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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Farm Mechanics
+       Machinery and its Use to Save Hand Labor on the Farm.
+
+Author: Herbert A. Shearer
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2012 [EBook #39791]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM MECHANICS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
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+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                           |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Words printed in italics in the original work are represented here |
+  | between underscores, as in _text_. Words originally printed in bold|
+  | face are represented as =text=, words in small capitals as ALL     |
+  | CAPITALS.                                                          |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Further Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text.  |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+  FARM MECHANICS
+
+  MACHINERY AND ITS USE TO SAVE
+  HAND LABOR ON THE FARM
+
+  Including
+
+  Tools, Shop Work, Driving and Driven
+  Machines, Farm Waterworks, Care
+  and Repair of Farm Implements
+
+
+  By
+
+  HERBERT A. SHEARER
+
+  AGRICULTURIST
+
+  Author of "Farm Buildings with Plans and Descriptions"
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE
+  HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS_
+
+
+  CHICAGO
+  FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.
+  Publishers
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright 1918
+  By Frederick J. Drake & Co.
+  Chicago
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+More mechanical knowledge is required on the farm than in any other line
+of business. If a farmer is not mechanically inclined, he is under the
+necessity of employing someone who is.
+
+Some farms are supplied with a great many handy contrivances to save
+labor. Farmers differ a great deal in this respect. Some are natural
+mechanics, some learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm
+machinery, while others are still living in the past.
+
+Some farmers who make the least pretensions have the best machinery and
+implements. They may not be good mechanics, but they have an eye to the
+value of labor saving tools.
+
+The object of this book is to emphasize the importance of mechanics in
+modern farming; to fit scores of quick-acting machines into the daily
+routine of farm work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders of
+men and women; to increase the output at less cost of hand labor and to
+improve the soil while producing more abundantly than ever before; to
+suggest the use of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced
+nutritious human foods from cheap farm by-products.
+
+Illustrations are used to explain principles rather than to recommend
+any particular type or pattern of machine.
+
+The old is contrasted with the new and the merits of both are expressed.
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+  CHAPTER I
+  THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD AND IRON              9
+
+  CHAPTER II
+  FARM SHOP WORK                                                 50
+
+  CHAPTER III
+  GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE MODERN FARM MACHINERY     74
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+  DRIVEN MACHINES                                               100
+
+  CHAPTER V
+  WORKING THE SOIL                                              137
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+  HANDLING THE HAY CROP                                         163
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+  FARM CONVEYANCES                                              179
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+  MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES                               197
+
+  INDEX                                                         241
+
+
+
+
+FARM MECHANICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD AND IRON
+
+
+FARM SHOP AND IMPLEMENT HOUSE
+
+The workshop and shed to hold farm implements should look as neat and
+attractive as the larger buildings. Farm implements are expensive. Farm
+machinery is even more so. When such machinery is all properly housed
+and kept in repair the depreciation is estimated at ten per cent a year.
+When the machines are left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the
+loss is simply ruinous.
+
+More machinery is required on farms than formerly and it costs more.
+Still it is not a question whether a farmer can afford a machine. If he
+has sufficient work for it he knows he cannot afford to get along
+without it and he must have a shed to protect it from the weather when
+not in use.
+
+In the first place the implement shed should be large enough to
+accommodate all of the farm implements and machinery without crowding
+and it should be well built and tight enough to keep out the wind and
+small animals, including chickens and sparrows.
+
+The perspective and plan shown herewith is twenty-four feet in width and
+sixty feet in length.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--Perspective View of the Farm Shop, Garage and
+Implement Shed. The doors to the right are nearly 12 feet high to let in
+a grain separator over night, or during the winter, or a load of hay in
+case of a sudden storm.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--Floor Plan of Shop, Garage and Storage. The
+building is 60 feet wide and 24 feet from front to back. The doors of
+the garage and tool shed are made to open full width, but 8 feet is wide
+enough for the shop door. All doors open out against posts and are
+fastened to prevent blowing shut. The work shop is well lighted and the
+stationary tools are carefully placed for convenience in doing repair
+work of all kinds. The pipe vise is at the doorway between the shop and
+garage so the handles of the pipe tools may swing through the doorway
+and the pipe may lie full length along the narrow pipe bench.]
+
+The doorways provide headroom sufficient for the highest machines, and
+the width when the double doors are opened and the center post removed
+is nearly twenty feet, which is sufficient for a binder in field
+condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake.
+
+One end of the building looking toward the house is intended for a
+machine shop to be partitioned off by enclosing the first bent. This
+gives a room twenty feet wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith
+shop and general repair work. The next twenty feet is the garage. The
+machine shop part of the building will be arranged according to the
+mechanical inclination of the farmer.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Perspective View of Farm Implement Shed and
+Workshop.]
+
+A real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate mechanical proposition.
+There is a good brick chimney with a hood to carry off the smoke and
+gases from the blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate
+flue for a heating stove. Farm repair work is done mostly during the
+winter months when a fire in the shop is necessary for comfort and
+efficiency. A person cannot work to advantage with cold fingers. Paint
+requires moderate heat to work to advantage. Painting farm implements
+is a very important part of repair work.
+
+A good shop arrangement is to have an iron workbench across the shop
+window in the front or entrance end of the building. In the far corner
+against the back wall is a good place for a woodworking bench. It is too
+mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpenter work mixed up.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--Floor Plan of Farm Implement Shed, showing the
+workshop in one end of the building, handy to the implement storage
+room.]
+
+Sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses for shoeing, or
+to pull the shoes off. For this reason, a tie rail bolted to the
+studding on the side of the shop near the entrance is an extra
+convenience.
+
+In a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because the wind will not
+slam it shut. In cold climates, hinge doors are better with a good sill
+and threshold to shut against to keep out the cold. Sometimes the large
+door contains a small door big enough to step through, but not large
+enough to admit much cold, when it is being opened and shut. Likewise a
+ceiling is needed in a cold country, while in warmer sections, a roof is
+sufficient. Farm shops, like other farm buildings, should conform to
+the climate, as well as convenience in doing the work. A solid concrete
+floor is a great comfort. And it is easily kept clean.
+
+The perspective and floor plan show the arrangement of the doors,
+windows and chimney and the placing of the work benches, forge, anvil,
+toolbench and drill press.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 show the perspective and floor plan of a farm shop and
+implement house 40 x 16 feet in size, which is large enough for some
+farms.
+
+
+SHOP TOOLS
+
+Good tools are more important on a farm than in a city workshop for the
+reason that a greater variety of work is required.
+
+_Measuring Mechanical Work._--In using tools on the farm the first rule
+should be accuracy. It is just as easy to work to one-sixteenth of an
+inch as to carelessly lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won't
+go together right.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Caliper Rule. A handy slide caliper shop rule
+is made with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the
+drawing. The diameter of a rivet, bolt or other round object may be
+taken instantly. It is not so accurate as calipers for close
+measurements, but it is a practical tool for farm use.]
+
+The handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old-fashioned two-foot
+rule that folds up to six inches in length to be carried in the pocket.
+Such rules to be serviceable should be brass bound. The interior marking
+should be notched to sixteenths. The outside marking may be laid out in
+eighths. The finer marking on the inside is protected by keeping the
+rule folded together when not in use. The coarser marking outside does
+not suffer so much from wear. Figure 5 shows a 12-inch rule with a slide
+caliper jaw.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--Small Pocket Oilstone. Shop oilstone in a box.
+100-foot measuring tapeline marked in inches, feet and rods.]
+
+In using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward end should contain
+the small figures so that the workman is counting back on the rule but
+forward on the work, and he has the end of the rule to scribe from. In
+laying off a 16-foot pole the stick is first marked with a knife point,
+or sharp scratchawl, and try square to square one end. The work is then
+laid off from left to right, starting from the left hand edge of the
+square mark or first mark. The two-foot rule is laid flat on top of the
+piece of wood. At the front end of the rule the wood is marked with a
+sharp scratchawl or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point
+against the end of the rule at the time of marking. In moving the rule
+forward the left end is placed exactly over the left edge of the mark,
+so the new measurement begins at the exact point where the other left
+off, and so on the whole length of the stick. The final mark is then
+made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark.
+
+In sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste ends of the stick.
+The saw cuts to the mark but does not cut it out.
+
+In using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one-sixteenth of an inch
+every time he moves the rule, which would mean half of an inch in laying
+off a 16-foot pole, which would ruin it for carpenter work. If the pole
+is afterwards used for staking fence posts, he would gain one-half inch
+at each post, or a foot for every twenty-four posts, a distance to
+bother considerably in estimating acres. It is just as easy to measure
+exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little less, and it marks
+the difference between right and wrong.
+
+
+WOODWORKING BENCH
+
+In a farm workshop it is better to separate the woodworking department
+as far as possible from the blacksmith shop. Working wood accumulates a
+great deal of litter, shavings, blocks, and kindling wood, which are in
+the way in the blacksmith shop, and a spark from the anvil might set the
+shavings afire.
+
+A woodworking bench, Figure 7, carpenter's bench, it is usually called,
+needs a short leg vise with wide jaws. The top of the vise should be
+flush with the top of the bench, so the boards may be worked when lying
+flat on the top of the bench. For the same reason the bench dog should
+lower down flush when not needed to hold the end of the board.
+
+It is customary to make carpenter's benches separate from the shop, and
+large enough to stand alone, so they may be moved out doors or into
+other buildings.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--Carpenter's Bench. A woodworking bench is 16'
+long, 3' 6" wide and 32" high. The height, to be particular, should be
+the length of the leg of the man who uses it. Lincoln, when joking with
+Stanton, gave it as his opinion that "a man's legs should be just long
+enough to reach the ground." But that rule is not sufficiently definite
+to satisfy carpenters, so they adopted the inside leg measurement. They
+claim that the average carpenter is 5' 10" tall and he wears a 32" leg.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--Carpenter's Trestle, or Saw-Bench. The top
+piece is 4 x 6 and the legs are 2 x 4. There is sufficient spread of leg
+to prevent it from toppling over, but the legs are not greatly in the
+way. It is heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along. It
+is 2 feet high.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Shave Horse. For shaping pieces of hardwood
+for repair work. A good shave horse is about 8' long and the seat end is
+the height of a chair. The head is carved on a hardwood stick with three
+projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Compasses, Wooden Clamp and Cutting Pliers.]
+
+Carpenter benches may be well made, or they may be constructed in a
+hurry. So long as the top is true it makes but little difference how the
+legs are attached, so long as they are strong and enough of them. A
+carpenter bench that is used for all kinds of work must be solid enough
+to permit hammering, driving nails, etc. Usually the top of the bench is
+straight, true and level and it should be kept free from litter and
+extra tools.
+
+Good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the bench. It may stand
+on the floor or be attached to the wall. Carpenter tools on a farm are
+not numerous, but they should have a regular place, and laborers on the
+farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where they belong.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Monkey-Wrenches are the handiest of all farm
+wrenches, but they were never intended to hammer with. Two sizes are
+needed--an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench, to open
+two inches or more, to use when taking the disks off the shafts of a
+disk harrow. A large pipe-wrench to hold the round shaft makes a good
+companion tool for this work.]
+
+
+WOODWORKING TOOLS
+
+Every farmer has an axe or two, some sort of a handsaw and a nail
+hammer. It is astonishing what jobs of repair work a handy farmer will
+do with such a dearth of tools. But it is not necessary to worry along
+without a good repair kit. Tools are cheap enough.
+
+Such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed hand saws, a good
+square, a splendid assortment of hammers and the different kinds of
+wrenches, screw clamps, boring tools--in fact a complete assortment of
+handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a well-managed
+farm.
+
+The farm kit should contain two sizes of nail hammers, see Figure 15,
+one suitable to drive small nails, say up to eight penny, and the other
+for large nails and spikes; a long thin-bladed handsaw, having nine
+teeth to the inch, for sawing boards and planks; a shorter handsaw,
+having ten teeth to the inch, for small work and for pruning trees. A
+pruning saw should cut a fine, smooth kerf, so the wound will not
+collect and hold moisture.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Hand Saw. This pattern, both for cross cut
+and rip saw, has been adopted by all makers of fine saws. Nine teeth to
+the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--Keyhole Saw with point slim enough to start
+the cut from a half-inch auger hole.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Bramble Hook for trimming berry bushes and
+cleaning out fence corners. It has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth.]
