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+Project Gutenberg's American Grape Training, by Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: American Grape Training
+       An account of the leading forms now in use of Training the
+       American Grapes
+
+Author: Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39779]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Cathy Maxam and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
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+
+
+
+
+  AMERICAN
+  GRAPE TRAINING
+
+  An account of the leading
+  forms now in use of Training
+  the American Grapes.
+
+  _By L. H. BAILEY_
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
+  1893.
+
+
+
+
+    _By the same Author._
+
+
+    =Annals of Horticulture= in North America for the year 1889. A
+    witness of passing events and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52
+    illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1890.= 312 pages, 82 illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1891.= 416 pages, 77 illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1892.=
+
+    *.* A new volume is issued each year, each complete in
+    itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.
+
+    =The Horticulturist's Rule-Book.= A compendium of useful information
+    for fruit-growers, truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second
+    edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221 pages. Cloth, $1;
+    paper, 50 cents.
+
+    =The Nursery Book.= A complete guide to the multiplication and
+    pollination of plants. 304 pages, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1;
+    paper, 50c.
+
+    =Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing.= With a brief bibliography of the
+    subject. 44 pages. Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.)
+
+    =Field Notes on Apple Culture.= 90 pages, 19 illustrations. Cloth,
+    75 cents.
+
+    =Talks Afield=: About plants and the science of plants. 173 pages,
+    100 illustrations. Cloth, $1.
+
+  COPYRIGHTED 1893,
+  BY L. H. BAILEY.
+
+  ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY
+  J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+                   Pages
+
+  Introduction      9-11
+
+  Pruning      11-24
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+  Preliminary Preparations for Training--The Trellis--Tying      25-33
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+  The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System. High Renewal. Fan
+    Training)      34-55
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+  The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin. Modifications of
+    the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two-Cane Kniffin or Umbrella System. The
+    Low or One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Overhead, or Arbor
+    Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System. Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System)
+    56-82
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+  Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post Training. Arbors.
+    Remodeling Old Vines)      83-92
+
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                     PAGE
+
+   1. Grape Shoot      12
+
+   2. The Bearing Wood      13
+
+   3. Diagram      15
+
+   4. Spur      18
+
+   5. Renewal Pruning      19
+
+   6. A Newly Set Vineyard      21
+
+   7. Horizontal Arm Spur Training      35
+
+   8. Horizontal Arm (Diagram)      36
+
+   9. Short Arm Spur Training      38
+
+  10. The Second Season of Upright Training      40
+
+  11. Making the T-Head      42
+
+  12. The Third Season of High Renewal      43
+
+  13. High Renewal, before Pruning      44
+
+  14. High Renewal, Pruned      45
+
+  15. High Renewal, Pruned and Tied      46
+
+  16. High Renewal with Four Canes      47
+
+  17. High Renewal Complete      48
+
+  18. A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training      51
+
+  19. Fan Training, after Pruning      55
+
+  20. William Kniffin      57
+
+  21. The True Kniffin Training      59
+
+  22. No. 21, when Pruned      60
+
+  23. A Poor Type of Kniffin      64
+
+  24. The Y-Trunk Kniffin      65
+
+  25. Umbrella Training      67
+
+  26. A Poor Umbrella System      68
+
+  27. Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram)      70
+
+  28. Overhead Kniffin      71
+
+  29. Overhead Kniffin      72
+
+  30. Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning      73
+
+  31. Cross-Wire Training      75
+
+  32. Cross-Wire Training, Outside View      76
+
+  33. Munson Training. End View      78
+
+  34. Munson Training. Side View      79
+
+  35. Horizontal Training      83
+
+  36. Low Post Training      86
+
+  37. A Yearling Graft      91
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This little book has grown out of an attempt to teach the principles and
+methods of grape training to college students. I have found such
+teaching to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is
+impossible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. The student
+must apprehend the principles slowly and by his own effort. He must have
+time to thoroughly assimilate them before he attempts to apply them. I
+therefore cast about for books which I could put before my class, but I
+at once found that there are very few succinct accounts of the subjects
+of grape pruning and training, and that none of our books portray the
+methods which are most largely practised in the large grape regions of
+the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my own notes into
+shape for print, and this I have now done. And inasmuch as all
+grape-growers are students, I hope that the simple account will find a
+use beyond the classroom.
+
+This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at first astonished me,
+but is not strange after all. It must be remembered that the cultivation
+of the native grape is of very recent origin. There are many men who can
+remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom occurs to the
+younger generation, which is familiar with the great vineyards in many
+states, that the Concord is yet scarcely forty years old, and that all
+grape growing in eastern America is yet in an experimental stage.
+Progress has been so rapid in recent years that the new methods outstrip
+the books. The old horizontal arm spur system, which is still the chief
+method in the books, has evolved itself into a high renewal training,
+which is widely used but which has not found its way into the manuals.
+The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period of incubation, and is now
+taking an assured place in vineyard management. So two great types,
+opposed in method, are now contending for supremacy, and they will
+probably form the basis of all future developments. This evolution of
+American grape training is one of the most unique and signal
+developments of our modern horticulture, and its very recent departure
+from the early doubts and trials is a fresh illustration of the youth
+and virility of all horticultural pursuits in North America.
+
+This development of our grape training should form the subject of a
+historical inquiry. I have not attempted such in this little hand-book.
+I have omitted all reference to the many early methods, which were in
+most cases transportations or modifications of European practices, for
+their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion here would
+only confuse the reader. I have attempted nothing more than a plain
+account of the methods now in use; in fact, I am aware that I have not
+accomplished even this much, for there are various methods which I have
+not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly of local use or
+adaptation, and they are usually only modifications of the main types
+here explained. It is impossible to describe all the variations in grape
+training in a book of pocket size; neither is it necessary. Nearly
+every grower who has given grape raising careful attention has
+introduced into his own vineyard some modifications which he thinks are
+of special value to him. There are various curious and instructive old
+books to which the reader can go if he desires to know the history and
+evolution of grape training in America. He will find that we have now
+passed through the long and costly experiment with European systems. And
+we have also outgrown the gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close
+with the expectation of obtaining superior and definite results.
+
+I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in the preparation of
+this book. All the manuscript has been read by three persons--by George
+C. Snow, Penn Yan, N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L.
+C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment Station. Mr. Snow is
+a grower in the lake region of western New York, and employs the High
+Renewal system; Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and
+practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been a student of
+all the systems and has practiced two or three of them in commercial
+plantations. These persons have made many suggestions of which I have
+been glad to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of the
+book is to be attributed.
+
+     L. H. BAILEY,
+
+     ITHACA, N. Y., _Feb. 1, 1893_.
+
+
+
+
+John Adlum, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been the first
+person to systematically undertake the cultivation and amelioration of
+the native grapes. His method of training, as described in 1823, is as
+follows: One shoot is allowed to grow the first year, and this is cut
+back to two buds the first fall. The second year two shoots are allowed
+to grow, and they are tied to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each
+plant, about five or six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back
+to three or four buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are
+spread apart "so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with
+the stem," and are tied to stakes; this season about two shoots are
+allowed to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall
+the outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones
+to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, and
+the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer canes or
+branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches upon either
+side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the stakes, as they
+grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs are tied to a third stake
+set near the root of the vine. The outside branches are to be cut away
+entirely at the end of the fourth year. This is an ingenious renewal
+post system, and it is easy to see how the Horizontal Arm and High
+Renewal systems may have sprung from it.
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION--PRUNING.
+
+
+Pruning and training the grape are perplexed questions, even to those
+who have spent a lifetime in grape growing. The perplexity arises from
+several diverse sources, as the early effort to transplant European
+methods, the fact that many systems present almost equally good results
+for particular purposes and varieties, and the failure to comprehend the
+fundamental principles of the operations.
+
+It is sufficient condemnation of European methods when applied in
+eastern America, to say that the American grapes are distinct species
+from the European grapes, and that they are consequently different in
+habit. This fact does not appear to have been apprehended clearly by the
+early American grape-growers, even after the native varieties had begun
+to gain prominence. American viticulture, aside from that upon the
+Pacific slope which is concerned with the European grape, is an industry
+of very recent development. It was little more than a century ago that
+the first American variety gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the
+first definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir on the Cultivation
+of the Vine in America," to record the merits of native grapes for
+purposes of cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given to a
+discussion of European varieties and practices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit
+Culturist" mentioned only six "American hardy varieties," and all of
+these, save the Catawba, are practically not in cultivation at the
+present time. The Concord appeared in 1853. American grape training is,
+therefore, a very recent development, and we are only now outgrowing the
+influence of the practices early imported from Europe. The first decided
+epoch in the evolution of our grape training was the appearance of
+Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in 1864; for while the system which he
+depicted and which yet often bears his name, was but a modification of
+some European methods and had been outlined by earlier American writers,
+it was at that time placed clearly and cogently before the public and
+became an accepted practice. The fundamental principles of pruning are
+alike for both European and American grapes, but the details of pruning
+and training must be greatly modified for different species. We must
+understand at the outset that American species of grapes demand an
+American system of treatment.
+
+The great diversity of opinion which exists amongst the best grape
+growers concerning the advantages of different systems of training is
+proof that many systems have merit, and that no one system is better
+than others for all purposes. The grower must recognize the fact that
+the most important factor in determining the merits of any system of
+training is the habit of the vine--as its vigor, rate of growth, normal
+size, relative size and abundance of leaves, and season and character of
+fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in habit in some
+particular, and it therefore requires different treatment in some
+important detail. Varieties may thrive equally well upon the same
+general system of training, but require minor modifications; so it comes
+that no hard and fast lines can be laid down, either for any system or
+any variety. One system differs from another in some one main principle
+or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and blend. If two men
+practice the Kniffin system, therefore, this fact does not indicate that
+they prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible to
+construct rules for grape training; it is, therefore, important that we
+understand thoroughly the philosophy of pruning and training, both in
+general and in the different systems which are now most popular. These
+points we shall now consider.
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+Pruning and training are terms which are often confounded when speaking
+of the grape, but they represent distinct operations. Pruning refers to
+such removal of branches as shall insure better and larger fruit upon
+the remaining portions. Training refers to the disposition of the
+different parts of the vine. It is true that different methods of
+training demand different styles of pruning, but the modification in
+pruning is only such as shall adapt it to the external shape and size of
+the vine, and does not in any way affect the principle upon which it
+rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, there is but one method;
+training is largely a convenience, and there are as many methods as
+there are fancies among grape growers.
+
+[Illustration: 1. GRAPE SHOOT.]
+
+All intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon the fact that _the fruit
+is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoots of the
+season, and which spring from wood of last year's growth_. It may be
+said here that a growing, leafy branch of the grape vine is called a
+_shoot_; a ripened shoot is called a _cane_; a branch or trunk two or
+more years old is called an _arm_. Fig. 1 is a shoot as it appears in
+the northern states in June. The whole shoot has grown within a month,
+from a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and these are to bear
+the grapes. Flowering is now over, but the shoot will continue to grow,
+perhaps to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking time, therefore,
+the grapes all hang near the lower end or base of the shoots or new
+canes, as in fig. 2. Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a
+new cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves. At the close of the
+season, this long ripened shoot or cane has produced a bud every foot or
+less, from which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next year. But
+if all these buds were allowed to remain, the vine would be overtaxed
+with fruit the coming year and the crop would be a failure. The cane is,
+therefore, cut off until it bears only as many buds as experience has
+taught us the vine should carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten
+buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or "rubbed off,"
+next spring if the young growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant
+is weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or three clusters.
+Some shoots will bear no clusters. From one to six of the old canes,
+each bearing from five to ten buds, are left each spring. The number of
+clusters which a vine can carry well depends upon the variety, the age
+and size of the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and
+cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A strong vine of Concord,
+which is a prolific variety, trained upon any of the ordinary systems
+and set nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry from thirty
+to sixty clusters. The clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half pound
+each. Twelve or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or average
+crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty-five pounds is a very heavy
+crop.
+
+[Illustration: 2. THE BEARING WOOD.]
+
+The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is essentially a thinning
+process. In the winter pruning, all the canes of the last season's
+growth are cut away except from two to six, which are left to make the
+fruit and wood of the next year; and each of these remaining canes is
+headed back to from three to ten buds. The number and length of the
+canes which are left after the pruning depend upon the style of training
+which is practiced. A vine which may completely cover a trellis in the
+fall, will be cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the
+plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape,
+unlike the apple, pear and peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in
+the fall, but buds which produce both fruit and wood the following
+season.
+
+[Illustration: 3. DIAGRAM.]
+
+Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have pruned our vine in the fall
+of 1891 to two canes, each bearing ten buds. We will call these canes A
+and B, respectively. (Fig. 3.) In 1892, therefore, twenty shoots grow
+from them, and each of these shoots or new canes branches, or produces
+laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892, A 1, A 2, A 3, B 1, B 2,
+and so on. Each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of
+grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters. These clusters
+stand opposite the leaves, as seen in fig. 1. In the axil of each leaf a
+bud is formed which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in 1893. If
+each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc., produce ten buds--which is a
+moderate number--the vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with 200
+buds for the next year's growth and crop; but these buds should be
+reduced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 1891. That is,
+every year we go back again to the same number of buds, and the top of
+the vine gets no larger from year to year. We must, therefore, cut back
+again to two canes. We cut back each of the original canes, A and B, to
+one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1, cutting off A 2, A 3,
+etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This brings the vine back to very nearly its
+condition in the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1, which are
+now to become the main canes by being bent down horizontally, were borne
+at some distance--say three or four inches--from the base of the
+original canes, A and B, so that the permanent part of the vine is
+constantly lengthening itself. This annually lengthening portion is
+called a _spur_. Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position,
+however, although this diagrammatic sketch illustrates clearly the
+method of their formation. The common method of spurring is that
+connected with the horizontal arm system of training, in which the canes
+A and B are allowed to become permanent arms, and the upright canes, A
+1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds of
+the arms each year. The cane A 1, for instance, is cut back in the fall
+of 1892 to two or three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will grow
+from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one cane is left after the
+pruning, and this one is cut back to two or three buds; and so on. So
+the spur grows higher every year, although every effort is made to keep
+it short, both by reducing the number of buds to one or two and by
+endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few years.
+Fig. 4 shows a short spur of two years' standing. The horizontal portion
+shows the permanent arm. The first upright portion is the remains of the
+first-year cane and the upper portion is the second-year cane after it
+is cut back in the fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one
+fruiting bud, _b_, the small buds, _a a_, being rubbed out. There are
+serious objections to spurs in any position. They become hard and
+comparatively lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace
+them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing portion of the vine is
+constantly receding from the main trunk. The bearing wood should spring
+from near the central portions of the vine, or be kept "near the head,"
+as the grape-growers say. In order to do this, it is customary to allow
+two canes to grow out each year back of the canes A 1 and B 1, or from
+the head of the vine; these canes may be designated C and D. (Fig. 3.)
+These canes, C and D, are grown during 1892--when they may bear fruit
+like other canes--for the sole purpose of forming the basis of the
+bearing top in 1893, while all the old top, A and B, with the secondary
+canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., is cut entirely away. Here, then,
+are two distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the succeeding
+year: either from _spurs_, which are the remains of the previous top; or
+from _renewals_, which are taken each year from the old wood near the
+head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals from the ground are
+now little used, however, for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless
+they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second
+year. It should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods refer
+entirely to pruning, not to training, for either one can be used in any
+system of training. Spur pruning, however, is growing in disfavor
+amongst commercial grape-growers, and the renewal is more or less used
+in all systems of training.
+
+[Illustration: 4. SPUR.]
+
+Fig. 5 illustrates a renewal pruning. This engraving shows the head of a
+vine seven years old, and upon which two canes are allowed to remain
+after each annual pruning. The portion extending from _b_ to _f_ and _d_
+is the base of the bearing cane of 1892. In the winter of 1892-3, this
+cane is cut off at _d_, and the new cane, _e_, is left to make the
+bearing wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from _f_, but it was too weak
+to leave for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The old stub, _b_,
+_f_, _d_, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In the
+meantime, a renewal cane will have grown from the stub _c_, which is
+left for that purpose, and the old cane, _b d_, will be cut off just
+beyond it, between _c_ and _f_. In this way, the bearing wood is kept
+close to the head of the vine. The wound _a_ shows where an old stub
+was cut away this winter, 1892-3, while _b_ shows where one was cut off
+the previous winter. A scar upon the back of the head, which does not
+show in the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two
+years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method of pruning can be kept
+up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs
+short, the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the
+stock or trunk.
+
+[Illustration: 5. RENEWAL PRUNING.]
+
+
+_Pruning Young Vines._--The time required after planting to get the vine
+onto the wires or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when set,
+the variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of training; but,
+as a rule, the training begins the second or third year, previous to
+which time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines are most
+popular for planting, although in the strong varieties, like Concord and
+Niagara, well-grown yearling vines are probably as good, if not better.
+The strong-growing kinds are commonly set from eight to ten feet apart
+in the row, and the rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and other
+small vines may be set closer, although eight feet is preferable. When
+set, the vine is cut back to two or three buds. During the first year,
+the young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the ground at will, as
+seen in fig. 6. In the fall or winter, all the canes but one are cut
+off, and this one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is,
+therefore, no larger at the expiration of a year's growth than it was
+when planted; but in the meantime the plant has become thoroughly
+established in the soil, and the second year's growth should be strong
+enough to form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm. If, however,
+the second year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, and the
+third season's growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, the growth
+of the first year is sometimes carried onto the wires to form the
+permanent trunk and arms, but it is only with extra strong vines in good
+soil that this practice is admissible. From this point, the treatment
+of the vine is discussed under training.
+
+[Illustration: 6. A NEWLY SET VINEYARD.]
+
+
+_When to Prune._--Grape vines may be pruned at any time during the
+winter. It is the practice among most grape-growers in the north to
+prune as time permits from November to late in February, or even early
+March. The sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early
+summer, causing the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in Europe as
+"weeping," and in order to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six
+weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell. It is yet
+a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, but it is a safe
+practice to prune early. The vine is cut off an inch or two beyond the
+last bud which it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to the
+bud from the drying out of the end of the cane.
+
+The pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears. The canes are often
+allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished,
+although it is the practice with most growers who use the Kniffin system
+to cut the strings before pruning. The removal of the severed canes is
+known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves
+the stripping to boys or other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at
+any time after the pruning is performed until spring. It must be done
+before the growth starts on the remaining portions of the vine, however,
+to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off the
+trellis.
+
+
+_Summer Pruning._--There is much discussion as to the advisability of
+summer pruning. It is essential to the understanding of the question
+that the grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is of two
+kinds--the removal or "breaking out" of the superfluous shoots, and
+heading-in or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within limits. The
+superfluous shoots are such as spring from small, weak buds or those
+which break from the old arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start
+from the very base of the old cane are usually weak and should be
+removed. Buds in this position are shown at _a a_, in fig. 4. The
+secondary or axillary branches, which often start from the base of the
+season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. These superfluous
+shoots are pulled off from time to time as they appear, or the buds may
+be rubbed off before the shoots begin to grow.
+
+The heading-in of the main canes, while desirable for the purpose of
+keeping the vine within bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals
+which choke up the vine and which do not mature, and in those styles of
+training in which very little wood is allowed to grow, the practice may
+prevent the development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface to
+properly sustain the vine. Vines are often weakened by summer pruning.
+These dangers can be overcome by careful attention, however, especially
+by heading-in very lightly and by doing it as late in the season as
+possible, when new lateral growth does not start readily. The necessity
+of much heading-in has been largely obviated in late years by the
+adoption of high or drooping systems of training, and by setting the
+vines far apart. The strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and
+Niagara, should be set ten feet apart in the row, especially if grown
+upon the Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very upright grower and
+especially well adapted to upright training, may be set eight feet
+apart, and Delawares are often set as close as six or eight feet. It is
+doubtful, however, if any variety should be set less than eight feet
+apart for trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where the growth
+is large because of the long seasons, vines are often set more than ten
+feet apart. In the South, the rows should run north and south, that the
+fruit may be shaded from midday sun. The only summer heading-in now
+generally recommended is the clipping of the tips when they fall over
+and begin to touch the ground. This clipping is often done with a sickle
+or sharp corn-cutter.
+
+
+_Objects of Pruning._--The objects of pruning the grape, as of other
+fruits, are five:
+
+  1. To produce larger and better fruit.
+
+  2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine.
+
+  3. To keep the vine within manageable limits.
+
+  4. To facilitate cultivation.
+
+  5. To facilitate spraying.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING--THE TRELLIS--TYING.
+
+
+Training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose of keeping the vine
+in convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full amount
+of space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated and
+sprayed, and the grapes are readily harvested, and it is only upon such
+vines that the best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some kind
+of training is essential, for a vine will not often bear good fruit when
+it lies upon the ground. In essence, there are three general types or
+styles of training, which may be designated as the upright, drooping and
+horizontal, these terms designating the direction of the bearing shoots.
+The upright systems carry two or more canes or arms along a low
+horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across a trellis from below
+upwards, and the shoots are tied up as they grow to the wires above. The
+horizontal systems carry up a perpendicular cane or arm, or sometimes
+two or more, from which the shoots are carried out horizontally and are
+tied to perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems, represented
+in the Kniffin and post-training, carry the canes or arms upon a high
+horizontal wire or trellis and allow the shoots to hang without tying.
+To one or another of these types all the systems of American
+grape-training can be referred.
+
+There is no system of training which is best for all purposes and all
+varieties. The strong-growing varieties more readily adapt themselves to
+the high drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although the
+Delaware is often trained on a comparatively low Kniffin with good
+effect. The high or drooping systems are of comparatively recent date,
+and their particular advantages are the saving of labor in summer tying,
+cheapness of the trellis, and the facility with which the ground can be
+cultivated without endangering the branches of the vine. The upright
+training distributes the bearing wood more evenly upon the vine and is
+thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near
+the root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage, and it is
+better suited to the stature of the small-growing varieties. There is,
+perhaps, a greater temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping
+systems than in the others, because the shoots need no tying and do not,
+therefore, demand frequent attention; while in the upright systems the
+shoots soon become broken or displaced if not watched. For very large
+areas, or circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the
+vineyard, the Kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps always to be
+recommended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from diligence and skill as
+the other systems; but it will give better results than the others
+under partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially those making
+long and drooping canes, are well adapted to the Kniffin styles; but the
+smaller sorts, and those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an
+upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon the upright systems.
+But the merits of both systems are so various and even so little
+understood, that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly.
+The advantages in either case are often little more than matters of
+personal opinion. It should be said, however, that the Kniffin or
+drooping systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are evidently
+destined to overthrow much of the older upright training. This fact does
+not indicate, however, that the upright system is to be entirety
+superseded, but rather that it must be confined to those varieties and
+conditions for which it is best adapted. The two systems will
+undoubtedly supplement each other. The horizontal systems are
+occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are little known.
+
+
+_Making the Trellis._--The fall or winter following the planting of the
+vineyard, the trellis is begun if the upright systems are used; but this
+operation is usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems, and
+stakes are commonly used, or at least recommended, during the second
+season. In the South the trellis is made the first year. The style of
+trellis will depend upon the style of training, but the main features
+are the same for all. Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar,
+locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be
+set between each two. If the vines are set nine feet apart, the posts
+maybe eighteen or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand four or
+five feet from each post. If the posts in the row are eighteen feet
+apart and the rows eight feet apart, about 330 posts will be required to
+the acre. Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are driven with
+a heavy maul, although many people prefer to set the end posts in holes,
+thinking that they endure the strain better. In all loose soils,
+however, posts can be made as firm by driving as by setting with a
+spade. All posts should be as firm as possible, in order to hold up the
+heavy loads of vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it is a
+common practice to lean them slightly uphill, for there is always a
+tendency for the posts to tilt down the slope. For the Kniffin systems,
+especially for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must stand six or
+six and one-half feet high when set, but a foot less will usually be
+sufficient for the upright and horizontal systems. The posts should
+stand higher at first than is necessary for the support of the wires,
+for they will need to be driven down occasionally as they become loose.
+The end posts of each row should be well braced, as shown in several of
+the illustrations in this volume.
+
+The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the top wire in the
+Kniffin training, which is usually No. 10, as the greater part of the
+weight is then upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but it is
+heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally used for the middle and
+upper rows in the upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The
+following figures show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron
+and steel wires:
+
+  No.    Diameter in inches.    Weight of 100 feet.   Feet in 2,000 pounds.
+
+   9             .148              5.80 pounds.              34,483
+  10             .135              4.83    "                 41,408
+  11             .120              3.82    "                 52,356
+  12             .105              2.92    "                 68,493
+  13             .092              2.24    "                 89,286
+  14             .080              1.69    "                118,343
+  15             .072              1.37    "                145,985
+  16             .063              1.05    "                190,476
+
+The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents per pound, and the
+galvanized--which is less used for vineyards--3-1/2 cents. Of No. 12
+wire, about 160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on rows
+eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for three runs. The cost of No.
+12 wire per acre, for three runs, therefore, is about $15.
+
+The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by staples driven in
+firmly so that the wire will not pull through readily of its own weight,
+but still loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In
+other words, the head of the staple should not quite touch the wire.
+Grape staples are of three lengths, about an inch, inch and a quarter,
+and an inch and a half respectively. The shortest length is little
+used. The medium length is used for hard-wood posts and the longest for
+soft posts, like chestnut and cedar. These staples cost five cents per
+pound usually, and a pound of the medium length contains from 90 to 100
+of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, for three wires, will therefore
+require, for this size, about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy
+regions, the wires should be placed upon the windward side of the posts.
+
+There are various devices for securing the wire to the end posts, but
+the commonest method is to wind them about the post once and secure them
+with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon itself, forming a
+loop. The wires should be drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight
+of fruit and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction of the wires
+in winter, some growers loosen the wires after harvest and others
+provide some device which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Patent
+Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective lever-contrivance attached
+to each wire, and which is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to
+tighten them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided upon the back
+with a square-headed pin which works tightly in an inch and a half augur
+hole and about which the end of the wire is wound. A square-headed iron
+wrench operates the pin, while the tension of the wire around the side
+of the post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is not durable,
+however. An ingenious man can easily contrive some device for relieving
+the tension, if he should think it necessary. As a matter of practice,
+however, the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the burden of fruit
+and vines to take up the winter contraction, and most growers do not
+release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary, in fact, to
+tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts from year to year, as
+they become loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground
+firmly about all the posts every spring. The wires should always be kept
+tight during the growing season to prevent the whipping of the vines by
+wind. This is especially important in white grapes, which are discolored
+by the rubbing of leaves and twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it
+will be necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter.
+
+Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in Fig. 18, but these are
+always less durable than the wire trellises and more expensive to keep
+in repair; and in the older portions of the country, where timber is
+dear, they are also more expensive at the outset. They catch the wind,
+and, not being held together by continuous strands, are likely to blow
+down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning the styles of trellis
+are given in the discussions of the different systems of training.
+
+
+_Tying._--Probably the best material for tying the canes and shoots to
+the trellis is raffia. This is a bast-like material which comes in
+skeins and which can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about 20
+cents a pound. A pound will suffice to tie a quarter of an acre of
+upright training throughout the season. Raffia is obtained from the
+strippings of an oriental palm (_Raphia Ruffia_). Wool-twine is also
+still largely used for tying, but it is not so cheap and handy as
+raffia, and it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the
+winter pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the vine.
+Some complain that the raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine
+during the season, but it can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much
+used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also for summer tying,
+especially in the nursery regions where the slender trimmings of the
+cultivated osier willows are easily procured. Wild willows are often
+used if they can be obtained handily. These willows are tied up in a
+small bundle, which is held upon the back above the hips by a cord
+passed about the body. The butts project under the right hand, if the
+person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled out as needed. The
+butt is first used, the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand
+is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated in like manner
+until it is used up. When wool-twine is used, the ball is often held in
+front of the workman by a cord which is tied about it and then passed
+about the waist. The ball is unwound from the inside, and it will hold
+its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag upon
+the ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, after the manner of
+carrying seed-corn. Raffia is not so easily carried in the field as the
+wool-twine or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity.
+Green rye-straw, cut directly from the field, is much used for tying the
+shoots in summer. Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire,
+is used occasionally for tying up the canes in spring, but it must be
+used with care or it will injure the vine. Corn-husks are also employed
+for this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark is sometimes used
+for tying, but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to secure,
+and it has no advantage over raffia.
+
+It is very important that the canes be tied up early in spring, for the
+buds are easily broken after they begin to swell. These canes are tied
+rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the growing shoots,
+which are tied during the summer, are fastened more loosely, to allow of
+the necessary increase in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS.
+
+
+The upright systems are the oldest and best known of the styles of
+American grape training. They consist, essentially, in carrying out two
+horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low wire and training the
+shoots from them vertically upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper
+wires as they grow. This type was first clearly and forcibly described
+in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it
+became known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced many years
+previous to this time.
+
+
+_Horizontal Arm Spur System._--There are two types or styles of this
+upright system. The older type and the one described in the books, is
+known as the Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, the two
+horizontal branches are permanent, or, in other words, they are true
+arms. The canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms,
+as explained on page 15 (fig. 4.) Two shoots are often allowed to grow
+from each of these spurs, as shown in fig. 7. These spurs become
+overgrown and weak after a few years, and they are renewed from new
+shoots which spring from near their base or from the arm itself.
+Sometimes the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine, or even
+from the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 7. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR TRAINING.]
+
+The number of these upright canes and their distance apart upon these
+permanent arms depend upon the variety, the strength of the vine and
+soil and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to twenty inches apart
+upon the arm is the common distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry
+five canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the canes are
+distributed at intervals of about twenty inches. Some very strong vines
+of vigorous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms
+together, and in this case the canes stand about a foot apart. In the
+fall or winter, the cane is cut away and the strongest new cane which
+springs from its base is left for the bearing wood of the following
+year. This new cane is itself headed in to the height of the trellis;
+that is, if the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34 inches apart--as
+they are in the Brocton vineyards of western New York, where this system
+is largely used--this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches long. Upon
+this length of cane there will be about seven good buds in the common
+varieties.
+
+[Illustration: 8. HORIZONTAL ARM. (Diagram.)]
+
+A modification of this horizontal arm system is shown in fig. 9. It is
+used about Forestville, in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in this
+case are very short, and canes are taken out only at two or three
+places. The picture shows a vine in which two canes are taken from the
+end of each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of the vine.
+These canes are cut back to spurs in the fall, as explained in the above
+paragraph. Sometimes one or two other canes are taken out of these arms
+nearer the main trunk. The advantages urged for this style of training
+are the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes, and the small
+amount of old or permanent wood which is left to each vine.
+
+[Illustration: 9. SHORT ARM SPUR TRAINING.]
+
+The horizontal arm training is less popular than it was twenty years
+ago. It has serious faults, especially in the persistence of the old
+spurs, and probably will eventually give place to other systems. Aside
+from the spur pruning, the system is much like the following, which is a
+modification to allow of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is
+referred for further details. This modification, which may be called the
+High Renewal, and which is one of the most serviceable of any of the
+styles of training, although it has never been fully described, we shall
+now consider.
+
+
+_The High Renewal_, or upright training which is now very extensively
+employed in the lake regions of New York and elsewhere, starts the head
+or branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches from the ground.
+The ideal height for most varieties is probably about two feet to the
+first wire, although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If the vines
+are lower than two feet, they are liable to be injured by the plow or
+cultivator, the earth is dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and
+if the shoots become loose they strike the ground and the grapes are
+soon soiled. A single trunk or arm is carried up to the required height,
+or if good branches happen to form lower down, two main canes are
+carried from this point up to the required distance to meet the lower
+wire, so that the trunk becomes Y-shaped, as seen in figs. 10, 16 and
+17. In fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or crotch a
+few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate the spreading and
+placing of the canes. The trellis for the upright systems nearly always
+comprises three wires, although only two are sometimes used for the
+smaller growing varieties, and very rarely four are used for the
+strongest kinds, although this number is unnecessary. The lowest wire is
+stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty inches from the ground, and
+the two upper ones are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches
+apart.
+
+[Illustration: 10. THE SECOND SEASON OF UPRIGHT TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 11. MAKING THE T-HEAD.]
+
+The second season after planting should see the vine tied to the first
+wire. Fig. 10 is a photograph taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine
+which was set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the vine was
+cut back to three or four buds, and in the spring of 1892 two of these
+buds were allowed to make canes. These two canes are now tied to the
+wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892. In this case, the
+branches start near the surface of the ground. Sometimes only a single
+strong shoot grows, and in order to secure the two branches it is broken
+over where it passes the wire, and is usually tied to a stake to afford
+support. Fig. 11 shows this operation. A bud will develop at the bend or
+break, from which a cane can be trained in the opposite direction from
+the original portion, and the T-head is secured.
+
+[Illustration: 12. THE THIRD SEASON OF HIGH RENEWAL.--CONCORD.]
+
+[Illustration: 13. HIGH RENEWAL, BEFORE PRUNING.--CATAWBA.]
