulds. In making very low-carbon steel this recarburizing proper is not
+needed; but in any event a considerable quantity of manganese must be
+added unless the pig iron initially contains much of that metal, in
+order to remove from the molten steel the oxygen which it has absorbed
+from the blast, lest this make it redshort. If the carbon-content is not
+to be raised materially, this manganese is added in the form of
+preheated lumps of "ferro-manganese," which contains about 80% of
+manganese, 5% of carbon and 15% of iron, with a little silicon and other
+impurities. If, on the other hand, the carbon-content is to be raised,
+then carbon and manganese are usually added together in the form of a
+manganiferous molten pig iron, called spiegeleisen, i.e. "mirror-iron,"
+from the brilliancy of its facets, and usually containing somewhere
+about 12% of manganese and 4% of carbon, though the proportion between
+these two elements has to be adjusted so as to introduce the desired
+quantity of each into the molten steel. Part of the carbon of this
+spiegeleisen unites with the oxygen occluded in the molten iron to form
+carbonic oxide, and again a bright flame, greenish with manganese,
+escapes from the converter.
+
+87. _Darby's Process._--Another way of introducing the carbon is Darby's
+process of throwing large paper bags filled with anthracite, coke or
+gas-carbon into the casting ladle as the molten steel is pouring into
+it. The steel dissolves the carbon of this fuel even more quickly than
+water would dissolve salt under like conditions.
+
+88. _Bessemer and Mushet._--Bessemer had no very wide knowledge of
+metallurgy, and after overcoming many stupendous difficulties he was
+greatly embarrassed by the brittleness or "redshortness" of his steel,
+which he did not know how to cure. But two remedies were quickly
+offered, one by the skilful Swede, Goransson, who used a pig iron
+initially rich in manganese and stopped his blow before much oxygen had
+been taken up; and the other by a British steel maker, Robert Mushet,
+who proposed the use of the manganiferous cast iron called spiegeleisen,
+and thereby removed the only remaining serious obstacle to the rapid
+spread of the process.
+
+  From this many have claimed for Mushet a part almost or even quite
+  equal to Bessemer's in the development of the Bessemer process, even
+  calling it the "Bessemer-Mushet process." But this seems most unjust.
+  Mushet had no such exclusive knowledge of the effects of manganese
+  that he alone could have helped Bessemer; and even if nobody had then
+  proposed the use of spiegeleisen, the development of the Swedish
+  Bessemer practice would have gone on, and, the process thus
+  established and its value and great economy thus shown in Sweden, it
+  would have been only a question of time how soon somebody would have
+  proposed the addition of manganese. Mushet's aid was certainly
+  valuable, but not more than Goransson's, who, besides thus offering a
+  preventive of redshortness, further helped the process on by raising
+  its temperature by the simple expedient of further subdividing the
+  blast, thus increasing the surface of contact between blast and metal,
+  and thus in turn hastening the oxidation. The two great essential
+  discoveries were first that the rapid passage of air through molten
+  cast iron raised its temperature above the melting point of low-carbon
+  steel, or as it was then called "malleable iron," and second that this
+  low-carbon steel, which Bessemer was the first to make in important
+  quantities, was in fact an extraordinarily valuable substance when
+  made under proper conditions.
+
+89. _Source of Heat._--The carbon of the pig iron, burning as it does
+only to carbonic oxide within the converter, does not by itself generate
+a temperature high enough for the needs of the process. The oxidation of
+manganese is capable of generating a very high temperature, but it has
+the very serious disadvantage of causing such thick clouds of smoky
+oxide of manganese as to hide the flame from the blower, and prevent him
+from recognizing the moment when the blow should be ended. Thus it comes
+about that the temperature is regulated primarily by adjusting the
+quantity of silicon in the pig iron treated, 1(1/4)% of this element
+usually sufficing. If any individual blow proves to be too hot, it may
+be cooled by throwing cold "scrap" steel such as the waste ends of rails
+and other pieces, into the converter, or by injecting with the blast a
+little steam, which is decomposed by the iron by the endothermic
+reaction H2O + Fe = 2H + FeO. If the temperature is not high enough, it
+is raised by managing the blast in such a way as to oxidize some of the
+iron itself permanently, and thus to generate much heat.
+
+90. The _basic_ or dephosphorizing variety of the Bessemer process,
+called in Germany the "Thomas" process, differs from the acid process in
+four chief points: (1) that its slag is made very basic and hence
+dephosphorizing by adding much lime to it; (2) that the lining is basic,
+because an acid lining would quickly be destroyed by such a basic slag;
+(3) that the process is arrested not at the "drop of the flame" (S85)
+but at a predetermined length of time after it; and (4) that phosphorus
+instead of silicon is the chief source of heat. Let us consider these in
+turn.
+
+91. The _slag_, in order that it may have such an excess of base that
+this will retain the phosphoric acid as fast as it is formed by the
+oxidation of the phosphorus of the pig iron, and prevent it from being
+re-deoxidized and re-absorbed by the iron, should, according to von
+Ehrenwerth's rule which is generally followed, contain enough lime to
+form approximately a tetra-calcic silicate, 4CaO,SiO2 with the silica
+which results from the oxidation of the silicon of the pig iron and
+tri-calcic phosphate, 3CaO,P2O5, with the phosphoric acid which forms.
+The danger of this "rephosphorization" is greatest at the end of the
+blow, when the recarburizing additions are made. This lime is charged in
+the form of common quicklime, CaO, resulting from the calcination of a
+pure limestone, CaCO3, which should be as free as possible from silica.
+The usual composition of this slag is iron oxide, 10 to 16%; lime, 40 to
+50%; magnesia, 5%; silica, 6 to 9%; phosphoric acid, 16 to 20%. Its
+phosphoric acid makes it so valuable as a fertilizer that it is a most
+important by-product. In order that the phosphoric acid may be the more
+fully liberated by the humic acid, &c., of the earth, a little silicious
+sand is mixed with the still molten slag after it has been poured off
+from the molten steel. The slag is used in agriculture with no further
+preparation, save very fine grinding.
+
+92. The _lining of the converter_ is made of 90% of the mixture of lime
+and magnesia which results from calcining dolomite, (Ca,Mg)CO3, at a
+very high temperature, and 10% of coal tar freed from its water by
+heating. This mixture may be rammed in place, or baked blocks of it may
+be laid up like a masonry wall. In either case such a lining is
+expensive, and has but a short life, in few works more than 200 charges,
+and in some only 100, though the silicious lining of the acid converter
+lasts thousands of charges. Hence, for the basic process, spare
+converters must be provided, so that there may always be some of them
+re-lining, either while standing in the same place as when in use, or,
+as in Holley's arrangement, in a separate repair house, to which these
+gigantic vessels are removed bodily.
+
+93. _Control of the Basic Bessemer Process._--The removal of the greater
+part of the phosphorus takes place after the carbon has been oxidized
+and the flame has consequently "dropped," probably because the lime,
+which is charged in solid lumps, is taken up by the slag so slowly that
+not until late in the operation does the slag become so basic as to be
+retentive of phosphoric acid. Hence in making steel rich in carbon it is
+not possible, as in the acid Bessemer process, to end the operation as
+soon as the carbon in the metal has fallen to the point sought, but it
+is necessary to remove practically all of the carbon, then the
+phosphorus, and then "recarburize," i.e. add whatever carbon the steel
+is to contain. The quantity of phosphorus in the pig iron is usually
+known accurately, and the dephosphorization takes place so regularly
+that the quantity of air which it needs can be foretold closely. The
+blower therefore stops the process when he has blown a predetermined
+quantity of air through, counting from the drop of the flame; but as a
+check on his forecast he usually tests the blown metal before
+recarburizing it.
+
+94. _Source of Heat._--Silicon cannot here be used as the chief source
+of heat as it is in the acid Bessemer process, because most of the heat
+which its oxidation generates is consumed in heating the great
+quantities of lime needed for neutralizing the resultant silica.
+Fortunately the phosphorus, turned from a curse into a blessing,
+develops by its oxidation the needed temperature, though the fact that
+this requires at least 1.80% of phosphorus limits the use of the
+process, because there are few ores which can be made to yield so
+phosphoric a pig iron. Further objections to the presence of silicon are
+that the resultant silica (1) corrodes the lining of the converter, (2)
+makes the slag froth so that it both throws much of the charge out and
+blocks up the nose of the converter, and (3) leads to rephosphorization.
+These effects are so serious that until very lately it was thought that
+the silicon could not safely be much in excess of 1%. But Massenez and
+Richards, following the plan outlined by Pourcel in 1879, have found
+that even 3% of silicon is permissible if, by adding iron ore, the
+resultant silica is made into a fluid slag, and if this is removed in
+the early cool part of the process, when it attacks the lining of the
+converter but slightly. Manganese to the extent of 1.80% is desired as a
+means of preventing the resultant steel from being redshort, i.e.
+brittle at a red or forging heat. The pig iron should be as nearly free
+as possible from sulphur, because the removal of any large quantity of
+this injurious element in the process itself is both difficult and
+expensive.
+
+  95. The _car casting_ system deserves description chiefly because it
+  shows how, when the scale of operations is as enormous as it is in the
+  Bessemer process, even a slight simplification and a slight
+  heat-saving may be of great economic importance.
+
+  Whatever be the form into which the steel is to be rolled, it must in
+  general first be poured from the Bessemer converter in which it is
+  made into a large clay-lined ladle, and thence cast in vertical
+  pyramidal ingots. To bring them to a temperature suitable for rolling,
+  these ingots must be set in heating or soaking furnaces (S 125), and
+  this should be done as soon as possible after they are cast, both to
+  lessen the loss of their initial heat, and to make way for the next
+  succeeding lot of ingots, a matter of great importance, because the
+  charges of steel follow each other at such very brief intervals. A
+  pair of working converters has made 4958 charges of 10 tons each, or a
+  total of 50,547 tons, in one month, or at an average rate of a charge
+  every seven minutes and twenty-four seconds throughout every working
+  day. It is this extraordinary rapidity that makes the process so
+  economical and determines the way in which its details must be carried
+  out. Moreover, since the mould acts as a covering to retard the loss
+  of heat, it should not be removed from the ingot until just before the
+  latter is to be placed in its soaking furnace. These conditions are
+  fulfilled by the car casting system of F. W. Wood, of Sparrows Point,
+  Md., in which the moulds, while receiving the steel, stand on a train
+  of cars, which are immediately run to the side of the soaking furnace.
+  Here, as soon as the ingots have so far solidified that they can be
+  lifted without breaking, their moulds are removed and set on an
+  adjoining train of cars, and the ingots are charged directly into the
+  soaking furnace. The mould-train now carries its empty moulds to a
+  cooling yard, and, as soon as they are cool enough to be used again,
+  carries them back to the neighbourhood of the converters to receive a
+  new lot of steel. In this system there is for each ingot and each
+  mould only one handling in which it is moved as a separate unit, the
+  mould from one train to the other, the ingot from its train into the
+  furnace. In the other movements, all the moulds and ingots of a given
+  charge of steel are grouped as a train, which is moved as a unit by a
+  locomotive. The difficulty in the way of this system was that, in
+  pouring the steel from ladle to mould, more or less of it occasionally
+  spatters, and these spatterings, if they strike the rails or the
+  running gear of the cars, obstruct and foul them, preventing the
+  movement of the train, because the solidified steel is extremely
+  tenacious. But this cannot be tolerated, because the economy of the
+  process requires extreme promptness in each of its steps. On account
+  of this difficulty the moulds formerly stood, not on cars, but
+  directly on the floor of a casting pit while receiving the molten
+  steel. When the ingots had so far solidified that they could be
+  handled, the moulds were removed and set on the floor to cool, the
+  ingots were set on a car and carried to the soaking furnace, and the
+  moulds were then replaced in the casting pit. Here each mould and each
+  ingot was handled as a separate unit twice, instead of only once as in
+  the car casting system; the ingots radiated away great quantities of
+  heat in passing naked from the converting mill to the soaking
+  furnaces, and the heat which they and the moulds radiated while in the
+  converting mill was not only wasted, but made this mill, open-doored
+  as it was, so intolerably hot, that the cost of labour there was
+  materially increased. Mr Wood met this difficulty by the simple device
+  of so shaping the cars that they completely protect both their own
+  running gear and the track from all possible spattering, a device
+  which, simple as it is, has materially lessened the cost of the steel
+  and greatly increased the production. How great the increase has been,
+  from this and many other causes, is shown in Table III.
+
+  TABLE III.--_Maximum Production of Ingots by a Pair of American
+  Converters._
+
+                             Gross Tons per Week.
+    1870                              254
+    1880                            3,433
+    1889                            8,549
+    1899 (average for a month)     11,233
+    1903                           15,704
+
+  Thus in thirty-three years the rate of production per pair of vessels
+  increased more than sixty-fold. The production of European Bessemer
+  works is very much less than that of American. Indeed, the whole
+  German production of acid Bessemer steel in 1899 was at a rate but
+  slightly greater than that here given for one pair of American
+  converters; and three pairs, if this rate were continued, would make
+  almost exactly as much steel as all the sixty-five active British
+  Bessemer converters, acid and basic together, made in 1899.
+
+  96. _Range in Size of Converters._--In the Bessemer process, and
+  indeed in most high-temperature processes, to operate on a large scale
+  has, in addition to the usual economies which it offers in other
+  industries, a special one, arising from the fact that from a large hot
+  furnace or hot mass in general a very much smaller proportion of its
+  heat dissipates through radiation and like causes than from a smaller
+  body, just as a thin red-hot wire cools in the air much faster than a
+  thick bar equally hot. Hence the progressive increase which has
+  occurred in the size of converters, until now some of them can treat a
+  20-ton charge, is not surprising. But, on the other hand, when only a
+  relatively small quantity of a special kind of steel is needed, very
+  much smaller charges, in some cases weighing even less than half a
+  ton, have been treated with technical success.
+
+  97. _The Bessemer Process for making Steel Castings._--This has been
+  particularly true in the manufacture of steel castings, i.e. objects
+  usually of more or less intricate shape, which are cast initially in
+  the form in which they are to be used, instead of being forged or
+  rolled to that form from steel cast originally in ingots. For making
+  castings, especially those which are so thin and intricate that, in
+  order that the molten steel may remain molten long enough to run into
+  the thin parts of the mould, it must be heated initially very far
+  above its melting-point, the Bessemer process has a very great
+  advantage in that it can develop a much higher temperature than is
+  attainable in either of its competitors, the crucible and the
+  open-hearth processes. Indeed, no limit has yet been found to the
+  temperature which can be reached, if matters are so arranged that not
+  only the carbon and silicon of the pig iron, but also a considerable
+  part of the metallic iron which is the iron itself, are oxidized by
+  the blast; or if, as in the Walrand-Legenisel modification, after the
+  combustion of the initial carbon and silicon of the pig iron has
+  already raised the charge to a very high temperature, a still further
+  rise of temperature is brought about by adding more silicon in the
+  form of ferro-silicon, and oxidizing it by further blowing. But in the
+  crucible and the open-hearth processes the temperature attainable is
+  limited by the danger of melting the furnace itself, both because some
+  essential parts of it, which, unfortunately, are of a destructible
+  shape, are placed most unfavourably in that they are surrounded by the
+  heat on all sides, and because the furnace is necessarily hotter than
+  the steel made within it. But no part of the Bessemer converter is of
+  a shape easily affected by the heat, no part of it is exposed to the
+  heat on more than one side, and the converter itself is necessarily
+  cooler than the metal within it, because the heat is generated within
+  the metal itself by the combustion of its silicon and other calorific
+  elements. In it the steel heats the converter, whereas in the
+  open-hearth and crucible processes the furnace heats the steel.
+
+98. The _open-hearth process_ consists in making molten steel out of pig
+or cast iron and "scrap," i.e. waste pieces of steel and iron melted
+together on the "open hearth," i.e. the uncovered basin-like bottom of a
+reverberatory furnace, under conditions of which fig. 18 may give a
+general idea. The conversion of cast iron into steel, of course,
+consists in lessening its content of the several foreign elements,
+carbon, silicon, phosphorus, &c. The open-hearth process does this by
+two distinct steps: (1) by oxidizing and removing these elements by
+means of the flame of the furnace, usually aided by the oxygen of light
+charges of iron ore, and (2) by diluting them with scrap steel or its
+equivalent. The "pig and ore" or "Siemens" variety of the process works
+chiefly by oxidation, the "pig and scrap" or "Siemens-Martin" variety
+chiefly by dilution, sometimes indeed by extreme dilution, as when 10
+parts of cast iron are diluted with 90 parts of scrap. Both varieties
+may be carried out in the basic and dephosphorizing way, i.e. in
+presence of a basic slag and in a basic- or neutral-lined furnace; or in
+the acid and undephosphorizing way, in presence of an acid, i.e.
+silicious slag, and in a furnace with a silicious lining.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Open-Hearth Process.
+
+  Half Section showing condition of charge when boiling very gently.
+
+  Half Section showing condition of charge when boiling violently during
+  oreing.]
+
+The charge may be melted down on the "open hearth" itself, or, as in the
+more advanced practice, the pig iron may be brought in the molten state
+from the blast furnace in which it is made. Then the furnaceman,
+controlling the decarburization and purification of the molten charge by
+his examination of test ingots taken from time to time, gradually
+oxidizes and so removes the foreign elements, and thus brings the metal
+simultaneously to approximately the composition needed and to a
+temperature far enough above its present melting-point to permit of its
+being cast into ingots or other castings. He then pours or taps the
+molten charge from the furnace into a large clay-lined casting ladle,
+giving it the final additions of manganese, usually with carbon and
+often with silicon, needed to give it exactly the desired composition.
+He then casts it into its final form through a nozzle in the bottom of
+the casting ladle, as in the Bessemer process.
+
+The oxidation of the foreign elements must be very slow, lest the
+effervescence due to the escape of carbonic oxide from the carbon of the
+metal throw the charge out of the doors and ports of the furnace, which
+itself must be shallow in order to hold the flame down close to the
+charge. It is in large part because of this shallowness, which contrasts
+so strongly with the height and roominess of the Bessemer converter,
+that the process lasts hours where the Bessemer process lasts minutes,
+though there is the further difference that in the open-hearth process
+the transfer of heat from flame to charge through the intervening layer
+of slag is necessarily slow, whereas in the Bessemer process the heat,
+generated as it is in and by the metallic bath itself, raises the
+temperature very rapidly. The slowness of this rise of the temperature
+compels us to make the removal of the carbon slow for a very simple
+reason. That removal progressively raises the melting-point of the
+metal, after line Aa of Fig. 1, i.e. makes the charge more and more
+infusible; and this progressive rise of the melting-point of the charge
+must not be allowed to outrun the actual rise of temperature, or in
+other words the charge must always be kept molten, because once
+solidified it is very hard to remelt. Thus the necessary slowness of the
+heating up of the molten charge would compel us to make the removal of
+the carbon slow, even if this slowness were not already forced on us by
+the danger of having the charge froth so much as to run out of the
+furnace.
+
+The general plan of the open-hearth process was certainly conceived by
+Josiah Marshall Heath in 1845, if not indeed by Reaumur in 1722, but for
+lack of a furnace in which a high enough temperature could be generated
+it could not be carried out until the development of the Siemens
+regenerative gas furnace about 1860. It was in large part through the
+efforts of Le Chatelier that this process, so long conceived, was at
+last, in 1864, put into actual use by the brothers Martin, of Sireuil in
+France.
+
+  99. _Siemens Open-Hearth Furnace._--These furnaces are usually
+  stationary, but in that shown in figs. 19 to 22 the working chamber or
+  furnace body, G of fig. 22, rotates about its own axis, rolling on the
+  rollers M shown in fig. 21. In this working chamber, a long
+  quasi-cylindrical vessel of brickwork, heated by burning within it
+  pre-heated gas with pre-heated air, the charge is melted and brought
+  to the desired composition and temperature. The working chamber indeed
+  is the furnace proper, in which the whole of the open-hearth process
+  is carried out, and the function of all the rest of the apparatus,
+  apart from the tilting mechanism, is simply to pre-heat the air and
+  gas, and to lead them to the furnace proper and thence to the chimney.
+  How this is done may be understood more easily if figs. 19 and 20 are
+  regarded for a moment as forming a single diagrammatic figure instead
+  of sections in different planes. The unbroken arrows show the
+  direction of the incoming gas and air, the broken ones the direction
+  of the escaping products of their combustion. The air and gas, the
+  latter coming from the gas producers or other source, arrive through H
+  and J respectively, and their path thence is determined by the
+  position of the reversing valves K and K'. In the position shown in
+  solid lines, these valves deflect the air and gas into the left-hand
+  pair of "regenerators" or spacious heat-transferring chambers. In
+  these, bricks in great numbers are piled loosely, in such a way that,
+  while they leave ample passage for the gas and air, yet they offer to
+  them a very great extent of surface, and therefore readily transfer to
+  them the heat which they have as readily sucked out of the escaping
+  products of combustion in the last preceding phase. The gas and air
+  thus separately pre-heated to about 1100 deg. C. (2012 deg. F.) rise
+  thence as two separate streams through the uptakes (fig. 22), and
+  first mix at the moment of entering the working chamber through the
+  ports L and L' (fig. 19). As they are so hot at starting, their
+  combustion of course yields a very much higher temperature than if
+  they had been cold before burning, and they form an enormous flame,
+  which fills the great working chamber. The products of combustion are
+  sucked by the pull of the chimney through the farther or right-hand
+  end of this chamber, out through the exit ports, as shown by the
+  dotted arrows, down through the right-hand pair of regenerators,
+  heating to perhaps 1300 deg. C. the upper part of the loosely-piled
+  masses of brickwork within them, and thence past the valves K and K'
+  to the chimney-flue O. During this phase the incoming gas and air have
+  been withdrawing heat from the left-hand regenerators, which have thus
+  been cooling down, while the escaping products of combustion have been
+  depositing heat in the right-hand pair of regenerators, which have
+  thus been heating up. After some thirty minutes this condition of
+  things is reversed by turning the valves K and K' 90 deg. into the
+  positions shown in dotted lines, when they deflect the incoming gas
+  and air into the right-hand regenerators, so that they may absorb in
+  passing the heat which has just been stored there; thence they pass up
+  through the right-hand uptakes and ports into the working chamber,
+  where as before they mix, burn and heat the charge. Thence they are
+  sucked out by the chimney-draught through the left-hand ports, down
+  through the uptakes and regenerators, here again meeting and heating
+  the loose mass of "regenerator" brickwork, and finally escape by the
+  chimney-flue O. After another thirty minutes the current is again
+  reversed to its initial direction, and so on. These regenerators are
+  the essence of the Siemens or "regenerative furnace"; they are
+  heat-traps, catching and storing by their enormous surface of
+  brickwork the heat of the escaping products of combustion, and in the
+  following phase restoring the heat to the entering air and gas. At any
+  given moment one pair of regenerators is storing heat, while the other
+  is restoring it.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Section on EF through Furnace and Port Ends.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Plan through Regenerators, Flues and
+  Reversing Valves.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Section on CD through Body of Furnace.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Section on AB through Uptake, Slag Pocket and
+  Regenerator.
+
+    Figs. 19 to 22.--Diagrammatic Sections of Tilting Siemens Furnace.
+    G,  Furnace body.
+    H,  Air supply.
+    J,  Gas supply.
+    K,  Air reversing valve.
+    K', Gas reversing valve.
+    L,  Air port.
+    L', Gas port.
+    M,  Rollers on which the furnace tilts.
+    N,  Hydraulic cylinder for tilting the furnace.
+    O,  Flue leading to chimney.
+    P,  Slag pockets.
+    R,  Charging boxes.
+    W,  Water-cooled joints between furnace proper, G, and ports L, L'.]
+
+  The tilting working chamber is connected with the stationary ports L
+  and L' by means of the loose water-cooled joint W in Campbell's
+  system, which is here shown. The furnace, resting on the rollers M, is
+  tilted by the hydraulic cylinder N. The slag-pockets P (fig. 22),
+  below the uptakes, are provided to catch the dust carried out of the
+  furnace proper by the escaping products of combustion, lest it enter
+  and choke the regenerators. Wellman's tilting furnace rolls on a fixed
+  rack instead of on rollers. By his charging system a charge of as much
+  as fifty tons is quickly introduced. The metal is packed by unskilled
+  labourers in iron boxes, R (fig. 21), standing on cars in the
+  stock-yard. A locomotive carries a train of these cars to the track
+  running beside a long line of open-hearth furnaces. Here the charging
+  machine lifts one box at a time from its car, pushes it through the
+  momentarily opened furnace door, and empties the metal upon the hearth
+  of the furnace by inverting the box, which it then replaces on its
+  car.
+
+  100. The proportion of pig to scrap used depends chiefly on the
+  relative cost of these two materials, but sometimes in part also on
+  the carbon content which the resultant steel is to have. Thus part at
+  least of the carbon which a high-carbon steel is to contain may be
+  supplied by the pig iron from which it is made. The length of the
+  process increases with the proportion of pig used. Thus in the
+  Westphalian pig and scrap practice, scrap usually forms 75 or even 80%
+  of the charge, and pig only from 20 to 25%, indeed only enough to
+  supply the carbon inevitably burnt out in melting the charge and
+  heating it up to a proper casting temperature; and here the charge
+  lasts only about 6 hours. In some British and Swedish "pig and ore"
+  practice (S 98), on the other hand, little or no scrap is used, and
+  here the removal of the large quantity of carbon, silicon and
+  phosphorus prolongs the process to 17 hours. The common practice in
+  the United States is to use about equal parts of pig and scrap, and
+  here the usual length of a charge is about ll(1/2) hours. The pig and
+  ore process is held back, first by the large quantity of carbon, and
+  usually of silicon and phosphorus, to be removed, and second by the
+  necessary slowness of their removal. The gangue of the ore increases
+  the quantity of slag, which separates the metal from the source of its
+  heat, the flame, and thus delays the rise of temperature; and the
+  purification by "oreing," i.e. by means of the oxygen of the large
+  lumps of cold iron ore thrown in by hand, is extremely slow, because
+  the ore must be fed in very slowly lest it chill the metal both
+  directly and because the reaction by which it removes the carbon of
+  the metal, Fe2O3 + C = 2FeO + CO, itself absorbs heat. Indeed, this
+  local cooling aggravates the frothing. A cold lump of ore chills the
+  slag immediately around it, just where its oxygen, reacting on the
+  carbon of the metal, generates carbonic oxide; the slag becomes cool,
+  viscous, and hence easily made to froth, just where the froth-causing
+  gas is evolved.
+
+  The length of these varieties of the process just given refers to the
+  basic procedure. The acid process goes on much faster, because in it
+  the heat insulating layer of slag is much thinner. For instance it
+  lasts only about 8(1/2) hours when equal parts of pig and scrap are
+  used, instead of the 11(1/2) hours of the basic process. Thus the
+  actual cost of conversion by the acid process is materially less than
+  by the basic, but this difference is more than outweighed in most
+  places by the greater cost of pig and scrap free enough from
+  phosphorus to be used in the undephosphorizing acid process.
+
+  101. _Three special varieties of the open-hearth process_, the
+  Bertrand-Thiel, the Talbot and the Monell, deserve notice. Bertrand
+  and Thiel oxidize the carbon of molten cast iron by pouring it into a
+  bath of molten iron which has first been oxygenated, i.e. charged with
+  oxygen, and superheated, in an open-hearth furnace. The two metallic
+  masses coalesce, and the reaction between the oxygen of one and the
+  carbon of the other is therefore extremely rapid because it occurs
+  throughout their depth, whereas in common procedure oxidation occurs
+  only at the upper surface of the bath of cast iron at its contact with
+  the overlying slag. Moreover, since local cooling, with its consequent
+  viscosity and tendency to froth, are avoided, the frothing is not
+  excessive in spite of the rapidity of the reaction. The oxygenated
+  metal is prepared by melting cast iron diluted with as much scrap
+  steel as is available, and oxidizing it with the flame and with iron
+  ore as it lies in a thin molten layer on the hearth of a large
+  open-hearth furnace; the thinness of the layer hastens the oxidation,
+  and the large size of the furnace permits considerable frothing. But
+  the oxygenated metal might be prepared easily in a Bessemer converter.
+
+  To enlarge the scale of operations makes strongly for economy in the
+  open-hearth process as in other high temperature ones. Yet the use of
+  an open-hearth furnace of very great capacity, say of 200 tons per
+  charge, has the disadvantage that such very large lots of steel,
+  delivered at relatively long intervals, are less readily managed in
+  the subsequent operations of soaking and rolling down to the final
+  shape, than smaller lots delivered at shorter intervals. To meet this
+  difficulty Mr B. Talbot carries on the process as a quasi-continuous
+  instead of an intermittent one, operating on 100-ton or 200-ton lots
+  of cast iron in such a way as to draw off his steel in 20-ton lots at
+  relatively short intervals, charging a fresh 20-ton lot of cast iron
+  to replace each lot of steel thus drawn off, and thus keeping the
+  furnace full of metal from Monday morning till Saturday night. Besides
+  minor advantages, this plan has the merit of avoiding an ineffective
+  period which occurs in common open-hearth procedure just after the
+  charge of cast iron has been melted down. At this time the slag is
+  temporarily rich in iron oxide and silica, resulting from the
+  oxidation of the iron and of its silicon as the charge slowly melts
+  and trickles down. Such a slag not only corrodes the furnace lining,
+  but also impedes dephosphorization, because it is irretentive of
+  phosphorus. Further, the relatively low temperature impedes
+  decarburization. Clearly, no such period can exist in the continuous
+  process.
+
+  At a relatively low temperature, say 1300 deg. C., the phosphorus of
+  cast iron oxidizes and is removed much faster than its carbon, while
+  at a higher temperature, say 1500 deg. C., carbon oxidizes in
+  preference to phosphorus. It is well to remove this latter element
+  early, so that when the carbon shall have fallen to the proportion
+  which the steel is to contain, the steel shall already be free from
+  phosphorus, and so ready to cast. In common open-hearth procedure,
+  although the temperature is low early in the process, viz. at the end
+  of the melting down, dephosphorization is then impeded by the
+  temporary acidity of the slag, as just explained. At the Carnegie
+  works Mr Monell gets the two dephosphorizing conditions, low
+  temperature and basicity of slag, early in the process, by pouring his
+  molten but relatively cool cast iron upon a layer of pre-heated lime
+  and iron oxide on the bottom of the open-hearth furnace. The lime and
+  iron oxide melt, and, in passing up through the overlying metal, the
+  iron oxide very rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus and thus drags it into
+  the slag as phosphoric acid. The ebullition from the formation of
+  carbonic oxide puffs up the resultant phosphoric slag enough to make
+  most of it run out of the furnace, thus both removing the phosphorus
+  permanently from danger of being later deoxidized and returned to the
+  steel, and partly freeing the bath of metal from the heat-insulating
+  blanket of slag. Yet frothing is not excessive, because the slag is
+  not, as in common practice, locally chilled and made viscous by cold
+  lumps of ore.
+
+  102. In the _duplex process_ the conversion of the cast iron into
+  steel is begun in the Bessemer converter and finished in the
+  open-hearth furnace. In the most promising form of this process an
+  acid converter and a basic open-hearth furnace are used. In the former
+  the silicon and part of the carbon are moved rapidly, in the latter
+  the rest of the carbon and the phosphorus are removed slowly, and the
+  metal is brought accurately to the proper temperature and composition.
+  The advantage of this combination is that, by simplifying the
+  conditions with which the composition of the pig iron has to comply,
+  it makes the management of the blast furnace easier, and thus lessens
+  the danger of making "misfit" pig iron, i.e. that which, because it is
+  not accurately suited to the process for which it is intended, offers
+  us the dilemma of using it in that process at poor advantage or of
+  putting it to some other use, a step which often implies serious loss.
+
+  For the acid Bessemer process the sulphur-content must be small and
+  the silicon-content should be constant; for the basic open-hearth
+  process the content of both silicon and sulphur should be small, a
+  thing difficult to bring about, because in the blast furnace most of
+  the conditions which make for small sulphur-content make also for
+  large silicon-content. In the acid Bessemer process the reason why the
+  sulphur-content must be small is that the process removes no sulphur;
+  and the reason why the silicon-content should be constant is that,
+  because silicon is here the chief source of heat, variations in its
+  content cause corresponding variations in the temperature, a most
+  harmful thing because it is essential to the good quality of the steel
+  that it shall be finished and cast at the proper temperature. It is
+  true that the use of the "mixer" (S 77) lessens these variations, and
+  that there are convenient ways of mitigating their effects.
+  Nevertheless, their harm is not completely done away with. But if the
+  conversion is only begun in the converter and finished on the
+  open-hearth, then there is no need of regulating the temperature in
+  the converter closely, and variations in the silicon-content of the
+  pig iron thus become almost harmless in this respect. In the basic
+  open-hearth process, on the other hand, silicon is harmful because the
+  silica which results from its oxidation not only corrodes the lining
+  of the furnace but interferes with the removal of the phosphorus, an
+  essential part of the process. The sulphur-content should be small,
+  because the removal of this element is both slow and difficult. But if
+  the silicon of the pig iron is removed by a preliminary treatment in
+  the Bessemer converter, then its presence in the pig iron is harmless
+  as regards the open-hearth process. Hence the blast furnace process,
+  thus freed from the hampering need of controlling accurately the
+  silicon-content, can be much more effectively guided so as to prevent
+  the sulphur from entering the pig iron.
+
+  Looking at the duplex process in another way, the preliminary
+  desilicidizing in the Bessemer converter should certainly be an
+  advantage; but whether it is more profitable to give this treatment in
+  the converter than in the mixer remains to be seen.
+
+103. In the _cementation process_ bars of wrought iron about 1/2 in.
+thick are carburized and so converted into high carbon "blister steel,"
+by heating them in contact with charcoal in a closed chamber to about
+1000 deg. C. (1832 deg. F.) for from 8 to 11 days. Low-carbon steel
+might thus be converted into high-carbon steel, but this is not
+customary. The carbon dissolves in the hot but distinctly solid
+[gamma]-iron (compare fig. 1) as salt dissolves in water, and works its
+way towards the centre of the bar by diffusion. When the mass is cooled,
+the carbon changes over into the condition of cementite as usual, partly
+interstratified with ferrite in the form of pearlite, partly in the form
+of envelopes enclosing kernels of this pearlite (see ALLOYS, Pl. fig.
+13). Where the carbon, in thus diffusing inwards, meets particles of the
+slag, a basic ferrous silicate which is always present in wrought iron,
+it forms carbonic oxide, FeO + C = Fe + CO, which puffs the pliant metal
+up and forms blisters. Hence the name "blister steel." It was formerly
+sheared to short lengths and formed into piles, which were then rolled
+out, perhaps to be resheared and rerolled into bars, known as "single
+shear" or "double shear" steel according to the number of shearings. But
+now the chief use for blister steel is for remelting in the crucible
+process, yielding a product which is asserted so positively, so
+universally and by such competent witnesses to be not only better but
+very much better than that made from any other material, that we must
+believe that it is so, though no clear reason can yet be given why it
+should be. For long all the best high-carbon steel was made by remelting
+this blister steel in crucibles (S 106), but in the last few years the
+electric processes have begun to make this steel (S 108).
+
+104. _Case Hardening._--The many steel objects which need an extremely
+hard outer surface but a softer and more malleable interior may be
+carburized superficially by heating them in contact with charcoal or
+other carbonaceous matter, for instance for between 5 and 48 hours at a
+temperature of 800 deg. to 900 deg. C. This is known as "case
+hardening." After this carburizing these objects are usually hardened by
+quenching in cold water (see S 28).
+
+105. _Deep Carburizing; Harvey and Krupp Processes._--Much of the heavy
+side armour of war-vessels (see ARMOUR-PLATE) is made of nickel steel
+initially containing so little carbon that it cannot be hardened, i.e.
+that it remains very ductile even after sudden cooling. The impact face
+of these plates is given the intense hardness needed by being converted
+into high-carbon steel, and then hardened by sudden cooling. The impact
+face is thus carburized to a depth of about 1(1/4) in. by being held at
+a temperature of 1100 deg. for about a week, pressed strongly against a
+bed of charcoal (Harvey process). The plate is then by Krupp's process
+heated so that its impact face is above while its rear is below the
+hardening temperature, and the whole is then cooled suddenly with sprays
+of cold water. Under these conditions the hardness, which is very
+extreme at the impact face, shades off toward the back, till at about
+quarter way from face to back all hardening ceases, and the rest of the
+plate is in a very strong, shock-resisting state. Thanks to the
+glass-hardness of this face, the projectile is arrested so abruptly that
+it is shattered, and its energy is delivered piecemeal by its fragments;
+but as the face is integrally united with the unhardened, ductile and
+slightly yielding interior and back, the plate, even if it is locally
+bent backwards somewhat by the blow, neither cracks nor flakes.
+
+106. The _crucible process_ consists essentially in melting one or
+another variety of iron or steel in small 80-lb. charges in closed
+crucibles, and then casting it into ingots or other castings, though in
+addition the metal while melting may be carburized. Its chief, indeed
+almost its sole use, is for making tool steel, the best kinds of spring
+steel and other very excellent kinds of high-carbon and alloy steel.
+After the charge has been fully melted, it is held in the molten state
+from 30 to 60 minutes. This enables it to take up enough silicon from
+the walls of the crucible to prevent the evolution of gas during
+solidification, and the consequent formation of blowholes or internal
+gas bubbles. In Great Britain the charge usually consists of blister
+steel, and is therefore high in carbon, so that the crucible process has
+very little to do except to melt the charge. In the United States the
+charge usually consists chiefly of wrought iron, and in melting in the
+crucible it is carburized by mixing with it either charcoal or "washed
+metal," a very pure cast iron made by the Bell-Krupp process (S 107).
+
+  Compared with the Bessemer process, which converts a charge of even as
+  much as 20 tons of pig iron into steel in a few minutes, and the
+  open-hearth process which easily treats charges of 75 tons, the
+  crucible process is, of course, a most expensive one, with its little
+  80-lb. charges, melted with great consumption of fuel because the heat
+  is kept away from the metal by the walls of the crucible, themselves
+  excellent heat insulators. But it survives simply because crucible
+  steel is very much better than either Bessemer or open-hearth steel.
+  This in turn is in part because of the greater care which can be used
+  in making these small lots, but probably in chief part because the
+  crucible process excludes the atmospheric nitrogen, which injures the
+  metal, and because it gives a good opportunity for the suspended slag
+  and iron oxide to rise to the surface. Till Huntsman developed the
+  crucible process in 1740, the only kinds of steel of commercial
+  importance were blister steel made by carburizing wrought iron without
+  fusion, and others which like it were greatly injured by the presence
+  of particles of slag. Huntsman showed that the mere act of freeing
+  these slag-bearing steels from their slag by melting them in closed
+  crucibles greatly improved them. It is true that Reaumur in 1722
+  described his method of making molten steel in crucibles, and that the
+  Hindus have for centuries done this on a small scale, though they let
+  the molten steel resolidify in the crucible. Nevertheless, it is to
+  Huntsman that the world is immediately indebted for the crucible
+  process. He could make only high-carbon steel, because he could not
+  develop within his closed crucibles the temperature needed for melting
+  low-carbon steel. The crucible process remained the only one by which
+  slagless steel could be made, till Bessemer, by his astonishing
+  invention, discovered at once low-carbon steel and a process for
+  making both it and high-carbon steel extremely cheaply.
+
+107. In the _Bell-Krupp_ or "pig-washing" process, invented
+independently by the famous British iron-master, Sir Lowthian Bell, and
+Krupp of Essen, advantage is taken of the fact that, at a relatively low
+temperature, probably a little above 1200 deg. C., the phosphorus and
+silicon of molten cast iron are quickly oxidized and removed by contact
+with molten iron oxide, though carbon is thus oxidized but slowly. By
+rapidly stirring molten iron oxide into molten pig iron in a furnace
+shaped like a saucer, slightly inclined and turning around its axis, at
+a temperature but little above the melting-point of the metal itself,
+the phosphorus and silicon are removed rapidly, without removing much of
+the carbon, and by this means an extremely pure cast iron is made. This
+is used in the crucible process as a convenient source of the carbon
+needed for high-carbon steel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Heroult Double-arc Electric Steel Purifying
+Furnace.]