+
+Farmers' handsaws are required to do a great many different kinds of
+work. For this reason, it is difficult to keep them in good working
+condition, but if both saws are jointed, set and filed by a good
+mechanic once or twice a year, they may be kept in usable condition the
+rest of the time by a handy farm workman, unless extra building or
+special work is required.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--Nail Hammers. Two styles. The upper hammer is
+made with a ball peen and a round face. It is tempered to drive small
+nails without slipping and shaped to avoid dinging the wood. This hammer
+should weigh 18 or 19 ounces, including the handle. The lower hammer is
+heavier, has a flat face and is intended for heavy work such as driving
+spikes and fence staples.]
+
+A long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful, and what is commonly termed a
+keyhole saw finds more use on the farm than in a carpenter's shop in
+town. It is necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions,
+floors, etc., and at such times a keyhole saw works in just right.
+
+Handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces of wood for repair
+jobs. Two sizes of handaxes for different kinds of work are very useful,
+also a wide blade draw shave, Figure 16, and shave horse, Figure 9. A
+steel square having one 24-inch blade and one 18-inch is the best size.
+Such squares usually are heavy enough to remain square after falling off
+the bench forty or fifty times. A good deal depends upon the quality of
+the steel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16.--Drawing-Knife with wide blade for finishing
+straight surfaces.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 17.--Try-Square With Six-Inch Blade. Wood, brass
+and steel are the proper materials for a try-square. A double marking
+gauge for scribing mortises is also shown.]
+
+Steel squares differ in the measuring marks, but the kind to buy has one
+side spaced to sixteenths and the other side to tenths or twelfths. The
+sixteenth interest farmers generally, so that special attention should
+be given this side of the square. The lumber rule on some squares is
+useful, but the brace rules and mitre calculations are not likely to
+interest farmers.
+
+Screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for farm work. Three
+sizes of handled screw-drivers of different lengths and sizes, also two
+or three brace bit screw-drivers are needed. One or two bits may be
+broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes exhausted before the
+screw is started.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 18.--Heavy Hand Axe for Use on the Shop Chopping
+Block. A beet topping knife is shown also.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 19.--Heavy Screwdriver. The strongest and cheapest
+screw-driver is made from a single bar of steel. The wooden handle is
+made in two parts and riveted as shown.]
+
+Pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm tool kit. Farm
+mechanical work consists principally in repairing implements, machinery,
+fences and buildings. Always a worn or broken part must be removed
+before the repair can be made. A pinch bar twenty-four inches long,
+Figure 21, with a cold chisel end, and another bar eighteen inches long
+with a crooked claw end, Figure 22, for pulling nails and spikes comes
+in very handy. These two bars should be made of the best octagon steel,
+seven-eighths of an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 20.--(1) Ratchet Screwdriver. It does rapid work
+and will last a generation if carefully used. (2) Auger-Bit of the Side
+Cutter Type. A full set is needed. They are not for boring into old
+wood. Running once against a nail ruins one of these bits.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 21.--Handspike. A wooden handspike or pry is about
+seven feet long by 3 inches thick at the prying end. In the North it is
+usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling. The
+bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth on the shave
+horse. It is better to cut the poles in the winter when the sap is in
+the roots. After the handspikes are finished they should be covered deep
+with straw so they will season slowly to prevent checking.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 22.--Wrecking Bar for pulling nails and to pry
+broken parts from other wreckage.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 23.--Carpenter's Level. For practical farm work
+the level should be 24" or 30" long. Wood is the most satisfactory
+material. The best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued
+together to prevent warping or twisting. For this reason a good level
+should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 24.--(1) Snips for cutting sheet metal. (2)
+Carpenter's Level, iron stock.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 25.--Wood-Boring Twist Drill Bit. Twist drills for
+wood have longer points than drills for boring iron.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 26.--Pod-Bit. The fastest boring gimlet bits are
+of this pattern. They are made in sizes from to 1/8" to 3/8" and are
+intended for boring softwood.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 27.--Auger-Bits. For smooth boring the lip bits
+are best. The side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the
+circle ahead of the chips. For boring green wood the single-worm clears
+better than the double-worm bit.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 28.--Extension Boring Bits. The cutting lips may
+be set to bore holes from 1/2" to 3" in diameter. They are used mostly
+in softwood.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 29.--Ship Auger. This shape auger is made with or
+without a screw point. It will bore straighter in cross-grained wood
+without a point.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 30.--Long Ship Auger.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 31.--Bridge Auger. The long handle permits the
+workman to stand erect while boring. The home made handle is welded onto
+the shank of a ship auger.]
+
+A wooden carpenter's level, Figure 23, two feet long, with a plumb glass
+near one end, is the most satisfactory farm level, an instrument that is
+needed a great many times during the year.
+
+Good brace bits are scarce on farms. They are not expensive, but farmers
+are careless about bits and braces. Two sizes of braces are needed, a
+small brace for small pod bits and twist drills, and a large ratchet
+brace with a 6-inch crank radius for turning larger bits.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 32.--Carpenter's Jointer.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 33.--Fore-Plane. This style plane is preferred to
+a regular jointer for most farm work.]
+
+Twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron, and they are not
+expensive up to three-eighths inch or one-half inch. But for larger
+sizes from one-half inch to one inch the finest lip wood boring bits
+will give the best satisfaction. Extension bits are used for boring
+holes larger than one inch. Two extension bits are better than one bit
+with two lip cutters. They will bore holes in soft wood in sizes from
+one inch to three inches.
+
+Other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and smoothing plane, also
+an assortment of chisels, belong to the farm equipment.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 34.--Tool Box of Socket Chisels and Gouges. The
+chisels are sized from 1/2" to 2" in width. The two chisels to the right
+show different patterns.]
+
+All cutting tools should be of the best design and the best steel. If
+they are properly used and taken care of, the different jobs of repair
+work can be handled quickly and to great advantage.
+
+
+FARM GRINDSTONE
+
+A grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so it will bite the
+steel easily and cut it away quickly. A good stone is a very
+satisfactory farm implement, but a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance.
+
+There are grindstones with frames too light. The competition to
+manufacture and sell a grindstone for farm use at the cheapest possible
+price has resulted in turning out thousands of grindstone frames that
+possess very little stability.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 35.--Grindstone. The speed of a grindstone varies
+with the diameter of the stone. It should turn just fast enough to keep
+a flow of water on the upper face surface. If the stone turns too slow
+the water will run down; if too fast, it will fly off.]
+
+Grindstones should be kept under cover; the best stone will be injured
+by leaving it in the hot sun. The sun draws the moisture out of the
+upper side and leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the
+stone soon becomes flat sided. The wet side freezes in winter, which is
+a disintegrating process.
+
+The best stones, with good care, will become uneven in time. The remedy
+is to true them with a quarter-inch soft iron round rod used like a
+lathe tool over an iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with
+the center of the stone. The rod is held against the stone in such a way
+as to cut away the high bumps and make the stone truly round. The stone
+cuts away best when it is dry. A small rod is better than a large rod.
+It digs into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite. Large power
+stones in machine shops are trued up in this way frequently. Farm stones
+often are neglected until they wabble so badly that it is difficult to
+grind any tool to an edge. If the grindstone is turned by a belt from an
+engine the work of truing may be done in a few minutes. If the stone is
+turned by hand the work of making it round takes longer and requires
+some muscle, but it pays.
+
+The face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly, and it should be
+kept so by grinding the tools first on one side of edge of the stone,
+then on the other, with the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the
+face of the stone.
+
+For safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water the stone should turn
+away from the operator.
+
+The best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of water from an
+overhead supply. Troughs of water suspended under the stone are
+unsatisfactory, because the water soon gets thick and unfit for use.
+Such troughs are forgotten when the job is done, so that one side of the
+stone hangs in the water. An overhead supply of water leaks away and no
+damage is done.
+
+Grindstone frames are best made of wood 3" x 4" thoroughly mortised
+together and well braced with wooden braces and tied across with plenty
+of iron rods. A good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron, but
+manufacturers generally fail in the attempt.
+
+There are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on the market, both for
+hand crank stones and for belt use.
+
+The belt is less in the way if it is brought up from below. This is not
+difficult to do. A grindstone turns slower than any other farm machine
+so a speed reducing jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the
+grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip. This arrangement
+requires a short belt but it may have the full face width of the pulley
+as the tight and loose pulleys are on the jack shaft.
+
+_Emery Grinders._--There are small emery wheels made for grinding disks
+that work quickly and cut an even bevel all around. They are made in
+pairs and are attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal
+stand which is bolted to a bench. The same rig is used for sickle
+grinding and other farm jobs.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 36.--Emery Grinder. The illustrations show two
+kinds of grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to. To
+grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse. By placing the
+rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will be the
+same on both sides, or edges, of the section.]
+
+
+BLACKSMITH SHOP
+
+The furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge, anvil, half
+barrel, vise bench, drill press and tool rack. A farm shop also has a
+heating stove, shave horse, a woodworking bench, a good power driven
+grindstone and a double emery grinder.
+
+_Forge._--The old-fashioned forge laid up with brick in connection with
+an old-fashioned chimney is just as popular as ever. The same old tuyer
+iron receives the air blast from the same old style leather bellows, and
+there is nothing more satisfactory. But there are modern portable
+forges, Figure 37, made of iron, that are less artistic, cheaper, take
+up less room and answer the purpose just about as well. The portable
+iron forge has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds oxygen
+into the fire. There are a good many different sizes of portable forges.
+Most of them work well up to their advertised capacity.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 37.--Portable Forges. The smaller forge is for
+light work such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction. The
+larger forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work.]
+
+Generally, farm forges are not required to develop a great amount of
+heat. Farmers do but little welding, most of the forge work on the farm
+being confined to repair work such as heating brace irons, so they may
+be easily bent into the proper shape, or to soften metal so that holes
+may be punched through it easily.
+
+Sharpening harrow teeth, drawing out plow points and horseshoeing are
+about the heaviest forge jobs required in a farm blacksmith shop, so
+that a medium size forge will answer the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 38.--Anvil. The only satisfactory anvil is forged
+out of ingot steel with a power trip-hammer. It should weigh 140
+pounds.]
+
+_Anvil._--An anvil should weigh at least 120 pounds; 140 is better. It
+should be set six feet from the center of the fire to the center of the
+anvil. It should be placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil
+set three feet in the ground. The top of the anvil should be about
+thirty inches high. Holmstrom's rule is: "Close the fist, stand erect
+with the arm hanging down. The knuckles should just clear the face of
+the anvil."
+
+_Bench and Vise._--The vise bench should be made solid and it should
+face a good light. The bench window should look to the east or north if
+possible. It should be about four feet high and eight feet long, with
+the window sill about six inches above the bench.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 39.--(1) Shoeing Tool Box. The four small
+compartments are for horseshoe nails of different sizes. There may be a
+leather loop for the paring knife. The low box end is for the shoeing
+hammer, rasp, nippers and hoof knife. (2) Blacksmith Tool Rack. Tongs,
+handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails. Hammers are
+thrown on top. The lower platform is the shop catch-all.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 40.--Shoeing Knife. Good temper is the main
+qualification. All shoeing knives are practically the same shape,
+although they may vary in size.]