+
+The close of the second season after planting, therefore, will usually
+find the vine with two good canes extending in opposite directions and
+tied to the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in cutting off
+the ends of these canes back to firm and strong wood, which will leave
+them bearing from five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will grow
+upright from these buds and will be tied to the second wire, which has
+now been supplied. Late in the third season the vine should have much
+the appearance of that shown in fig. 12. The third wire is usually added
+to the trellis at the close of the second season, at the same time that
+the second wire is put on; but occasionally this is delayed until the
+close of the third season. Some of the upright shoots may bear a few
+grapes this third season, but unless the vines are very strong the
+flower clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old vine should
+never be allowed to bear heavily. It must be remembered, however, that
+both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of herbage, are to be
+cut away in the fall or winter of the third year. Some provision must
+have been made, therefore, for the top for the fourth year. It will be
+recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning (page 16, fig. 5), it
+was found that two or more shoots are allowed to grow each year to form
+the basis of the top the following year. In fig. 12 three or four such
+shoots can be seen springing from the Y-shaped portion in the center of
+the vine. These shoots or canes are to be bent down to the lowest wire
+next spring, and the bearing shoots will arise from them. This process
+will be seen at a glance from figs. 13, 14 and 15. The first shows a
+full grown old vine, trained on three wires. Fig. 14 shows the same vine
+when pruned. Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are left to
+form the top of the following year. The two stubs from which the renewal
+canes are to grow for the second year's top are seen in the center. In
+the fall of the next year, therefore, these two outside canes will be
+cut away to the base of these renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in
+the meantime, will have made a year's growth. These renewal stubs in
+this picture are really spurs, as will be seen; that is, they contain
+two ages of wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these stubs or
+spurs every two or three years at most, and to bring new canes
+directly from the old wood or head. If possible, the renewal cane is
+brought from a new place on the old wood every year in order to avoid a
+spur. Such was the case in the vine shown in fig. 5, page 19. Fig. 15
+shows the same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two ties have been
+made upon each cane. Fig. 16 shows a vine in which four canes have been
+left to form the top for the following year. The stubs for the renewals
+can be seen in the Y. It is customary to leave more than two canes,
+occasionally, in strong-growing varieties like Concord. Sometimes four
+and occasionally six are left. If four canes are left, two may be tied
+together in each direction upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the
+two extra ones should be tied along the second wire, parallel with the
+lowest ones. These extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across the
+trellis, but this practice should be discouraged, for the usual tendency
+of the vine is to make its greatest growth at the top, and the lower
+buds may fail to bear.
+
+[Illustration: 14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED AND TIED.]
+
+The ideal length of the two canes varies with different varieties and
+the distance apart at which the vines are set. Very strong kinds, like
+Concord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on each cane,
+especially if the vines are set more than eight feet apart. Fig. 17
+shows half of a Concord vine in which about ten buds were left on each
+cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or fifty buds to the vine
+to advantage, but when this number is left the canes should be four, as
+explained in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak-growing
+varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the vine should be the maximum
+and only two canes should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes
+are usually cut to the desired length--four to six feet--even if too
+great a number of buds is left, but the shoots which spring from these
+extra buds are broken out soon after they start. A Delaware vine which
+has made an unusually short or weak growth will require fewer buds to be
+left for next year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety
+which has made a strong growth. The Catawba, which is a short but very
+stiff grower, is usually cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs.
+13, 14 and 15. The grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to the
+character of the vine without effort. He has in his mind a certain ideal
+crop of grapes, perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves enough buds
+to produce this amount, allowing, perhaps, ten per cent. of the buds for
+accidents and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes should always
+be cut back to firm, well-ripened wood. It should be said that mere
+size of cane does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch.
+Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives better results than the
+very large and softer canes which are sometimes produced on soils rich
+in nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown wood is known as a
+"bull cane." A cane does not attain its full growth the first year, but
+will increase in diameter during the second season. The tying therefore,
+should be sufficiently loose or elastic to allow of growth, although it
+should be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane
+should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to it, provision being
+made for the swelling of the wood to twice its diameter.
+
+[Illustration: 16. HIGH RENEWAL WITH FOUR CANES.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. HIGH RENEWAL COMPLETE.--CONCORD.]
+
+The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after they pass it, or have
+attained firmness enough to allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied
+again to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with equal rapidity,
+and the vineyard must be gone over more than twice if the shoots are
+kept properly tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be all
+that is necessary for careful summer tying. Many vineyardists tie only
+once or twice, but this neglect should be discouraged. This tying is
+mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece of straw about ten
+inches long is used for each tie, it usually being wrapped but once
+about the shoot. The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia is
+used, a common string-knot is made. When the shoots reach the top of
+the trellis, they are usually allowed to take care of themselves. The
+Catawba shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and ordinarily need
+no attention. The long-growing varieties will be likely to drag the
+shoots upon the ground before the close of the season. If these tips
+interfere with the cultivation, they may be clipped off with a sickle or
+corn-cutter, although this practice should be delayed as long as
+possible to prevent the growth of laterals (see page 21). It is probably
+better to avoid cutting entirely. Some growers wind or tie the longest
+shoots upon the top wire, as seen in fig. 17. It is probably best, as a
+rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and to clip them only
+when they seriously interfere with the work of the hoe and cultivator.
+The treatment for slat trellises, as shown in fig. 18, is the same as on
+wire trellises, except that longer strings must be used in tying.
+
+[Illustration: 18. A SLAT TRELLIS, WITH UPRIGHT TRAINING.]
+
+It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit in the High Renewal is
+borne between the first and second wires, at the bottom of the trellis.
+If the lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this fruit will
+hang at the most convenient height for picking. The fruit trays are set
+upon the ground, and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected
+from the hot suns and from frost; and if the shoots are properly tied,
+the clusters are not shaken roughly by the wind. It is, of course,
+desirable that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light and
+air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore, be pulled off, as
+already explained (page 21). In rare cases it may also be necessary, for
+this purpose, to prune the canes which droop over from the top of the
+trellis.
+
+After a few years, the old top or head of the vine becomes more or less
+weak and it should be renewed from the root. The thrifty vineyardist
+anticipates this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty shoot
+which may spring from the ground to remain. This shoot is treated very
+much like a young vine, and the head is formed during the second year
+(page 16, bottom). If it should make a strong growth during the first
+year and develop stout laterals, it may be cut back only to the lowest
+wire the first fall; but in other cases, it should be cut back to two or
+three buds, from one of which a strong and permanent shoot is taken the
+second year. When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk is cut
+off at the surface of the ground, or below if possible. A top will
+retain its vigor for six or eight years under ordinary treatment, and
+sometimes much longer. These tops are renewed from time to time as
+occasion permits or demands, and any vineyard which has been bearing a
+number of years will nearly always have a few vines in process of
+renewal. The reader should not receive the impression, however, that the
+life or vitality of a vine is necessarily limited. Vines often continue
+to bear for twenty years or more without renewal; but the head after a
+time comes to be large and rough and crooked, and often weakened by
+scars, and better results are likely to be obtained if a new, clean vine
+takes its place.
+
+The High Renewal is extensively used in the lake region of Western New
+York, for all varieties. It is particularly well adapted to Delaware,
+Catawba, and other weak or short varieties. When systematically pursued,
+it gives fruit of the highest excellence. This High Renewal training,
+like all the low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid down
+easily in winter, which is an important consideration in many parts of
+Canada and in the colder northern states.
+
+
+_Fan Training._--A system much used a few years ago and still sometimes
+seen, is one which renews back nearly to the ground each year, and
+carries the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This system has
+the advantages of dispensing with much of the old wood, or trunk, and
+facilitating laying down the vine in winter in cold climates. On the
+other hand, it has the disadvantages of bearing the fruit too
+low--unless the lower clusters are removed--and making a vine of
+inconvenient shape for tying. It is little used at present. Fig. 19
+shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is by no means an
+ideal vine. This vine has not been properly renewed, but bears long,
+crooked spurs, from which the canes spring. One of these spurs will be
+seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The spurs should be kept very
+short, and they should be entirely removed every two or three years, as
+explained in the above discussion of the High Renewal training.
+
+The shoots are allowed to take their natural course, being tied to any
+wire near which they chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire.
+Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally to the wires,
+and this is probably the better practice. Two canes may be tied in each
+direction on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be tied down to
+the second wire. In either case, the vine is essentially like the High
+Renewal, except that the trunk is shorter.
+
+[Illustration: 19. FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE DROOPING SYSTEMS.
+
+
+In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard in the Hudson River
+Valley. A neighbor, William Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres
+of land to which he devoted his attention during the leisure seasons of
+his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to plant a few grapes. He planted the
+Isabella, and succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation was
+increased into a respectable vineyard and Kniffin came to be regarded as
+a local authority upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days in
+commercial grape growing in North America, and there were no undisputed
+maxims of cultivation and training. If any system of close training and
+pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal arm spur
+system, or something like it. One day a large limb broke from an
+apple-tree and fell upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes and
+crushing the vine into a singular shape. The vine was thought to be
+ruined, but it was left until the fruit could be gathered. But as the
+fruit matured, its large size and handsome appearance attracted
+attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard! Mr. Kniffin was an
+observant man, and he inquired into the cause of the excellent fruit.
+He noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the best canes stood
+out horizontally. From this suggestion he developed the four-cane system
+of training which now bears his name. A year or two later, in 1854, the
+system had attracted the attention of those of his neighbors who
+cultivated grapes, and thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson
+valley, where it is to-day, with various modifications, the chief method
+of grape training. Its merits have become known beyond its original
+valley, and it is now spreading more rapidly than any other system. The
+ground upon which the old Isabellas grew is now occupied by Concords,
+which are as vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer soils.
+William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale, Ulster county, New
+York, June 13, 1876, at fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a
+photograph which was taken two or three years before his death.
+
+[Illustration: 20. WILLIAM KNIFFIN.]
+
+
+_The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System._--Figure 21 shows the true
+Kniffin system, very nearly as practiced by its originator. A single
+stem or trunk is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are
+taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr. Kniffin believed in short
+canes, and cut them back to about six buds on both wires. But most
+growers now prefer to leave the upper canes longer than the lower ones,
+as seen in illustration. The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will,
+so that no summer tying is necessary; this is the distinguishing mark of
+the various Kniffin systems. The main trunk is tied to each wire, and
+the canes are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses the
+great advantage, therefore, of requiring little labor during the busy
+days of the growing season; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if
+the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or other bush-fruits can
+be grown between. The system is especially adapted to the strong
+varieties of grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of different
+systems of training, the reader should consult Chapter II.
+
+[Illustration: 21. THE TRUE KNIFFIN TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNED.]
+
+The pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in cutting off all the wood
+save a single cane from each spur. Fig. 22 illustrates the process. This
+is the same vine which is shown with the full amount of wood on in fig.
+21. The drooping shoots shown in that illustration bore the grapes of
+1892; and now, in the winter of 1892-93, they are all to be cut away,
+with the horizontal old canes from which they grew, save only the four
+canes which hang nearest the main trunk. Fig. 22 shows the vine after it
+had been pruned. It is not obligatory that the canes which are left
+after the pruning should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen
+that these may be weak; but, other things being equal, these canes are
+preferable because their selection keeps the old spurs short. The
+careful grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots which start
+from this point, in order that a strong cane may be obtained. It is
+desirable that these side spurs be removed entirely every three or four
+years, a new cane being brought out again from the main body or trunk.
+There is little expectation, however, that there shall be such a
+complete renewal pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal, which we
+discussed in the last chapter.
+
+It will be seen that the drooping canes in fig. 22 are shorter than they
+were originally, as shown in fig. 21. They have been cut back. The
+length at which these canes shall be left is a moot point. Much depends
+upon the variety, the distance between the wires, the strength of the
+soil, and other factors. Nearly all growers now agree that the upper
+canes should be longer than the lower ones, although equal canes are
+still used in some places. In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the
+upper canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower ones five. This
+gives thirty buds to the vine. Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds
+above and only four below.
+
+These four pruned canes are generally allowed to hang during winter, but
+are tied onto the wires before the buds swell in spring. They are
+stretched out horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two ties
+upon each cane. The shoots which spring from these horizontal canes
+stand upright or oblique at first but they soon fall over with the
+weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the ground, the ends may be
+clipped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not
+always done, and is not necessary unless the canes interfere with
+cultivation. There is no summer-pinching nor pruning, although the
+superfluous shoots should be broken out, as in other systems. (See page
+23).
+
+Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. The end posts are
+usually set in holes, rather than driven, to render them solid, and they
+should always be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven, and
+they usually stand between every alternate vine, or twenty feet apart if
+the vines are ten feet apart--which is a common distance for the most
+vigorous varieties. For the strong-growing varieties, the top wire is
+placed from five and one-half to six feet above the ground. Five feet
+nine inches is a popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to
+bring the height to six feet, although it is best to "tap" the posts
+every spring with a maul in order to drive them back and make them firm.
+The lower wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet. Delawares,
+if trained Kniffin, should not stand above five feet four inches, or at
+most five feet six inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto
+the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner practice,
+perhaps, to stake them the second season, as already explained (page
+27), and put them on the wires the third season. The year following the
+tying to the trellis, the vine should bear a partial crop. The vine is
+usually carried directly to the top wire the first season of training,
+although it is the practice of some growers, especially outside the
+Hudson valley, to stop the trunk at the lower wire the first year of
+permanent training, and to carry it to the top wire the following year.
+
+Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully as high and perhaps
+higher than from other species of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange
+county, New York, has had an annual average of twenty-six pounds of
+Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550 vines being considered in the
+calculation. While the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin
+system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be trained in this
+manner with success, as the following average yields obtained by Mr.
+Barns from 200 vines set in 1881 will show:
+
+  1886            8-1/2  pounds to the vine.
+  1887           11-3/4     "    "  "    "
+  1888            8         "    "  "    "
+  1889            9-1/2     "    "  "    "
+  1890            7         "    "  "    "
+  1891           16         "    "  "    "
+  1892           13         "    "  "    "
+
+
+_Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin._--Various modifications of this
+original four-cane Kniffin are in use. The Kniffin idea is often
+carelessly applied to a rack trellis. In such cases, several canes were
+allowed to grow where only two should have been left. Fig. 23 is a
+common but poor style of Kniffin used in some of the large new
+vineyards of western New York. It differs from the type in the training
+of the young wood. These shoots, instead of being allowed to hang at
+will, are carried out horizontally and either tied to the wire or
+twisted around it. The advantage urged for this modification is the
+little injury done by wind, but, as a matter of practice, it affords
+less protection than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the
+shoots from the upper cane soon cling to the lower wire, and the shoots
+from both tiers of canes protect each other below the lower wire. There
+are three serious disadvantages to this holding up of the shoots,--it
+makes unnecessary labor, the canes are likely to make wood or "bull
+canes" (see page 50) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is bunched
+together on the vines.
+
+[Illustration: 23. A POOR TYPE OF KNIFFIN.]
+
+Another common modification of the four-cane Kniffin is that shown in
+fig. 24, in which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk. This crotch is
+used in the belief that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily
+deflected into the lower arms than by the system of side spurring on a
+straight or continuous trunk. This is probably a fallacy, and may have
+arisen from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the lower wire as on
+the upper one. Nevertheless, this modification is in common use in
+western New York and elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: 24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN.]
+
+If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds on both wires, the
+Double Kniffin will probably be found most satisfactory. Two distinct
+trunks are brought from the root, each supplying a single wire only. The
+trunks are tied together to hold them in place. This system, under the
+name of Improved Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted
+portions of the Hudson valley.
+
+
+_The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System._--Inasmuch as the greater
+part of the fruit in the Four-Cane Kniffin is born upon the upper wire,
+the question arises if it would not be better to dispense with the
+lower canes and cut the upper ones longer. This is now done to a
+considerable extent, especially in the Hudson valley. Fig. 25 explains
+the operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk is tied to the lower
+wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing from nine to fifteen
+buds, are left upon the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper
+wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the lower wire, where
+the ends are tied. In some instances, the lower wire is dispensed with,
+but this is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place against the
+winds and prevents the too violent whipping of the hanging shoots.
+During the growing season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs in
+exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Kniffin. This species of
+training reduces the amount of leaf-surface to a minimum, and every
+precaution must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth. This system
+of training will probably not allow of the successful girdling of the
+vine for the purpose of hastening the maturity and augmenting the size
+of the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from it, if liberal
+fertilizing and good cultivation are employed, and the fruit is nearly
+always first-class. A Concord vine trained in this manner produced in
+1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing forty pounds.
+
+[Illustration: 25. UMBRELLA TRAINING.]
+
+Another type of Umbrella training is shown in fig. 26, before pruning.
+Here five main canes were allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in
+very strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably never so
+good as the other (fig. 25), if the highest results are desired; but for
+the grower who does not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a
+safer system than the other.
+
+[Illustration: 26. A POOR UMBRELLA SYSTEM.]
+
+
+_The Low, or One-Wire Kniffin._--A modification of this Umbrella system
+is sometimes used, in which the trellis is only three or four feet high
+and comprises but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen buds is tied
+out in each direction, and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially
+the same manner as in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages
+urged for this system are the protection of the grapes from wind, the
+large size of the fruit due to the small amount of bearing wood, the
+ease of laying down the vines, the readiness with which the top can be
+renewed from the root as occasion demands, and the cheapness of the
+trellis.
+
+
+_The Six-Cane Kniffin._--There are many old vineyards in eastern New
+York which are trained upon a six-cane or three-wire system. The general
+pruning and management of these vines do not differ from that of the
+common Kniffin. Very strong varieties which can carry an abundance of
+wood, may be profitable upon this style of training, but it cannot be
+recommended. A Concord vineyard over thirty years old, comprising 295
+vines, trained in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive. Twice
+it has produced crops of six tons.
+
+[Illustration: 27. EIGHT-CANE KNIFFIN. (Diagram.)]
+
+
+_Eight-Cane Kniffin._--Eight and even ten canes are sometimes left upon
+a single trunk, and are trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely,
+as shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 27). Unless these canes are
+cut back to four or five buds each, the vine carries too much wood and
+fruit. This system allows of close planting, but the trellis is too
+expensive. The trunk soon becomes overgrown with spurs, and it is likely
+to become prematurely weak. This style is very rarely used.
+
+[Illustration: 28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.]
+
+[Illustration: 29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.]
+
+
+_Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin._--A curious modification of the Kniffin is
+employed somewhat on the Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at
+Marlboro'. The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead arbor, as
+shown in figs. 28, 29 and 30. The trellis is six feet above the ground,
+and is composed of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane. The
+central wire runs from post to post, and one upon either side is
+attached to the end of a three-foot cross-bar, as represented in fig.
+28. The rows are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve feet
+apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced by a connecting-pole, as in
+fig. 29. The trunk of the vine ends in a T-shaped head, which is well
+displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the foreground in fig. 30.
+From this T-head, five canes are carried out from spurs. It was formerly
+the practice to carry out six canes, one in each direction upon each
+wire, but this was found to supply too much wood. Now two canes are
+carried in one direction and three in the other; and the positions of
+these sets are alternated each year, if possible. The canes which are
+left after the winter pruning are tied along the wires in spring, as in
+the Kniffin, and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief advantage of
+this training is that it allows of the growing of bush-fruits between
+the rows, as seen in fig. 29. It is also said that the clusters hang so
+free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or leaves, and the fruit
+is protected from sun and frost. Every post must be large and firmly
+set, however, adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several styles
+similar to this are in use, one of the best being the Crittenden system,
+of Michigan. In this system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or
+five feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two or three feet
+wide.
+
+[Illustration: 30. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN, BEFORE PRUNING.]
+
+
+_The Cross-Wire System._--Another high Kniffin training, and which is
+also confined to the vicinity of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire,
+represented in figs. 31 and 32. Small posts are set eight feet apart
+each way, and a single wire runs from the top of post to post--six and
+one-half feet from the ground--in each direction, forming a check-row
+system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at the foot of the
+stake, to which the trunk is tied for support. Four canes are taken from
+spurs on the head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating wires.
+These canes are cut to three and one-half or four feet in length, and
+the bearing shoots droop as they grow. Fig. 31 shows this training as it
+appears some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in the season
+the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, and a person standing at a
+distance sees an almost impenetrable mass of herbage, as in fig. 32.
+This system appears to have little merit, and will always remain local
+in application. It possesses the advantage of economy in construction of
+the trellis, for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of the
+rows. The end posts are either braced by a pole or anchored by a wire
+taken from the top and secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet
+beyond, outside the vineyard.
+
+[Illustration: 31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 32. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. OUTSIDE VIEW.]
+
+
+_Renewal Kniffin._--It is an easy matter to adapt the Kniffin principle
+of free hanging shoots to a true renewal method of pruning. There are a
+few modifications in use in which the wood is annually renewed to near
+the ground. The trellises comprise either two or three wires, and are
+made in the same manner as for the upright systems, as the High Renewal.
+At the annual pruning only one cane is left. This comprises twelve or
+fifteen buds, and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point or
+end of the cane usually being bent downward somewhat, in order to check
+the strong growth from the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this
+cane, and they may be pinched back when they reach the ground. In the
+meantime a strong shoot is taken out from the opposite side of the
+head--which usually stands a foot or less from the ground--to make the
+bearing wood of the next year; and this new cane will be tied in an
+opposite direction on the trellis from the present bearing cane, and the
+next renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of the head, or the
+side from which the present bearing wood sprung; so that the bearing top
+of the vine is alternated in either direction upon the trellis. This
+system, and similar ones, allow of laying down the vines easily in
+winter, and insure excellent fruit because the amount of bearing wood
+is small; but the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands.
+
+
+_The Munson System._--An unique system of training, upon the Kniffin
+principle, has been devised by T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, a
+well-known authority upon grapes. Two posts are set in the same hole,
+their tops diverging. A wire is stretched along the top of these posts
+and a third one is hung between them on cross-wires. The trunk of the
+vine, or its head, is secured to this middle lower wire and the shoots
+lop over the side wires. The growth, therefore, makes a V-shaped or
+trough-like mass of herbage. Fig. 33 is an end view of this trellis,
+showing the short wire connecting the posts and which also holds the
+middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. Fig. 34 is a side view of the
+trellis. The bearing canes, two or four, in number, which are left after
+the annual pruning, are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk
+forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left in fig. 34. A head
+is formed at this place not unlike like that which characterizes the
+High Renewal, for this system also employs renewal pruning. The trellis
+stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright at first, but soon fall
+down and are supported by the side wires. The following account of this
+system of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:
+
+"After the vines have flowered, the bearing laterals have their tips
+pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets, except to
+rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. Two to four
+shoots, according to strength of vine, are started from the forks or
+crotch and allowed to bear no fruit, but are trained along over the
+lower central wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives, the
+entire bearing cane of the present year, with all its laterals, is cut
+away at a point near where the young renewal shoots have started, and
+these shoots are shortened back, according to strength of vine; some,
+such as Herbemont, being able at four years to fill four shoots six or
+eight feet long with fine fruit, while Delaware could not well carry
+over three or four feet each way of one shoot only. The different
+varieties are set at various distances apart, according as they are
+strong or weak growers.
+
+[Illustration: 33. MUNSON TRAINING. END VIEW.]
+
+"Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the simplest
+form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties
+complete the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work well. The
+trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower wire, along which all
+bearing canes are tied after pruning, and from which the young laterals
+which produce the crop are to spring. These laterals strike the two
+outer wires, soon clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe
+from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the best possible
+position for spraying and gathering, and is still shaded with the canopy
+of leaves. I have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres of
+mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every year.
+
+[Illustration: 34. MUNSON TRAINING. SIDE VIEW.]
+
+"The following advantages are secured by this system:
+
+"1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, which is a canopy to
+shade the roots and body of vine and the fruit, without smothering.
+
+"2. New wood, formed by sap which has never passed through bearing wood,
+is secured for the next crop--a very important matter.
+
+"3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free passage in any
+direction through the vineyard; circulation of air without danger of
+breaking tender shoots; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivation,
+harvesting.
+
+"4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop to suit capacity of
+vine.
+
+"5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly with the nature of
+nearly all our American species far better than short spurs.
+
+"6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being pruned and not tied,
+standing away from posts, can be bent down to one side between the rows,
+and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly raised and tied in
+position.
+
+"7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing trellis material and
+using it again.
+
+"8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard."
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS.
+
+
+_Horizontal Training._--There are very few types of horizontal shoot
+training now in use. The best is probably that shown in fig. 35. This
+particular vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well adapted.
+It will be noticed that this picture represents the end of a trellis,
+and the diagonal stick seen near the ground is a brace for the end post.
+Two wires run from post to post, one about two and one-half feet above
+the ground and the other five and one-half feet high. The posts are set
+at the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The vines are set six
+or eight feet apart, if Delawares. A strong stake is driven in the
+ground behind each vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis when
+set. The permanent trunk or head of the vine stands about a foot high.
+The vine is renewed back to the top of this trunk every year. One cane
+is left at each pruning, which, when tied up to the stake, is as high as
+the trellis. From this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are
+carried out horizontally. About six of these shoots are allowed to grow
+upon either side of the cane. As the shoots grow, they are tied to
+perpendicular slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats do not
+touch the ground. Two slats are provided upon either side, making four
+to a vine. They stand a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang
+free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots grow too long, they are
+pinched in when they have passed the second slat. While these shoots are
+covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out from the head or trunk
+of the vine and, without being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the
+central stake. This shoot is to form the top next year, for all the
+present vine is to be entirely cut away at the winter's pruning. So the
+vine starts every spring with but a single cane.
+
+[Illustration: 35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING.]
+
+Excellent results are obtained from the slender growing varieties by
+this method of training, but it is too expensive in trellis and in labor
+of tying to make it generally practicable. Delaware, however, thrives
+remarkably well when trained in this fashion.
+
+
+_Post Training._--There are various methods of training to posts, all of
+which possess two advantages--the saving of the expense of trellis and
+allowing of cultivation both ways. But they also have grave
+disadvantages, especially in the thickness of the head of foliage which
+harbors rot and mildew and prevents successful spraying, and hinders the
+fruit from coloring and ripening well. These faults are so serious that
+post training is now little used for the American grapes. The saving in
+cost of trellis is not great, for more posts are required to the acre
+than in the trellis systems, and they do not endure long when standing
+alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 36. LOW POST TRAINING.]
+
+There are various methods of pruning for the stake training, but nearly
+all of them agree in pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright arm
+which stands the full height of the vine. There may be one or two sets
+of these spurs. We might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in fig. 22, to
+be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis; in that event,
+the four canes would hang at will, or they might be wrapped about the
+post, the shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. The post
+systems are essentially Kniffin in principle, for the shoots hang free.
+In low styles of post training, the permanent head of the vine may be
+only three or four feet high. This head will have a ring of spurs on it,
+and at the annual pruning three to five canes with from six to ten buds
+each are left. Fig. 36 is a view in such a post vineyard.
+
+The main trunk is usually tied permanently to the post. The canes left
+after pruning are variously disposed. Sometimes they are bent upwards
+and tied to the post above the head of the vine, but they are oftenest
+either wound loosely about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two
+trunks are frequently used to each post, both coming from the ground
+from a common root. These are wound about the post in opposite
+directions, one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured at
+the top by a small nail driven through it, or by a cord, no other tying
+will be necessary. Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances of
+one foot or more apart, and the vines are wrapped about them, but this
+only augments the size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and then
+one sees a careful post training, in which but little wood is left and
+vigorous breaking out of shoots practiced, which gives excellent
+results; but on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The European post
+and stake systems or modifications of them, are yet occasionally
+recommended for American vines, but under general conditions, especially
+in commercial grape growing, they rarely succeed long. One of the latest
+recommendations of any of these types is that of the single pole system
+of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of Iowa, in a little treatise
+published in 1878.
+
+
+_Arbors._--Arbors and bowers are usually formed with little reference to
+pruning and training. The first object is to secure shade and seclusion,
+and these are conditions which may seriously interfere with the
+production of fine grapes. As a rule, too much wood must be allowed to
+grow, and the soil about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair
+results in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes a diligent use of
+the pruning shears. It is usually best to carry one main or permanent
+trunk up to the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk at
+intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left to which the wood is
+renewed each year. If the vines stand six feet apart about the
+arbor--which is a satisfactory distance--one cane three feet long may be
+left on each spur when the pruning is done. The shoots which spring from
+these canes will soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the close of
+the season, this entire cane with its laterals is cut away at the spur,
+and another three-foot cane--which grew during the season--is left in
+its place. This pruning is essentially that of the Kniffin vine in fig.
+22. Imagine this vine, with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid
+upon the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to the slats instead
+of being tied on wires. This same system--running up a long trunk and
+cutting in to side spurs--will apply equally well to tall walls and
+fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly a better plan, so far
+as yield and quality of fruit is concerned, is to renew back nearly to
+the root, bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or three every
+year, and cutting the old ones off; but as the vines are desired for
+shade one does not care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach
+and cover the top of the arbor.
+
+
+_Remodeling Old Vines._--Old and neglected tops can rarely be remodeled
+to advantage. If the vine is still vigorous, it will probably pay to
+grow an entirely new top by taking out a cane from the root. If the old
+top is cut back severely for a year or two, this new cane will make a
+vigorous growth, and it can be treated essentially like a new or young
+vine. If it is very strong and ripens up well, it can be left long
+enough the first fall to make the permanent trunk; but if it is rather
+weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or winter to two or
+three buds, from one of which the permanent trunk is to be grown the
+second season. Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the
+preceding pages for the various systems, will apply to the new vine.
+The old trunk should be cut away as soon as the new one is permanently
+tied to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first or second
+season of the new trunk. Care must be exercised to rub off all sprouts
+which spring from the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut back
+into the ground and covered with earth, better results may be expected.
+Old vines treated in this manner often make good plants, but if the
+vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble will scarcely pay for
+itself.
+
+These old vines can be remodeled easily by means of grafting. Cut off
+the trunk five or six inches below the surface of the ground, leaving an
+inch or two of straight wood above the roots. Into this stub insert two
+cions exactly as for cleft-grafting the apple. Cions of two or three
+buds, of firm wood the size of a lead-pencil, should be inserted. The
+top bud should stand above the ground. The cleft will need no tying nor
+wax, although it is well to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material
+over the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth tightly about
+it. Fig. 37 shows the first year's growth from two cions of Niagara set
+in a Red Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any pruning which is
+done this first year, or the cions may be loosened. If the young shoots
+are tied to a stake there will be less danger from wind and careless
+workmen. In the vine shown in the illustration, no pruning nor rubbing
+out was done, but the vine would have been in better shape for
+training if only one or two shoots had been allowed to grow. Such a vine
+as this can be carried onto the trellis next year; or it may be cut back
+to three or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the permanent
+trunk next year, like a two-year set vine.
+
+[Illustration: 37. A YEARLING GRAFT.]
+
+If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will be best to cut
+back the annual growth heavily at the winter pruning. The amount of wood
+which shall be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant and the
+variety, but three or four canes of six to ten buds each may be left at
+suitable places. During the next season a strong shoot from the base of
+each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form the wood of the
+following season, while all the present cane is cut away at the end of
+the year. So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the regular
+systems of training. Much skill and experience are often required to
+properly rejuvenate an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not
+worth the trouble.
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+               Page
+
+  Adlum, quoted, 10
+
+  Arbor Kniffin, 72
+
+  Arbors, 88
+
+  Arm, defined, 13
+
+
+  Barns, W. D., quoted, 63
+
+  Bass bark, 33
+
+  Bleeding, 22
+
+  Breaking-out, 23
+
+  Brocton, Training at, 37
+
+  Bull cane, 50, 66
+
+
+  Cane, defined, 13
+
+  Chautauqua County, Training in, 37
+
+  Contraction of wires, 30
+
+  Cornell, William T., 56
+
+  Cornhusks, for tying, 33
+
+  Crittenden training, 74
+
+  Cross-wire training, 74
+
+  Crotch Kniffin, 66
+
+
+  Double Kniffin, 66
+
+  Drooping systems, 56
+
+
+  Eight-cane Kniffin, 70
+
+
+  Fan training, 54
+
+  Forestville, Training at, 37
+
+  Four-cane Kniffin, 58
+
+  Fuller, quoted, 10, 34
+
+
+  Girdling, 69
+
+  Grafting, 90
+
+
+  Haviland, Sands, 72
+
+  Heading-in, 23
+
+  High Renewal training, 39
+
+  Hofer, A. F., 88
+
+  Horizontal Arm training, 34
+
+  Horizontal training, 83
+
+  Husks, for tying, 33
+
+
+  Improved Kniffin, 66
+
+
+  Kniffin systems, 58
+
+  Kniffin training, Comparison of, 26
+
+  Kniffin, William, 56
+
+
+  Low Kniffin, 69
+
+
+  Marlboro', Training at, 72, 74
+
+  Modified Kniffin, 63
+
+  Munson training, 78
+
+  Munson, T. V., 78
+
+
+  Objects of pruning, 24
+
+  Old vines, Remodeling of, 89
+
+  One-wire Kniffin, 69
+
+  Overhead Kniffin, 72
+
+
+  Planting, 20
+
+  Posts, 28
+
+  Post training, 85
+
+  Pruning, 11
+
+  Pruning, Objects of, 24
+
+  " of young vines, 20
+
+  " Summer, 23
+
+  " Time for, 22
+
+
+  Raffia, 32
+
+  Raphia Ruffia, 32
+
+  Reasons for pruning, 24
+
+  Remodeling old vines, 89
+
+  Renewal, defined, 18
+
+  Renewal Kniffin, 77
+
+  Rubbing off, 14, 23
+
+  Rye straw for tying, 33
+
+
+  Sagging of wires, 30
+
+  Setting, 20
+
+  Shoot, defined, 13
+
+  Six-cane Kniffin, 70
+
+  Spur, defined, 17
+
+  Spur training, 34
+
+  Staples, 29
+
+  Stopping, 23
+
+  Stripping, 22
+
+  Summer pruning, 23
+
+  Superfluous shoots, 23
+
+  Systems compared, 25
+
+
+  T-head, 41
+
+  Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted, 10
+
+  Tightening wires, 31
+
+  Trellis, Making, 27
+
+  True Kniffin, 58
+
+  Twine for tying, 32
+
+  Two-cane Kniffin, 66
+
+  Tying, 31
+
+
+  Umbrella training, 66
+
+  Upright training, 34
+
+
+  Walls, Training on, 89
+
+  Weeping, 22
+
+  Willows, for tying, 32
+
+  Wire, for trellis, 28
+
+  " for tying, 33
+
+  " weights and sizes, 29
+
+  Wool-twine, 32
+
+
+  Y-trunk Kniffin, 66
+
+  Yeoman's patent trellis, 30
+
+  Yields of grapes, 14, 63, 69, 70
+
+  Young vines, Pruning of, 20
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=THIS ILLUSTRATION= was made from a photograph of fair
+samples of the different grades of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth
+their natural size.