+
+108. _Electric steel-making processes_, or more accurately processes in
+which electrically heated furnaces are used, have developed very
+rapidly. In steel-making, electric furnaces are used for two distinct
+purposes, first for making steel sufficiently better than Bessemer and
+open-hearth steels to replace these for certain important purposes, and
+second for replacing the very expensive crucible process for making the
+very best steel. The advantages of the electric furnaces for these
+purposes can best be understood after examining the furnaces themselves
+and the way in which they are used. The most important ones are either
+"arc" furnaces, i.e. those heated by electric arcs, or "induction" ones,
+i.e. those in which the metal under treatment is heated by its own
+resistance to a current of electricity induced in it from without. The
+Heroult furnace, the best known in the arc class, and the Kjellin and
+Roechling-Rodenhauser furnaces, the best known of the induction class,
+will serve as examples.
+
+  The Heroult furnace (fig. 23) is practically a large closed crucible,
+  ABCA, with two carbon electrodes, E and F, "in series" with the bath,
+  H, of molten steel. A pair of electric arcs play between these
+  electrodes and the molten steel, passing through the layer of slag, G,
+  and generating much heat. The lining of the crucible may be of either
+  magnesite (MgO) or chromite (FeO.Cr2O3). The whole furnace, electrodes
+  and all, rotates about the line KL for the purpose of pouring out the
+  molten slag and purified metal through the spout J at the end of the
+  process. This spout and the charging doors A, A are kept closed except
+  when in actual use for pouring or charging.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Kjellin Induction Electric Steel Melting
+  Furnace.]
+
+  The Kjellin furnace consists essentially of an annular trough, AA
+  (fig. 24), which contains the molten charge. This charge is heated,
+  like the filaments of a common household electric lamp, by the
+  resistance which it offers to the passage of a current of electricity
+  induced in it by means of the core C and the frame EEE. The ends of
+  this core are connected above, below and at the right of the trough A,
+  by means of that frame, so that the trough and this core and frame
+  stand to each other in a position like that of two successive links of
+  a common oval-linked chain. A current of great electromotive force
+  (intensity or voltage) passed through the coil D, induces, by means of
+  the core and frame, a current of enormous quantity (volume or
+  amperage), but very small electromotive force, in the metal in the
+  trough. Thus the apparatus is analogous to the common transformers
+  used for inducing from currents of great electromotive force and small
+  quantity, which carry energy through long distances, currents of great
+  quantity and small electromotive force for incandescent lights and for
+  welding. The molten metal in the Kjellin trough forms the "secondary"
+  circuit. Like the Heroult furnace, the Kjellin furnace may be lined
+  with either magnesite or chromite, and it may be tilted for the
+  purpose of pouring off slag and metal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Plan of Roechling-Rodenhauser Induction
+  Electric Furnace.]
+
+  The shape which the molten metal under treatment has in the Kjellin
+  furnace, a thin ring of large diameter, is evidently bad, inconvenient
+  for manipulation and with excessive heat-radiating surface. In the
+  Roechling-Rodenhauser induction furnace (fig. 25), the molten metal
+  lies chiefly in a large compact mass A, heated at three places on its
+  periphery by the current induced in it there by means of the three
+  coils and cores CCC. The molten metal also extends round each of these
+  three coils, in the narrow channels B. It is in the metal in these
+  channels and in that part of the main mass of metal which immediately
+  adjoins the coils that the current is induced by means of the coils
+  and cores, as in the Kjellin furnace.
+
+  When the Heroult furnace is used for completing the purification of
+  molten steel begun in the Bessemer or open-hearth process, and this is
+  its most appropriate use, the process carried out in it may be divided
+  into two stages, first dephosphorization, and second deoxidation and
+  desulphurization.
+
+  In the first stage the phosphorus is removed from the molten steel by
+  oxidizing it to phosphoric acid, P2O5, by means of iron oxide
+  contained in a molten slag very rich in lime, and hence very basic and
+  retentive of that phosphoric acid. This slag is formed by melting lime
+  and iron oxide, with a little silica sand if need be. Floating on top
+  of the molten metal, it rapidly oxidizes its phosphorus, and the
+  resultant phosphoric acid combines with the lime in the overlying slag
+  as phosphate of lime. When the removal of the phosphorus is
+  sufficiently complete, this slag is withdrawn from the furnace.
+
+  Next comes the deoxidizing and desulphurizing stage, of which the
+  first step is to throw some strongly deoxidizing substance, such as
+  coke or ferro-silicon, upon the molten metal, in order to remove thus
+  the chief part of the oxygen which it has taken up during the
+  oxidation of the phosphorus in the preceding stage. Next the metal is
+  covered with a very basic slag, made by melting lime with a little
+  silica and fluor spar. Coke now charged into this slag first
+  deoxidizes any iron oxide contained in either slag or metal, and next
+  deoxidizes part of the lime of the slag and thus forms calcium, which,
+  uniting with the sulphur present in the molten metal, forms calcium
+  sulphide, CaO + FeS + C = CaS + Fe + CO. This sulphide is nearly
+  insoluble in the metal, but is readily soluble in the overlying basic
+  slag, into which it therefore passes. The thorough removal of the
+  sulphur is thus brought about by the deoxidation of the calcium. It is
+  by forming calcium sulphide that sulphur is removed in the manufacture
+  of pig iron in the iron blast furnace, in the crucible of which, as in
+  the electric furnaces, the conditions are strongly deoxidizing. But in
+  the Bessemer and open-hearth processes this means of removing sulphur
+  cannot be used, because in each of them there is always enough oxygen
+  in the atmosphere to re-oxidize any calcium as fast as it is
+  deoxidized. Here sulphur may indeed be removed to a very important
+  degree in the form of manganese sulphide, which distributes itself
+  between metal and slag in rough accord with the laws of equilibrium.
+  But if we rely on this means we have difficulty in reducing the
+  sulphur content of the metal to 0.03% and very great difficulty in
+  reducing it to 0.02%, whereas with the calcium sulphide of the
+  electric furnaces we can readily reduce it to less than 0.01%.
+
+  When the desulphurization is sufficiently complete, the
+  sulphur-bearing slag is removed, the final additions needed to give
+  the metal exactly the composition aimed at are made, and the molten
+  steel is tapped out of the furnace into its moulds. If the initial
+  quantity of phosphorus or sulphur is large, or if the removal of these
+  impurities is to be made very thorough, the dephosphorizing or the
+  desulphurizing slagging off may be repeated. While the metal lies
+  tranquilly on the bottom of the furnace, any slag mechanically
+  suspended in it has a chance to rise to the surface and unite with the
+  slag layer above.
+
+  In addition to this work of purification, the furnace may be used for
+  melting down the initial charge of cold metal, and for beginning the
+  purification--in short not only for finishing but also for roughing.
+  But this is rarely expedient, because electricity is so expensive that
+  it should be used for doing only those things which cannot be
+  accomplished by any other and cheaper means. The melting can be done
+  much more cheaply in a cupola or open-hearth furnace, and the first
+  part of the purification much more cheaply in a Bessemer converter or
+  open-hearth furnace.
+
+  The normal use of the Kjellin induction furnace is to do the work
+  usually done in the crucible process, i.e. to melt down very pure iron
+  for the manufacture of the best kinds of steel, such as fine tool and
+  spring steel, and to bring the molten metal simultaneously to the
+  exact composition and temperature at which it should be cast into its
+  moulds. This furnace may be used also for purifying the molten metal,
+  but it is not so well suited as the arc furnaces for dephosphorizing.
+  The reason for this is that in it the slag, by means of which all the
+  purification must needs be done, is not heated effectively; that hence
+  it is not readily made thoroughly liquid; that hence the removal of
+  the phosphoric slag made in the early dephosphorizing stage of the
+  process is liable to be incomplete; and that hence, finally, the
+  phosphorus of any of this slag which is left in the furnace becomes
+  deoxidized during the second or deoxidizing stage, and is thereby
+  returned to befoul the underlying steel. The reason why the slag is
+  not heated effectively is that the heat is developed only in the layer
+  of metal itself, by its resistance to the induced current, and hence
+  the only heat which the slag receives is that supplied to its lower
+  surface by the metal, while its upper side is constantly radiating
+  heat away towards the relatively cool roof above.
+
+  The Roechling-Rodenhauser furnace is unfitted, by the vulnerability of
+  its interior walls, for receiving charges of cold metal to be melted
+  down, but it is used to good advantage for purifying molten basic
+  Bessemer steel sufficiently to fit it for use in the form of railway
+  rails.
+
+We are now in a position to understand why electricity should be used as
+a source of heat in making molten steel. Electric furnaces are at an
+advantage over others as regards the removal of sulphur and of iron
+oxide from the molten steel, because their atmosphere is free from the
+sulphur always present in the flame of coal-fired furnaces, and almost
+free from oxygen, because this element is quickly absorbed by the carbon
+and silicon of the steel, and in the case of arc furnaces by the carbon
+of the electrodes themselves, and is replaced only very slowly by
+leakage, whereas through the Bessemer converter and the open-hearth
+furnace a torrent of air is always rushing. As we have seen, the removal
+of sulphur can be made complete only by deoxidizing calcium, and this
+cannot be done if much oxygen is present. Indeed, the freedom of the
+atmosphere of the electric furnaces from oxygen is also the reason
+indirectly why the molten metal can be freed from mechanically
+suspended slag more perfectly in them than in the Bessemer converter or
+the open-hearth furnace. In order that this finely divided slag shall
+rise to the surface and there coalesce with the overlying layer, the
+metal must be tranquil. But tranquillity is clearly impossible in the
+Bessemer converter, in which the metal can be kept hot only by being
+torn into a spray by the blast. It is practically unattainable in the
+open-hearth furnace, because here the oxygen of the furnace atmosphere
+indirectly oxidizes the carbon of the metal which is kept boiling by the
+escape of the resultant carbonic oxide. In short the electric furnaces
+can be used to improve the molten product of the Bessemer converter and
+open-hearth furnace, essentially because their atmosphere is free from
+sulphur and oxygen, and because they can therefore remove sulphur, iron
+oxide and mechanically suspended slag, more thoroughly than is possible
+in these older furnaces. They make a better though a dearer steel.
+
+Further, the electric furnaces, e.g. the Kjellin, can be used to replace
+the crucible melting process (S 106), chiefly because their work is
+cheaper for two reasons. First, they treat a larger charge, a ton or
+more, whereas the charge of each crucible is only about 80 pounds.
+Second, their heat is applied far more economically, directly to the
+metal itself, whereas in the crucible process the heat is applied most
+wastefully to the outside of the non-conducting walls of a closed
+crucible within which the charge to be heated lies. Beyond this sulphur
+and phosphorus can be removed in the electric furnace, whereas in the
+crucible process they cannot. In short electric furnaces replace the old
+crucible furnace primarily because they work more cheaply, though in
+addition they may be made to yield a better steel than it can.
+
+  Thus we see that the purification in these electric furnaces has
+  nothing to do with electricity. We still use the old familiar
+  purifying agents, iron oxide, lime and nascent calcium. The
+  electricity is solely a source of heat, free from the faults of the
+  older sources which for certain purposes it now replaces. The electric
+  furnaces are likely to displace the crucible furnaces completely,
+  because they work both more cheaply and better. They are not likely to
+  displace either the open-hearth furnace or the Bessemer converter,
+  because their normal work is only to improve the product of these
+  older furnaces. Here their use is likely to be limited by its
+  costliness, because for the great majority of purposes the superiority
+  of the electrically purified steel is not worth the cost of the
+  electric purification.
+
+109. _Electric Ore-smelting Processes._--Though the electric processes
+which have been proposed for extracting the iron from iron ore, with the
+purpose of displacing the iron blast furnace, have not become important
+enough to deserve description here, yet it should be possible to devise
+one which would be useful in a place (if there is one) which has an
+abundance of water power and iron ore and a local demand for iron, but
+has not coke, charcoal or bituminous coal suitable for the blast
+furnace. But this ancient furnace does its fourfold work of deoxidizing,
+melting, removing the gangue and desulphurizing, so very economically
+that it is not likely to be driven out in other places until the
+exhaustion of our coal-fields shall have gone so far as to increase the
+cost of coke greatly.
+
+110. _Comparison of Steel-making Processes._--When Bessemer discovered
+that by simply blowing air through molten cast iron rapidly he could
+make low-carbon steel, which is essentially wrought iron greatly
+improved by being freed from its essential defect, its necessarily
+weakening and embrittling slag, the very expensive and exhausting
+puddling process seemed doomed, unable to survive the time when men
+should have familiarized themselves with the use of Bessemer steel, and
+should have developed the evident possibilities of cheapness of the
+Bessemer process. Nevertheless the use of wrought iron actually
+continued to increase. The first of the United States decennial censuses
+to show a decrease in the production of wrought iron was that in 1890,
+35 years after the invention of the Bessemer process. It is still in
+great demand for certain normal purposes for which either great ease in
+welding or resistance to corrosion by rusting is of great importance;
+for purposes requiring special forms of extreme ductility which are not
+so confidently expected in steel; for miscellaneous needs of many users,
+some ignorant, some very conservative; and for remelting in the
+crucible process. All the best cutlery and tool steel is made either by
+the crucible process or in electric furnaces, and indeed all for which
+any considerable excellence is claimed is supposed to be so made, though
+often incorrectly. But the great mass of the steel of commerce is made
+by the Bessemer and the open-hearth processes. Open-hearth steel is
+generally thought to be better than Bessemer, and the acid variety of
+each of these two processes is thought to yield a better product than
+the basic variety. This may not necessarily be true, but the acid
+variety lends itself more readily to excellence than the basic. A very
+large proportion of ores cannot be made to yield cast iron either free
+enough from phosphorus for the acid Bessemer or the acid open-hearth
+process, neither of which removes that most injurious element, or rich
+enough in phosphorus for the basic Bessemer process, which must rely on
+that element as its source of heat. But cast iron for the basic
+open-hearth process can be made from almost any ore, because its
+requirements, comparative freedom from silicon and sulphur, depend on
+the management of the blast-furnace rather than on the composition of
+the ore, whereas the phosphorus-content of the cast iron depends solely
+on that of the ore, because nearly all the phosphorus of the ore
+necessarily passes into the cast iron. Thus the basic open-hearth
+process is the only one which can make steel from cast iron containing
+more than 0.10% but less than 1.80% of phosphorus.
+
+The restriction of the basic Bessemer process to pig iron containing at
+least 1.80% of phosphorus has prevented it from getting a foothold in
+the United States; the restriction of the acid Bessemer process to pig
+iron very low in phosphorus, usually to that containing less than 0.10%
+of that element, has almost driven it out of Germany, has of late
+retarded, indeed almost stopped, the growth of its use in the United
+States, and has even caused it to be displaced at the great Duquesne
+works of the Carnegie Steel Company by the omnivorous basic open-hearth
+process, the use of which has increased very rapidly. Under most
+conditions the acid Bessemer process is the cheapest in cost of
+conversion, the basic Bessemer next, and the acid open-hearth next,
+though the difference between them is not great. But the crucible
+process is very much more expensive than any of the others.
+
+  Until very lately the Bessemer process, in either its acid or its
+  basic form, made all of the world's rail steel; but even for this work
+  it has now begun to be displaced by the basic open-hearth process,
+  partly because of the fast-increasing scarcity of ores which yield pig
+  iron low enough in phosphorus for the acid Bessemer process, and
+  partly because the increase in the speed of trains and in the loads on
+  the individual engine- and car-wheels has made a demand for rails of a
+  material better than Bessemer steel.
+
+111. _Iron founding_, i.e. the manufacture of castings of cast iron,
+consists essentially in pouring the molten cast iron into moulds, and,
+as preparatory steps, melting the cast iron itself and preparing the
+moulds. These are usually made of sand containing enough clay to give it
+the needed coherence, but of late promising attempts have been made to
+use permanent iron moulds. In a very few places the molten cast iron as
+it issues from the blast furnace is cast directly in these moulds, but
+in general it is allowed to solidify in pigs, and then remelted either
+in cupola furnaces or in air furnaces. The cupola furnace (fig. 26) is a
+shaft much like a miniature blast furnace, filled from top to bottom by
+a column of lumps of coke and of iron. The blast of air forced in
+through the tuyeres near the bottom of the furnace burns the coke there,
+and the intense heat thus caused melts away the surrounding iron, so
+that this column of coke and iron gradually descends; but it is kept at
+its full height by feeding more coke and iron at its top, until all the
+iron needed for the day's work has thus been charged. As the iron melts
+it runs out through a tap hole and spout at the bottom of the furnace,
+to be poured into the moulds by means of clay-lined ladles. The air
+furnace is a reverberatory furnace like that used for puddling (fig.
+14), but larger, and in it the pigs of iron, lying on the bottom or
+hearth, are melted down by the flame from the coal which burns in the
+firebox. The iron is then held molten till it has grown hot enough for
+casting and till enough of its carbon has been burnt away to leave just
+the carbon-content desired, and it is then tapped out and poured into
+the moulds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Cupola Furnace for Remelting Pig Iron.]
+
+  Of the two the cupola is very much the more economical of fuel, thanks
+  to the direct transfer of heat from the burning coke to the pig iron
+  with which it is in contact. But this contact both causes the iron to
+  absorb sulphur from the coke to its great harm, and prevents it from
+  having any large part of its carbon burnt away, which in many cases
+  would improve it very greatly by strengthening it. Thus it comes about
+  that the cupola, because it is so economical, is used for all but the
+  relatively few cases in which the strengthening of the iron by the
+  removal of part of its carbon and the prevention of the absorption of
+  sulphur are so important as to compensate for the greater cost of the
+  air-furnace melting.
+
+112. _Cast iron for foundry purposes_, i.e. for making castings of cast
+iron. Though, as we have seen in S 19, steel is rarely given a
+carbon-content greater than 1.50% lest its brittleness should be
+excessive, yet cast iron with between 3 and 4% of carbon, the usual cast
+iron of the foundry, is very useful. Because of the ease and cheapness
+with which, thanks to its fluidity and fusibility (fig. 1), it can be
+melted and run even into narrow and intricate moulds, castings made of
+it are very often more economical, i.e. they serve a given purpose more
+cheaply, in the long run, than either rolled or cast steel, in spite of
+their need of being so massive that the brittleness of the material
+itself shall be endurable. Indeed this high carbon-content, 3 to 4%, in
+practice actually leads to less brittleness than can readily be had with
+somewhat less carbon, because with it much of the carbon can easily be
+thrown into the relatively harmless state of graphite, whereas if the
+carbon amounts to less than 3% it can be brought to this state only with
+difficulty. For crushing certain kinds of rock, the hardness of which
+cast iron is capable really makes it more valuable, pound for pound,
+than steel.
+
+113. _Qualities needed in Cast Iron Castings._--Different kinds of
+castings need very different sets of qualities, and the composition of
+the cast iron itself must vary from case to case so as to give each the
+qualities needed. The iron for a statuette must first of all be very
+fluid, so that it will run into every crevice in its mould, and it must
+expand in solidifying, so that it shall reproduce accurately every
+detail of that mould. The iron for most engineering purposes needs
+chiefly to be strong and not excessively brittle. That for the
+thin-walled water mains must combine strength with the fluidity needed
+to enable it to run freely into its narrow moulds; that for most
+machinery must be soft enough to be cut easily to an exact shape; that
+for hydraulic cylinders must combine strength with density lest the
+water leak through; and that for car-wheels must be intensely hard in
+its wearing parts, but in its other parts it must have that
+shock-resisting power which can be had only along with great softness.
+Though all true cast iron is brittle, in the sense that it is not
+usefully malleable, i.e. that it cannot be hammered from one shape into
+another, yet its degree of brittleness differs as that of soapstone does
+from that of glass, so that there are the intensely hard and brittle
+cast irons, and the less brittle ones, softer and unhurt by a shock
+which would shiver the former.
+
+Of these several qualities which cast iron may have, fluidity is given
+by keeping the sulphur-content low and phosphorus-content high; and this
+latter element must be kept low if shock is to be resisted; but
+strength, hardness, endurance of shock, density and expansion in
+solidifying are controlled essentially by the distribution of the carbon
+between the states of graphite and cementite, and this in turn is
+controlled chiefly by the proportion of silicon, manganese and sulphur
+present, and in many cases by the rate of cooling.
+
+  114. _Constitution of Cast Iron._--Cast iron naturally has a high
+  carbon-content, usually between 3 and 4%, because while molten it
+  absorbs carbon greedily from the coke with which it is in contact in
+  the iron blast furnace in which it is made, and in the cupola furnace
+  in which it is remelted for making most castings. This carbon may all
+  be present as graphite, as in typical grey cast iron; or all present
+  as cementite, Fe3C, as in typical white cast iron; or, as is far more
+  usual, part of it may be present as graphite and part as cementite.
+  Now how does it come about that the distribution of the carbon between
+  these very unlike states determines the strength, hardness and many
+  other valuable properties of the metal as a whole? The answer to this
+  is made easy by a careful study of the effect of this same
+  distribution on the constitution of the metal, because it is through
+  controlling this constitution that the condition of the carbon
+  controls these useful properties. To fix our ideas let us assume that
+  the iron contains 4% of carbon. If this carbon is all present as
+  graphite, so that in cooling the graphite-austenite diagram has been
+  followed strictly (S 26), the constitution is extremely simple;
+  clearly the mass consists first of a metallic matrix, the carbonless
+  iron itself with whatever silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur
+  happen to be present, in short an impure ferrite, encased in which as
+  a wholly distinct foreign body is the graphite. The primary graphite
+  (S 26) generally forms a coarse, nearly continuous skeleton of curved
+  black plates, like those shown in fig. 27; the eutectic graphite is
+  much finer; while the pro-eutectoid and eutectoid graphite, if they
+  exist, are probably in very fine particles. We must grasp clearly this
+  conception of metallic matrix and encased graphite skeleton if we are
+  to understand this subject.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Graphite in Grey Cast Iron.]
+
+  Now this matrix itself is equivalent to a very low-carbon steel,
+  strictly speaking to a carbonless steel, because it consists of pure
+  ferrite, which is just what such a steel consists of; and the cast
+  iron as a whole is therefore equivalent to a matrix of very low-carbon
+  steel in which is encased a skeleton of graphite plates, besides some
+  very fine scattered particles of graphite.
+
+  Next let us imagine that, in a series of cast irons all containing 4%
+  of carbon, the graphite of the initial skeleton changes gradually into
+  cementite and thereby becomes part of the matrix, a change which of
+  course has two aspects, first, a gradual thinning of the graphite
+  skeleton and a decrease of its continuity, and second, a gradual
+  introduction of cementite into the originally pure ferrite matrix. By
+  the time that 0.4% of graphite has thus changed, and in changing has
+  united with 0.4 X 14 = 5.6% of the iron of the original ferrite
+  matrix, it will have changed this matrix from pure ferrite into a
+  mixture of
+
+    Cementite                             0.4 + 5.6 =  6.0
+    Ferrite                              96.0 - 5.6 = 90.4
+                                                      ----
+                                                      96.4
+    The residual graphite skeleton forms  4   - 0.4 =  3.6
+                                                      ----
+                                                     100.0
+
+  But this matrix is itself equivalent to a steel of about 040% of
+  carbon (more accurately 0.40 X 100 / 96.4 = 0.415%), a rail steel,
+  because it is of just such a mixture of ferrite and cementite in the
+  ratio of 90.4 : 6 or 94% and 6%, that such a rail steel consists. The
+  mass as a whole, then, consists of 96.4 parts of metallic matrix,
+  which itself is in effect a 0.415% carbon rail steel, weakened and
+  embrittled by having its continuity broken up by this skeleton of
+  graphite forming 3.6% of the whole mass by weight, or say 12% by
+  volume.
+
+  As, in succeeding members of this same series of cast irons, more of
+  the graphite of the initial skeleton changes into cementite and
+  thereby becomes part of the metallic matrix, so the graphite skeleton
+  becomes progressively thinner and more discontinuous, and the matrix
+  richer in cementite and hence in carbon and hence equivalent first to
+  higher and higher carbon steel, such as tool steel of 1% carbon, file
+  steel of 1.50%, wire-die steel of 2% carbon and then to white cast
+  iron, which consists essentially of much cementite with little
+  ferrite. Eventually, when the whole of the graphite of the skeleton
+  has changed into cementite, the mass as a whole becomes typical or
+  ultra white cast iron, consisting of nothing but ferrite and
+  cementite, distributed as follows (see fig. 2):--
+
+    Eutectoid ferrite                                  40.0
+        "     cementite                                 6.7
+                                                       ----
+        "     Interstratified as pearlite              46.7
+    Cementite, primary, eutectoid and pro-eutectoid    53.3
+                                                       ----
+                                                      100.0
+    Total ferrite                                      40.0
+    Total cementite                                    60.0
+                                                       ----
+                                                      100.0
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Physical Properties and assumed Microscopic
+  Constitution of Cast Iron containing 4% of carbon, as affected by the
+  distribution of that carbon between the combined and graphitic
+  states.]
+
+  The constitution and properties of such a series of cast irons, all
+  containing 4% of carbon but with that carbon shifting progressively
+  from the state of graphite to that of cementite as we pass from
+  specimen to specimen, may, with the foregoing picture of a
+  skeleton-holding matrix clearly in our minds be traced by means of
+  fig. 28. The change from graphite into cementite is supposed to take
+  place as we pass from left to right. BC and OH give the proportion of
+  ferrite and cementite respectively in the matrix, DEF, KS and TU
+  reproduced from fig. 3 give the consequent properties of the matrix,
+  and GAF, RS and VU give, partly from conjecture, the properties of the
+  cast iron as a whole. Above the diagram are given the names of the
+  different classes of cast iron to which different stages in the change
+  from graphite to cementite correspond, and above these the names of
+  kinds of steel or cast iron, to which at the corresponding stages the
+  constitution of the matrix corresponds, while below the diagram are
+  given the properties of the cast iron as a whole corresponding to
+  these stages, and still lower the purposes for which these stages fit
+  the cast iron, first because of its strength and shock-resisting
+  power, and second because of its hardness.
+
+  115. _Influence of the Constitution of Cast Iron on its
+  Properties._--How should the hardness, strength and ductility, or
+  rather shock-resisting power, of the cast iron be affected by this
+  progressive change from graphite into cementite? First, the hardness
+  (VU) should increase progressively as the soft ferrite and graphite
+  are replaced by the glass-hard cementite. Second, though the
+  brittleness should be lessened somewhat by the decrease in the extent
+  to which the continuity of the strong matrix is broken up by the
+  graphite skeleton, yet this effect is outweighed greatly by that of
+  the rapid substitution in the matrix of the brittle cementite for the
+  very ductile copper-like ferrite, so that the brittleness increases
+  continuously (RS), from that of the very grey graphitic cast irons,
+  which, like that of soapstone, is so slight that the metal can endure
+  severe shock and even indentation without breaking, to that of the
+  pure white cast iron which is about as brittle as porcelain. Here let
+  us recognize that what gives this transfer of carbon from graphite
+  skeleton to metallic matrix such very great influence on the
+  properties of the metal is the fact that the transfer of each 1% of
+  carbon means substituting in the matrix no less than 15% of the
+  brittle, glass-hard cementite for the soft, very ductile ferrite.
+  Third, the tensile strength of steel proper, of which the matrix
+  consists, as we have already seen (fig. 3), increases with the
+  carbon-content till this reaches about 1.25%, and then in turn
+  decreases (fig. 28, DEF). Hence, as with the progressive transfer of
+  the carbon from the graphitic to the cementite state in our imaginary
+  series of cast irons, the combined carbon present in the matrix
+  increases, so does the tensile strength of the mass as a whole for two
+  reasons; first, because the strength of the matrix itself is
+  increasing (DE), and second, because the discontinuity is decreasing
+  with the decreasing proportion of graphite. With further transfer of
+  the carbon from the graphitic to the combined state, the matrix itself
+  grows weaker (EF); but this weakening is offset in a measure by the
+  continuing decrease of discontinuity due to the decreasing proportion
+  of graphite. The resultant of these two effects has not yet been well
+  established; but it is probable that the strongest cast iron has a
+  little more than 1% of carbon combined as cementite, so that its
+  matrix is nearly equivalent to the strongest of the steels. As regards
+  both tensile strength and ductility not only the quantity but the
+  distribution of the graphite is of great importance. Thus it is
+  extremely probable that the primary graphite, which forms large
+  sheets, is much more weakening and embrittling than the eutectic and
+  other forms, and therefore that, if either strength or ductility is
+  sought, the metal should be free from primary graphite, i.e. that it
+  should not be hyper-eutectic.
+
+  The presence of graphite has two further and very natural effects.
+  First, if the skeleton which it forms is continuous, then its planes
+  of junction with the metallic matrix offer a path of low resistance to
+  the passage of liquids or gases, or in short they make the metal so
+  porous as to unfit it for objects like the cylinders of hydraulic
+  presses, which ought to be gas-tight and water-tight. For such
+  purposes the graphite-content should be low. Second, the very genesis
+  of so bulky a substance as the primary and eutectic graphite while the
+  metal is solidifying (fig. 5) causes a sudden and permanent expansion,
+  which forces the metal into even the finest crevices in its mould, a
+  fact which is taken advantage of in making ornamental castings and
+  others which need great sharpness of detail, by making them rich in
+  graphite.
+
+  To sum this up, as graphite is replaced by carbon combined as
+  cementite, the hardness, brittleness and density increase, and the
+  expansion in solidification decreases, in both cases continuously,
+  while the tensile strength increases till the combined carbon-content
+  rises a little above 1%, and then in turn decreases. That strength is
+  good and brittleness bad goes without saying; but here a word is
+  needed about hardness. The expense of cutting castings accurately to
+  shape, cutting on them screw threads and what not, called "machining"
+  in trade parlance, is often a very large part of their total cost; and
+  it increases rapidly with the hardness of the metal. On the other
+  hand, the extreme hardness of nearly graphiteless cast iron is of
+  great value for objects of which the chief duty is to resist abrasion,
+  such as parts of crushing machinery. Hence objects which need much
+  machining are made rich in graphite, so that they may be cut easily,
+  and those of the latter class rich in cementite so that they may not
+  wear out.
+
+  116. _Means of controlling the Constitution of Cast Iron._--The
+  distribution of the carbon between these two states, so as to give the
+  cast iron the properties needed, is brought about chiefly by
+  adjusting the silicon-content, because the presence of this element
+  favours the formation of graphite. Beyond this, rapid cooling and the
+  presence of sulphur both oppose the formation of graphite, and hence
+  in cast iron rich in sulphur, and in thin and therefore rapidly
+  cooling castings, the silicon-content must be greater than in thick
+  ones and in those freer from sulphur. Thus thick machinery castings
+  usually contain between 1.50 and 2.25% of silicon, whereas thin
+  castings and ornamental ones which must reproduce the finest details
+  of the mould accurately may have as much as 3 or even 3.40% of it.
+  Castings which, like hydraulic press cylinders and steam radiators,
+  must be dense and hence must have but little graphite lest their
+  contents leak through their walls, should not have more than 1.75% of
+  silicon and may have even as little as 1% if impenetrability is so
+  important that softness and consequent ease of machining must be
+  sacrificed to it. Cast iron railroad car-wheels, the tread or rim of
+  which must be intensely hard so as to endure the grinding action of
+  the brakeshoe while their central parts must have good shock-resisting
+  power, are given such moderate silicon-content, preferably between
+  0.50 and 0.80%, as in and by itself leaves the tendencies toward
+  graphite-forming and toward cementite-forming nearly in balance, so
+  that they are easily controlled by the rate of cooling. The "tread" or
+  circumferential part of the mould itself is made of iron, because
+  this, by conducting the heat away from the casting rapidly, makes it
+  cool quickly, and thus causes most of the carbon here to form
+  cementite, and thus in turn makes the tread of the wheel intensely
+  hard; while those parts of the mould which come in contact with the
+  central parts of the wheel are made of sand, which conducts the heat
+  away from the molten metal so slowly that it solidifies slowly, with
+  the result that most of its carbon forms graphite, and here the metal
+  is soft and shock-resisting.
+
+  117. _Influence of Sulphur._--Sulphur has the specific harmful effects
+  of shifting the carbon from the state of graphite to that of
+  cementite, and thus of making the metal hard and brittle; of making it
+  thick and sluggish when molten, so that it does not run freely in the
+  moulds; and of making it red short, i.e. brittle at a red heat, so
+  that it is very liable to be torn by the aeolotachic contraction in
+  cooling from the molten state; and it has no good effects to offset
+  these. Hence the sulphur present is, except in certain rare cases,
+  simply that which the metallurgist has been unable to remove. The
+  sulphur-content should not exceed 0.12%, and it is better that it
+  should not exceed 0.08 % in castings which have to be soft enough to
+  be machined, nor 0.05% in thin castings the metal for which must be
+  very fluid.
+
+  118. _Influence of Manganese._--Manganese in many cases, but not in
+  all, opposes the formation of graphite and thus hardens the iron, and
+  it lessens the red shortness (S 40), which sulphur causes, by leading
+  to the formation of the less harmful manganese sulphide instead of the
+  more harmful iron sulphide. Hence the manganese-content needed
+  increases with the sulphur-content which has to be endured. In the
+  better classes of castings it is usually between 0.40 and 0.70%, and
+  in chilled railroad car-wheels it may well be between 0.15 and 0.30%;
+  but skilful founders, confronted with the task of making use of cast
+  iron rich in manganese, have succeeded in making good grey iron
+  castings with even as much as 2.20% of this element.
+
+  119. _Influence of Phosphorus._--Phosphorus has, along with its great
+  merit of giving fluidity, the grave defect of causing brittleness,
+  especially under shock. Fortunately its embrittling effect on cast
+  iron is very much less than on steel, so that the upper limit or
+  greatest tolerable proportion of phosphorus, instead of being 0.10 or
+  better 0.08% as in the case of rail steel, may be put at 0.50% in case
+  of machinery castings even if they are exposed to moderate shocks; at
+  1.60% for gas and water mains in spite of the gravity of the disasters
+  which extreme brittleness here might cause; and even higher for
+  castings which are not exposed to shock, and are so thin that the iron
+  of which they are made must needs be very fluid. The permissible
+  phosphorus-content is lessened by the presence of either much sulphur
+  or much manganese, and by rapid cooling, as for instance in case of
+  thin castings, because each of these three things, by leading to the
+  formation of the brittle cementite, in itself creates brittleness
+  which aggravates that caused by phosphorus.
+
+120. _Defects in Steel Ingots._--Steel ingots and other steel castings
+are subject to three kinds of defects so serious as to deserve notice
+here. They are known as "piping," "blowholes" and "segregation."
+
+  121. _Piping._--In an early period of the solidification of a molten
+  steel ingot cast in a cold iron mould we may distinguish three parts:
+  (1) the outer layers, i.e. the outermost of the now solid metal; (2)
+  the inner layers, i.e. the remainder of the solid metal; and (3) the
+  molten lake, i.e. the part which still is molten. At this instant the
+  outer layers, because of their contact with the cold mould, are
+  cooling much faster than the inner ones, and hence tend to contract
+  faster. But this excess of their contraction is resisted by the almost
+  incompressible inner layers so that the outer layers are prevented
+  from contracting as much as they naturally would if unopposed, and
+  they are thereby virtually stretched. Later on the cooling of the
+  inner layers becomes more rapid than that of the outer ones, and on
+  this account their contraction tends to become greater than that of
+  the outer ones. Because the outer and inner layers are integrally
+  united, this excess of contraction of the inner layers makes them draw
+  outward towards and against the outer layers, and because of their
+  thus drawing outward the molten lake within no longer suffices to fill
+  completely the central space, so that its upper surface begins to
+  sink. This ebb continues, and, combined with the progressive narrowing
+  of the molten lake as more and more of it solidifies and joins the
+  shore layers, gives rise to the pipe, a cavity like an inverted pear,
+  as shown at C in fig. 29. Because this pipe is due to the difference
+  in the rates of contraction of interior and exterior, it may be
+  lessened by retarding the cooling of the mass as a whole, and it may
+  be prevented from stretching down deep by retarding the solidification
+  of the upper part of the ingot, as, for instance, by preheating the
+  top of the mould, or by covering the ingot with a mass of burning fuel
+  or of molten slag. This keeps the upper part of the mass molten, so
+  that it continues to flow down and feed the pipe during the early part
+  of its formation in the lower and quicker-cooling part of the ingot.
+  In making castings of steel this same difficulty arises; and much of
+  the steel-founder's skill consists either in preventing these pipes,
+  or in so placing them that they shall not occur in the finished
+  casting, or at least not in a harmful position. In making
+  armour-plates from steel ingots, as much as 40% of the metal may be
+  rejected as unsound from this cause. An ingot should always stand
+  upright while solidifying, so that the unsound region due to the pipe
+  may readily be cut off, leaving the rest of the ingot solid. If the
+  ingot lay on its side while solidifying, the pipe would occur as shown
+  in fig. 30, and nearly the whole of the ingot would be unsound.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram showing how a Pipe is formed.
+
+    A, Superficial blowholes.
+    B, Deep-seated blowholes.
+    C, Pipe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Diagram showing a Pipe so formed as to render
+  Ingot unsound.]
+
+  122. _Blowholes._--Iron, like water and many other substances, has a
+  higher solvent power for gases, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, when
+  molten, i.e. liquid, than when frozen, i.e. solid. Hence in the act of
+  solidifying it expels any excess of gas which it has dissolved while
+  liquid, and this gas becomes entangled in the freezing mass, causing
+  gas bubbles or _blowholes_, as at A and B in fig. 29. Because the
+  volume of the pipe represents the excess of the contraction of the
+  inner walls and the molten lake jointly over that of the outer walls,
+  between the time when the lake begins to ebb and the time when even
+  the axial metal is too firm to be drawn further open by this
+  contraction, the space occupied by blowholes must, by compensating for
+  part of this excess, lessen the size of the pipe, so that the more
+  abundant and larger the blowholes are, the smaller will the pipe be.
+  The interior surface of a blowhole which lies near the outer crust of
+  the ingot, as at A in fig. 29, is liable to become oxidized by the
+  diffusion of the atmospheric oxygen, in which case it can hardly be
+  completely welded later, since welding implies actual contact of metal
+  with metal; it thus forms a permanent flaw. But deep-seated blowholes
+  like those at B are relatively harmless in low-carbon easily welding
+  steel, because the subsequent operation of forging or rolling usually
+  obliterates them by welding their sides firmly together.
+
+  Blowholes may be lessened or even wholly prevented by adding to the
+  molten metal shortly before it solidifies either silicon or aluminium,
+  or both; even as little as 0.002% of aluminium is usually sufficient.
+  These additions seem to act in part by deoxidizing the minute quantity
+  of iron oxide and carbonic oxide present, in part by increasing the
+  solvent power of the metal for gas, so that even after freezing it can
+  retain in solution the gas which it had dissolved when molten. But,
+  because preventing blowholes increases the volume of the pipe, it is
+  often better to allow them to form, but to control their position, so
+  that they shall be deep-seated. This is done chiefly by casting the
+  steel at a relatively low temperature, and by limiting the quantity of
+  manganese and silicon which it contains. Brinell finds that, for
+  certain normal conditions, if the sum of the percentage of manganese
+  plus 5.2 times that of the silicon equals 1.66, there will be no
+  blowholes; if this sum is less, blowholes will occur, and will be
+  injuriously near the surface unless this sum is reduced to 0.28. He
+  thus finds that this sum should be either as great as 1.66, so that
+  blowholes shall be absent; or as low as 0.28, so that they shall be
+  harmlessly deep-seated. These numbers must be varied with the
+  variations in other conditions, such as casting temperature, rapidity
+  of solidification, &c.