+
+Two and one-half feet is the usual height for a workbench above the
+floor. The best workbench tops are made by bolting together 2 x 4s with
+the edges up. Hardwood makes the best bench, but good pine will last for
+years. The top surface should be planed true and smooth after the nuts
+are drawn tight.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 41.--Horseshoeing Rasp and Wood Rasp. These are
+necessary tools in the farm shop.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 42.--Iron Work Bench. Solid is the first
+specification for an iron shop bench. It should be three feet wide, not
+less than eight feet long and about 32 inches high. The top is made of 2
+x 4s placed on edge and bolted together. The supports are 2 x 6 bolted
+to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill. The
+front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas-pipe with
+threaded flanges at top and bottom. Heavy right angle wrought iron lugs
+are used to fasten the top of the bench to the studding. The foot of the
+vise leg is let into the floor of the shop or into a solid wooden block
+sunk in the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 43.--Assortment of Files and Rasps needed in a
+farm shop. (1) Slim three-cornered handsaw-file. (2) Common
+three-cornered file suitable for filing a buck-saw. (3) Double-cut, or
+bastard, 10-inch flat file. (4) Single-cut, or mill file, either 10 or
+12 inches. (5) Half-round 10-inch wood rasp. (6) Horseshoer's rasp.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 44.--File Handle. Basswood makes the most
+satisfactory file handles. They are fitted by carefully turning them
+onto the file shank to take the right taper. There should be a handle
+for each file. The handle should be the right size and fitted straight
+with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when
+turned over.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 45.--Nail Set. On all wooden surfaces to be
+painted nails should be carefully driven with a round peen nail hammer
+and the heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set. The
+holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 46.--Cold-Chisel. There are more flat cold-chisels
+than all other shapes. They are easily made in the farm shop and it is
+good practice. They are usually made from octagon steel. Different sizes
+are needed according to the work in hand. A piece of 5/8" steel 6" long
+makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 47.--Cape Cold-Chisel. It may be tapered both ways
+or one way to a cutting edge, or one edge may be rounded.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 48.--(1) Tinner's Punch. Made of octagon steel in
+sizes to fit the rivets. The cutting end is flat and has sharp edges
+made by roll filing. It should be about 7" long and from 3/8" to 1/2" in
+diameter, according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal to
+be punched. (2) Prick Punch. Usually made rather short and stocky. It
+may be 1/2" or 5/8" diameter and 4-1/2" to 5" long. (3) Hot-iron Punch.
+Made in many sizes and lengths. The taper should be the same as the
+drawing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 49.--(1) Blacksmith Vise. The old-fashioned leg
+vise is the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop. It should have 5"
+jaws. (2) Power Post Drill. Belt power is practical for the post drill
+in a farm shop. The hand crank may be easily attached when needed.]
+
+The bench vise should be heavy. A vise is used for bending iron hot from
+the forge. Unless the jaws are large, the hot iron is likely to heat the
+vise sufficiently to draw the temper. Heavy jaws are solid enough to
+support the iron when it is being hammered. Often heavy hammers are used
+for this purpose. A heavy vise holds the work solid, because it may be
+screwed so much tighter than a light vise. A heavy vise will hold light
+work, but a light vise will not hold heavy work. Heavy vises cost more,
+but they are cheaper in the end and more satisfactory at all times. A
+leg vise with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds; five and
+one-half-inch jaws, eighty pounds. A machinist's vise is made to bolt
+on top of the bench. It will answer for blacksmith work on the farm, but
+is not as good as the old-fashioned leg vise. A machinist's vise is very
+useful in the garage, but it would hardly be necessary to have two heavy
+vises. The pipe vise belongs on a separate bench, which may be a plank
+bracketed against the side of the room.
+
+_Drill-Press._--The most satisfactory drill-press for use on a farm is
+the upright drill that bolts to a post. There is usually a self feed
+which may be regulated according to the work. The heavy flywheel keeps
+the motion steady, and because there is no bench in the way, wagon tires
+may be suspended from the drill block, so they will hang free and true
+for drilling. Often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with holes
+spaced certain distances apart. It is easier to pass them along when
+they lie flat side down on the drill block. To use a drill properly and
+safely, the chuck must run true. It is easy to break a drill when it
+wabbles.
+
+Most drills are made on the twist pattern, and it is something of a
+trick to grind a twist drill, but anyone can do it if he tackles the job
+with a determination to do it right. In grinding a twist drill, use a
+new drill for pattern. Grind the angles the same as the new drill, and
+be careful to have the point in the center. A little practice will make
+perfect.
+
+Mechanics will say that no one except an expert should attempt to grind
+a twist drill, but farmers who are mechanically inclined are the best
+experts within reach. It is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or
+use them dull.
+
+In drilling wrought iron either water or oil is required to cool the
+drill, but cast iron and brass are drilled dry. Light work such as
+hoop-iron may be drilled dry, but the cutting edge of the drill will
+last longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 50.--(1) Electric Drill-Press. A small electric
+motor is attached to the drill spindle. (2) Tram Points. Two steel
+points are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden
+bar. They are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses. (3)
+Ratchet-Brace. Two braces, or bitstocks, are needed. A large brace with
+a 6" radius for large bits and a small brace with a 3" or 3-1/2" radius
+for small bits.]
+
+In using drill-presses, some extra attachments come in very handy, such
+as a screw clamp to hold short pieces of metal. Before starting the
+drill, a center punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be
+bored and to start the drill in the right spot.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 51.--Twist-Drills. Round shank for the post drill
+and square taper shank for brace work. Brace drills are small, 1/4" or
+less.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 52.--Taper Reamer. Used to enlarge, or true, or
+taper a hole that has been drilled or punched.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 53.--Another style of Reamer.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 54.--Countersink. This is the old style,
+blacksmith-made, flat countersink. It will do quick work but not so
+smooth as the fluted kind.]
+
+In doing particular work, the drill may be re-centered when it starts
+wrong. This is done with a small round-nosed cold chisel. If the work
+is not very particular, the drill may be turned a little to one side by
+slanting the piece to be drilled. This plan is only a makeshift,
+however, the proper way being to block the work level, so that the drill
+will meet it perpendicularly. However, by starting carefully, the hole
+may be bored exactly as required.
+
+_Iron Working Tools._--Forge tools for a farm shop need not be numerous.
+Several pairs of tongs, one blacksmith hammer, one sledge, one hardy,
+one wooden-handled cold chisel, one pair pincers, one paring knife, one
+shoeing rasp, and one shoeing hammer will do to begin with.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 55.--Machinist's Hammers. A medium weight should
+be selected for farm repair work. It should be hung so the end of the
+handle clears half an inch when the face rests flat on the bench.]
+
+Monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench department. The farmer needs
+three sizes, one may be quite small, say six inches in length, one ten
+inches, and the other large enough to span a two-inch nut. And there
+should be an ironclad rule, never use a monkey-wrench for a hammer. For
+work around plows, cultivators, harvesters, and other farm machines, a
+case of S wrenches will be greatly appreciated. Manufacturers include
+wrenches with almost all farm machines, but such wrenches are too cheap
+to be of much use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 56.--(1) Hardy. The anvil hardy is used more than
+any other anvil tool except the blacksmith's hammer and tongs. (2) A
+Cold-Shut Link that may be welded, riveted or simply pounded shut.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 57.--Calipers: (1) A pair of tight-joint inside
+calipers. (2) Its mate for taking outside dimensions. (3) A pair of
+spring-jointed, screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists' use.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 58.--Blacksmith Tongs. Straight tongs made to hold
+3/8" iron is the handiest size. Two or three pairs for larger sizes of
+iron and one pair smaller come in handy.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 59.--(1) Wire Splicer. The oval openings in the
+tool are of different sizes. They are made to hold two wires, close
+together, with ends projecting in opposite directions. Each end is wound
+around the other wire. The ends are then notched with a three-cornered
+file and broken off short and filed smooth. The splicing tool should be
+thin, about 1/8" or 3/16", to bring the two twists close together. This
+is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden pails. (2) Blacksmith
+Shoeing Pincers, used to pull horseshoes. They should close together to
+catch a nail by the head.]
+
+For heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely necessary. The reason for
+having so many wrenches is to save time when in the field. It often
+happens that men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be a
+quick repair job.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 60.--(1) Cotter Pin Tool. Handy for inserting or
+removing all sorts of cotter keys. (2) Nest of S Wrenches of different
+sizes. Farmers have never appreciated the value of light, handy wrenches
+to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely.]
+
+For bench work a riveting hammer and a ball peen machinist's hammer are
+needed. A nest of S wrenches, two rivet sets, cold chisels, round
+punches and several files also are required.
+
+The same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will do for iron as well
+as wood. However, if much drilling is done, then round shank twist
+drills to fit the drill chuck will work better. Farmers seldom drill
+holes in iron larger than one-half inch. For particular work, to get the
+exact size, reamers are used to finish the holes after drilling. Screw
+holes in iron are countersunk in the drill-press.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 61.--Hack Saw. One handle and a dozen blades. The
+frame should be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without
+binding. The teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 62.--Powerful Bolt Cutter. It is intended for
+factory use.]
+
+For small work, twist drills with square shanks for brace use should
+range in sizes from one thirty-second of an inch up to one-quarter inch,
+then every one-sixteenth inch up to one-half inch.
+
+For boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is done with pod bits.
+Not many sizes are needed, but they are cheap, so that a half dozen,
+ranging from one-sixteenth to one-quarter inch or thereabouts, will be
+found very useful. Pod bits belong to the wood department, but on
+account of being used principally for screw sinking, they are just as
+useful in the iron working department as in the carpenter shop.
+
+Sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly belong with the iron
+working tools. Snips are from ten to fourteen inches in length. A medium
+size is best for miscellaneous work. If kept in good working order
+twelve-inch snips will cut 18-gauge galvanized or black iron. But a man
+would not care to do a great deal of such heavy cutting.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 63.--Cutting Nippers. For cutting the points from
+horseshoe nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe
+in place. These nippers are hard tempered and should not be used for any
+other purpose.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 64.--Two Shapes of Steel Crowbars.]
+
+_Pipe-Fitting Tools._--Recent farm improvements require a few tools that
+rightfully belong to plumbers. Every farm has some kind of water supply
+for domestic use and for live-stock. A great many farm machines require
+pipe tools for repair work. Every year more plumbing reaches the farm.
+
+Plumbing work is no more difficult than other mechanical work, if the
+tools are at hand to meet the different requirements. One job of
+plumbing that used to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering
+together of lead pipes, technically termed "wiping a joint." This
+operation has been discontinued. Every possible connection required in
+farm plumbing is now provided for in standardized fittings. Every
+pipe-fitting or connection that conducts supply water or waste water
+nowadays screws together. Sizes are all made to certain standards and
+the couplings are almost perfect, so that work formerly shrouded in
+mystery or hidden under trade secrets is now open to every schoolboy who
+has learned to read.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 65.--(1) Pipe Vise. Hinged to open for long pipes.
+(2) Machinist's Vise. Made with a turntable to take any horizontal
+angle. The pipe jaws are removable.]
+
+The necessary outfit to handle all the piping and plumbing on the farm
+is not very expensive, probably $25.00 will include every tool and all
+other appliances necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry
+water to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold water to the
+kitchen and the bathroom, together with the waste pipes, ventilators and
+the sewer to the septic tank. The same outfit of tools will answer for
+repair work for a lifetime.
+
+Farm water pipes usually are small. There may be a two-inch suction pipe
+to the force pump, and the discharge may be one and a half inch. But
+these pipes are not likely to make trouble.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 66.--Pipe Cutter. The most satisfactory pipe
+cutter has three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other
+around the pipe. Some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and
+one cutter roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe. The
+flat face rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the
+same size clear to the end.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 67.--Pipe-Wrench. This type of wrench is valuable
+for working with the heavier farm implements. It is intended more for
+holding than for turning. It is rather rough on nuts. Damaged nuts show
+signs of careless work.]
+
+There should be a good pipe vise that will hold any size pipe up to
+three inches. At least two pipe wrenches are needed and they should be
+adjustable from one-quarter-inch up to two-inch pipe.
+
+We must remember that water pipe sizes mean inside measurements.
+One-inch pipe is about one and one-quarter inches outside diameter.
+Three-quarter-inch pipe is about one inch outside. Two-inch pipe will
+carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe, under the rule
+"doubling the diameter increases the capacity four times."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 68.--A smaller sized wrench with wooden handle.]
+
+The three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is satisfactory for most
+jobs. Sometimes two of the knife wheels are removed and rollers
+substituted to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe.