+
+We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish _strong_,
+_fibrous-rooted_ stock, so well appreciated by intelligent and
+experienced fruit growers.
+
+WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE.
+
+LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y.,
+
+Grape Vine Specialist And General Nurseryman.
+
+When writing name this book.
+
+
+
+
+Hardy
+
+Native
+
+Grapes.
+
+
+We desire to call the attention of planters to our large and complete
+stock of Grape Vines.
+
+We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty varieties, embracing
+the popular old sorts as well as the new ones which seem to have merit.
+Our catalogue contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the
+different varieties according to color.
+
+Besides the above we offer an immense collection of all kinds of Fruit
+and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General
+Catalogue (160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings of the most
+popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in an illuminated cover, will
+be mailed free to all who have not received it.
+
+Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare and Choice Trees, Shrubs,
+etc., including several valuable novelties and many specialties of
+superior merit, will also be mailed free.
+
+ELLWANGER & BARRY,
+
+      Mount Hope Nurseries,
+
+53rd Year.     ROCHESTER, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+Pleasant Valley Nurseries
+
+PEAR TREES.--Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka, Japan Golden Russet,
+Kieffer, LeConte, etc., Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of all sorts.
+Ornamentals, Eleagnus Longipes, Japanese Wineberry Juneberry, Trifoliate
+Orange and other valued novelties.
+
+[Illustration: FRUIT TREES! BERRY PLANTS!]
+
+STRAWBERRIES, Van Deman, E. P. Roe, and other new varieties; all the old
+standard sorts, Gooseberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Currants,
+Asparagus Roots and Grape Vines.
+
+J. S. COLLINS & SON, Moorestown, N. J.
+
+Send for Catalogue.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS.
+
+For the Farm and Household.
+
+Any one of these valuable books will be sent, postpaid, direct, on
+receipt of price.
+
+Be careful to write name and post office plain, so that there may be no
+mistake in mailing.
+
+Address
+
+_The Rural Publishing Co., New York._
+
+POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT PLANTS.--By A. A. CROZIER. A collection of errors
+and superstitions entertained by farmers, gardeners and others, together
+with brief scientific refutations. Highly interesting to students and
+intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural literature, and
+of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the truth about
+their work.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+THE NURSERY BOOK.--By L. H. BAILEY. A complete handbook of Propagation
+and Pollination of Plants. _Profusely illustrated._ This valuable little
+manual has been compiled with great pains. The author has had unusual
+facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many experts. The
+book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has nothing to
+do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant growth. It
+simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a seed, makes
+a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It is
+entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107, and
+are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats all kinds
+of cultivated plants, fruits, vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy
+herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest trees.
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+I.--SEEDAGE. On Propagation by Seed.
+
+II.--SEPARATION.
+
+III.--LAYERAGE. Propagation by Layering.
+
+IV.--CUTTAGE. Propagation by Cuttings.
+
+V.--GRAFTAGE.--Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc.
+
+VI.--NURSERY LIST.--This is the great feature of the book. It is an
+alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling
+which of the operations described in the first five chapters are
+employed in propagating them. _Over 2,000 entries_ are made in the list.
+The following entries will give an idea of the method:
+
+=Acer= (MAPLE). _Sapindaceæ._ Stocks are grown from stratified seeds,
+which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as _A.
+dasycarpum_, come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some
+cultural varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by
+grafting. Varieties of native species are worked upon common or native
+stocks. The Japanese sorts are winter-worked upon imported _A.
+polymorphum_ stocks, either by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also
+be budded in summer, and they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe
+and soft wood.
+
+=Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus= (LEAF CACTUS). _Cacteæ._ Fresh
+seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained, and
+apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, remove to a
+light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six inches in
+length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about 60°, and
+apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cuttings are
+very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before
+planting.
+
+VII.--POLLINATION.
+
+Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper,
+narrow margins, 50 cents.
+
+
+THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.--By A. A. CROZIER. An essay on
+the influence of climate upon size, form, color, fruitfulness, etc.,
+with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp.
+
+Price, paper, 25 cents.
+
+
+FRUIT CULTURE, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country Home.--By
+W. C. STRONG, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
+and Vice-President of the American Pomological Society. Illustrated. New
+revised edition, with many additions, making it the latest and freshest
+book on the subject.
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+Rural Homes--Choice of Locality--Treatment--A Good Lawn--The Approach.
+Fruits--Location of the Fruit Garden--Success in Fruit-Culture--Profit
+in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees--Quality--How to Plant--Time to
+Plant--Preparing the Land--Fertilizers--Cutting Back--Distances for
+Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden--Irrigation--Application of
+Fertilizers--Thinning the Fruit--Labels. The Apple--Insects Injurious to
+the Apple. The Pear--Dwarf Pears--Situation and Soil--Pruning--Ripening
+the Fruit--Insects Injurious to the Pear--Diseases. The Peach--Injurious
+Insects and Diseases of the Peach--Nectarines. The Plum--Insects and
+Diseases of the Plum--Apricots. The Cherry--Insects Injurious to the
+Cherry. The Quince--Insects Injurious to the Quince. The
+Grape--Grape-Houses--Varieties--Insects Injurious to the Grape--Mildew.
+The Currant--Insects Attacking the Currant--The Gooseberry. The
+Raspberry--The Blackberry. The Strawberry. The Mulberry--The
+Fig--Rhubarb--Asparagus. Propagating Fruit-Trees--From the Seed--By
+Division--By Cuttings--By Layers--By Budding--By Grafting.
+Insecticides--Fungicides--Recipes. Price, in one volume, 16mo., cloth,
+$1.
+
+
+CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE FOR AMERICA.--By JAMES MORTON. An excellent and
+thorough book; especially adapted to the culture of Chrysanthemums in
+America. The contents include Propagation by Grafting. Inarching and
+Seed. American History. Propagation by Cuttings. Exhibition Plants.
+Classification. Exhibition Blooms. Soil for Potting. Watering and Liquid
+Manure. Selection of Plants. Top-Dressing. Hints on Exhibitions. List of
+Synonyms. Staking and Tying. General Culture. Insects and Diseases.
+Standard Chrysanthemums. Sports and Variations. Disbudding and Thinning.
+Oriental and European History. Calendar of Monthly Operations.
+Chrysanthemum Shows and Organizations. National Chrysanthemum
+Society. Early and Late-Flowering Varieties. Chrysanthemums as
+House-Plants--Varieties for Various Purposes. Price, cloth, $1; paper,
+60 cents.
+
+
+IMPROVING THE FARM, or Methods of Culture that shall afford a profit,
+and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil.--By LUCIUS D.
+DAVIS, of Conanicut Park Farm. The contents treat exhaustively on
+renewing run-down farms, and comprise the following chapters:
+Book-Farming. The Run-Down Farm. Will It Pay to Improve the Farm? How
+Farms Become Exhausted. Thorough Tillage. Rotation of Crops. Green
+Manuring. More About Clover. Barn-Yard Manure--How Made, Its Cost and
+Value. How Prepared and Applied. The Use of Wood-Ashes. Commercial
+Fertilizers. Special Fertilizers. Complete Manures. Experiments with
+Fertilizers. Stock on the Farm. Providing Food for Stock. Specialties in
+Farming. Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.--By ELIAS A. LONG. A practical treatise comprising
+32 diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds, with copious
+explanations. Of the diagrams, all but nine have appeared in the serial,
+"Taste and Tact in Arranging Ornamental Grounds," which has been so
+attractive a feature of _Popular Gardening_ and _American Gardening_
+during the past year. But in the new form the matter has been entirely
+rewritten. Printed on heavy plate paper, it is unsurpassed for beauty by
+any other work on Landscape Gardening.
+
+Price, 50 cents.
+
+
+THE BUSINESS HEN.--Breeding and Feeding Poultry for Profit. The pat
+title of a unique book is The Business Hen. A condensed and, practical
+little encyclopedia of profitable poultry-keeping. P. H. Jacobs, Henry
+Hale, James Rankin, J. H. Drevenstedt and others equally well known have
+written chapters on their specialties, the whole being skillfully
+arranged and carefully edited by H. W. Collingwood, managing editor of
+_The Rural New-Yorker_. Starting with the question, "What is an Egg?"
+the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions
+for developing the egg into a "Business Hen." Incubation, care of
+chicks, treatment of diseases, selection and breeding, feeding and
+housing, are all discussed in a clear and simple manner. Two successful
+egg-farms are described in detail. On one of these farms the owner has
+succeeded in developing a flock of 600 hens that average over 200 eggs
+each per year.
+
+Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+FIRST LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE. (_2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged._)--By
+F. A. Gulley, M. S., Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural
+College of Mississippi. This book discusses the more important
+principles which underlie agriculture in a plain, simple way, within the
+comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry,
+botany, and other branches of science related to agriculture. It
+supplies a much-needed text-book for common schools, and is useful for
+the practical farmer. Includes all the latest developments in
+agricultural science as applied to the subject.
+
+Price, cloth, $1. Special prices for Schools and Colleges.
+
+
+THE NEW POTATO CULTURE.--By ELBERT S. CARMAN. This book gives the result
+of 15 years' experiment work on The Rural ground. It treats particularly
+of: How to increase the crop without corresponding cost of production.
+Manures and fertilizers: kinds and methods of application. The soil, and
+how to put it in right condition. Depth of planting. How much seed to
+plant. Methods of culture. The Rural trench system. Varieties, etc.,
+etc.
+
+Nothing old or worn-out about this book. It treats of new and profitable
+methods; in fact, of _The NEW Potato Culture_. It is respectfully
+submitted that these experiments at The Rural grounds have, directly and
+indirectly, thrown more light upon the various problems involved in
+successful potato-culture than any other experiments that have been
+carried on in America.
+
+Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK.--By Professor L. H. BAILEY, Editor of
+_American Gardening_, Horticulturist of the Cornell Experiment Station,
+and Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University. It contains in
+handy and concise form, a great number of Rules and Recipes required by
+gardeners, fruit-growers, truckers, florists, farmers, etc.
+
+Synopsis of Contents: Injurious insects, with preventives and remedies.
+Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant diseases, with preventives and
+remedies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds, etc., with preventives and
+remedies. Waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements, paints,
+etc. _Seed Tables_: Quantities required for sowing given areas. Weight
+and size of seeds. Longevity of seeds. Time required for seeds to
+germinate. _Planting Tables_: Dates for sowing seeds in different
+latitudes. Tender and hardy vegetables. Distances apart for planting.
+_Maturity and Yields_: Time required for maturity of vegetables; for
+bearing of fruit plants. Average yields of crops. Keeping and storing
+fruits and vegetables. _Propagation of Plants_: Ways of grafting and
+budding. Methods by which fruits are propagated. Stocks used for fruits.
+_Standard Measures and Sizes_: Standard flower-pots. Standard and legal
+measures. English measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. Quantities
+of water held in pipes and tanks. Effect of wind in cooling off glass
+roofs. Per cent. of light reflected from glass at various angles of
+inclination. Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. Amount
+of various products yielded by given quantities of fruit. Labels.
+Loudon's rules of horticulture. Rules of nomenclature. Rules for
+exhibition. Weather signs and protection from frost. _Collecting and
+Preserving_: How to make an herbarium. Preserving and printing of
+flowers and other parts of plants. Keeping cut-flowers. How to collect
+and preserve insects. Chemical composition of fruits and vegetables, and
+seeds, fertilizers, soils and vegetables. _Names and Histories_:
+Vegetables which have different names in England and America. Derivation
+of names of various fruits and vegetables. Names of fruits and
+vegetables in various languages. Glossary. Calendar.
+
+Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.
+
+
+CROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZING:--The Philosophy of the Crossing of
+Plants considered with reference to their Cultivation--How to Improve
+plants by Hybridizing.--By L. H. BAILEY. It is the only book accessible
+to American horticulture which gives the reasons, discouragements,
+possibilities and limitations of Cross-Breeding. Every man who owns a
+plant should have it, if for no other reason than to post himself upon
+one of the leading practices of the day. The pamphlet contains also a
+bibliography of the subject, including over 400 entries.
+
+Price, paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+CHEMICALS AND CLOVER.--By H. W. COLLINGWOOD, Managing Editor of _The
+Rural New-Yorker_. A concise and practical discussion of the
+all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green
+manuring in bringing up worn-out soils, and in general farm practice.
+
+Price, paper, 20 cents.
+
+
+ANNALS OF HORTICULTURE, Vol. IV.--Bright, New, Clean and Fresh. These
+Annals are entirely rewritten every year. They are the _only records_ of
+the progress in horticulture. Exhaustive lists of all the plants
+introduced in 1892, with descriptions, directories, full accounts of all
+new discoveries, new tools, and a wealth of practical matter for
+_Gardeners_, _Fruit-Growers_, _Florists_, _Vegetable-Gardeners and
+Landscape-Gardeners_, comprise its contents.
+
+Ready soon. Illustrated. Vol. IV., cloth $1. Vols. I., II. and III. at
+the same price.
+
+
+INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES.--A practical Manual concerning Noxious
+Insects and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. By CLARENCE M.
+WEED, Professor of Entomology and Zoölogy, New Hampshire State College.
+
+I think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little
+book.--DR. C. V. RILEY, _U.S. Entomologist_.
+
+It is excellent. I must congratulate you on the skill you have displayed
+in putting in the most important insects, and the complete manner in
+which you have done the work.--JAMES FLETCHER, _Dominion Entomologist_.
+
+I am well pleased with it. There is certainly a demand for just such a
+work.--DR. F. M. HEXAMER, _Editor American Agriculturist_.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.25.
+
+
+THE CAULIFLOWER.--BY A. A. CROZIER. Teacher and Practical Origin and
+History of this increasingly important and always delicious vegetable.
+
+The Cauliflower Industry.--In Europe. In the United States. Importation
+of Cauliflowers.
+
+Management of the Crop.--Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating.
+Harvesting. Keeping. Marketing.
+
+The Early Crop.--Caution against planting it largely. Special
+directions. Buttoning.
+
+Cauliflower Regions of the United States.--Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake
+Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast.
+
+Insect and Fungous Enemies.--Flea-beetle. Cut-worms. Cabbage-maggot.
+Cabbage-worm. Stem-rot. Damping-off. Black-leg.
+
+Cauliflower Seed.--Importance of careful selection. Where the seed is
+grown. Influence of climate. American-grown seed.
+
+Varieties.--Descriptive catalogue. Order of earliness. Variety tests.
+Best varieties.
+
+Broccoli.--Difference between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation, use
+and varieties of Broccoli.
+
+Cooking Cauliflower.--Digestibility. Nutritive value. Chemical
+composition. Recipes.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+PRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.--A Practical Handbook of Profitable
+Crop-Feeding, written for Practical Men. By T. GREINER.
+
+Part I. The Raw Materials of Plant-Food.
+
+Part II. The Available Sources of Supply.
+
+Part III. Principles of Economic Application, or Manuring for Money.
+
+This work, written in plainest language, is intended to assist the
+farmer in the selection, purchase and application of plant-foods. If you
+wish to learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances,
+and how to make money by their proper use, read this book. If you want
+your boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding, and become a successful
+farmer, give him a copy of this book. The cost of the book will be
+returned a hundred-fold to every reader who peruses its pages with care
+and applies its teachings to practice.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+SPRAYING CROPS.--Why, When and How to Do It.--By PROF. CLARENCE M.
+WEED. A handy volume of about 100 pages; illustrated. Covers the whole
+field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which the spray is
+used. The following topics are discussed in a concise, practical manner:
+
+Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against
+Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus.
+Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used in
+Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides and
+Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spraying.
+Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock.
+Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spraying
+Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals.
+
+Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents; flexible cloth, 75 cents.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
+
+Illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph
+break. For the benefit of readers of the text version of this e-book,
+a small description was added to 5 decorative line drawings which have
+no caption or description in the original text. This addition appears
+in parentheses as: "(Drawing of grapes)".
+
+An asterism in the text is represented as: *.*
+
+Inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are
+unchanged in this e-text.
+
+Obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without
+comment.
+
+In addition to obvious errors, the following changes have been made:
+
+   1. On page 87: "arguments" was changed to "augments" in the phrase,
+     "... this only augments the size and depth...."
+
+   2. On page 90: "side" was changed to "size" in the phrase, "...
+     wood the size of a lead-pencil...."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of American Grape Training, by 
+Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's American Grape Training, by Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: American Grape Training
+       An account of the leading forms now in use of Training the
+              American Grapes
+
+Author: Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39779]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Cathy Maxam and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="icover" name="icover"></a>
+<img src="images/icover.jpg" alt="cover" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h1>
+AMERICAN<br />
+<br />
+GRAPE TRAINING</h1>
+
+<p class="narrow big pb">An account of the leading
+forms now in use of Training
+the American Grapes.</p>
+
+<p class="center ps"><i>By L. H. BAILEY</i></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller pt"><span class="smcap">New York:<br />
+The Rural Publishing Company</span><br />
+1893.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="bbox narrowmid smaller ps">
+<p class="center"><i>By the same Author.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>Annals of Horticulture</b> in North America
+for the year 1889. A witness of passing events
+and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52 illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1890.</b> 312 pages, 82 illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1891.</b> 416 pages, 77 illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>Annals for 1892.</b></p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><sup>*</sup><sub>*</sub><sup>*</sup> A new volume is issued each year, each
+complete in itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>The Horticulturist's Rule-Book.</b> A compendium
+of useful information for fruit-growers,
+truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second
+edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221
+pages. Cloth, $1; paper, 50 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>The Nursery Book.</b> A complete guide to
+the multiplication and pollination of plants.
+304 pages, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1; paper, 50c.</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing.</b> With a
+brief bibliography of the subject. 44 pages.
+Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.)</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>Field Notes on Apple Culture.</b> 90 pages,
+19 illustrations. Cloth, 75 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="nospace"><b>Talks Afield</b>: About plants and the science
+of plants. 173 pages, 100 illustrations. Cloth, $1.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<table class="ps" summary="verso" cellpadding="20">
+<tr><td class="center smallest">COPYRIGHTED 1893,<br />
+BY L. H. BAILEY.</td>
+
+<td class="center smallest">ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY<br />
+J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center biggest">CONTENTS.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<table class="small" summary="contents">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td>
+
+<td class="tdr small">Pages</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">Introduction</td>      <td class="tdr">9-11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">Pruning</td>      <td class="tdr">11-24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">Preliminary Preparations for Training&mdash;The Trellis&mdash;Tying</td>
+<td class="tdr">25-33</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System.<br />
+High Renewal. Fan Training)</td>      <td class="tdr">34-55</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin.
+Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two-Cane
+Kniffin or Umbrella System. The Low or
+One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Overhead,
+or Arbor Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System.
+Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System)</td>      <td class="tdr">56-82</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="hang2">Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post
+Training. Arbors. Remodeling Old Vines)</td>      <td class="tdr">83-92</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i004" name="i004"></a>
+<img src="images/i004.jpg" alt="i004" />
+
+
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center biggest">ILLUSTRATIONS.</p>
+
+
+<table class="small" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="4" summary="illustrations">
+
+<tr>
+
+<td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">1.</td> <td><a href="#i013">Grape Shoot</a></td>      <td class="tdr">12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">2.</td> <td><a href="#i014">The Bearing Wood</a></td>      <td class="tdr">13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">3.</td> <td><a href="#i016">Diagram</a></td>      <td class="tdr">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">4.</td> <td><a href="#i019">Spur</a></td>      <td class="tdr">18</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">5.</td> <td><a href="#i020">Renewal Pruning</a></td>      <td class="tdr">19</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">6.</td> <td><a href="#i022">A Newly Set Vineyard</a></td>      <td class="tdr">21</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">7.</td> <td><a href="#i036">Horizontal Arm Spur Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">35</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">8.</td> <td><a href="#i037">Horizontal Arm (Diagram)</a></td>      <td class="tdr">36</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">9.</td> <td><a href="#i039">Short Arm Spur Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">10.</td> <td><a href="#i041">The Second Season of Upright Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">40</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">11.</td> <td><a href="#i043">Making the T-Head</a></td>      <td class="tdr">42</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">12.</td> <td><a href="#i044">The Third Season of High Renewal</a></td>      <td class="tdr">43</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">13.</td> <td><a href="#i045">High Renewal, before Pruning</a></td>      <td class="tdr">44</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">14.</td> <td><a href="#i046">High Renewal, Pruned</a></td>      <td class="tdr">45</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">15.</td> <td><a href="#i047">High Renewal, Pruned and Tied</a></td>      <td class="tdr">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">16.</td> <td><a href="#i048">High Renewal with Four Canes</a></td>      <td class="tdr">47</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">17.</td> <td><a href="#i049">High Renewal Complete</a></td>      <td class="tdr">48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">18.</td> <td><a href="#i052">A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">51</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">19.</td> <td><a href="#i056">Fan Training, after Pruning</a></td>      <td class="tdr">55</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">20.</td> <td><a href="#i058">William Kniffin</a></td>      <td class="tdr">57</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">21.</td> <td><a href="#i060">The True Kniffin Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">59</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">22.</td> <td><a href="#i061">No. 21, when Pruned</a></td>      <td class="tdr">60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">23.</td> <td><a href="#i065">A Poor Type of Kniffin</a></td>      <td class="tdr">64</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">24.</td> <td><a href="#i066">The Y-Trunk Kniffin</a></td>      <td class="tdr">65</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">25.</td> <td><a href="#i068">Umbrella Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">67</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">26.</td> <td><a href="#i069">A Poor Umbrella System</a></td>      <td class="tdr">68</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">27.</td> <td><a href="#i071">Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram)</a></td>      <td class="tdr">70</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">28.</td> <td><a href="#i072">Overhead Kniffin</a></td>      <td class="tdr">71</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">29.</td> <td><a href="#i073">Overhead Kniffin</a></td>      <td class="tdr">72</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">30.</td> <td><a href="#i074">Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning</a></td>      <td class="tdr">73</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">31.</td> <td><a href="#i076">Cross-Wire Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">75</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">32.</td> <td><a href="#i077">Cross-Wire Training, Outside View</a></td>      <td class="tdr">76</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">33.</td> <td><a href="#i079">Munson Training. End View</a></td>      <td class="tdr">78</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">34.</td> <td><a href="#i080">Munson Training. Side View</a></td>      <td class="tdr">79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">35.</td> <td><a href="#i084">Horizontal Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">83</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">36.</td> <td><a href="#i087">Low Post Training</a></td>      <td class="tdr">86</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">37.</td> <td><a href="#i092">A Yearling Graft</a></td>      <td class="tdr">91</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="center biggest">PREFACE.</p>
+
+
+<p class="cap">THIS LITTLE book has grown out of an attempt to
+teach the principles and methods of grape training
+to college students. I have found such teaching
+to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is impossible
+to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures.
+The student must apprehend the principles slowly and by
+his own effort. He must have time to thoroughly assimilate
+them before he attempts to apply them. I therefore
+cast about for books which I could put before my
+class, but I at once found that there are very few succinct
+accounts of the subjects of grape pruning and training,
+and that none of our books portray the methods which
+are most largely practised in the large grape regions of
+the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my
+own notes into shape for print, and this I have now done.
+And inasmuch as all grape-growers are students, I hope
+that the simple account will find a use beyond the classroom.</p>
+
+<p>This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at
+first astonished me, but is not strange after all. It must
+be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is
+of very recent origin. There are many men who can
+remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom
+occurs to the younger generation, which is familiar with
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+ great vineyards in many states, that the Concord is
+yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape growing in
+eastern America is yet in an experimental stage. Progress
+has been so rapid in recent years that the new
+methods outstrip the books. The old horizontal arm
+spur system, which is still the chief method in the books,
+has evolved itself into a high renewal training, which is
+widely used but which has not found its way into the
+manuals. The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period
+of incubation, and is now taking an assured place in vineyard
+management. So two great types, opposed in method,
+are now contending for supremacy, and they will probably
+form the basis of all future developments. This evolution
+of American grape training is one of the most unique and
+signal developments of our modern horticulture, and its
+very recent departure from the early doubts and trials is
+a fresh illustration of the youth and virility of all horticultural
+pursuits in North America.</p>
+
+<p>This development of our grape training should form the
+subject of a historical inquiry. I have not attempted
+such in this little hand-book. I have omitted all reference
+to the many early methods, which were in most cases
+transportations or modifications of European practices,
+for their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion
+here would only confuse the reader. I have attempted
+nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in
+use; in fact, I am aware that I have not accomplished
+even this much, for there are various methods which I
+have not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly
+of local use or adaptation, and they are usually only modifications
+of the main types here explained. It is impossible
+to describe all the variations in grape training in a book
+of pocket size; neither is it necessary. Nearly every
+grower <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+who has given grape raising careful attention has
+introduced into his own vineyard some modifications
+which he thinks are of special value to him. There are
+various curious and instructive old books to which the
+reader can go if he desires to know the history and evolution
+of grape training in America. He will find that we
+have now passed through the long and costly experiment
+with European systems. And we have also outgrown the
+gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close with the
+expectation of obtaining superior and definite results.</p>
+
+<p>I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in
+the preparation of this book. All the manuscript has been
+read by three persons&mdash;by George C. Snow, Penn Yan,
+N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L.
+C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment
+Station. Mr. Snow is a grower in the lake region of
+western New York, and employs the High Renewal system;
+Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and
+practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been
+a student of all the systems and has practiced two or
+three of them in commercial plantations. These persons
+have made many suggestions of which I have been glad
+to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of
+the book is to be attributed.</p>
+
+<p class="deepind small">
+L. H. BAILEY,</p>
+
+<p class="smallind smaller"><span class="smcap">Ithaca</span>, N. Y., <i>Feb. 1, 1893</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+<blockquote class="small cap"><p>JOHN ADLUM, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been
+the first person to systematically undertake the cultivation
+and amelioration of the native grapes. His method of training,
+as described in 1823, is as follows: One shoot is allowed to
+grow the first year, and this is cut back to two buds the first fall.
+The second year two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied
+to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant, about five or
+six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four
+buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are spread apart
+"so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the stem,"
+and are tied to stakes; this season about two shoots are allowed
+to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall the
+outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones
+to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year,
+and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer
+canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches
+upon either side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the
+stakes, as they grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs
+are tied to a third stake set near the root of the vine. The outside
+branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year.
+This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it is easy to see
+how the Horizontal Arm and High Renewal systems may have
+sprung from it.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center biggest">AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<p class="center small pt">INTRODUCTION&mdash;PRUNING.</p>
+
+
+<p>Pruning and training the grape are perplexed
+questions, even to those who have spent a lifetime
+in grape growing. The perplexity arises from
+several diverse sources, as the early effort to transplant
+European methods, the fact that many systems
+present almost equally good results for particular
+purposes and varieties, and the failure to
+comprehend the fundamental principles of the
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>It is sufficient condemnation of European methods
+when applied in eastern America, to say that
+the American grapes are distinct species from the
+European grapes, and that they are consequently
+different in habit. This fact does not appear to have
+been apprehended clearly by the early American
+grape-growers, even after the native varieties had
+begun to gain prominence. American viticulture,
+aside from that upon the Pacific slope which is
+concerned with the European grape, is an industry
+of very recent development. It was little more
+than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+ a century ago that the first American variety
+gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the first
+definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir
+on the Cultivation of the Vine in America," to record
+the merits of native grapes for purposes of
+cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given
+to a discussion of European varieties and practices.
+In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit Culturist" mentioned
+only six "American hardy varieties," and
+all of these, save the Catawba, are practically not
+in cultivation at the present time. The Concord
+appeared in 1853. American grape training is,
+therefore, a very recent development, and we are
+only now outgrowing the influence of the practices
+early imported from Europe. The first decided
+epoch in the evolution of our grape training was
+the appearance of Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in
+1864; for while the system which he depicted and
+which yet often bears his name, was but a modification
+of some European methods and had been
+outlined by earlier American writers, it was at that
+time placed clearly and cogently before the public
+and became an accepted practice. The fundamental
+principles of pruning are alike for both
+European and American grapes, but the details of
+pruning and training must be greatly modified for
+different species. We must understand at the outset
+that American species of grapes demand an
+American system of treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The great diversity of opinion which exists
+amongst<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+ the best grape growers concerning the advantages
+of different systems of training is proof
+that many systems have merit, and that no one
+system is better than others for all purposes. The
+grower must recognize the fact that the most important
+factor in determining the merits of any
+system of training is the habit of the vine&mdash;as its
+vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and
+abundance of leaves, and season and character of
+fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in
+habit in some particular, and it therefore requires
+different treatment in some important detail. Varieties
+may thrive equally well upon the same general
+system of training, but require minor modifications;
+so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid
+down, either for any system or any variety. One system
+differs from another in some one main principle
+or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and
+blend. If two men practice the Kniffin system,
+therefore, this fact does not indicate that they
+prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible
+to construct rules for grape training; it is,
+therefore, important that we understand thoroughly
+the philosophy of pruning and training, both in
+general and in the different systems which are now
+most popular. These points we shall now consider.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center small pt">PRUNING.</p>
+
+<p>Pruning and training are terms which are often
+confounded when speaking of the grape, but they
+represent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+ distinct operations. Pruning refers to
+such removal of branches as shall insure better and
+larger fruit upon the remaining portions. Training
+refers to the disposition of the different parts
+of the vine. It is true that different methods of
+training demand different styles of pruning, but the
+modification in pruning is only such as shall adapt
+it to the external shape and size of the vine, and
+does not in any way affect the principle upon which
+it rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence,
+there is but one
+method; training
+is largely a convenience,
+and there
+are as many methods
+as there
+are fancies
+among
+grape growers.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft"><a id="i013" name="i013"></a>
+<img src="images/i013.jpg" alt="i013" />
+
+<p class="caption">1. GRAPE SHOOT.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>All intelligent
+pruning of the
+grape rests upon the fact
+that <i>the fruit is borne in a
+few clusters near the base of
+the growing shoots of the
+season, and which spring
+from wood of last year's
+growth</i>. It may be said here that a growing, leafy
+branch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+ of the grape vine is called a <i>shoot</i>; a ripened
+shoot is called a <i>cane</i>; a branch or trunk two or
+more years old is called an <i>arm</i>. <a href="#i013">Fig. 1</a> is a
+shoot as it appears in the northern states in June.
+The whole shoot has grown within a month, from
+a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and
+these are to bear the grapes. Flowering is now
+over, but the shoot will continue to grow, perhaps
+to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking
+time, therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower
+end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in <a href="#i014">fig. 2.</a>
+Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a
+new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+ cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves.
+At the close of the season, this long ripened shoot
+or cane has produced a bud every foot or less, from
+which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next
+year. But if all these buds were allowed to remain,
+the vine would be overtaxed with fruit the
+coming year and the crop would be a failure. The
+cane is, therefore, cut off until it bears only as many
+buds as experience has taught us the vine should
+carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten
+buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed,
+or "rubbed off," next spring if the young
+growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant is
+weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two
+or three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clusters.
+From one to six of the old canes, each bearing
+from five to ten buds, are left each spring.
+The number of clusters which a vine can carry
+well depends upon the variety, the age and size of
+the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and
+cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A
+strong vine of Concord, which is a prolific variety,
+trained upon any of the ordinary systems and set
+nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry
+from thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will
+weigh from a fourth to a half pound each. Twelve
+or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or
+average crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty-five
+pounds is a very heavy crop.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i014" name="i014"></a>
+<img src="images/i014.jpg" alt="i014" />
+
+<p class="caption">2. THE BEARING WOOD.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is
+essentially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+ a thinning process. In the winter pruning,
+all the canes of the last season's growth are cut
+away except from two to six, which are left to make
+the fruit and wood of the next year; and each of
+these remaining canes is headed back to from three
+to ten buds. The number and length of the canes
+which are left after the pruning depend upon the
+style of training which is practiced. A vine which
+may completely cover a trellis in the fall, will be
+cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the
+plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind
+the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear and
+peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in the fall,
+but buds which produce both fruit and wood the
+following season.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i016" name="i016"></a>
+<img src="images/i016.jpg" alt="i016" />
+
+<p class="caption">3. DIAGRAM.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have
+pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes,
+each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+ bearing ten buds. We will call these canes
+A and B, respectively. (<a href="#i016">Fig. 3.</a>) In 1892, therefore,
+twenty shoots grow from them, and each of
+these shoots or new canes branches, or produces
+laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892,
+A 1, A 2, A 3, B 1, B 2, and so on. Each of the
+new canes bears at the base about two clusters of
+grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters.