+
+  123. _Segregation._--The solidification of an ingot of steel takes
+  place gradually from without inwards, and each layer in solidifying
+  tends to expel into the still molten interior the impurities which it
+  contains, especially the carbon, phosphorus, and sulphur, which by
+  this process are in part concentrated or _segregated_ in the
+  last-freezing part of the ingot. This is in general around the lower
+  part of the pipe, so that here is a second motive for rejecting the
+  piped part of the ingot. While segregation injures the metal here,
+  often fatally, by giving it an indeterminate excess of phosphorus and
+  sulphur, it clearly purifies the remainder of the ingot, and on this
+  account it ought, under certain conditions, to be promoted rather than
+  restrained. The following is an extreme case:--
+
+    +------------------+---------+----------+------------+-------------+----------+
+    |                  | Carbon. | Silicon. | Manganese. | Phosphorus. | Sulphur. |
+    +------------------+---------+----------+------------+-------------+----------+
+    | Composition of   |         |          |            |             |          |
+    |   the initial    |         |          |            |             |          |
+    |   metal per cent |   0.24  |  0.336   |    0.97    |    0.089    |   0.074  |
+    | Composition of   |         |          |            |             |          |
+    |   the segregate  |   1.27  |  0.41    |    1.08    |    0.753    |   0.418  |
+    +------------------+---------+----------+------------+-------------+----------+
+
+  The surprising fact that the degree of segregation does not increase
+  greatly either with the slowness of solidification or with the size of
+  the ingot, at least between the limits of 5 in. sq. and 16 in. sq.,
+  has been explained by the theory that the relative quiet due to the
+  gentleness of the convection currents in a slowly cooling mass favours
+  the formation of far outshooting pine-tree crystals, and that the
+  tangled branches of these crystals landlock much of the littoral
+  molten mother metal, and thus mechanically impede that centreward
+  diffusion and convection of the impurities which is the essence of
+  segregation.
+
+124. _Castings and Forgings._--There are two distinct ways of making the
+steel objects actually used in the arts, such as rails, gear wheels,
+guns, beams, &c., out of the molten steel made by the Bessemer, open
+hearth, or crucible process, or in an electric furnace. The first is by
+"steel founding," i.e. casting the steel as a "steel casting" in a mould
+which has the exact shape of the object to be made, e.g. a gear wheel,
+and letting it solidify there. The second is by casting it into a large
+rough block called an "ingot," and rolling or hammering this out into
+the desired shape. Though the former certainly seems the simpler way,
+yet its technical difficulties are so great that it is in fact much the
+more expensive, and therefore it is in general used only in making
+objects of a shape hard to give by forging or rolling. These technical
+difficulties are due chiefly to the very high melting point of the
+metal, nearly 1500 deg. C (2732 deg. F.), and to the consequent great
+contraction which it undergoes in cooling through the long range between
+this temperature and that of the room. The cooling of the thinner, the
+outer, and in general the more exposed parts of the casting outruns that
+of the thicker and less exposed parts, with the consequence that, at any
+given instant, the different parts are contracting at very different
+rates, i.e. aeolotachically; and this aeolotachic contraction is very
+likely to concentrate severe stress on the slowest cooling parts at the
+time when they are passing from the molten to the solid state, when the
+steel is mushy, with neither the fluidity of a liquid nor the strength
+and ductility of a solid, and thus to tear it apart. Aeolotachic
+contraction further leads to the "pipes" or contraction cavities already
+described in S 121, and the procedure must be carefully planned first so
+as to reduce these to a minimum, and second so as to induce them to form
+either in those parts of the casting which are going to be cut off and
+re-melted, or where they will do little harm. These and kindred
+difficulties make each new shape or size a new problem, and in
+particular they require that for each and every individual casting a new
+sand or clay mould shall be made with care by a skilled workman. If a
+thousand like gears are to be cast, a thousand moulds must be made up,
+at least to an important extent by hand, for even machine moulding
+leaves something for careful manipulation by the moulder. It is a
+detail, one is tempted to say a retail, manufacture.
+
+In strong contrast with this is the procedure in making rolled products
+such as rails and plates. The steel is cast in lots, weighing in some
+cases as much as 75 tons, in enduring cast iron moulds into very large
+ingots, which with their initial heat are immediately rolled down by a
+series of powerful roll trains into their final shape with but slight
+wear and tear of the moulds and the machinery. But in addition to the
+greater cost of steel founding as compared with rolling there are two
+facts which limit the use of steel castings: (1) they are not so good as
+rolled products, because the kneading which the metal undergoes in
+rolling improves its quality, and closes up its cavities; and (2) it
+would be extremely difficult and in most cases impracticable to cast the
+metal directly into any of the forms in which the great bulk of the
+steel of commerce is needed, such as rails, plates, beams, angles, rods,
+bars, and wire, because the metal would become so cool as to solidify
+before running far in such thin sections, and because even the short
+pieces which could thus be made would pucker or warp on account of their
+aeolotachic contraction.
+
+125. _Heating Furnaces_ are used in iron manufacture chiefly for
+bringing masses of steel or wrought iron to a temperature proper for
+rolling or forging. In order to economize power in these operations, the
+metal should in general be as soft and hence as hot as is consistent
+with its reaching a low temperature before the rolling or forging is
+finished, because, as explained in S 32, undisturbed cooling from a high
+temperature injures the metal. Many of the furnaces used for this
+heating are in a general way like the puddling furnace shown in fig. 14,
+except that they are heated by gas, that the hearth or bottom of the
+chamber in which they are heated is nearly flat, and that it is usually
+very much larger than that of a puddling furnace. But in addition there
+are many special kinds of furnaces arranged to meet the needs of each
+case. Of these two will be shown here, the Gjers soaking pit for steel
+ingots, and the Eckman or continuous furnace, as modified by C. H.
+Morgan for heating billets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Section of Gjers Soaking Pit.]
+
+126. _Gjers Soaking Pit._--When the outer crust of a large ingot in
+which a lot of molten steel has been cast has so far cooled that it can
+be moved without breaking, the temperature of the interior is still far
+above that suitable for rolling or hammering--so far above that the
+surplus heat of the interior would more than suffice to reheat the now
+cool crust to the rolling temperature, if we could only arrest or even
+greatly retard the further escape of heat from that crust. Bringing such
+an ingot, then, to the rolling temperature is not really an operation of
+heating, because its average temperature is already above the rolling
+temperature, but one of equalizing the temperature, by allowing the
+internal excess of heat to "soak" through the mass. Gjers did this by
+setting the partly-solidified ingot in a well-closed "pit" of brickwork,
+preheated by the excess heat of previous lots of ingots. The
+arrangement, shown in fig. 31, has three advantages--(1) that the
+temperature is adjusted with absolutely no consumption of fuel; (2) that
+the waste of iron due to the oxidation of the outer crust of the ingot
+is very slight, because the little atmospheric oxygen initially in the
+pit is not renewed, whereas in a common heating furnace the flame brings
+a constant fresh supply of oxygen; and (3) that the ingot remains
+upright during solidification, so that its pipe is concentrated at one
+end and is thus removable. (See S 121.) In this form the system is
+rather inflexible, for if the supply of ingots is delayed the pits grow
+unduly cool, so that the next ensuing lot of ingots either is not heated
+hot enough or is delayed too long in soaking. This defect is usually
+remedied by heating the pits by the Siemens regenerative system (see S
+99); the greater flexibility thus gained outweighs the cost of the fuel
+used and the increased loss of iron by oxidation by the Siemens gas
+flame.
+
+127. _Continuous Heating Furnace._--The Gjers system is not applicable
+to small ingots or "billets,"[5] because they lack the inner surplus
+heat of large ingots; indeed, they are now allowed to cool completely.
+To heat these on the intermittent plan for further rolling, i.e. to
+charge a lot of them as a whole in a heating furnace, bring them as a
+whole to rolling temperature, and then withdraw them as a whole for
+rolling, is very wasteful of heat, because it is only in the first part
+of the heating that the outside of the ingots is cool enough to abstract
+thoroughly the heat from the flame. During all the latter part of the
+heating, when the temperature of the ingot has approached that of the
+flame, only an ever smaller and smaller part of the heat of that flame
+can be absorbed by the ingots. Hence in the intermittent system most of
+the heat generated within the furnace escapes from it with the products
+of combustion. The continuous heating system (fig. 32) recovers this
+heat by bringing the flame into contact with successively cooler and
+cooler billets, A-F, and finally with quite cold ones, of consequently
+great heat-absorbing capacity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Diagram of C. H. Morgan's Continuous Heating
+Furnace for 2-inch billets 30 ft. long.
+
+  A, Hottest billet ready for rolling.
+  B, Exit door.
+  C, Pusher, for forcing billets forward.
+  D, Water-cooled pipe on which billets are pushed forward.
+  E, Magnesite bricks on which the hot billets slide forward.
+  F, The billet last entered.
+  G, The suspended roof.
+  H, The incoming air preheated by G and by the pipes N and brought from
+      above G to between N by a flue not shown.
+  J, The incoming gas.
+  L, The flame.
+  M, The escaping products of combustion.
+  N, Pipes through which the products of combustion pass.]
+
+  As soon as a hot billet A is withdrawn by pushing it endwise out of
+  the exit door B, the whole row is pushed forward by a set of
+  mechanical pushers C, the billets sliding on the raised water-cooled
+  pipes D, and, in the hotter part of the furnace, on the magnesite
+  bricks E, on which iron slides easily when red-hot. A new cold billet
+  is then charged at the upper end of the hearth, and the new cycle
+  begins by pushing out through B a second billet, and so forth. To
+  lessen the loss in shape of "crop ends," and for general economy,
+  these billets are in some cases 30 ft. long, as in the furnace shown
+  in fig. 32. It is to make it wide enough to receive such long billets
+  that its roof is suspended, as here shown, by two sets of iron
+  tie-rods. As the foremost end of the billet emerges from the furnace
+  it enters the first of a series of roll-trains, and passes immediately
+  thence to others, so that before half of the billet has emerged from
+  the furnace its front end has already been reduced by rolling to its
+  final shape, that of merchant-bars, which are relatively thin, round
+  or square rods, in lengths of 300 ft.
+
+  In the intermittent system the waste heat can, it is true, be utilized
+  either for raising steam (but inefficiently and inconveniently,
+  because of the intermittency), or by a regenerative method like the
+  Siemens, fig. 19; but this would probably recover less heat than the
+  continuous system, first, because it transfers the heat from flame to
+  metal indirectly instead of directly; and, second, because the
+  brickwork of the Siemens system is probably a poorer heat-catcher than
+  the iron billets of the continuous system, because its disadvantages
+  of low conductivity and low specific heat probably outweigh its
+  advantages of roughness and porosity.
+
+128. _Rolling, Forging, and Drawing._--The three chief processes for
+shaping iron and steel, rolling, forging (i.e. hammering, pressing or
+stamping) and drawing, all really proceed by squeezing the metal into
+the desired shape. In forging, whether under a hammer or under a press,
+the action is evidently a squeeze, however skilfully guided. In drawing,
+the pull of the pincers (fig. 33) upon the protruding end, F, of the
+rod, transmitted to the still undrawn part, E, squeezes the yielding
+metal of the rod against the hard unyielding die, C. As when a
+half-opened umbrella is thrust ferrule-foremost between the balusters of
+a staircase, so when the rod is drawn forward, its yielding metal is
+folded and forced backwards and centrewards by the resistance of the
+unyielding die, and thus it is reduced in diameter and simultaneously
+lengthened proportionally, without material change of volume or density.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Wire undergoing Reduction in the Die.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Two-high Rolling Mill.]
+
+129. _Methods of Rolling._--Of rolling much the same is true. The
+rolling mill in its simplest form is a pair of cylindrical rollers, BB
+(figs. 34 and 35) turning about their axes in opposite directions as
+shown by the arrows, and supported at their ends in strong frames called
+"housings," CC (fig. 35). The skin of the object, D, which is undergoing
+rolling, technically called "the piece," is drawn forward powerfully by
+the friction of the revolving rolls, and especially of that part of
+their surface which at any given instant is moving horizontally (HH in
+fig. 34), much as, the rod is drawn through the die in fig. 33, while
+the vertical component of the motion of the rear part JJ of the rolls
+forces the plastic metal of that part of "the piece" with which they are
+in contact backwards and centrewards, reducing its area and
+simultaneously lengthening it proportionally, here again as in drawing
+through a die. The rolls thus both draw the piece forward like the
+pincers of a wire die, and themselves are a die which like a river ever
+renews or rather maintains its fixed shape and position, though its
+particles themselves are moving constantly forward with "the piece"
+which is passing between them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Two-high Rolling Mill.]
+
+After the piece has been reduced in thickness by its first passage or
+"pass" between the rolls, it may be given a second reduction and then a
+third and so on, either by bringing the two rolls nearer together, as in
+case of the plain rolls BB at the left in fig. 35, or by passing the
+piece through an aperture, F', smaller than the first F, as in case of
+the grooved rolls, AA, shown at the right, or by both means jointly. If,
+as sketched in fig. 34, the direction in which each of the rolls turns
+is constant, then after the piece has passed once through the rolls to
+the right, it cannot undergo a second pass till it has been brought back
+to its initial position at the left. But bringing it back wastes power
+and, still worse, time, heat, and metal, because the yellow- or even
+white-hot piece is rapidly cooling down and oxidizing. In order to
+prevent this waste the direction in which the rolls move may be
+reversed, so that the piece may be reduced a second time in passing to
+the left, in which case the rolls are usually driven by a pair of
+reversing engines; or the rolls may be "three high," as shown in fig.
+36, with the upper and the lower roll moving constantly to the right and
+the middle roll constantly to the left, so that the piece first passes
+to the right between the middle and lower rolls, and then to the left
+between the middle and upper rolls. The advantage of the "reversing"
+system is that it avoids lifting the piece from below to above the
+middle roll, and again lowering it, which is rather difficult because
+the white-hot piece cannot be guided directly by hand, but must be moved
+by means of hooks, tongs, or even complex mechanism. The advantage of
+the three-high mill is that, because each of its moving parts is always
+moving in the same direction, it may be driven by a relatively small and
+hence cheap engine, the power delivered by which between the passes is
+taken up by a powerful fly-wheel, to be given up to the rolls during the
+next pass. (See also ROLLING MILL.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Three-high Rolling Mill.]
+
+130. _Advantages and Applicability of Rolling._--Rolling uses very much
+less power than drawing, because the friction against the fixed die in
+the latter process is very great. For much the same reason rolling
+proceeds much faster than drawing, and on both these accounts it is
+incomparably the cheaper of the two. It is also very much cheaper than
+forging, in large part because it works so quickly. The piece travels
+through the rolls very rapidly, so that the reduction takes place over
+its whole length in a very few seconds, whereas in forging, whether
+under hammer or press, after one part of the piece has been compressed
+the piece must next be raised, moved forward, and placed so that the
+hammer or press may compress the next part of its length. This moving is
+expensive, because it has to be done, or at least guided, by hand, and
+it takes up much time, during which both heat and iron are wasting. Thus
+it comes about that rolling is so very much cheaper than either forging
+or drawing that these latter processes are used only when rolling is
+impracticable. The conditions under which it is impracticable are (1)
+when the piece has either an extremely large or an extremely small cross
+section, and (2) when its cross section varies materially in different
+parts of its length. The number of great shafts for marine engines,
+reaching a diameter of 22(1/8) in. in the case of the "Lusitania," is so
+small that it would be wasteful to instal for their manufacture the
+great and costly rolling mill needed to reduce them from the gigantic
+ingots from which they must be made, with its succession of decreasing
+passes, and its mechanism for rotating the piece between passes and for
+transferring it from pass to pass. Great armour plates can indeed be
+made by rolling, because in making such flat plates the ingot is simply
+rolled back and forth between a pair of plain cylindrical rolls, like BB
+of fig. 35, instead of being transferred from one grooved pass to
+another and smaller one. Moreover, a single pair of rolls suffices for
+armour plates of any width or thickness, whereas if shafts of different
+diameters were to be rolled, a special final groove would be needed for
+each different diameter, and, as there is room for only a few large
+grooves in a single set of rolls, this would imply not only providing
+but installing a separate set of rolls for almost every diameter of
+shaft. Finally the quantity of armour plate needed is so enormous that
+it justifies the expense of installing a great rolling mill. Krupp's
+armour-plate mill, with rolls 4 ft. in diameter and 12 ft. long, can
+roll an ingot 4 ft. thick.
+
+Pieces of very small cross section, like wire, are more conveniently
+made by drawing through a die than by rolling, essentially because a
+single draft reduces the cross section of a wire much more than a single
+pass between rolls can. This in turn is because the direct pull of the
+pincers on the protruding end of the wire is much stronger than the
+forward-drawing pull due to the friction of the cold rolls on the wire,
+which is necessarily cold because of its small section.
+
+Pieces which vary materially in cross section from point to point in
+their length cannot well be made by rolling, because the cross section
+of the piece as it emerges from the rolls is necessarily that of the
+aperture between the rolls from which it is emerging, and this aperture
+is naturally of constant size because the rolls are cylindrical. Of
+course, by making the rolls eccentric, and by varying the depth and
+shape of the different parts of a given groove cut in their surface, the
+cross section of the piece made in this groove may vary somewhat from
+point to point. But this and other methods of varying the cross section
+have been used but little, and they do not seem capable of wide
+application.
+
+The fact that rolling is so much cheaper than forging has led engineers
+to design their pieces so that they can be made by rolling, i.e. to make
+them straight and of uniform cross section. It is for this reason, for
+instance, that railroad rails are of constant uniform section throughout
+their length, instead of having those parts of their length which come
+between the supporting ties deeper and stronger than the parts which
+rest on the ties. When, as in the case of eye bars, it is imperative
+that one part should differ materially in section from the rest, this
+part may be locally thickened or thinned, or a special part may here be
+welded on. When we come to pieces of very irregular shape, such as
+crank-shafts, anchors, trunnions, &c., we must resort to forging, except
+for purposes for which unforged castings are good enough.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Steam Hammer.
+
+  A, Round bar to be hammered.
+  B, Anvil.
+  C, Anvil block or foundation.
+  D, Falling tup.
+  E, Steam piston.
+  F, Piston-rod for lifting tup and driving it down.
+  G, Steam cylinder.]
+
+131. _Forging_ proceeds by beating or squeezing the piece under
+treatment from its initial into its final shape, as for instance by
+hammering a square ingot or bloom first on one corner and then on
+another until it is reduced to a cylindrical shape as shown at A in fig.
+37. As the ingot is reduced in section, it is of course lengthened
+proportionally. Much as in the smith's forge the object forged rests on
+a massive anvil and anvil block, B and C, and is struck by the tup D of
+the hammer. This tup is raised and driven down by steam pressure applied
+below or above the piston E of the steam cylinder mounted aloft, and
+connected with the tup by means of the strong piston-rod F. The demand
+for very large forgings, especially for guns and armour plate, led to
+the building of enormous steam hammers. The falling parts of the largest
+of these, that at Bethlehem, Pa., weigh 125 tons.
+
+The first cost of a hammer of moderate size is much less than that of a
+hydraulic press of like capacity, as is readily understood when we stop
+to reflect what powerful pressure, if gradually applied, would be needed
+to drive the nail which a light blow from our hand hammer forces easily
+into the woodwork. Nevertheless the press uses much less power than the
+hammer, because much of the force of the latter is dissipated in setting
+up useless--indeed harmful, and at times destructive--vibrations in the
+foundations and the surrounding earth and buildings. Moreover, the
+effect of the sharp blow of the hammer is relatively superficial, and
+does not penetrate to the interior of a large piece as the slowly
+applied pressure of the hydraulic press does. Because of these facts the
+great hammers have given place to enormous forging presses, the 125-ton
+Bethlehem hammer, for instance, to a 14,000-ton hydraulic press, moved
+by water under a pressure of 7000 lb. per square inch, supplied by
+pumps of 16,000 horse power.
+
+    TABLE IV.--_Reduction in Cost of Iron Manufacture in America--C.
+    Kirchoff._
+
+    +-------------------+------------------------+-------------+----------------------------------------------------+
+    |                   |                        |    Period   |  Cost, Profit and Production, at End of Period in  |
+    |                   |                        |   covered.  |      Percentage of that at Beginning of Period.    |
+    |                   |                        +------+------+------------------------------------+------+--------+
+    |                   |                        |      |      |                Cost.               |      |        |
+    | Place represented.| Operation represented. |      |      +------+------+-------+------+-------+      | Produc-|
+    |                   |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      | Total |Profit|tion per|
+    |                   |                        | From |  To  |      |      |       |      |exclu- | per  |Furnace |
+    |                   |                        |      |      | Ore. | Fuel.|Labour.|Total.| ding  | Ton. |&c., per|
+    |                   |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |raw Ma-|      |  Day   |
+    |                   |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |terial.|      |        |
+    +-------------------+------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+-------+------+--------+
+    | A large Southern  |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |       |      |        |
+    |   Establishment   | Manufacture of Pig Iron| 1889 | 1898 | 79   | 64.1 | 51.9  | 63.4 |  ..   | 47.9 | 167.7  |
+    | North-eastern     |                        |      |      |      |      |       |      |       |      |        |
+    |   District        |       "           "    | 1890 | 1898 |103.7 | 97   | 61.1  | 65.8 |  ..   | 33.9 | 163.3  |
+    | Pittsburg District|       "           "    | 1887 | 1897 |  ..  |  ..  | 46    |  ..  |  44   |  ..  |   ..   |
+    | Eastern District  | Manufacture of Bessemer|      |      |      |      |       |      |       |      |        |
+    |                   |   Steel Ingots         | 1891 | 1898 |  ..  |  ..  | 75    | 64.39|  ..   |  ..  | 107    |
+    | Pittsburg         |       "           "    | 1887 | 1897 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..   |  ..  |  52   |  ..  |   ..   |
+    | Not stated        | Rolling Wire Rods      | 1888 | 1898 |  ..  |  ..  |  ..   | 63.6 |  ..   |  ..  | 325    |
+    +-------------------+------------------------+------+------+------+------+-------+------+-------+------+--------+
+
+  132. _Statistics._--The cheapening of manufacture by improvements in
+  processes and machinery, and by the increase in the scale of
+  operations, has been very great. The striking examples of it shown in
+  Table IV. are only typical of what has been going on continuously
+  since 1868. Note, for instance, a reduction of some 35% in the total
+  cost, and an even greater reduction in the cost of labour, reaching in
+  one case 54%, in a period of between seven and ten years. This great
+  economy is not due to reduction in wages. According to Mr Carnegie, in
+  one of the largest American steel works the average wages in 1900 for
+  all persons paid by the day, including labourers, mechanics and boys,
+  were more than $4 (say, 16s. 6d.) a day for the 311 working days. How
+  economical the methods of mining, transportation and manufacture have
+  become is shown by the fact that steel billets have been sold at
+  $13.96 (L2, 17s. 8d.) per ton, and in very large quantities at $15
+  (L3, 2s.) per ton in the latter case, according to Mr Carnegie,
+  without further loss than that represented by interest, although the
+  cost of each ton includes that of mining 2 tons of ore and carrying
+  them 1000 miles, mining and coking 1.3 tons of coal and carrying its
+  coke 50 m., and quarrying one-third of a ton of limestone and carrying
+  it 140 m., besides the cost of smelting the ore, converting the
+  resultant cast iron into steel, and rolling that steel into rails.
+
+    TABLE V.--_Reduction in Price of Certain Products._
+
+    +-------+-----------------------------------------------------+
+    |       |  Yearly average Price in Pennsylvania, gross tons.  |
+    |       +-----------------------------------------------------+
+    | Date. |   Bar (Wrought)  |Wrought Iron|   Steel   |  No. 1  |
+    |       |       Iron.      |   Rails.   |   Rails.  | Foundry |
+    |       |                  |            |           |Pig Iron.|
+    +-------+------------------+------------+-----------+---------+
+    |  1800 |$100.50 \         |            |           |         |
+    |  1815 | 144.50 | Hammered|            |           |         |
+    |  1824 |  82.50 |         |            |           |         |
+    |  1837 | 111.00 /         |            |           |         |
+    |       |                  |            |           |         |
+    |  1850 |  59.54 \         |  $47.88    |           | $20.88  |
+    |  1865 | 106.46 |         |   98.62    | $158.46^3 |  46.08  |
+    |  1870 |  78.96 |         |   72.25    |  106.79   |  33.23  |
+    |  1880 |  62.04 | Best    |   49.25    |   67.52   |  28.48  |
+    |  1890 |  45.83 | refined |   25.18^2  |   31.78   |  18.41  |
+    |  1898 |  28.65 | rolled  |   12.39^2  |   17.62   |  11.66  |
+    |  1900 |  44.00 |         |   19.51^2  |   32.29   |  19.98  |
+    |  1906 |    ..  |         |   23.03^2  |   28.00   |  20.98  |
+    | 1908^1|  31.00 /         |   18.25^2  |   28.00   |  17.25  |
+    +-------+------------------+------------+-----------+---------+
+      ^1 July 1st.
+      ^2 Old. i.e. second-hand wrought iron rails.
+      ^3 1868.
+
+  Table V. shows the reduction in prices. The price of wrought iron in
+  Philadelphia reached $155 (L32, 0s. 8d.) in 1815, and, after declining
+  to $80 (L16, 10s. 8d.), again reached $115 (L23, 15s. 4d.) in 1837.
+  Bessemer steel rails sold at $174 in the depreciated currency of 1868
+  (equivalent to about L25, 17s. 4d. in gold), and at $17 (L3, 10s. 3d.)
+  in 1898.
+
+  133. _Increase in Production._--In 1810 the United States made about
+  7%, and in 1830, 1850 and 1860 not far from 10% of the world's
+  production of pig iron, though, indeed, in 1820 their production was
+  only about one-third as great as in 1810. But after the close of the
+  Civil War the production increased by leaps and bounds, till in 1907
+  it was thirty-one times as great as in 1865; and the percentage which
+  it formed of the world's production rose to some 14% in 1870, 21% in
+  1880, 35% in 1900 and 43% in 1907. In this last year the United States
+  production of pig iron was nearly 7 times, and that of Germany and
+  Luxemburg nearly 5 times, that of 1880. In this same period the
+  production of Great Britain increased 28%, and that of the world more
+  than tripled. The corresponding changes in the case of steel are even
+  more striking. The United States production in 1907 was 1714 times
+  that of 1865, and the proportion which it formed of the world's steel
+  rose from 3% in 1865 to 10% in 1870, 30% in 1880; 36% in 1890, 40% in
+  1899 and 46% in 1907. In 1907 the British steel production was nearly
+  five times, that of the United States, nearly nineteen times as great
+  as in 1880. Of the combined wrought iron and steel of the United
+  States, steel formed only 2% in 1865, but 37% in 1880, 85% in 1899 and
+  91% in 1907. Thus in the nineteen years between 1880 and 1899 the age
+  of iron gave place to that of steel.
+
+  The _per capita_ consumption of iron in Great Britain, excluding
+  exports, has been calculated as 144 lb. in 1855 and 250 lb. in 1890,
+  that of the United States as 117 lb. for 1855, 300 lb. for 1890 and
+  some 378 lb. for 1899, and that of the United Kingdom, the United
+  States and Germany for 1906 as about a quarter of a ton, so that the
+  British _per capita_ consumption is about four-fold and the American
+  about five-fold that of 1855. This great increase in the _per capita_
+  consumption of iron by the human race is of course but part of the
+  general advance in wealth and civilization. Among the prominent causes
+  of this increase is the diversion of mankind from agricultural to
+  manufacturing, i.e. machinery-using work, nearly all machinery being
+  necessarily made of iron. This diversion may be unwelcome, but it is
+  inevitable for the two simple reasons that the wonderful improvements
+  in agriculture decrease the number of men needed to raise a given
+  quantity of food, i.e. to feed the rest of the race; and that with
+  every decade our food forms a smaller proportion of our needs, so
+  rapidly do these multiply and diversify. Among the other causes of the
+  increase of the _per capita_ consumption of iron are the displacement
+  of wood by iron for ships and bridge-building; the great extension of
+  the use of iron beams, columns and other pieces in constructing
+  buildings of various kinds; the growth of steam and electric railways;
+  and the introduction of iron fencing. The increased importance of
+  Germany and Luxemburg may be referred in large part to the invention
+  of the basic Bessemer and open-hearth processes by Thomas, who by them
+  gave an inestimable value to the phosphoric ores of these countries.
+  That of the United States is due in part to the growth of its
+  population; to the introduction of labour-saving machinery in iron
+  manufacture; to the grand scale on which this manufacture is carried
+  on; and to the discovery of the cheap and rich ores of the Mesabi
+  region of Lake Superior. But, given all these, the 1000 m. which
+  separate the ore fields of Lake Superior from the cheap coal of
+  Pennsylvania would have handicapped the American iron industry most
+  seriously but for the remarkable cheapening of transportation which
+  has occurred. As this in turn has been due to the very men who have
+  developed the iron industry, it can hardly be questioned that, on
+  further analysis, this development must in considerable part be
+  referred to racial qualities. The same is true of the German iron
+  development. We may note with interest that the three great iron
+  producers so closely related by blood--Great Britain, the United
+  States and Germany and Luxemburg--made in 1907 81% of the world's pig
+  iron and 83% of its steel; and that the four great processes by which
+  nearly all steel and wrought iron are made--the puddling, crucible and
+  both the acid and basic varieties of the Bessemer and open-hearth
+  processes, as well as the steam-hammer and grooved rolls for rolling
+  iron and steel--were invented by Britons, though in the case of the
+  open-hearth process Great Britain must share with France the credit of
+  the invention.
+
+  Tables VI., VII., VIII. and IX. are compiled mainly from figures given
+  in J. M. Swank's _Reports_ (American Iron and Steel Association).
+  Other authorities are indicated as follows: ^a, _The Mineral Industry_
+  (1892); ^b, _Idem_ (1899); ^c, _Idem_ (1907); ^e, _Journal Iron and
+  Steel Institute_ (1881), 2; ^i, Eckel in _Mineral Resources of the
+  United States_, (published by the United States Geological Survey
+  (1906), pp. 92-93.
+
+    TABLE VI.--_Production of Pig Iron (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +------+--------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Year.|United States.| Great  |Germany and| The World.|
+    |      |              |Britain.| Luxemburg.|           |
+    +------+--------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+    | 1800 |      ..      |   ..   |    ..     |     825   |
+    | 1810 |        54    |   ..   |    ..     |     ..    |
+    | 1830 |       165    |   677  |    ..     |   1,825   |
+    | 1850 |       565    |   ..   |    ..     |   4,750   |
+    | 1865 |       832    |  4825  |     972   |   9,250   |
+    | 1870 |     1,665    |  5964  |   1,369   |  11,900   |
+    | 1880 |     3,835    |  7749  |   2,685   |  17,950   |
+    | 1890 |     9,203    |  7904  |   4,583   |  27,157   |
+    | 1900 |    13,789    |  8960  |   8,386   |  38,973^c |
+    | 1907 |    25,781    |  9924  |  12,672   |  59,721^c |
+    +------+--------------+--------+-----------+-----------+
+
+    TABLE VII.--_Production of Pig Iron in the United States (in
+    thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
+    | Year.|Anthracite.|Charcoal.| Coke and  | Total. |
+    |      |           |         |Bituminous.|        |
+    +------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
+    | 1880 |   1614    |   480   |   1,741   |  3,835 |
+    | 1885 |   1299    |   357   |   2,389   |  4,045 |
+    | 1890 |   2186    |   628   |   6,388   |  9,203 |
+    | 1895 |   1271    |   225   |   7,950   |  9,446 |
+    | 1900 |   1677    |   384   |  11,728   | 13,789 |
+    | 1907 |   1372    |   437   |  23,972   | 25,781 |
+    +------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
+
+  "Anthracite" here includes iron made with anthracite and coke mixed,
+  "Bituminous" includes iron made with coke, with raw bituminous coal,
+  or with both, and "Charcoal" in 1900 and 1907 includes iron made
+  either with charcoal alone or with charcoal mixed with coke.
+
+    TABLE VIII.--_Production of Wrought Iron, also that of Bloomary
+    Iron (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +---------------+-------------+--------------------+
+    |               |Wrought Iron.|   Bloomary Iron    |
+    |               |             |direct from the Ore.|
+    +---------------+-------------+--------------------+
+    |     1870.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    1153     |         ..         |
+    | Great Britain |      ..     |         ..         |
+    |     1880.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    2083(^1) |         36         |
+    | Great Britain |      ..     |         ..         |
+    |     1890.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    2518(^1) |          7         |
+    | Great Britain |    1894     |         ..         |
+    |     1899.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |      ..     |          3         |
+    | Great Britain |    1202     |         ..         |
+    |     1900.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |      ..     |          4         |
+    | Great Britain |      ..     |         ..         |
+    |     1907.     |             |                    |
+    | United States |    2200     |         ..         |
+    | Great Britain |     975     |         ..         |
+    +---------------+-------------+--------------------+
+      ^1 Hammered products are excluded.
+
+    TABLE IX.--_Production of Steel (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +----------------------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+                                            | Crucible  |           |
+    |                      |Bessemer. |   Open-  | and Mis-  |   Total.  |
+    |                      |          |  Hearth. |cellaneous.|           |
+    +----------------------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |     1870.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States        |    37    |      1   |    31     |      69   |
+    | Great Britain        |   215    |     78   |    ..     |     292^a |
+    |                      |(for 1873)|          |           |           |
+    | The World            |    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |     692^a |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1880.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States        | 1,074    |    101   |    72     |   1,247   |
+    | Great Britain        | 1,044    |    251   |    80     |   1,375   |
+    | Germany and          |          |          |           |           |
+    |   Luxemburg          |   608^a  |     87^a |    33     |     728   |
+    | The World            |    ..         ..    |    ..     |   4,205^a |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1890.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States        | 3,689    |    513   |    75     |   4,277   |
+    | Great Britain        | 2,015    |  1,564   |   100     |   3,679   |
+    | Germany and Luxemburg|    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |   2,127   |
+    | The World            |    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |  11,902^a |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1900.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States /Acid  | 6,685    |    853\  |   105     |  10,188   |
+    |               \Basic |     0    |  2,545/  |           |           |
+    | Great Britain /Acid  | 1,254\   |  3,156   |   149     |   5,050   |
+    |               \Basic |   491/   |          |           |           |
+    | Germany and Luxemburg|    ..    |    ..    |    ..     |   6,541   |
+    | The World            |   ..     |    ..    |    ..     |  28,273   |
+    |                      |          |          |           |           |
+    |     1907.            |          |          |           |           |
+    | United States /Acid  |11,668    |  1,270\  |   145     |  23,363   |
+    |               \Basic |     0    | 10,279/  |           |           |
+    | Great Britain /Acid  | 1,280    |  3,385\  |    ..     |   6,523^2 |
+    |               \Basic |   579    |  1,279/  |           |           |
+    | Germany and   /Acid  |   381^1  |    209^1\|   208^3   |  11,873   |
+    |   Luxemburg   \Basic | 7,098^1  |  3,976^1/|           |           |
+    | The World            |          |          |           |  50,375   |
+    +----------------------+----------+----------+-----------+-----------+
+      ^1 Ingots only.
+      ^2 Bessemer and open hearth only.
+      ^3 Castings.
+
+    TABLE X.--_Tonnage (gross register) of Iron and Steel Vessels built
+    under Survey of Lloyd's Registry (in thousands of tons)._
+
+    +--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    |              |1877.|1880.|1885.|1890.|1895.|1900.|1906.|
+    +--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+    | Wrought Iron | 443 | 460 | 304 |  50 |   8 |  14 |   0 |
+    | Steel        |   0 |  35 | 162 |1079 | 863 |1305 |1492 |
+    +--------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
+
+
+    TABLE XI.--_Production of Iron Ore (in thousands of long tons)._
+
+    +----------------+-------------------+-------------------+------------+
+    |                |       1905.       |       1906.       |    1907.   |
+    |                +------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+    |                |Thousands of| Per  |Thousands of| Per  |Thousands of|
+    |                | Long Tons. | Cent.| Long Tons. | Cent.| Long Tons. |
+    +----------------+------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+    | United States  |   42,526   | 37.4 |  47,750    | 38.6 |   51,721   |
+    | Germany and    |            |      |            |      |            |
+    |   Luxemburg    |   23,074   | 20.3 |  26,312    | 21.3 |   27,260   |
+    | Great Britain  |   14,591   | 12.8 |  15,500    | 12.5 |   15,732   |
+    | Spain          |    8,934   |  7.9 |   9,299    |  7.5 |     ..     |
+    | France         |    7,279   |  6.4 |   8,347    |  6.7 |     ..     |
+    | Russia         |    5,954^1 |  5.2 |   3,812    |  3.1 |   4,330^2  |
+    | Sweden         |    4,297   |  3.8 |   4,431    |  3.6 |     ..     |
+    | Austria-Hungary|    3,639   |  3.2 |   4,024    |  3.3 |     ..     |
+    | Other Countries|    3,457   |  3.0 |   4,297    |  3.5 |     ..     |
+    +----------------+------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+    |     Total      |  113,751   |100.0 | 123,773    |100.1 |            |
+    +----------------+------------+------+------------+------+------------+
+      ^1 Calculated from the production of pig iron.
+      ^2 Approximately.
+
+     (H. M. H.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word "iron" was in O. Eng. _iren_, _isern_ or _isen_, cf.
+    Ger. _Eisen_, Dut. _ysen_, Swed. _jarn_, Dan. _jern_; the original
+    Teut. base is _isarn_, and cognates are found in Celtic, Ir. _iarun_,
+    Gael, _iarunn_, Breton, _houarn_, &c. The ulterior derivation is
+    unknown; connexion has been suggested without much probability with
+    _is_, ice, from its hard bright surface, or with Lat. _ars_, _aeris_,
+    brass. The change from _isen_ to _iren_ (in 16th cent. _yron_) is due
+    to rhotacism, but whether direct from _isen_ or through _isern_,
+    _irern_ is doubtful. "Steel" represents the O. Eng. _stel_ or _stele_
+    (the true form; only found, however, with spelling _style_, cf.
+    _styl-ecg_, steel-edged), cognate with Ger. _Stahl_, Dut. and Dan.
+    _staal_, &c.; the word is not found outside Teutonic. Skeat (_Etym.
+    Dict._, 1898) finds the ultimate origin in the Indo-European base
+    _stak_-, to be firm or still, and compares Lat. _stagnum_,
+    standing-water.
+
+  [2] A "eutectic" is the last-freezing part of an alloy, and
+    corresponds to what the mother-liquor of a saline solution would
+    become if such a solution, after the excess of saline matter had been
+    crystallized out, were finally completely frozen. It is the
+    mother-liquor or "bittern" frozen. Its striking characteristics are:
+    (1) that for given metals alloyed together its composition is fixed,
+    and does not vary with the proportions in which those metals are
+    present, because any "excess metal," i.e. so much of either metal as
+    is present in excess over the eutectic ratio, freezes out before the
+    eutectic; (2) that though thus constant, its composition is not in
+    simple atomic proportions; (3) that its freezing-point is constant;
+    and (4) that, when first formed, it habitually consists of
+    interstratified plates of the metals which compose it. If the alloy
+    has a composition very near that of its own eutectic, then when
+    solidified it of course contains a large proportion of the eutectic,
+    and only a small proportion of the excess metal. If it differs widely
+    from the eutectic in composition, then when solidified it consists of
+    only a small quantity of eutectic and a very large quantity of the
+    excess metal. But, far below the freezing-point, transformations may
+    take place in the solid metal, and follow a course quite parallel
+    with that of freezing, though with no suggestion of liquidity. A
+    "eutectoid" is to such a transformation in solid metal what a
+    eutectic is to freezing proper. It is the last part of the metal to
+    undergo this transformation and, when thus transformed, it is of
+    constant though not atomic composition, and habitually consists of
+    interstratified plates of its component metals.
+
+  [3] Note the distinction between the "eutectic" or alloy of lowest
+    freezing-point, 1130 deg., B, with 4.30% of carbon, and the
+    "eutectoid," hardenite and pearlite, or alloy of lowest
+    transformation-point, 690 deg. S, with 0.90% of carbon. (See S 17.)
+
+  [4] The length of the blow varies very greatly, in general increasing
+    with the proportion of silicon and with the size of charge. Thus the
+    small Swedish charges with but little silicon may be blown in 5
+    minutes, but for a 20-ton charge the time is more likely to reach, or
+    exceed 10 minutes, and sometimes reaches 20 minutes or even more.