+
+Threading dies are made in standard sizes. A good farm set consists of
+stock and dies to thread all the different sizes of pipe from
+one-quarter inch to one inch, inclusive. Not many pipes larger than inch
+are threaded on the farm. They are cut to the proper lengths in the farm
+shop and the threads are cut in town.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FARM SHOP WORK
+
+
+PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK
+
+Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind of mechanical repair
+work that should be done at home and the kind and amount of repair work
+that should go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the
+mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. However, the poorest
+farm mechanic can do "first aid" service to farm implements and
+machinery in the nick of time, if he is so disposed. A great many
+farmers are helpless in this respect because they want to be helpless.
+It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at it with a
+determination to fix it, and fix it right.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 69.--Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm
+inventions of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in
+all lumber camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in
+length, with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook
+on the other end that makes fast between any two links.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 70.--Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can
+make better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made. The
+irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 71.--Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The
+pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is
+probably flattened on the bottom from wear.]
+
+On general principles, however, farm repair work should not occupy a
+farmer's time to the detriment of growing crops or the proper care of
+live-stock. Farming is the business; mechanical work is a side issue. At
+the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time during the year to
+look over every farm machine, every implement and every hand tool on the
+farm. The stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a spade and
+rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which some fine emery has been
+dusted. The emery will remove the rust and the oil will prevent it from
+further rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a spade or
+shovel after a rivet head has given way so the handle is not properly
+supported by the plate extensions. There really is no excuse for using
+tools or machinery that are out of repair, but the extent to which
+a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends on many
+contingencies. In every case he must decide according to circumstances,
+always, however, with a desire and determination to run his farm on
+business principles.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 72.--Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought
+in the rough or partly fitted to the skeins.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 73.--Showing how to fit the irons on the forward
+end of a wagon reach.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 74.--Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may
+be wound close enough to prevent slipping.]
+
+_Home-made Bolts._--The easiest way to make a bolt is to cut a rod of
+round iron the proper length and run a thread on each end. On one end
+the thread may be just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread
+on the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut and to take up
+slack. A farmer needs round iron in sizes from one-fourth inch to
+five-eighths inch. He will use more three-eighths and one-half inch than
+any other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to fit any size
+of round iron. Have an assortment, in different sizes, of both the
+square and the hexagon nuts.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 75.--Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly
+without a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head
+and a longer thread on the other end for the nut.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 76.--Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of
+different sizes and lengths should be always kept on hand ready for
+immediate use.]
+
+To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires welding, but for repair work
+in a hurry it is better to select the proper iron and cut it to the
+required length either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy
+and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest way of cutting
+that mashes the rod the least is to be preferred. The size of the rod
+will determine the manner of cutting in most instances.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 77.--Rivets.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 78.--Rivet Set. This style of set is used for
+small rivets. The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely.
+Larger rivets are made to hug the work by means of a flat piece of steel
+with a hole through it.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 79.--Rivet Set.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 80.--(1) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be
+made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The quickest
+hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel blade that
+works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 81.--Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are
+best kept in compartments in a case made for the purpose.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 82.--Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned
+true and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the
+die by friction.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 83.--Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped
+into blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with
+accuracy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be had
+in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from 1/4" to 5/8",
+inclusive.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 84.--Taper Tap for Blacksmith's Use.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 85.--Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is
+used against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not
+arbitrary. The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood; the
+flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts if you
+expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 86.--Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be
+kept in stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different
+makes of plows and machines.]
+
+Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the thread on the
+bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate die, the corresponding tap is
+run clear through the nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt
+easily, possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so intended by
+the manufacturers to give the workman a little leeway. If it is
+desirable to have the nut screw on the bolt very tight, then the tap is
+stopped before the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon
+qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place the bolt is to
+occupy.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 87.--Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood,
+bore a hole the size of the screw shank as calipered between the
+threads.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 88.--(1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach
+the box and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box
+to hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side of
+the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be embedded in
+concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc.]
+
+Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug on parts of
+machines that shake a good deal, and this applies to almost all farm
+machinery and implements.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 89.--Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the
+rave and to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and
+sometimes in the middle of light wagon beds.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 90.--Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link.]
+
+Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily along like a
+cart, but the ground is rough and in practical use the nuts loosen
+almost as soon as haying commences.
+
+Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends to prevent nuts from
+working loose. When the bolts have square heads, this practice is not
+objectionable, because with two wrenches a nut can be twisted off over
+the riveting, but a great many bolts have round heads and very short,
+square shanks. Theoretically, the shanks are driven into the wood firm
+enough to prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this theory is a
+delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can testify.
+
+Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm blacksmith shop.
+They can be made by machinery cheaper, but so many times a bolt is
+needed on short notice that the farm shop should have the necessary
+tools and materials to supply the need quickly.
+
+_Forging Iron and Steel._--Iron and steel are composed of the same
+properties, but differ chemically. Steel also is finer grained than iron
+and it requires different treatment. Iron should be forged at a
+light-red or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the iron generally
+will granulate or crack open and weaken the metal. For a smooth finish
+the last forging may be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be
+used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the blows also must
+differ with the different size of iron under heat. Small sizes should be
+treated with hammer blows that are rather light, while for large sizes
+the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light blows be given with
+a light hammer in forging heavy iron the outside alone will be affected,
+thus causing uneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron.
+
+Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If heated to a white
+heat the steel will be burned. Steel should never be forged at a
+dark-red heat. If this is done it will cause considerable strain between
+the inner and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while forging.
+The weight of the hammer and the hammer blows in forging of steel is
+vastly of more importance than in forging iron. If the blow or the
+hammer is not heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thickness
+of the steel it will probably crack in the process of hardening or
+tempering. If steel be properly forged it will harden easily and
+naturally, but if improperly forged the tempering will be very
+difficult--probably a failure. The quality of a finished tool depends
+greatly upon the correct heat and proper method used in forging and
+hardening it.
+
+_Making Steel Tools._--Steel for tools should first be annealed to even
+the density and prevent warping. This is done by heating it to a dull
+cherry red in a slow fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best
+because it contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities. After
+heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly as possible it should
+be buried several inches deep in powdered charcoal and left to cool.
+This completes the annealing process. While working steel into proper
+shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burning. It should be
+worked quickly and the process repeated as often as necessary. Practice
+is the only recipe for speed.
+
+When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the anvil it is then
+finished with a file by clamping the new tool in the vise, using single
+cut files. Bastard files are too rough for tool steel. After the tool is
+shaped by cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is sometimes
+polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around the file. Oil is used with
+emery cloth to give the steel a luster finish. Tempering is the last
+process in the making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies,
+punches, scratchawls, etc.
+
+_Tempering Steel Tools._--Good judgment is required to get the right
+temper. Good eyesight is needed to catch the color at the exact instant,
+and quick action to plunge it into the water before it cools too much.
+Dies are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping time should
+be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will break when being used if
+tempered too hard. If cold chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the
+color should be violet; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is
+the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark straw color at the
+cutting edge merging back into blue. The water in the dipping tub should
+be warm, as steel is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in
+cold water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 91.--Blacksmith Hammers. Some smiths use a heavy
+machinist's hammer. But the flat peen is more useful when working around
+the anvil and the leg vise.]
+
+Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position when it enters the
+water to cool all sides alike. Otherwise the new tool might warp. It is
+better to dip slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in
+the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly enough to remain
+soft. Some sizes of steel may be tempered too hard at first and the
+temper immediately drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow
+down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done quickly while watching
+the colors as they move towards the point or edge.
+
+_Draw-filing._--Making six-sided and eight-sided punches and scratchawls
+out of hexagon and octagon tool steel is interesting work. The steel is
+cut to length by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file.
+When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break straight across.
+To shape the tool and to draw out the point the steel is heated in the
+forge to a dull cherry red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape
+along the taper. Special attention must be given to the numerous
+corners. A scratchawl or small punch, must be heated many times and
+hammered quickly before cooling. An old English shop adage reads: "Only
+one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that was for pounding cold
+iron."
+
+After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the anvil, it is
+fastened in the vise and finished by cross-filing and draw-filing.
+Copper caps on the vise jaws will prevent indentations.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 92.--Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are
+made of sheet copper or galvanized iron.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 93.--Roll Filing. To file a piece of steel round
+it is rolled by one hand while the file is used by the other hand.]
+
+Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and moving it back and
+forth sidewise along the work. For this purpose single-cut files are
+used. The smoothing is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very
+particular, a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed on with fine
+emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is wrapped around the file and the
+same motion is continued. With some little practice a very creditable
+piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valuable because of the
+instruction. A good test of skill at blacksmithing is making an octagon
+punch that tapers true to the eye when finished.
+
+_Set-Screws._--It is customary to fasten a good many gear wheels, cranks
+and pulleys to machinery shafts by set-screws. There are two kinds of
+set-screws; one has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are
+hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to cut a ring and the
+point is supposed to sink into the shaft to make a small hole sufficient
+to keep the wheel from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw
+is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of a strain. The
+point is so small it will slip and cut a groove around the shaft. To
+prevent this, the set-screw may be countersunk by first marking the
+shaft with an indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel or
+crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled into the shaft with a
+twist-drill the same size, or a sixty-fourth smaller, than the
+set-screw. Then by forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole,
+the wheel is held solid.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 94.--Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the
+left is used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the
+right is the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a
+sharp rim.]
+
+The principal objection to set-screws is that they are dangerous. The
+heads always project and are ready to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft
+is revolving. In all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub
+will allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is impossible
+to catch anything to wind around the shaft. Cup set-screws are not
+satisfactory except for very light work. If necessary to use them, the
+ends may be firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond-point
+cold chisel.
+
+_Setting the Handsaw._--Nine teeth to the inch is the most satisfactory
+handsaw for all kinds of lumber. Setting the teeth of this kind of saw
+is best done with a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be carefully
+adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give the necessary set.
+For general work a saw needs more set than is needed for kiln-dried
+stuff. The teeth should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade.
+Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is better to work from
+both sides of the saw by first setting one side the whole length of the
+blade. Then reverse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth in
+the same manner. There should be a good solid stop between the handles
+of the set to insure equal pressure against each sawtooth. The pin
+should be carefully placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot
+every time and the pressure should be the same for each tooth.
+
+The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic so far as it is
+possible to make them so, but the skill of the operator determines the
+quality of the work. The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to
+leave the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade after the
+jointing and filing is completed.
+
+_Jointing a Handsaw._--After the saw has been set it must be jointed to
+square the teeth and to even them to equal length, and to keep the saw
+straight on the cutting edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight
+camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back. The camber
+facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre-box work without sawing into
+the bed piece of the box. It also throws the greatest weight of the
+thrust upon the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother, runs
+truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess. It is easy to file a
+saw when all of the teeth are the same length and all have the same set.
+Anyone can do a good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin
+with, but no one can put a saw in good working order with a
+three-cornered file as his only tool.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 95.--Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two
+inches square by 12" or 14" in length. The block is made true and
+scribed carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The
+file is set into a mortise square with the block.]
+
+_Filing the Handsaw._--First comes the three-cornered file. It should be
+just large enough to do the work. There is no economy in buying larger
+files thinking that each of the three corners will answer the same
+purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the first place the small
+file is better controlled and will do better work. In the second place
+the three corners are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions
+between the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners than on the
+sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a small file are more acute,
+which means a good deal in the shape of the finished teeth.
+
+After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it in the saw vise and
+file one side of the saw from heel to point. Then reverse the saw in the
+saw clamp and file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of
+each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just before the tooth
+comes to a point. A triangular or diamond shaped point will cut faster
+and leave a smoother saw kerf and last longer than a needle point.
+
+As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both edges, it is
+necessary to make allowances when filing the first side, otherwise some
+of the teeth will come to a sharp point before the gumming is deep
+enough.
+
+_Using a Handsaw._--Anyone can saw a board square both up and down and
+crossways by following a few simple rules. Have the board supported on
+the level by two well made saw-benches 24" high. Stand up straight as
+possible and look down on both sides of the saw blade. Use long even
+strokes and let the saw play lightly and evenly through the saw cut.
+
+Do not cut the mark out; cut to it on the waste end, or further end, if
+there are more pieces to be cut from the board. The saw kerf is about
+3/32" wide for a nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension
+stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and none from the next
+then one length will be 3/16" shorter than the other.