+These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as seen
+in <a href="#i013">fig. 1.</a> In the axil of each leaf a bud is formed
+which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in
+1893. If each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc.,
+produce ten buds&mdash;which is a moderate number&mdash;the
+vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with
+200 buds for the next year's growth and crop; but
+these buds should be reduced to about twenty, as
+they were in the fall of 1891. That is, every year
+we go back again to the same number of buds, and
+the top of the vine gets no larger from year to year.
+We must, therefore, cut back again to two canes.
+We cut back each of the original canes, A and B,
+to one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1,
+cutting off A 2, A 3, etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This
+brings the vine back to very nearly its condition in
+the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1,
+which are now to become the main canes by being
+bent down horizontally, were borne at some distance&mdash;say
+three or four inches&mdash;from the base of
+the original canes, A and B, so that the permanent
+part of the vine is constantly lengthening itself.
+This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+ annually lengthening portion is called a <i>spur</i>.
+Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position,
+however, although this diagrammatic sketch
+illustrates clearly the method of their formation.
+The common method of spurring is that connected
+with the horizontal arm system of training, in which
+the canes A and B are allowed to become permanent
+arms, and the upright canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2,
+B 3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds
+of the arms each year. The cane A 1, for instance,
+is cut back in the fall of 1892 to two or
+three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will
+grow from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one
+cane is left after the pruning, and this one is cut
+back to two or three buds; and so on. So the spur
+grows higher every year, although every effort is
+made to keep it short, both by reducing the number
+of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to
+bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few
+years. <a href="#i019">Fig. 4</a> shows a short spur of two years'
+standing. The horizontal portion shows the permanent
+arm. The first upright portion is the remains
+of the first-year cane and the upper portion
+is the second-year cane after it is cut back in the
+fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one
+fruiting bud, <i>b</i>, the small buds, <i>a a</i>, being rubbed
+out. There are serious objections to spurs in any
+position. They become hard and comparatively
+lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace
+them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing portion
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+ the vine is constantly receding from the
+main trunk. The bearing wood should spring from
+near the central portions of the vine, or be kept
+"near the head," as the grape-growers say. In
+order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes
+to grow out each year back of the canes A 1 and B 1,
+or from the head of the vine; these canes may be
+designated C and D. (<a href="#i016">Fig.
+3.</a>) These canes, C and D,
+are grown during 1892&mdash;when
+they may bear fruit
+like other canes&mdash;for the
+sole purpose of forming the
+basis of the bearing top in
+1893, while all the old top,
+A and B, with the secondary
+canes, A 1, A 2, B 1,
+B 2, B 3, etc., is cut entirely
+away. Here, then, are two
+distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the
+succeeding year: either from <i>spurs</i>, which are the
+remains of the previous top; or from <i>renewals</i>,
+which are taken each year from the old wood near
+the head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals
+from the ground are now little used, however,
+for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless
+they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to
+bear the second year. It should be borne in mind
+that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to
+pruning, not to training, for either one can be used
+in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+ any system of training. Spur pruning, however,
+is growing in disfavor amongst commercial
+grape-growers, and the renewal is more or less
+used in all systems of training.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a id="i019" name="i019"></a>
+<img src="images/i019.jpg" alt="i019" />
+
+<p class="caption">4. SPUR.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p><a href="#i020">Fig. 5</a> illustrates a renewal pruning. This engraving
+shows the head of a vine seven years old,
+and upon which two canes are allowed to remain
+after each annual pruning. The portion extending
+from <i>b</i> to <i>f</i> and <i>d</i> is the
+base of the bearing cane of
+1892. In the winter of
+1892-3, this cane is cut off
+at <i>d</i>, and the new cane, <i>e</i>, is left to make the bearing
+wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from <i>f</i>,
+but it was too weak to leave for fruiting. It was,
+therefore, cut away. The old stub, <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>d</i>, will be
+cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In
+the meantime, a renewal cane will have grown
+from the stub <i>c</i>, which is left for that purpose, and
+the old cane, <i>b d</i>, will be cut off just beyond it, between
+<i>c</i> and <i>f</i>. In this way, the bearing wood is
+kept close to the head of the vine. The wound <i>a</i>
+shows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+ where an old stub was cut away this winter,
+1892-3, while <i>b</i> shows where one was cut off the
+previous winter. A scar upon the back of the
+head, which does not show in the illustration,
+marks the spot where a stub was cut away two
+years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method
+of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and
+if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the
+head will not enlarge out of proportion to the
+growth of the stock or trunk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i020" name="i020"></a>
+<img src="images/i020.jpg" alt="i020" />
+
+<p class="caption">5. RENEWAL PRUNING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Pruning Young Vines.</i>&mdash;The time required after
+planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis
+varies with the strength of the vine when set, the
+variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of
+training; but, as a rule, the training begins the
+second or third year, previous to which time the
+vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines
+are most popular for planting, although in the
+strong varieties, like Concord and Niagara, well-grown
+yearling vines are probably as good, if not
+better. The strong-growing kinds are commonly
+set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, and the
+rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and
+other small vines may be set closer, although eight
+feet is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back
+to two or three buds. During the first year, the
+young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the
+ground at will, as seen in <a href="#i022">fig. 6</a>. In the fall or
+winter, all the canes but one are cut off, and this
+one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is,
+therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+ no larger at the expiration of a year's
+growth than it was when planted; but in the meantime
+the plant has become thoroughly established
+in the soil, and the second year's growth
+should be strong enough to form the basis for the
+permanent trunk or arm. If, however, the second
+year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before,
+and the third season's growth used for the trunk.
+On the other hand, the growth of the first year is
+sometimes carried onto the wires to form the permanent
+trunk and arms, but it is only with extra
+strong vines in good soil that this practice is admissible.
+From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+ this point, the treatment of the
+vine is discussed under training.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i022" name="i022"></a>
+<img src="images/i022.jpg" alt="i022" />
+
+<p class="caption">6. A NEWLY SET VINEYARD.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>When to Prune.</i>&mdash;Grape vines may be pruned at
+any time during the winter. It is the practice
+among most grape-growers in the north to prune
+as time permits from November to late in February,
+or even early March. The sap flows very freely
+from cuts made in spring and early summer, causing
+the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in
+Europe as "weeping," and in order to prevent
+this loss, pruning is stopped six weeks or more before
+the time at which the buds usually swell. It
+is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine,
+but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine
+is cut off an inch or two beyond the last bud which
+it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to
+the bud from the drying out of the end of the cane.</p>
+
+<p>The pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears.
+The canes are often allowed to remain
+tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished,
+although it is the practice with most growers who
+use the Kniffin system to cut the strings before
+pruning. The removal of the severed canes is
+known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the
+pruner sometimes leaves the stripping to boys or
+other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at
+any time after the pruning is performed until
+spring. It must be done before the growth starts
+on the remaining portions of the vine, however, to
+avoid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+ injury to the young buds when tearing the
+vines off the trellis.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Summer Pruning.</i>&mdash;There is much discussion as
+to the advisability of summer pruning. It is essential
+to the understanding of the question that the
+grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is
+of two kinds&mdash;the removal or "breaking out" of
+the superfluous shoots, and heading-in or "stopping"
+the main canes to keep them within limits.
+The superfluous shoots are such as spring from
+small, weak buds or those which break from the old
+arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start from
+the very base of the old cane are usually weak and
+should be removed. Buds in this position are
+shown at <i>a a</i>, in <a href="#i019">fig. 4</a>. The secondary or axillary
+branches, which often start from the base of the
+season's shoots, should be removed or broken out.
+These superfluous shoots are pulled off from time
+to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed
+off before the shoots begin to grow.</p>
+
+<p>The heading-in of the main canes, while desirable
+for the purpose of keeping the vine within
+bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which
+choke up the vine and which do not mature, and
+in those styles of training in which very little wood
+is allowed to grow, the practice may prevent the
+development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface
+to properly sustain the vine. Vines are often
+weakened by summer pruning. These dangers can
+be overcome by careful attention, however, especially
+by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+ heading-in very lightly and by doing it as
+late in the season as possible, when new lateral
+growth does not start readily. The necessity of
+much heading-in has been largely obviated in late
+years by the adoption of high or drooping systems
+of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The
+strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and Niagara,
+should be set ten feet apart in the row,
+especially if grown upon the Kniffin system. Catawba,
+being a very upright grower and especially
+well adapted to upright training, may be set eight
+feet apart, and Delawares are often set as close as
+six or eight feet. It is doubtful, however, if any
+variety should be set less than eight feet apart for
+trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where
+the growth is large because of the long seasons,
+vines are often set more than ten feet apart. In
+the South, the rows should run north and south,
+that the fruit may be shaded from midday sun.
+The only summer heading-in now generally recommended
+is the clipping of the tips when they fall
+over and begin to touch the ground. This clipping
+is often done with a sickle or sharp corn-cutter.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Objects of Pruning.</i>&mdash;The objects of pruning the
+grape, as of other fruits, are five:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>
+1. To produce larger and better fruit.<br />
+
+2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine.<br />
+
+3. To keep the vine within manageable limits.<br />
+
+4. To facilitate cultivation.<br />
+
+5. To facilitate spraying.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<p class="center small pt">PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING&mdash;THE
+TRELLIS&mdash;TYING.</p>
+
+
+<p>Training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose
+of keeping the vine in convenient shape and
+to allow each cluster to receive its full amount of
+space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated
+and sprayed, and the grapes are readily
+harvested, and it is only upon such vines that the
+best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some
+kind of training is essential, for a vine will not often
+bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground. In
+essence, there are three general types or styles of
+training, which may be designated as the upright,
+drooping and horizontal, these terms designating
+the direction of the bearing shoots. The upright
+systems carry two or more canes or arms along a
+low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across
+a trellis from below upwards, and the shoots are
+tied up as they grow to the wires above. The horizontal
+systems carry up a perpendicular cane or
+arm, or sometimes two or more, from which the
+shoots are carried out horizontally and are tied to
+perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems,
+represented in the Kniffin and post-training,
+carry the canes or arms upon a high horizontal wire
+or trellis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+ and allow the shoots to hang without tying.
+To one or another of these types all the systems of
+American grape-training can be referred.</p>
+
+<p>There is no system of training which is best for
+all purposes and all varieties. The strong-growing
+varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high
+drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although
+the Delaware is often trained on a comparatively
+low Kniffin with good effect. The high or drooping
+systems are of comparatively recent date, and
+their particular advantages are the saving of labor
+in summer tying, cheapness of the trellis, and the
+facility with which the ground can be cultivated
+without endangering the branches of the vine. The
+upright training distributes the bearing wood more
+evenly upon the vine and is thought, therefore, to
+insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near the
+root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage,
+and it is better suited to the stature of the small-growing
+varieties. There is, perhaps, a greater
+temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping
+systems than in the others, because the shoots need
+no tying and do not, therefore, demand frequent attention;
+while in the upright systems the shoots soon
+become broken or displaced if not watched. For
+very large areas, or circumstances in which the best
+of care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or
+drooping systems are perhaps always to be recommended.
+Yet the Kniffin profits as much from
+diligence and skill as the other systems; but it will
+give<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+ better results than the others under partial
+neglect. The strong varieties, especially those
+making long and drooping canes, are well adapted
+to the Kniffin styles; but the smaller sorts, and
+those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an
+upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon
+the upright systems. But the merits of both systems
+are so various and even so little understood,
+that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly.
+The advantages in either case are often
+little more than matters of personal opinion. It
+should be said, however, that the Kniffin or drooping
+systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are
+evidently destined to overthrow much of the older
+upright training. This fact does not indicate, however,
+that the upright system is to be entirety superseded,
+but rather that it must be confined to
+those varieties and conditions for which it is best
+adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly supplement
+each other. The horizontal systems are
+occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are
+little known.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Making the Trellis.</i>&mdash;The fall or winter following
+the planting of the vineyard, the trellis is begun if
+the upright systems are used; but this operation is
+usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems,
+and stakes are commonly used, or at least
+recommended, during the second season. In the
+South the trellis is made the first year. The style
+of trellis will depend upon the style of training,
+but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+ the main features are the same for all.
+Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar,
+locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart
+that two vines can be set between each two. If the
+vines are set nine feet apart, the posts maybe eighteen
+or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand
+four or five feet from each post. If the posts in the
+row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet
+apart, about 330 posts will be required to the acre.
+Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are
+driven with a heavy maul, although many people
+prefer to set the end posts in holes, thinking that
+they endure the strain better. In all loose soils,
+however, posts can be made as firm by driving as
+by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm
+as possible, in order to hold up the heavy loads of
+vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it
+is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill,
+for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt
+down the slope. For the Kniffin systems, especially
+for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must
+stand six or six and one-half feet high when set,
+but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright
+and horizontal systems. The posts should
+stand higher at first than is necessary for the support
+of the wires, for they will need to be driven
+down occasionally as they become loose. The end
+posts of each row should be well braced, as shown
+in several of the illustrations in this volume.</p>
+
+<p>The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the
+top<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+ wire in the Kniffin training, which is usually
+No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is then
+upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but
+it is heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally
+used for the middle and upper rows in the
+upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The
+following figures show the sizes and weights of
+these and similar iron and steel wires:</p>
+
+<table class="smaller" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="4" summary="data">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">No.</td>
+<td class="center">Diameter in inches.</td>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">Weight of 100 feet.</td>
+<td class="center">Feet in 2,000 pounds.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">9</td>
+<td class="center">.148</td>
+<td class="center">5.80</td>
+<td class="center">pounds.</td>
+<td class="center">34,483</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">10</td>
+<td class="center">.135</td>
+<td class="center">4.83</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">41,408</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">11</td>
+<td class="center">.120</td>
+<td class="center">3.82</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">52,356</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">12</td>
+<td class="center">.105</td>
+<td class="center">2.92</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">68,493</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">13</td>
+<td class="center">.092</td>
+<td class="center">2.24</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">89,286</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">14</td>
+<td class="center">.080</td>
+<td class="center">1.69</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">118,343</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">15</td>
+<td class="center">.072</td>
+<td class="center">1.37</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">145,985</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdr">16</td>
+<td class="center">.063</td>
+<td class="center">1.05</td>
+<td class="center">" </td>
+<td class="center">190,476</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+
+
+</table>
+
+<p>The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents
+per pound, and the galvanized&mdash;which is less used
+for vineyards&mdash;3&frac12; cents. Of No. 12 wire, about
+160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on
+rows eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for
+three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire per acre, for
+three runs, therefore, is about $15.</p>
+
+<p>The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by
+staples driven in firmly so that the wire will not pull
+through readily of its own weight, but still loosely
+enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In
+other words, the head of the staple should not quite
+touch the wire. Grape staples are of three lengths,
+about an inch, inch and a quarter, and an inch and
+a half respectively. The shortest length is little
+used.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+ The medium length is used for hard-wood
+posts and the longest for soft posts, like chestnut
+and cedar. These staples cost five cents per pound
+usually, and a pound of the medium length contains
+from 90 to 100 of the No. 10 wire size. An acre,
+for three wires, will therefore require, for this size,
+about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy
+regions, the wires should be placed upon the windward
+side of the posts.</p>
+
+<p>There are various devices for securing the wire
+to the end posts, but the commonest method is
+to wind them about the post once and secure them
+with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon
+itself, forming a loop. The wires should be drawn
+taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit
+and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction
+of the wires in winter, some growers loosen the
+wires after harvest and others provide some device
+which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Patent
+Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective
+lever-contrivance attached to each wire, and which
+is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten
+them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided
+upon the back with a square-headed pin
+which works tightly in an inch and a half augur
+hole and about which the end of the wire is wound.
+A square-headed iron wrench operates the pin,
+while the tension of the wire around the side of the
+post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is
+not durable, however. An ingenious man can
+easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+ contrive some device for relieving the tension,
+if he should think it necessary. As a matter of
+practice, however, the wires soon stretch and sag
+enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take
+up the winter contraction, and most growers do not
+release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary,
+in fact, to tighten the wires and to straighten
+up the posts from year to year, as they become
+loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the
+ground firmly about all the posts every spring. The
+wires should always be kept tight during the growing
+season to prevent the whipping of the vines by
+wind. This is especially important in white grapes,
+which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and
+twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it will be
+necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter.</p>
+
+<p>Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in
+<a href="#i052">Fig. 18</a>, but these are always less durable than the
+wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair;
+and in the older portions of the country, where
+timber is dear, they are also more expensive at the
+outset. They catch the wind, and, not being held
+together by continuous strands, are likely to blow
+down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning
+the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of
+the different systems of training.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Tying.</i>&mdash;Probably the best material for tying the
+canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a
+bast-like material which comes in skeins and which
+can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for
+about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+ 20 cents a pound. A pound will suffice to
+tie a quarter of an acre of upright training throughout
+the season. Raffia is obtained from the strippings
+of an oriental palm (<i>Raphia Ruffia</i>). Wool-twine
+is also still largely used for tying, but it is
+not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually has
+to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter
+pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of
+the vine. Some complain that the raffia is not strong
+enough to hold the vine during the season, but it
+can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much
+used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also
+for summer tying, especially in the nursery regions
+where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier
+willows are easily procured. Wild willows are
+often used if they can be obtained handily. These
+willows are tied up in a small bundle, which is held
+upon the back above the hips by a cord passed
+about the body. The butts project under the right
+hand, if the person is right-handed, and the strands
+are pulled out as needed. The butt is first used,
+the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand
+is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated
+in like manner until it is used up. When wool-twine
+is used, the ball is often held in front of the
+workman by a cord which is tied about it and then
+passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from
+the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end
+becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the
+ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag,
+after<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+ the manner of carrying seed-corn. Raffia is
+not so easily carried in the field as the wool-twine
+or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity.
+Green rye-straw, cut directly from the
+field, is much used for tying the shoots in summer.
+Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire,
+is used occasionally for tying up the canes in
+spring, but it must be used with care or it will injure
+the vine. Corn-husks are also employed for
+this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark
+is sometimes used for tying, but in most of the
+grape regions it is difficult to secure, and it has no
+advantage over raffia.</p>
+
+<p>It is very important that the canes be tied up
+early in spring, for the buds are easily broken after
+they begin to swell. These canes are tied rather
+firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the
+growing shoots, which are tied during the summer,
+are fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary
+increase in diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i034" name="i034"></a>
+<img src="images/i034.jpg" alt="i034" />
+
+
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<p class="center small pt">THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS.</p>
+
+
+<p>The upright systems are the oldest and best
+known of the styles of American grape training.
+They consist, essentially, in carrying out two
+horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low
+wire and training the shoots from them vertically
+upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper
+wires as they grow. This type was first clearly
+and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in
+his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it became
+known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced
+many years previous to this time.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Horizontal Arm Spur System.</i>&mdash;There are two types
+or styles of this upright system. The older type and
+the one described in the books, is known as the
+Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method,
+the two horizontal branches are permanent, or, in
+other words, they are true arms. The canes are
+cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms,
+as explained on <a href="#Page_15">page 15</a> (<a href="#i019">fig. 4.</a>) Two shoots are
+often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as
+shown in <a href="#i036">fig. 7</a>. These spurs become overgrown
+and weak after a few years, and they are renewed
+from new shoots which spring from near their base
+or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+ from the arm itself. Sometimes the whole arm
+is renewed from the head of the vine, or even from
+the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i036" name="i036"></a>
+<img src="images/i036.jpg" alt="i036" />
+
+<p class="caption">7. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The number of these upright canes and their distance
+apart upon these permanent arms depend
+upon the variety, the strength of the vine and soil
+and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to
+twenty inches apart upon the arm is the common
+distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry five
+canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the
+canes are distributed at intervals of about twenty
+inches. Some very strong vines of vigorous
+varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms
+together,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+ and in this case the canes stand about
+a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the cane
+is cut away and the strongest new cane which
+springs from its base is left for the bearing wood
+of the following year. This new cane is itself
+headed in to the height of the trellis; that is, if
+the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34
+inches apart&mdash;as they are in the Brocton vineyards
+of western New York, where this system is largely
+used&mdash;this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches
+long. Upon this length of cane there will be about
+seven good buds in the common varieties.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i037" name="i037"></a>
+<img src="images/i037.jpg" alt="i037" />
+
+<p class="caption">8. HORIZONTAL ARM. (Diagram.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>A modification of this horizontal arm system is
+shown in <a href="#i039">fig. 9</a>. It is used about Forestville,
+in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in
+this case are very short, and canes are taken out
+only at two or three places. The picture shows a
+vine in which two canes are taken from the end of
+each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of
+the vine. These canes are cut back to spurs in the
+fall, as explained in the above paragraph. Sometimes
+one or two other canes are taken out of these
+arms nearer the main trunk. The advantages
+urged for this style of training are the stronger
+growth which is insured by so few canes, and the
+small amount of old or permanent wood which is
+left to each vine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i039" name="i039"></a>
+<img src="images/i039.jpg" alt="i039" />
+
+<p class="caption">9. SHORT ARM SPUR TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The horizontal arm training is less popular than
+it was twenty years ago. It has serious faults,
+especially in the persistence of the old spurs, and
+probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+ will eventually give place to other systems.
+Aside from the spur pruning, the system is much
+like the following, which is a modification to allow
+of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is
+referred for further details. This modification,
+which may be called the High Renewal, and which
+is one of the most serviceable of any of the styles
+of training, although it has never been fully described,
+we shall now consider.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>The High Renewal</i>, or upright training which is
+now very extensively employed in the lake regions
+of New York and elsewhere, starts the head or
+branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches
+from the ground. The ideal height for most varieties
+is probably about two feet to the first wire,
+although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If
+the vines are lower than two feet, they are liable to
+be injured by the plow or cultivator, the earth is
+dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and if
+the shoots become loose they strike the ground
+and the grapes are soon soiled. A single trunk or
+arm is carried up to the required height, or if good
+branches happen to form lower down, two main
+canes are carried from this point up to the required
+distance to meet the lower wire, so that the trunk becomes
+Y-shaped, as seen in figs. <a href="#i041">10</a>, <a href="#i048">16</a> and <a href="#i049">17</a>. In
+fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or
+crotch a few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate
+the spreading and placing of the canes. The
+trellis for the upright systems nearly always comprises
+three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+ wires, although only two are sometimes
+used for the smaller growing varieties, and very
+rarely four are used for the strongest kinds, although
+this number is unnecessary. The lowest
+wire is stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty
+inches from the ground, and the two upper ones
+are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches
+apart.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i041" name="i041"></a>
+<img src="images/i041.jpg" alt="i041" />
+
+<p class="caption">10. THE SECOND SEASON OF UPRIGHT TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft"><a id="i043" name="i043"></a>
+<img src="images/i043.jpg" alt="i043" />
+
+<p class="caption">11. <span class="smcap">making the
+T-head.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+<p>The second season after planting should see the
+vine tied to the first wire. <a href="#i041">Fig. 10</a> is a photograph
+taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine which was
+set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the
+vine was cut back to three or four buds, and in the
+spring of 1892 two of these buds were allowed to
+make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+ canes. These two canes are now tied to the
+wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892.
+In this case, the branches start near the surface of
+the ground. Sometimes only a single strong shoot
+grows, and in order to secure the two branches it
+is broken over where it passes the wire, and is usually
+tied to a stake to afford support. <a href="#i043">Fig. 11</a>
+shows this operation. A bud will develop at the
+bend or break, from which a cane can be trained
+in the opposite direction from the original portion,
+and the T-head is secured.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i044" name="i044"></a>
+<img src="images/i044.jpg" alt="i044" />
+
+<p class="caption">12. THE THIRD SEASON OF HIGH RENEWAL.&mdash;CONCORD.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i045" name="i045"></a>
+<img src="images/i045.jpg" alt="i045" />
+
+<p class="caption">13. HIGH RENEWAL, BEFORE PRUNING.&mdash;CATAWBA.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The close of the second season after planting,
+therefore, will usually find the vine with two good
+canes extending in opposite directions and tied to
+the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in
+cutting off the ends of these canes back to firm and
+strong wood, which will leave them bearing from
+five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will
+grow upright from these buds and will be tied to
+the second wire, which has now been supplied.
+Late in the third season the vine should have much
+the appearance of that shown in <a href="#i044">fig. 12</a>. The
+third wire is usually added to the trellis at the
+close of the second season, at the same time that
+the second wire is put on; but occasionally this is
+delayed until the close of the third season. Some
+of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this
+third season, but unless the vines are very strong
+the flower clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old
+vine should never be allowed to bear
+heavily.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+ It must be remembered, however, that
+both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of
+herbage, are to be cut away in
+the fall or winter of the third
+year. Some provision must have
+been made, therefore, for the top
+for the fourth year. It will be
+recalled that in discussing the renewal
+pruning (<a href="#Page_16">page 16</a>, <a href="#i020">fig. 5</a>), it
+was found that two or more
+shoots are allowed to grow each
+year to form the basis of the top
+the following year. In <a href="#i044">fig. 12</a>
+three or four such shoots can be
+seen springing from the Y-shaped
+portion in the center of the vine.
+These shoots or canes are to be
+bent down to the lowest wire next
+spring, and the bearing shoots will
+arise from them. This process
+will be seen at a glance from
+figs. <a href="#i045">13</a>, <a href="#i046">14</a> and <a href="#i047">15</a>. The first
+shows a full grown old vine,
+trained on three wires. <a href="#i046">Fig. 14</a>
+shows the same vine when pruned.
+Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are
+left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+ to form the top of the following year. The
+two stubs from which the renewal canes are to
+grow for the second year's top are seen in the center.
+In the fall of the next year, therefore, these
+two outside canes will be cut away to the base of
+these renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in the
+meantime, will have made a year's growth. These
+renewal stubs in this picture are really spurs, as
+will be seen; that is, they contain two ages of
+wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these
+stubs or spurs every two or three years at most,
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+ to bring new canes directly from the old wood
+or head. If possible, the renewal cane is brought
+from a new place on the old wood every year in
+order to avoid a spur. Such was the case in the
+vine shown in <a href="#i020">fig. 5</a>, <a href="#Page_19">page 19</a>. <a href="#i047">Fig. 15</a> shows the
+same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two
+ties have been made upon each cane. <a href="#i048">Fig. 16</a>
+shows a vine in which four canes
+have been left to form the top for
+the following year. The stubs for the
+renewals can be seen in the Y. It is
+customary to leave more than two
+canes, occasionally, in strong-growing
+varieties like Concord.  Sometimes
+four and occasionally six are
+left. If four canes are left, two may
+be tied together in each direction
+upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the two
+extra ones should be tied along the second wire,
+parallel with the lowest ones. These extra canes
+are sometimes tied obliquely across the trellis, but
+this practice should be discouraged, for the usual
+tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth
+at the top, and the lower buds may fail to bear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i046" name="i046"></a>
+<img src="images/i046.jpg" alt="i046" />
+
+<p class="caption">14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i047" name="i047"></a>
+<img src="images/i047.jpg" alt="i047" />
+
+<p class="caption">15. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED AND TIED.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The ideal length of the two canes varies with
+different varieties and the distance apart at which
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+ vines are set. Very strong kinds, like Concord
+and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on
+each cane, especially if the vines are set more than
+eight feet apart. <a href="#i049">Fig. 17</a> shows half of a Concord
+vine in which about ten buds were left on each
+cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or
+fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but when this
+number is left the canes should be four, as explained
+in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak-growing
+varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the
+vine should be the maximum and only two canes
+should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes
+are usually cut to the desired length&mdash;four to six feet&mdash;even
+if too great a number of buds is left, but the
+shoots which spring from these extra buds are
+broken out soon after they start. A Delaware
+vine which has made an unusually short or weak
+growth will require fewer buds to be left for next
+year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety
+which has made a strong growth. The Catawba,
+which is a short but very stiff grower, is usually
+cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs. <a href="#i045">13</a>,
+<a href="#i046">14</a> and <a href="#i047">15</a>. The grower soon learns to adjust the
+pruning to the character of the vine without effort.
+He has in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes,
+perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves
+enough buds to produce this amount, allowing,
+perhaps, ten per cent. of the buds for accidents
+and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes
+should always be cut back to firm, well-ripened
+wood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+ It should be said that mere size of cane
+does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch.
+Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives
+better results than the very large and softer canes
+which are sometimes produced on soils rich in
+nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown
+wood is known as a "bull cane." A cane does not
+attain its full growth the first year, but will increase
+in diameter during the second season. The tying
+therefore, should be sufficiently loose or elastic to
+allow of growth, although it should be firm enough
+to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane
+should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to
+it, provision being made for the swelling of the
+wood to twice its diameter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i048" name="i048"></a>
+<img src="images/i048.jpg" alt="i048" />
+
+<p class="caption">16. HIGH RENEWAL
+WITH
+FOUR CANES.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i049" name="i049"></a>
+<img src="images/i049.jpg" alt="i049" />
+
+<p class="caption">17. HIGH RENEWAL COMPLETE.&mdash;CONCORD.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after
+they pass it, or have attained firmness enough to
+allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied again
+to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with
+equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone over
+more than twice if the shoots are kept properly
+tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be
+all that is necessary for careful summer tying.
+Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, but this
+neglect should be discouraged. This tying is
+mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece
+of straw about ten inches long is used for each tie,
+it usually being wrapped but once about the shoot.
+The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia
+is used, a common string-knot is made. When the
+shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+ reach the top of the trellis, they are usually
+allowed to take care of themselves. The Catawba
+shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and
+ordinarily need no attention. The long-growing
+varieties will be likely to drag the shoots upon the
+ground before the close of the season. If these
+tips interfere with the cultivation, they may be
+clipped off with a sickle or corn-cutter, although
+this practice should be delayed as long as possible
+to prevent the growth of laterals (<a href="#Page_21">see page 21</a>). It
+is probably better to avoid cutting entirely. Some
+growers wind or tie the longest shoots upon the top
+wire, as seen in <a href="#i049">fig. 17</a>. It is probably best, as a
+rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and
+to clip them only when they seriously interfere with
+the work of the hoe and cultivator. The treatment
+for slat trellises, as shown in <a href="#i052">fig. 18</a>, is the same as
+on wire trellises, except that longer strings must be
+used in tying.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i052" name="i052"></a>
+<img src="images/i052.jpg" alt="i052" />
+
+<p class="caption">18. A SLAT TRELLIS, WITH UPRIGHT TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit
+in the High Renewal is borne between the first and
+second wires, at the bottom of the trellis. If the
+lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this
+fruit will hang at the most convenient height for
+picking. The fruit trays are set upon the ground,
+and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected
+from the hot suns and from frost; and if the
+shoots are properly tied, the clusters are not shaken
+roughly by the wind. It is, of course, desirable
+that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light
+and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+ air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore,
+be pulled off, as already explained (<a href="#Page_21">page 21</a>).
+In rare cases it may also be necessary, for this purpose,
+to prune the canes which droop over from the
+top of the trellis.</p>
+
+<p>After a few years, the old top or head of the vine
+becomes more or less weak and it should be renewed
+from the root. The thrifty vineyardist anticipates
+this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty
+shoot which may spring from the ground to remain.
+This shoot is treated very much like a young vine,
+and the head is formed during the second year
+(<a href="#Page_16">page 16</a>, bottom). If it should make a strong growth
+during the first year and develop stout laterals, it
+may be cut back only to the lowest wire the
+first fall; but in other cases, it should be cut back
+to two or three buds, from one of which a strong
+and permanent shoot is taken the second year.
+When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk
+is cut off at the surface of the ground, or below if
+possible. A top will retain its vigor for six or eight
+years under ordinary treatment, and sometimes
+much longer. These tops are renewed from time
+to time as occasion permits or demands, and any
+vineyard which has been bearing a number of years
+will nearly always have a few vines in process of
+renewal. The reader should not receive the impression,
+however, that the life or vitality of a vine
+is necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear
+for twenty years or more without renewal; but the
+head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+ after a time comes to be large and rough
+and crooked, and often weakened by scars, and
+better results are likely to be obtained if a new,
+clean vine takes its place.</p>
+
+<p>The High Renewal is extensively used in the
+lake region of Western New York, for all varieties.
+It is particularly well adapted to Delaware, Catawba,
+and other weak or short varieties. When systematically
+pursued, it gives fruit of the highest excellence.
+This High Renewal training, like all the
+low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid
+down easily in winter, which is an important consideration
+in many parts of Canada and in the
+colder northern states.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Fan Training.</i>&mdash;A system much used a few years
+ago and still sometimes seen, is one which renews
+back nearly to the ground each year, and carries
+the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This
+system has the advantages of dispensing with
+much of the old wood, or trunk, and facilitating
+laying down the vine in winter in cold climates.
+On the other hand, it has the disadvantages of bearing
+the fruit too low&mdash;unless the lower clusters are
+removed&mdash;and making a vine of inconvenient shape
+for tying. It is little used at present. <a href="#i056">Fig. 19</a>
+shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is
+by no means an ideal vine. This vine has not been
+properly renewed, but bears long, crooked spurs,
+from which the canes spring. One of these spurs
+will be seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The
+spurs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+ should be kept very short, and they should
+be entirely removed every two or three years, as
+explained in the above discussion of the High Renewal
+training.</p>
+
+<p>The shoots are allowed to take their natural
+course, being tied to any wire near which they
+chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire.
+Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally
+to the wires, and this is probably the better
+practice. Two canes may be tied in each direction
+on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be
+tied down to the second wire. In either case, the
+vine is essentially like the High Renewal, except
+that the trunk is shorter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i056" name="i056"></a>
+<img src="images/i056.jpg" alt="i056" />
+
+<p class="caption">19.  FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<p class="center small pt">THE DROOPING SYSTEMS.</p>
+
+
+<p>In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard
+in the Hudson River Valley. A neighbor, William
+Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres of land
+to which he devoted his attention during the leisure
+seasons of his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to
+plant a few grapes. He planted the Isabella, and
+succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation
+was increased into a respectable vineyard and
+Kniffin came to be regarded as a local authority
+upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days
+in commercial grape growing in North America,
+and there were no undisputed maxims of cultivation
+and training. If any system of close training and
+pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal
+arm spur system, or something like it. One
+day a large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell
+upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes
+and crushing the vine into a singular shape. The
+vine was thought to be ruined, but it was left until
+the fruit could be gathered. But as the fruit matured,
+its large size and handsome appearance attracted
+attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard!
+Mr. Kniffin was an observant man, and he
+inquired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+ into the cause of the excellent fruit. He
+noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the
+best canes stood out horizontally. From this suggestion
+he developed the four-cane system of training
+which now bears his name. A year or two later,
+in 1854, the system had attracted the attention of
+those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and
+thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson valley,
+where it is to-day, with various modifications,
+the chief method of grape training. Its merits
+have become known beyond its original valley, and
+it is now spreading more rapidly than any other
+system. The ground upon which the old Isabellas
+grew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+ is now occupied by Concords, which are as
+vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer
+soils. William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale,
+Ulster county, New York, June 13, 1876, at
+fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a
+photograph which was taken two or three years
+before his death.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i058" name="i058"></a>
+<img src="images/i058.jpg" alt="i058" />
+
+<p class="caption">20. <span class="smcap">William Kniffin.</span></p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System.</i>&mdash;<a href="#i060">Figure 21</a>
+shows the true Kniffin system, very nearly as
+practiced by its originator. A single stem or trunk
+is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are
+taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr.
+Kniffin believed in short canes, and cut them
+back to about six buds on both wires. But most
+growers now prefer to leave the upper canes
+longer than the lower ones, as seen in illustration.
+The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will,
+so that no summer tying is necessary; this is the
+distinguishing mark of the various Kniffin systems.
+The main trunk is tied to each wire, and the canes
+are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses
+the great advantage, therefore, of requiring
+little labor during the busy days of the growing
+season; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if
+the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or
+other bush-fruits can be grown between. The system
+is especially adapted to the strong varieties of
+grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of
+different systems of training, the reader should consult
+Chapter II.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i060" name="i060"></a>
+<img src="images/i060.jpg" alt="i060" />
+
+<p class="caption">21. THE TRUE KNIFFIN TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i061" name="i061"></a>
+<img src="images/i061.jpg" alt="i061" />
+
+<p class="caption">22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNED.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+ pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in
+cutting off all the wood save a single cane from
+each spur. <a href="#i061">Fig. 22</a>
+illustrates the process.
+This is the
+same vine which is
+shown with the full
+amount of wood on
+in <a href="#i060">fig. 21</a>. The
+drooping shoots
+shown in that illustration
+bore the
+grapes of 1892; and
+now, in the winter of
+1892-93, they are all
+to be cut away, with
+the horizontal old
+canes from which
+they grew, save only
+the four canes which
+hang nearest the main
+trunk. <a href="#i061">Fig. 22</a> shows
+the vine after it had
+been pruned. It is
+not obligatory that
+the canes which are
+left after the pruning
+should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen
+that these may be weak; but, other things being
+equal, these canes are preferable because their
+selection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+ keeps the old spurs short. The careful
+grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots
+which start from this point, in order that a strong
+cane may be obtained. It is desirable that these
+side spurs be removed entirely every three or four
+years, a new cane being brought out again from the
+main body or trunk. There is little expectation,
+however, that there shall be such a complete renewal
+pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal,
+which we discussed in the last chapter.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the drooping canes in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>
+are shorter than they were originally, as shown
+in <a href="#i060">fig. 21</a>. They have been cut back. The length
+at which these canes shall be left is a moot point.
+Much depends upon the variety, the distance between
+the wires, the strength of the soil, and other
+factors. Nearly all growers now agree that the
+upper canes should be longer than the lower ones,
+although equal canes are still used in some places.
+In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the upper
+canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower
+ones five. This gives thirty buds to the vine.
+Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds above and
+only four below.</p>
+
+<p>These four pruned canes are generally allowed to
+hang during winter, but are tied onto the wires before
+the buds swell in spring. They are stretched out
+horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two
+ties upon each cane. The shoots which spring
+from these horizontal canes stand upright or
+oblique<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+ at first but they soon fall over with the
+weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the
+ground, the ends may be clipped off with a sickle,
+corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not always
+done, and is not necessary unless the canes interfere
+with cultivation. There is no summer-pinching
+nor pruning, although the superfluous shoots
+should be broken out, as in other systems. (<a href="#Page_23">See
+page 23</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis.
+The end posts are usually set in holes, rather than
+driven, to render them solid, and they should always
+be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven,
+and they usually stand between every alternate vine,
+or twenty feet apart if the vines are ten feet apart&mdash;which
+is a common distance for the most vigorous
+varieties. For the strong-growing varieties,
+the top wire is placed from five and one-half to six
+feet above the ground. Five feet nine inches is a
+popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to
+bring the height to six feet, although it is best to
+"tap" the posts every spring with a maul in order to
+drive them back and make them firm. The lower
+wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet.
+Delawares, if trained Kniffin, should not stand
+above five feet four inches, or at most five feet six
+inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto
+the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner
+practice, perhaps, to stake them the second season,
+as already explained (<a href="#Page_27">page 27</a>), and put them
+on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+ the wires the third season. The year following
+the tying to the trellis, the vine should bear a
+partial crop. The vine is usually carried directly to
+the top wire the first season of training, although
+it is the practice of some growers, especially outside
+the Hudson valley, to stop the trunk at the
+lower wire the first year of permanent training, and
+to carry it to the top wire the following year.</p>
+
+<p>Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully
+as high and perhaps higher than from other species
+of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange county, New
+York, has had an annual average of twenty-six
+pounds of Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550
+vines being considered in the calculation. While
+the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin
+system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be
+trained in this manner with success, as the following
+average yields obtained by Mr. Barns from 200
+vines set in 1881 will show:</p>
+
+<table class="small" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="yield">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdldate">1886</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad">8&frac12;</td>
+<td class="center">pounds</td>
+<td class="center">to</td>
+<td class="center">the</td>
+<td class="center">vine.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdldate">1887</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad">11&frac34;</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdldate">1888</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad">8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdldate">1889</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad">9&frac12;</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdldate">1890</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad">7&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdldate">1891</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad">16&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdldate">1892</td>
+<td class="tdr rpad">13&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+<td class="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin.</i>&mdash;Various
+modifications of this original four-cane Kniffin are
+in use. The Kniffin idea is often carelessly applied
+to a rack trellis. In such cases, several
+canes were allowed to grow where only two should
+have been left. <a href="#i065">Fig. 23</a> is a common but poor style
+of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+ Kniffin used in some of the large new vineyards
+of western New York. It differs from the type in
+the training of the young wood. These shoots,
+instead of being allowed to hang at will, are carried
+out horizontally and either tied to the wire or
+twisted around it. The advantage urged for this
+modification is the little injury done by wind, but,
+as a matter of practice, it affords less protection
+than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the
+shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+ from the upper cane soon cling to the lower
+wire, and the shoots from both tiers of canes protect
+each other below the lower wire. There are
+three serious disadvantages to this holding up of
+the shoots,&mdash;it makes unnecessary labor, the canes
+are likely to make wood or "bull canes" (<a href="#Page_50">see
+page 50</a>) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is
+bunched together on the vines.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i065" name="i065"></a>
+<img src="images/i065.jpg" alt="i065" />
+
+<p class="caption">23. A POOR TYPE OF KNIFFIN.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Another common modification of the four-cane
+Kniffin is that shown in <a href="#i066">fig. 24</a>, in which a crotch or Y
+is made in the trunk. This crotch is used in the belief
+that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily
+deflected into the lower arms than by the system
+of side spurring on a straight or continuous trunk.
+This is probably a fallacy, and may have arisen
+from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the
+lower wire as on the upper one. Nevertheless, this
+modification is in common use in western New
+York and elsewhere.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i066" name="i066"></a>
+<img src="images/i066.jpg" alt="i066" />
+
+<p class="caption">24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds
+on both wires, the Double Kniffin will probably be
+found most satisfactory. Two distinct trunks are
+brought from the root, each supplying a single wire
+only. The trunks are tied together to hold them in
+place. This system, under the name of Improved
+Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted portions
+of the Hudson valley.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System.</i>&mdash;Inasmuch
+as the greater part of the fruit in the Four-Cane
+Kniffin is born upon the upper wire, the question
+arises<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+ if it would not be better to dispense with
+the lower canes and cut the upper ones longer.
+This is now done to a considerable extent, especially
+in the Hudson valley. <a href="#i068">Fig. 25</a> explains the
+operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk
+is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes,
+each bearing from nine to fifteen buds, are left upon
+the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper
+wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the
+lower wire, where the ends are tied. In some instances,
+the lower wire is dispensed with, but this
+is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place
+against the winds and prevents the too violent
+whipping of the hanging shoots. During the growing
+season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs
+in exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Kniffin.
+This species of training reduces the amount of
+leaf-surface to a minimum, and every precaution
+must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth. This
+system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+ of training will probably not allow of the
+successful girdling of the vine for the purpose of
+hastening the maturity and augmenting the size of
+the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from
+it, if liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are employed,
+and the fruit is nearly always first-class. A
+Concord vine trained in this manner produced in
+1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing
+forty pounds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i068" name="i068"></a>
+<img src="images/i068.jpg" alt="i068" />
+
+<p class="caption">25. UMBRELLA TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Another type of Umbrella training is shown in
+<a href="#i069">fig. 26</a>, before pruning. Here five main canes were
+allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in very
+strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably
+never so good as the other (<a href="#i068">fig. 25</a>), if the highest
+results are desired; but for the grower who does
+not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a
+safer system than the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i069" name="i069"></a>
+<img src="images/i069.jpg" alt="i069" />
+
+<p class="caption">26. A POOR UMBRELLA SYSTEM.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>The Low, or One-Wire Kniffin.</i>&mdash;A modification
+of this Umbrella system is sometimes used, in which
+the trellis is only three or four feet high and comprises
+but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen
+buds is tied out in each direction, and the shoots are
+allowed to hang in essentially the same manner as
+in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages
+urged for this system are the protection of the
+grapes from wind, the large size of the fruit due to
+the small amount of bearing wood, the ease of laying
+down the vines, the readiness with which the
+top can be renewed from the root as occasion demands,
+and the cheapness of the trellis.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt pb"><i>The Six-Cane Kniffin.</i>&mdash;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+There are many old vineyards
+in eastern New York which are trained upon
+a six-cane or three-wire system. The general pruning
+and management of these vines do not differ
+from that of the common Kniffin. Very strong varieties
+which can carry an abundance of wood,
+may be profitable upon this style of training, but
+it cannot be recommended. A Concord vineyard
+over thirty years old, comprising 295 vines, trained
+in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive.
+Twice it has produced crops of six tons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i071" name="i071"></a>
+<img src="images/i071.jpg" alt="i071" />
+
+<p class="caption">27. EIGHT-CANE KNIFFIN. (Diagram.)</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="pb"><i>Eight-Cane Kniffin.</i>&mdash;Eight and even ten canes
+are sometimes left upon a single trunk, and are
+trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely, as
+shown in the accompanying diagram (<a href="#i071">fig. 27</a>).
+Unless these canes are cut back to four or five buds
+each, the vine carries too much wood and fruit.
+This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+ system allows of close planting, but the trellis
+is too expensive. The trunk soon becomes overgrown
+with spurs, and it is likely to become prematurely
+weak. This style is very rarely used.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i072" name="i072"></a>
+<img src="images/i072.jpg" alt="i072" />
+
+<p class="caption">28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i073" name="i073"></a>
+<img src="images/i073.jpg" alt="i073" />
+
+<p class="caption">29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p><i>Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin.</i>&mdash;A curious modification
+of the Kniffin is employed somewhat on the
+Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at Marlboro'.
+The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead
+arbor, as shown in figs. <a href="#i072">28</a>, <a href="#i073">29</a> and <a href="#i074">30</a>. The
+trellis is six feet above the ground, and is composed
+of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane.
+The central wire runs from post to post, and one
+upon either side is attached to the end of a three-foot
+cross-bar, as represented in <a href="#i072">fig. 28</a>. The rows
+are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve
+feet apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced
+by a connecting-pole, as in <a href="#i073">fig. 29</a>. The trunk of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+ vine ends in a T-shaped head, which is well
+displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the
+foreground in <a href="#i074">fig. 30</a>. From this T-head, five canes
+are carried out from spurs. It was formerly the
+practice to carry out six canes, one in each direction
+upon each wire, but this was found to supply
+too much wood. Now two canes are carried in one
+direction and three in the other; and the positions
+of these sets are alternated each year, if possible.
+The canes which are left after the winter pruning
+are tied along the wires in spring, as in the Kniffin,
+and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief
+advantage of this training is that it allows of the
+growing of bush-fruits between the rows, as seen in
+<a href="#i073">fig. 29</a>. It is also said that the clusters hang so
+free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or
+leaves, and the fruit is protected from sun and frost.
+Every post must be large and firmly set, however,
+adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several
+styles similar to this are in use, one of the best being
+the Crittenden system, of Michigan. In this
+system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or five
+feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two
+or three feet wide.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i074" name="i074"></a>
+<img src="images/i074.jpg" alt="i074" />
+
+<p class="caption">30. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN, BEFORE PRUNING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>The Cross-Wire System.</i>&mdash;Another high Kniffin
+training, and which is also confined to the vicinity
+of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire, represented
+in figs. <a href="#i076">31</a> and <a href="#i077">32</a>. Small posts are set eight
+feet apart each way, and a single wire runs from the
+top of post to post&mdash;six and one-half feet from the
+ground&mdash;in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+ each direction, forming a check-row
+system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at
+the foot of the stake, to which the trunk is tied for
+support. Four canes are taken from spurs on the
+head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating
+wires. These canes are cut to three and one-half or
+four feet in length, and the bearing shoots droop as
+they grow. <a href="#i076">Fig. 31</a> shows this training as it appears
+some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in
+the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor,
+and a person standing at a distance sees an almost
+impenetrable mass of herbage, as in <a href="#i077">fig. 32</a>. This
+system appears to have little merit, and will always
+remain local in application. It possesses the advantage
+of economy in construction of the trellis,
+for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+ rows. The end posts are either braced by a
+pole or anchored by a wire taken from the top and
+secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet beyond,
+outside the vineyard.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i076" name="i076"></a>
+<img src="images/i076.jpg" alt="i076" />
+
+<p class="caption">31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i077" name="i077"></a>
+<img src="images/i077.jpg" alt="i077" />
+
+<p class="caption">32. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. OUTSIDE VIEW.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Renewal Kniffin.</i>&mdash;It is an easy matter to adapt
+the Kniffin principle of free hanging shoots to a
+true renewal method of pruning. There are a few
+modifications in use in which the wood is annually
+renewed to near the ground. The trellises comprise
+either two or three wires, and are made in the
+same manner as for the upright systems, as the
+High Renewal. At the annual pruning only one
+cane is left. This comprises twelve or fifteen buds,
+and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point
+or end of the cane usually being bent downward
+somewhat, in order to check the strong growth from
+the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this
+cane, and they may be pinched back when they
+reach the ground. In the meantime a strong shoot
+is taken out from the opposite side of the head&mdash;which
+usually stands a foot or less from the ground&mdash;to
+make the bearing wood of the next year; and this
+new cane will be tied in an opposite direction on the
+trellis from the present bearing cane, and the next
+renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of
+the head, or the side from which the present bearing
+wood sprung; so that the bearing top of the vine
+is alternated in either direction upon the trellis.
+This system, and similar ones, allow of laying down
+the vines easily in winter, and insure excellent fruit
+because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+ the amount of bearing wood is small; but
+the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>The Munson System.</i>&mdash;An unique system of training,
+upon the Kniffin principle, has been devised by
+T. V. Munson, of Denison,
+Texas, a well-known authority
+upon grapes. Two
+posts are set in the same
+hole, their tops diverging.
+A wire is stretched along the
+top of these posts and a third
+one is hung between them
+on cross-wires. The trunk
+of the vine, or its head, is
+secured to this middle lower
+wire and the shoots lop over
+the side wires. The growth,
+therefore, makes a V-shaped
+or trough-like mass of herbage.
+<a href="#i079">Fig. 33</a> is an end view
+of this trellis, showing the
+short wire connecting the
+posts and which also holds the
+middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. <a href="#i080">Fig. 34</a> is a
+side view of the trellis. The bearing canes, two or
+four, in number, which are left after the annual pruning,
+are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk
+forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left
+in <a href="#i080">fig. 34</a>. A head is formed at this place not unlike
+like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+ that which characterizes the High Renewal, for
+this system also employs renewal pruning. The
+trellis stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright
+at first, but soon fall down and are supported by
+the side wires. The following account of this system
+of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:</p>
+
+<p>"After the vines have flowered, the bearing
+laterals have their tips pinched off, and that is all
+the summer pruning the vine gets, except to rub off
+all eyes that start on the body below the crotch.
+Two to four shoots, according to strength of vine,
+are started from the forks or crotch and allowed to
+bear no fruit, but are trained along over the lower central
+wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives,
+the entire bearing cane of the present year, with
+all its laterals, is cut away at a point near where the
+young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots
+are shortened back, according to strength of vine;
+some, such as Herbemont, being able at four years
+to fill four shoots six or eight feet long with fine
+fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three
+or four feet each way of one shoot only. The
+different varieties are set at various distances apart,
+according as they are strong or weak growers.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><a id="i079" name="i079"></a>
+<img src="images/i079.jpg" alt="i079" />
+
+<p class="caption">33. MUNSON TRAINING.
+END VIEW.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>"Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced
+to the simplest form. A few cuts to each
+vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties complete
+the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work
+well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the
+middle lower wire, along which all bearing canes
+are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+ tied after pruning, and from which the young
+laterals which produce the crop are to spring.
+These laterals strike the two outer wires, soon
+clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe
+from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the
+best possible position for spraying and gathering,
+and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves. I
+have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres
+of mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every
+year.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i080" name="i080"></a>
+<img src="images/i080.jpg" alt="i080" />
+
+<p class="caption">34. MUNSON TRAINING. SIDE VIEW.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>"The following advantages are secured by this
+system:</p>
+
+<p>"1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained,
+which is a canopy to shade the roots and body of
+vine and the fruit, without smothering.</p>
+
+<p>"2. New wood, formed by sap which has never
+passed through bearing wood, is secured for the
+next crop&mdash;a very important matter.</p>
+
+<p>"3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis,
+allowing free passage in any direction through the
+vineyard; circulation of air without danger of breaking
+tender shoots; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivation,
+harvesting.</p>
+
+<p>"4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop
+to suit capacity of vine.</p>
+
+<p>"5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly
+with the nature of nearly all our American
+species far better than short spurs.</p>
+
+<p>"6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine
+being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+ pruned and not tied, standing away from
+posts, can be bent down to one side between the
+rows, and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly
+raised and tied in position.</p>
+
+<p>"7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing
+trellis material and using it again.</p>
+
+<p>"8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i083" name="i083"></a>
+<img src="images/i083.jpg" alt="i083" />
+
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<p class="center small pt">MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Horizontal Training.</i>&mdash;There are very few types
+of horizontal shoot training now in use. The best
+is probably that shown in <a href="#i084">fig. 35</a>. This particular
+vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well
+adapted. It will be noticed that this picture represents
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+ end of a trellis, and the diagonal stick
+seen near the ground is a brace for the end post.
+Two wires run from post to post, one about two
+and one-half feet above the ground and the other
+five and one-half feet high. The posts are set at
+the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The
+vines are set six or eight feet apart, if Delawares.
+A strong stake is driven in the ground behind each
+vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis
+when set. The permanent trunk or head of the
+vine stands about a foot high. The vine is renewed
+back to the top of this trunk every year.
+One cane is left at each pruning, which, when tied
+up to the stake, is as high as the trellis. From
+this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are carried
+out horizontally. About six of these shoots are
+allowed to grow upon either side of the cane. As
+the shoots grow, they are tied to perpendicular
+slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats
+do not touch the ground. Two slats are provided
+upon either side, making four to a vine. They stand
+a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang
+free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots
+grow too long, they are pinched in when they have
+passed the second slat. While these shoots are
+covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out
+from the head or trunk of the vine and, without
+being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the central
+stake. This shoot is to form the top next year,
+for all the present vine is to be entirely cut away
+at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+ the winter's pruning. So the vine starts every
+spring with but a single cane.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i084" name="i084"></a>
+<img src="images/i084.jpg" alt="i084" />
+
+<p class="caption">35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Excellent results are obtained from the slender
+growing varieties by this method of training, but
+it is too expensive in trellis and in labor of tying to
+make it generally practicable. Delaware, however,
+thrives remarkably well when trained in this
+fashion.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Post Training.</i>&mdash;There are various methods of
+training to posts, all of which possess two advantages&mdash;the
+saving of the expense of trellis and allowing
+of cultivation both ways. But they also
+have grave disadvantages, especially in the thickness
+of the head of foliage which harbors rot and
+mildew and prevents successful spraying, and
+hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening well.
+These faults are so serious that post training is
+now little used for the American grapes. The
+saving in cost of trellis is not great, for more posts
+are required to the acre than in the trellis systems,
+and they do not endure long when standing
+alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown
+upon them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i087" name="i087"></a>
+<img src="images/i087.jpg" alt="i087" />
+
+<p class="caption">36. LOW POST TRAINING.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>There are various methods of pruning for the
+stake training, but nearly all of them agree in
+pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright
+arm which stands the full height of the vine.
+There may be one or two sets of these spurs. We
+might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>,
+to be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis;
+in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+ that event, the four canes would hang at
+will, or they might be wrapped about the post, the
+shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions.
+The post systems are essentially Kniffin in principle,
+for the shoots hang free. In low styles of
+post training, the permanent head of the vine may
+be only three or four feet high. This head will
+have a ring of spurs on it, and at the annual pruning
+three to five canes with from six to ten buds
+each are left. <a href="#i087">Fig. 36</a> is a view in such a post
+vineyard.</p>
+
+<p>The main trunk is usually tied permanently to
+the post. The canes left after pruning are variously
+disposed. Sometimes they are bent upwards
+and tied to the post above the head of the
+vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely
+about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two
+trunks are frequently used to each post, both coming
+from the ground from a common root. These
+are wound about the post in opposite directions,
+one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured
+at the top by a small nail driven through it,
+or by a cord, no other tying will be necessary.
+Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances
+of one foot or more apart, and the vines are
+wrapped about them, but this only augments the
+size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and
+then one sees a careful post training, in which but
+little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of
+shoots practiced, which gives excellent results;
+but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+ on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The
+European post and stake systems or modifications
+of them, are yet occasionally recommended for
+American vines, but under general conditions, especially
+in commercial grape growing, they rarely
+succeed long. One of the latest recommendations
+of any of these types is that of the single pole system
+of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of
+Iowa, in a little treatise published in 1878.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Arbors.</i>&mdash;Arbors and bowers are usually formed
+with little reference to pruning and training. The
+first object is to secure shade and seclusion, and
+these are conditions which may seriously interfere
+with the production of fine grapes. As a rule, too
+much wood must be allowed to grow, and the soil
+about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair results
+in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes
+a diligent use of the pruning shears. It is usually
+best to carry one main or permanent trunk up to
+the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk
+at intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left
+to which the wood is renewed each year. If the
+vines stand six feet apart about the arbor&mdash;which
+is a satisfactory distance&mdash;one cane three feet long
+may be left on each spur when the pruning is done.
+The shoots which spring from these canes will
+soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the
+close of the season, this entire cane with its laterals
+is cut away at the spur, and another three-foot
+cane&mdash;which grew during the season&mdash;is left
+in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+ its place. This pruning is essentially that of
+the Kniffin vine in <a href="#i061">fig. 22</a>. Imagine this vine,
+with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid upon
+the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to
+the slats instead of being tied on wires. This same
+system&mdash;running up a long trunk and cutting in to
+side spurs&mdash;will apply equally well to tall walls and
+fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly
+a better plan, so far as yield and quality of fruit
+is concerned, is to renew back nearly to the root,
+bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or
+three every year, and cutting the old ones off; but
+as the vines are desired for shade one does not
+care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach
+and cover the top of the arbor.</p>
+
+
+<p class="pt"><i>Remodeling Old Vines.</i>&mdash;Old and neglected tops
+can rarely be remodeled to advantage. If the vine
+is still vigorous, it will probably pay to grow an entirely
+new top by taking out a cane from the root.
+If the old top is cut back severely for a year or
+two, this new cane will make a vigorous growth,
+and it can be treated essentially like a new or
+young vine. If it is very strong and ripens up
+well, it can be left long enough the first fall to
+make the permanent trunk; but if it is rather
+weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or
+winter to two or three buds, from one of which the
+permanent trunk is to be grown the second season.
+Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the
+preceding pages for the various systems, will apply
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+ the new vine. The old trunk should be cut
+away as soon as the new one is permanently tied
+to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first
+or second season of the new trunk. Care must be
+exercised to rub off all sprouts which spring from
+the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut
+back into the ground and covered with earth, better
+results may be expected. Old vines treated in
+this manner often make good plants, but if the
+vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble
+will scarcely pay for itself.</p>
+
+<p>These old vines can be remodeled easily by means
+of grafting. Cut off the trunk five or six inches
+below the surface of the ground, leaving an inch or
+two of straight wood above the roots. Into this
+stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft-grafting
+the apple. Cions of two or three buds, of firm
+wood the size of a lead-pencil, should be inserted.
+The top bud should stand above the ground. The
+cleft will need no tying nor wax, although it is well
+to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material over
+the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth
+tightly about it. <a href="#i092">Fig. 37</a> shows the first year's
+growth from two cions of Niagara set in a Red
+Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any
+pruning which is done this first year, or the cions
+may be loosened. If the young shoots are tied to
+a stake there will be less danger from wind and
+careless workmen. In the vine shown in the illustration,
+no pruning nor rubbing out was done,
+but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+ the vine would have been in better shape for
+training if only one or two shoots had been allowed
+to grow. Such a vine as this can be carried onto
+the trellis next year; or it may be cut back to three
+or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the
+permanent trunk next year, like a two-year set vine.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i092" name="i092"></a>
+<img src="images/i092.jpg" alt="i092" />
+
+<p class="caption">37. A YEARLING GRAFT.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will
+be best to cut back the annual growth heavily at the
+winter pruning. The amount of wood which shall
+be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant
+and the variety, but three or four canes of six to ten
+buds each may be left at suitable places. During
+the next season a strong shoot from the base of
+each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form
+the wood of the following season, while all the
+present cane is cut away at the end of the year.
+So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the
+regular systems of training. Much skill and experience
+are often required to properly rejuvenate
+an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not
+worth the trouble.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i093" name="i093"></a>
+<img src="images/i093.jpg" alt="i093" />
+
+
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
+<h2><span class="smcap">Index.</span></h2>
+
+
+<table class="small" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" summary="index">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="tdr">Page</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Adlum, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Arbor Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Arbors,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Arm, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Barns, W. D., quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Bass bark,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Bleeding,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Breaking-out,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Brocton, Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Bull cane,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Cane, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Chautauqua County, Training in,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Contraction of wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Cornell, William T.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Cornhusks, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Crittenden training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Cross-wire training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Crotch Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Double Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Drooping systems,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Eight-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Fan training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Forestville, Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Four-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Fuller, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Girdling,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Grafting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Haviland, Sands,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Heading-in,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">High Renewal training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Hofer, A. F.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Horizontal Arm training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Horizontal training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+
+<td class="tdl rpad">Husks, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Improved<span class="smpagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+ Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin systems,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin training, Comparison of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Kniffin, William,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Low Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Marlboro', Training at,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Modified Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Munson training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Munson, T. V.,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Objects of pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Old vines, Remodeling of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">One-wire Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Overhead Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Planting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Posts,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Post training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Pruning, Objects of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">&nbsp;&nbsp;" of young vines,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">&nbsp;&nbsp;" Summer,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">&nbsp;&nbsp;" Time for,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Raffia,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Raphia Ruffia,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Reasons for pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Remodeling old vines,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Renewal, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Renewal Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Rubbing off,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Rye straw for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Sagging of wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Setting,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Shoot, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Six-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Spur, defined,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Spur training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Staples,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Stopping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Stripping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Summer pruning,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Superfluous shoots,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Systems<span class="smpagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+ compared,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">T-head,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Tightening wires,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Trellis, Making,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">True Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Twine for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Two-cane Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Umbrella training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Upright training,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Walls, Training on,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Weeping,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Willows, for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Wire, for trellis,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">" for tying,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">" weights and sizes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Wool-twine,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Y-trunk Kniffin,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Yeoman's patent trellis,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Yields of grapes,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl rpad">Young vines, Pruning of,</td> <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+
+</table>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i096" name="i096"></a>
+<img src="images/i096.jpg" alt="i096" />
+
+
+
+</div>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter"><a id="i097" name="i097"></a>
+<img src="images/i097.jpg" alt="i097" />
+
+
+
+</div>
+
+<p class="small"><b>THIS ILLUSTRATION</b> was made from a photograph of fair samples of the different grades
+of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth their natural size.</p>
+
+<p class="small">We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish <i>strong</i>, <i>fibrous-rooted</i> stock, so
+well appreciated by intelligent and experienced fruit growers.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<b>WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE.</b></p>
+<p class="center big"><b>LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y.</b>,</p>
+<p class="center small">
+<b>Grape Vine Specialist And General Nurseryman.</b>
+</p>
+
+<p class="smaller">When writing name this book.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+<table class="other" summary="ad">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Hardy</b></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Native</b></td>
+<td class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i098.jpg" alt="i098" />
+</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl biggest"><b>Grapes.</b></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We desire to call the attention of planters to our
+large and complete stock of Grape Vines.</p>
+
+<p>We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty
+varieties, embracing the popular old sorts as well as the
+new ones which seem to have merit. Our catalogue
+contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the different
+varieties according to color.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the above we offer an immense collection
+of all kinds of Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs,
+Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General Catalogue
+(160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings
+of the most popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in
+an illuminated cover, will be mailed free to all who
+have not received it.</p>
+
+<p>Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare
+and Choice Trees, Shrubs, etc., including several
+valuable novelties and many specialties of superior
+merit, will also be mailed free.</p>
+
+<p class="firstind">
+ELLWANGER &amp; BARRY,</p>
+
+<p class="midind">Mount Hope Nurseries,</p>
+
+<p class="deepind"> <span class="smcap">Rochester, N. Y.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p class="small">53rd Year.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p class="biggest"><b>Pleasant Valley Nurseries</b></p>
+
+<p class="pleft small">
+
+<b>PEAR TREES.</b>&mdash;Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka,
+Japan Golden Russet, Kieffer, LeConte, etc.,
+Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of
+all sorts. Ornamentals, Eleagnus
+Longipes, Japanese Wineberry
+Juneberry, Trifoliate Orange
+and other valued novelties.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/i099.jpg" alt="i099" />
+
+
+
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="pright"><b>STRAWBERRIES</b>,
+Van Deman, E. P.
+Roe, and other new varieties;
+all the old standard
+sorts, Gooseberries, Raspberries,
+Blackberries, Currants, Asparagus
+Roots and Grape Vines.</p>
+
+
+<p class="bigger center"><b>J. S. COLLINS &amp; SON, Moorestown, N. J.</b></p>
+
+<p class="center small">Send for Catalogue.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="biggest center"><b>MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS.</b></p>
+
+<p class="bigger center"><b>For the Farm and Household.</b></p>
+
+
+<p class="smaller">Any one of these valuable books will be sent, postpaid, direct, on receipt of price.<br />
+
+Be careful to write name and post office plain, so that there may be no mistake in mailing.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller ind">
+Address</p>
+<p class="small midind pb">
+<i><b>The Rural Publishing Co., New York.</b></i>
+</p>
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT PLANTS.</b>&mdash;By <span class="smcap">A. A. Crozier</span>. A collection
+of errors and superstitions entertained by farmers, gardeners
+and others, together with brief scientific refutations. Highly interesting
+to students and intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural literature,
+and of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the
+truth about their work.</p>
+
+<p class="ind small">Price, cloth, $1.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE NURSERY BOOK.</b>&mdash;By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. A complete handbook of
+Propagation and Pollination of Plants. <i>Profusely illustrated.</i> This
+valuable little manual has been compiled with great pains. The author
+has had unusual facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many
+experts. The book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has
+nothing to do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant
+growth. It simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a
+seed, makes a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It
+is entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107,
+and are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats all
+kinds of cultivated plants, fruits, vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy
+herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest trees.</p>
+
+<p class="center small"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:</p>
+
+<p class="small ind1 smspace">
+I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Seedage.</span> On Propagation by Seed.</p>
+
+<p class="small ind05 smspace">II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Separation.</span></p>
+
+<p class="small smspace">III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Layerage.</span> Propagation by Layering.</p>
+
+<p class="small ind05 smspace">IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cuttage.</span> Propagation by Cuttings.</p>
+
+<p class="small ind1 smspace">V.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Graftage.</span>&mdash;Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc.<br />
+</p>
+<p class="small ind05 smspace">VI.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nursery List.</span>&mdash;This is the great feature of the book. It is an
+alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling which
+of the operations described in the first five chapters are employed in propagating
+them. <i>Over 2,000 entries</i> are made in the list. The following entries
+will give an idea of the method:</p>
+
+<p class="small"><b>Acer</b> (<span class="smcap">Maple</span>). <i>Sapindaceæ.</i> Stocks are grown from stratified seeds,
+which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as <i>A. dasycarpum</i>,
+come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some cultural
+varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by grafting. Varieties
+of native species are worked upon common or native stocks. The Japanese
+sorts are winter-worked upon imported <i>A. polymorphum</i> stocks, either
+by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also be budded in summer, and
+they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe and soft wood.</p>
+
+<p class="small"><b>Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus</b> (<span class="smcap">Leaf Cactus</span>). <i>Cacteæ.</i>
+Fresh seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained,
+and apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, remove
+to a light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six
+inches in length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about
+60°, and apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cuttings
+are very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before
+planting.</p>
+
+<p class="small">VII.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pollination.</span></p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper,
+narrow margins, 50 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.</b>&mdash;By <span class="smcap">A. A. Crozier</span>.