+
+  [5] A "billet" is a bar, 5 in. sq. or smaller, drawn down from a
+    bloom, ingot, or pile for further manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+IRON MASK (_masque de fer_). The identity of the "man in the iron mask"
+is a famous historical mystery. The person so called was a political
+prisoner under Louis XIV., who died in the Bastille in 1703. To the mask
+itself no real importance attaches, though that feature of the story
+gave it a romantic interest; there is no historical evidence that the
+mask he was said always to wear was made of anything but black velvet
+(_velours_), and it was only afterwards that legend converted its
+material into iron. As regards the "man," we have the contemporary
+official journals of Etienne du Junca (d. 1706), the king's lieutenant
+at the Bastille, from which we learn that on the 18th of September 1698
+a new governor, Benigne D'Auvergne de Saint-Mars, arrived from the
+fortress of the Isles Ste Marguerite (in the bay of Cannes), bringing
+with him "un ancien prisonnier qu'il avait a Pignerol" (Pinerolo, in
+Piedmont), whom he kept always masked and whose name remained untold.
+(Saint-Mars, it may here be noted, had been commandant at Pignerol from
+the end of 1664 till 1681; he was in charge there of such important
+prisoners as Fouquet, from 1665 to his death in 1680, and Lauzun, from
+1671 till his release in 1681; he was then in authority at Exiles from
+1681 to 1687, and at Ste Marguerite from 1687 to 1698). Du Junca
+subsequently records that "on Monday the 19th of November 1703, the
+unknown prisoner, always masked with a black velvet mask, whom M. de
+Saint-Mars had brought with him from the islands of Ste Marguerite, and
+had kept for a long time,... died at about ten o'clock in the evening."
+He adds that "this unknown prisoner was buried on the 20th in the parish
+cemetery of Saint Paul, and was registered under a name also
+unknown"--noting in the margin that he has since learnt that the name in
+the register was "M. de Marchiel." The actual name in the register of
+the parish cemetery of Saint Paul (now destroyed, but a facsimile is
+still in existence) was "Marchioly"; and the age of the deceased was
+there given as "about 45."
+
+The identity of this prisoner was already, it will be observed, a
+mystery before he died in 1703, and soon afterwards we begin to see the
+fruit of the various legends concerning him which presumably started as
+early as 1670, when Saint-Mars himself (see below) found it necessary to
+circulate "fairy tales" (_contes jaunes_). In 1711 the Princess Palatine
+wrote to the Electress Sophia of Hanover, and suggested that he was an
+English nobleman who had taken part in a plot of the duke of Berwick
+against William III. Voltaire, in his _Siecle de Louis XIV_ (1751), told
+the story of the mysterious masked prisoner with many graphic details;
+and, under the heading of "Ana" in the _Questions sur l'encyclopedie_
+(Geneva, 1771), he asserted that he was a bastard brother of Louis XIV.,
+son of Mazarin and Anne of Austria. Voltaire's influence in creating
+public interest in the "man in the mask" was indeed enormous; he had
+himself been imprisoned in the Bastille in 1717 and again in 1726; as
+early as 1745 he is found hinting that he knows something; in the
+_Siecle de Louis XIV_ he justifies his account on the score of
+conversations with de Bernaville, who succeeded Saint-Mars (d. 1708) as
+governor of the Bastille, and others; and after Heiss in 1770 had
+identified the "mask" with Mattioli (see below), Voltaire was not above
+suggesting that he really knew more than he had said, but thought it
+sufficient to have given the clue to the enigma. According to the Abbe
+Soulavie, the duke of Richelieu's advice was to reflect on Voltaire's
+"last utterances" on the subject. In Soulavie's _Memoires_ of Richelieu
+(London, 1790) the masked man becomes (on the authority of an apocryphal
+note by Saint-Mars himself) the legitimate twin brother of Louis XIV. In
+1801 the story went that this scion of the royal house of France had a
+son born to him in prison, who settled in Corsica under the name of "De
+Buona Parte," and became the ancestor of Napoleon! Dumas's _Vicomte de
+Bragelonne_ afterwards did much to popularize the theory that he was the
+king's brother. Meanwhile other identifications, earlier or later, were
+also supported, in whose case the facts are a sufficient refutation. He
+was Louis, count of Vermandois, son of Louise de la Valliere (_Memoires
+secrets pour servir a l'histoire de Perse_, Amsterdam, 1745);
+Vermandois, however, died in 1683. He was the duke of Monmouth (_Lettre
+de Sainte Foy_ ... Amsterdam, 1768), although Monmouth was beheaded in
+1685. He was Francois de Vendome, duke of Beaufort, who disappeared (and
+pretty certainly died) at the siege of Candia (1669); Avedick, an
+Armenian patriarch seized by the Jesuits, who was not imprisoned till
+1706 and died in 1711; Fouquet, who undoubtedly died at Pignerol in
+1680; and even, according to A. Loquin (1883), Moliere!
+
+Modern criticism, however, has narrowed the issue. The "man in the mask"
+was either (1) Count Mattioli, who became the prisoner of Saint-Mars at
+Pignerol in 1679, or (2) the person called Eustache Dauger, who was
+imprisoned in July 1669 in the same fortress. The evidence shows
+conclusively that these two were the only prisoners under Saint-Mars at
+Pignerol who could have been taken by him to the Bastille in 1698. The
+arguments in favour of Mattioli (first suggested by Heiss, and strongly
+supported by Topin in 1870) are summed up, with much weight of critical
+authority, by F. Funck-Brentano in vol. lvi. of the _Revue historique_
+(1894); the claims of Eustache Dauger were no less ably advocated by J.
+Lair in vol. ii. of his _Nicolas Foucquet_ (1890). But while we know who
+Mattioli was, and why he was imprisoned, a further question still
+remains for supporters of Dauger, because his identity and the reason
+for his incarceration are quite obscure.
+
+  It need only be added, so far as other modern theories are concerned,
+  that in 1873 M. Jung (_La Verite sur la masque de fer_) had brought
+  forward another candidate, with the attractive name of "Marechiel," a
+  soldier of Lorraine who had taken part in a poisoning plot against
+  Louis XIV., and was arrested at Peronne by Louvois in 1673, and said
+  to be lodged in the Bastille and then sent to Pignerol. But Jung's
+  arguments, though strong destructively against the Mattioli theory,
+  break down as regards any valid proof either that the prisoner
+  arrested at Peronne was a Bastille prisoner in 1673 or that he was
+  ever at Pignerol, where indeed we find no trace of him. Another
+  theory, propounded by Captain Bazeries (_La Masque de fer_, 1883),
+  identified the prisoner with General du Bulonde, punished for
+  cowardice at the siege of Cuneo; but Bulonde only went to Pignerol in
+  1691, and has been proved to be living in 1705.
+
+_The Mattioli Theory._--Ercole Antonio Mattioli (born at Bologna on the
+1st of December 1640) was minister of Charles IV., duke of Mantua, who
+as marquess of Montferrat was in possession of the frontier fortress of
+Casale, which was coveted by Louis XIV. He negotiated the sale of Casale
+to the French king for 100,000 crowns, and himself received valuable
+presents from Louis. But on the eve of the occupation of Casale by the
+French, Mattioli--actuated by a tardy sense of patriotism or by the hope
+of further gain--betrayed the transaction to the governments of Austria,
+Spain, Venice and Savoy. Louis, in revenge, had him kidnapped (1679) by
+the French envoy, J. F. d'Estrades, abbe of Moissac, and Mattioli was
+promptly lodged in the fortress of Pignerol. This kidnapping of
+Mattioli, however, was no secret, and it was openly discussed in _La
+Prudenza trionfante di Casale_ (Cologne, 1682), where it was stated that
+Mattioli was masked when he was arrested. In February 1680 he is
+described as nearly mad, no doubt from the effects of solitary
+confinement. When Saint-Mars was made governor of Exiles in 1681 we know
+from one of his letters that Mattioli was left at Pignerol; but in March
+1694, Pignerol being about to be given up by France to Savoy, he and two
+other prisoners were removed with much secrecy to Ste Marguerite, where
+Saint-Mars had been governor since 1687. Funck-Brentano emphasizes the
+fact that, although Eustache Dauger was then at Ste Marguerite, the
+king's minister Barbezieux, writing to Saint-Mars (March 20, 1694) about
+the transfer of these prisoners, says: "You know that they are of more
+consequence (_plus de consequence_), at least one" (presumably
+Mattioli), "than those who are at present at the island." From this
+point, however, the record is puzzling. A month after his arrival at Ste
+Marguerite, a prisoner who had a valet died there.[1] Now Mattioli
+undoubtedly had a valet at Pignerol, and nobody else at Ste Marguerite
+is known at this time to have had one; so that he may well have been the
+prisoner who died. In that case he was clearly not "the mask" of 1698
+and 1703. Funck-Brentano's attempt to prove that Mattioli did _not_ die
+in 1604 is far from convincing; but the assumption that he did is
+inferential, and to that extent arguable. "Marchioly" in the burial
+register of Saint Paul naturally suggests indeed at first that the
+"ancien prisonnier" taken by Saint-Mars to the Bastille in 1698 was
+Mattioli, Saint-Mars himself sometimes writing the name "Marthioly" in
+his letters; but further consideration leaves this argument decidedly
+weak. In any case the age stated in the burial register, "about 45," was
+fictitious, whether for Mattioli (63) or Dauger (at least 53); and, as
+Lair points out, Saint-Mars is known to have given false names at the
+burial of other prisoners. Monsignor Barnes, in _The Man of the Mask_
+(1908), takes the entry "Marchioly" as making it certain that the
+prisoner was not Mattioli, on the ground (1) that the law[2] explicitly
+ordered a false name to be given, and (2) that after hiding his identity
+so carefully the authorities were not likely to give away the secret by
+means of a burial register.
+
+In spite of Funck-Brentano it appears practically certain that Mattioli
+must be ruled out. If he was the individual who died in 1703 at the
+Bastille, the obscurity which gathered round the nameless masked
+prisoner is almost incomprehensible, for there was no real secret about
+Mattioli's incarceration. The existence of a "legend" as to Dauger can,
+however, be traced, as will be seen below, from the first. Any one who
+accepts the Mattioli theory must be driven, as Lang suggests, to suppose
+that the mystery which grew up about the unknown prisoner was somehow
+transferred to Mattioli from Dauger.
+
+_The Dauger Theory._--What then was Dauger's history? Unfortunately it
+is only in his capacity as a prisoner that we can trace it. On the 19th
+of July 1669 Louvois, Louis XIV.'s minister, writes to Saint-Mars at
+Pignerol that he is sending him "le nomme Eustache Dauger" (Dauger,
+D'Angers--the spelling is doubtful),[3] whom it is of the last
+importance to keep with special closeness; Saint-Mars is to threaten him
+with death if he speaks about anything except his actual needs. On the
+same day Louvois orders Vauroy, major of the citadel of Dunkirk, to
+seize Dauger and conduct him to Pignerol. Saint-Mars writes to Louvois
+(Aug. 21) that Vauroy had brought Dauger, and that people "believe him
+to be a marshal of France." Louvois (March 26, 1670) refers to a report
+that one of Fouquet's valets--there was constant trouble about them--had
+spoken to Dauger, who asked to be left in peace, and he emphasizes the
+importance of there being no communication. Saint-Mars (April 12, 1670)
+reports Dauger as "resigne a la volonte de Dieu et du Roy," and (again
+the legend grows) says that "there are persons who are inquisitive about
+my prisoner, and I am obliged to tell _contes jaunes pour me moquer
+d'eux._" In 1672 Saint-Mars proposes--the significance of this action is
+discussed later--to allow Dauger to act as "valet" to Lauzun; Louvois
+firmly refuses, but in 1675 allows him to be employed as valet to
+Fouquet, and he impresses upon Saint-Mars the importance of nobody
+learning about Dauger's "past." After Fouquet's death (1680) Dauger and
+Fouquet's other (old-standing) valet La Riviere are put together, by
+Louvois's special orders, in one lower dungeon; Louvois evidently fears
+their knowledge of things heard from Fouquet, and he orders Lauzun (who
+had recently been allowed to converse freely with Fouquet) to be told
+that they are released. When Saint-Mars is transferred to Exiles, he is
+ordered to take these two with him, as too important to be in other
+hands; Mattioli is left behind. At Exiles they are separated and guarded
+with special precautions; and in January 1687 one of them (all the
+evidence admittedly pointing to La Riviere) dies. When Saint-Mars is
+again transferred, in May 1687, to Ste Marguerite, he takes his
+"prisoner" (apparently he now has only one--Dauger) with great show of
+caution; and next year (Jan. 8, 1688) he writes to Louvois that "mon
+prisonnier" is believed "in all this province" to be a son of Oliver
+Cromwell, or else the duke of Beaufort (a point which at once rules out
+Beaufort). In 1691 Louvois's successor, Barbezieux, writes to him about
+his "prisonnier de vingt ans" (Dauger was first imprisoned in 1669,
+Mattioli in 1679), and Saint-Mars replies that "nobody has seen him but
+myself." Subsequently Barbezieux and the governor continue to write to
+one another about their "ancien prisonnier" (Jan. 6, 1696; Nov. 17,
+1697). When, therefore, we come to Saint-Mars's appointment to the
+Bastille in 1698, Dauger appears almost certainly to be the "ancien
+prisonnier" he took with him.[4] There is at least good ground for
+supposing Mattioli's death to have been indicated in 1694, but nothing
+is known that would imply Dauger's, unless it was he who died in 1703.
+
+_Theories as to Dauger's Identity._--Here we find not only sufficient
+indication of the growth of a legend as to Dauger, but also the
+existence in fact of a real mystery as to who he was and what he had
+done, two things both absent in Mattioli's case. The only "missing link"
+is the want of any precise allusion to a mask in the references to
+Dauger. But in spite of du Junca's emphasis on the mask, it is in
+reality very questionable whether the wearing of a mask was an unusual
+practice. It was one obvious way of enabling a prisoner to appear in
+public (for exercise or in travelling) without betrayal of identity.
+Indeed three years before the arrival of Saint-Mars we hear (_Gazette
+d'Amsterdam_, March 14, 1695) of another masked man being brought to the
+Bastille, who eventually was known to be the son of a Lyons banker.
+
+Who then was Dauger, and what was his "past"? We will take first a
+theory propounded by Andrew Lang in _The Valet's Tragedy_ (1903). As the
+result of research in the diplomatic correspondence at the Record Office
+in London[5] Mr Lang finds a clue in the affairs of the French Huguenot,
+Roux de Marsilly, the secret agent for a Protestant league against
+France between Sweden, Holland, England and the Protestant cantons of
+Switzerland, who in February 1669 left London, where he had been
+negotiating with Arlington (apparently with Charles II.'s knowledge),
+for Switzerland, his confidential valet Martin remaining behind. On the
+14th of April 1669 Marsilly was kidnapped for Louis XIV. in Switzerland,
+in defiance of international right, taken to Paris and on the 22nd of
+June tortured to death on a trumped-up charge of rape. The duke of York
+is said to have betrayed him to Colbert, the French ambassador in
+London. The English intrigue was undoubtedly a serious matter, because
+the shifty Charles II. was at the same time negotiating with Louis XIV.
+a secret alliance against Holland, in support of the restoration of
+Roman Catholicism in England. It would therefore be desirable for both
+parties to remove anybody who was cognizant of the double dealing. Now
+Louvois's original letter to Saint-Mars concerning Dauger (July 19,
+1669), after dealing with the importance of his being guarded with
+special closeness, and of Saint-Mars personally taking him food and
+threatening him with death if he speaks, proceeds as follows (in a
+second paragraph, as printed in Delort, i. 155, 156):--
+
+  "Je mande au Sieur Poupart de faire incessamment travailler a ce que
+  vous desirerez, et vous ferez preparer les meubles qui sont
+  necessaires pour la vie de celui que l'on vous amenera, observant que
+  comme ce n est qu'un valet, il ne lui en faut pas de bien
+  considerables, et je vous ferai rembourser tant de la despenses des
+  meubles, que de ce que vous desirerez pour sa nourriture."
+
+Assuming the words here, "as he is only a valet," to refer to Dauger,
+and taking into account the employment of Dauger from 1675 to 1680 as
+Fouquet's valet, Mr Lang now obtains a solution of the problem of why a
+mere valet should be a political prisoner of so much concern to Louis
+XIV. at this time. He points out that Colbert, on the 3rd, 10th and 24th
+of June, writes from London to Louis XIV. about his efforts to get
+Martin, Roux de Marsilly's valet, to go to France, and on the 1st of
+July expresses a hope that Charles II. will surrender "the valet." Then,
+on the 19th of July, Dauger is arrested at Dunkirk, the regular port
+from England. Mr Lang regards his conclusion as to the identity between
+these valets as irresistible. It is true that what is certainly known
+about Martin hardly seems to provide sufficient reason for Eustache
+Dauger being regarded for so long a time as a specially dangerous
+person. But Mr Lang's answer on that point is that this humble
+supernumerary in Roux de Marsilly's conspiracy simply became one more
+wretched victim of the "red tape" of the old French absolute monarchy.
+
+Unfortunately for this identification, it encounters at once a
+formidable, if not fatal, objection. Martin, the Huguenot conspirator
+Marsilly's valet, must surely have been himself a Huguenot. Dauger, on
+the other hand, was certainly a Catholic; indeed Louvois's second letter
+to Saint-Mars about him (Sept. 10, 1669) gives precise directions as to
+his being allowed to attend mass at the same time as Fouquet. It may
+perhaps be argued that Dauger (if Martin) simply did not make bad worse
+by proclaiming his creed; but against this, Louvois must have _known_
+that Martin was a Huguenot. Apart from that, it will be observed that
+the substantial reason for connecting the two men is simply that both
+were "valets." The identification is inspired by the apparent necessity
+of an explanation why Dauger, being a valet, should be a political
+prisoner of importance. The assumption, however, that Dauger was a valet
+when he was arrested is itself as unnecessary as the fact is
+intrinsically improbable. Neither Louvois's letter of July 19, 1669, nor
+Dauger's employment as valet to Fouquet in 1675 (six years later)--and
+these are the only grounds on which the assumption rests--prove anything
+of the sort.
+
+Was Dauger a valet? If Dauger was the "mask," it is just as well to
+remove a misunderstanding which has misled too many commentators.
+
+1. If Louvois's letter of July 19 be read in connexion with the
+preceding correspondence it will be seen that ever since Fouquet's
+incarceration in 1665 Saint-Mars had had trouble over his valets. They
+fall ill, and there is difficulty in replacing them, or they play the
+traitor. At last, on the 12th of March 1669, Louvois writes to
+Saint-Mars to say (evidently in answer to some suggestion from
+Saint-Mars in a letter which is not preserved): "It is annoying that
+both Fouquet's valets should have fallen ill at the same time, but you
+have so far taken such good measures for avoiding inconvenience that I
+leave it to you to adopt whatever course is necessary." There are then
+no letters in existence from Saint-Mars to Louvois up to Louvois's
+letter of July 19, in which he first refers to Dauger; and for three
+months (from April 22 to July 19) there is a gap in the correspondence,
+so that the sequence is obscure. The portion, however, of the letter of
+the 19th of July, cited above, in which Louvois uses the words "ce n'est
+qu'un valet," does not, in the present writer's judgment, refer to
+Dauger at all, but to something which had been mooted in the meanwhile
+with a view to obtaining a valet for Fouquet. This is indeed the natural
+reading of the letter as a whole. If Louvois had meant to write that
+Dauger was "only a valet" he would have started by saying so. On the
+contrary, he gives precise and apparently comprehensive directions in
+the first part of the letter about how he is to be treated: "Je vous en
+donne advis par advance, afin que vous puissiez faire accomoder un
+cachot ou vous le mettrez surement, observant de faire en sorte que les
+jours qu'aura le lieu ou il sera ne donnent point sur les lieux qui
+puissent estre abordez de personne, et qu'il y ayt assez de portes
+fermees, les unes sur les autres, pour que vos sentinelles ne puissent
+bien entendre," &c. Having finished his instructions about Dauger, he
+then proceeds in a fresh paragraph to tell Saint-Mars that orders have
+been given to "Sieur Poupart" to do "whatever you shall desire." He is
+here dealing with a different question; and it is unreasonable to
+suppose. and indeed contrary to the style in which Louvois corresponds
+with Saint-Mars, that he devotes the whole letter to the one subject
+with which he started. The words "et vous ferez preparer les meubles qui
+sont necessaires pour la vie de celui que l'on vous amenera" are not at
+all those which Louvois would use with regard to Dauger, after what he
+has just said about him. Why "celui que l'on vous amenera," instead of
+simply "Dauger," who was being brought, as he has said, by Vauroy? The
+clue to the interpretation of this phrase may be found in another letter
+from Louvois not six months later (Jan. 1, 1670), when he writes: "Le
+roy se remet a vous d'en uzer comme vous le jugerez a propos a l'esgard
+des valets de Monsieur Foucquet; il faut seulement observer que si vous
+luy donnez des valets que l'on vous amenera d'icy, il pourra bien
+arriver qu'ils seront gaignez par avance, et qu'ainsy ils feroient pis
+que ceux que vous en osteriez presentement." Here we have the identical
+phrase used of valets whom it is contemplated to bring in from outside
+for Fouquet; though it does not follow that any such valet was in fact
+brought in. The whole previous correspondence (as well as a good deal
+afterwards) is full of the valet difficulty; and it is surely more
+reasonable to suppose that when Louvois writes to Saint-Mars on the 19th
+of July that he is sending Dauger, a new prisoner of importance, as to
+whom "il est de la derniere importance qu'il soit garde avec une grande
+seurete," his second paragraph as regards the instructions to "Sieur
+Poupart" refers to something which Saint-Mars had suggested about
+getting a valet from outside, and simply points out that in preparing
+furniture for "celui que l'on vous amenera" he need not do much, "comme
+ce n'est qu'un valet."
+
+2. But this is not all. If Dauger had been originally a valet, he might
+as well have been used as such at once, when one was particularly
+wanted. On the contrary, Louvois flatly refused Saint-Mars's request in
+1672 to be allowed to do so, and was exceedingly chary of allowing it in
+1675 (only "en cas de necessite," and "vous pouvez donner le dit
+prisonnier a M. Foucquet, si son valet venoit a luy manquer et non
+autrement"). The words used by Saint-Mars in asking Louvois in 1672 if
+he might use Dauger as Lauzun's valet are themselves significant to the
+point of conclusiveness: "Il ferait, ce me semble, un bon valet."
+Saint-Mars could not have said this if Dauger had all along been _known_
+to be a valet. The terms of his letter to Louvois (Feb 20, 1672) show
+that Saint-Mars wanted to use Dauger as a valet simply because he was
+_not_ a valet. That a person might be used as a valet who was not really
+a valet is shown by Louvois having told Saint-Mars in 1666 (June 4) that
+Fouquet's old doctor, Pecquet, was not to be allowed to serve him "soit
+dans sa profession, soit dans le mestier d'un simple valet." The fact
+was that Saint-Mars was hard put to it in the prison for anybody who
+could be trusted, and that he had convinced himself by this time that
+Dauger (who had proved a quiet harmless fellow) would give no trouble.
+Probably he wanted to give him some easy employment, and save him from
+going mad in confinement. It is worth noting that up to 1672 (when
+Saint-Mars suggested utilizing Dauger as valet to Lauzun) none of the
+references to Dauger in letters after that of July 19, 1669, suggests
+his being a valet; and their contrary character makes it all the more
+clear that the second part of the letter of July 19 does not refer to
+Dauger.
+
+In this connexion it may be remarked (and this is a point on which
+Funck-Brentano entirely misinterprets the allusion) that, even in his
+capacity as valet to Fouquet, Dauger was still regarded an as
+exceptional sort of prisoner; for in 1679 when Fouquet and Lauzun were
+afterwards allowed to walk freely all over the citadel, Louvois
+impresses on Saint-Mars that "_le nomme Eustache_" is never to be
+allowed to be in Fouquet's room when Lauzun or any other stranger, or
+anybody but Fouquet and the "_ancien valet_," La Riviere, is there, and
+that he is to stay in Fouquet's room when the latter goes out to walk in
+the citadel, and is only to go out walking with Fouquet and La Riviere
+when they promenade in the special part of the fortress previously set
+apart for them (Louvois's letter to Saint-Mars, Jan. 30, 1670).
+
+_Was Dauger James de la Cloche?_ In _The Man of the Mask_ (1908)
+Monsignor Barnes, while briefly dismissing Mr Lang's identification with
+Martin, and apparently not realizing the possibility of reading
+Louvois's letter of July 19, 1669, as indicated above[6] deals in detail
+with the history of James de la Cloche, the natural son of Charles II.
+(acknowledged privately as such by the king) in whom he attempts to
+unmask the personality of Dauger. Mr Lang, in _The Valet's Tragedy_, had
+some years earlier ironically wondered why nobody made this suggestion,
+which, however, he regarded as untenable. The story of James de la
+Cloche is indeed itself another historical mystery; he abruptly vanishes
+as such at Rome at the end of 1668, and thus provides a disappearance of
+convenient date; but the question concerning him is complicated by the
+fact that a James Henry de Bovere Roano Stuardo, who married at Naples
+early in 1669 and undoubtedly died in the following August, claiming to
+be a son of Charles II., makes just afterwards an equally abrupt
+appearance; in many respects the two men seem to be the same, but
+Monsignor Barnes, following Lord Acton, here regards James Stuardo as an
+impostor who traded on a knowledge of James de la Cloche's secret. If
+the latter then did _not_ die in 1669, what became of him? According to
+Monsignor Barnes's theory, James de la Cloche, who had been brought up
+to be a Jesuit and knew his royal father's secret profession of Roman
+Catholicism, was being employed by Charles II. as an intermediary with
+the Catholic Church and with the object of making him his own private
+confessor; he returned from Rome at the beginning of 1669, and is then
+identified by Monsignor Barnes with a certain Abbe Pregnani, an
+"astrologer" sent by Louis in February 1669 to influence Charles II.
+towards the French alliance. Pregnani, however, made a bad start by
+"tipping winners" at Newmarket with disastrous results, and was quickly
+recalled to France, actually departing on July 5th (French 15th). But he
+too now disappears, though a letter from Lionne (the French foreign
+secretary) to Colbert of July 17 (two days before Louvois's letter to
+Saint-Mars about Dauger) says that he is expected in Paris. Monsignor
+Barnes's theory is that Pregnani _alias_ James de la Cloche, without the
+knowledge of Charles II., was arrested by order of Louis and imprisoned
+as Dauger on account of his knowing too much about the French schemes in
+regard to Charles II. This identification of Pregnani with James de la
+Cloche is, however, intrinsically incredible. We are asked to read into
+the Pregnani story a deliberate intrigue on Charles's part for an excuse
+for having James de la Cloche in England. But this does not at all seem
+to square with the facts given in the correspondence, and it is hard to
+understand why Charles should have allowed Pregnani to depart, and
+should not have taken any notice of his son's "disappearance." There
+would still remain, no doubt, the possibility that Pregnani, though not
+James de la Cloche, was nevertheless the "man in the mask." But even
+then the dates will not suit; for Lionne wrote to Colbert on July 27,
+saying, "Pregnani has been so slow on his voyage that he has only given
+me (_m'a rendu_) your despatch of July 4 several days after I had
+already received those of the 8th and the 11th." Allowing for the French
+style of dating this means that instead of arriving in Paris by July 18,
+Pregnani only saw Lionne there at earliest on July 25. This seems to
+dispose of his being sent to Pignerol on the 19th. Apart altogether,
+however, from such considerations, it now seems fairly certain, from Mr
+Lang's further research into the problem of James de la Cloche (see LA
+CLOCHE), that the latter _was_ identical with the "Prince" James Stuardo
+who died in Naples in 1669, and that he hoaxed the general of the
+Jesuits and forged a number of letters purporting to be from Charles II.
+which were relied on in Monsignor Barnes's book; so that the theory
+breaks down at all points.
+
+The identification of Dauger thus still remains the historical problem
+behind the mystery of the "man in the mask." He was not the valet
+Martin; he was not a valet at all when he was sent to Pignerol; he was
+not James de la Cloche. The fact nevertheless that he was employed as a
+valet, even in special circumstances, for Fouquet, makes it difficult to
+believe that Dauger was a man of any particular social standing. We may
+be forced to conclude that the interest of the whole affair, so far as
+authentic history is concerned, is really nugatory, and that the
+romantic imagination has created a mystery in a fact of no importance.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The correspondence between Saint-Mars and Louvois is
+  printed by J. Delort in _Histoire de la detention des philosophes_
+  (1829). Apart from the modern studies by Lair, Funck-Brentano, Lang
+  and Barnes, referred to above, there is valuable historical matter in
+  the work of Roux-Fazaillac, _Recherches historiques sur l'homme au
+  masque de fer_ (1801); see also Marius Topin, _L'Homme au masque de
+  fer_ (Paris, 1870), and Loiseleur, _Trois Enigmes historiques_ (1882).
+       (H. Ch.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Barbezieux to Saint-Mars, May 10, 1694: "J'ai recu la lettre que
+    vous avez pris la peine de m'ecrire le 29 du mois passe; vous pouvez,
+    suivant que vous le proposez, faire mettre dans la prison voutee le
+    valet du prisonnier qui est mort." It may be noted that Barbezieux
+    had recently told Saint-Mars to designate his prisoners by
+    circumlocutions in his correspondence, and not by name.
+
+  [2] He cites Bingham's _Bastille_, i. 27.
+
+  [3] It was the common practice to give pseudonyms to prisoners, and
+    this is clearly such a case. Mattioli's prison name was Lestang.
+
+  [4] Funck-Brentano argues that "un ancien prisonnier qu'il avait a
+    Pignerol" (du Junca's words) cannot apply to Dauger, because then du
+    Junca would have added "et a Exiles." But this is decidedly
+    far-fetched; du Junca would naturally refer specially to Pignerol,
+    the fortress with which Saint-Mars had been originally and
+    particularly associated. Funck-Brentano also insists that the
+    references to the "ancien prisonnier" in 1696 and 1697 must be to
+    Mattioli, giving _ancien_ the meaning of "late" or "former" (as in
+    the phrase "ancien ministre"), and regarding it as an expression
+    pertinent to Mattioli, who had been at Pignerol with Saint-Mars but
+    not at Exiles, and not to Dauger, who had always been with
+    Saint-Mars. But when he attempts to force du Junca's phrase "un
+    ancien prisonnier qu'il avait a Pignerol" into this sense, he is
+    straining language. The natural interpretation of the word _ancien_
+    is simply "of old standing," and Barbezieux's use of it, coming after
+    Louvois's phrase in 1691, clearly points to Dauger being meant.
+
+  [5] This identification had been previously suggested by H. Montaudon
+    in _Revue de la societe des etudes historiques_ for 1888, p. 452, and
+    by A. le Grain in _L'Intermediaire des chercheurs_ for 1891, col.
+    227-228.
+
+  [6] The view taken by Monsignor Barnes of the phrase "_Ce n'est qu'un
+    valet_" in Louvois's letter of July 19, is that (reading this part of
+    the letter as a continuation of what precedes) the mere fact of
+    Louvois's saying that Dauger is only a valet means that that was just
+    what he was not! Monsignor Barnes is rather too apt to employ the
+    method of interpretation by contraries, on the ground that in such
+    letters the writer always concealed the real facts.
+
+
+
+
+IRON MOUNTAIN, a city and the county-seat of Dickinson county, Michigan,
+U.S.A., about 50 m. W. by N. of Escanaba, in the S.W. part of the Upper
+Peninsula. Pop. (1900) 9242, of whom 4376 were foreign-born; (1904)
+8585; (1910) 9216. It is served by the Chicago & North Western and the
+Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul railways. The city is situated about
+1160 ft. above sea-level in an iron-mining district, and the mining of
+iron ore (especially at the Great Chapin Iron Mine) is its principal
+industry. Iron Mountain was settled in 1879, and was chartered in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+IRONSIDES, a nickname given to one of great bravery, strength or
+endurance, particularly as exhibited in a soldier. In English history
+Ironside or Ironsides first appears as the name of Edmund II., king of
+the English. In the Great Rebellion it was first given by Prince Rupert
+to Cromwell, after the battle of Marston Moor in 1644 (see S. R.
+Gardiner's _History of the Great Civil War_, 1893, vol. ii. p. 1, and
+_Mercurius civicus_, September 19-26, 1644, quoted there). From Cromwell
+it was transferred to the troopers of his cavalry, those "God-fearing
+men," raised and trained by him in an iron discipline, who were the main
+instrument of the parliamentary victories in the field. This (see S. R.
+Gardiner, _op. cit._ iv. 179) was first given at the raising of the
+siege of Pontefract 1648, but did not become general till later.
+
+
+
+
+IRONTON, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the Ohio river, about 142 m. E.S.E. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 10,939;
+(1900) 11,868, of whom 924 were negroes and 714 foreign-born; (1910
+census) 13,147. It is served by the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Cincinnati,
+Hamilton and Dayton, the Norfolk and Western, and the Detroit, Toledo
+and Ironton railways, and by river steamboats. The city is built on a
+plain at the base of hills rising from the river bottom and abounding in
+iron ore and bituminous coal; fire and pottery clay also occur in the
+vicinity. Besides mining, Ironton has important lumber interests,
+considerable river traffic, and numerous manufactures, among which are
+iron, wire, nails, machinery, stoves, fire-brick, pressed brick,
+terra-cotta, cement, carriages and wagons, and furniture. The total
+value of its factory product in 1905 was $4,755,304; in 1900,
+$5,410,528. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Ironton
+was first settled in 1848, and in 1851 was incorporated.
+
+
+
+
+IRONWOOD, a city of Gogebic county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Montreal
+river, in the N.W. part of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1890) 7745; (1900)
+9705, of whom 4615 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,821. It is served
+by the Chicago and Northwestern and the Wisconsin Central railways. The
+city is situated about 1500 ft. above sea-level in the Gogebic
+iron-district, and is principally a mining town; some of the largest
+iron mines in the United States are within the city limits. Ironwood was
+settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+IRON-WOOD, the name applied to several kinds of timber, the produce of
+trees from different parts of the tropics, and belonging to very
+different natural families. Usually the wood is extremely hard, dense
+and dark-coloured, and sinks in water. Several species of _Sideroxylon_
+(_Sapotaceae_) yield iron-wood, _Sideroxylon cinereum_ or _Bojerianum_
+being the _bois de fer blanc_ of Africa and Mauritius, and the name is
+also given to species of _Metrosideros_ (_Myrtaceae_) and _Diospyros_
+(_Ebenaceae_).
+
+West Indian iron-wood is the produce of _Colubrina reclinata_ (and _C.
+ferruginosa_ (_Rhamnaceae_), and of _Aegiphila martinicensis
+Verbenacae_). _Ixora_ (_Siderodendron_) _triflorum_ (_Rubiaceae_) is the
+_bois de fer_ of Martinique, and Zanthoxylum _Pterota_ (_Rutaceae_) is
+the iron-wood of Jamaica, while _Robinia Ponacoco_ (_Leguminosae_) is
+described as the iron-wood of Guiana. The iron-wood of India and Ceylon
+is the produce of _Mesua ferrea_ (_Guttiferae_). The iron-wood tree of
+Pegu and Arracan is _Xylia dolabriformis_ (_Leguminosae_), described as
+the most important timber-tree of Burma after teak, and known as
+_pyingado_. The endemic _bois de fer_ of Mauritius, once frequent in the
+primeval woods, but now becoming very scarce, is _Stadtmannia
+Sideroxylon_ (_Sapindaceae_), while _Cossignya pinnata_ is known as the
+_bois de fer de Judas_. In Australia species of _Acacia_, _Casuarina_,
+_Eucalyptus_, _Melaleuca_, _Myrtus_, and other genera are known more or
+less widely as iron-wood. Tasmanian iron-wood is the produce of
+_Notelaea ligustrina_ (_Oleaceae_), and is chiefly used for making
+ships' blocks. The iron-wood or lever-wood of North America is the
+timber of the American hop hornbeam, _Ostrya virginica_ (_Cupuliferae_).
+In Brazil _Apuleia ferrea_ and _Caesalpinia ferrea_ yield a kind of
+iron-wood, called, however, the _Pao ferro_ or false iron-wood.
+
+IRON-WORK, as an ornament in medieval architecture, is chiefly confined
+to the hinges, &c., of doors and of church chests, &c. Specimens of
+Norman iron-work are very rare. Early English specimens are numerous and
+very elaborate. In some instances not only do the hinges become a mass
+of scroll work, but the surface of the doors is covered by similar
+ornaments. In both these periods the design evidently partakes of the
+feeling exhibited in the stone or wood carving. In the Decorated period
+the scroll work is more graceful, and, like the foliage of the time,
+more natural. As styles progressed, there was a greater desire that the
+framing of the doors should be richer, and the ledges were chamfered or
+raised, then panelled, and at last the doors became a mass of scroll
+panelling. This, of course, interfered with the design of the hinges,
+the ornamentation of which gradually became unusual. In almost all
+styles the smaller and less important doors had merely plain
+strap-hinges, terminating in a few bent scrolls, and latterly in
+_fleurs-de-lis_. Escutcheon and ring handles, and the other furniture,
+partook more or less of the character of the time. On the continent of
+Europe the knockers are very elaborate. At all periods doors have been
+ornamented with nails having projecting heads, sometimes square,
+sometimes polygonal, and sometimes ornamented with roses, &c. The iron
+work of windows is generally plain, and the ornament confined to simple
+_fleur-de-lis_ heads to the stanchions. For the iron-work of screens
+enclosing tombs and chapels see GRILLE; and generally see METAL-WORK.
+
+
+
+
+IRONY (Gr. [Greek: eironeia], from [Greek: eiron], one who says less
+than he means, [Greek: eirein], to speak), a form of speech in which the
+real meaning is concealed or contradicted by the words used; it is
+particularly employed for the purpose of ridicule, mockery or contempt,
+frequently taking the form of sarcastic phrase. The word is frequently
+used figuratively, especially in such phrases as "the irony of fate," of
+an issue or result that seems to contradict the previous state or
+condition. The Greek word was particularly used of an under-statement in
+the nature of dissimulation. It is especially exemplified in the assumed
+ignorance which Socrates adopted as a method of dialectic, the "Socratic
+irony" (see SOCRATES). In tragedy, what is called "tragic irony" is a
+device for heightening the intensity of a dramatic situation. Its use is
+particularly characteristic of the drama of ancient Greece, owing to the
+familiarity of the spectators with the legends on which so many of the
+plays were based. In this form of irony the words and actions of the
+characters belie the real situation, which the spectators fully realize.
+It may take several forms; the character speaking may be conscious of
+the irony of his words while the rest of the actors may not, or he may
+be unconscious and the actors share the knowledge with the spectators,
+or the spectators may alone realize irony. The _Oedipus Tyrannus_ of
+Sophocles is the classic example of tragic irony at its fullest and
+finest.
+
+
+
+
+IROQUOIS, or SIX NATIONS, a celebrated confederation of North American
+Indians. The name is that given them by the French. It is suggested that
+it was formed of two ceremonial words constantly used by the tribesmen,
+meaning "real adders," with the French addition of _ois_. The league was
+originally composed of five tribes or nations, viz. Mohawks, Oneidas,
+Onondagas, Senecas and Cayugas. The confederation probably took place
+towards the close of the 16th century and in 1722 the Tuscaroras were
+admitted, the league being then called that of "the Six Nations." At
+that time their total number was estimated at 11,650, including 2150
+warriors. They were unquestionably the most powerful confederation of
+Indians on the continent. Their home was the central and western parts
+of New York state. In the American War of Independence they fought on
+the English side, and in the repeated battles their power was nearly
+destroyed. They are now to the number of 17,000 or more scattered about
+on various reservations in New York state, Oklahoma, Wisconsin and
+Canada. The _Iroquoian stock_, the larger group of kindred tribes, of
+which the five nations were the most powerful, had their early home in
+the St Lawrence region. Besides the five nations, the Neutral nation,
+Huron, Erie, Conestoga, Nottoway, Meherrin, Tuscarora and Cherokee were
+the most important tribes of the stock. The hostility of the Algonquian
+tribes seems to have been the cause of the southward migration of the
+Iroquoian peoples. In 1535 Jacques Cartier found an Iroquoian tribe in
+possession of the land upon which now stand Montreal and Quebec; but
+seventy years later it was in the hands of Algonquians.