+
+For practice it is a good plan to make two marks 3/32" apart and cut
+between them. Use a sharp-pointed scratchawl to make the marks. A
+penknife blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the blade
+of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run off at a tangent.
+
+_Setting a Circular Saw._--A good saw-set for a circular saw may be made
+out of an old worn-out flat file. Heat the file in the forge fire to
+draw the temper and anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on
+the grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one edge. The
+notch should be just wide enough to fit loosely over the point of a
+sawtooth. The notch should be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter
+of the length of the tooth.
+
+Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or steel one inch wide
+and about four inches long. File a notch into and parallel to one edge
+at one corner, about one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and
+about half an inch long measuring from the end. With the home-made
+saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the points just miss the iron
+gauge in the corner notch. The edges of the gauge should be straight and
+parallel and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use the edge
+of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw so the projecting tooth
+reaches into the notch. One-sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for
+a small saw but it won't be too much for a 24-inch wood saw working in
+green cord wood.
+
+_Jointing a Circular Saw._--Run the saw at full speed. Lay a 14-inch
+file flat on the top of the saw table at right angles to the saw. Move
+the file slowly and carefully towards the saw until it ticks against the
+teeth. Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth ticks
+lightly against the file. A saw in good working order needs very little
+jointing, but it should have attention every time the saw is set and it
+should be done after setting and before filing.
+
+_Filing a Circular Saw._--The teeth of a crosscut circular saw point a
+little ahead. Sometimes they point so nearly straight out from the
+center that you have to look twice to determine which way the saw should
+run. There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but they are
+subject to many qualifications. What interests a farmer is a saw that
+will cut green poles and crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least
+possible delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick eight
+inches through without turning it to finish the cut. The front or
+cutting edges of the teeth of a 24-inch crosscut circular saw for wood
+sawing should line to a point a little back from the center. This may
+not sound definite enough for best results, so the more particular
+farmers may use a straight edge. Select a straight stick about half an
+inch square. Rest it on top of or against the back of the saw mandrel
+and shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the upper side
+or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth will stand at the proper
+pitch when the saw is new, if it was designed for sawing green wood. If
+it works right before being filed, then the width of the straight edge
+may be made to conform to the original pitch and kept for future use.
+
+The gumming is done with the edge of the file while filing the front
+edges of the teeth. It is finished with the flat side of the file while
+filing the rear edges of the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth
+should be kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A wood saw
+works best when the front edges of the teeth have but little bevel. The
+back edges should have more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered
+or diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when they come against
+knots or cross-grained hardwood. Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut
+flat files are used for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It
+should be about 1/8" wider than the length of the front side of the
+teeth. The back edges require that the file shall have some play to show
+part of the tooth while the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy.
+The file should be carefully selected.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 96.--How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is
+difficult, but filing it sharp and straight at the cutting edge is easy.
+If the hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under
+the blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank.]
+
+_How to Sharpen a Hoe._--It is quicker and more satisfactory to file a
+hoe sharp than to grind it on the grindstone. The shank of the hoe must
+be held firmly in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood
+under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge; to keep the
+file from chattering. A single cut flat file is the best to use. It
+should be long enough to be easily held in one position to make a
+smooth, even bevel at the same angle to the face of the blade all the
+way across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is better to
+joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing just before reaching
+the edge. If the edge be left 1/64" thick it will wear longer and work
+more easily after having been used an hour or two than it will if the
+edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable when the ground
+contains small stones. Hoes are sharpened from the under side only. The
+inside of a hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes should
+always have sharp corners. When working around valuable plants you want
+to know exactly where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried
+out of sight in the ground.
+
+_Shoeing Farm Horses._--Farmers have no time or inclination to make a
+business of shoeing horses, but there are occasions when it is necessary
+to pull a shoe or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not
+numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box, with a stiff
+iron handle made in the shape of a bale. The box contains a shoeing
+hammer, hoof rasp, hoof knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called,
+and two sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is used to
+set the horse's front foot on when the horse wants to bear down too
+hard, but this pedestal is not necessary in the farm shop.
+
+There are flat-footed horses that cannot work even in summer without
+shoes. Common sense and shoeing tools are the only requirements
+necessary to tack on a plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be
+purchased at so much a pound.
+
+A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the hoof so that it will
+have an even bearing on the shoe all the way round. It is not desirable
+to pare the frog or the braces in the bottom of a horse's foot. If the
+foot is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken off near the
+edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten the toe. This is done partly
+with the hoof chisel and rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes
+one-fourth of an inch is sufficient; at other times a horse's hoof is
+very much improved by taking off one-half inch or more of the toe growth
+either from the bottom or the front or both.
+
+Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a horse's foot should be
+studied and planned before starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to
+overcome when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature intended
+that a horse should have considerable toe length as a protection to the
+more tender parts of the foot. And the pastern bone should play at the
+proper angle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 97.--Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is
+for tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys,
+screws, nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the
+different divisions.]
+
+_Handy Tool Box._--A tool box with a high lengthwise partition in the
+middle and a handle in the middle of the top of the partition is the
+handiest tool box ever used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it
+should be fitted with the common tools required about haying and harvest
+machinery. One side is partitioned into square boxes to hold split wire
+keys, washers, bolts, rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of
+copper wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the box is an
+assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches, pliers and hammers. This
+tool box belongs in the wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 98.--Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing
+requires a melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl
+and about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge
+fire.]
+
+_Babbitting Boxings._--Babbitting boxings is one of the repair jobs on
+the farm. Some men are careless about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them
+out. Every year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting ladle should
+be large enough to pour the largest box. Usually a 5-inch bowl is about
+right. A large ladle will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour
+a large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should be warmed to
+insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard is fitted against the shaft
+when pouring the cap or top half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around
+the shaft at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from running
+out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy and the babbitt is made
+rough and uneven at the edges. Some skill is required to fit either wood
+or metal close enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job.
+
+If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be poured at once by
+making holes through the dividing pasteboard. The holes must be large
+enough to let the melted metal through and small enough to break apart
+easily when cold.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE MODERN FARM MACHINERY
+
+
+At one time ninety-seven per cent of the population of the United States
+got their living directly from tilling the soil, and the power used was
+oxen and manual labor. At the present time probably not more than
+thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged in agricultural
+pursuits. And the power problem has been transferred to horses, steam,
+gasoline, kerosene and water power, with electricity as a power
+conveyor.
+
+Fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a single moldboard
+cast-iron plow that he could follow all day on foot and turn over one,
+or at most, two acres. The new traction engines are so powerful that it
+is possible to plow sixty feet in width, and other machines have been
+invented to follow the tractor throughout the planting and growing
+seasons to the end of the harvest. The tractor is supplemented by
+numerous smaller powers. All of which combine to make it possible for
+one-third of the people to grow enough to feed the whole American family
+and to export a surplus to Europe.
+
+At the same time, the standard of living is very much higher than it was
+when practically everyone worked in the fields to grow and to harvest
+the food necessary to live.
+
+Farm machinery is expensive, but it is more expensive to do without.
+Farmers who make the most money are the ones who use the greatest power
+and the best machinery. Farmers who have a hard time of it are the ones
+who use the old wheezy hand pump, the eight-foot harrow and the walking
+plow. The few horses they keep are small and the work worries them. The
+owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him. Worry is the
+commonest form of insanity.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 99.--Flail, the oldest threshing machine, still
+used for threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing. The staff is seven
+or eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and
+one-half inches thick in the middle, tapering to one and one-half inches
+at the ends. The staff and swiple are fastened together by rawhide
+thongs.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 100.--Bucket Yoke. It fits around the neck and
+over the shoulders. Such human yokes have been used for ages to carry
+two buckets of water, milk or other liquids. The buckets or pails should
+nearly balance each other. They are steadied by hand to prevent
+slopping.]
+
+At a famous plowing match held at Wheatland, Illinois, two interesting
+facts were brought out. Boys are not competing for furrow prizes and the
+walking plow has gone out of fashion. The plowing at the Wheatland
+plowing match was done by men with riding plows. Only one boy under
+eighteen years was ready to measure his ability against competition. The
+attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about three thousand, which
+shows that general interest in the old-fashioned plowing match is as
+keen as ever. A jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to draw
+a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time. It did its work well
+and without vulgar ostentation. Lack of sufficient land to keep it busy
+was the tractor's only disappointment, but it reached out a strong
+right arm and harrowed the furrows down fine, just to show that it
+"wasn't mad at nobody."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 101.--Well Sweep. The length of the sweep is
+sufficient to lower the bucket into the water and to raise it to the
+coping at the top of the brickwork. The rock on the short end of the
+sweep is just heavy enough to balance the bucket full of water.]
+
+Modern farm methods are continually demanding more power. Larger
+implements are being used and heavier horses are required to pull them.
+A great deal of farm work is done by engine power. Farm power is
+profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in manufacturing
+high-priced products. It may be profitable also in preventing waste by
+working up cheap materials into valuable by-products. The modern,
+well-managed farm is a factory and it should be managed along
+progressive factory methods. In a good dairy stable hay, straw, grains
+and other feeds are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 102.--Wire Stretcher. A small block and tackle
+will stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence. By using two
+wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for
+splicing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 103.--Block and Tackle. The rope is threaded into
+two double blocks. There is a safety stop that holds the load at any
+height.]
+
+Farming pays in proportion to the amount of work intelligently applied
+to this manner of increasing values. It is difficult to make a profit
+growing and selling grain. Grain may sell for more than the labor and
+seed, but it takes so much vitality from the land that depreciation of
+capital often is greater than the margin of apparent profit. When grains
+are grown and fed to live-stock on the farm, business methods demand
+better buildings and more power, which means that the farmer is
+employing auxiliary machinery and other modern methods to enhance
+values.
+
+In other manufacturing establishments raw material is worked over into
+commercial products which bring several times the amount of money paid
+for the raw material.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 104.--Farm Hoists. Two styles of farm elevating
+hoists are shown in this illustration. Two very different lifting jobs
+are also shown.]
+
+The principle is the same on the farm except that when a farmer raises
+the raw material he sells it to himself at a profit. When he feeds it to
+live-stock and sells the live-stock he makes another profit. When the
+manure is properly handled and returned to the soil he is making another
+profit on a by-product.
+
+Farming carried on in this way is a complicated business which requires
+superior knowledge of business methods and principles. In order to
+conduct the business of farming profitably the labor problem has to be
+met. Good farm help is expensive. Poor farm help is more expensive.
+While farm machinery also is expensive, it is cheaper than hand labor
+when the farmer has sufficient work to justify the outlay. It is
+tiresome to have agricultural writers ding at us about the superior acre
+returns of German farms. German hand-made returns may be greater per
+acre, but one American farmhand, by the use of proper machinery, will
+produce more food than a whole German family.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 105.--Two Powerful Winches. The one to the left is
+used for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land.
+The rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps or
+turns. The winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling tools
+or to hang a beef animal. The rope winds on the drum in two layers if
+necessary.]
+
+
+DOG CHURN
+
+Even the dog works on some farms. A dog is a nuisance among dairy
+cattle, but he can be made to earn his salt at churning time. All
+mechanism in connection with dog power must be light. It also is
+necessary to eliminate the friction as much as possible.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 106.--Dog Churn Power. A wheel keyed to an iron
+shaft is placed at an angle as shown. The weight of the dog turns the
+wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt. It is
+necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like a
+stall over the wheel.]
+
+The best way to make a dog power is to use a light wooden sulky wheel
+for the revolving turn table. Next best to the sulky wheel is a light
+buggy wheel. The wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is
+stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined at an angle of
+about fifteen degrees to give the necessary power. To steady the top of
+the shaft a light boxing is used, preferably a ball-bearing bicycle race
+to reduce friction. Power is conveyed to the churn by means of a grooved
+pulley on the top of the shaft. A small, soft rope or heavy string belt
+runs from this pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn.
+
+Dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately after the churning is
+finished. Dogs have been known to get on to the power wheel to call
+attention to their hungry condition. This calls to mind the necessity
+of arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off. When the
+wheel is running light, the dog cannot let go.