+An essay on the influence of climate upon size, form, color,
+fruitfulness, etc., with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, paper, 25 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>FRUIT CULTURE</b>, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country
+Home.&mdash;By <span class="smcap">W. C. Strong</span>, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horticultural
+Society, and Vice-President of the American Pomological Society.
+Illustrated. New revised edition, with many additions, making it
+the latest and freshest book on the subject.</p>
+
+<p class="smaller center">CONTENTS:</p>
+
+<p class="small">Rural Homes&mdash;Choice of Locality&mdash;Treatment&mdash;A Good Lawn&mdash;The
+Approach. Fruits&mdash;Location of the Fruit Garden&mdash;Success in Fruit-Culture&mdash;Profit
+in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees&mdash;Quality&mdash;How to
+Plant&mdash;Time to Plant&mdash;Preparing the Land&mdash;Fertilizers&mdash;Cutting Back&mdash;Distances
+for Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden&mdash;Irrigation&mdash;Application
+of Fertilizers&mdash;Thinning the Fruit&mdash;Labels. The Apple&mdash;Insects Injurious
+to the Apple. The Pear&mdash;Dwarf Pears&mdash;Situation and Soil&mdash;Pruning&mdash;Ripening
+the Fruit&mdash;Insects Injurious to the Pear&mdash;Diseases. The
+Peach&mdash;Injurious Insects and Diseases of the Peach&mdash;Nectarines. The
+Plum&mdash;Insects and Diseases of the Plum&mdash;Apricots. The Cherry&mdash;Insects
+Injurious to the Cherry. The Quince&mdash;Insects Injurious to the
+Quince. The Grape&mdash;Grape-Houses&mdash;Varieties&mdash;Insects Injurious to the
+Grape&mdash;Mildew. The Currant&mdash;Insects Attacking the Currant&mdash;The Gooseberry.
+The Raspberry&mdash;The Blackberry. The Strawberry. The Mulberry&mdash;The
+Fig&mdash;Rhubarb&mdash;Asparagus. Propagating Fruit-Trees&mdash;From the
+Seed&mdash;By Division&mdash;By Cuttings&mdash;By Layers&mdash;By Budding&mdash;By Grafting.
+Insecticides&mdash;Fungicides&mdash;Recipes. Price, in one volume, 16mo., cloth, $1.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE FOR AMERICA.</b>&mdash;By <span class="smcap">James Morton</span>.
+An excellent and thorough book; especially adapted to the
+culture of Chrysanthemums in America. The contents include Propagation
+by Grafting. Inarching and Seed. American History. Propagation by
+Cuttings. Exhibition Plants. Classification. Exhibition Blooms. Soil for
+Potting. Watering and Liquid Manure. Selection of Plants. Top-Dressing.
+Hints on Exhibitions. List of Synonyms. Staking and Tying.
+General Culture. Insects and Diseases. Standard Chrysanthemums.
+Sports and Variations. Disbudding and Thinning. Oriental and European
+History. Calendar of Monthly Operations. Chrysanthemum Shows
+and Organizations. National Chrysanthemum Society. Early and Late-Flowering
+Varieties. Chrysanthemums as House-Plants&mdash;Varieties for
+Various Purposes. Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>IMPROVING THE FARM</b>, or Methods of Culture that shall afford a
+profit, and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil.&mdash;By <span class="smcap">Lucius
+D. Davis</span>, of Conanicut Park Farm. The contents treat exhaustively
+on renewing run-down farms, and comprise the following chapters: Book-Farming.
+The Run-Down Farm. Will It Pay to Improve the Farm?
+How Farms Become Exhausted. Thorough Tillage. Rotation of Crops.
+Green Manuring. More About Clover. Barn-Yard Manure&mdash;How Made,
+Its Cost and Value. How Prepared and Applied. The Use of Wood-Ashes.
+Commercial Fertilizers. Special Fertilizers. Complete Manures. Experiments
+with Fertilizers. Stock on the Farm. Providing Food for Stock.
+Specialties in Farming. Price, cloth, $1.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.</b>&mdash;By <span class="smcap">Elias A. Long</span>. A practical treatise
+comprising 32 diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds, with
+copious explanations. Of the diagrams, all but nine have appeared in the
+serial, "Taste and Tact in Arranging Ornamental Grounds," which
+has been so attractive a feature of <i>Popular Gardening</i> and <i>American
+Gardening</i> during the past year. But in the new form the matter has
+been entirely rewritten. Printed on heavy plate paper, it is unsurpassed
+for beauty by any other work on Landscape Gardening.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, 50 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE BUSINESS HEN.</b>&mdash;Breeding and Feeding Poultry for Profit. The
+pat title of a unique book is The Business Hen. A condensed and,
+practical little encyclopedia of profitable poultry-keeping. P. H. Jacobs,
+Henry Hale, James Rankin, J. H. Drevenstedt and others equally well
+known have written chapters on their specialties, the whole being skillfully
+arranged and carefully edited by H. W. Collingwood, managing editor of
+<i>The Rural New-Yorker</i>. Starting with the question, "What is an Egg?"
+the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions for
+developing the egg into a "Business Hen." Incubation, care of chicks,
+treatment of diseases, selection and breeding, feeding and housing, are
+all discussed in a clear and simple manner. Two successful egg-farms are
+described in detail. On one of these farms the owner has succeeded in
+developing a flock of 600 hens that average over 200 eggs each per year.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>FIRST LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE.</b> (<i>2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged.</i>)&mdash;By
+F. A. Gulley, M. S., Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural
+College of Mississippi. This book discusses the more important
+principles which underlie agriculture in a plain, simple way, within the
+comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry,
+botany, and other branches of science related to agriculture. It supplies
+a much-needed text-book for common schools, and is useful for the practical
+farmer. Includes all the latest developments in agricultural science as
+applied to the subject.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1. Special prices for Schools and Colleges.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE NEW POTATO CULTURE.</b>&mdash;By <span class="smcap">Elbert S. Carman</span>. This book
+gives the result of 15 years' experiment work on The Rural ground.
+It treats particularly of: How to increase the crop without corresponding
+cost of production. Manures and fertilizers: kinds and methods of application.
+The soil, and how to put it in right condition. Depth of
+planting. How much seed to plant. Methods of culture. The Rural
+trench system. Varieties, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Nothing old or worn-out about this book. It treats of new and profitable
+methods; in fact, of <i>The NEW Potato Culture</i>. It is respectfully submitted
+that these experiments at The Rural grounds have, directly and
+indirectly, thrown more light upon the various problems involved in successful
+potato-culture than any other experiments that have been carried
+on in America.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK.</b>&mdash;By Professor <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>,
+Editor of <i>American Gardening</i>, Horticulturist of the Cornell Experiment
+Station, and Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University. It
+contains in handy and concise form, a great number of Rules and Recipes
+required by gardeners, fruit-growers, truckers, florists, farmers, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Synopsis of Contents: Injurious insects, with preventives and remedies.
+Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant diseases, with preventives and
+remedies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds, etc., with preventives and
+remedies. Waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements,
+paints, etc. <i>Seed Tables</i>: Quantities required for sowing given areas.
+Weight and size of seeds. Longevity of seeds. Time required for seeds
+to germinate. <i>Planting Tables</i>: Dates for sowing seeds in different latitudes.
+Tender and hardy vegetables. Distances apart for planting. <i>Maturity
+and Yields</i>: Time required for maturity of vegetables; for bearing of
+fruit plants. Average yields of crops. Keeping and storing fruits and vegetables.
+<i>Propagation of Plants</i>: Ways of grafting and budding. Methods
+by which fruits are propagated. Stocks used for fruits. <i>Standard
+Measures and Sizes</i>: Standard flower-pots. Standard and legal measures.
+English measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. Quantities of
+water held in pipes and tanks. Effect of wind in cooling off glass roofs.
+Per cent. of light reflected from glass at various angles of inclination.
+Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. Amount of various products
+yielded by given quantities of fruit. Labels. Loudon's rules of
+horticulture. Rules of nomenclature. Rules for exhibition. Weather signs
+and protection from frost. <i>Collecting and Preserving</i>: How to make
+an herbarium. Preserving and printing of flowers and other parts of
+plants. Keeping cut-flowers. How to collect and preserve insects. Chemical
+composition of fruits and vegetables, and seeds, fertilizers, soils and
+vegetables. <i>Names and Histories</i>: Vegetables which have different names
+in England and America. Derivation of names of various fruits and vegetables.
+Names of fruits and vegetables in various languages. Glossary.
+Calendar.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>CROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZING</b>:&mdash;The Philosophy of the
+Crossing of Plants considered with reference to their Cultivation&mdash;How
+to Improve plants by Hybridizing.&mdash;By <span class="smcap">L. H. Bailey</span>. It is the only
+book accessible to American horticulture which gives the reasons, discouragements,
+possibilities and limitations of Cross-Breeding. Every man
+who owns a plant should have it, if for no other reason than to post himself
+upon one of the leading practices of the day. The pamphlet contains
+also a bibliography of the subject, including over 400 entries.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, paper, 40 cents.</p>
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>CHEMICALS AND CLOVER.</b>&mdash;By <span class="smcap">H. W. Collingwood</span>, Managing Editor
+of <i>The Rural New-Yorker</i>. A concise and practical discussion of
+the all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green
+manuring in bringing up worn-out soils, and in general farm practice.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, paper, 20 cents.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>ANNALS OF HORTICULTURE, Vol. IV.</b>&mdash;Bright, New, Clean and
+Fresh. These Annals are entirely rewritten every year. They are
+the <i>only records</i> of the progress in horticulture. Exhaustive lists of all
+the plants introduced in 1892, with descriptions, directories, full accounts
+of all new discoveries, new tools, and a wealth of practical matter for <i>Gardeners</i>,
+<i>Fruit-Growers</i>, <i>Florists</i>, <i>Vegetable-Gardeners and Landscape-Gardeners</i>,
+comprise its contents.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Ready soon. Illustrated. Vol. IV., cloth $1. Vols. I., II. and III. at
+the same price.</p>
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES.</b>&mdash;A practical Manual concerning Noxious
+Insects and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. By <span class="smcap">Clarence
+M. Weed</span>, Professor of Entomology and Zoölogy, New Hampshire
+State College.</p>
+
+<p class="small">I think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little
+book.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dr. C. V. Riley</span>, <i>U.S. Entomologist</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is excellent. I must congratulate you on the skill you have displayed
+in putting in the most important insects, and the complete manner
+in which you have done the work.&mdash;<span class="smcap">James Fletcher</span>, <i>Dominion Entomologist</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="small">I am well pleased with it. There is certainly a demand for just such a
+work.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Dr. F. M. Hexamer</span>, <i>Editor American Agriculturist</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.25.</p>
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>THE CAULIFLOWER.</b>&mdash;<span class="smcap">By A. A. Crozier</span>. Teacher and Practical
+Origin and History of this increasingly important and always delicious
+vegetable.</p>
+
+<p class="small">The Cauliflower Industry.&mdash;In Europe. In the United States. Importation
+of Cauliflowers.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Management of the Crop.&mdash;Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating.
+Harvesting. Keeping. Marketing.</p>
+
+<p class="small">The Early Crop.&mdash;Caution against planting it largely. Special directions.
+Buttoning.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Cauliflower Regions of the United States.&mdash;Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake
+Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Insect and Fungous Enemies.&mdash;Flea-beetle. Cut-worms. Cabbage-maggot.
+Cabbage-worm. Stem-rot. Damping-off. Black-leg.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Cauliflower Seed.&mdash;Importance of careful selection. Where the seed
+is grown. Influence of climate. American-grown seed.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Varieties.&mdash;Descriptive catalogue. Order of earliness. Variety tests.
+Best varieties.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Broccoli.&mdash;Difference between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation,
+use and varieties of Broccoli.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Cooking Cauliflower.&mdash;Digestibility. Nutritive value. Chemical
+composition. Recipes.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.</p>
+
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>PRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.</b>&mdash;A Practical Handbook of Profitable
+Crop-Feeding, written for Practical Men. By <span class="smcap">T. Greiner</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="small ind smspace">Part I. The Raw Materials of Plant-Food.</p>
+
+<p class="small ind smspace">Part II. The Available Sources of Supply.</p>
+
+<p class="small ind smspace">Part III. Principles of Economic Application, or Manuring for Money.</p>
+
+<p class="small">This work, written in plainest language, is intended to assist the farmer
+in the selection, purchase and application of plant-foods. If you wish to
+learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances, and how
+to make money by their proper use, read this book. If you want your
+boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding, and become a successful farmer,
+give him a copy of this book. The cost of the book will be returned a hundred-fold
+to every reader who peruses its pages with care and applies its
+teachings to practice.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price, cloth, $1.</p>
+
+<p class="small cap pt"><b>SPRAYING CROPS.</b>&mdash;Why, When and How to Do It.&mdash;By <span class="smcap">Prof. Clarence
+M. Weed</span>. A handy volume of about 100 pages; illustrated.
+Covers the whole field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which
+the spray is used. The following topics are discussed in a concise, practical
+manner:</p>
+
+<p class="small">Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against
+Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus.
+Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used
+in Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides
+and Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spraying.
+Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery
+Stock. Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spraying
+Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals.</p>
+
+<p class="small">Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents; flexible cloth, 75 cents.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<div class="notes">
+<p>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph break.
+Some page numbers are missing as a result of moving full-page illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are
+unchanged in this e-text.</p>
+
+<p>Obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without
+comment.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to obvious errors, the following changes have been made:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>1.  On page 87: "arguments" was changed to "augments" in the phrase,
+"... this only augments the size and depth...."</p>
+
+<p>2.  On page 90: "side" was changed to "size" in the phrase,
+"... wood the size of a lead-pencil...."</p></blockquote>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of American Grape Training, by 
+Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ***
+
+***** This file should be named 39779-h.htm or 39779-h.zip *****
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,2816 @@
+Project Gutenberg's American Grape Training, by Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: American Grape Training
+       An account of the leading forms now in use of Training the
+       American Grapes
+
+Author: Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+Release Date: May 23, 2012 [EBook #39779]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Cathy Maxam and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  AMERICAN
+  GRAPE TRAINING
+
+  An account of the leading
+  forms now in use of Training
+  the American Grapes.
+
+  _By L. H. BAILEY_
+
+  NEW YORK:
+  THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
+  1893.
+
+
+
+
+    _By the same Author._
+
+
+    =Annals of Horticulture= in North America for the year 1889. A
+    witness of passing events and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52
+    illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1890.= 312 pages, 82 illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1891.= 416 pages, 77 illustrations.
+
+    =Annals for 1892.=
+
+    *.* A new volume is issued each year, each complete in
+    itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.
+
+    =The Horticulturist's Rule-Book.= A compendium of useful information
+    for fruit-growers, truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second
+    edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221 pages. Cloth, $1;
+    paper, 50 cents.
+
+    =The Nursery Book.= A complete guide to the multiplication and
+    pollination of plants. 304 pages, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1;
+    paper, 50c.
+
+    =Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing.= With a brief bibliography of the
+    subject. 44 pages. Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.)
+
+    =Field Notes on Apple Culture.= 90 pages, 19 illustrations. Cloth,
+    75 cents.
+
+    =Talks Afield=: About plants and the science of plants. 173 pages,
+    100 illustrations. Cloth, $1.
+
+  COPYRIGHTED 1893,
+  BY L. H. BAILEY.
+
+  ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY
+  J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+                   Pages
+
+  Introduction      9-11
+
+  Pruning      11-24
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+  Preliminary Preparations for Training--The Trellis--Tying      25-33
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+  The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System. High Renewal. Fan
+    Training)      34-55
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+  The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin. Modifications of
+    the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two-Cane Kniffin or Umbrella System. The
+    Low or One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Overhead, or Arbor
+    Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System. Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System)
+    56-82
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+  Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post Training. Arbors.
+    Remodeling Old Vines)      83-92
+
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                     PAGE
+
+   1. Grape Shoot      12
+
+   2. The Bearing Wood      13
+
+   3. Diagram      15
+
+   4. Spur      18
+
+   5. Renewal Pruning      19
+
+   6. A Newly Set Vineyard      21
+
+   7. Horizontal Arm Spur Training      35
+
+   8. Horizontal Arm (Diagram)      36
+
+   9. Short Arm Spur Training      38
+
+  10. The Second Season of Upright Training      40
+
+  11. Making the T-Head      42
+
+  12. The Third Season of High Renewal      43
+
+  13. High Renewal, before Pruning      44
+
+  14. High Renewal, Pruned      45
+
+  15. High Renewal, Pruned and Tied      46
+
+  16. High Renewal with Four Canes      47
+
+  17. High Renewal Complete      48
+
+  18. A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training      51
+
+  19. Fan Training, after Pruning      55
+
+  20. William Kniffin      57
+
+  21. The True Kniffin Training      59
+
+  22. No. 21, when Pruned      60
+
+  23. A Poor Type of Kniffin      64
+
+  24. The Y-Trunk Kniffin      65
+
+  25. Umbrella Training      67
+
+  26. A Poor Umbrella System      68
+
+  27. Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram)      70
+
+  28. Overhead Kniffin      71
+
+  29. Overhead Kniffin      72
+
+  30. Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning      73
+
+  31. Cross-Wire Training      75
+
+  32. Cross-Wire Training, Outside View      76
+
+  33. Munson Training. End View      78
+
+  34. Munson Training. Side View      79
+
+  35. Horizontal Training      83
+
+  36. Low Post Training      86
+
+  37. A Yearling Graft      91
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This little book has grown out of an attempt to teach the principles and
+methods of grape training to college students. I have found such
+teaching to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is
+impossible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. The student
+must apprehend the principles slowly and by his own effort. He must have
+time to thoroughly assimilate them before he attempts to apply them. I
+therefore cast about for books which I could put before my class, but I
+at once found that there are very few succinct accounts of the subjects
+of grape pruning and training, and that none of our books portray the
+methods which are most largely practised in the large grape regions of
+the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my own notes into
+shape for print, and this I have now done. And inasmuch as all
+grape-growers are students, I hope that the simple account will find a
+use beyond the classroom.
+
+This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at first astonished me,
+but is not strange after all. It must be remembered that the cultivation
+of the native grape is of very recent origin. There are many men who can
+remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom occurs to the
+younger generation, which is familiar with the great vineyards in many
+states, that the Concord is yet scarcely forty years old, and that all
+grape growing in eastern America is yet in an experimental stage.
+Progress has been so rapid in recent years that the new methods outstrip
+the books. The old horizontal arm spur system, which is still the chief
+method in the books, has evolved itself into a high renewal training,
+which is widely used but which has not found its way into the manuals.
+The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period of incubation, and is now
+taking an assured place in vineyard management. So two great types,
+opposed in method, are now contending for supremacy, and they will
+probably form the basis of all future developments. This evolution of
+American grape training is one of the most unique and signal
+developments of our modern horticulture, and its very recent departure
+from the early doubts and trials is a fresh illustration of the youth
+and virility of all horticultural pursuits in North America.
+
+This development of our grape training should form the subject of a
+historical inquiry. I have not attempted such in this little hand-book.
+I have omitted all reference to the many early methods, which were in
+most cases transportations or modifications of European practices, for
+their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion here would
+only confuse the reader. I have attempted nothing more than a plain
+account of the methods now in use; in fact, I am aware that I have not
+accomplished even this much, for there are various methods which I have
+not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly of local use or
+adaptation, and they are usually only modifications of the main types
+here explained. It is impossible to describe all the variations in grape
+training in a book of pocket size; neither is it necessary. Nearly
+every grower who has given grape raising careful attention has
+introduced into his own vineyard some modifications which he thinks are
+of special value to him. There are various curious and instructive old
+books to which the reader can go if he desires to know the history and
+evolution of grape training in America. He will find that we have now
+passed through the long and costly experiment with European systems. And
+we have also outgrown the gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close
+with the expectation of obtaining superior and definite results.
+
+I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in the preparation of
+this book. All the manuscript has been read by three persons--by George
+C. Snow, Penn Yan, N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L.
+C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment Station. Mr. Snow is
+a grower in the lake region of western New York, and employs the High
+Renewal system; Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and
+practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been a student of
+all the systems and has practiced two or three of them in commercial
+plantations. These persons have made many suggestions of which I have
+been glad to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of the
+book is to be attributed.
+
+     L. H. BAILEY,
+
+     ITHACA, N. Y., _Feb. 1, 1893_.
+
+
+
+
+John Adlum, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been the first
+person to systematically undertake the cultivation and amelioration of
+the native grapes. His method of training, as described in 1823, is as
+follows: One shoot is allowed to grow the first year, and this is cut
+back to two buds the first fall. The second year two shoots are allowed
+to grow, and they are tied to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each
+plant, about five or six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back
+to three or four buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are
+spread apart "so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with
+the stem," and are tied to stakes; this season about two shoots are
+allowed to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall
+the outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones
+to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, and
+the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer canes or
+branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches upon either
+side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the stakes, as they
+grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs are tied to a third stake
+set near the root of the vine. The outside branches are to be cut away
+entirely at the end of the fourth year. This is an ingenious renewal
+post system, and it is easy to see how the Horizontal Arm and High
+Renewal systems may have sprung from it.
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION--PRUNING.
+
+
+Pruning and training the grape are perplexed questions, even to those
+who have spent a lifetime in grape growing. The perplexity arises from
+several diverse sources, as the early effort to transplant European
+methods, the fact that many systems present almost equally good results
+for particular purposes and varieties, and the failure to comprehend the
+fundamental principles of the operations.
+
+It is sufficient condemnation of European methods when applied in
+eastern America, to say that the American grapes are distinct species
+from the European grapes, and that they are consequently different in
+habit. This fact does not appear to have been apprehended clearly by the
+early American grape-growers, even after the native varieties had begun
+to gain prominence. American viticulture, aside from that upon the
+Pacific slope which is concerned with the European grape, is an industry
+of very recent development. It was little more than a century ago that
+the first American variety gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the
+first definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir on the Cultivation
+of the Vine in America," to record the merits of native grapes for
+purposes of cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given to a
+discussion of European varieties and practices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit
+Culturist" mentioned only six "American hardy varieties," and all of
+these, save the Catawba, are practically not in cultivation at the
+present time. The Concord appeared in 1853. American grape training is,
+therefore, a very recent development, and we are only now outgrowing the
+influence of the practices early imported from Europe. The first decided
+epoch in the evolution of our grape training was the appearance of
+Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in 1864; for while the system which he
+depicted and which yet often bears his name, was but a modification of
+some European methods and had been outlined by earlier American writers,
+it was at that time placed clearly and cogently before the public and
+became an accepted practice. The fundamental principles of pruning are
+alike for both European and American grapes, but the details of pruning
+and training must be greatly modified for different species. We must
+understand at the outset that American species of grapes demand an
+American system of treatment.
+
+The great diversity of opinion which exists amongst the best grape
+growers concerning the advantages of different systems of training is
+proof that many systems have merit, and that no one system is better
+than others for all purposes. The grower must recognize the fact that
+the most important factor in determining the merits of any system of
+training is the habit of the vine--as its vigor, rate of growth, normal
+size, relative size and abundance of leaves, and season and character of
+fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in habit in some
+particular, and it therefore requires different treatment in some
+important detail. Varieties may thrive equally well upon the same
+general system of training, but require minor modifications; so it comes
+that no hard and fast lines can be laid down, either for any system or
+any variety. One system differs from another in some one main principle
+or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and blend. If two men
+practice the Kniffin system, therefore, this fact does not indicate that
+they prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible to
+construct rules for grape training; it is, therefore, important that we
+understand thoroughly the philosophy of pruning and training, both in
+general and in the different systems which are now most popular. These
+points we shall now consider.
+
+
+PRUNING.
+
+Pruning and training are terms which are often confounded when speaking
+of the grape, but they represent distinct operations. Pruning refers to
+such removal of branches as shall insure better and larger fruit upon
+the remaining portions. Training refers to the disposition of the
+different parts of the vine. It is true that different methods of
+training demand different styles of pruning, but the modification in
+pruning is only such as shall adapt it to the external shape and size of
+the vine, and does not in any way affect the principle upon which it
+rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, there is but one method;
+training is largely a convenience, and there are as many methods as
+there are fancies among grape growers.
+
+[Illustration: 1. GRAPE SHOOT.]
+
+All intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon the fact that _the fruit
+is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoots of the
+season, and which spring from wood of last year's growth_. It may be
+said here that a growing, leafy branch of the grape vine is called a
+_shoot_; a ripened shoot is called a _cane_; a branch or trunk two or
+more years old is called an _arm_. Fig. 1 is a shoot as it appears in
+the northern states in June. The whole shoot has grown within a month,
+from a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and these are to bear
+the grapes. Flowering is now over, but the shoot will continue to grow,
+perhaps to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking time, therefore,
+the grapes all hang near the lower end or base of the shoots or new
+canes, as in fig. 2. Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a
+new cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves. At the close of the
+season, this long ripened shoot or cane has produced a bud every foot or
+less, from which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next year. But
+if all these buds were allowed to remain, the vine would be overtaxed
+with fruit the coming year and the crop would be a failure. The cane is,
+therefore, cut off until it bears only as many buds as experience has
+taught us the vine should carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten
+buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or "rubbed off,"
+next spring if the young growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant
+is weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or three clusters.
+Some shoots will bear no clusters. From one to six of the old canes,
+each bearing from five to ten buds, are left each spring. The number of
+clusters which a vine can carry well depends upon the variety, the age
+and size of the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and
+cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A strong vine of Concord,
+which is a prolific variety, trained upon any of the ordinary systems
+and set nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry from thirty
+to sixty clusters. The clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half pound
+each. Twelve or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or average
+crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty-five pounds is a very heavy
+crop.
+
+[Illustration: 2. THE BEARING WOOD.]
+
+The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is essentially a thinning
+process. In the winter pruning, all the canes of the last season's
+growth are cut away except from two to six, which are left to make the
+fruit and wood of the next year; and each of these remaining canes is
+headed back to from three to ten buds. The number and length of the
+canes which are left after the pruning depend upon the style of training
+which is practiced. A vine which may completely cover a trellis in the
+fall, will be cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the
+plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape,
+unlike the apple, pear and peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in
+the fall, but buds which produce both fruit and wood the following
+season.
+
+[Illustration: 3. DIAGRAM.]
+
+Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have pruned our vine in the fall
+of 1891 to two canes, each bearing ten buds. We will call these canes A
+and B, respectively. (Fig. 3.) In 1892, therefore, twenty shoots grow
+from them, and each of these shoots or new canes branches, or produces
+laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892, A 1, A 2, A 3, B 1, B 2,
+and so on. Each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of
+grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters. These clusters
+stand opposite the leaves, as seen in fig. 1. In the axil of each leaf a
+bud is formed which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in 1893. If
+each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc., produce ten buds--which is a
+moderate number--the vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with 200
+buds for the next year's growth and crop; but these buds should be
+reduced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 1891. That is,
+every year we go back again to the same number of buds, and the top of
+the vine gets no larger from year to year. We must, therefore, cut back
+again to two canes. We cut back each of the original canes, A and B, to
+one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1, cutting off A 2, A 3,
+etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This brings the vine back to very nearly its
+condition in the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1, which are
+now to become the main canes by being bent down horizontally, were borne
+at some distance--say three or four inches--from the base of the
+original canes, A and B, so that the permanent part of the vine is
+constantly lengthening itself. This annually lengthening portion is
+called a _spur_. Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position,
+however, although this diagrammatic sketch illustrates clearly the
+method of their formation. The common method of spurring is that
+connected with the horizontal arm system of training, in which the canes
+A and B are allowed to become permanent arms, and the upright canes, A
+1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds of
+the arms each year. The cane A 1, for instance, is cut back in the fall
+of 1892 to two or three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will grow
+from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one cane is left after the
+pruning, and this one is cut back to two or three buds; and so on. So
+the spur grows higher every year, although every effort is made to keep
+it short, both by reducing the number of buds to one or two and by
+endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few years.
+Fig. 4 shows a short spur of two years' standing. The horizontal portion
+shows the permanent arm. The first upright portion is the remains of the
+first-year cane and the upper portion is the second-year cane after it
+is cut back in the fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one
+fruiting bud, _b_, the small buds, _a a_, being rubbed out. There are
+serious objections to spurs in any position. They become hard and
+comparatively lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace
+them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing portion of the vine is
+constantly receding from the main trunk. The bearing wood should spring
+from near the central portions of the vine, or be kept "near the head,"
+as the grape-growers say. In order to do this, it is customary to allow
+two canes to grow out each year back of the canes A 1 and B 1, or from
+the head of the vine; these canes may be designated C and D. (Fig. 3.)
+These canes, C and D, are grown during 1892--when they may bear fruit
+like other canes--for the sole purpose of forming the basis of the
+bearing top in 1893, while all the old top, A and B, with the secondary
+canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., is cut entirely away. Here, then,
+are two distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the succeeding
+year: either from _spurs_, which are the remains of the previous top; or
+from _renewals_, which are taken each year from the old wood near the
+head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals from the ground are
+now little used, however, for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless
+they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second
+year. It should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods refer
+entirely to pruning, not to training, for either one can be used in any
+system of training. Spur pruning, however, is growing in disfavor
+amongst commercial grape-growers, and the renewal is more or less used
+in all systems of training.
+
+[Illustration: 4. SPUR.]
+
+Fig. 5 illustrates a renewal pruning. This engraving shows the head of a
+vine seven years old, and upon which two canes are allowed to remain
+after each annual pruning. The portion extending from _b_ to _f_ and _d_
+is the base of the bearing cane of 1892. In the winter of 1892-3, this
+cane is cut off at _d_, and the new cane, _e_, is left to make the
+bearing wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from _f_, but it was too weak
+to leave for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The old stub, _b_,
+_f_, _d_, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In the
+meantime, a renewal cane will have grown from the stub _c_, which is
+left for that purpose, and the old cane, _b d_, will be cut off just
+beyond it, between _c_ and _f_. In this way, the bearing wood is kept
+close to the head of the vine. The wound _a_ shows where an old stub
+was cut away this winter, 1892-3, while _b_ shows where one was cut off
+the previous winter. A scar upon the back of the head, which does not
+show in the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two
+years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method of pruning can be kept
+up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs
+short, the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the
+stock or trunk.
+
+[Illustration: 5. RENEWAL PRUNING.]
+
+
+_Pruning Young Vines._--The time required after planting to get the vine
+onto the wires or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when set,
+the variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of training; but,
+as a rule, the training begins the second or third year, previous to
+which time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines are most
+popular for planting, although in the strong varieties, like Concord and
+Niagara, well-grown yearling vines are probably as good, if not better.
+The strong-growing kinds are commonly set from eight to ten feet apart
+in the row, and the rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and other
+small vines may be set closer, although eight feet is preferable. When
+set, the vine is cut back to two or three buds. During the first year,
+the young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the ground at will, as
+seen in fig. 6. In the fall or winter, all the canes but one are cut
+off, and this one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is,
+therefore, no larger at the expiration of a year's growth than it was
+when planted; but in the meantime the plant has become thoroughly
+established in the soil, and the second year's growth should be strong
+enough to form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm. If, however,
+the second year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, and the
+third season's growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, the growth
+of the first year is sometimes carried onto the wires to form the
+permanent trunk and arms, but it is only with extra strong vines in good
+soil that this practice is admissible. From this point, the treatment
+of the vine is discussed under training.
+
+[Illustration: 6. A NEWLY SET VINEYARD.]
+
+
+_When to Prune._--Grape vines may be pruned at any time during the
+winter. It is the practice among most grape-growers in the north to
+prune as time permits from November to late in February, or even early
+March. The sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early
+summer, causing the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in Europe as
+"weeping," and in order to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six
+weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell. It is yet
+a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, but it is a safe
+practice to prune early. The vine is cut off an inch or two beyond the
+last bud which it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to the
+bud from the drying out of the end of the cane.
+
+The pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears. The canes are often
+allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished,
+although it is the practice with most growers who use the Kniffin system
+to cut the strings before pruning. The removal of the severed canes is
+known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves
+the stripping to boys or other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at
+any time after the pruning is performed until spring. It must be done
+before the growth starts on the remaining portions of the vine, however,
+to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off the
+trellis.