+
+  See L. H. Morgan, _League of the Hodeno Swanee or Iroquois_
+  (Rochester, N.Y., 1854); _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington,
+  1907). Also INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.
+
+
+
+
+IRRAWADDY, or IRAWADI, the principal river in the province of Burma,
+traversing the centre of the country, and practically running throughout
+its entire course in British territory. It is formed by the confluence
+of the Mali and N'mai rivers (usually called Mali-kha and N'mai-kha, the
+_kha_ being the Kachin word for river) in 25 deg. 45' N. The N'mai is
+the eastern branch. The definite position of its source is still
+uncertain, and it seems to be made up of a number of considerable
+streams, all rising within a short distance of each other in about 28
+deg. 30' N. It is shown on some maps as the Lu river of Tibet; but it is
+now quite certain that the Tibetan Lu river is the Salween, and that the
+N'mai has its source or sources near the southern boundary of Tibet, to
+the north-east or east of the source of the Mali. At the confluence the
+N'mai is larger than the Mali. The general width of its channel seems to
+be 350 or 400 yds. during this part of its course. In the rains this
+channel is filled up, but in the cold weather the average breadth is
+from 150 to 200 yds. The N'mai is practically unnavigable. The Mali is
+the western branch. Like the main river, it is called Nam Kiu by the
+Shans. It rises in the hills to the north of the Hkamti country,
+probably in about 28 deg. 30' N. Between Hkamti and the country
+comparatively close to the confluence little or nothing is known of it,
+but it seems to run in a narrow channel through continuous hills. The
+highest point on the Mali reached from the south by Major Hobday in 1891
+was Ting Sa, a village a little off the river, in 26 deg. 15' N. About 1
+m. above the confluence it is 150 yds. wide in January and 17 ft. deep,
+with a current of 3(3/4) m. an hour. Steam launches can only ascend from
+Myitkyina to the confluence in the height of the rains. Native boats
+ascend to Laikaw or Sawan 26 deg. 2' N., all the year around, but can
+get no farther at any season. From the confluence the river flows in a
+southerly direction as far as Bhamo, then turns west as far as the
+confluence of the Kaukkwe stream, a little above Katha, where it again
+turns in a southerly direction, and maintains this in its general course
+through Upper and Lower Burma, though it is somewhat tortuous
+immediately below Mandalay. Just below the confluence of the Mali and
+N'mai rivers the Irrawaddy is from 420 to 450 yds. wide and about 30 ft.
+deep in January at its deepest point. Here it flows between hills, and
+after passing the Manse and Mawkan rapids, reaches plain country and
+expands to nearly 500 yds. at Sakap. At Myitkyina it is split into two
+channels by Naungtalaw island, the western channel being 600 yds. wide
+and the eastern 200. The latter is quite dry in the hot season. At
+Kat-kyo, 5 or 6 m. below Myitkyina, the width is 1000 yds., and below
+this it varies from 600 yds. to 3/4 m. at different points. Three miles
+below Sinbo the third defile is entered by a channel not more than 50
+yds. wide, and below this, throughout the defile, it is never wider than
+250 yds., and averages about 100. At the "Gates of the Irrawaddy" at
+Poshaw two prism-shaped rocks narrow the river to 50 yds., and the water
+banks up in the middle with a whirlpool on each side of the raised
+pathway. All navigation ceases here in the floods. The defile ends at
+Hpatin, and below this the river widens out to a wet-season channel of 2
+m., and a breadth in the dry season of about 1 m. At Sinkan, below
+Bhamo, the second defile begins. It is not so narrow nor is the current
+so strong as in the third defile. The narrowest place is more than 100
+yds. wide. The hills are higher, but the defile is much shorter. At
+Shwegu the river leaves the hills and becomes a broad stream, flowing
+through a wide plain. The first defile is tame compared with the others.
+The river merely flows between low hills or high wooded banks. The banks
+are covered at this point with dense vegetation, and slope down to the
+water's edge. Here and there are places which are almost perpendicular,
+but are covered with forest growth. The course of the Irrawaddy after
+receiving the waters of the Myit-nge at Sagaing, as far as 17 deg. N.
+lat., is exceedingly tortuous; the line of Lower Burma is crossed in 19
+deg. 29' 3" N. lat., 95 deg. 15' E. long., the breadth of the river here
+being 3/4 m.; about 11 m. lower down it is nearly 3 m. broad. At
+Akauk-taung, where a spur of the Arakan hills end in a precipice 300 ft.
+high, the river enters the delta, the hills giving place to low alluvial
+plains, now protected on the west by embankments. From 17 deg. N. lat.
+the Irrawaddy divides and subdivides, converting the lower portion of
+its valley into a network of intercommunicating tidal creeks. It reaches
+the sea in 15 deg. 50' N. lat. and 95 deg. 8' E. long., by nine
+principal mouths. The only ones used by sea-going ships are the Bassein
+and Rangoon mouths. The area of the catchment basin of the Irrawaddy is
+158,000 sq. m.; its total length from its known source to the sea is
+about 1300 m. As far down as Akauk-taung in Henzada district its bed is
+rocky, but below this sandy and muddy. It is full of islands and
+sandbanks; its waters are extremely muddy, and the mud is carried far
+out to sea. The river commences to rise in March; about June it rises
+rapidly, and attains its maximum height about September. The total flood
+discharge is between four and five hundred million metre tons of 37 cub.
+ft. From Mandalay up to Bhamo the river is navigable a distance of
+nearly 1000 m. for large steamers all the year round; but small launches
+and steamers with weak engines are often unable to get up the second
+defile in the months of July, August and September, owing to the strong
+current. The Irrawaddy Flotilla Company's steamers go up and down twice
+a week all through the rains, and the mails are carried to Bhamo on
+intermediate days by a ferry-boat from the railway terminus at Katha.
+During the dry season the larger boats are always liable to run on
+sandbanks, more especially in November and December, when new channels
+are forming after the river has been in flood. From Bhamo up to Sinbo no
+steamers can ply during the rains, that is to say, usually from June to
+November. From November to June small steamers can pass through the
+third defile from Bhamo to Sinbo. Between Sinbo and Myitkyina small
+launches can run all the year round. Above Myitkyina small steamers can
+reach the confluence at the height of the flood with some difficulty,
+but when the water is lower they cannot pass the Mawkan rapid, just
+above Mawme, and the navigation of the river above Myitkyina is always
+difficult. The journey from Bhamo to Sinbo can be made during the rains
+in native boats, but it is always difficult and sometimes dangerous. It
+is never done in less than five days and often takes twelve or more. As
+a natural source of irrigation the value of the Irrawaddy is enormous,
+but the river supplies no artificial systems of irrigation. It is
+nowhere bridged, though crossed by two steam ferries to connect the
+railway system on either bank.     (J. G. Sc.)
+
+
+
+
+IRREDENTISTS, an Italian patriotic and political party, which was of
+importance in the last quarter of the 19th century. The name was formed
+from the words _Italia Irredenta_--Unredeemed Italy--and the party had
+for its avowed object the emancipation of all Italian lands still
+subject to foreign rule. The Irredentists took language as the test of
+the alleged Italian nationality of the countries they proposed to
+emancipate, which were South Tirol (Trentino), Gorz, Istria, Trieste,
+Tessino, Nice, Corsica and Malta. The test was applied in the most
+arbitrary manner, and in some cases was not applicable at all. Italian
+is not universally spoken in South Tirol, Gorz or Istria. Malta has a
+dialect of its own though Italian is used for literary and judicial
+purposes, while Dalmatia is thoroughly non-Italian though it was once
+under the political dominion of the ancient Republic of Venice. The
+party was of little note before 1878. In that year it sprang into
+prominence because the Italians were disappointed by the result of the
+conference at Berlin summoned to make a European settlement after the
+Russo-Turkish War of 1877. The Italians had hoped to share in the
+plunder of Turkey, but they gained nothing, while Austria was endowed
+with the protectorate of Bosnia, and the Herzegovina, the vitally
+important hinterland of her possessions on the Adriatic. Under the sting
+of this disappointment the cry of Italia Irredenta became for a time
+loud and apparently popular. It was in fact directed almost wholly
+against Austria, and was also used as a stalking-horse by discontented
+parties in Italian domestic politics--the Radicals, Republicans and
+Socialists. In addition to the overworked argument from language, the
+Irredentists made much of an unfounded claim that the Trentino had been
+conquered by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the war of 1866, and they
+insisted that the district was an "enclave" in Italian territory which
+would give Austria a dangerous advantage in a war of aggression. It
+would be equally easy and no less accurate to call the Trentino an
+exposed and weak spot of the frontier of Austria. On the 21st of July
+1878 a noisy public meeting was held at Rome with Menotti Garibaldi, the
+son of the famous Giuseppe, in the chair, and a clamour was raised for
+the formation of volunteer battalions to conquer the Trentino. Signor
+Cairoli, then prime minister of Italy, treated the agitation with
+tolerance. It was, however, mainly superficial, for the mass of the
+Italians had no wish to launch on a dangerous policy of adventure
+against Austria, and still less to attack France for the sake of Nice
+and Corsica, or Great Britain for Malta. The only practical consequences
+of the Irredentist agitation outside of Italy were such things as the
+assassination plot organized against the emperor Francis Joseph in
+Trieste in 1882 by Oberdank, which was detected and punished. When the
+Irredentist movement became troublesome to Italy through the activity of
+Republicans and Socialists, it was subject to effective police control
+by Signor Depretis. It sank into insignificance when the French
+occupation of Tunis in 1881 offended the Italians deeply, and their
+government entered into those relations with Austria and Germany which
+took shape by the formation of the Triple Alliance. In its final stages
+it provided a way in which Italians who sympathized with French
+republicanism, and who disliked the monarchical governments of Central
+Europe, could agitate against their own government. It also manifested
+itself in periodical war scares based on affected fears of Austrian
+aggression in northern Italy. Within the dominions of Austria
+Irredentism has been one form of the complicated language question which
+has disturbed every portion of the Austro-Hungarian empire.
+
+  See Colonel von Haymerle, _Italicae res_ (Vienna, 1879) for the early
+  history of the Irredentists.
+
+
+
+
+IRRIGATION (Lat. _in_, and _rigare_, to water or wet), the artificial
+application of water to land in order to promote vegetation; it is
+therefore the converse of "drainage" (q.v.), which is the artificial
+withdrawal of water from lands that are over-saturated. In both cases
+the object is to promote vegetation.
+
+I. _General._--Where there is abundance of rainfall, and when it falls
+at the required season, there is in general no need for irrigation. But
+it often happens that, although there is sufficient rainfall to raise an
+inferior crop, there is not enough to raise a more valuable one.
+
+Irrigation is an art that has been practised from very early times. Year
+after year fresh discoveries are made that carry back our knowledge of
+the early history of Egypt. It is certain that, until the cultivator
+availed himself of the natural overflow of the Nile to saturate the
+soil, Egypt must have been a desert, and it is a very small step from
+that to baling up the water from the river and pouring it over lands
+which the natural flood has not touched. The sculptures and paintings of
+ancient Egypt bear no trace of anything approaching scientific
+irrigation, but they often show the peasant baling up the water at least
+as early as 2000 B.C. By means of this simple plan of raising water and
+pouring it over the fields thousands of acres are watered every year in
+India, and the system has many advantages in the eyes of the peasant.
+Though there is great waste of labour, he can apply his labour when he
+likes; no permission is required from a government official; no one has
+to be bribed. The simplest and earliest form of water-raising machinery
+is the pole with a bucket suspended from one end of a crossbeam and a
+counterpoise at the other. In India this is known as the _denkli_ or
+_paecottah_; in Egypt it is called the _shaduf_. All along the Nile
+banks from morning to night may be seen brown-skinned peasants working
+these _shadufs_, tier above tier, so as to raise the water 15 or 16 ft.
+on to their lands. With a _shaduf_ it is only possible to keep about 4
+acres watered, so that a great number of hands are required to irrigate
+a large surface. Another method largely used is the shallow basket or
+bucket suspended to strings between two men, who thus bail up the water.
+A step higher than these is the rude water-wheel, with earthen pots on
+an endless chain running round it, worked by one or two bullocks. This
+is used everywhere in Egypt, where it is known as the _sakya_. In
+Northern India it is termed the _harat_, or Persian wheel. With one such
+water-wheel a pair of oxen can raise water any height up to 18 ft., and
+keep from 5 to 12 acres irrigated throughout an Egyptian summer. A very
+familiar means in India of raising water from wells in places where the
+spring level is as much sometimes as 100 ft. below the surface of the
+field is the _churras_, or large leather bag, suspended to a rope
+passing over a pulley, and raised by a pair of bullocks which go up and
+down a slope as long as the depth of the well. All these primitive
+contrivances are still in full use throughout India.
+
+It is not improbable that Assyria and Babylon, with their splendid
+rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, may have taken the idea from the Nile,
+and that Carthage and Phoenicia as well as Greece and Italy may have
+followed the same example. In spite of a certain amount of
+investigation, the early history of irrigation in Persia and China
+remains imperfectly known. In Spain irrigation may be traced directly to
+the Moorish occupation, and almost everywhere throughout Asia and Africa
+where the Moslem penetrated is to be found some knowledge of irrigation.
+
+
+  Spain.
+
+  India.
+
+Reservoirs are familiar everywhere for the water-supply of towns, but as
+the volume necessary, even for a large town, does not go far in
+irrigating land, many sites which would do admirably for the former
+would not contain water sufficient to be worth applying to the latter
+purpose. In the Mediterranean provinces of Spain there are some very
+remarkable irrigation dams. The great masonry dam of Alicante on the
+river Monegre, which dates from 1579, is situated in a narrow gorge, so
+that while 140 ft. high, it is only 190 ft. long at the crest. The
+reservoir is said to contain 130 million cub. ft. of water, and to serve
+for the irrigation of 9000 acres, but unless it refills several times a
+year, it is hardly possible that so much land can be watered in any one
+season. The Elche reservoir, in the same province, has a similar dam 55
+ft. high. In neither case is there a waste-weir, the surplus water being
+allowed to pour over the crest of the dam. South of Elche is the
+province of Murcia, watered by the river Segura, on which there is a dam
+25 ft. high, said to be 800 years old, and to serve for the irrigation
+of 25,000 acres. The Lorca dam in the same neighbourhood irrigates
+27,000 acres. In the jungles of Ceylon are to be found remains of
+gigantic irrigation dams, and on the neighbouring mainland of Southern
+India, throughout the provinces of Madras and Mysore, the country is
+covered with irrigation reservoirs, or, as they are locally termed,
+tanks. These vary from village ponds to lakes 14 or 15 m. long. Most of
+them are of old native construction, but they have been greatly improved
+and enlarged within the last half century. The casual traveller in
+southern India constantly remarks the ruins of old dams, and the
+impression is conveyed that at one time, before British rule prevailed,
+the irrigation of the country was much more perfect than it is now. That
+idea, however, is mistaken. An irrigation reservoir, like a human being,
+has a certain life. Quicker or slower, the water that fills it will wash
+in sand and mud, and year by year this process will go on till
+ultimately the whole reservoir is filled up. The embankment is raised,
+and raised again, but at last it is better to abandon it and make a new
+tank elsewhere, for it would never pay to dig out the silt by manual
+labour. It may safely be said that at no time in history were there more
+tanks in operation than at present. The ruins which are seen are the
+ruins of long centuries of tanks that once flourished and became silted
+up. But they did not all flourish at once.
+
+In the countries now being considered, the test of an irrigation work is
+how it serves in a season of drought and famine. It is evident that if
+there is a long cessation of rain, there can be none to fill the
+reservoirs. In September 1877 there were very few in all southern India
+that were not dry. But even so, they helped to shorten the famine
+period; they stored up the rain after it had ceased to fall, and they
+caught up and husbanded the first drops when it began again.
+
+
+  Irrigation canals.
+
+Irrigation effected by river-fed canals naturally depends on the regimen
+of the rivers. Some rivers vary much in their discharge at different
+seasons. In some cases this variation is comparatively little. Sometimes
+the flood season recurs regularly at the same time of the year;
+sometimes it is uncertain. In some rivers the water is generally pure;
+in others it is highly charged with fertilizing alluvium, or, it may be,
+with barren silt. In countries nearly rainless, such as Egypt or Sind,
+there can be no cultivation without irrigation. Elsewhere the rainfall
+may be sufficient for ordinary crops, but not for the more valuable
+kinds. In ordinary years in southern India the maize and the millet,
+which form so large a portion of the peasants' food, can be raised
+without irrigation, but it is required for the more valuable rice or
+sugar-cane. Elsewhere in India the rainfall is usually sufficient for
+all the cultivation of the district, but about every eleven years comes
+a season of drought, during which canal water is so precious as to make
+it worth while to construct costly canals merely to serve as a
+protection against famine. When a river partakes of the nature of a
+torrent, dwindling to a paltry stream at one season and swelling into an
+enormous flood at another, it is impossible to construct a system of
+irrigation canals without very costly engineering works, sluices, dams,
+waste-weirs, &c., so as to give the engineer entire control of the
+water. Such may be seen on the canals of Cuttack, derived from the
+Mahanadi, a river of which the discharge does not exceed 400 cub. ft.
+per second in the dry season, and rises to 1,600,000 cub. ft. per second
+in the rainy season.
+
+Very differently situated are the great canals of Lombardy, drawn from
+the Ticino and Adda rivers, flowing from the Maggiore and Como lakes.
+The severest drought never exhausts these reservoirs, and the heaviest
+rain can never convert these rivers into the resistless floods which
+they would be but for the moderating influence of the great lakes. The
+Ticino and Adda do not rise in floods more than 6 or 7 ft. above their
+ordinary level or fall in droughts more than 4 or 5 ft. below it, and
+their water is at all seasons very free from silt or mud. Irrigation
+cannot be practised in more favourable circumstances than these. The
+great lakes of Central Africa, Victoria and Albert Nyanza, and the vast
+swamp tract of the Sudan, do for the Nile on a gigantic scale what Lakes
+Maggiore and Como do for the rivers Ticino and Adda. But for these great
+reservoirs the Nile would decrease in summer to quite an insignificant
+stream. India possesses no great lakes from which to draw rivers and
+canals, but through the plains of northern India flow rivers which are
+fed from the glaciers of the Himalaya; and the Ganges, the Indus, and
+their tributaries are thus prevented from diminishing very much in
+volume. The greater the heat, the more rapidly melts the ice, and the
+larger the quantity of water available for irrigation. The canal system
+of northern India is the most perfect the world has yet seen, and
+contains works of hydraulic engineering which can be equalled in no
+other country. In the deltas of southern India irrigation is only
+practised during the monsoon season. The Godaveri, Kistna and Kaveri all
+take their rise on the Western Ghats, a region where the rainfall is
+never known to fail in the monsoon season. Across the apex of the deltas
+are built great weirs (that of the Godaveri being 2(1/2) m. long), at the
+ends and centre of which is a system of sluices feeding a network of
+canals. For this monsoon irrigation there is always abundance of water,
+and so long as the canals and sluices are kept in repair, there is
+little trouble in distributing it over the fields. Similar in character
+was the ancient irrigation of Egypt practised merely during the Nile
+flood--a system which still prevails in part of Upper Egypt. A detailed
+description of it will be found below.
+
+
+  Distribution of the water.
+
+Where irrigation is carried on throughout the whole year, even when the
+supply of the river is at its lowest, the distribution of the water
+becomes a very delicate operation. It is generally considered sufficient
+in such cases if during any one crop one-third of the area that can be
+commanded is actually supplied with water. This encourages a rotation of
+crops and enables the precious liquid to be carried over a larger area
+than could be done otherwise. It becomes then the duty of the engineer
+in charge to use every effort to get its full value out of every cubic
+foot of water. Some crops of course require water much oftener than
+others, and much depends on the temperature at the time of irrigation.
+During the winter months in northern India magnificent wheat crops can
+be produced that have been watered only twice or thrice. But to keep
+sugar-cane, or indigo, or cotton alive in summer before the monsoon sets
+in in India or the Nile rises in Egypt the field should be watered every
+ten days or fortnight, while rice requires a constant supply of water
+passing over it.
+
+Experience in these sub-tropical countries shows the absolute necessity
+of having, for successful irrigation, also a system of thorough
+drainage. It was some time before this was discovered in India, and the
+result has been the deterioration of much good land.
+
+In Egypt, prior to the British occupation in 1883, no attempt had been
+made to take the water off the land. The first impression of a great
+alluvial plain is that it is absolutely flat, with no drainage at all.
+Closer examination, however, shows that if the prevailing slopes are not
+more than a few inches in the mile, yet they do exist, and scientific
+irrigation requires that the canals should be taken along the crests and
+drains along the hollows. In the diagram (fig. 1) is shown to the right
+of the river a system of canals branching out and afterwards rejoining
+one another so as to allow of no means for the water that passes off the
+field to escape into the sea. Hence it must either evaporate or sink
+into the soil. Now nearly all rivers contain some small percentage of
+salt, which forms a distinct ingredient in alluvial plains. The result
+of this drainless irrigation is an efflorescence of salt on the surface
+of the field. The spring level rises, so that water can be reached by
+digging only a few feet, and the land, soured and water-logged, relapses
+into barrenness. Of this description was the irrigation of Lower Egypt
+previous to 1883. To the left of the diagram is shown (by firm lines) a
+system of canals laid out scientifically, and of drains (by dotted
+lines) flowing between them. It is the effort of the British engineers
+in Egypt to remodel the surface of the fields to this type.
+
+  Further information may be found in Sir C. C. Scott-Moncrieff,
+  _Irrigation in Southern Europe_ (London, 1868); Moncrieff, "Lectures
+  on Irrigation in Egypt," _Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal
+  Engineers_, vol. xix. (London, 1893); W. Willcocks, _Egyptian
+  Irrigation_ (2nd ed., London, 1899).
+
+II. _Water Meadows._--Nowhere in England can it be said that irrigation
+is necessary to ordinary agriculture, but it is occasionally employed in
+stimulating the growth of grass and meadow herbage in what are known as
+water-meadows. These are in some instances of very early origin. On the
+Avon in Wiltshire and the Churn in Gloucestershire they may be traced
+back to Roman times. This irrigation is not practised in the drought of
+summer, but in the coldest and wettest months of the year, the water
+employed being warmer than the natural moisture of the soil and proving
+a valuable protection against frost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram showing irrigation properly combined
+with drainage (_to left_), and laid out regardless of drainage required
+later (_to right_).]
+
+Before the systematic conversion of a tract into water-meadows can be
+safely determined on, care must be taken to have good drainage, natural
+or artificial, a sufficient supply of water, and water of good quality.
+It might indeed have been thought that thorough drainage would be
+unnecessary, but it must be noted that porous subsoils or efficient
+drains do not act merely by carrying away stagnant water which would
+otherwise cool the earth, incrust the surface, and retard plant growth.
+They cause the soil to perform the office of a filter. Thus the earth
+and the roots of grasses absorb the useful matters not only from the
+water that passes over it, but from that which passes through it. These
+fertilizing materials are found stored up in the soil ready for the use
+of the roots of the plants. Stagnation of water is inimical to the
+action of the roots, and does away with the advantageous processes of
+flowing and percolating currents. Some of the best water-meadows in
+England have but a thin soil resting on gravel and flints, this
+constituting a most effectual system of natural drainage. The fall of
+the water supply must suffice for a fairly rapid current, say 10 in. or
+1 ft. in from 100 to 200 yds. If possible the water should be taken so
+far above the meadows as to have sufficient fall without damming up the
+river. If a dam be absolutely necessary, care must be taken so to build
+it as to secure the fields on both sides from possible inundation; and
+it should be constructed substantially, for the cost of repairing
+accidents to a weak dam is very serious.
+
+
+  Quantity of water.
+
+Even were the objects of irrigation always identical, the conditions
+under which it is carried on are so variable as to preclude calculations
+of quantity. Mere making up of necessary water in droughty seasons is
+one thing, protection against frost is another, while the addition of
+soil material is a third. Amongst causes of variation in the quantity of
+water needed will be its quality and temperature and rate of flow, the
+climate, the season, the soil, the subsoil, the artificial drainage, the
+slope, the aspect and the crop. In actual practice the amount of water
+varies from 300 gallons per acre in the hour to no less than 28,000
+gallons. Where water is used, as in dry and hot countries, simply as
+water, less is generally needed than in cold, damp and northerly
+climates, where the higher temperature and the action of the water as
+manure are of more consequence. But it is necessary to be thoroughly
+assured of a good supply of water before laying out a water-meadow.
+Except in a few places where unusual dryness of soil and climate
+indicate the employment of water, even in small quantity, merely to
+avoid the consequences of drought, irrigation works are not to be
+commenced upon a large area, if only a part can ever be efficiently
+watered. The engineer must not decide upon the plan till he has gauged
+at different seasons the stream which has to supply the water, and has
+ascertained the rain-collecting area available, and the rainfall of the
+district, as well as the proportion of storable to percolating and
+evaporating water. Reservoirs for storage, or for equalizing the flow,
+are rarely resorted to in England; but they are of absolute necessity in
+those countries in which it is just when there is least water that it is
+most wanted. It is by no means an injudicious plan before laying out a
+system of water-meadows, which is intended to be at all extensive, to
+prepare a small trial plot, to aid in determining a number of questions
+relating to the nature and quantity of the water, the porosity of the
+soil, &c.
+
+
+  Quality of water.
+
+The quality of the water employed for any of the purposes of irrigation
+is of much importance. Its dissolved and its suspended matters must both
+be taken into account. Clear water is usually preferable for grass land,
+thick for arable land. If it is to be used for warping, or in any way
+for adding to the solid material of the irrigated land, then the nature
+and amount of the suspended material are necessarily of more importance
+than the character of the dissolved substances, provided the latter are
+not positively injurious. For use on ordinary water-meadows, however,
+not only is very clear water often found to be perfectly efficient, but
+water having no more than a few grains of dissolved matter per gallon
+answers the purposes in view satisfactorily. Water from moors and
+peat-bogs or from gravel or ferruginous sandstone is generally of small
+utility so far as plant food is concerned. River water, especially that
+which has received town sewage, or the drainage of highly manured land,
+would naturally be considered most suitable for irrigation, but
+excellent results are obtained also with waters which are uncontaminated
+with manurial matters, and which contain but 8 or 10 grains per gallon
+of the usual dissolved constituents of spring water. Experienced English
+irrigators generally commend as suitable for water-meadows those streams
+in which fish and waterweeds abound. But the particular plants present
+in or near the water-supply afford further indications of quality.
+Water-cress, sweet flag, flowering rush, several potamogetons, water
+milfoil, water ranunculus, and the reedy sweet watergrass (_Glyceria
+aquatica_) rank amongst the criteria of excellence. Less favourable
+signs are furnished by such plants as _Arundo Donax_ (in Germany),
+_Cicuta virosa_ and _Typha latifolia_, which are found in stagnant and
+torpid waters. Water when it has been used for irrigation generally
+becomes of less value for the same purpose. This occurs with clear water
+as well as with turbid, and obviously arises mainly from the loss of
+plant food which occurs when water filters through or trickles over poor
+soil. By passing over or through rich soil the water may, however,
+actually be enriched, just as clear water passed through a charcoal
+filter which has been long used becomes impure. It has been contended
+that irrigation water suffers no change in composition by use, since by
+evaporation of a part of the pure water the dissolved matters in the
+remainder would be so increased as to make up for any matters removed.
+But it is forgotten that both the plant and the soil enjoy special
+powers of selective absorption, which remove and fix the better
+constituents of the water and leave the less valuable.
+
+
+  Seeds for water-meadows.
+
+Of the few leguminous plants which are in any degree suitable for
+water-meadows, _Lotus corniculatus major_, _Trifolium hybridum_, and _T.
+pratense_ are those which generally flourish best; _T. repens_ is less
+successful. Amongst grasses the highest place must be assigned to
+ryegrass, especially to the Italian variety, commonly called _Lolium
+italicum_. The mixture of seeds for sowing a water-meadow demands much
+consideration, and must be modified according to local circumstances of
+soil, aspect, climate and drainage. From the peculiar use which is made
+of the produce of an irrigated meadow, and from the conditions to which
+it is subjected, it is necessary to include in our mixture of seeds some
+that produce an early crop, some that give an abundant growth, and some
+that impart sweetness and good flavour, while all the kinds sown must be
+capable of flourishing on irrigated soil.
+
+The following mixtures of seeds (stated in pounds per acre) have been
+recommended for sowing on water-meadows, Messrs Sutton of Reading, after
+considerable experience, regarding No. I. as the more suitable:
+
+                           I. II.|                              I. II.
+                                 |
+  _Lolium perenne_         8  12 |  _Festuca pratensis_         0   2
+  _Lolium italicum_        0   8 |  _Festuca loliacea_          3   2
+  _Poa trivialis_          6   3 |  _Anthoxanthum odoratum_     0   1
+  _Glyceria fluitans_      6   2 |  _Phleum pratense_           4   2
+  _Glyceria aquatica_      4   1 |  _Phalaris arundinacea_      3   2
+  _Agrostis alba_          0   1 |  _Lotus corniculatus major_  3   2
+  _Agrostis stolonifera_   6   2 |  _Trifolium hybridum_        0   1
+  _Alopecurus pratensis_   0   2 |  _Trifolium pratense_        0   1
+  _Festuca elatior_        3   2 |
+
+
+  Changes in irrigated herbage.
+
+In irrigated meadows, though in a less degree than on sewaged land, the
+reduction of the amount or even the actual suppression of certain
+species of plants is occasionally well marked. Sometimes this action is
+exerted upon the finer grasses, but happily also upon some of the less
+profitable constituents of the miscellaneous herbage. Thus _Ranunculus
+bulbosus_ has been observed to become quite rare after a few years'
+watering of a meadow in which it had been most abundant, _R. acris_
+rather increasing by the same treatment; _Plantago media_ was
+extinguished and _P. lanceolata_ reduced 70%. Amongst the grasses which
+may be spared, _Aira caespitosa_, _Briza media_ and _Cynosurus
+cristatus_ are generally much reduced by irrigation. Useful grasses
+which are increased are _Lolium perenne_ and _Alopecurus pratensis_, and
+among those of less value _Avena favescens_, _Dactylis glomerata_ and
+_Poa pratensis_.
+
+
+  Methods.
+
+Four ways of irrigating land with water are practised in England: (1)
+bedwork irrigation, which is the most efficient although it is also the
+most costly method by which currents of water can be applied to level
+land; (2) catchwork irrigation, in which the same water is caught and
+used repeatedly; (3) subterraneous or rather upward irrigation, in which
+the water in the drains is sent upwards through the soil towards the
+surface; and (4) warping, in which the water is allowed to stand over a
+level field until it has deposited the mud suspended in it.
+
+There are two things to be attended to most carefully in the
+construction of a water-meadow on the first or second of these plans.
+First, no portion of them whatever should be on a dead level, but every
+part should belong to one or other of a series of true inclined planes.
+The second point of primary importance is the size and slope of the main
+conductor, which brings the water from the river to the meadow. The size
+of this depends upon the quantity of water required, but whatever its
+size its bottom at its origin should be as low as the bed of the river,
+in order that it may carry down as much as possible of the river mud.
+Its course should be as straight and as near a true inclined plane as
+possible. The stuff taken out of the conductor should be employed in
+making up its banks or correcting inequalities in the meadow.
+
+
+    Bedwork.
+
+  In bedwork irrigation, which is eminently applicable to level ground,
+  the ground is thrown into beds or ridges. Here the conductor should be
+  led along the highest end or side of the meadow in an inclined plane;
+  should it terminate in the meadow, its end should be made to taper
+  when there are no feeders, or to terminate in a feeder. The main drain
+  to carry off the water from the meadow should next be formed. It
+  should be cut in the lowest part of the ground at the lower end or
+  side of the meadow. Its dimensions should be capable of carrying off
+  the whole water used so quickly as to prevent the least stagnation,
+  and discharge it into the river. The next process is the forming of
+  the ground intended for a water-meadow into beds or ridges. That
+  portion of the ground which is to be watered by one conductor should
+  be made into beds to suit the circumstances of that conductor; that
+  is, instead of the beds over the meadow being all reduced to one
+  common level, they should be formed to suit the different swells in
+  the ground, and, should any of these swells be considerable, it will
+  be necessary to give each side of them its respective conductor. The
+  beds should run at or nearly at right angles to the line of the
+  conductor. The breadth of the beds is regulated by the nature of the
+  soil and the supply of water. Tenacious soils and subsoils, with a
+  small supply of water, require beds as narrow as 30 ft. Porous soils
+  and a large supply of water may have beds of 40 ft. The length of the
+  beds is regulated by the supply of water and the fall from the
+  conductor to the main drain. If the beds fall only in one direction
+  longitudinally, their crowns should be made in the middle; but, should
+  they fall laterally as well as longitudinally, as is usually the case,
+  then the crowns should be made towards the upper sides, more or less
+  according to the lateral slope of the ground. The crowns should rise 1
+  ft. above the adjoining furrows. The beds thus formed should slope in
+  an inclined plane from the conductor to the main drain, that the water
+  may flow equably over them.
+
+  The beds are watered by "feeders," that is, channels gradually
+  tapering to the lower extremities, and their crowns cut down, wherever
+  these are placed. The depth of the feeders depends on their width, and
+  the width on their length. A bed 200 yds. in length requires a feeder
+  of 20 in. in width at its junction with the conductor, and it should
+  taper gradually to the extremity, which should be 1 ft. in width. The
+  taper retards the motion of the water, which constantly decreases by
+  overflow as it proceeds, whilst it continues to fill the feeder to the
+  brim. The water overflowing from the feeders down the sides of the
+  beds is received into small drains formed in the furrows between the
+  beds. These small drains discharge themselves into the main drain, and
+  are in every respect the reverse of the feeders. The depth of the
+  small drain at the junction is made about as great as that of the main
+  drain, and it gradually lessens towards the taper to 6 in. in
+  tenacious and to less in porous soils. The depth of the feeders is the
+  same in relation to the conductor. For the more equal distribution of
+  the water over the surface of the beds from the conductor and feeders,
+  small masses, such as stones or solid portions of earth or turf
+  fastened with pins, are placed in them, in order to retard the
+  momentum which the water may have acquired. These "stops," as they are
+  termed, are generally placed at regular intervals, or rather they
+  should be left where any inequality of the current is observed. Heaps
+  of stones answer very well for stops in the conductor, particularly
+  immediately below the points of junction with the feeders. The small
+  or main drains require no stops. The descent of the water in the
+  feeders will no doubt necessarily increase in rapidity, but the
+  inclination of the beds and the tapering of the feeders should be so
+  adjusted as to counteract the increasing rapidity. The distribution of
+  the water over the whole meadow is regulated by the sluices, which
+  should be placed at the origin of every conductor. By means of these
+  sluices any portion of the meadow that is desired can be watered,
+  whilst the rest remains dry; and alternate watering must be adopted
+  when there is a scarcity of water. All the sluices should be
+  substantially built at first with stones and mortar, to prevent the
+  leakage of water; for, should water from a leak be permitted to find
+  its way into the meadow, that portion of it will stagnate and produce
+  coarse grasses. In a well-formed water-meadow it is as necessary to
+  keep it perfectly dry at one time as it is to place it under water at
+  another. A small sluice placed in the side of the conductor opposite
+  to the meadow, and at the upper end of it, will drain away the leakage
+  that may have escaped from the head sluice.
+
+  To obtain a complete water-meadow, the ground will often require to be
+  broken up and remodelled. This will no doubt be attended with cost;
+  but it should be considered that the first cost is the least, and
+  remodelling the only way of having a complete water-meadow which will
+  continue for years to give satisfaction. To effect a remodelling when
+  the ground is in stubble, let it be ploughed up, harrowed, and cleaned
+  as in a summer fallow, the levelling-box employed when required, the
+  stuff from the conductors and main drains spread abroad, and the beds
+  ploughed into shape--all operations that can be performed at little
+  expense. The meadow should be ready by August for sowing with one of
+  the mixtures of grass-seeds already given. But though this plan is
+  ultimately better, it is attended with the one great disadvantage that
+  the soft ground cannot be irrigated for two or three years after it is
+  sown with grass-seeds. This can only be avoided where the ground is
+  covered with old turf which will bear to be lifted. On ground in that
+  state a water-meadow may be most perfectly formed. Let the turf be
+  taken off with the spade, and laid carefully aside for relaying. Let
+  the stript ground then be neatly formed with the spade and barrow,
+  into beds varying in breadth and shape according to the nature of the
+  soil and the dip of the ground--the feeders from the conductor and the
+  small drains to the main drain being formed at the same time. Then let
+  the turf be laid down again and beaten firm, when the meadow will be
+  complete at once, and ready for irrigation. This is the most beautiful
+  and most expeditious method of making a complete water-meadow where
+  the ground is not naturally sufficiently level to begin with.
+
+  The water should be let on, and trial made of the work, whenever it is
+  finished, and the motion of the water regulated by the introduction of
+  a stop in the conductors and feeders where a change in the motion of
+  the current is observed, beginning at the upper end of the meadow.
+  Should the work be finished as directed by August, a good crop of hay
+  may be reaped in the succeeding summer. There are few pieces of land
+  where the natural descent of the ground will not admit of the water
+  being collected a second time, and applied to the irrigation of a
+  second and lower meadow. In such a case the main drain of a watered
+  meadow may form the conductor of the one to be watered, or a new
+  conductor may be formed by a prolongation of the main drain; but
+  either expedient is only advisable where water is scarce. Where it is
+  plentiful, it is better to supply the second meadow directly from the
+  river, or by a continuation of the first main conductor.
+
+
+    Catchwork.
+
+  In the ordinary catch work water-meadow, the water is used over and
+  over again. On the steep sides of valleys the plan is easily and
+  cheaply carried out, and where the whole course of the water is not
+  long the peculiar properties which give it value, though lessened, are
+  not exhausted when it reaches that part of the meadow which it
+  irrigates last. The design of any piece of catchwork will vary with
+  local conditions, but generally it may be stated that it consists in
+  putting each conduit save the first to the double use of a feeder or
+  distributor and of a drain or collector.
+
+
+    Upward or subterranean.
+
+  In upward or subterranean irrigation the water used rises upward
+  through the soil, and is that which under ordinary circumstances would
+  be carried off by the drains. The system has received considerable
+  development in Germany, where the elaborate method invented by
+  Petersen is recommended by many agricultural authorities. In this
+  system the well-fitting earthenware drain-pipes are furnished at
+  intervals with vertical shafts terminating at the surface of the
+  ground in movable caps. Beneath each cap, and near the upper end of
+  the shaft, are a number of vertical slits through which the drainage
+  water which rises passes out into the conduit or trench from which the
+  irrigating streams originate. In the vertical shaft there is first of
+  all a grating which intercepts solid matters, and then, lower down, a
+  central valve which can be opened and closed at pleasure from the top
+  of the shaft. In the ordinary English system of upward or drainage
+  irrigation, ditches are dug all round the field. They act the part of
+  conductors when the land is to be flooded, and of main drains when it
+  is to be laid dry. The water flows from the ditches as conductors into
+  built conduits formed at right angles to them in parallel lines
+  through the fields; it rises upwards in them as high as the surface of
+  the ground, and again subsides through the soil and the conduits into
+  the ditches as main drains, and thence it passes at a lower level
+  either into a stream or other suitable outfall. The ditches may be
+  filled in one or other of several different ways. The water may be
+  drainage-water from lands at a higher level; or it may be water from a
+  neighbouring river; or it may be drainage-water accumulated from a
+  farm and pumped up to the necessary level. But it may also be the
+  drainage-water of the field itself. In this case the mouths of the
+  underground main pipe-drains are stopped up, and the water in them and
+  the secondary drains thus caused to stand back until it has risen
+  sufficiently near the surface. Of course it is necessary to build the
+  mouths of such main drains of very solid masonry, and to construct
+  efficient sluices for the retention of the water in the drains.