+
+A spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the wheel is the most
+satisfactory. The brake may be tripped and set against the tire
+automatically by a small lever and weight attached to the underside of
+the wheel. When the speed is too fast the weight swings out and sets the
+brake. When the speed slackens the weight drops back towards the center
+and releases the brake. When the speed is about right the weight swings
+between the two spring catches.
+
+
+BULL TREADMILL
+
+On dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure bred bull working a
+treadmill for exercise and to pump water. Sometimes he turns the
+cream-separator, but the motion is too unsteady for good results.
+Treadmills for this purpose are very simple. The mechanism turns a
+grooved pulley which propels a rope power conveyor. The rope belt may be
+carried across the yards in any direction and to almost any distance.
+Bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which carries an endless
+apron supported on rollers. The apron link chains pass around and turn
+two drumhead sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at the
+lower end. The sprocket-wheel drum shaft is geared to an auxiliary shaft
+which carries a grooved pulley. A rope belt power conveyor runs in this
+groove and carries power from the bull pen to the pump.
+
+Bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined lags, because a bull's
+steps on the tread power are naturally uneven and irregular. This
+construction gives an even straight tread to the travel surface. To
+prevent slipping, soft wooden strips are nailed onto the lags at the
+lower edges. Even incline tread blocks or lags are also recommended for
+horses that are not shod and for all animals with split hoofs. The
+traveling apron of the power is placed on an incline and the treads are
+carried around the two drums at the upper and lower ends of the frame by
+means of endless chains. There is a governor attachment which regulates
+the speed and prevents the machinery from "running away."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 107.--Bull Tread Power. Treadmills have gone out
+of fashion. Too much friction was the cause, but a mill like this is
+valuable to exercise a pure bred bull. Some dairymen make him pump
+water.]
+
+The simplest governor is made on the two-ball governor principle with
+weights on opposite levers. The governor is attached to two opposite
+spokes in the flywheel. As the speed increases the weights move outward
+because of their centrifugal force. This motion operates a brake lever
+to retard or stop the flywheel. When the machine stops an opposite
+weight rests against the flywheel until it starts in motion again, so
+the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released. This is necessary
+to get the animal on or off of the platform while it is at rest to avoid
+accidents. The usual incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power
+is wanted. This pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter of his own
+weight and it may be too severe for a heavy animal. The endless apron is
+an endless hill climb to the bull. Treadmills are not economical of
+power because there are so many bearings to generate friction.
+
+
+WINDMILLS
+
+Wind power is the cheapest power we have. A windmill properly
+proportioned to its work is a great help, especially when it is attached
+to a good pump for the purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank
+from which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes and for
+watering live-stock.
+
+You can have considerable patience with a windmill if you only depend
+upon it for pumping water, provided you have a tank that will hold a
+week's supply to be drawn during a dry, hot time when every animal on
+the farm demands a double allowance of water. That is the time when a
+farmer hates to attach himself to the pump handle for the purpose of
+working up a hickory breeze. That also is the time when the wind
+neglects a fellow.
+
+A good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its rated capacity,
+which is the strongest argument for buying a mill larger than at first
+seems necessary. Some men have suffered at some time in their lives with
+the delusion that they could tinker with a poorly constructed windmill
+and make it earn its oil. They have never waked up to a full
+realization of their early delusion. It is a positive fact that all
+windmills are not lazy, deceitful nor wholly unreliable. When properly
+constructed, rightly mounted and kept in good repair, they are not prone
+to work in a crazy fashion when the tank is full and loaf when it is
+empty. There are thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on
+the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for five or ten years at
+a stretch, all the time working for nothing year after year without
+grumbling, except when compelled to run without oil. At such times the
+protest is loud and nerve racking.
+
+A good windmill with suitable derrick, pump and piping may cost $150.
+The yearly expense figures something like this:
+
+  Interest on investment at 6% per annum   $ 9.00
+  Depreciation 10%                          15.00
+  Oil                                        1.00
+  Repairs                                    3.00
+
+making a total of $28, which is less than $2.50 per month for the work
+of elevating a constant supply of water for the house, stable and
+barnyard.
+
+
+ONE-MULE PUMP
+
+A home-made device that is much used on live-stock ranches in California
+is shown in the illustration. This simple mechanism is a practical means
+for converting circular mule motion into vertical reciprocating pump
+action. A solid post is set rather deep in the ground about twelve feet
+from the well. This post is the fulcrum support of the walking-beam. One
+end of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the well, where it
+connects with the pump shaft. The other end of the walking-beam is
+operated by a pitman shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the
+ground. A round iron shaft similar to a horsepower tumbling rod about
+ten or twelve feet in length and one and a half inches in diameter is
+used to convey power and motion to the pitman shaft.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 108.--Mule Pump. A practical home-made power to
+pump water for live-stock. It is used where the water-table is within 20
+feet of the surface of the ground. The drawing shows a post in the
+center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum. A
+mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft. The
+other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a short
+post as shown at _B_. See also detail "_B_.". The two plunger shafts are
+shown at _A_ _A_. The mule is hitched to the round iron shaft near the
+traveling wheel by means of a round hook. As the mule walks around in a
+circle the shaft revolves and operates the crank _B_. There are side
+guys not shown in the drawing to keep the walking-beam in position.]
+
+A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end of the tumbling rod. At
+the crank end is a babbitted boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down
+into the top of a short post set solidly into the ground, directly under
+the inner end of the walking-beam. This bolt permits the boxing to
+revolve with a swivel motion. Another swivel connects the upper end of
+the pitman shaft with the walking-beam. The whiffletree is attached to
+the tumbling rod by an iron hook. This hook is held in place by two iron
+collars fastened to the tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws.
+The mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a circle behind the
+mule turning the shaft which works the walking-beam and operates the
+pump. It would be difficult to design another horse or mule power so
+cheap and simple and effective. The mule grows wise after a while, so it
+is necessary to use a blindfold, or he will soldier on the job. With a
+little encouragement from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around
+and around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel after him.
+
+
+HORSEPOWER
+
+One horsepower is a force sufficient to lift 33,000 pounds one foot high
+in one minute.
+
+The term "horsepower" in popular use years ago meant a collection of
+gear-wheels and long levers with eight or ten horses solemnly marching
+around in a circle with a man perched on a platform in the center in the
+capacity of umpire.
+
+This was the old threshing-machine horsepower. It was the first real
+success in pooling many different farm power units to concentrate the
+combined effort upon one important operation.
+
+Not many horses are capable of raising 33,000 pounds one foot in one
+minute every minute for an hour or a day. Some horses are natural-born
+slackers with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own game. Some
+horses walk faster than others, also horses vary in size and capacity
+for work. But during a busy time each horse was counted as one
+horsepower, and they were only eight or ten in number. And it so
+developed that the threshing horsepower had limitations which the
+separator outgrew.
+
+The old threshing horsepower has been superseded by steam engines and
+gasoline and kerosene power, but horses are more important than ever.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 109.--Horse Power, showing the manner of attaching
+the braced lever to the bull wheel.]
+
+Farm horses are larger and more powerful; they are better kept, better
+trained, and hitched to better machinery, because it pays. One man
+drives three 1,600-pound draft horses as fast as he used to drive two
+1,000-pound general-purpose horses. The three drafters make play of a
+heavy load, while the two light horses worry themselves poor and
+accomplish little. Modern farm machinery is heavier, it cuts wider and
+digs deeper and does more thorough work. Modern farm requirements go
+scientifically into the proper cultivation and preparation of soil to
+increase fertility. Old methods used up fertility until the land refused
+to produce profitably.
+
+Although the old familiar horsepower has been greatly outclassed, it has
+not been discarded. There are many small horsepowers in use for
+elevating grain, baling hay, cutting straw for feed and bedding,
+grinding feed and other light work where engine power is not available.
+
+
+WATER-POWER
+
+Water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of stationary farm
+power, when a steady stream of water may be harnessed to a good
+water-wheel. It is not a difficult engineering feat to throw a dam
+across a small stream and take the water out into a penstock to supply
+water to a turbine water-wheel. In the first place it is necessary to
+measure the flow of water to determine the size of water-wheel which may
+be used to advantage. In connection with the flow of water it is also
+important to know the fall. Water is measured by what is termed a
+"weir." It is easily made by cutting an oblong notch in a plank placed
+across the stream, as a temporary dam which raises the water a few
+inches to get a steady, even flow of water through the notch so that
+calculations may be made in miner's inches. The term "miner's inch" is
+not accurate, but it comes near enough for practical purposes. Measuring
+the volume of water should be done during a dry time in summer.
+
+The fall of the stream is easily measured by means of a carpenter's
+level and a stake. The stake is driven into the ground at a point
+downstream where water may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace
+established to the best advantage. Sighting over the level to a mark on
+the stake will show the amount of fall. When a manufacturer of
+water-wheels has the amount of water and the fall, he can estimate the
+size and character of wheel to supply. The penstock may be vertical or
+placed on a slant. A galvanized pipe sufficient to carry the necessary
+amount of water may be laid along the bank, but it should be thoroughly
+well supported because a pipe full of water is heavy, and settling is
+likely to break a joint.
+
+Galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not necessarily expensive. It
+may be made at any tin shop and put together on the ground in sections.
+The only difficult part about it is soldering the under side of the
+joints, but generally it may be rolled a little to one side until the
+bottom of the seam is reached.
+
+The most satisfactory way to carry power from the water-wheel to the
+farm buildings is by means of electricity. The dynamo may be coupled to
+the water-wheel and wires carried any required distance.
+
+The work of installing electric power machinery is more a question of
+detail than mechanics or electrical engineering. The different
+appliances are bought from the manufacturer and placed where they are
+needed. It is principally a question of expense and quantity of
+electricity needed or developed. If the current is used for power, then
+a motor is connected with the dynamo and current from the dynamo drives
+the motor. A dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft at the
+source of power and the motor may be placed in the power-house or any of
+the other buildings.
+
+The cost of farm waterworks depends principally on the amount of power
+developed. Small machinery may be had for a few hundred dollars, but
+large, powerful machinery is expensive. If the stream is large and
+considerable power is going to waste it might pay to put in a larger
+plant and sell current to the neighbors for electric lighting and for
+power purposes. Standard machinery is manufactured for just such plants.
+
+The question of harnessing a stream on your own land when you control
+both banks is a simple business proposition. If anyone else can set up a
+plausible plea of riparian rights, flood damage, interstate
+complications or interference with navigation, it then becomes a
+question of litigation to be decided by some succeeding generation.
+
+
+STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE
+
+Farm engines usually are of two different types, steam engines and
+gasoline or oil engines. Steam stationary engines are used on dairy
+farms because steam is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and
+sanitary. The boiler that furnishes power to run the engine also
+supplies steam to heat water and steam for sterilizing bottles, cans and
+other utensils.
+
+For some unaccountable reason steam engines are more reliable than
+gasoline engines. At the same time they require more attention, that is,
+the boilers do. Steam engines have been known to perform their tasks
+year after year without balking and without repairs or attention of any
+kind except to feed steam and oil into the necessary parts, and
+occasionally repack the stuffing boxes.
+
+On the other hand, boilers require superintendence to feed them with
+both fuel and water. The amount of time varies greatly. If the boiler is
+very much larger than the engine, that is, if the boiler is big enough
+to furnish steam for two such engines, it will furnish steam for one
+engine and only half try. This means that the fireman can raise 40 or 60
+pounds of steam and attend to his other work around the dairy or barn.
+
+Where steam boilers are required for heating water and furnishing steam
+to scald cans and wash bottles, the boiler should be several horsepower
+larger than the engine requirements. There is no objection to this
+except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller one, and that more
+steam is generated than is actually required to run the engine. The kind
+of work required of a boiler and engine must determine the size and
+general character of the installation.
+
+Portable boilers and engines are not quite so satisfactory as
+stationary, but there are a great many portable outfits that give good
+satisfaction, and there is the advantage of moving them to the different
+parts of the farm when power is required for certain purposes.