+
+
+_Summer Pruning._--There is much discussion as to the advisability of
+summer pruning. It is essential to the understanding of the question
+that the grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is of two
+kinds--the removal or "breaking out" of the superfluous shoots, and
+heading-in or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within limits. The
+superfluous shoots are such as spring from small, weak buds or those
+which break from the old arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start
+from the very base of the old cane are usually weak and should be
+removed. Buds in this position are shown at _a a_, in fig. 4. The
+secondary or axillary branches, which often start from the base of the
+season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. These superfluous
+shoots are pulled off from time to time as they appear, or the buds may
+be rubbed off before the shoots begin to grow.
+
+The heading-in of the main canes, while desirable for the purpose of
+keeping the vine within bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals
+which choke up the vine and which do not mature, and in those styles of
+training in which very little wood is allowed to grow, the practice may
+prevent the development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface to
+properly sustain the vine. Vines are often weakened by summer pruning.
+These dangers can be overcome by careful attention, however, especially
+by heading-in very lightly and by doing it as late in the season as
+possible, when new lateral growth does not start readily. The necessity
+of much heading-in has been largely obviated in late years by the
+adoption of high or drooping systems of training, and by setting the
+vines far apart. The strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and
+Niagara, should be set ten feet apart in the row, especially if grown
+upon the Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very upright grower and
+especially well adapted to upright training, may be set eight feet
+apart, and Delawares are often set as close as six or eight feet. It is
+doubtful, however, if any variety should be set less than eight feet
+apart for trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where the growth
+is large because of the long seasons, vines are often set more than ten
+feet apart. In the South, the rows should run north and south, that the
+fruit may be shaded from midday sun. The only summer heading-in now
+generally recommended is the clipping of the tips when they fall over
+and begin to touch the ground. This clipping is often done with a sickle
+or sharp corn-cutter.
+
+
+_Objects of Pruning._--The objects of pruning the grape, as of other
+fruits, are five:
+
+  1. To produce larger and better fruit.
+
+  2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine.
+
+  3. To keep the vine within manageable limits.
+
+  4. To facilitate cultivation.
+
+  5. To facilitate spraying.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING--THE TRELLIS--TYING.
+
+
+Training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose of keeping the vine
+in convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full amount
+of space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated and
+sprayed, and the grapes are readily harvested, and it is only upon such
+vines that the best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some kind
+of training is essential, for a vine will not often bear good fruit when
+it lies upon the ground. In essence, there are three general types or
+styles of training, which may be designated as the upright, drooping and
+horizontal, these terms designating the direction of the bearing shoots.
+The upright systems carry two or more canes or arms along a low
+horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across a trellis from below
+upwards, and the shoots are tied up as they grow to the wires above. The
+horizontal systems carry up a perpendicular cane or arm, or sometimes
+two or more, from which the shoots are carried out horizontally and are
+tied to perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems, represented
+in the Kniffin and post-training, carry the canes or arms upon a high
+horizontal wire or trellis and allow the shoots to hang without tying.
+To one or another of these types all the systems of American
+grape-training can be referred.
+
+There is no system of training which is best for all purposes and all
+varieties. The strong-growing varieties more readily adapt themselves to
+the high drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although the
+Delaware is often trained on a comparatively low Kniffin with good
+effect. The high or drooping systems are of comparatively recent date,
+and their particular advantages are the saving of labor in summer tying,
+cheapness of the trellis, and the facility with which the ground can be
+cultivated without endangering the branches of the vine. The upright
+training distributes the bearing wood more evenly upon the vine and is
+thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near
+the root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage, and it is
+better suited to the stature of the small-growing varieties. There is,
+perhaps, a greater temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping
+systems than in the others, because the shoots need no tying and do not,
+therefore, demand frequent attention; while in the upright systems the
+shoots soon become broken or displaced if not watched. For very large
+areas, or circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the
+vineyard, the Kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps always to be
+recommended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from diligence and skill as
+the other systems; but it will give better results than the others
+under partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially those making
+long and drooping canes, are well adapted to the Kniffin styles; but the
+smaller sorts, and those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an
+upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon the upright systems.
+But the merits of both systems are so various and even so little
+understood, that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly.
+The advantages in either case are often little more than matters of
+personal opinion. It should be said, however, that the Kniffin or
+drooping systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are evidently
+destined to overthrow much of the older upright training. This fact does
+not indicate, however, that the upright system is to be entirety
+superseded, but rather that it must be confined to those varieties and
+conditions for which it is best adapted. The two systems will
+undoubtedly supplement each other. The horizontal systems are
+occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are little known.
+
+
+_Making the Trellis._--The fall or winter following the planting of the
+vineyard, the trellis is begun if the upright systems are used; but this
+operation is usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems, and
+stakes are commonly used, or at least recommended, during the second
+season. In the South the trellis is made the first year. The style of
+trellis will depend upon the style of training, but the main features
+are the same for all. Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar,
+locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be
+set between each two. If the vines are set nine feet apart, the posts
+maybe eighteen or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand four or
+five feet from each post. If the posts in the row are eighteen feet
+apart and the rows eight feet apart, about 330 posts will be required to
+the acre. Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are driven with
+a heavy maul, although many people prefer to set the end posts in holes,
+thinking that they endure the strain better. In all loose soils,
+however, posts can be made as firm by driving as by setting with a
+spade. All posts should be as firm as possible, in order to hold up the
+heavy loads of vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it is a
+common practice to lean them slightly uphill, for there is always a
+tendency for the posts to tilt down the slope. For the Kniffin systems,
+especially for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must stand six or
+six and one-half feet high when set, but a foot less will usually be
+sufficient for the upright and horizontal systems. The posts should
+stand higher at first than is necessary for the support of the wires,
+for they will need to be driven down occasionally as they become loose.
+The end posts of each row should be well braced, as shown in several of
+the illustrations in this volume.
+
+The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the top wire in the
+Kniffin training, which is usually No. 10, as the greater part of the
+weight is then upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but it is
+heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally used for the middle and
+upper rows in the upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The
+following figures show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron
+and steel wires:
+
+  No.    Diameter in inches.    Weight of 100 feet.   Feet in 2,000 pounds.
+
+   9             .148              5.80 pounds.              34,483
+  10             .135              4.83    "                 41,408
+  11             .120              3.82    "                 52,356
+  12             .105              2.92    "                 68,493
+  13             .092              2.24    "                 89,286
+  14             .080              1.69    "                118,343
+  15             .072              1.37    "                145,985
+  16             .063              1.05    "                190,476
+
+The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents per pound, and the
+galvanized--which is less used for vineyards--3-1/2 cents. Of No. 12
+wire, about 160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on rows
+eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for three runs. The cost of No.
+12 wire per acre, for three runs, therefore, is about $15.
+
+The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by staples driven in
+firmly so that the wire will not pull through readily of its own weight,
+but still loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In
+other words, the head of the staple should not quite touch the wire.
+Grape staples are of three lengths, about an inch, inch and a quarter,
+and an inch and a half respectively. The shortest length is little
+used. The medium length is used for hard-wood posts and the longest for
+soft posts, like chestnut and cedar. These staples cost five cents per
+pound usually, and a pound of the medium length contains from 90 to 100
+of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, for three wires, will therefore
+require, for this size, about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy
+regions, the wires should be placed upon the windward side of the posts.
+
+There are various devices for securing the wire to the end posts, but
+the commonest method is to wind them about the post once and secure them
+with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon itself, forming a
+loop. The wires should be drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight
+of fruit and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction of the wires
+in winter, some growers loosen the wires after harvest and others
+provide some device which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Patent
+Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective lever-contrivance attached
+to each wire, and which is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to
+tighten them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided upon the back
+with a square-headed pin which works tightly in an inch and a half augur
+hole and about which the end of the wire is wound. A square-headed iron
+wrench operates the pin, while the tension of the wire around the side
+of the post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is not durable,
+however. An ingenious man can easily contrive some device for relieving
+the tension, if he should think it necessary. As a matter of practice,
+however, the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the burden of fruit
+and vines to take up the winter contraction, and most growers do not
+release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary, in fact, to
+tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts from year to year, as
+they become loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground
+firmly about all the posts every spring. The wires should always be kept
+tight during the growing season to prevent the whipping of the vines by
+wind. This is especially important in white grapes, which are discolored
+by the rubbing of leaves and twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it
+will be necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter.
+
+Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in Fig. 18, but these are
+always less durable than the wire trellises and more expensive to keep
+in repair; and in the older portions of the country, where timber is
+dear, they are also more expensive at the outset. They catch the wind,
+and, not being held together by continuous strands, are likely to blow
+down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning the styles of trellis
+are given in the discussions of the different systems of training.
+
+
+_Tying._--Probably the best material for tying the canes and shoots to
+the trellis is raffia. This is a bast-like material which comes in
+skeins and which can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about 20
+cents a pound. A pound will suffice to tie a quarter of an acre of
+upright training throughout the season. Raffia is obtained from the
+strippings of an oriental palm (_Raphia Ruffia_). Wool-twine is also
+still largely used for tying, but it is not so cheap and handy as
+raffia, and it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the
+winter pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the vine.
+Some complain that the raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine
+during the season, but it can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much
+used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also for summer tying,
+especially in the nursery regions where the slender trimmings of the
+cultivated osier willows are easily procured. Wild willows are often
+used if they can be obtained handily. These willows are tied up in a
+small bundle, which is held upon the back above the hips by a cord
+passed about the body. The butts project under the right hand, if the
+person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled out as needed. The
+butt is first used, the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand
+is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated in like manner
+until it is used up. When wool-twine is used, the ball is often held in
+front of the workman by a cord which is tied about it and then passed
+about the waist. The ball is unwound from the inside, and it will hold
+its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag upon
+the ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, after the manner of
+carrying seed-corn. Raffia is not so easily carried in the field as the
+wool-twine or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity.
+Green rye-straw, cut directly from the field, is much used for tying the
+shoots in summer. Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire,
+is used occasionally for tying up the canes in spring, but it must be
+used with care or it will injure the vine. Corn-husks are also employed
+for this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark is sometimes used
+for tying, but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to secure,
+and it has no advantage over raffia.
+
+It is very important that the canes be tied up early in spring, for the
+buds are easily broken after they begin to swell. These canes are tied
+rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the growing shoots,
+which are tied during the summer, are fastened more loosely, to allow of
+the necessary increase in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS.
+
+
+The upright systems are the oldest and best known of the styles of
+American grape training. They consist, essentially, in carrying out two
+horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low wire and training the
+shoots from them vertically upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper
+wires as they grow. This type was first clearly and forcibly described
+in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it
+became known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced many years
+previous to this time.
+
+
+_Horizontal Arm Spur System._--There are two types or styles of this
+upright system. The older type and the one described in the books, is
+known as the Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, the two
+horizontal branches are permanent, or, in other words, they are true
+arms. The canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms,
+as explained on page 15 (fig. 4.) Two shoots are often allowed to grow
+from each of these spurs, as shown in fig. 7. These spurs become
+overgrown and weak after a few years, and they are renewed from new
+shoots which spring from near their base or from the arm itself.
+Sometimes the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine, or even
+from the ground.
+
+[Illustration: 7. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR TRAINING.]
+
+The number of these upright canes and their distance apart upon these
+permanent arms depend upon the variety, the strength of the vine and
+soil and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to twenty inches apart
+upon the arm is the common distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry
+five canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the canes are
+distributed at intervals of about twenty inches. Some very strong vines
+of vigorous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms
+together, and in this case the canes stand about a foot apart. In the
+fall or winter, the cane is cut away and the strongest new cane which
+springs from its base is left for the bearing wood of the following
+year. This new cane is itself headed in to the height of the trellis;
+that is, if the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34 inches apart--as
+they are in the Brocton vineyards of western New York, where this system
+is largely used--this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches long. Upon
+this length of cane there will be about seven good buds in the common
+varieties.
+
+[Illustration: 8. HORIZONTAL ARM. (Diagram.)]
+
+A modification of this horizontal arm system is shown in fig. 9. It is
+used about Forestville, in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in this
+case are very short, and canes are taken out only at two or three
+places. The picture shows a vine in which two canes are taken from the
+end of each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of the vine.
+These canes are cut back to spurs in the fall, as explained in the above
+paragraph. Sometimes one or two other canes are taken out of these arms
+nearer the main trunk. The advantages urged for this style of training
+are the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes, and the small
+amount of old or permanent wood which is left to each vine.
+
+[Illustration: 9. SHORT ARM SPUR TRAINING.]
+
+The horizontal arm training is less popular than it was twenty years
+ago. It has serious faults, especially in the persistence of the old
+spurs, and probably will eventually give place to other systems. Aside
+from the spur pruning, the system is much like the following, which is a
+modification to allow of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is
+referred for further details. This modification, which may be called the
+High Renewal, and which is one of the most serviceable of any of the
+styles of training, although it has never been fully described, we shall
+now consider.
+
+
+_The High Renewal_, or upright training which is now very extensively
+employed in the lake regions of New York and elsewhere, starts the head
+or branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches from the ground.
+The ideal height for most varieties is probably about two feet to the
+first wire, although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If the vines
+are lower than two feet, they are liable to be injured by the plow or
+cultivator, the earth is dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and
+if the shoots become loose they strike the ground and the grapes are
+soon soiled. A single trunk or arm is carried up to the required height,
+or if good branches happen to form lower down, two main canes are
+carried from this point up to the required distance to meet the lower
+wire, so that the trunk becomes Y-shaped, as seen in figs. 10, 16 and
+17. In fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or crotch a
+few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate the spreading and
+placing of the canes. The trellis for the upright systems nearly always
+comprises three wires, although only two are sometimes used for the
+smaller growing varieties, and very rarely four are used for the
+strongest kinds, although this number is unnecessary. The lowest wire is
+stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty inches from the ground, and
+the two upper ones are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches
+apart.
+
+[Illustration: 10. THE SECOND SEASON OF UPRIGHT TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 11. MAKING THE T-HEAD.]
+
+The second season after planting should see the vine tied to the first
+wire. Fig. 10 is a photograph taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine
+which was set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the vine was
+cut back to three or four buds, and in the spring of 1892 two of these
+buds were allowed to make canes. These two canes are now tied to the
+wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892. In this case, the
+branches start near the surface of the ground. Sometimes only a single
+strong shoot grows, and in order to secure the two branches it is broken
+over where it passes the wire, and is usually tied to a stake to afford
+support. Fig. 11 shows this operation. A bud will develop at the bend or
+break, from which a cane can be trained in the opposite direction from
+the original portion, and the T-head is secured.
+
+[Illustration: 12. THE THIRD SEASON OF HIGH RENEWAL.--CONCORD.]
+
+[Illustration: 13. HIGH RENEWAL, BEFORE PRUNING.--CATAWBA.]
+
+The close of the second season after planting, therefore, will usually
+find the vine with two good canes extending in opposite directions and
+tied to the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in cutting off
+the ends of these canes back to firm and strong wood, which will leave
+them bearing from five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will grow
+upright from these buds and will be tied to the second wire, which has
+now been supplied. Late in the third season the vine should have much
+the appearance of that shown in fig. 12. The third wire is usually added
+to the trellis at the close of the second season, at the same time that
+the second wire is put on; but occasionally this is delayed until the
+close of the third season. Some of the upright shoots may bear a few
+grapes this third season, but unless the vines are very strong the
+flower clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old vine should
+never be allowed to bear heavily. It must be remembered, however, that
+both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of herbage, are to be
+cut away in the fall or winter of the third year. Some provision must
+have been made, therefore, for the top for the fourth year. It will be
+recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning (page 16, fig. 5), it
+was found that two or more shoots are allowed to grow each year to form
+the basis of the top the following year. In fig. 12 three or four such
+shoots can be seen springing from the Y-shaped portion in the center of
+the vine. These shoots or canes are to be bent down to the lowest wire
+next spring, and the bearing shoots will arise from them. This process
+will be seen at a glance from figs. 13, 14 and 15. The first shows a
+full grown old vine, trained on three wires. Fig. 14 shows the same vine
+when pruned. Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are left to
+form the top of the following year. The two stubs from which the renewal
+canes are to grow for the second year's top are seen in the center. In
+the fall of the next year, therefore, these two outside canes will be
+cut away to the base of these renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in
+the meantime, will have made a year's growth. These renewal stubs in
+this picture are really spurs, as will be seen; that is, they contain
+two ages of wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these stubs or
+spurs every two or three years at most, and to bring new canes
+directly from the old wood or head. If possible, the renewal cane is
+brought from a new place on the old wood every year in order to avoid a
+spur. Such was the case in the vine shown in fig. 5, page 19. Fig. 15
+shows the same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two ties have been
+made upon each cane. Fig. 16 shows a vine in which four canes have been
+left to form the top for the following year. The stubs for the renewals
+can be seen in the Y. It is customary to leave more than two canes,
+occasionally, in strong-growing varieties like Concord. Sometimes four
+and occasionally six are left. If four canes are left, two may be tied
+together in each direction upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the
+two extra ones should be tied along the second wire, parallel with the
+lowest ones. These extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across the
+trellis, but this practice should be discouraged, for the usual tendency
+of the vine is to make its greatest growth at the top, and the lower
+buds may fail to bear.
+
+[Illustration: 14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED AND TIED.]
+
+The ideal length of the two canes varies with different varieties and
+the distance apart at which the vines are set. Very strong kinds, like
+Concord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on each cane,
+especially if the vines are set more than eight feet apart. Fig. 17
+shows half of a Concord vine in which about ten buds were left on each
+cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or fifty buds to the vine
+to advantage, but when this number is left the canes should be four, as
+explained in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak-growing
+varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the vine should be the maximum
+and only two canes should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes
+are usually cut to the desired length--four to six feet--even if too
+great a number of buds is left, but the shoots which spring from these
+extra buds are broken out soon after they start. A Delaware vine which
+has made an unusually short or weak growth will require fewer buds to be
+left for next year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety
+which has made a strong growth. The Catawba, which is a short but very
+stiff grower, is usually cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs.
+13, 14 and 15. The grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to the
+character of the vine without effort. He has in his mind a certain ideal
+crop of grapes, perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves enough buds
+to produce this amount, allowing, perhaps, ten per cent. of the buds for
+accidents and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes should always
+be cut back to firm, well-ripened wood. It should be said that mere
+size of cane does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch.
+Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives better results than the
+very large and softer canes which are sometimes produced on soils rich
+in nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown wood is known as a
+"bull cane." A cane does not attain its full growth the first year, but
+will increase in diameter during the second season. The tying therefore,
+should be sufficiently loose or elastic to allow of growth, although it
+should be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane
+should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to it, provision being
+made for the swelling of the wood to twice its diameter.
+
+[Illustration: 16. HIGH RENEWAL WITH FOUR CANES.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. HIGH RENEWAL COMPLETE.--CONCORD.]
+
+The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after they pass it, or have
+attained firmness enough to allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied
+again to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with equal rapidity,
+and the vineyard must be gone over more than twice if the shoots are
+kept properly tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be all
+that is necessary for careful summer tying. Many vineyardists tie only
+once or twice, but this neglect should be discouraged. This tying is
+mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece of straw about ten
+inches long is used for each tie, it usually being wrapped but once
+about the shoot. The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia is
+used, a common string-knot is made. When the shoots reach the top of
+the trellis, they are usually allowed to take care of themselves. The
+Catawba shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and ordinarily need
+no attention. The long-growing varieties will be likely to drag the
+shoots upon the ground before the close of the season. If these tips
+interfere with the cultivation, they may be clipped off with a sickle or
+corn-cutter, although this practice should be delayed as long as
+possible to prevent the growth of laterals (see page 21). It is probably
+better to avoid cutting entirely. Some growers wind or tie the longest
+shoots upon the top wire, as seen in fig. 17. It is probably best, as a
+rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and to clip them only
+when they seriously interfere with the work of the hoe and cultivator.
+The treatment for slat trellises, as shown in fig. 18, is the same as on
+wire trellises, except that longer strings must be used in tying.
+
+[Illustration: 18. A SLAT TRELLIS, WITH UPRIGHT TRAINING.]
+
+It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit in the High Renewal is
+borne between the first and second wires, at the bottom of the trellis.
+If the lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this fruit will
+hang at the most convenient height for picking. The fruit trays are set
+upon the ground, and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected
+from the hot suns and from frost; and if the shoots are properly tied,
+the clusters are not shaken roughly by the wind. It is, of course,
+desirable that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light and
+air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore, be pulled off, as
+already explained (page 21). In rare cases it may also be necessary, for
+this purpose, to prune the canes which droop over from the top of the
+trellis.
+
+After a few years, the old top or head of the vine becomes more or less
+weak and it should be renewed from the root. The thrifty vineyardist
+anticipates this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty shoot
+which may spring from the ground to remain. This shoot is treated very
+much like a young vine, and the head is formed during the second year
+(page 16, bottom). If it should make a strong growth during the first
+year and develop stout laterals, it may be cut back only to the lowest
+wire the first fall; but in other cases, it should be cut back to two or
+three buds, from one of which a strong and permanent shoot is taken the
+second year. When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk is cut
+off at the surface of the ground, or below if possible. A top will
+retain its vigor for six or eight years under ordinary treatment, and
+sometimes much longer. These tops are renewed from time to time as
+occasion permits or demands, and any vineyard which has been bearing a
+number of years will nearly always have a few vines in process of
+renewal. The reader should not receive the impression, however, that the
+life or vitality of a vine is necessarily limited. Vines often continue
+to bear for twenty years or more without renewal; but the head after a
+time comes to be large and rough and crooked, and often weakened by
+scars, and better results are likely to be obtained if a new, clean vine
+takes its place.
+
+The High Renewal is extensively used in the lake region of Western New
+York, for all varieties. It is particularly well adapted to Delaware,
+Catawba, and other weak or short varieties. When systematically pursued,
+it gives fruit of the highest excellence. This High Renewal training,
+like all the low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid down
+easily in winter, which is an important consideration in many parts of
+Canada and in the colder northern states.
+
+
+_Fan Training._--A system much used a few years ago and still sometimes
+seen, is one which renews back nearly to the ground each year, and
+carries the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This system has
+the advantages of dispensing with much of the old wood, or trunk, and
+facilitating laying down the vine in winter in cold climates. On the
+other hand, it has the disadvantages of bearing the fruit too
+low--unless the lower clusters are removed--and making a vine of
+inconvenient shape for tying. It is little used at present. Fig. 19
+shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is by no means an
+ideal vine. This vine has not been properly renewed, but bears long,
+crooked spurs, from which the canes spring. One of these spurs will be
+seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The spurs should be kept very
+short, and they should be entirely removed every two or three years, as
+explained in the above discussion of the High Renewal training.
+
+The shoots are allowed to take their natural course, being tied to any
+wire near which they chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire.
+Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally to the wires,
+and this is probably the better practice. Two canes may be tied in each
+direction on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be tied down to
+the second wire. In either case, the vine is essentially like the High
+Renewal, except that the trunk is shorter.
+
+[Illustration: 19. FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE DROOPING SYSTEMS.
+
+
+In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard in the Hudson River
+Valley. A neighbor, William Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres
+of land to which he devoted his attention during the leisure seasons of
+his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to plant a few grapes. He planted the
+Isabella, and succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation was
+increased into a respectable vineyard and Kniffin came to be regarded as
+a local authority upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days in
+commercial grape growing in North America, and there were no undisputed
+maxims of cultivation and training. If any system of close training and
+pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal arm spur
+system, or something like it. One day a large limb broke from an
+apple-tree and fell upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes and
+crushing the vine into a singular shape. The vine was thought to be
+ruined, but it was left until the fruit could be gathered. But as the
+fruit matured, its large size and handsome appearance attracted
+attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard! Mr. Kniffin was an
+observant man, and he inquired into the cause of the excellent fruit.
+He noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the best canes stood
+out horizontally. From this suggestion he developed the four-cane system
+of training which now bears his name. A year or two later, in 1854, the
+system had attracted the attention of those of his neighbors who
+cultivated grapes, and thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson
+valley, where it is to-day, with various modifications, the chief method
+of grape training. Its merits have become known beyond its original
+valley, and it is now spreading more rapidly than any other system. The
+ground upon which the old Isabellas grew is now occupied by Concords,
+which are as vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer soils.
+William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale, Ulster county, New
+York, June 13, 1876, at fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a
+photograph which was taken two or three years before his death.
+
+[Illustration: 20. WILLIAM KNIFFIN.]
+
+
+_The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System._--Figure 21 shows the true
+Kniffin system, very nearly as practiced by its originator. A single
+stem or trunk is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are
+taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr. Kniffin believed in short
+canes, and cut them back to about six buds on both wires. But most
+growers now prefer to leave the upper canes longer than the lower ones,
+as seen in illustration. The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will,
+so that no summer tying is necessary; this is the distinguishing mark of
+the various Kniffin systems. The main trunk is tied to each wire, and
+the canes are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses the
+great advantage, therefore, of requiring little labor during the busy
+days of the growing season; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if
+the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or other bush-fruits can
+be grown between. The system is especially adapted to the strong
+varieties of grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of different
+systems of training, the reader should consult Chapter II.
+
+[Illustration: 21. THE TRUE KNIFFIN TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNED.]
+
+The pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in cutting off all the wood
+save a single cane from each spur. Fig. 22 illustrates the process. This
+is the same vine which is shown with the full amount of wood on in fig.
+21. The drooping shoots shown in that illustration bore the grapes of
+1892; and now, in the winter of 1892-93, they are all to be cut away,
+with the horizontal old canes from which they grew, save only the four
+canes which hang nearest the main trunk. Fig. 22 shows the vine after it
+had been pruned. It is not obligatory that the canes which are left
+after the pruning should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen
+that these may be weak; but, other things being equal, these canes are
+preferable because their selection keeps the old spurs short. The
+careful grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots which start
+from this point, in order that a strong cane may be obtained. It is
+desirable that these side spurs be removed entirely every three or four
+years, a new cane being brought out again from the main body or trunk.
+There is little expectation, however, that there shall be such a
+complete renewal pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal, which we
+discussed in the last chapter.
+
+It will be seen that the drooping canes in fig. 22 are shorter than they
+were originally, as shown in fig. 21. They have been cut back. The
+length at which these canes shall be left is a moot point. Much depends
+upon the variety, the distance between the wires, the strength of the
+soil, and other factors. Nearly all growers now agree that the upper
+canes should be longer than the lower ones, although equal canes are
+still used in some places. In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the
+upper canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower ones five. This
+gives thirty buds to the vine. Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds
+above and only four below.
+
+These four pruned canes are generally allowed to hang during winter, but
+are tied onto the wires before the buds swell in spring. They are
+stretched out horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two ties
+upon each cane. The shoots which spring from these horizontal canes
+stand upright or oblique at first but they soon fall over with the
+weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the ground, the ends may be
+clipped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not
+always done, and is not necessary unless the canes interfere with
+cultivation. There is no summer-pinching nor pruning, although the
+superfluous shoots should be broken out, as in other systems. (See page
+23).
+
+Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. The end posts are
+usually set in holes, rather than driven, to render them solid, and they
+should always be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven, and
+they usually stand between every alternate vine, or twenty feet apart if
+the vines are ten feet apart--which is a common distance for the most
+vigorous varieties. For the strong-growing varieties, the top wire is
+placed from five and one-half to six feet above the ground. Five feet
+nine inches is a popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to
+bring the height to six feet, although it is best to "tap" the posts
+every spring with a maul in order to drive them back and make them firm.
+The lower wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet. Delawares,
+if trained Kniffin, should not stand above five feet four inches, or at
+most five feet six inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto
+the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner practice,
+perhaps, to stake them the second season, as already explained (page
+27), and put them on the wires the third season. The year following the
+tying to the trellis, the vine should bear a partial crop. The vine is
+usually carried directly to the top wire the first season of training,
+although it is the practice of some growers, especially outside the
+Hudson valley, to stop the trunk at the lower wire the first year of
+permanent training, and to carry it to the top wire the following year.
+
+Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully as high and perhaps
+higher than from other species of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange
+county, New York, has had an annual average of twenty-six pounds of
+Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550 vines being considered in the
+calculation. While the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin
+system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be trained in this
+manner with success, as the following average yields obtained by Mr.
+Barns from 200 vines set in 1881 will show:
+
+  1886            8-1/2  pounds to the vine.
+  1887           11-3/4     "    "  "    "
+  1888            8         "    "  "    "
+  1889            9-1/2     "    "  "    "
+  1890            7         "    "  "    "
+  1891           16         "    "  "    "
+  1892           13         "    "  "    "
+
+
+_Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin._--Various modifications of this
+original four-cane Kniffin are in use. The Kniffin idea is often
+carelessly applied to a rack trellis. In such cases, several canes were
+allowed to grow where only two should have been left. Fig. 23 is a
+common but poor style of Kniffin used in some of the large new
+vineyards of western New York. It differs from the type in the training
+of the young wood. These shoots, instead of being allowed to hang at
+will, are carried out horizontally and either tied to the wire or
+twisted around it. The advantage urged for this modification is the
+little injury done by wind, but, as a matter of practice, it affords
+less protection than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the
+shoots from the upper cane soon cling to the lower wire, and the shoots
+from both tiers of canes protect each other below the lower wire. There
+are three serious disadvantages to this holding up of the shoots,--it
+makes unnecessary labor, the canes are likely to make wood or "bull
+canes" (see page 50) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is bunched
+together on the vines.
+
+[Illustration: 23. A POOR TYPE OF KNIFFIN.]
+
+Another common modification of the four-cane Kniffin is that shown in
+fig. 24, in which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk. This crotch is
+used in the belief that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily
+deflected into the lower arms than by the system of side spurring on a
+straight or continuous trunk. This is probably a fallacy, and may have
+arisen from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the lower wire as on
+the upper one. Nevertheless, this modification is in common use in
+western New York and elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: 24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN.]
+
+If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds on both wires, the
+Double Kniffin will probably be found most satisfactory. Two distinct
+trunks are brought from the root, each supplying a single wire only. The
+trunks are tied together to hold them in place. This system, under the
+name of Improved Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted
+portions of the Hudson valley.
+
+
+_The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System._--Inasmuch as the greater
+part of the fruit in the Four-Cane Kniffin is born upon the upper wire,
+the question arises if it would not be better to dispense with the
+lower canes and cut the upper ones longer. This is now done to a
+considerable extent, especially in the Hudson valley. Fig. 25 explains
+the operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk is tied to the lower
+wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing from nine to fifteen
+buds, are left upon the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper
+wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the lower wire, where
+the ends are tied. In some instances, the lower wire is dispensed with,
+but this is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place against the
+winds and prevents the too violent whipping of the hanging shoots.
+During the growing season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs in
+exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Kniffin. This species of
+training reduces the amount of leaf-surface to a minimum, and every
+precaution must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth. This system
+of training will probably not allow of the successful girdling of the
+vine for the purpose of hastening the maturity and augmenting the size
+of the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from it, if liberal
+fertilizing and good cultivation are employed, and the fruit is nearly
+always first-class. A Concord vine trained in this manner produced in
+1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing forty pounds.
+
+[Illustration: 25. UMBRELLA TRAINING.]
+
+Another type of Umbrella training is shown in fig. 26, before pruning.
+Here five main canes were allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in
+very strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably never so
+good as the other (fig. 25), if the highest results are desired; but for
+the grower who does not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a
+safer system than the other.
+
+[Illustration: 26. A POOR UMBRELLA SYSTEM.]
+
+
+_The Low, or One-Wire Kniffin._--A modification of this Umbrella system
+is sometimes used, in which the trellis is only three or four feet high
+and comprises but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen buds is tied
+out in each direction, and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially
+the same manner as in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages
+urged for this system are the protection of the grapes from wind, the
+large size of the fruit due to the small amount of bearing wood, the
+ease of laying down the vines, the readiness with which the top can be
+renewed from the root as occasion demands, and the cheapness of the
+trellis.
+
+
+_The Six-Cane Kniffin._--There are many old vineyards in eastern New
+York which are trained upon a six-cane or three-wire system. The general
+pruning and management of these vines do not differ from that of the
+common Kniffin. Very strong varieties which can carry an abundance of
+wood, may be profitable upon this style of training, but it cannot be
+recommended. A Concord vineyard over thirty years old, comprising 295
+vines, trained in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive. Twice
+it has produced crops of six tons.
+
+[Illustration: 27. EIGHT-CANE KNIFFIN. (Diagram.)]
+
+
+_Eight-Cane Kniffin._--Eight and even ten canes are sometimes left upon
+a single trunk, and are trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely,
+as shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 27). Unless these canes are
+cut back to four or five buds each, the vine carries too much wood and
+fruit. This system allows of close planting, but the trellis is too
+expensive. The trunk soon becomes overgrown with spurs, and it is likely
+to become prematurely weak. This style is very rarely used.
+
+[Illustration: 28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.]
+
+[Illustration: 29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.]
+
+
+_Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin._--A curious modification of the Kniffin is
+employed somewhat on the Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at
+Marlboro'. The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead arbor, as
+shown in figs. 28, 29 and 30. The trellis is six feet above the ground,
+and is composed of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane. The
+central wire runs from post to post, and one upon either side is
+attached to the end of a three-foot cross-bar, as represented in fig.
+28. The rows are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve feet
+apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced by a connecting-pole, as in
+fig. 29. The trunk of the vine ends in a T-shaped head, which is well
+displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the foreground in fig. 30.