+  Irrigation of the kind now under discussion may be practised wherever
+  a command of water can be secured, but the ground must be level. It
+  has been successfully employed in recently drained morasses, which are
+  apt to become too dry in summer. It is suitable for stiffish soils
+  where the subsoil is fairly open, but is less successful in sand. The
+  water used may be turbid or clear, and it acts, not only for
+  moistening the soil, but as manure. For if, as is commonly the case,
+  the water employed be drainage-water from cultivated lands, it is sure
+  to contain a considerable quantity of nitrates, which, not being
+  subject to retention by the soil, would otherwise escape. These coming
+  into contact with the roots of plants during their season of active
+  growth, are utilized as direct nourishment for the vegetation. It is
+  necessary in upward or subterranean irrigation to send the water on
+  and to take it off very gently, in order to avoid the displacement and
+  loss of the finer particles of the soil which a forcible current would
+  cause.
+
+
+    Warping.
+
+  In warping the suspended solid matters are of importance, not merely
+  for any value they may have as manure, but also as a material addition
+  to the ground to be irrigated. The warping which is practised in
+  England is almost exclusively confined to the overflowing of level
+  ground within tide mark, and is conducted mostly within the districts
+  commanded by estuaries or tidal rivers. The best notion of the process
+  of warping may be gained by sailing up the Trent from the Humber to
+  Gainsborough. Here the banks of the river were constructed centuries
+  ago to protect the land within them from the encroachments of the
+  tide. A great tract of country was thus laid comparatively dry. But
+  while the wisdom of one age thus succeeded in restricting within
+  bounds the tidal water of the river, it was left to the greater wisdom
+  of a succeeding age to improve upon this arrangement by admitting
+  these muddy waters to lay a fresh coat of rich silt on the exhausted
+  soils. The process began more than a century ago, but has become a
+  system in recent times. Large sluices of stone, with strong doors, to
+  be shut when it is wished to exclude the tide, may be seen on both
+  banks of the river, and from these great conduits are carried miles
+  inward through the flat country to the point previously prepared by
+  embankment over which the muddy waters are allowed to spread. These
+  main conduits, being very costly, are constructed for the warping of
+  large adjoining districts, and openings are made at such points as are
+  then undergoing the operation. The mud is deposited and the waters
+  return with the falling tide to the bed of the river. Spring-tides are
+  preferred, and so great is the quantity of mud in these rivers that
+  from 10 to 15 acres have been known to be covered with silt from 1 to
+  3 ft. in thickness during one spring of ten or twelve tides. Peat-moss
+  of the most sterile character has been by this process covered with
+  soil of the greatest fertility, and swamps which used to be resorted
+  to for leeches are now, by the effects of warping, converted into firm
+  and fertile fields. The art is now so well understood that, by careful
+  attention to the currents, the expert warp farmer can temper his soil
+  as he pleases. When the tide is first admitted the heavier particles,
+  which are pure sand, are first deposited; the second deposit is a
+  mixture of sand and fine mud, which, from its friable texture, forms
+  the most valuable soil; while lastly the pure mud subsides, containing
+  the finest particles of all, and forms a rich but very tenacious soil.
+  The great effort, therefore, of the warp farmer is to get the second
+  or mixed deposit as equally over the whole surface as he can and to
+  prevent the deposit of the last. This he does by keeping the water in
+  constant motion, as the last deposit can only take place when the
+  water is suffered to be still. Three years may be said to be spent in
+  the process, one year warping, one year drying and consolidating, and
+  one year growing the first crop, which is generally seed-hoed in by
+  hand, as the mud at this time is too soft to admit of horse labour.
+
+  The immediate effect, which is highly beneficial, is the deposition of
+  silt from the tide. To ensure this deposition, it is necessary to
+  surround the field to be warped with a strong embankment, in order to
+  retain the water as the tide recedes. The water is admitted by valved
+  sluices, which open as the tide flows into the field and shut by the
+  pressure of the confined water when the tide recedes. These sluices
+  are placed on as low a level as possible to permit the most turbid
+  water at the bottom of the tide to pass through a channel in the base
+  of the embankment. The silt deposited after warping is exceedingly
+  rich and capable of carrying any species of crop. It may be admitted
+  in so small a quantity as only to act as a manure to arable soil, or
+  in such a large quantity as to form a new soil. This latter
+  acquisition is the principal object of warping, and it excites
+  astonishment to witness how soon a new soil may be formed. From June
+  to September a soil of 3 ft. in depth may be formed under the
+  favourable circumstances of a very dry season and long drought. In
+  winter and in floods warping ceases to be beneficial. In ordinary
+  circumstances on the Trent and Humber a soil from 6 to 16 in. in depth
+  may be obtained and inequalities of 3 ft. filled up. But every tide
+  generally leaves only 1/8 in. of silt, and the field which has only
+  one sluice can only be warped every other tide. The silt, as deposited
+  in each tide, does not mix into a uniform mass, but remains in
+  distinct layers. The water should be made to run completely off and
+  the ditches should become dry before the influx of the next tide,
+  otherwise the silt will not incrust and the tide not have the same
+  effect. Warp soil is of surpassing fertility. The expense of forming
+  canals, embankments and sluices for warping land is from L10 to L20 an
+  acre. A sluice of 6 ft. in height and 8 ft. wide will warp from 60 to
+  80 acres, according to the distance of the field from the river. The
+  embankments may be from 3 to 7 ft. in height, as the field may stand
+  in regard to the level of the highest tides. After the new land has
+  been left for a year or two in seeds and clover, it produces great
+  crops of wheat and potatoes.
+
+  Warping is practised only in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, on the
+  estuary of the Humber, and in the neighbourhood of the rivers which
+  flow into it--the Trent, the Ouse and the Don. The silt and mud
+  brought down by these rivers is rich in clay and organic matter, and
+  sometimes when dry contains as much as 1% of nitrogen.
+
+
+  Management and advantages.
+
+Constant care is required if a water-meadow is to yield quite
+satisfactory results. The earliness of the feed, its quantity and its
+quality will all depend in very great measure upon the proper management
+of the irrigation. The points which require constant attention are--the
+perfect freedom of all carriers, feeders and drains from every kind of
+obstruction, however minute; the state and amount of water in the river
+or stream, whether it be sufficient to irrigate the whole area properly
+or only a part of it; the length of time the water should be allowed to
+remain on the meadow at different periods of the season; the regulation
+of the depth of the water, its quantity and its rate of flow, in
+accordance with the temperature and the condition of the herbage; the
+proper times for the commencing and ending of pasturing and of shutting
+up for hay; the mechanical condition of the surface of the ground; the
+cutting out of any very large and coarse plants, as docks; and the
+improvement of the physical and chemical conditions of the soil by
+additions to it of sand, silt, loam, chalk, &c.
+
+Whatever may be the command of water, it is unwise to attempt to
+irrigate too large a surface at once. Even with a river supply fairly
+constant in level and always abundant, no attempt should be made to
+force on a larger volume of water than the feeders can properly
+distribute and the drains adequately remove, or one part of the meadow
+will be deluged and another stinted. When this inequality of irrigation
+once occurs, it is likely to increase from the consequent derangement of
+the feeders and drains. And one result on the herbage will be an
+irregularity of composition and growth, seriously detrimental to its
+food-value. The adjustment of the water by means of the sluices is a
+delicate operation when there is little water and also when there is
+much; in the latter case the fine earth may be washed away from some
+parts of the meadow; in the former case, by attempting too much with a
+limited water current, one may permit the languid streams to deposit
+their valuable suspended matters instead of carrying them forward to
+enrich the soil. The water is not to be allowed to remain too long on
+the ground at a time. The soil must get dry at stated intervals in order
+that the atmospheric air may come in contact with it and penetrate it.
+In this way as the water sinks down through the porous subsoil or into
+the subterranean drains oxygen enters and supplies an element which is
+needed, not only for the oxidation of organic matters in the earth, but
+also for the direct and indirect nutrition of the roots. Without this
+occasional drying of the soil the finer grasses and the leguminous
+plants will infallibly be lost; while a scum of confervae and other
+algae will collect upon the surface and choke the higher forms of
+vegetation. The water should be run off thoroughly, for a little
+stagnant water lying in places upon the surface does much injury. The
+practice of irrigating differs in different places with differences in
+the quality of the water, the soil, the drainage, &c. As a general rule,
+when the irrigating season begins in November the water may flow for a
+fortnight continuously, but subsequent waterings, especially after
+December, should be shortened gradually in duration till the first week
+in April, when irrigation should cease. It is necessary to be very
+careful in irrigating during frosty weather. For, though grass will grow
+even under ice, yet if ice be formed under and around the roots of the
+grasses the plants may be thrown out by the expansion of the water at
+the moment of its conversion into ice. The water should be let off on
+the morning of a dry day, and thus the land will be dry enough at night
+not to suffer from the frost; or the water may be taken off in the
+morning and let on again at night. In spring the newly grown and tender
+grass will be easily destroyed by frost if it be not protected by water,
+or if the ground be not made thoroughly dry.
+
+
+  Theory.
+
+Although in many cases it is easy to explain the reasons why water
+artificially applied to land brings crops or increases their yield, the
+theory of our ordinary water-meadow irrigation is rather obscure. For we
+are not dealing in these grass lands with a semi-aquatic plant like
+rice, nor are we supplying any lack of water in the soil, nor are we
+restoring the moisture which the earth cannot retain under a burning
+sun. We irrigate chiefly in the colder and wetter half of the year, and
+we "saturate" with water the soil in which are growing such plants as
+are perfectly content with earth not containing more than one-fifth of
+its weight of moisture. We must look in fact to a number of small
+advantages and not to any one striking beneficial process in explaining
+the aggregate utility of water-meadow irrigation. We attribute the
+usefulness of water-meadow irrigation, then, to the following causes:
+(1) the temperature of the water being rarely less than 10 deg. Fahr.
+above freezing, the severity of frosts in winter is thus obviated, and
+the growth, especially of the roots of grasses, is encouraged; (2)
+nourishment or plant food is actually brought on to the soil, by which
+it is absorbed and retained, both for the immediate and for the future
+use of the vegetation, which also itself obtains some nutrient material
+directly; (3) solution and redistribution of the plant food already
+present in the soil occur mainly through the solvent action of the
+carbonic acid gas present in a dissolved state in the irrigation-water;
+(4) oxidation of any excess of organic matter in the soil, with
+consequent production of useful carbonic acid and nitrogen compounds,
+takes place through the dissolved oxygen in the water sent on and
+through the soil where the drainage is good; and (5) improvement of the
+grasses, and especially of the miscellaneous herbage, of the meadow is
+promoted through the encouragement of some at least of the better
+species and the extinction or reduction of mosses and of the
+innutritious weeds.
+
+To the united agency of the above-named causes may safely be attributed
+the benefits arising from the special form of water-irrigation which is
+practised in England. Should it be thought that the traces of the more
+valuable sorts of plant food (such as compounds of nitrogen, phosphates,
+and potash salts) existing in ordinary brook or river water can never
+bring an appreciable amount of manurial matter to the soil, or exert an
+appreciable effect upon the vegetation, yet the quantity of water used
+during the season must be taken into account. If but 3000 gallons hourly
+trickle over and through an acre, and if we assume each gallon to
+contain no more than one-tenth of a grain of plant food of the three
+sorts just named taken together, still the total, during a season
+including ninety days of actual irrigation, will not be less than 9 lb.
+per acre. It appears, however, that a very large share of the benefits
+of water-irrigation is attributable to the mere contact of abundance of
+moving water, of an even temperature, with the roots of the grass. The
+growth is less checked by early frosts; and whatever advantages to the
+vegetation may accrue by occasional excessive warmth in the atmosphere
+in the early months of the year are experienced more by the irrigated
+than by the ordinary meadow grasses by reason of the abundant
+development of roots which the water has encouraged.
+
+III. _Italian Irrigation._--The most highly developed irrigation in the
+world is probably that practised in the plains of Piedmont and Lombardy,
+where every variety of condition is to be found. The engineering works
+are of a very high class, and from long generations of experience the
+farmer knows how best to use his water. The principal river of northern
+Italy is the Po, which rises to the west of Piedmont and is fed not from
+glaciers like the Swiss torrents, but by rain and snow, so that the
+water has a somewhat higher temperature, a point to which much
+importance is attached for the valuable meadow irrigation known as
+_marcite_. This is only practised in winter when there is abundance of
+water available, and it much resembles the water-meadow irrigation of
+England. The great Cavour canal is drawn from the left bank of the Po a
+few miles below Turin, and it is carried right across the drainage of
+the country. Its full discharge is 3800 cub. ft. per second, but it is
+only from October to May, when the water is least required, that it
+carries anything like this amount. For the summer irrigation Italy
+depends on the glaciers of the Alps; and the great torrents of the Dora
+Baltea and Sesia can be counted on for a volume exceeding 6000 cub. ft.
+per second. Lombardy is quite as well off as Piedmont for the means of
+irrigation and, as already said, its canals have the advantage that
+being drawn from the lakes Maggiore and Como they exercise a moderating
+influence on the Ticino and Adda rivers, which is much wanted in the
+Dora Baltea. The Naviglio Grande of Lombardy is a very fine work drawn
+from the left bank of the Ticino and useful for navigation as well as
+irrigation. It discharges between 3000 and 4000 cub. ft. per second, and
+probably nowhere is irrigation carried on with less expense. Another
+canal, the Villoresi, drawn from the same bank of the Ticino farther
+upstream, is capable of carrying 6700 cub. ft. per second. Like the
+Cavour canal, the Villoresi is taken across the drainage of the country,
+entailing a number of very bold and costly works.
+
+Interesting as these Italian works are, the administration and
+distribution of the water is hardly less so. The system is due to the
+ability of the great Count Cavour; what he originated in Piedmont has
+been also carried out in Lombardy. The Piedmontese company takes over
+from the government the control of all the irrigation within a triangle
+between the left bank of the Po and the right bank of the Sesia. It
+purchases from government about 1250 cub. ft. per second, and has also
+obtained the control of all private canals. Altogether it distributes
+about 2275 cub. ft. of water and irrigates about 141,000 acres, on which
+rice is the most important crop. The association has 14,000 members and
+controls nearly 10,000 m. of distributary channels. In each parish is a
+council composed of all landowners who irrigate. Each council sends two
+deputies to what may be called a water parliament. This assembly elects
+three small committees, and with them rests the whole management of the
+irrigation. An appeal may be made to the civil courts from the decision
+of these committees, but so popular are they that such appeals are never
+made. The irrigated area is divided into districts, in each of which is
+an overseer and a staff of watchmen to see to the opening and shutting
+of the _modules_ (see HYDRAULICS, SS 54 to 56) which deliver the water
+into the minor channels. In the November of each year it is decided how
+much water is to be given to each parish in the year following, and this
+depends largely on the number of acres of each crop proposed to be
+watered. In Lombardy the irrigation is conducted on similar principles.
+Throughout, the Italian farmer sets a very high example in the loyal way
+he submits to regulations which there must be sometimes a strong
+temptation to break. A sluice surreptitiously opened during a dark night
+and allowed to run for six hours may quite possibly double the value of
+his crop, but apparently the law is not often broken.
+
+
+  Characteristics of the Nile Valley and flood.
+
+IV. _Egypt._--The very life of Egypt depends on its irrigation, and,
+ancient as this irrigation is, it was never practised on a really
+scientific system till after the British occupation. As every one knows,
+the valley of the Nile outside of the tropics is practically devoid of
+rainfall. Yet it was the produce of this valley that formed the chief
+granary of the Roman Empire. Probably nowhere in the world is there so
+large a population per square mile depending solely on the produce of
+the soil. Probably nowhere is there an agricultural population so
+prosperous, and so free from the risks attending seasons of drought or
+of flood. This wealth and prosperity are due to two very remarkable
+properties of the Nile. First, the regimen of the river is nearly
+constant. The season of its rise and its fall, and the height attained
+by its waters during the highest flood and at lowest Nile vary to a
+comparatively small extent. Year after year the Nile rises at the same
+period, it attains its maximum in September and begins to diminish first
+rapidly till about the end of December, and then more slowly and more
+steadily until the following June. A late rise is not more than about
+three weeks behind an early rise. From the lowest to the highest gauge
+of water-surface the rise is on an average 25.5 ft. at the First
+Cataract. The highest flood is 3.5 ft. above this average, and this
+means peril, if not disaster, in Lower Egypt. The lowest flood on record
+has risen only to 5.5 ft. below the average, or to 20 ft. above the mean
+water-surface of low Nile. Such a feeble Nile flood has occurred only
+four times in modern history: in 1877, when it caused widespread famine
+and death throughout Upper Egypt, 947,000 acres remained barren, and the
+land revenue lost L1,112,000; in 1899 and again in 1902 and 1907, when
+by the thorough remodelling of the whole system of canals since 1883 all
+famine and disaster were avoided and the loss of revenue was
+comparatively slight. In 1907, for instance, when the flood was nearly
+as low as in 1877, the area left unwatered was little more than 10% of
+the area affected in 1877.
+
+This regularity of flow is the first exceptional excellence of the river
+Nile. The second is hardly less valuable, and consists in the remarkable
+richness of the alluvium brought down the river year after year during
+the flood. The object of the engineer is so to utilize this flood-water
+that as little as possible of the alluvium may escape into the sea, and
+as much as possible may be deposited on the fields. It is the possession
+of these two properties that imparts to the Nile a value quite unique
+among rivers, and gives to the farmers of the Nile Valley advantages
+over those of any rain-watered land in the world.
+
+
+  Irrigation during high Nile.
+
+Until the 19th century irrigation in Egypt on a large scale was
+practised merely during the Nile flood. Along each edge of the river and
+following its course has been erected an earthen embankment high enough
+not to be topped by the highest floods. In Upper Egypt, the valley of
+which rarely exceeds 6 m. in width, a series of cross embankments have
+been constructed, abutting at the inner ends on those along the Nile,
+and at the outer ends on the ascending sides of the valley. The whole
+country has thus been divided into a series of oblongs, surrounded by
+embankments on three sides and by the desert slopes on the fourth. These
+oblong areas vary from 60,000 to 1500 or 2000 acres in extent.
+Throughout all Egypt the Nile is deltaic in character; that is, the
+slope of the country in the valley is away from the river and not
+towards it. It is easy, then, when the Nile is low, to cut short, deep
+canals in the river banks, which fill as the flood rises, and carry the
+precious mud-charged water into these great flats. There the water
+remains for a month or more, some 3 ft. deep, depositing its mud, and
+thence at the end of the flood the almost clear water may either be run
+off directly into the receding river, or cuts may be made in the cross
+embankments, and it may be allowed to flow from one flat to another and
+ultimately into the river. In November the waters have passed off; and
+whenever a man can walk over the mud with a pair of bullocks, it is
+roughly turned over with a wooden plough, or merely the branch of a
+tree, and the wheat or barley crop is immediately sown. So soaked is the
+soil after the flood, that the grain germinates, sprouts, and ripens in
+April, without a shower of rain or any other watering.
+
+In Lower Egypt this system was somewhat modified, but it was the same in
+principle. No other was known in the Nile Valley until the country fell,
+early in the 19th century, under the vigorous rule of Mehemet Ali Pasha.
+He soon recognized that with such a climate and soil, with a teeming
+population, and with the markets of Europe so near they might produce in
+Egypt something more profitable than wheat and maize. Cotton and
+sugar-cane would fetch far higher prices, but they could only be grown
+while the Nile was low, and they required water at all seasons.
+
+
+  Irrigation during low Nile.
+
+  The Nile Barrage.
+
+It has already been said that the rise of the Nile is about 25(1/2) ft.,
+so that a canal constructed to draw water out of the river while at its
+lowest must be 25(1/2) ft. deeper than if it is intended to draw off
+only during the highest floods. Mehemet Ali began by deepening the
+canals of Lower Egypt by this amount, a gigantic and futile task; for as
+they had been laid out on no scientific principles, the deep channels
+became filled with mud during the first flood, and all the excavation
+had to be done over again, year after year. With a serf population even
+this was not impossible; but as the beds of the canals were graded to no
+even slope, it did not follow that if water entered the head it would
+flow evenly on. As the river daily fell, of course the water in the
+canals fell too, and since they were never dug deep enough to draw water
+from the very bottom of the river, they occasionally ran dry altogether
+in the month of June, when the river was at its lowest, and when, being
+the month of greatest heat, water was more than ever necessary for the
+cotton crop. Thus large tracts which had been sown, irrigated, weeded
+and nurtured for perhaps three months perished in the fourth, while all
+the time the precious Nile water was flowing useless to the sea. The
+obvious remedy was to throw a weir across each branch of the river to
+control the water and force it into canals taken from above it. The task
+of constructing this great work was committed to Mougel Bey, a French
+engineer of ability, who designed and constructed the great barrage
+across the two branches of the Nile at the apex of the delta, about 12
+m. north of Cairo (fig. 2). It was built to consist of two bridges--one
+over the eastern or Damietta branch of the river having 71 arches, the
+other, over the Rosetta branch, having 61 arches, each arch being of 5
+metres or 16.4 ft. span. The building was all of stone, the floors of
+the arches were inverts. The height of pier from edge of flooring to
+spring of arch was 28.7 ft., the spring of the arch being about the
+surface-level of maximum flood. The arches were designed to be fitted
+with self-acting drop gates; but they were not a success, and were only
+put into place on the Rosetta branch. The gates were intended to hold up
+the water 4.5 metres, or 14.76 ft., and to divert it into three main
+canals--the Behera on the west, the Menufia in the centre and the
+Tewfikia on the east. The river was thus to be emptied, and to flow
+through a whole network of canals, watering all Lower Egypt. Each
+barrage was provided with locks to pass Nile boats 160 by 28 ft. in
+area.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Map showing the Damietta and Rosetta dams on the
+Nile.]
+
+Mougel's barrage, as it may now be seen, is a very imposing and stately
+work. Considering his want of experience of such rivers as the Nile, and
+the great difficulties he had to contend with under a succession of
+ignorant Turkish rulers, it would be unfair to blame him because, until
+it fell into the hands of British engineers in 1884, the work was
+condemned as a hopeless failure. It took long years to complete, at a
+cost which can never be estimated, since much of it was done by serf
+labour. In 1861 it was at length said to be finished; but it was not
+until 1863 that the gates of the Rosetta branch were closed, and they
+were reopened again immediately, as a settlement of the masonry took
+place. The experiment was repeated year after year till 1867, when the
+barrage cracked right across from foundation to top. A massive
+coffer-dam was then erected, covering the eleven arches nearest the
+crack; but the work was never trusted again, nor the water-surface
+raised more than about 3 ft.
+
+An essential part of the barrage project was the three canals, taking
+their water from just above it, as shown in fig. 2. The heads of the
+existing old canals, taken out of the river at intervals throughout the
+delta, were to be closed, and the canals themselves all put into
+connexion with the three high-level trunk lines taken from above the
+barrage. The central canal, or Menufia, was more or less finished, and,
+although full of defects, has done good service. The eastern canal was
+never dug at all until the British occupation. The western, or Behera,
+canal was dug, but within its first 50 m. it passes through desert, and
+sand drifted into it. _Corvees_ of 20,000 men used to be forced to clear
+it out year after year, but at last it was abandoned. Thus the whole
+system broke down, the barrage was pronounced a failure, and attention
+was turned to watering Lower Egypt by a system of gigantic pumps, to
+raise the water from the river and discharge it into a system of shallow
+surface-canals, at an annual cost of about L250,000, while the cost of
+the pumps was estimated at L700,000. Negotiations were on foot for
+carrying out this system when the British engineers arrived in Egypt.
+They soon resolved that it would be very much better if the original
+scheme of using the barrage could be carried out, and after a careful
+examination of the work they were satisfied that this could be done. The
+barrage rests entirely on the alluvial bed of the Nile. Nothing more
+solid than strata of sand and mud is to be found for more than 200 ft.
+below the river. It was out of the question, therefore, to think of
+founding on solid material, and yet it was desired to have a head of
+water of 13 or 14 ft. upon the work. Of course, with such a pressure as
+this, there was likely to be percolation under the foundations and a
+washing-out of the soil. It had to be considered whether this
+percolation could best be checked by laying a solid wall across the
+river, going down to 50 or 60 ft. below its bed, or by spreading out the
+foundations above and below the bridge, so as to form one broad
+water-tight flooring--a system practised with eminent success by Sir
+Arthur Cotton in Southern India. It was decided to adopt the latter
+system. As originally designed, the flooring of the barrage from
+up-stream to downstream face was 111.50 ft. wide, the distance which had
+to be travelled by water percolating under the foundations. This width
+of flooring was doubled to 223 ft., and along the upstream face a line
+of sheet piling was driven 16 ft. deep. Over the old flooring was
+superposed 15 in. of the best rubble masonry, an ashlar floor of blocks
+of close-grained trachyte being laid directly under the bridge, where
+the action was severest. The working season lasted only from the end of
+November to the end of June, while the Nile was low; and the difficulty
+of getting in the foundations was increased, as, in the interests of
+irrigation and to supply the Menufia canal, water was held up every
+season while the work was in progress to as much as 10 ft. The work was
+begun in 1886, and completed in June 1890. Moreover, in the meantime the
+eastern, or Tewfikia, canal was dug and supplied with the necessary
+masonry works for a distance of 23 m., to where it fed the network of
+old canals. The western, or Behera, canal was thoroughly cleared out and
+remodelled; and thus the whole delta irrigation was supplied from above
+the barrage.
+
+The outlay on the barrage between 1883 and 1891 amounted to about
+L460,000. The average cotton crop for the 5 years preceding 1884
+amounted to 123,000 tons, for the 5 years ending 1898 it amounted to
+251,200 tons. At the low rate of L40 per ton, this means an annual
+increase to the wealth of Lower Egypt of L5,128,000. Since 1890 the
+barrage has done its duty without accident, but a work of such vast
+importance to Lower Egypt required to be placed beyond all risk. It
+having been found that considerable hollow spaces existed below the
+foundations of some of the piers, five bore-holes from the top of the
+roadway were pierced vertically through each pier of both barrages, and
+similar holes were drilled at intervals along all the lock walls. Down
+these holes cement grout was injected under high pressure on the system
+of Mr Kinipple. The work was successfully carried out during the seasons
+1896 to 1898. During the summer of 1898 the Rosetta barrage was worked
+under a pressure of 14 ft. But this was looked on as too near the limit
+of safety to be relied on, and in 1899 subsidiary weirs were started
+across both branches of the river a short distance below the two
+barrages. These were estimated to cost L530,000 altogether, and were to
+stand 10.8 ft. above the river's bed, allowing the water-surface
+up-stream of the barrage to be raised 7.2 ft., while the pressure on
+that work itself would not exceed 10 ft. These weirs were satisfactorily
+completed in 1901.
+
+The barrage is the greatest, but by no means the only important masonry
+work in Lower Egypt. Numerous regulating bridges and locks have been
+built to give absolute control of the water and facilities for
+navigation; and since 1901 a second weir has been constructed opposite
+Zifta, across the Damietta branch of the Nile, to improve the irrigation
+of the Dakhilia province.
+
+In the earlier section of this article it is explained how necessary it
+is that irrigation should always be accompanied by drainage. This had
+been totally neglected in Egypt; but very large sums have been spent on
+it, and the country is now covered with a network of drains nearly as
+complete as that of the canals.
+
+
+  Basin irrigation of Upper Egypt.
+
+The ancient system of basin irrigation is still pursued in Upper Egypt,
+though by the end of 1907 over 320,000 feddans of land formerly under
+basin irrigation had been given, at a cost of over LE3,000,000,
+perennial irrigation. This conversion work was carried out in the
+provinces situated between Cairo and Assiut, a region sometimes
+designated Middle Egypt. The ancient system seems simple enough; but in
+order really to flood the whole Nile Valley during seasons of defective
+as well as favourable floods, a system of regulating sluices, culverts
+and syphons is necessary; and for want of such a system it was found, in
+the feeble flood of 1888, that there was an area of 260,000 acres over
+which the water never flowed. This cost a loss of land revenue of about
+L300,000, while the loss of the whole season's crop to the farmer was of
+course much greater. The attention of the British engineers was then
+called to this serious calamity; and fortunately for Egypt there was
+serving in the country Col. J. C. Ross, R.E., an officer who had devoted
+many years of hard work to the irrigation of the North-West Provinces of
+India, and who possessed quite a special knowledge as well as a glowing
+enthusiasm for the subject. Fortunately, too, it was possible to supply
+him with the necessary funds to complete and remodel the canal system.
+When the surface-water of a river is higher than the fields right and
+left, there is nothing easier than to breach the embankments and flood
+the fields--in fact, it may be more difficult to prevent their being
+flooded than to flood them--but in ordinary floods the Nile is never
+higher than all the bordering lands, and in years of feeble flood it is
+higher than none of them. To water the valley, therefore, it is
+necessary to construct canals having bed-slopes less than that of the
+river, along which the water flows until its surface is higher than that
+of the fields. If, for instance, the slope of the river be 4 in. per
+mile, and that of the canal 2 in. it is evident that at the end of a
+mile the water in the canal will be 2 in. higher than in the river; and
+if the surface of the land is 3 ft. higher than that of the river, the
+canal, gaining on it at 2 in. per mile, will reach the surface in 18 m.,
+and from thence onwards will be above the adjoining fields. But to
+irrigate this upper 18 m., water must either be raised artificially, or
+supplied from another canal taking its source 18 m. farther up. This
+would, however, involve the country in great lengths of canal between
+the river and the field, and circumstances are not so unfavourable as
+this. Owing to the deltaic nature of the Nile Valley, the fields on the
+banks are 3 ft. above the flood, at 2 m. away from the banks they may
+not be more than 1 ft. above that level, so that the canal, gaining 2
+in. per mile and receding from the river, will command the country in 6
+m. The slope of the river, moreover, is taken in its winding course; and
+if it is 4 in. per mile, the slope of the axis of the valley parallel to
+which the canals may be made to flow is at least 6 in. per mile, so that
+a canal with a slope of 2 in. gains 4 in. per mile.
+
+The system of having one canal overlapping another has one difficulty to
+contend with. Occasionally the desert cliffs and slopes come right down
+to the river, and it is difficult, if not impossible, to carry the
+higher-level canals past these obstructions. It should also be noticed
+that on the higher strip bordering the river it is the custom to take
+advantage of its nearness to raise water by pumps, or other machinery,
+and thereby to grow valuable crops of sugar-cane, maize or vegetables.
+When the river rises, these crops, which often form a very important
+part of the year's produce and are termed _Nabari_, are still in the
+ground, and they require water in moderate and regulated quantities, in
+contradistinction to the wholesale flooding of the flats beyond. Fig. 3
+will serve to explain this system of irrigation, the firm lines
+representing canals, the dotted lines embankments. It will be seen,
+beginning on the east or right bank of the river, that a high-level
+canal from an upper system is carried past a steep slope, where perhaps
+it is cut entirely out of rock, and it divides into two. The right
+branch waters all the desert slopes within its reach and level. The left
+branch passes, by a syphon aqueduct, under what is the main canal of the
+system, taken from the river close at hand (and therefore at a lower
+level). This left branch irrigates the _Nabari_ on the high lands
+bordering the river. In years of very favourable flood this high-level
+canal would not be wanted at all; the irrigation could be done from the
+main canal, and with this great advantage, that the main canal water
+would carry with it much more fertilizing matter than would be got from
+the tail of the high-level canal, which left the river perhaps 25 m. up.
+The main canal flows freely over the flats C and D, and, if the flood is
+good, over B and part of A. It is carried round the next desert point,
+and to the north becomes the high-level canal. The masonry works
+required for this system are a syphon to pass the high level under the
+main canal near its head, bridges fitted with sluices where each canal
+passes under an embankment, and an escape weir at the tail of the
+system, just south of the desert point, to return surplus water to the
+river. Turning to the left bank, there is the same high-level canal from
+the upper system irrigating the basins K, P and L, as well as the large
+basin E in such years as it cannot be irrigated from the main canal.
+Here there are two main canals--one following the river, irrigating a
+series of smaller basins, and throwing out a branch to its left, the
+other passing under the desert slopes and supplying the basins F, G, H
+and S. For this system two syphons will be required near the head,
+regulating bridges under all the embankments, and an escape weir back
+into the river.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Map of the Basin System of Irrigation.]
+
+In the years following 1888 about 100 new masonry works of this kind
+were built in Upper Egypt, nearly 400 m. of new canal were dug, and
+nearly 300 m. of old canal were enlarged and deepened. The result has
+been, as already stated, that with a complete failure of the Nile flood
+the loss to the country has been trifling compared with that of 1877.
+
+
+  Assiut Weir and Esna Barrage.
+
+The first exception in Upper Egypt to the basin system of irrigation was
+due to the Khedive Ismail. The khedive, having acquired vast estates in
+the provinces of Assiut, Miniah, Beni-Suef and the Fayum, resolved to
+grow sugar-cane on a very large scale, and with this object constructed
+a very important perennial canal, named the Ibrahimia, taking out of the
+left bank of the Nile at the town of Assiut, and flowing parallel to the
+river for about 200 m., with an important branch which irrigates the
+Fayum. This canal was badly constructed, and by entirely blocking the
+drainage of the valley did a great deal of harm to the lands. Most of
+its defects had been remedied, but one remained. There being at its
+head no weir across the Nile, the water in the Ibrahimia canal used to
+rise and fall with that of the river, and so the supply was apt to run
+short during the hottest months, as was the case with the canals of
+Lower Egypt before the barrage was built. To supply the Ibrahimia canal
+at all during low Nile, it had been necessary to carry on dredging
+operations at an annual cost of about L12,000. This has now been
+rectified, in the same way as in Lower Egypt, by the construction of a
+weir across the Nile, intended to give complete control over the river
+and to raise the water-surface 8.2 ft. The Assiut weir is constructed on
+a design very similar to that of the barrage in Lower Egypt. It consists
+of a bridge of 111 arches, each 5 metres span, with piers of 2 metres
+thickness. In each arch are fitted two gates. There is a lock 80 metres
+long and 16 metres wide at the left or western end of the weir, and
+adjoining it are the regulating sluices of the Ibrahimia canal. The
+Assiut weir across the Nile is just about half a mile long. The work was
+begun at the end of 1898 and finished early in 1902--in time to avert
+over a large area the disastrous effects which would otherwise have
+resulted from the low Nile of that year. The money value of the crops
+saved by the closing of the weir was not less than LE690,000. The
+conversion of the lands north of Assiut from basin to perennial
+irrigation began immediately after the completion of the Assiut weir and
+was finished by the end of 1908. To render the basin lands of the Kena
+province independent of the flood being bad or good, another barrage was
+built across the Nile at Esna at a cost of L1,000,000. This work was
+begun in 1906 and completed in 1909.
+
+
+  Storage.
+
+These works, as well as that in Lower Egypt, are intended to raise the
+water-surface above it, and to control the distribution of its supply,
+but in no way to store that supply. The idea of ponding up the
+superfluous flood discharge of the river is not a new one, and if
+Herodotus is to be believed, it was a system actually pursued at a very
+early period of Egyptian history, when Lake Moeris in the Fayum was
+filled at each Nile flood, and drawn upon as the river ran down. When
+British engineers first undertook the management of Egyptian irrigation
+many representations were made to them of the advantage of storing the
+Nile water; but they consistently maintained that before entering on
+that subject it was their duty to utilize every drop of the water at
+their disposal. This seemed all the more evident, as at that time
+financial reasons made the construction of a costly Nile dam out of the
+question. Every year, however, between 1890 and 1902 the supply of the
+Nile during May and June was actually exhausted, no water at all flowing
+then out into the sea. In these years, too, owing to the extension of
+drainage works, the irrigable area of Egypt was greatly enlarged, so
+that if perennial cultivation was at all to be increased, it was
+necessary to increase the volume of the river, and this could only be
+done by storing up the flood supply. The first difficulty that presented
+itself in carrying this out, was that during the months of highest flood
+the Nile is so charged with alluvial matter that to pond it up then
+would inevitably lead to a deposit of silt in the reservoir, which would
+in no great number of years fill it up. It was found, however, that the
+flood water was comparatively free from deposit by the middle of
+November, while the river was still so high that, without injuring the
+irrigation, water might go on being stored up until March. Accordingly,
+when it was determined to construct a dam, it was decided that it should
+be supplied with sluices large enough to discharge unchecked the whole
+volume of the river as it comes down until the middle of November, and
+then to begin the storage.
+
+
+  The Assuan Dam.
+
+The site selected for the great Nile dam was at the head of the First
+Cataract above Assuan. A dyke of syenite granite here crosses the
+valley, so hard that the river had nowhere scoured a deep channel
+through it, and so it was found possible to construct the dam entirely
+in the open air, without the necessity of laying under-water
+foundations. The length of the dam is about 6400 ft.--nearly 1(1/4) m.
+The greatest head of water in it is 65 ft. It is pierced by 140
+under-sluices of 150 sq. ft. each, and by 40 upper-sluices, each of 75
+sq. ft. These, when fully open, are capable of discharging the ordinary
+maximum Nile flood of 350,000 cub. ft. per second, with a velocity of
+15.6 ft. per second and a head of 6.6 ft. The top width of the dam is 23
+ft., the bottom width at the deepest part about 82 ft. On the left flank
+of the dam there is a canal, provided with four locks, each 262 by 31
+ft. in area, so that navigation is possible at all seasons. The storage
+capacity of the reservoir is about 3,750,000 millions of cub. ft., which
+creates a lake extending up the Nile Valley for about 200 m. The
+reservoir is filled yearly by March; after that the volume reaching the
+reservoir from the south is passed on through the sluices. In May, or
+earlier when the river is late in rising, when the demand for water
+increases, first the upper and then the under sluices are gradually
+opened, so as to increase the river supply, until July, when all the
+gates are open, to allow of the free passage of the flood. On the 10th
+of December 1902 this magnificent work was completed. The engineer who
+designed it was Sir W. Willcocks. The contractors were Messrs John Aird
+& Co., the contract price being L2,000,000. The financial treaties in
+which the Egyptian government were bound up prevented their ever paying
+so large a sum as this within five years; but a company was formed in
+London to advance periodically the sum due to the contractors, on
+receipt from the government of Egypt of promissory notes to pay sixty
+half-yearly instalments of L78,613, beginning on the 1st of July 1903.
+Protective works downstream of the dam were completed in 1906 at a cost
+of about LE304,000. It had been at first intended to raise the dam to a
+height which would have involved the submergence, for some months of
+every year, of the Philae temples, situated on an island just upstream
+of the dam. Had the natives of Egypt been asked to choose between the
+preservation of Ptolemy's famed temple and the benefit to be derived
+from a considerable additional depth of water storage, there can be no
+question that they would have preferred the latter; but they were not
+consulted, and the classical sentiment and artistic beauty of the place,
+skilfully pleaded by archaeologists and artists, prevailed. In 1907,
+however, it was decided to carry out the plan as originally proposed and
+raise the dam 26 ft. higher. This would increase the storage capacity
+2(1/2) times, or to about 9,375,000 millions of cubic feet.
+
+There is no middle course of farming in Egypt between irrigation and
+desert. No assessment can be levied on lands which have not been
+watered, and the law of Egypt requires that in order to render land
+liable to taxation the water during the Nile flood must have flowed
+naturally over it. It is not enough that it should be pumped on to the
+land at the expense of the landowner. The tax usually levied is from L1
+to L2 per acre.
+
+  See Sir W. Willcocks, _Egyptian Irrigation_ (2nd ed., 1899); Sir C. C.
+  Scott-Moncrieff, _Lectures on Irrigation in Egypt. Professional Papers
+  on the Corps of Royal Engineers_, vol. xix. (London, 1893); Sir W.
+  Garstin, _Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile_. Egypt No. 2
+  (1904).
+
+V. _India._--Allusion has already been made to the irrigation of India.
+The year 1878, which saw the end of a most disastrous famine, may be
+considered as the commencement of a new era as regards irrigation. It
+had at last been recognized that such famines must be expected to occur
+at no very long intervals of time, and that the cost of relief
+operations must not be met by increasing the permanent debt on the
+country, but by the creation of a famine relief and a famine insurance
+fund. For this purpose it was fixed that there should be an annual
+provision of [R]x. 1,500,000, to be spent on: (1) relief, (2) protective
+works, (3) reduction of debt. Among protective works the first place was
+given to works of irrigation. These works were divided into three
+classes: (i.) productive works; (ii.) protective works; (iii.) minor
+works.