+
+
+SMALL GASOLINE ENGINES
+
+A gasoline engine of 2-1/2 horsepower is the most useful size for a
+general purpose farm engine. It is convenient to run the pump,
+washing-machine, fanning-mill, cream-separator, grindstone, and other
+similar farm chores that have heretofore always been done by human
+muscle. A small engine may be placed on a low-down truck and moved from
+one building to another by hand. One drive belt 20 or 30 feet long,
+making a double belt reach of 12 or 15 feet, will answer for each
+setting.
+
+The engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of any stationary
+machine is all that is necessary. When the truck is once placed in
+proper position the wheels may be blocked by a casting of concrete
+molded into a depression in the ground in front and behind each wheel.
+These blocks are permanent so that the truck may be pulled to the same
+spot each time.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 110.--Kerosene Farm Engine. This is a very compact
+type of engine with heavy flywheels. A longer base might sit steadier on
+a wagon, but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives good
+service.]
+
+A gasoline engine for farm use is expected to run by the hour without
+attention. For this reason it should have a good, reliable hit and miss
+governor to regulate the speed, as this type is the most economical in
+fuel. It should have a magneto in addition to a six-cell dry battery. It
+should be equipped with an impulse starter, a device that eliminates all
+starting troubles. The engine should be perfectly balanced so as to
+insure smooth running, which adds materially to the life of the engine.
+With a good, solid pump jack, a 2-1/2 horsepower engine will pump water
+until the tank is full, whether it requires one hour or half a day.
+
+It is easily moved to the dairy house to run the separator. As the
+cream-separator chore comes along regularly every night and every
+morning, the engine and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy
+house more than any other place. If the dairy house is too small to let
+the engine in, then an addition is necessary, for the engine must be
+kept under cover. The engine house should have some artistic pretensions
+and a coat of paint.
+
+
+KEROSENE PORTABLE ENGINES
+
+The kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle governor type in
+order to maintain approximately uniform high temperature at all times,
+so essential to the proper combustion of kerosene fuel. Therefore, a
+kerosene engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided. However,
+there are certain classes of work where a throttle governor engine is at
+a decided disadvantage, such as sawing wood, because a throttle governor
+engine will not go from light load to full load as quickly as will a
+hit-and-miss type, and consequently chokes down much easier, causing
+considerable loss of time.
+
+A general purpose portable kerosene engine is admirably suited to all
+work requiring considerable horsepower and long hours of service with a
+fairly steady load, such as tractor work, threshing, custom feed
+grinding, irrigating and silo filling. There will be a considerable
+saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine if the engine will really run
+with kerosene, or other low-priced fuel, without being mixed with
+gasoline.
+
+In choosing a kerosene engine, particular attention should be paid to
+whether or not the engine can be run on all loads without smoking.
+Unless this can be done, liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will
+cause excessive wear on the piston and rings. A good kerosene engine
+should show as clean an exhaust as when operating on gasoline and
+should develop approximately as much horsepower. Another feature is
+harmonizing the fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not
+counteract the effects of the other.
+
+
+PORTABLE FARM ENGINE AND TRUCK
+
+[Illustration: Figure 111.--Portable Farm Engine. This engine is
+permanently mounted on a low wheel truck wagon. The saw frame is
+detachable and the same truck is used for spraying and other work.]
+
+A convenient arrangement for truck and portable power for spraying,
+sawing wood and irrigation pumping, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration. The truck is low down, which keeps the machinery within
+reach. The wheels are well braced, which tends to hold the outfit steady
+when the engine is running. The saw table is detachable. When removed,
+the spraying tank bolts on to the same truck frame; also the elevated
+table with the railing around it, where the men stand to spray large
+apple trees, is bolted onto the wagon bed.
+
+Spraying never was properly done until the powerful engine and high
+pressure tanks were invented. Spraying to be effective, should be fine
+as mist, which requires a pressure of 150 pounds. There may be a number
+of attachments to a spraying outfit of this kind. A pipe suspended under
+the frame with a nozzle for each row is used to spray potatoes,
+strawberry vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows. When
+not in use as a portable engine it is blocked firmly into place to run
+the regular stationary farm machinery.
+
+
+HYDRAULIC RAM
+
+The hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power from the momentum of
+running water. A ram consists of a pipe of large diameter, an air
+chamber and another pipe of small diameter, all connected by means of
+valves to encourage the flow of water in two different directions. A
+supply of running water with a fall of at least two feet is run through
+a pipe several inches in diameter reaching from above the dam to the
+hydraulic ram, where part of the flow enters the air chamber of the ram.
+Near the foot of the large pipe, or at what might be called the
+tailrace, is a peculiarly constructed valve that closes when running
+water starts to pass through it. When the large valve closes the water
+stops suddenly, which causes a back-pressure sufficient to lift a
+check-valve to admit a certain amount of water from the large supply
+pipe into the air-chamber of the ram.
+
+After the flow of water is checked, the foot-valve drops of its own
+weight, which again starts the flow of water through the large pipe, and
+the process is repeated a thousand or a million times, each time forcing
+a little water through the check-valve into the air chamber of the ram.
+The water is continually being forced out into the small delivery pipe
+in a constant stream because of the steady pressure of the imprisoned
+air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion. This imprisoned air
+compresses after each kick and expands between kicks in a manner
+intended to force a more or less steady flow of water through the small
+pipe. The air pressure is maintained by means of a small valve that
+permits a little air to suck in with the supply of water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 112.--Hydraulic Ram. The upper drawing shows how
+to install the ram. The lower drawing is a detail section through the
+center of the ram. Water flows downhill through the supply pipe. The
+intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water through
+another valve into the air-chamber. Air pressure forces this water out
+through delivery pipe. Another valve spills the waste water over into
+the tailrace. An automatic air-valve intermittently admits air into the
+air-chamber.]
+
+Water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this means, sometimes to
+considerable distance. The size of the ram and its power to lift water
+depends upon the amount of water at the spring and the number of feet of
+fall. In laying the small pipe, it should be placed well down under
+ground to keep it cool in summer and to bury it beyond the reach of
+winter frost. At the upper end where the water is delivered a storage
+tank with an overflow is necessary, so the water can run away when not
+being drawn for use. A constant supply through a ram demands a constant
+delivery. It is necessary to guard the water intake at the dam. A fence
+protection around the supply pool to keep live-stock or wild animals out
+is the first measure of precaution. A fine screen surrounding the upper
+end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is necessary to keep
+small trash from interfering with the valves.
+
+
+THE FARM TRACTOR
+
+Farm tractors are becoming practical. Most theories have had a try out,
+the junk pile has received many failures and the fittest are about to
+survive. Now, if the manufacturers will standardize the rating and the
+important parts and improve their selling organizations the whole nation
+will profit. The successful tractors usually have vertical engines with
+four cylinders. They are likely to have straight spur transmission
+gears, and a straight spur or chain drive, all carefully protected from
+dust. And they will have considerable surface bearing to avoid packing
+the soil. Some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive
+wheels--a principle that utilizes weight to increase traction. Other
+tractors exert a great deal of energy in forcing a small, narrow front
+steering-wheel through the soft ground. Any farmer who has pushed a
+loaded wheelbarrow knows what that means. Some kerosene tractors require
+a large percentage of gasoline. The driver may be as much to blame as
+the engine. But it should be corrected.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 113.--Tractor Transmission Gear. Spur gears are
+the most satisfactory for heavy work.]
+
+Manufacturers should do more educational work and talk less about the
+wonderfully marvelous and marvelously wonderful. Salesmen should study
+mechanics instead of oratory. Tractor efficiency should be rated
+practically instead of theoretically. The few actual reports of
+performance have emanated from tests with new machines in the hands of
+trained demonstrators. Manufacturers include belt power work among the
+virtues of farm tractors, and they enumerate many light jobs, such as
+running a cream-separator, sawing wood, pumping water and turning the
+fanning-mill. Well, a farm tractor can do such work--yes. So can an
+elephant push a baby carriage. If manufacturers would devise a practical
+means of using electricity as an intermediary, and explain to farmers
+how a day's energy may be stored in practical working batteries to be
+paid out in a week, then we could understand why we should run a 20
+horsepower engine to operate a cream-separator one hour at night and
+another hour in the morning.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 114.--Straight Transmission Gear, forward and
+chain drive reverse, for traction engine.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DRIVEN MACHINES
+
+
+FARM WATERWORKS
+
+Every farm has its own water supply. Some are very simple, others are
+quite elaborate. It is both possible and practical for a farmer to have
+his own tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city. When good
+water is abundant within 75 feet of the surface of the ground the farm
+supply may be had cheaper and better than the city. Even deep well
+pumping is practical with good machinery rightly installed. Farm
+waterworks should serve the house and the watering troughs under a
+pressure of at least 40 pounds at the ground level. The system should
+also include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigating the
+garden. If strawberries or other intensive money crops are grown for
+market there should be sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in
+time of drouth. These different uses should all be credited to the farm
+waterworks system pro rata, according to the amounts used by the
+different departments of the farm. The books would then prove that the
+luxury of hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less than
+the average city family pays.
+
+_Three Systems of Water Storage._--The first plan adopted for supplying
+water under pressure on farms was the overhead tank. The water was
+lifted up into the tank by a windmill and force pump. Because wind
+power proved rather uncertain farmers adopted the gasoline engine,
+usually a two horsepower engine.
+
+The second water storage plan was the air-tight steel water-tank to be
+placed in the cellar or in a pit underground. The same pump and power
+supplies the water for this system, but it also requires an air-pump to
+supply pressure to force the water out of the tank.
+
+The third plan forces the water out of the well by air pressure, as it
+is needed for use. No water pump is required in this system; the
+air-compressor takes its place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 115.--The Farm Pump. It superseded the iron-bound
+bucket, the slimy old bucket, the malaria-lined bucket that hung in the
+well, but it wore out the women. Oil was never wasted on its creaking
+joints. Later it was fitted with a stuffing-box and an air-chamber, and
+the plunger was hitched to the windmill.
+
+To the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers. The upper digger
+is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom of a hole
+dug by the lower digger.]
+
+_Suction-Pumps._--The word suction, when applied to pumps, is a
+misnomer. The principle upon which such pumps work is this: The pump
+piston drives the air out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum.
+The pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds per square inch
+of surface. This pressure forces sufficient water up through the
+so-called suction pipe to fill the vacuum in the cylinder. The water is
+held in the cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves. As the piston again
+descends into the cylinder it plunges into water instead of air. A
+foot-valve in the bottom end of the hollow piston opens while going down
+and closes to hold and lift the water as the piston rises. Water from
+the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to follow the piston and the
+pump continues to lift water so long as the joints remain air-tight. The
+size of piston and length of stroke depend on the volume of water
+required, the height to which it must be lifted and the power available.
+A small power and a small cylinder will lift a small quantity of water
+to a considerable height. But increasing the volume of water requires a
+larger pump and a great increase in the power to operate it. The size of
+the delivery pipe has a good deal to do with the flow of water. When
+water is forced through a small pipe at considerable velocity, there is
+a good deal of friction. Often the amount of water delivered is reduced
+because the discharge pipe is too small. Doubling the diameter of a pipe
+increases its capacity four times. Square turns in the discharge pipe
+are obstructions; either the pipe must be larger or there will be a
+diminished flow of water. Some pump makers are particular to furnish
+easy round bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows. A great
+many pumps are working under unnecessary handicaps, simply because
+either the supply pipe or discharge pipe is not in proportion to the
+capacity of the pump, or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 116.--Hand Force-Pump. Showing two ways of
+attaching wooden handles to hand force-pumps.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 117.--Rotary Pump. Twin water-chamber rotary pumps
+take water through the bottom and divide the supply, carrying half of
+the stream around to the left and the other half to the right. The two
+streams meet and are discharged at the top.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 118.--Section of Rotary Pump.]
+
+_Rotary Pumps._--A twin-chamber rotary pump admits water at the bottom
+of the chamber and forces it out through the top. Intermeshing cogs and
+rotary cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom, as shown by
+the arrows in Figure 118. The stream of water is divided by the cams, as
+it enters the supply pipe at the bottom, and half of the water is
+carried each way around the outsides of the double chamber. These
+streams of water meet at the top of the chamber, where they unite to
+fill the discharge pipe. These pumps operate without air-chambers and
+supply water in a continuous stream. They may be speeded up to throw
+water under high pressure for fire fighting, but for economy in ordinary
+use the speed is kept down to 200 revolutions, or thereabout. Rotary
+pumps are also made with one single water chamber cylinder. The pump
+head, or shaft, is placed a little off center. A double end cam moves
+the water. Both ends of the cam fit against the bore of the cylinder. It
+works loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the pump head.