+From this T-head, five canes are carried out from spurs. It was formerly
+the practice to carry out six canes, one in each direction upon each
+wire, but this was found to supply too much wood. Now two canes are
+carried in one direction and three in the other; and the positions of
+these sets are alternated each year, if possible. The canes which are
+left after the winter pruning are tied along the wires in spring, as in
+the Kniffin, and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief advantage of
+this training is that it allows of the growing of bush-fruits between
+the rows, as seen in fig. 29. It is also said that the clusters hang so
+free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or leaves, and the fruit
+is protected from sun and frost. Every post must be large and firmly
+set, however, adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several styles
+similar to this are in use, one of the best being the Crittenden system,
+of Michigan. In this system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or
+five feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two or three feet
+wide.
+
+[Illustration: 30. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN, BEFORE PRUNING.]
+
+
+_The Cross-Wire System._--Another high Kniffin training, and which is
+also confined to the vicinity of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire,
+represented in figs. 31 and 32. Small posts are set eight feet apart
+each way, and a single wire runs from the top of post to post--six and
+one-half feet from the ground--in each direction, forming a check-row
+system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at the foot of the
+stake, to which the trunk is tied for support. Four canes are taken from
+spurs on the head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating wires.
+These canes are cut to three and one-half or four feet in length, and
+the bearing shoots droop as they grow. Fig. 31 shows this training as it
+appears some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in the season
+the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, and a person standing at a
+distance sees an almost impenetrable mass of herbage, as in fig. 32.
+This system appears to have little merit, and will always remain local
+in application. It possesses the advantage of economy in construction of
+the trellis, for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of the
+rows. The end posts are either braced by a pole or anchored by a wire
+taken from the top and secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet
+beyond, outside the vineyard.
+
+[Illustration: 31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING.]
+
+[Illustration: 32. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. OUTSIDE VIEW.]
+
+
+_Renewal Kniffin._--It is an easy matter to adapt the Kniffin principle
+of free hanging shoots to a true renewal method of pruning. There are a
+few modifications in use in which the wood is annually renewed to near
+the ground. The trellises comprise either two or three wires, and are
+made in the same manner as for the upright systems, as the High Renewal.
+At the annual pruning only one cane is left. This comprises twelve or
+fifteen buds, and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point or
+end of the cane usually being bent downward somewhat, in order to check
+the strong growth from the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this
+cane, and they may be pinched back when they reach the ground. In the
+meantime a strong shoot is taken out from the opposite side of the
+head--which usually stands a foot or less from the ground--to make the
+bearing wood of the next year; and this new cane will be tied in an
+opposite direction on the trellis from the present bearing cane, and the
+next renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of the head, or the
+side from which the present bearing wood sprung; so that the bearing top
+of the vine is alternated in either direction upon the trellis. This
+system, and similar ones, allow of laying down the vines easily in
+winter, and insure excellent fruit because the amount of bearing wood
+is small; but the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands.
+
+
+_The Munson System._--An unique system of training, upon the Kniffin
+principle, has been devised by T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, a
+well-known authority upon grapes. Two posts are set in the same hole,
+their tops diverging. A wire is stretched along the top of these posts
+and a third one is hung between them on cross-wires. The trunk of the
+vine, or its head, is secured to this middle lower wire and the shoots
+lop over the side wires. The growth, therefore, makes a V-shaped or
+trough-like mass of herbage. Fig. 33 is an end view of this trellis,
+showing the short wire connecting the posts and which also holds the
+middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. Fig. 34 is a side view of the
+trellis. The bearing canes, two or four, in number, which are left after
+the annual pruning, are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk
+forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left in fig. 34. A head
+is formed at this place not unlike like that which characterizes the
+High Renewal, for this system also employs renewal pruning. The trellis
+stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright at first, but soon fall
+down and are supported by the side wires. The following account of this
+system of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson:
+
+"After the vines have flowered, the bearing laterals have their tips
+pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets, except to
+rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. Two to four
+shoots, according to strength of vine, are started from the forks or
+crotch and allowed to bear no fruit, but are trained along over the
+lower central wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives, the
+entire bearing cane of the present year, with all its laterals, is cut
+away at a point near where the young renewal shoots have started, and
+these shoots are shortened back, according to strength of vine; some,
+such as Herbemont, being able at four years to fill four shoots six or
+eight feet long with fine fruit, while Delaware could not well carry
+over three or four feet each way of one shoot only. The different
+varieties are set at various distances apart, according as they are
+strong or weak growers.
+
+[Illustration: 33. MUNSON TRAINING. END VIEW.]
+
+"Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the simplest
+form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties
+complete the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work well. The
+trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower wire, along which all
+bearing canes are tied after pruning, and from which the young laterals
+which produce the crop are to spring. These laterals strike the two
+outer wires, soon clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe
+from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the best possible
+position for spraying and gathering, and is still shaded with the canopy
+of leaves. I have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres of
+mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every year.
+
+[Illustration: 34. MUNSON TRAINING. SIDE VIEW.]
+
+"The following advantages are secured by this system:
+
+"1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, which is a canopy to
+shade the roots and body of vine and the fruit, without smothering.
+
+"2. New wood, formed by sap which has never passed through bearing wood,
+is secured for the next crop--a very important matter.
+
+"3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free passage in any
+direction through the vineyard; circulation of air without danger of
+breaking tender shoots; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivation,
+harvesting.
+
+"4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop to suit capacity of
+vine.
+
+"5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly with the nature of
+nearly all our American species far better than short spurs.
+
+"6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being pruned and not tied,
+standing away from posts, can be bent down to one side between the rows,
+and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly raised and tied in
+position.
+
+"7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing trellis material and
+using it again.
+
+"8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard."
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS.
+
+
+_Horizontal Training._--There are very few types of horizontal shoot
+training now in use. The best is probably that shown in fig. 35. This
+particular vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well adapted.
+It will be noticed that this picture represents the end of a trellis,
+and the diagonal stick seen near the ground is a brace for the end post.
+Two wires run from post to post, one about two and one-half feet above
+the ground and the other five and one-half feet high. The posts are set
+at the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The vines are set six
+or eight feet apart, if Delawares. A strong stake is driven in the
+ground behind each vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis when
+set. The permanent trunk or head of the vine stands about a foot high.
+The vine is renewed back to the top of this trunk every year. One cane
+is left at each pruning, which, when tied up to the stake, is as high as
+the trellis. From this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are
+carried out horizontally. About six of these shoots are allowed to grow
+upon either side of the cane. As the shoots grow, they are tied to
+perpendicular slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats do not
+touch the ground. Two slats are provided upon either side, making four
+to a vine. They stand a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang
+free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots grow too long, they are
+pinched in when they have passed the second slat. While these shoots are
+covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out from the head or trunk
+of the vine and, without being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the
+central stake. This shoot is to form the top next year, for all the
+present vine is to be entirely cut away at the winter's pruning. So the
+vine starts every spring with but a single cane.
+
+[Illustration: 35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING.]
+
+Excellent results are obtained from the slender growing varieties by
+this method of training, but it is too expensive in trellis and in labor
+of tying to make it generally practicable. Delaware, however, thrives
+remarkably well when trained in this fashion.
+
+
+_Post Training._--There are various methods of training to posts, all of
+which possess two advantages--the saving of the expense of trellis and
+allowing of cultivation both ways. But they also have grave
+disadvantages, especially in the thickness of the head of foliage which
+harbors rot and mildew and prevents successful spraying, and hinders the
+fruit from coloring and ripening well. These faults are so serious that
+post training is now little used for the American grapes. The saving in
+cost of trellis is not great, for more posts are required to the acre
+than in the trellis systems, and they do not endure long when standing
+alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown upon them.
+
+[Illustration: 36. LOW POST TRAINING.]
+
+There are various methods of pruning for the stake training, but nearly
+all of them agree in pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright arm
+which stands the full height of the vine. There may be one or two sets
+of these spurs. We might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in fig. 22, to
+be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis; in that event,
+the four canes would hang at will, or they might be wrapped about the
+post, the shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. The post
+systems are essentially Kniffin in principle, for the shoots hang free.
+In low styles of post training, the permanent head of the vine may be
+only three or four feet high. This head will have a ring of spurs on it,
+and at the annual pruning three to five canes with from six to ten buds
+each are left. Fig. 36 is a view in such a post vineyard.
+
+The main trunk is usually tied permanently to the post. The canes left
+after pruning are variously disposed. Sometimes they are bent upwards
+and tied to the post above the head of the vine, but they are oftenest
+either wound loosely about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two
+trunks are frequently used to each post, both coming from the ground
+from a common root. These are wound about the post in opposite
+directions, one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured at
+the top by a small nail driven through it, or by a cord, no other tying
+will be necessary. Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances of
+one foot or more apart, and the vines are wrapped about them, but this
+only augments the size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and then
+one sees a careful post training, in which but little wood is left and
+vigorous breaking out of shoots practiced, which gives excellent
+results; but on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The European post
+and stake systems or modifications of them, are yet occasionally
+recommended for American vines, but under general conditions, especially
+in commercial grape growing, they rarely succeed long. One of the latest
+recommendations of any of these types is that of the single pole system
+of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of Iowa, in a little treatise
+published in 1878.
+
+
+_Arbors._--Arbors and bowers are usually formed with little reference to
+pruning and training. The first object is to secure shade and seclusion,
+and these are conditions which may seriously interfere with the
+production of fine grapes. As a rule, too much wood must be allowed to
+grow, and the soil about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair
+results in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes a diligent use of
+the pruning shears. It is usually best to carry one main or permanent
+trunk up to the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk at
+intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left to which the wood is
+renewed each year. If the vines stand six feet apart about the
+arbor--which is a satisfactory distance--one cane three feet long may be
+left on each spur when the pruning is done. The shoots which spring from
+these canes will soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the close of
+the season, this entire cane with its laterals is cut away at the spur,
+and another three-foot cane--which grew during the season--is left in
+its place. This pruning is essentially that of the Kniffin vine in fig.
+22. Imagine this vine, with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid
+upon the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to the slats instead
+of being tied on wires. This same system--running up a long trunk and
+cutting in to side spurs--will apply equally well to tall walls and
+fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly a better plan, so far
+as yield and quality of fruit is concerned, is to renew back nearly to
+the root, bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or three every
+year, and cutting the old ones off; but as the vines are desired for
+shade one does not care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach
+and cover the top of the arbor.
+
+
+_Remodeling Old Vines._--Old and neglected tops can rarely be remodeled
+to advantage. If the vine is still vigorous, it will probably pay to
+grow an entirely new top by taking out a cane from the root. If the old
+top is cut back severely for a year or two, this new cane will make a
+vigorous growth, and it can be treated essentially like a new or young
+vine. If it is very strong and ripens up well, it can be left long
+enough the first fall to make the permanent trunk; but if it is rather
+weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or winter to two or
+three buds, from one of which the permanent trunk is to be grown the
+second season. Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the
+preceding pages for the various systems, will apply to the new vine.
+The old trunk should be cut away as soon as the new one is permanently
+tied to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first or second
+season of the new trunk. Care must be exercised to rub off all sprouts
+which spring from the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut back
+into the ground and covered with earth, better results may be expected.
+Old vines treated in this manner often make good plants, but if the
+vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble will scarcely pay for
+itself.
+
+These old vines can be remodeled easily by means of grafting. Cut off
+the trunk five or six inches below the surface of the ground, leaving an
+inch or two of straight wood above the roots. Into this stub insert two
+cions exactly as for cleft-grafting the apple. Cions of two or three
+buds, of firm wood the size of a lead-pencil, should be inserted. The
+top bud should stand above the ground. The cleft will need no tying nor
+wax, although it is well to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material
+over the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth tightly about
+it. Fig. 37 shows the first year's growth from two cions of Niagara set
+in a Red Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any pruning which is
+done this first year, or the cions may be loosened. If the young shoots
+are tied to a stake there will be less danger from wind and careless
+workmen. In the vine shown in the illustration, no pruning nor rubbing
+out was done, but the vine would have been in better shape for
+training if only one or two shoots had been allowed to grow. Such a vine
+as this can be carried onto the trellis next year; or it may be cut back
+to three or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the permanent
+trunk next year, like a two-year set vine.
+
+[Illustration: 37. A YEARLING GRAFT.]
+
+If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will be best to cut
+back the annual growth heavily at the winter pruning. The amount of wood
+which shall be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant and the
+variety, but three or four canes of six to ten buds each may be left at
+suitable places. During the next season a strong shoot from the base of
+each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form the wood of the
+following season, while all the present cane is cut away at the end of
+the year. So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the regular
+systems of training. Much skill and experience are often required to
+properly rejuvenate an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not
+worth the trouble.
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+               Page
+
+  Adlum, quoted, 10
+
+  Arbor Kniffin, 72
+
+  Arbors, 88
+
+  Arm, defined, 13
+
+
+  Barns, W. D., quoted, 63
+
+  Bass bark, 33
+
+  Bleeding, 22
+
+  Breaking-out, 23
+
+  Brocton, Training at, 37
+
+  Bull cane, 50, 66
+
+
+  Cane, defined, 13
+
+  Chautauqua County, Training in, 37
+
+  Contraction of wires, 30
+
+  Cornell, William T., 56
+
+  Cornhusks, for tying, 33
+
+  Crittenden training, 74
+
+  Cross-wire training, 74
+
+  Crotch Kniffin, 66
+
+
+  Double Kniffin, 66
+
+  Drooping systems, 56
+
+
+  Eight-cane Kniffin, 70
+
+
+  Fan training, 54
+
+  Forestville, Training at, 37
+
+  Four-cane Kniffin, 58
+
+  Fuller, quoted, 10, 34
+
+
+  Girdling, 69
+
+  Grafting, 90
+
+
+  Haviland, Sands, 72
+
+  Heading-in, 23
+
+  High Renewal training, 39
+
+  Hofer, A. F., 88
+
+  Horizontal Arm training, 34
+
+  Horizontal training, 83
+
+  Husks, for tying, 33
+
+
+  Improved Kniffin, 66
+
+
+  Kniffin systems, 58
+
+  Kniffin training, Comparison of, 26
+
+  Kniffin, William, 56
+
+
+  Low Kniffin, 69
+
+
+  Marlboro', Training at, 72, 74
+
+  Modified Kniffin, 63
+
+  Munson training, 78
+
+  Munson, T. V., 78
+
+
+  Objects of pruning, 24
+
+  Old vines, Remodeling of, 89
+
+  One-wire Kniffin, 69
+
+  Overhead Kniffin, 72
+
+
+  Planting, 20
+
+  Posts, 28
+
+  Post training, 85
+
+  Pruning, 11
+
+  Pruning, Objects of, 24
+
+  " of young vines, 20
+
+  " Summer, 23
+
+  " Time for, 22
+
+
+  Raffia, 32
+
+  Raphia Ruffia, 32
+
+  Reasons for pruning, 24
+
+  Remodeling old vines, 89
+
+  Renewal, defined, 18
+
+  Renewal Kniffin, 77
+
+  Rubbing off, 14, 23
+
+  Rye straw for tying, 33
+
+
+  Sagging of wires, 30
+
+  Setting, 20
+
+  Shoot, defined, 13
+
+  Six-cane Kniffin, 70
+
+  Spur, defined, 17
+
+  Spur training, 34
+
+  Staples, 29
+
+  Stopping, 23
+
+  Stripping, 22
+
+  Summer pruning, 23
+
+  Superfluous shoots, 23
+
+  Systems compared, 25
+
+
+  T-head, 41
+
+  Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted, 10
+
+  Tightening wires, 31
+
+  Trellis, Making, 27
+
+  True Kniffin, 58
+
+  Twine for tying, 32
+
+  Two-cane Kniffin, 66
+
+  Tying, 31
+
+
+  Umbrella training, 66
+
+  Upright training, 34
+
+
+  Walls, Training on, 89
+
+  Weeping, 22
+
+  Willows, for tying, 32
+
+  Wire, for trellis, 28
+
+  " for tying, 33
+
+  " weights and sizes, 29
+
+  Wool-twine, 32
+
+
+  Y-trunk Kniffin, 66
+
+  Yeoman's patent trellis, 30
+
+  Yields of grapes, 14, 63, 69, 70
+
+  Young vines, Pruning of, 20
+
+[Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}]
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=THIS ILLUSTRATION= was made from a photograph of fair
+samples of the different grades of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth
+their natural size.
+
+We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish _strong_,
+_fibrous-rooted_ stock, so well appreciated by intelligent and
+experienced fruit growers.
+
+WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE.
+
+LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y.,
+
+Grape Vine Specialist And General Nurseryman.
+
+When writing name this book.
+
+
+
+
+Hardy
+
+Native
+
+Grapes.
+
+
+We desire to call the attention of planters to our large and complete
+stock of Grape Vines.
+
+We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty varieties, embracing
+the popular old sorts as well as the new ones which seem to have merit.
+Our catalogue contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the
+different varieties according to color.
+
+Besides the above we offer an immense collection of all kinds of Fruit
+and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General
+Catalogue (160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings of the most
+popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in an illuminated cover, will
+be mailed free to all who have not received it.
+
+Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare and Choice Trees, Shrubs,
+etc., including several valuable novelties and many specialties of
+superior merit, will also be mailed free.
+
+ELLWANGER & BARRY,
+
+      Mount Hope Nurseries,
+
+53rd Year.     ROCHESTER, N. Y.
+
+
+
+
+Pleasant Valley Nurseries
+
+PEAR TREES.--Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka, Japan Golden Russet,
+Kieffer, LeConte, etc., Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of all sorts.
+Ornamentals, Eleagnus Longipes, Japanese Wineberry Juneberry, Trifoliate
+Orange and other valued novelties.
+
+[Illustration: FRUIT TREES! BERRY PLANTS!]
+
+STRAWBERRIES, Van Deman, E. P. Roe, and other new varieties; all the old
+standard sorts, Gooseberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Currants,
+Asparagus Roots and Grape Vines.
+
+J. S. COLLINS & SON, Moorestown, N. J.
+
+Send for Catalogue.
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS BOOKS.
+
+For the Farm and Household.
+
+Any one of these valuable books will be sent, postpaid, direct, on
+receipt of price.
+
+Be careful to write name and post office plain, so that there may be no
+mistake in mailing.
+
+Address
+
+_The Rural Publishing Co., New York._
+
+POPULAR ERRORS ABOUT PLANTS.--By A. A. CROZIER. A collection of errors
+and superstitions entertained by farmers, gardeners and others, together
+with brief scientific refutations. Highly interesting to students and
+intelligent readers of the new and attractive in rural literature, and
+of real value to practical cultivators who want to know the truth about
+their work.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+THE NURSERY BOOK.--By L. H. BAILEY. A complete handbook of Propagation
+and Pollination of Plants. _Profusely illustrated._ This valuable little
+manual has been compiled with great pains. The author has had unusual
+facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many experts. The
+book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has nothing to
+do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant growth. It
+simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a seed, makes
+a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It is
+entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107, and
+are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats all kinds
+of cultivated plants, fruits, vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy
+herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest trees.
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+I.--SEEDAGE. On Propagation by Seed.
+
+II.--SEPARATION.
+
+III.--LAYERAGE. Propagation by Layering.
+
+IV.--CUTTAGE. Propagation by Cuttings.
+
+V.--GRAFTAGE.--Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc.
+
+VI.--NURSERY LIST.--This is the great feature of the book. It is an
+alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling
+which of the operations described in the first five chapters are
+employed in propagating them. _Over 2,000 entries_ are made in the list.
+The following entries will give an idea of the method:
+
+=Acer= (MAPLE). _Sapindaceae._ Stocks are grown from stratified seeds,
+which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as _A.
+dasycarpum_, come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some
+cultural varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by
+grafting. Varieties of native species are worked upon common or native
+stocks. The Japanese sorts are winter-worked upon imported _A.
+polymorphum_ stocks, either by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also
+be budded in summer, and they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe
+and soft wood.
+
+=Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus= (LEAF CACTUS). _Cacteae._ Fresh
+seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained, and
+apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, remove to a
+light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six inches in
+length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about 60 deg., and
+apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cuttings are
+very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before
+planting.
+
+VII.--POLLINATION.
+
+Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper,
+narrow margins, 50 cents.
+
+
+THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.--By A. A. CROZIER. An essay on
+the influence of climate upon size, form, color, fruitfulness, etc.,
+with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp.
+
+Price, paper, 25 cents.
+
+
+FRUIT CULTURE, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country Home.--By
+W. C. STRONG, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
+and Vice-President of the American Pomological Society. Illustrated. New
+revised edition, with many additions, making it the latest and freshest
+book on the subject.
+
+CONTENTS:
+
+Rural Homes--Choice of Locality--Treatment--A Good Lawn--The Approach.
+Fruits--Location of the Fruit Garden--Success in Fruit-Culture--Profit
+in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees--Quality--How to Plant--Time to
+Plant--Preparing the Land--Fertilizers--Cutting Back--Distances for
+Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden--Irrigation--Application of
+Fertilizers--Thinning the Fruit--Labels. The Apple--Insects Injurious to
+the Apple. The Pear--Dwarf Pears--Situation and Soil--Pruning--Ripening
+the Fruit--Insects Injurious to the Pear--Diseases. The Peach--Injurious
+Insects and Diseases of the Peach--Nectarines. The Plum--Insects and
+Diseases of the Plum--Apricots. The Cherry--Insects Injurious to the
+Cherry. The Quince--Insects Injurious to the Quince. The
+Grape--Grape-Houses--Varieties--Insects Injurious to the Grape--Mildew.
+The Currant--Insects Attacking the Currant--The Gooseberry. The
+Raspberry--The Blackberry. The Strawberry. The Mulberry--The
+Fig--Rhubarb--Asparagus. Propagating Fruit-Trees--From the Seed--By
+Division--By Cuttings--By Layers--By Budding--By Grafting.
+Insecticides--Fungicides--Recipes. Price, in one volume, 16mo., cloth,
+$1.
+
+
+CHRYSANTHEMUM CULTURE FOR AMERICA.--By JAMES MORTON. An excellent and
+thorough book; especially adapted to the culture of Chrysanthemums in
+America. The contents include Propagation by Grafting. Inarching and
+Seed. American History. Propagation by Cuttings. Exhibition Plants.
+Classification. Exhibition Blooms. Soil for Potting. Watering and Liquid
+Manure. Selection of Plants. Top-Dressing. Hints on Exhibitions. List of
+Synonyms. Staking and Tying. General Culture. Insects and Diseases.
+Standard Chrysanthemums. Sports and Variations. Disbudding and Thinning.
+Oriental and European History. Calendar of Monthly Operations.
+Chrysanthemum Shows and Organizations. National Chrysanthemum
+Society. Early and Late-Flowering Varieties. Chrysanthemums as
+House-Plants--Varieties for Various Purposes. Price, cloth, $1; paper,
+60 cents.
+
+
+IMPROVING THE FARM, or Methods of Culture that shall afford a profit,
+and at the same time increase the fertility of the soil.--By LUCIUS D.
+DAVIS, of Conanicut Park Farm. The contents treat exhaustively on
+renewing run-down farms, and comprise the following chapters:
+Book-Farming. The Run-Down Farm. Will It Pay to Improve the Farm? How
+Farms Become Exhausted. Thorough Tillage. Rotation of Crops. Green
+Manuring. More About Clover. Barn-Yard Manure--How Made, Its Cost and
+Value. How Prepared and Applied. The Use of Wood-Ashes. Commercial
+Fertilizers. Special Fertilizers. Complete Manures. Experiments with
+Fertilizers. Stock on the Farm. Providing Food for Stock. Specialties in
+Farming. Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+LANDSCAPE-GARDENING.--By ELIAS A. LONG. A practical treatise comprising
+32 diagrams of actual grounds and parts of grounds, with copious
+explanations. Of the diagrams, all but nine have appeared in the serial,
+"Taste and Tact in Arranging Ornamental Grounds," which has been so
+attractive a feature of _Popular Gardening_ and _American Gardening_
+during the past year. But in the new form the matter has been entirely
+rewritten. Printed on heavy plate paper, it is unsurpassed for beauty by
+any other work on Landscape Gardening.
+
+Price, 50 cents.
+
+
+THE BUSINESS HEN.--Breeding and Feeding Poultry for Profit. The pat
+title of a unique book is The Business Hen. A condensed and, practical
+little encyclopedia of profitable poultry-keeping. P. H. Jacobs, Henry
+Hale, James Rankin, J. H. Drevenstedt and others equally well known have
+written chapters on their specialties, the whole being skillfully
+arranged and carefully edited by H. W. Collingwood, managing editor of
+_The Rural New-Yorker_. Starting with the question, "What is an Egg?"
+the book goes on step by step to indicate the most favorable conditions
+for developing the egg into a "Business Hen." Incubation, care of
+chicks, treatment of diseases, selection and breeding, feeding and
+housing, are all discussed in a clear and simple manner. Two successful
+egg-farms are described in detail. On one of these farms the owner has
+succeeded in developing a flock of 600 hens that average over 200 eggs
+each per year.
+
+Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+FIRST LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE. (_2nd Edition, Revised and Enlarged._)--By
+F. A. Gulley, M. S., Professor of Agriculture in the Agricultural
+College of Mississippi. This book discusses the more important
+principles which underlie agriculture in a plain, simple way, within the
+comprehension of students and readers who have not studied chemistry,
+botany, and other branches of science related to agriculture. It
+supplies a much-needed text-book for common schools, and is useful for
+the practical farmer. Includes all the latest developments in
+agricultural science as applied to the subject.
+
+Price, cloth, $1. Special prices for Schools and Colleges.
+
+
+THE NEW POTATO CULTURE.--By ELBERT S. CARMAN. This book gives the result
+of 15 years' experiment work on The Rural ground. It treats particularly
+of: How to increase the crop without corresponding cost of production.
+Manures and fertilizers: kinds and methods of application. The soil, and
+how to put it in right condition. Depth of planting. How much seed to
+plant. Methods of culture. The Rural trench system. Varieties, etc.,
+etc.
+
+Nothing old or worn-out about this book. It treats of new and profitable
+methods; in fact, of _The NEW Potato Culture_. It is respectfully
+submitted that these experiments at The Rural grounds have, directly and
+indirectly, thrown more light upon the various problems involved in
+successful potato-culture than any other experiments that have been
+carried on in America.
+
+Price, cloth, 75 cents; paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+HORTICULTURIST'S RULE-BOOK.--By Professor L. H. BAILEY, Editor of
+_American Gardening_, Horticulturist of the Cornell Experiment Station,
+and Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University. It contains in
+handy and concise form, a great number of Rules and Recipes required by
+gardeners, fruit-growers, truckers, florists, farmers, etc.
+
+Synopsis of Contents: Injurious insects, with preventives and remedies.
+Fungicides for plant diseases. Plant diseases, with preventives and
+remedies. Injuries from mice, rabbits, birds, etc., with preventives and
+remedies. Waxes and washes for grafting and for wounds. Cements, paints,
+etc. _Seed Tables_: Quantities required for sowing given areas. Weight
+and size of seeds. Longevity of seeds. Time required for seeds to
+germinate. _Planting Tables_: Dates for sowing seeds in different
+latitudes. Tender and hardy vegetables. Distances apart for planting.
+_Maturity and Yields_: Time required for maturity of vegetables; for
+bearing of fruit plants. Average yields of crops. Keeping and storing
+fruits and vegetables. _Propagation of Plants_: Ways of grafting and
+budding. Methods by which fruits are propagated. Stocks used for fruits.
+_Standard Measures and Sizes_: Standard flower-pots. Standard and legal
+measures. English measures for sale of fruits and vegetables. Quantities
+of water held in pipes and tanks. Effect of wind in cooling off glass
+roofs. Per cent. of light reflected from glass at various angles of
+inclination. Weights of various varieties of apples per bushel. Amount
+of various products yielded by given quantities of fruit. Labels.
+Loudon's rules of horticulture. Rules of nomenclature. Rules for
+exhibition. Weather signs and protection from frost. _Collecting and
+Preserving_: How to make an herbarium. Preserving and printing of
+flowers and other parts of plants. Keeping cut-flowers. How to collect
+and preserve insects. Chemical composition of fruits and vegetables, and
+seeds, fertilizers, soils and vegetables. _Names and Histories_:
+Vegetables which have different names in England and America. Derivation
+of names of various fruits and vegetables. Names of fruits and
+vegetables in various languages. Glossary. Calendar.
+
+Price, cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents.
+
+
+CROSS-BREEDING AND HYBRIDIZING:--The Philosophy of the Crossing of
+Plants considered with reference to their Cultivation--How to Improve
+plants by Hybridizing.--By L. H. BAILEY. It is the only book accessible
+to American horticulture which gives the reasons, discouragements,
+possibilities and limitations of Cross-Breeding. Every man who owns a
+plant should have it, if for no other reason than to post himself upon
+one of the leading practices of the day. The pamphlet contains also a
+bibliography of the subject, including over 400 entries.
+
+Price, paper, 40 cents.
+
+
+CHEMICALS AND CLOVER.--By H. W. COLLINGWOOD, Managing Editor of _The
+Rural New-Yorker_. A concise and practical discussion of the
+all-important topic of commercial fertilizers in connection with green
+manuring in bringing up worn-out soils, and in general farm practice.
+
+Price, paper, 20 cents.
+
+
+ANNALS OF HORTICULTURE, Vol. IV.--Bright, New, Clean and Fresh. These
+Annals are entirely rewritten every year. They are the _only records_ of
+the progress in horticulture. Exhaustive lists of all the plants
+introduced in 1892, with descriptions, directories, full accounts of all
+new discoveries, new tools, and a wealth of practical matter for
+_Gardeners_, _Fruit-Growers_, _Florists_, _Vegetable-Gardeners and
+Landscape-Gardeners_, comprise its contents.
+
+Ready soon. Illustrated. Vol. IV., cloth $1. Vols. I., II. and III. at
+the same price.
+
+
+INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES.--A practical Manual concerning Noxious
+Insects and the Methods of Preventing their Injuries. By CLARENCE M.
+WEED, Professor of Entomology and Zoology, New Hampshire State College.
+
+I think that you have gotten together a very useful and valuable little
+book.--DR. C. V. RILEY, _U.S. Entomologist_.
+
+It is excellent. I must congratulate you on the skill you have displayed
+in putting in the most important insects, and the complete manner in
+which you have done the work.--JAMES FLETCHER, _Dominion Entomologist_.
+
+I am well pleased with it. There is certainly a demand for just such a
+work.--DR. F. M. HEXAMER, _Editor American Agriculturist_.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.25.
+
+
+THE CAULIFLOWER.--BY A. A. CROZIER. Teacher and Practical Origin and
+History of this increasingly important and always delicious vegetable.
+
+The Cauliflower Industry.--In Europe. In the United States. Importation
+of Cauliflowers.
+
+Management of the Crop.--Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating.
+Harvesting. Keeping. Marketing.
+
+The Early Crop.--Caution against planting it largely. Special
+directions. Buttoning.
+
+Cauliflower Regions of the United States.--Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake
+Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast.
+
+Insect and Fungous Enemies.--Flea-beetle. Cut-worms. Cabbage-maggot.
+Cabbage-worm. Stem-rot. Damping-off. Black-leg.
+
+Cauliflower Seed.--Importance of careful selection. Where the seed is
+grown. Influence of climate. American-grown seed.
+
+Varieties.--Descriptive catalogue. Order of earliness. Variety tests.
+Best varieties.
+
+Broccoli.--Difference between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation, use
+and varieties of Broccoli.
+
+Cooking Cauliflower.--Digestibility. Nutritive value. Chemical
+composition. Recipes.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+PRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.--A Practical Handbook of Profitable
+Crop-Feeding, written for Practical Men. By T. GREINER.
+
+Part I. The Raw Materials of Plant-Food.
+
+Part II. The Available Sources of Supply.
+
+Part III. Principles of Economic Application, or Manuring for Money.
+
+This work, written in plainest language, is intended to assist the
+farmer in the selection, purchase and application of plant-foods. If you
+wish to learn ways how to save money in procuring manurial substances,
+and how to make money by their proper use, read this book. If you want
+your boy to learn the principle of crop-feeding, and become a successful
+farmer, give him a copy of this book. The cost of the book will be
+returned a hundred-fold to every reader who peruses its pages with care
+and applies its teachings to practice.
+
+Price, cloth, $1.
+
+
+SPRAYING CROPS.--Why, When and How to Do It.--By PROF. CLARENCE M.
+WEED. A handy volume of about 100 pages; illustrated. Covers the whole
+field of the insect and fungous enemies of crops for which the spray is
+used. The following topics are discussed in a concise, practical manner:
+
+Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against
+Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus.
+Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used in
+Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides and
+Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spraying.
+Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock.
+Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spraying
+Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals.
+
+Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents; flexible cloth, 75 cents.
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
+
+Illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph
+break. For the benefit of readers of the text version of this e-book,
+a small description was added to 5 decorative line drawings which have
+no caption or description in the original text. This addition appears
+in parentheses as: "(Drawing of grapes)".
+
+An asterism in the text is represented as: *.*
+
+Inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are
+unchanged in this e-text.
+
+Obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without
+comment.
+
+In addition to obvious errors, the following changes have been made:
+
+   1. On page 87: "arguments" was changed to "augments" in the phrase,
+     "... this only augments the size and depth...."
+
+   2. On page 90: "side" was changed to "size" in the phrase, "...
+     wood the size of a lead-pencil...."
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of American Grape Training, by
+Liberty Hyde (L.H.) Bailey
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING ***
+
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