+
+Productive works, as their name implies, are such as may reasonably be
+expected to be remunerative, and they include all the larger irrigation
+systems. Their capital cost is provided from loan funds, and not from
+the relief funds mentioned above. In the seventeen years ending
+1896-1897 the capital expenditure on such works was [R]x. 10,954,948,
+including a sum of [R]x. 1,742,246 paid to the Madras Irrigation Company
+as the price of the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal, a work which can never be
+financially productive, but which nevertheless did good service in the
+famine of 1896-1897 by irrigating 87,226 acres. In the famine year
+1877-1878 the area irrigated by productive canals was 5,171,497 acres.
+In the famine year 1896-1897 the area was 9,571,779 acres, including an
+area of 123,087 acres irrigated on the Swat river canal in the Punjab.
+The revenue of the year 1879-1880 was nearly 6% on the capital outlay.
+In 1897-1898 it was 7(1/2)%. In the same seventeen years [R]x. 2,099,253
+were spent on the construction of protective irrigation works, not
+expected to be directly remunerative, but of great value during famine
+years. On four works of this class were spent [R]x. 1,649,823, which in
+1896-1897 irrigated 200,733 acres, a valuable return then, although in
+an ordinary year their gross revenue does not cover their working
+expenses. Minor works may be divided into those for which capital
+accounts have been kept and those where they have not. In the seventeen
+years ending 1896-1897, [R]x. 827,214 were spent on the former, and
+during that year they yielded a return of 9.13%. In the same year the
+irrigation effected by minor works of all sorts showed the large area of
+7,442,990 acres. Such are the general statistics of outlay, revenue and
+irrigated area up to the end of 1896-1897. The government might well be
+congratulated on having through artificial means ensured in that year of
+widespread drought and famine the cultivation of 27,326 sq. m., a large
+tract even in so large a country as India. And progress has been
+steadily made in subsequent years.
+
+Some description will now be given of the chief of these irrigation
+works. Beginning with the Punjab, the province in which most progress
+has been made, the great Sutlej canal, which irrigates the country to
+the left of that river, was opened in 1882, and the Western Jumna canal
+(perhaps the oldest in India) was extended into the dry Hissar and Sirsa
+districts, and generally improved so as to increase by nearly 50% its
+area of irrigation between 1878 and 1897. Perhaps this is as much as can
+well be done with the water at command for the country between the
+Sutlej and the Jumna, and it is enough to secure it for ever from
+famine. The Bari Doab canal, which irrigates the Gurdaspur, Amritsar and
+Lahore districts, has been enlarged and extended so as to double its
+irrigation since it was projected in 1877-1878. The Chenab canal, the
+largest in India and the most profitable, was only begun in 1889. It was
+designed to command an area of about 2(1/2) million acres, and to
+irrigate annually rather less than half that area. This canal flows
+through land that in 1889 was practically desert. From the first
+arrangements were made for bringing colonists in from the more congested
+parts of India. The colonization began in 1892. Nine years later this
+canal watered 1,830,525 acres. The population of the immigrant colony
+was 792,666, consisting mainly of thriving and prosperous peasants with
+occupancy rights in holdings of about 28 acres each. The direct revenue
+of this canal in 1906 was 26% on the capital outlay. The Jhelum canal
+was opened on the 30th of October, 1901. It is a smaller work than the
+Chenab, but it is calculated to command 1,130,000 acres, of which at
+least half will be watered annually. A much smaller work, but one of
+great interest, is the Swat river canal in the Peshawar valley. It was
+never expected that this would be a remunerative work, but it was
+thought for political reasons expedient to construct it in order to
+induce turbulent frontier tribes to settle down into peaceful
+agriculture. This has had a great measure of success, and the canal
+itself has proved remunerative, irrigating 123,000 acres in 1896-1897. A
+much greater scheme than any of the above is that of the Sind Sagar
+canal, projected from the left bank of the Indus opposite Kalabagh, to
+irrigate 1,750,000 acres at a cost of [R]x. 6,000,000. Another great
+canal scheme for the Punjab proposed to take off from the right bank of
+the Sutlej, and to irrigate about 600,000 acres in the Montgomery and
+Multan districts, at a cost of [R]x. 2,500,000. These three last
+projects would add 2,774,000 acres to the irrigated area of the
+province, and as they would flow through tracts almost unpeopled, they
+would afford a most valuable outlet for the congested districts of
+northern India. In addition to these great perennial canals, much has
+been done since 1878 in enlarging and extending what are known as the
+"inundation canals" of the Punjab, which utilize the flood waters in the
+rivers during the monsoon season and are dry at other times. By these
+canals large portions of country throughout most of the Punjab are
+brought under cultivation, and the area thus watered has increased from
+about 180,000 to 500,000 acres since 1878.
+
+It is on inundation canals such as these that the whole cultivation of
+Sind depends. In 1878 the area was about 1,500,000 acres; in 1896-1897
+it had increased to 2,484,000 acres. This increase was not due to famine
+in Sind, for that rainless province depends always on the Indus, as
+Egypt does on the Nile, and where there is no rainfall there can be no
+drought. But the famine prices obtained for agricultural produce
+doubtless gave an impetus to cultivation. In Sind, too, there is room
+for much increase of irrigation. It has been proposed to construct two
+new canals, the Jamrao and the Shikarpur, and to improve and extend
+three existing canals--Nasrat, Naulakhi and Dad. The total cost of these
+five projects, some of which are now in progress, was estimated at [R]x.
+1,596,682, and the extension of irrigation at 660,563 acres.
+
+Turning from the basin of the Indus to that of the Ganges, the
+commissioners appointed to report on the famine of 1896-1897 found that
+in the country between the Ganges and the Jumna little was left to be
+done beyond the completion of some distributary channels. The East India
+Company's great work, the Ganges canal, constructed between 1840 and
+1854 before there was a mile of railway open in India, still holds its
+place unsurpassed among later irrigation work for boldness of design and
+completeness of execution, a lasting monument to the genius of Sir Proby
+Cautley, an officer of the Bengal Artillery, but a born engineer. Ever
+since 1870 consideration has been given to projects for irrigating the
+fertile province of Oudh by means of a great canal to be drawn from the
+river Sarda. The water is there in abundance, the land is well adapted
+for irrigation, but as there is a considerable rainfall, it is doubtful
+whether the scheme would prove remunerative, and a large section of the
+landowners have hitherto opposed it, as likely to waterlog the country.
+Among the four protective works of irrigation which were said above to
+have irrigated 200,733 acres in 1896-1897, one of the most important is
+the Betwa canal, in the parched district of Bundelkhand. This canal has
+cost [R]x. 428,086, and causes an annual loss to the state in interest
+and working expenses of about [R]x. 20,000. It irrigated, however, in
+1896-1897 an area of 87,306 acres, raising crops valued at [R]x.
+231,081, or half the cost of the canal, so it may be said to have
+justified its construction. A similar canal from the river Ken in the
+same district has been constructed. Proceeding farther east, we find
+very satisfactory progress in the irrigation of southern Behar, effected
+by the costly system of canals drawn from the river Sone. In 1877-1878
+these canals irrigated 241,790 acres. Rapid progress was not expected
+here, and 792,000 acres was calculated as being the maximum area that
+could be covered with the water supply available. In the five years
+preceding 1901-1902 the average irrigated area was 463,181 acres, and
+during that year the area was 555,156 acres, the maximum ever attained.
+
+The canal system of Orissa was never expected to be remunerative, since
+in five years out of six the local rainfall is sufficient for the rice
+crop. In 1878-1879 the area irrigated was 111,250 acres, and the outlay
+up to date was [R]x. 1,750,000. In 1900-1901 the area was 203,540 acres,
+the highest ever attained, and the capital outlay amounted to [R]x.
+2,623,703. It should be mentioned in favour of these canals that
+although the irrigation is not of yearly value, they supply very
+important water communication through a province which, from its natural
+configuration, is not likely to be soon intersected by railways. If,
+moreover, such a famine were again to occur in Orissa as that of
+1866-1867, there would be no doubt of the value of these fine canals.
+
+In the Madras presidency and in Mysore irrigation has long assumed a
+great importance, and the engineering works of the three great deltas of
+the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery, the outcome of the genius and
+indefatigable enthusiasm of Sir Arthur Cotton, have always been quoted
+as showing what a boon irrigation is to a country. In 1878 the total
+area of irrigation in the Madras presidency amounted to about 5,000,000
+acres. The irrigation of the eight productive systems was 1,680,178
+acres, and the revenue [R]x. 739,778. In 1898 there were ten of these
+systems, with an irrigation area, as shown by the accompanying table, of
+2,685,915 acres, and a revenue of [R]x. 1,163,268:
+
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |                       |          |          |         |          | Capital  |Percentage |
+  |    Irrigation.        |   Area   |   Total  |  Total  |   Net    |   and    |  of Net   |
+  |                       | Watered. | Revenue. | Expendi-| Revenue. | Indirect |  Revenue  |
+  |                       |          |          |  ture.  |          | Charges. |to Capital.|
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |   _Major Works._      |  Acres.  |   [R]x.  |  [R]x.  |   [R]x.  |   [R]x.  |           |
+  | 1. Godavari Delta     |  779,435 |  328,443 | 68,376  |  260,067 |1,297,807 |   19.15   |
+  | 2. Kistna Delta       |  520,373 |  254,579 | 74,142  |  180,437 |1,319,166 |   13.18   |
+  | 3. Pennar Weir System |   70,464 |   28,160 |  5,937  |   23,123 |  189,919 |    7.59   |
+  | 4. Sangam System      |   76,277 |   32,627 |  7,037  |   25,590 |  385,601 |    3.68   |
+  | 5. Kurnool Canal      |   47,008 |   15,622 | 12,404  |    3,218 |2,171,740 |     .15   |
+  | 6. Barur Tank System  |    4,421 |    1,162 |    385  |      777 |    4,250 |    1.39   |
+  | 7. Cauvery Delta      |  989,808 |  434,346 | 43,464  |  390,882 |  199,458 |   44.87   |
+  | 8. Srivaikuntam System|   41,668 |   19,349 |  4,680  |   14,669 |  147,192 |    5.45   |
+  | 9. Periyar Project    |   89,143 |   37,526 | 10,751  |   26,775 |  852,914 |     .27   |
+  |10. Rushikulya Canal   |   67,318 |   11,454 |  3,678  |    7,776 |  464,423 |     .54   |
+  |                       +----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |      Total            |2,685,915 |1,163,268 |229,954  |  933,314 |7,032,470 |  7.88     |
+  |                       |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |    _Minor Works._     |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |23 Works for which     |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  Capital and Revenue  |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  Accounts are kept    |  535,813 |  200,558 | 34,655  |  165,903 |1,693,878 |    4.44   |
+  |Minor Works for which  |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  such Accounts are    |          |          |         |          |          |           |
+  |  not kept             |3,131,009 |  830,175 |193,295  |  636,880 |    ..    |     ..    |
+  |                       +----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+  |     Grand Total       |6,352,737 |2,194,001 |457,904  |1,736,097 |    ..    |     ..    |
+  +-----------------------+----------+----------+---------+----------+----------+-----------+
+
+In the three great deltas, and the small southern one that depends on
+the Srivaikuntam weir over the river Tumbraparni, extension and
+improvement works have been carried on. The Sangam and Pennar systems
+depend on two weirs on the river Pennar in the Nellore district, the
+former about 18 m. above and the latter just below the town of Nellore.
+The former irrigates on the left, the latter on the right bank of the
+river. This district suffered severely in the famine of 1877-1878, and
+the irrigation works were started in consequence. The Barur tank system
+in the Salem district was also constructed after the famine of
+1877-1878. As yet it has not fulfilled expectations. The Periyar scheme
+has for its object both the addition of new irrigation and the
+safeguarding of that which exists in the district of Madura, a plain
+watered by means of a great number of shallow tanks drawing their supply
+from a very uncertain river, the Vaigai. This river takes its rise on
+the eastern slopes of the Ghat range of mountains, and just opposite to
+it, on the western face of the range, is the source of the river
+Periyar. The rainfall on the west very much exceeds that on the east,
+and the Periyar used to find its way by a short torrent course to the
+sea, rendering no service to mankind. Its upper waters are now stemmed
+by a masonry dam 178 ft. high, forming a large lake, at the eastern end
+of which is a tunnel 5700 ft. long, piercing the watershed and
+discharging 1600 cub. ft. per second down the eastern side of the
+mountains into the river Vaigai. No bolder or more original work of
+irrigation has been carried out in India, and the credit of it is due to
+Colonel J. Pennycuick, C.S.I. The dam and tunnel were works of unusual
+difficulty. The country was roadless and uninhabited save by wild
+beasts, and fever and cholera made sad havoc of the working parties; but
+it was successfully accomplished. The last of those given in the table
+above was not expected to be remunerative, but it should prove a
+valuable protective against famine. The system consists of weirs over
+the rivers Gulleri, Mahanadi and Rushikulya in the backward province of
+Ganjam, south of Orissa. From these weirs flow canals altogether about
+127 m. long, which, in connexion with two large reservoirs, are capable
+of irrigating 120,000 acres. In 1901 the works, though incomplete,
+already irrigated 67,318 acres.
+
+In addition to all these great engineering systems, southern India is
+covered with minor works of irrigation, some drawn from springs in the
+sandy beds of rivers, some from the rainfall of 1/2 sq. m. ponded up in
+a valley. In other cases tanks are fed from neighbouring streams, and
+the greatest ingenuity is displayed in preventing the precious water
+from going to waste.
+
+Allusion has been already made to the canals of Sind. Elsewhere in the
+Bombay presidency, in the Deccan and Gujarat, there are fewer facilities
+for irrigation than in other parts of India. The rivers are generally of
+uncertain volume. The cost of storage works is very great. The
+population is backward, and the black soil is of a nature that in
+ordinary years can raise fair crops of cotton, millet and maize without
+artificial watering. Up to the end of 1896-1897 the capital spent on the
+irrigation works of the Deccan and Gujarat was [R]x. 2,616,959. The area
+irrigated that year was 262,830 acres. The most important works are the
+Mutha and Nira canals in the Poona district.
+
+In Upper Burma three productive irrigation works were planned at the
+opening of the century--the Mandalay, the Shwebo, and the Mon canals, of
+which the first was estimated to cost [R]x. 323,280, and to irrigate
+72,000 acres. The area estimated from the whole three projects is
+262,000 acres, situated in the only part of Burma that is considered
+liable to famine.
+
+In 1901, after years of disastrous drought and famine, the government of
+India appointed a commission to examine throughout all India what could
+be done by irrigation to alleviate the horrors of famine. Up to that
+time it had been the principle of the government not to borrow money for
+the execution of irrigation works unless there was a reasonable
+expectation that within a few years they would give a return of 4 or 5%
+on the capital outlay. In 1901 the government took larger views. It was
+found that although some irrigation works (especially in the Bombay
+Deccan) would never yield a direct return of 4 or 5%, still in a famine
+year they might be the means of producing a crop which would go far to
+do away with the necessity for spending enormous sums on famine relief.
+In the Sholapur district of Bombay, for instance, about three years'
+revenue was spent on relief during the famine of 1901. An expenditure of
+ten years' revenue on irrigation works might have done away for all
+future time with the necessity for the greater part of this outlay. The
+Irrigation Commission of 1901-1903 published a very exhaustive report
+after a careful study of every part of India. While emphatically
+asserting that irrigation alone could never prevent famine, they
+recommended an outlay of L45,000,000 spread over a period of 25 years.
+
+  See also _Annual Reports Irrigation Department Local Governments of
+  India_; _Reports of the Indian Famine Commissions of 1878, 1898 and
+  1901_; Sir Hanbury Brown, _Irrigation, its Principles and Practice_
+  (London, 1907).
+
+VI. _United States._--At the opening of the 20th century, during Mr
+Roosevelt's presidency, the new "Conservation" policy (i.e.
+conservation of natural resources by federal initiative and control), to
+which he gave so much impetus and encouragement, brought the extension
+of irrigation works in the United States to the front in American
+statecraft (see Vrooman, _Mr Roosevelt, Dynamic Geographer_, 1909).
+Though the carrying out of this policy on a large scale was hampered by
+many difficulties, the subject was made definitely one of national
+importance.
+
+On account of the aridity of the climate throughout the greater part of
+the western third of the United States, the practice of agriculture is
+dependent upon an artificial supply of water. On most of the country
+west of the 97th meridian and extending to the Pacific Ocean less than
+20 in. of rain falls each year. The most notable exceptions are in the
+case of a narrow strip west of the Cascade Range and of some of the
+higher mountain masses. In ordinary years the climate is too dry for
+successful cultivation of the field crops, although under favourable
+conditions of soil and cultivation there are certain areas where cereals
+are grown by what is known as "dry farming." The progress in irrigation
+up to the end of the 19th century was spasmodic but on the whole steady.
+The eleventh census of the United States, 1890, showed that 3,564,416
+acres were irrigated in 1889. This included only the lands from which
+crops were produced. Besides this, there were probably 10 million acres
+under irrigation systems constructed in whole or in part. In 1899 the
+irrigated area in the arid states and territories was more than twice as
+great as in 1889, the acreage being as follows:--
+
+  Arizona        185,936
+  California   1,445,872
+  Colorado     1,611,271
+  Idaho          602,568
+  Montana        951,154
+  Nevada         504,168
+  New Mexico     203,893
+  Oregon         388,310
+  Utah           629,293
+  Washington     135,470
+  Wyoming        605,878
+               ---------
+  Total        7,263,813
+
+In addition to the area above given, in 1899, 273,117 acres were under
+irrigation in the semi-arid region, east of the states above mentioned
+and including portions of the states of North and South Dakota,
+Nebraska, Kansas, Texas and Oklahoma. The greater part of these lands
+was irrigated by canals or ditches built by individuals acting singly or
+in co-operation with their neighbours, or by corporations. The national
+and state governments had not built any works of reclamation excepting
+where the federal government, through the Indian department, had
+constructed irrigation ditches for Indian tribes, notably the Crow
+Indians of Montana. A few of the state governments, such, for example,
+as Colorado, had built small reservoirs or portions of canals from
+internal improvement funds.
+
+The construction of irrigation canals and ditches was for the most part
+brought about by farmers joining to plough out or dig ditches from the
+rivers, descending on a gentle grade. Some of the corporations
+constructing works for the sale of water built structures of notable
+size, such, for example, as the Sweet-water and Hemet dams of southern
+California, the Bear river canal of Utah, and the Arizona canal, taking
+water from Salt river, Arizona. The cost of bringing water to the land
+averaged about $8 per acre where the ordinary ditches were built. The
+owners of extensive works were charged from $12 to $20 per acre and
+upwards for so-called "water rights," or the privilege to take water
+from the canal, this covering cost of construction. Besides the first
+cost of construction, the irrigator was usually called upon to pay
+annually a certain amount for maintenance, which might often be worked
+out by labour on the canal. The cost ranged from 50 cents to $1 per
+acre; or, with incorporated companies, from $1.50 to $2.50 per acre and
+upwards. The largest expense for water rights and for annual maintenance
+was incurred in southern California, where the character of the crops,
+such as citrus fruits, and the scarcity of the water make possible
+expensive construction and heavy charges. The legal expense for the
+maintenance of water rights was often large because of the interminable
+suits brought during the times of water scarcity. The laws regarding
+water in most of the arid states were indefinite or contradictory, being
+based partly on the common law regarding riparian rights, and partly
+upon the Spanish law allowing diversion of water from natural streams.
+Few fundamental principles were established, except in the case of the
+state of Wyoming, where an official was charged with the duty of
+ascertaining the amount of water in the streams and apportioning this to
+the claimants in the order of their priority of appropriation for
+beneficial use.
+
+It may be said that, up to the year 1900, irrigation progressed to such
+an extent that there remained few ordinary localities where water could
+not be easily or cheaply diverted from creeks and rivers for the
+cultivation of farms. The claims for the available supply from small
+streams, however, exceeded the water to be had in the latter part of the
+irrigating season. There remained large rivers and opportunities for
+water storage which could be brought under irrigation at considerable
+expense. The large canals and reservoirs built by corporations had
+rarely been successful from a financial standpoint, and irrigation
+construction during the latter part of the decade 1890-1899 was
+relatively small. Owing to the difficulty and expense of securing water
+from running streams by gravity systems, a great variety of methods were
+developed of pumping water by windmills, gasoline or hot-air engines,
+and steam. Ordinary reciprocating pumps were commonly employed, and also
+air lifts and similar devices for raising great quantities of water to a
+height of from 20 to 50 ft. For greater depths the cost was usually
+prohibitive. Throughout the Great Plains region, east of the Rocky
+Mountains, and in the broad valleys to the west, windmills were
+extensively used, each pumping water for from 1 to 5 acres of cultivated
+ground. In a few localities, notably in South Dakota, the Yakima valley
+of Washington, San Joaquin, and San Bernardino valleys of California,
+San Luis valley of Colorado, and Utah valley of Utah, water from
+artesian wells was also used for the irrigation of from 1 to 160 acres.
+The total acreage supplied by such means was probably less than 1% of
+that watered by gravity systems.
+
+The development of irrigation was in part retarded by the improper or
+wasteful use of water. On permeable soils, especially those of the
+terrace lands along the valleys, the soluble salts commonly known as
+alkali were gradually leached out and carried by the percolating waters
+towards the lower lands, where, reaching the surface, the alkali was
+left as a glistening crust or as pools of inky blackness. Farms adjacent
+to the rivers were for a time increased in richness by the alkaline
+salts, which in diffuse form might be valuable plant foods, and then
+suddenly become valueless when the concentration of alkali had reached a
+degree beyond that which the ordinary plants would endure.
+
+The situation as regards the further progress of irrigation on a large
+scale was however dominated in the early years of the 20th century by
+the new Conservation policy. Mr Roosevelt brought the whole subject
+before Congress in his message of the 3rd of December 1901, and thereby
+started what seemed likely to be a new sphere of Federal initiative and
+control. After referring to the effects of forests (see FORESTS AND
+FORESTRY) on water-supply, he went on as follows:--
+
+  "The forests alone cannot fully regulate and conserve the waters of
+  the arid regions. Great storage works are necessary to equalize the
+  flow of the streams and to save the flood waters. Their construction
+  has been conclusively shown to be an undertaking too vast for private
+  effort. Nor can it be best accomplished by the individual states
+  acting alone.
+
+  "Far-reaching interstate problems are involved, and the resources of
+  single states would often be inadequate. It is properly a national
+  function, at least in some of its features. It is as right for the
+  National Government to make the streams and rivers of the arid regions
+  useful by engineering works for water storage, as to make useful the
+  rivers and harbours of the humid regions by engineering works of
+  another kind. The storing of the floods in reservoirs at the
+  headquarters of our rivers is but an enlargement of our present policy
+  of river control, under which levees are built on the lower reaches
+  of the same streams.
+
+  "The government should construct and maintain these reservoirs as it
+  does other public works. Where their purpose is to regulate the flow
+  of streams, the water should be turned freely into the channels in the
+  dry season, to take the same course under the same laws as the natural
+  flow.
+
+  "The reclamation of the unsettled arid public lands presents a
+  different problem. Here it is not enough to regulate the flow of
+  streams. The object of the government is to dispose of the land to
+  settlers who will build homes upon it. To accomplish the object water
+  must be brought within their reach.
+
+  "The reclamation and settlement of the arid lands will enrich every
+  portion of our country, just as the settlement of the Ohio and
+  Mississippi valleys brought prosperity to the Atlantic States. The
+  increased demand for manufactured articles will stimulate industrial
+  production, while wider home markets and the trade of Asia will
+  consume the larger food supplies and effectually prevent Western
+  competition with Eastern agriculture. Indeed, the products of
+  irrigation will be consumed chiefly in upbuilding local centres of
+  mining and other industries, which would otherwise not come into
+  existence at all. Our people as a whole will profit, for successful
+  home-making is but another name for the upbuilding of the nation."
+
+In 1902, by Act of Congress, a "reclamation fund" was created from
+moneys received from the sale of public lands; it was to be used under a
+"Reclamation Service" (part of the Department of the Interior) for the
+reclamation of arid lands. The "Truckee-Carson project" for irrigation
+in Nevada was immediately begun. About thirty other government projects
+were taken in hand under the new Reclamation Service, in some cases
+involving highly interesting engineering problems, as in the Uncompahgre
+Project in Colorado. Here the Uncompahgre and Gunnison rivers flowed
+parallel, about 10 m. apart, with a mountain range 2000 ft. high between
+them. The Uncompahgre, with only a small amount of water, flowed through
+a broad and fertile valley containing several hundred thousand acres of
+cultivable soil. The Gunnison, with far more water, flowed through a
+canyon with very little land. The problem was to get the water from the
+Gunnison over the mountain range into the Uncompahgre valley; and a
+tunnel, 6 m. long, was cut through, resulting in 1909 in 148,000 acres
+of land being irrigated and thrown open to settlers. Similarly, near
+Yuma in Arizona, a project was undertaken for carrying the waters of the
+main canal on the California side under the Colorado river by a siphon.
+In the report for 1907 of the Reclamation Service it was stated that it
+had dug 1881 m. of canals, some carrying whole rivers, like the Truckee
+river in Nevada and the North Platte in Wyoming, and had erected 281
+large structures, including the great dams in Nevada and the Minidoka
+dam (80 ft. high and 650 ft. long) in Idaho. As the result of the
+operations eight new towns had been established, 100 m. of branch
+railroads constructed, and 14,000 people settled in what had been the
+desert.
+
+  A White House conference of governors of states was held at Washington
+  in May 1909, which drew up a "declaration of principles" for the
+  conservation of natural resources, recommending the appointment of a
+  commission by each state to co-operate with one another and with the
+  Federal government; and by the end of the year thirty-six states had
+  appointed Conservation committees. Thus, in the first decade of the
+  20th century a great advance had been made in the way in which the
+  whole problem was being viewed in America, though the very immensity
+  of the problem of bringing the Federal power to bear on operations on
+  so vast a scale, involving the limitation of private land speculation
+  in important areas, still presented political difficulties of
+  considerable magnitude.
+
+
+
+
+IRULAS ("Benighted ones," from Tamil, _iral_, "darkness"), a
+semi-Hinduized forest-tribe of southern India, who are found mainly in
+North Arcot, Chingleput, South Arcot, Trichinopoly, and the Malabar
+Wynaad. The typical Irulas of the Nilgiris live a wild life on the lower
+slopes of those hills. At the 1901 census this branch of the Irulas
+numbered 1915, while the total of so-called Irulas was returned at
+86,087.
+
+  See J. W. Breeks, _Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris_ (1873); _Nilgiri
+  Manual_, i. 214-217; _North Arcot Manual_, i. 248-249.
+
+
+
+
+IRUN, a frontier town of northern Spain, in the province of Guipuzcoa,
+on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, opposite the French village of
+Hendaye. Pop. (1900) 9912. Irun is the northern terminus of the Spanish
+Northern railway, and a thriving industrial town, with ironworks,
+tan-yards, potteries and paper mills. Its principal buildings are the
+fine Renaissance parish church and the fortress-like 17th-century town
+hall. It derives its prosperity from the fact that it is the most
+important custom-house in Spain for the overland trade with the rest of
+Europe. Irun is also on the chief highway for travellers and mails. It
+is the terminus of some important narrow-gauge mining railways and steam
+tramways, which place it in communication with the mining districts of
+Guipuzcoa and Navarre, and with the valuable oak, pine and beech forests
+of both provinces. There are hot mineral springs in the town.
+
+
+
+
+IRVINE, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of Ayrshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 9607. It is situated on the north bank of the
+estuary of the Irvine, 29(1/2) m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Caledonian
+railway, with a station also on the Glasgow & South Western railway. It
+is connected with the suburb of Fullarton on the south side of the river
+by a stone bridge, which was built in 1746 and widened in 1827.
+Alexander II. granted it a charter, which was confirmed by Robert Bruce.
+Towards the end of the 17th century it was reckoned the third shipping
+port in Scotland (Port Glasgow and Leith being the leaders), and though
+its importance in this respect declined owing to the partial silting-up
+of the harbour, its water-borne trade revived after 1875, the sandy bar
+having been removed and the wharfage extended and improved. The public
+buildings include the town hall, academy (1814) and fever hospital. The
+principal historical remains are the square tower of Stanecastle and the
+ancient Seagate Castle, which contains some good specimens of Norman
+architecture. The industries include engine-making, shipbuilding, iron-
+and brass-founding, the manufacture of chemicals, brewing and
+soap-making. Irvine unites with Ayr, Campbeltown, Inveraray and Oban in
+sending one member to parliament. The exports consist principally of
+coal, iron and chemical products, and the imports of grain, timber,
+limestone, ores and general produce. At DREGHORN, 2 m. to the S.E. (pop.
+1155) coal and iron are worked.
+
+
+
+
+IRVING, EDWARD (1792-1834), Scottish church divine, generally regarded
+as the founder of the "Catholic Apostolic Church" (q.v.), was born at
+Annan, Dumfriesshire, on the 4th of August 1792. By his father's side,
+who followed the occupation of a tanner, he was descended from a family
+long known in the district, and the purity of whose Scottish lineage had
+been tinged by alliance with French Protestant refugees; but it was from
+his mother's race, the Lowthers, farmers or small proprietors in
+Annandale, that he seems to have derived the most distinctive features
+of his personality. The first stage of his education was passed at a
+school kept by "Peggy Paine," a relation of the well-known author of the
+_Age of Reason_, after which he entered the Annan academy, taught by Mr
+Adam Hope, of whom there is a graphic sketch in the _Reminiscences_ of
+Thomas Carlyle. At the age of thirteen he entered the university of
+Edinburgh. In 1809 he graduated M.A.; and in 1810, on the recommendation
+of Sir John Leslie, he was chosen master of an academy newly established
+at Haddington, where he became the tutor of Jane Welsh, afterwards
+famous as Mrs Carlyle. He became engaged in 1812 to Isabella Martin,
+whom in 1823 he married; but it may be at once stated here that
+meanwhile he gradually fell in love with Jane Welsh, and she with him.
+He tried to get out of his engagement with Miss Martin, but was
+prevented by her family. If he had married Miss Welsh, his life, as well
+as hers, would have been very different. It was Irving who in 1821
+introduced Carlyle to her.
+
+His appointment at Haddington he exchanged for a similar one at
+Kirkcaldy in 1812. Completing his divinity studies by a series of
+partial sessions, he was "licensed" to preach in June 1815, but
+continued to discharge his scholastic duties for three years. He devoted
+his leisure, not only to mathematical and physical science, but to a
+course of reading in English literature, his bias towards the antique in
+sentiment and style being strengthened by a perusal of the older
+classics, among whom Richard Hooker was his favourite author. At the
+same time his love of the marvellous found gratification in the wonders
+of the _Arabian Nights_, and it is further characteristically related
+of him that he used to carry continually in his waistcoat pocket a
+miniature copy of _Ossian_, passages from which he frequently recited
+with "sonorous elocution and vehement gesticulation."
+
+In the summer of 1818 he resigned his mastership, and, in order to
+increase the probability of obtaining a permanent appointment in the
+church, took up his residence in Edinburgh. Although his exceptional
+method of address seems to have gained him the qualified approval of
+certain dignitaries of the church, the prospect of his obtaining a
+settled charge seemed as remote as ever, and he was meditating a
+missionary tour in Persia when his departure was arrested by steps taken
+by Dr Chalmers, which, after considerable delay, resulted, in October
+1819, in Irving being appointed his assistant and missionary in St
+John's parish, Glasgow. Except in the case of a select few, Irving's
+preaching awakened little interest among the congregation of Chalmers,
+Chalmers himself, with no partiality for its bravuras and flourishes,
+comparing it to "Italian music, appreciated only by connoisseurs"; but
+as a missionary among the poorer classes he wielded an influence that
+was altogether unique. The benediction "Peace be to this house," with
+which, in accordance with apostolic usage, he greeted every dwelling he
+entered, was not inappropriate to his figure and aspect, and it is said
+"took the people's attention wonderfully," the more especially after the
+magic of his personality found opportunity to reveal itself in close and
+homely intercourse. This half-success in a subordinate sphere was,
+however, so far from coinciding with his aspirations that he had again,
+in the winter of 1821, begun to turn his attention towards missionary
+labour in the East, when the possibility of fulfilling the dream of his
+life was suddenly revealed to him by an invitation from the Caledonian
+church, Hatton Garden, London, to "make trial and proof" of his gifts
+before the "remnant of the congregation which held together." Over that
+charge he was ordained in July 1822. Some years previously he had
+expressed his conviction that "one of the chief needs of the age was to
+make inroad after the alien, to bring in the votaries of fashion, of
+literature, of sentiment, of policy and of rank, who are content in
+their several idolatries to do without piety to God and love to Him whom
+He hath sent"; and, with an abruptness which must have produced on him
+at first an effect almost astounding, he now had the satisfaction of
+beholding these various votaries thronging to hear from his lips the
+words of wisdom which would deliver them from their several idolatries
+and remodel their lives according to the fashion of apostolic times.
+
+This sudden leap into popularity seems to have been occasioned in
+connexion with a veiled allusion to Irving's striking eloquence made in
+the House of Commons by Canning, who had been induced to attend his
+church from admiration of an expression in one of his prayers, quoted to
+him by Sir James Mackintosh. His commanding stature, the symmetry of his
+form, the dark and melancholy beauty of his countenance, rather rendered
+piquant than impaired by an obliquity of vision, produced an imposing
+impression even before his deep and powerful voice had given utterance
+to its melodious thunders; and harsh and superficial half-truths
+enunciated with surpassing ease and grace of gesture, and not only with
+an air of absolute conviction but with the authority of a prophetic
+messenger, in tones whose magical fascination was inspired by an
+earnestness beyond all imitation of art, acquired a plausibility and
+importance which, at least while the orator spoke, made his audience
+entirely forgetful of their preconceived objections against them. The
+subject-matter of his orations, and his peculiar treatment of his
+themes, no doubt also, at least at first, constituted a considerable
+part of his attractive influence. He had specially prepared himself, as
+he thought, for "teaching imaginative men, and political men, and legal
+men, and scientific men who bear the world in hand"; and he did not
+attempt to win their attention to abstract and worn-out theological
+arguments, but discussed the opinions, the poetry, the politics, the
+manners and customs of the time, and this not with philosophical
+comprehensiveness, not in terms of warm eulogy or measured blame, but
+of severe satire varied by fierce denunciation, and with a specific
+minuteness which was concerned primarily with individuals. A fire of
+criticism from pamphlets, newspapers and reviews opened on his volume of
+_Orations_, published in 1823; but the excitement produced was merely
+superficial and essentially evanescent. Though cherishing a strong
+antipathy to the received ecclesiastical formulas, Irving's great aim
+was to revive the antique style of thought and sentiment which had
+hardened into these formulas, and by this means to supplant the new
+influences, the accidental and temporary moral shortcomings of which he
+detected with instinctive certainty, but whose profound and real
+tendencies were utterly beyond the reach of his conjecture. Being thus
+radically at variance with the main current of the thought of his time,
+the failure of the commission he had undertaken was sooner or later
+inevitable; and shortly after the opening of his new church in Regent
+Square in 1827, he found that "fashion had taken its departure," and the
+church, "though always well filled," was "no longer crowded." By this
+desertion his self-esteem, one of his strongest passions, though
+curiously united with singular sincerity and humility, was doubtless
+hurt to the quick; but the wound inflicted was of a deeper and deadlier
+kind, for it confirmed him finally in his despair of the world's gradual
+amelioration, and established his tendency towards supernaturalism.
+
+For years the subject of prophecy had occupied much of his thoughts, and
+his belief in the near approach of the second advent had received such
+wonderful corroboration by the perusal of the work of a Jesuit priest,
+writing under the assumed Jewish name of Juan Josafat Ben-Ezra, that in
+1827 he published a translation of it, accompanied with an eloquent
+preface. Probably the religious opinions of Irving, originally in some
+respects more catholic and truer to human nature than generally
+prevailed in ecclesiastical circles, had gained breadth and
+comprehensiveness from his intercourse with Coleridge, but gradually his
+chief interest in Coleridge's philosophy centred round that which was
+mystical and obscure, and to it in all likelihood may be traced his
+initiation into the doctrine of millenarianism. The first stage of his
+later development, which resulted in the establishment of the
+"Irvingite" or "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church," in 1832, was associated
+with conferences at his friend Henry Drummond's seat at Albury
+concerning unfulfilled prophecy, followed by an almost exclusive study
+of the prophetical books and especially of the Apocalypse, and by
+several series of sermons on prophecy both in London and the provinces,
+his apocalyptic lectures in 1828 more than crowding the largest churches
+of Edinburgh in the early summer mornings. In 1830, however, there was
+opened up to his ardent imagination a new vista into spiritual things, a
+new hope for the age in which he lived, by the seeming actual revival in
+a remote corner of Scotland of those apostolic gifts of prophecy and
+healing which he had already in 1828 persuaded himself had only been
+kept in abeyance by the absence of faith. At once he welcomed the new
+"power" with an unquestioning evidence which could be shaken by neither
+the remonstrances or desertion of his dearest friends, the recantation
+of some of the principal agents of the "gifts," his own declension into
+a comparatively subordinate position, the meagre and barren results of
+the manifestations, nor their general rejection both by the church and
+the world. His excommunication by the presbytery of London, in 1830, for
+publishing his doctrines regarding the humanity of Jesus Christ, and the
+condemnation of these opinions by the General Assembly of the Church of
+Scotland in the following year, were secondary episodes which only
+affected the main issue of his career in so far as they tended still
+further to isolate him from the sympathy of the church; but the
+"irregularities" connected with the manifestation of the "gifts"
+gradually estranged the majority of his own congregation, and on the
+complaint of the trustees to the presbytery of London, whose authority
+they had formerly rejected, he was declared unfit to remain the minister
+of the National Scotch Church of Regent Square. After he and those who
+adhered to him (describing themselves as of the Holy Catholic Apostolic
+Church) had in 1832 removed to a new building in Newman Street, he was
+in March 1833 deposed from the ministry of the Church of Scotland by the
+presbytery of Annan on the original charge of heresy. With the sanction
+of the "power" he was now after some delay reordained "chief pastor of
+the church assembled in Newman Street," but unremitting labours and
+ceaseless spiritual excitement soon completely exhausted the springs of
+his vital energy. He died, worn out and wasted with labour and absorbing
+care, while still in the prime of life, on the 7th of December 1834.
+
+  The writings of Edward Irving published during his lifetime were _For
+  the Oracles of God, Four Orations_ (1823); _For Judgment to come_
+  (1823); _Babylon and Infidelity foredoomed_ (1826); _Sermons_, &c. (3
+  vols., 1828); _Exposition of the Book of Revelation_ (1831); an
+  introduction to a translation of Ben-Ezra; and an introduction to
+  Horne's _Commentary on the Psalms_. His collected works were published
+  in 5 volumes, edited by Gavin Carlyle. See also the article CATHOLIC
+  APOSTOLIC CHURCH.
+
+  The _Life of Edward Irving_, by Mrs Oliphant, appeared in 1862 in 2
+  vols. Among a large number of biographies published previously, that
+  by Washington Wilks (1854) has some merit. See also Hazlitt's _Spirit
+  of the Age_; Coleridge's _Notes on English Divines_; Carlyle's
+  _Miscellanies_, and Carlyle's _Reminiscences_, vol. i. (1881).
+
+
+
+
+IRVING, SIR HENRY (1838-1905), English actor, whose original name was
+John Brodribb, was born at Keinton-Mandeville, Somerset, on the 6th of
+February 1838. After a few years' schooling he became a clerk to a firm
+of East India merchants in London, but he soon gave up a commercial
+career and started as an actor. On the 29th of September 1856 he made
+his first appearance at Sunderland as Gaston, duke of Orleans, in Bulwer
+Lytton's _Richelieu_, billed as Henry Irving. This name he eventually
+assumed by royal licence. For ten years he went through an arduous
+training in various provincial stock companies, acting in more than five
+hundred parts. By degrees his ability gained recognition, and in 1866 he
+obtained an engagement at the St James's Theatre, London, to play
+Doricourt in _The Belle's Stratagem_. A year later he joined the company
+of the newly-opened Queen's Theatre, where he acted with Charles
+Wyndham, J. L. Toole, Lionel Brough, John Clayton, Mr and Mrs Alfred
+Wigan, Ellen Terry and Nelly Farren. This was followed by short
+engagements at the Haymarket, Drury Lane and Gaiety. At last he made his
+first conspicuous success as Digby Grant in James Albery's _The Two
+Roses_, which was produced at the Vaudeville on the 4th of June 1870 and
+ran for 300 nights. In 1871 he began his association with the Lyceum
+Theatre by an engagement under Bateman's management. The fortunes of the
+house were at a low ebb when the tide was turned by Irving's immediate
+success as Mathias in _The Bells_, a version of Erckmann-Chatrian's _Le
+Juif Polonais_ by Leopold Lewis. The play ran for 150 nights. With Miss
+Bateman, Irving was seen in W. G. Wills's _Charles I._ and _Eugene
+Aram_, in _Richelieu_, and in 1874 in _Hamlet_. The unconventionality of
+this last performance, during a run of 200 nights, aroused keen
+discussion, and singled him out as the most interesting English actor of
+his day. In 1875, still with Miss Bateman, he was seen as Macbeth; in
+1876 as Othello, and as Philip in Tennyson's _Queen Mary_; in 1877 in
+_Richard III._ and _The Lyons Mail_.
+
+In 1878 Irving opened the Lyceum under his own management. With Ellen
+Terry as Ophelia and Portia, he revived _Hamlet_ and produced _The
+Merchant of Venice_ (1879). His Shylock was as much discussed as his
+Hamlet had been, the dignity with which he invested the Jew marking a
+departure from the traditional interpretation of the role, and pleasing
+some as much as it offended others. After the production of Tennyson's
+_The Cup_, a revival of _Othello_ (in which Irving played Iago to the
+Othello of Edwin Booth) and of _Romeo and Juliet_, there began a period
+at the Lyceum which had a potent effect on the English stage. The Lyceum
+stage management, and the brilliancy of its productions in scenery,
+dressing and accessories, were revelations in the art of
+_mise-en-scene_. _Much Ado about Nothing_ (1882) was followed by
+_Twelfth Night_ (1884), _Olivia_--an adaptation of Goldsmith's _Vicar of
+Wakefield_ by W. G. Wills (1885); _Faust_ (1886); _Macbeth_ (1888): _The
+Dead Heart_, by Watts Phillips (1889); and _Ravenswood_--Herman
+Merivale's dramatic version of Scott's _Bride of Lammermoor_ (1890).
+Fine assumptions in 1892 of the characters of Wolsey in _Henry VIII._
+and of King Lear were followed in 1893 by a striking and dignified
+performance of Becket in Tennyson's play of that name. During these
+years too, Irving, with the whole Lyceum company, paid several visits to
+America, which met with conspicuous success, and were repeated in
+succeeding years. The chief remaining novelties at the Lyceum during
+Irving's sole managership (the theatre passed, at the beginning of 1899,
+into the hands of a limited liability company) were Comyns Carr's _King
+Arthur_ in 1895; _Cymbeline_, in which Irving played Iachimo, in 1896;
+Sardou's _Madame Sans-Gene_ in 1897; _Peter the Great_, a play by
+Laurence Irving, the actor's second son, in 1898; and Conan Doyle's
+_Waterloo_ (1894). The new _regime_ at the Lyceum was signalized by the
+production of Sardou's _Robespierre_ in 1899, in which Irving reappeared
+after a serious illness, and in 1901 by an elaborate revival of
+_Coriolanus_. Irving's only subsequent production in London was Sardou's
+_Dante_ (1903), a vast spectacular drama, staged at Drury Lane. He died
+"on tour" at Bradford on the 13th of October 1905, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+Both on and off the stage Irving always maintained a high ideal of his
+profession, and in 1895 he received the honour of knighthood, the first
+ever accorded an actor. He was also the recipient of honorary degrees
+from the universities of Dublin, Cambridge and Glasgow. His acting,
+apart from his genius as a presenter of plays, divided criticism,
+opinions differing as to the extent to which his mannerisms of voice and
+deportment interfered with or assisted the expression of his ideas. So
+strongly marked a personality as his could not help giving its own
+colouring to whatever part he might assume, but the richness and
+originality of this colouring at its best cannot be denied, any more
+than the spirit and intellect which characterized his renderings. At the
+least, extraordinary versatility must be conceded to an actor who could
+satisfy exacting audiences in roles so widely different as Digby Grant
+and Louis XI., Richard III. and Becket, Benedick and Shylock, Mathias
+and Dr Primrose.
+
+Sir Henry Irving had two sons, Harry Brodribb (b. 1870) and Laurence (b.
+1872). They were educated for other walks of life, the former for the
+bar, and the latter for the diplomatic service; but both turned to the
+stage, and the elder, who had already established himself as the most
+prominent of the younger English actors at the time of his father's
+death, went into management on his own account.
+
+
+
+
+IRVING, WASHINGTON (1783-1859), American man of letters, was born at New
+York on the 3rd of April 1783. Both his parents were immigrants from
+Great Britain, his father, originally an officer in the merchant
+service, but at the time of Irving's birth a considerable merchant,
+having come from the Orkneys, and his mother from Falmouth. Irving was
+intended for the legal profession, but his studies were interrupted by
+an illness necessitating a voyage to Europe, in the course of which he
+proceeded as far as Rome, and made the acquaintance of Washington
+Allston. He was called to the bar upon his return, but made little
+effort to practise, preferring to amuse himself with literary ventures.
+The first of these of any importance, a satirical miscellany entitled
+_Salmagundi, or the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Launcelot Langstaff and
+others_, written in conjunction with his brother William and J. K.
+Paulding, gave ample proof of his talents as a humorist. These were
+still more conspicuously displayed in his next attempt, _A History of
+New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch
+Dynasty_, by "Diedrich Knickerbocker" (2 vols., New York, 1809). The
+satire of _Salmagundi_ had been principally local, and the original
+design of "Knickerbocker's" _History_ was only to burlesque a
+pretentious disquisition on the history of the city in a guidebook by Dr
+Samuel Mitchell. The idea expanded as Irving proceeded, and he ended by
+not merely satirizing the pedantry of local antiquaries, but by creating
+a distinct literary type out of the solid Dutch burgher whose phlegm had
+long been an object of ridicule to the mercurial Americans. Though far
+from the most finished of Irving's productions, "Knickerbocker"
+manifests the most original power, and is the most genuinely national in
+its quaintness and drollery. The very tardiness and prolixity of the
+story are skilfully made to heighten the humorous effect.
+
+Upon the death of his father, Irving had become a sleeping partner in
+his brother's commercial house, a branch of which was established at
+Liverpool. This, combined with the restoration of peace, induced him to
+visit England in 1815, when he found the stability of the firm seriously
+compromised. After some years of ineffectual struggle it became
+bankrupt. This misfortune compelled Irving to resume his pen as a means
+of subsistence. His reputation had preceded him to England, and the
+curiosity naturally excited by the then unwonted apparition of a
+successful American author procured him admission into the highest
+literary circles, where his popularity was ensured by his amiable temper
+and polished manners. As an American, moreover, he stood aloof from the
+political and literary disputes which then divided England. Campbell,
+Jeffrey, Moore, Scott, were counted among his friends, and the
+last-named zealously recommended him to the publisher Murray, who, after
+at first refusing, consented (1820) to bring out _The Sketch Book of
+Geoffrey Crayon, Gent._ (7 pts., New York, 1819-1820). The most
+interesting part of this work is the description of an English
+Christmas, which displays a delicate humour not unworthy of the writer's
+evident model Addison. Some stories and sketches on American themes
+contribute to give it variety; of these Rip van Winkle is the most
+remarkable. It speedily obtained the greatest success on both sides of
+the Atlantic. _Bracebridge Hall, or the Humourists_ (2 vols., New York),
+a work purely English in subject, followed in 1822, and showed to what
+account the American observer had turned his experience of English
+country life. The humour is, nevertheless, much more English than
+American. _Tales of a Traveller_ (4 pts.) appeared in 1824 at
+Philadelphia, and Irving, now in comfortable circumstances, determined
+to enlarge his sphere of observation by a journey on the continent.
+After a long course of travel he settled down at Madrid in the house of
+the American consul Rich. His intention at the time was to translate the
+_Coleccion de los Viajes y Descubrimientos_ (Madrid, 1825-1837) of
+Martin Fernandez de Navarrete; finding, however, that this was rather a
+collection of valuable materials than a systematic biography, he
+determined to compose a biography of his own by its assistance,
+supplemented by independent researches in the Spanish archives. His
+_History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus_ (London, 4
+vols.) appeared in 1828, and obtained a merited success. _The Voyages
+and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus_ (Philadelphia, 1831)
+followed; and a prolonged residence in the south of Spain gave Irving
+materials for two highly picturesque books, _A Chronicle of the Conquest
+of Granada from the MSS. of_ [an imaginary] _Fray Antonio Agapida_ (2
+vols., Philadelphia, 1829), and _The Alhambra: a series of tales and
+sketches of the Moors and Spaniards_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1832).
+Previous to their appearance he had been appointed secretary to the
+embassy at London, an office as purely complimentary to his literary
+ability as the legal degree which he about the same time received from
+the university of Oxford.
+
+Returning to the United States in 1832, after seventeen years' absence,
+he found his name a household word, and himself universally honoured as
+the first American who had won for his country recognition on equal
+terms in the literary republic. After the rush of fetes and public
+compliments had subsided, he undertook a tour in the western prairies,
+and returning to the neighbourhood of New York built for himself a
+delightful retreat on the Hudson, to which he gave the name of
+"Sunnyside." His acquaintance with the New York millionaire John Jacob
+Astor prompted his next important work--_Astoria_ (2 vols.,
+Philadelphia, 1836), a history of the fur-trading settlement founded by
+Astor in Oregon, deduced with singular literary ability from dry
+commercial records, and, without laboured attempts at word-painting,
+evincing a remarkable faculty for bringing scenes and incidents vividly
+before the eye. _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville_ (London and
+Philadelphia, 1837), based upon the unpublished memoirs of a veteran
+explorer, was another work of the same class. In 1842 Irving was
+appointed ambassador to Spain. He spent four years in the country,
+without this time turning his residence to literary account; and it was
+not until two years after his return that Forster's life of Goldsmith,
+by reminding him of a slight essay of his own which he now thought too
+imperfect by comparison to be included among his collected writings,
+stimulated him to the production of his _Life of Oliver Goldsmith, with
+Selections from his Writings_ (2 vols., New York, 1849). Without
+pretensions to original research, the book displays an admirable talent
+for employing existing material to the best effect. The same may be said
+of _The Lives of Mahomet and his Successors_ (New York, 2 vols.,
+1849-1850). Here as elsewhere Irving correctly discriminated the
+biographer's province from the historian's, and leaving the
+philosophical investigation of cause and effect to writers of Gibbon's
+calibre, applied himself to represent the picturesque features of the
+age as embodied in the actions and utterances of its most characteristic
+representatives. His last days were devoted to his _Life of George
+Washington_ (5 vols., 1855-1859, New York and London), undertaken in an
+enthusiastic spirit, but which the author found exhausting and his
+readers tame. His genius required a more poetical theme, and indeed the
+biographer of Washington must be at least a potential soldier and
+statesman. Irving just lived to complete this work, dying of heart
+disease at Sunnyside, on the 28th of November 1859.
+
+Although one of the chief ornaments of American literature, Irving is
+not characteristically American. But he is one of the few authors of his
+period who really manifest traces of a vein of national peculiarity
+which might under other circumstances have been productive.
+"Knickerbocker's" _History of New York_, although the air of mock
+solemnity which constitutes the staple of its humour is peculiar to no
+literature, manifests nevertheless a power of reproducing a distinct
+national type. Had circumstances taken Irving to the West, and placed
+him amid a society teeming with quaint and genial eccentricity, he might
+possibly have been the first Western humorist, and his humour might have
+gained in depth and richness. In England, on the other hand, everything
+encouraged his natural fastidiousness; he became a refined writer, but
+by no means a robust one. His biographies bear the stamp of genuine
+artistic intelligence, equally remote from compilation and disquisition.
+In execution they are almost faultless; the narrative is easy, the style
+pellucid, and the writer's judgment nearly always in accordance with the
+general verdict of history. Without ostentation or affectation, he was
+exquisite in all things, a mirror of loyalty, courtesy and good taste in
+all his literary connexions, and exemplary in all the relations of
+domestic life. He never married, remaining true to the memory of an
+early attachment blighted by death.
+
+  The principal edition of Irving's works is the "Geoffrey Crayon,"
+  published at New York in 1880 in 26 vols. His _Life and Letters_ was
+  published by his nephew Pierre M. Irving (London, 1862-1864, 4 vols.;
+  German abridgment by Adolf Laun, Berlin, 1870, 2 vols.) There is a
+  good deal of miscellaneous information in a compilation entitled
+  _Irvingiana_ (New York, 1860); and W. C. Bryant's memorial oration,
+  though somewhat too uniformly laudatory, may be consulted with
+  advantage. It was republished in _Studies of Irving_ (1880) along with
+  C. Dudley Warner's introduction to the "Geoffrey Crayon" edition, and
+  Mr G. P. Putnam's personal reminiscences of Irving, which originally
+  appeared in the _Atlantic Monthly_. See also _Washington Irving_
+  (1881), by C. D. Warner, in the "American Men of Letters" series; H.
+  R. Haweis, _American Humourists_ (London, 1883).     (R. G.)
+
+
+
+
+IRVINGTON, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., bordering on the
+S.W. side of Newark. Pop. (1900) 5255, of whom 993 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 7180; (1910) 11,877. Irvington is served by the Lehigh Valley
+railroad and by electric railway to Newark. It is principally a
+residential suburb of Newark, but it has a small smelter (for gold and
+silver), and various manufactures, including textile working machinery,
+measuring rules and artisans' tools. There are large strawberry farms
+here. Irvington was settled near the close of the 17th century, and was
+called Camptown until 1852, when the present name was adopted in honour
+of Washington Irving. It was incorporated as a village in 1874, and as a
+town in 1898.
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC (Hebrew for "he laughs," on explanatory references to the name,
+see ABRAHAM), the only child of Abraham and Sarah, was born when his
+parents were respectively a hundred and ninety years of age (Gen. xvii.
+17). Like his father, Isaac lived a nomadic pastoral life, but within
+much narrower local limits, south of Beersheba (Gen. xxvi., on the
+incidents here recorded, see ABIMELECH). After the death of his mother,
+when he was forty years old, he married Rebekah the Aramaean, by whom
+after twenty years of married life he became the father of Esau and
+Jacob. He died at the age of one hundred and eighty.[1] "Isaac" is used
+as a synonym for "Israel" by Amos (vii. 9, 16), who also bears witness
+to the importance of Beersheba as a sanctuary. It was in this district,
+at the well Beer-Lahai-roi, that Isaac dwelt (Gen. xxiv. 62, xxv. 11),
+and the place was famous for an incident in the life of Hagar (xvi. 14).
+This was perhaps the original scene of the striking episode "in the land
+of Moriah," when at the last moment he was by angelic interposition
+released from the altar on which he was about to be sacrificed by his
+father in obedience to a divine command (Gen. xxii).[2] The narrative
+(which must be judged with due regard to the conditions of the age)
+shows that the sacrifice of the first-born, though not inconsistent with
+Yahweh's claims (Ex. xxii. 29), was neither required nor tolerated (cp.
+Micah vi. 6-8). See MOLOCH.
+
+  Isaac is by general consent of the Christian church taken as a
+  representative of the unobtrusive, restful, piously contemplative type
+  of human character. By later Judaism, which fixed its attention
+  chiefly on the altar scene, he was regarded as the pattern and
+  prototype of all martyrs. The Mahommedan legends regarding him are
+  curious, but trifling.
+
+  The resemblance between incidents in the lives of Isaac and Abraham is
+  noteworthy; in each case Isaac appears to be the more original. See
+  further ISHMAEL, and note that the pair Isaac and Ishmael correspond
+  to Abraham and Lot, Jacob and Esau. On general questions, see E.
+  Meyer, _Israeliten_ (_Index_, s.v.). For attempts to find a
+  mythological interpretation of Isaac's life, see Goldziher, _Mythology
+  of the Hebrews_; Winckler, _Gesch. Israels_ (vol. ii.).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The stories, including the delightful history of the courting of
+    Rebekah by proxy, are due to the oldest narrators. The jarring
+    chronological notices belong to the post-exilic framework of the book
+    (see GENESIS).
+
+  [2] The name is hopelessly obscure, and the identification with the
+    mountain of the temple in Jerusalem rests upon a late view (2 Chron.
+    iii. 1). It is otherwise called "Yahweh-yir'eh" ("Y. sees") which is
+    analogous to "El-ro'i" ("a God of Seeing") in xvi. 13. See further
+    the commentaries.
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC I. (COMNENUS), emperor of the East (1057-1059), was the son of an
+officer of Basil II. named Manuel Comnenus, who on his deathbed
+commended his two sons Isaac and John to the emperor's care. Basil had
+them carefully educated at the monastery of Studion, and afterwards
+advanced them to high official positions. During the disturbed reigns of
+Basil's seven immediate successors, Isaac by his prudent conduct won the
+confidence of the army; in 1057 he joined with the nobles of the capital
+in a conspiracy against Michael VI., and after the latter's deposition
+was invested with the crown, thus founding the new dynasty of the
+Comneni. The first care of the new emperor was to reward his noble
+partisans with appointments that removed them from Constantinople, and
+his next was to repair the beggared finances of the empire. He revoked
+numerous pensions and grants conferred by his predecessors upon idle
+courtiers, and, meeting the reproach of sacrilege made by the patriarch
+of Constantinople by a decree of exile, resumed a proportion of the
+revenues of the wealthy monasteries. Isaac's only military expedition
+was against the Hungarians and Petchenegs, who began to ravage the
+northern frontiers in 1059. Shortly after this successful campaign he
+was seized with an illness, and believing it mortal appointed as his
+successor Constantine Ducas, to the exclusion of his own brother John.
+Although he recovered Isaac did not resume the purple, but retired to
+the monastery of Studion and spent the remaining two years of his life
+as a monk, alternating menial offices with literary studies. His
+_Scholia_ to the _Iliad_ and other works on the Homeric poems are still
+extant in MS. He died in the year 1061. Isaac's great aim was to restore
+the former strict organization of the government, and his reforms,
+though unpopular with the aristocracy and the clergy, and not understood
+by the people, certainly contributed to stave off for a while the final
+ruin of the Byzantine empire.
+
+  See E. Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed. J.
+  Bury, London, 1896, vol. v.); G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed.
+  1877, Oxford, vols. ii. and iii.).
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC II. (ANGELUS), emperor of the East 1185-1195, and again 1203-1204,
+was the successor of Andronicus I. He inaugurated his reign by a
+decisive victory over the Normans in Sicily, but elsewhere his policy
+was less successful. He failed in an attempt to recover Cyprus from a
+rebellious noble, and by the oppressiveness of his taxes drove the
+Bulgarians and Vlachs to revolt (1186). In 1187 Alexis Branas, the
+general sent against the rebels, treacherously turned his arms against
+his master, and attempted to seize Constantinople, but was defeated and
+slain. The emperor's attention was next demanded in the east, where
+several claimants to the throne successively rose and fell. In 1189
+Frederick Barbarossa of Germany sought and obtained leave to lead his
+troops on the third crusade through the Byzantine territory; but he had
+no sooner crossed the border than Isaac, who had meanwhile sought an
+alliance with Saladin, threw every impediment in his way, and was only
+compelled by force of arms to fulfil his engagements. The next five
+years were disturbed by fresh rebellions of the Vlachs, against whom
+Isaac led several expeditions in person. During one of these, in 1195,
+Alexius, the emperor's brother, taking advantage of the latter's absence
+from camp on a hunting expedition, proclaimed himself emperor, and was
+readily recognised by the soldiers. Isaac was blinded and imprisoned in
+Constantinople. After eight years he was raised for six months from his
+dungeon to his throne once more (see CRUSADES). But both mind and body
+had been enfeebled by captivity, and his son Alexius IV. was the actual
+monarch. Isaac died in 1204, shortly after the usurpation of his
+general, Mourzouphles. He was one of the weakest and most vicious
+princes that occupied the Byzantine throne. Surrounded by a crowd of
+slaves, mistresses and flatterers, he permitted his empire to be
+administered by unworthy favourites, while he squandered the money wrung
+from his provinces on costly buildings and expensive gifts to the
+churches of his metropolis.
+
+  See Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_ (ed. J. Bury, London, 1896, vol. vi.);
+  G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. 1877, Oxford, vols. iii. and iv.).
+
+
+
+
+ISAAC OF ANTIOCH, "one of the stars of Syriac literature,"[1] the
+reputed author of a large number of metrical homilies,[2] many of which
+are distinguished by an originality and acumen rare among Syriac
+writers. As to the identity and history of the author considerable
+difficulty has arisen. The statements of ancient writers, Eastern and
+Western, were collected by Assemani (_B.O._ i. 207-214). According to
+these accounts Isaac flourished under Theodosius II. (408-450),[3] and
+was a native either of Amid (Diarbekr) or of Edessa. Several writers
+identify him with Isaac, the disciple of S. Ephraim, who is mentioned in
+the anonymous _Life_ of that father; but according to the patriarch Bar
+Shushan (d. 1073), who made a collection of his homilies, his master was
+Ephraim's disciple Zenobius. He is supposed to have migrated to Antioch,
+and to have become abbot of one of the convents in its neighbourhood.
+According to Zacharias Rhetor he visited Rome and other cities, and the
+chronicle of Pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mahre informs us that he composed
+poems on the secular games of 404, and wrote on the destruction of Rome
+by Alaric in 410. He also commemorated the destruction of Antioch by an
+earthquake in 459, so that he must have lived till about 460.
+Unfortunately these poems have perished. He is of course to be
+distinguished from Isaac of Nineveh, a Nestorian writer on the ascetic
+life who belongs to the second half of the 7th century.[4]
+
+  When we examine the collection of homilies attributed to Isaac, a
+  difficulty arises on two grounds. (1) The author of some of the poems
+  is fervently orthodox or Catholic (see especially Nos. 1-3 in
+  Bickell's edition = 62-64 in Bedjan), in other and more important
+  homilies (such as Bickell 6, 8 = Bedjan 59, 61, and especially Bedjan
+  60) the doctrine is monophysite, even though Eutyches and Nestorius
+  are equally condemned. (2) One of the monophysite homilies, the famous
+  poem of 2136 lines on the parrot which uttered the Trisagion in the
+  streets of Antioch (Bickell, 8 = Bedjan 61), appears to have been
+  written at Antioch after Peter the Fuller (patriarch 471-488) raised
+  the dispute about the addition to the doxology of the words _qui
+  crucifixus es pro nobis_. It is therefore scarcely possible that the
+  author of this homily should be the same who composed the lost poems
+  on the secular games in 404 and on the sack of Rome.
+
+  Moreover, Lamy (_S. Ephraemi hymni et sermones_, iv. 361-364) and
+  Bedjan (_Homiliae S. Isaaci_, i. pp. iv-ix) have recently called
+  attention to statements made by Jacob of Edessa (708) in a letter to
+  John the Stylite. He says there were three Isaacs who wrote in
+  Syriac:--two orthodox (i.e. monophysite), and one a Chalcedonian
+  heretic (i.e. orthodox or Catholic). (a) The first, he says, a native
+  of Amid, and pupil of S. Ephraim, visited Rome in the time of Arcadius
+  (395-408), on his return journey suffered imprisonment at Byzantium,
+  and afterwards became a priest in the church of Amid. (b) The second
+  was a priest of Edessa, and flourished in the reign of Zeno (474-491).
+  He went up to Antioch in the time of Peter the Fuller. Jacob then
+  tells the story of the parrot (see above). (c) The third was also an
+  Edessene. At first in the days of Bishop Paul (510-522) he was
+  orthodox (monophysite): but afterwards in the time of the Chalcedonian
+  (Catholic) bishop Asclepius he became Nestorian (Catholic) and wrote
+  poems setting forth Nestorian doctrine.
+
+  With such conflicting evidence it is impossible to arrive at a certain
+  result. But Jacob is an early witness: and on the whole it seems safe
+  to conclude with Bedjan (p. ix) that works by at least two authors
+  have been included in the collection attributed to Isaac of Antioch.
+  Still the majority of the poems are the work of one hand--the
+  5th-century monophysite who wrote the poem on the parrot.[5] A full
+  list[6] of the 191 poems existing in European MSS. is given by
+  Bickell, who copied out 181 with a view to publishing them all: the
+  other 10 had been previously copied by Zingerle. But the two volumes
+  published by Bickell in his lifetime (Giessen, 1873 and 1877) contain
+  only 37 homilies. Bedjan's edition, of which the first volume has
+  alone appeared (Paris, 1903) contains 67 poems, viz. 24 previously
+  published (18 by Bickell), and 43 that are new, though their titles
+  are all included in Bickell's list.
+
+The writer's main interest lies in the application of religion to the
+practical duties of life, whether in the church or in the world. He has
+a great command of forcible language and considerable skill in apt
+illustration. The zeal with which he denounces the abuses prevalent in
+the church of his day, and particularly in the monastic orders, is not
+unlike that of the Protestant reformers. He shows acquaintance with many
+phases of life. He describes the corruption of judges, the prevalence of
+usury and avarice, the unchastity which especially characterized the
+upper classes, and the general hypocrisy of so-called Christians. His
+doctrinal discussions are apt to be diffuse; but he seldom loses sight
+of the bearing of doctrine on practical life. He judges with extreme
+severity those who argue about religion while neglecting its practice,
+and those who though stupid and ignorant dare to pry into mysteries
+which are sealed to the angels. "Not newly have we found Him, that we
+should search and pry into God. As He was He is: He changeth not with
+the times.... Confess that He formed thee of dust: search not the mode
+of His being: Worship Him that He redeemed thee by His only Son: inquire
+not the manner of His birth."[7]
+
+  Some of Isaac's works have an interest for the historian of the 5th
+  century. In two poems (Bickell 11, 12 = Bedjan 48, 49), written
+  probably at Edessa, he commemorates the capture of Beth-Hur (a city
+  near Nisibis) by the Arabs. Although the historical allusions are far
+  from clear, we gather that Beth-Hur, which in zealous paganism had
+  been a successor to Haran, had been in earlier days devastated by the
+  Persians:[8] but for the last 34 years the Persians had themselves
+  suffered subjection.[9] And now had come a flood of Arab invaders,
+  "sons of Hagar," who had swept away the city and carried all its
+  inhabitants captive. From these two poems, and from the 2nd homily on
+  Fasting (Bickell 14 = Bedjan 17) we gain a vivid picture of the
+  miseries borne by the inhabitants of that frontier region during the
+  wars between Persia and the Romano-Greek empire. There are also
+  instructive references to the heathen practices and the worship of
+  pagan deities (such as Baalti, Uzzi, Gedlath and the planet Venus)
+  prevalent in Mesopotamia. Two other poems (Bickell 35, 36 = Bedjan 66,
+  67), written probably at Antioch,[10] describe the prevalence of
+  sorcery and the extraordinary influence possessed by "Chaldeans" and
+  enchanters over women who were nominally Christians.
+
+  The metre of all the published homilies is heptasyllabic.     (N. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] W. Wright, _Short Hist. of Syr. Lit._ p. 51.
+
+  [2] The fullest list, by G. Bickell, contains 191 which are extant in
+    MSS.
+
+  [3] The trustworthy _Chronicle of Edessa_ gives his date as 451-452
+    (Hallier, No. lxvii.); and the recently published _Chronicle_ of
+    Michael the Syrian makes him contemporary with Nonus, who became the
+    31st bishop of Edessa in 449.
+
+  [4] The date of Isaac of Nineveh is now known from the _Liber
+    fundatorum_ of Isho'-denah, an 8th-century writer; see Bedjan's
+    edition, and Chabot, _Livre de la chastete_, p. 63. Assemani (_B.O._
+    i. 445) had placed him late in the 6th century, and Chabot (_De S.
+    Isaaci Ninivitae vita_, &c.) in the second half of the 5th.
+
+  [5] Lamy (_op. cit._ iv. 364-366) has pointed out that several of the
+    poems are in certain MSS. attributed to Ephraim. Possibly the author
+    of the orthodox poems was not named Isaac at all.
+
+  [6] Assemani's list of 104 poems (_B.O._ i. 214-234) is completely
+    covered by Bickell's.
+
+  [7] From a really noble poem (Bedjan 60) on the problem whether _God_
+    suffered and died on the cross.
+
+  [8] Possibly in the war at the beginning of the reign of Bahram V.:
+    but on the uncertainty see Noldeke, _Gesch. d. Perser und Araber_,
+    117.
+
+  [9] Probably at the hands of the Hephthalites or White Huns of
+    Kushan: cf. Isaac's mention of the Huns in 1. 420 of the 1st poem.
+
+  [10] The author refers to the weeping for Tammuz (1. 125 of the 1st
+    poem), and speaks of his city as illustrious throughout the world
+    (ib. 1. 132).
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA (1451-1504), surnamed _la Catolica_, "the Catholic," queen of
+Castile, was the second child and only daughter of John II. of Castile
+by his second wife Isabella, granddaughter of John I. of Portugal (thus
+being through both parents a descendant of John of Gaunt), and was born
+at Madrigal on the 22nd of April 1451. On the death of her father, who
+was succeeded by her brother Henry IV. (1454), she was withdrawn by her
+mother to Arevalo, where her early education was conducted in the
+deepest seclusion; in 1462, however, along with her uterine brother
+Alphonso, she was removed by Henry to the court, where she showed a
+remarkable example of staidness and sobriety. Already more than one
+suitor had made application for her hand, Ferdinand of Aragon, who
+ultimately became her husband, being among the number; for some little
+time she was engaged to his elder brother Charles, who died in 1461. In
+her thirteenth year her brother promised her in marriage to Alphonso of
+Portugal, but she firmly refused to consent; her resistance seemed less
+likely to be effectual in the case of Pedro Giron, grand master of the
+order of Calatrava and brother of the marquis of Villena, to whom she
+was next affianced, when she was delivered from her fears by the sudden
+death of the bridegroom while on his way to the nuptials in 1466. After
+an offer of the crown of Castile, made by the revolutionary leaders in
+the civil war, had been declined by her, she was in 1468 formally
+recognized by her brother as lawful heir, after himself, to the united
+crowns of Castile and Leon. New candidates for her hand now appeared in
+the persons of a brother of Edward IV. of England (probably Richard,
+duke of Gloucester), and the duke of Guienne, brother of Louis XI., and
+heir presumptive of the French monarchy. Finally however, in face of
+very great difficulties, she was married to Ferdinand of Aragon at
+Valladolid on the 19th of October 1469. Thence forward the fortunes of
+Ferdinand and Isabella were inseparably blended. For some time they held
+a humble court at Duenas, and afterwards they resided at Segovia, where,
+on the death of Henry, she was proclaimed queen of Castile and Leon
+(December 13, 1474). Spain undoubtedly owed to Isabella's clear
+intellect, resolute energy and unselfish patriotism much of that
+greatness which for the first time it acquired under "the Catholic
+sovereigns." The moral influence of the queen's personal character over
+the Castilian court was incalculably great; from the debasement and
+degradation of the preceding reign she raised it to being "the nursery
+of virtue and of generous ambition." She did much for letters in Spain
+by founding the palace school and by her protection of Peter Martyr
+d'Anghiera. The very sincerity of her piety and strength of her
+religious convictions led her more than once, however, into great errors
+of state policy, and into more than one act which offends the moral
+sense of a more refined age: her efforts for the introduction of the
+Inquisition into Castile, and for the proscription of the Jews, are
+outstanding evidences of what can only be called her bigotry. But not
+even the briefest sketch of her life can omit to notice that happy
+instinct or intuition which led her, when all others had heard with
+incredulity the scheme of Columbus, to recall the wanderer to her
+presence with the words, "I will assume the undertaking for my own crown
+of Castile, and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray the expenses of it,
+if the funds in the treasury should be found inadequate." She died at
+Medina del Campo on the 24th of November 1504, and was succeeded by her
+daughter Joanna "la loca" (the "Crazy") and her husband, Philip of
+Habsburg.
+
+  See W. H. Prescott, _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_
+  (1837), where the original authorities are exhaustively enumerated;
+  and for later researches, Baron de Nervo, _Isabella the Catholic_,
+  translated by Lieut.-Col. Temple-West (1897).
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA II. (1830-1904), queen of Spain, was born in Madrid on the 10th
+of October 1830. She was the eldest daughter of Ferdinand VII., king of
+Spain, and of his fourth wife, Maria Christina, a Neapolitan Bourbon,
+who became queen-regent on 29th September 1833, when her daughter, at
+the age of three years, was proclaimed on the death of the king. Queen
+Isabella succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII. induced the
+Cortes to assist him in setting aside the Salic law, which the Bourbons
+had introduced since the beginning of the 18th century, and to
+re-establish the older succession law of Spain. The brother of
+Ferdinand, Don Carlos, the first pretender, fought seven years, during
+the minority of Isabella, to dispute her title, and her rights were only
+maintained through the gallant support of the army, the Cortes and the
+Liberals and Progressists, who at the same time established
+constitutional and parliamentary government, dissolved the religious
+orders, confiscated the property of the orders and of the Jesuits,
+disestablished the Church property, and attempted to restore order in
+finances. After the Carlist war the queen-regent, Christina, resigned to
+make way for Espartero, the most successful and most popular general of
+the Isabelline armies, who only remained regent two years. He was turned
+out in 1843 by a military and political _pronunciamiento_, led by
+Generals O'Donnell and Narvaez, who formed a cabinet, presided over by
+Joaquin Maria Lopez, and this government induced the Cortes to declare
+Isabella of age at thirteen. Three years later the Moderado party or
+Castilian Conservatives made their queen marry, at sixteen, her cousin,
+Prince Francisco de Assisi de Bourbon (1822-1902), on the same day (10th
+October 1846) on which her younger sister married the duke of
+Montpensier. These marriages suited the views of France and Louis
+Philippe, who nearly quarrelled in consequence with Great Britain; but
+both matches were anything but happy. Queen Isabella reigned from 1843
+to 1868, and that period was one long succession of palace intrigues,
+back-stairs and ante-chamber influences, barrack conspiracies, military
+_pronunciamientos_ to further the ends of the political
+parties--Moderados, who ruled from 1846 to 1854, Progressists from 1854
+to 1856, Union Liberal from 1856 to 1863; Moderados and Union Liberal
+quickly succeeding each other and keeping out the Progressists so
+steadily that the seeds were sown which budded into the revolution of
+1868. Queen Isabella II. often interfered in politics in a wayward,
+unscrupulous manner that made her very unpopular. She showed most favour
+to her reactionary generals and statesmen, to the Church and religious
+orders, and was constantly the tool of corrupt and profligate courtiers
+and favourites who gave her court a deservedly bad name. She went into
+exile at the end of September 1868, after her Moderado generals had made
+a slight show of resistance that was crushed at the battle of Alcolea by
+Marshals Serrano and Prim. The only redeeming traits of Queen Isabella's
+reign were a war against Morocco, which ended in an advantageous treaty
+and some cession of territory; some progress in public works, especially
+railways; a slight improvement in commerce and finance. Isabella was
+induced to abdicate in Paris on 25th June 1870 in favour of her son,
+Alphonso XII., and the cause of the restoration was thus much furthered.
+She had separated from her husband in the previous March. She continued
+to live in France after the restoration in 1874. On the occasion of one
+of her visits to Madrid during Alphonso XII.'s reign she began to
+intrigue with the politicians of the capital, and was peremptorily
+requested to go abroad again. She died on the 10th of April 1904.
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA, ISABEAU, or ELIZABETH OF BAVARIA (1370-1435), wife of Charles
+VI. of France, was the daughter of Stephen II., duke of Bavaria. She was
+born in 1370, was married to Charles VI. on the 17th of July 1385, and
+crowned at Paris on the 22nd of August 1389. After some years of happy
+married life she fell under the influence of the dissolute court in
+which she lived, and the king having become insane (August 1392) she
+consorted chiefly with Louis of Orleans. Frivolous, selfish, avaricious
+and fond of luxury, she used her influence, during the different periods
+when she was invested with the regency, not for the public welfare, but
+mainly in her own personal interest. After the assassination of the duke
+of Orleans (November 23, 1407) she attached herself sometimes to the
+Armagnacs, sometimes to the Burgundians, and led a scandalous life.
+Louis de Bosredon, the captain of her guards, was executed for
+complicity in her excesses; and Isabella herself was imprisoned at Blois
+and afterwards at Tours (1417). Having been set free towards the end of
+that year by John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, whom she had called to
+her assistance, she went to Troyes and established her government there,
+returning afterwards to Paris when that city had capitulated to the
+Burgundians in July 1418. Once more in power, she now took up arms
+against her son, the dauphin Charles; and after the murder of John the
+Fearless she went over to the side of the English, into whose hands she
+surrendered France by the treaty of Troyes (May 21, 1420), at the same
+time giving her daughter Catherine in marriage to the king of England,
+Henry V. After her triumphal entry into Paris with the latter she soon
+became an object of loathing to the whole French nation. She survived
+her husband, her son-in-law, and eight out of her twelve children, and
+she passed the last miserable years of her life in poverty, solitude and
+ill-health. She died at the end of September 1435, and was interred
+without funeral honours in the abbey of St Denis, by the side of her
+husband, Charles VI.
+
+  See Vallet de Viriville, _Isabeau de Baviere_ (1859); Marcel Thibault,
+  _Isabeau de Baviere, Reine de France, La Jeunesse, 1370-1405_ (1903).
+       (J. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+ISABELLA OF HAINAUT (1170-1190), queen of France, was the daughter of
+Baldwin V., count of Hainaut, and Margaret, sister of Philip of Alsace,
+and was born in 1170 at Lille. She was married to Philip Augustus, and
+brought to him as her dowry the province of Artois. She was crowned at
+St Denis on the 29th of May 1180. As Baldwin V. claimed to be a
+descendant of Charlemagne, the chroniclers of the time saw in this
+marriage a union of the Carolingian and Capetian dynasties. Though she
+received extravagant praise from certain annalists, she failed to win
+the affections of Philip, who, in 1184, waging war against Flanders, was
+angered at seeing Baldwin support his enemies, and called a council at
+Sens for the purpose of repudiating her. Robert, the king's uncle,
+successfully interposed. She died in childbirth in 1190, and was buried
+in the church of Notre Dame in Paris. Her son became Louis VIII. of
+France.
+
+  See Cartellieri, "L'Avenement de Phil. Aug." in _Rev. hist._ liii. 262
+  et seq.
+
+
+
+
+ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767-1855), French painter, was born at Nancy on
+the 11th of April 1767. At nineteen, after some lessons from Dumont,
+miniature painter to Marie Antoinette, he became a pupil of David.
+Employed at Versailles on portraits of the dukes of Angouleme and Berry,
+he was given a commission by the queen, which opens the long list of
+those which he received, up to the date of his death in 1855, from the
+successive rulers of France. Patronized by Josephine and Napoleon, he
+arranged the ceremonies of their coronation and prepared drawings for
+the publication intended as its official commemoration, a work for which
+he was paid by Louis XVIII., whose portrait (engraved, Debucourt) he
+executed in 1814. Although Isabey did homage to Napoleon on his return
+from Elba, he continued to enjoy the favour of the Restoration, and took
+part in arrangements for the coronation of Charles X. The monarchy of
+July conferred on him an important post in connexion with the royal
+collections, and Napoleon III. granted him a pension, and the cross of
+commander of the Legion of Honour. "Review of Troops by the First
+Consul" was one of his most important compositions, and "Isabey's
+Boat,"--a charming drawing of himself and family--produced at a time
+when he was much occupied with lithography--had an immense success at
+the Salon of 1820 (engraved, Landon, _Annales_, i. 125). His portrait of
+"Napoleon at Malmaison" is held to be the best ever executed, and even
+his tiny head of the king of Rome, painted for a breast-pin, is
+distinguished by a decision and breadth which evidence the hand of a
+master.
+
+  A biography of Isabey was published by M. E. Taigny in 1859, and M. C.
+  Lenormant's article, written for Michaud's _Biog. univ._, is founded
+  on facts furnished by Isabey's family.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 14, Slice 7, by Various
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