+As the shaft revolves the eccentric motion of the double cam changes the
+sizes of the water-pockets. The pockets are largest at the intake and
+smallest at the discharge. Rotary pumps are comparatively cheap, as
+regards first cost, but they are not economical of power. In places
+where the water-table is near the surface of the ground they will throw
+water in a very satisfactory manner. But they are more used in
+refineries and factories for special work, such as pumping oil and other
+heavy liquids.
+
+_Centrifugal Pumps._--The invention and improvement of modern
+centrifugal pumps has made the lifting of water in large quantities
+possible. These pumps are constructed on the turbine principle. Water is
+lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel revolving under high
+speed. Water is admitted at the center and discharged at the outside of
+the casing. Centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from twenty to
+sixty feet. Manufacturers claim that farmers can afford to lift
+irrigation water sixty feet with a centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene
+engine.
+
+The illustrations show the principle upon which the pump works and the
+most approved way of setting pumps and engines. Centrifugal pumps
+usually are set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table. While
+these pumps have a certain amount of suction, it is found that short
+supply pipes are much more efficient. Where water is found in abundance
+within from 15 to 30 feet of the surface, and the wells may be so
+constructed that the pull-down, or the lowering of the water while
+pumping is not excessive, then it is possible to lift water profitably
+to irrigate crops in the humid sections. Irrigation in such cases, in
+the East, is more in the nature of insurance against drouth. Valuable
+crops, such as potatoes and strawberries, may be made to yield double,
+or better, by supplying plenty of moisture at the critical time in crop
+development. It is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely
+to develop in the near future.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 119.--Centrifugal Pump. This style of pump is used
+in many places for irrigation. It runs at high speed, which varies
+according to the size of the pump. It takes water at the center and
+discharges it at the outside of the casing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 120.--Air Pressure Pump. Pumping water by air
+pressure requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure
+of 100 pounds per square inch. This illustration shows the pressure
+tank, engine, air-compressor, well and submerged pump.]
+
+_Air Pressure Pump._--Instead of pumping water out of the well some
+farmers pump air into the well to force the water out. A double
+compartment cylindrical tank is placed in the water in the well. These
+tanks are connected with the farm water distributing system to be
+carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables. Air under a
+pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds per square inch is stored in a steel
+tank above ground. Small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with
+the air-chamber of the air-water tank in the well. A peculiar automatic
+valve regulates the air so that it enters the compartment that is
+filled, or partly filled, with water, and escapes from the empty one so
+the two compartments work together alternately. That is, the second
+chamber fills with water, while the first chamber is being drawn upon.
+Then the first chamber fills while the second is being emptied. This
+system will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter, and to
+a depth of 140 feet. It might be made to work at a greater depth, but it
+seems hardly practical to do so for the reason that, after allowing for
+friction in the pipes, 100 pounds of air pressure is necessary to lift
+water 150 feet. An air tank of considerable size is needed to provide
+storage for sufficient air to operate the system without attention for
+several days. Careful engineering figures are necessary to account for
+the different depths of farm wells, and the various amounts of water and
+power required. For instance: The air tank already contains 1,000
+gallons of air at atmospheric pressure--then: Forcing 1,000 gallons of
+atmospheric air into a 1,000-gallon tank will give a working pressure of
+15 pounds per square inch; 2,000 gallons, 30 pounds; 3,000 gallons, 45
+pounds, and so on. Therefore, a pressure of 100 pounds in a 1,000-gallon
+tank (42 inches by 14 feet) would require 6,600 gallons of free
+atmosphere, in addition to the original 1,000 gallons, and the tank
+would then contain 1,000 gallons of compressed air under a working
+pressure of 100 pounds per square inch. A one cylinder compressor 6
+inches by 6 inches, operating at a speed of 200 R.P.M. would fill this
+tank to a working pressure of 100 pounds in about 50 minutes. One gallon
+of air will deliver one gallon of water at the faucet. But the air must
+have the same pressure as the water, and there must be no friction.
+Thus, one gallon of air under a working pressure of forty-five pounds,
+will, theoretically, deliver one gallon of water to a height of 100
+feet. But it takes three gallons of free air to make one gallon of
+compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure. If the lift is 100 feet,
+then 1,000 gallons of air under a pressure of forty-five pounds will
+theoretically deliver 1,000 gallons of water. Practically, the air tank
+would have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to secure the
+1,000 gallons of water before losing the elasticity of the compressed
+air. If one thousand gallons of water is needed on the farm every day,
+then the air pump would have to work about one hour each morning. This
+may not be less expensive than pumping the water directly, but it offers
+the advantage of water fresh from the well. Pure air pumped into the
+well tends to keep the water from becoming stale.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 121.--(1) Single-Gear Pump Jack. This type of jack
+is used for wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. (2) Double-Gear, or
+Multiple-Gear Pump Jack. This is a rather powerful jack designed for
+deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 122.--Post Pump Jack. This arrangement is used in
+factories when floor space is valuable. The wide-face driving-pulley is
+shown to the left.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 123.--Three Jacks for Different Purposes. At the
+left is a reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right
+or left. The little jack in the center is for light work at high belt
+speed. To the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds such as
+hoisting or elevating grain.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 124.--Speed Jack, for reducing speed between
+engine and tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and
+the driven machine.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 125.--The Speed Jack on the left is used either to
+reduce or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion. The
+Speed Jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling rod
+or reverse. It transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod speed, or
+vice versa.]
+
+_Pump Jacks and Speed Jacks._--Farm pumps and speed-reducing jacks are
+partners in farm pumping. Force-pumps should not run faster than forty
+strokes per minute. Considerable power is required to move the piston
+when the water is drawn from a deep well and forced into an overhead
+tank. Jacks are manufactured which bolt directly to the pump, and there
+are pumps and jacks built together. A pump jack should have good, solid
+gearing to reduce the speed. Spur-gearing is the most satisfactory.
+Bevel-gears are wasteful of power when worked under heavy loads. Power
+to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least twelve inches in
+diameter with a four-inch face when belting is used. If a rope power
+conveyor is used, then pulleys of larger diameters are required to
+convey the same amount of power.
+
+Only general terms may be used in describing the farm pump, because the
+conditions differ in each case. Generally speaking, farmers fail to
+appreciate the amount of power used, and they are more than likely to
+buy a jack that is too light. Light machinery may do the work, but it
+goes to pieces quicker, while a heavy jack with solid connections will
+operate the pump year in and year out without making trouble. For
+increasing or reducing either speed or power some kind of jack is
+needed. All farm machines have their best speed. A certain number of
+revolutions per minute will accomplish more and do better work than any
+other speed. To apply power to advantage speed jacks have been invented
+to adjust the inaccuracies between driver and driven.
+
+
+IRRIGATION BY PUMPING
+
+The annual rainfall in the United States varies in different parts of
+the country from a few inches to a few feet. Under natural conditions
+some soils get too much moisture and some too little. Irrigation is
+employed to supply the deficiency and drainage, either natural or
+artificial, carries off the excess. Irrigation and drainage belong
+together. Irrigation fills the soil with moisture and drainage empties
+it. Thus, a condition is established that supplies valuable farm plants
+with both air and moisture. In the drier portions of the United States,
+nothing of value will grow without irrigation. In the so-called humid
+districts deficiency of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield
+and destroys the profit. The value of irrigation has been demonstrated
+in the West, and the practice is working eastward.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 126.--Centrifugal Pump Setting. When used for
+irrigation, centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as
+practical.]
+
+Irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity. A rainy season is a
+bountiful one. Irrigation supplies the bounty without encouraging
+destructive fungus diseases. Where water is abundant within easy reach,
+pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical. Improvements in pumps
+in recent years have increased their capacity and insured much greater
+reliability. A centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down to 75
+feet; beyond this depth the necessity of installing more expensive
+machinery places the business of pumping for irrigation on a different
+plane. A centrifugal pump will throw more water with less machinery than
+any other device, but like all other mechanical inventions, it has its
+limitations. In figuring economical pumping, the minimum quantity should
+be at least 100 gallons per minute, because time is an object, and
+irrigation, if done at all, should cover an area sufficient to bring
+substantial returns. Centrifugal pumps should be placed near the surface
+of the water in the well. For this reason, a large, dry well is dug down
+to the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly bolted to a
+concrete foundation built on the bottom of this well. A supply pipe may
+be extended any depth below the pump, but the standing water surface in
+the well should reach within a few feet of the pump. The pump and supply
+must be so well balanced against each other that the pull-down from
+pumping will not lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet
+below the pump. The nearer the ground water is to the pump the better.
+
+The water well below the pump may be bored, or a perforated well pipe
+may be driven; or several well points may be connected. The kind of well
+must depend upon the condition of the earth and the nature of the water
+supply. Driven wells are more successful when water is found in a
+stratum of coarse gravel.
+
+Before buying irrigation machinery, it is a good plan to test the water
+supply by temporary means. Any good farm pump may be hitched to a
+gasoline engine to determine if the water supply is lasting or not.
+Permanent pumping machinery should deliver the water on high ground. A
+main irrigation ditch may be run across the upper end of the field. This
+ditch should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped at
+convenient places to run through the corrugations to reach the roots of
+the plants to be benefited. There are different systems of irrigation
+designed to fit different soils. Corrugations are the cheapest and the
+most satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the water to
+soak into the soil sideways, as well as to sink down. The water should
+penetrate the soil on both sides of the corrugations for distances of
+several inches. Corrugations should be straight and true and just far
+enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across and meet between.
+Some soils will wash or gully out if the fall is too rapid. In such
+cases it may be necessary to terrace the land by following the natural
+contour around the ridges so the water may flow gently. Where the fall
+is very slight, that is, where the ground is so nearly level that it
+slopes away less than six inches in a hundred feet, it becomes necessary
+to prepare the land by building checks and borders to confine the water
+for a certain length of time. Then it is let out into the next check. In
+the check and border system the check bank on the lower side has an
+opening which is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam.
+When the canvas is lifted the water flows through and fills the next
+check. This system is more expensive, and it requires more knowledge of
+irrigation to get it started, and it is not likely to prove
+satisfactory in the East.
+
+For fruits and vegetables, what is known as the furrow system of
+irrigation is the most practical. An orchard is irrigated by plowing
+furrows on each side of each row of trees. The water is turned into
+these furrows and it runs across the orchard like so many little
+rivulets. Potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by running water
+through between the rows after the potatoes have been ridged by a double
+shovel-plow. This plan also works well with strawberries. After the land
+is prepared for irrigation, the expense of supplying water to a fruit
+orchard, strawberry patch or potato field is very little compared with
+the increase in yield. In fact, there are seasons when one irrigation
+will save the crop and produce an abundant yield, when otherwise it
+would have been almost a total loss.
+
+_Overhead Spray Irrigation._--The most satisfactory garden irrigation is
+the overhead spray system. Posts are set ten feet apart in rows 50 feet
+apart. Water pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely in
+position by large staples. These water pipes are perforated by drilling
+a line of small holes about three feet apart in a straight line along
+one side of the pipe. The holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are
+screwed in. The overhead pipes are connected with standpipes at the
+highest place, generally at the ends of the rows. The pipe-lines are
+loosely coupled to the standpipes to permit them to roll partly around
+to direct the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 127.--Overhead Irrigation. Diagram showing the
+arrangement of pipes for irrigating one acre of land. The pipes are
+supported on posts six feet high.]
+
+Six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or spray twenty-five
+feet, which is far enough to meet the spray from the next row, so the
+ground will be completely covered. To do this the pipes are rolled from
+one side to the other, through a 90 degree arc to throw the spray on
+both sides. The pipes usually are laid with a grade which follows down
+the slope of the land. A fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient. Water
+is always admitted at the upper end of each pipe-line to flow down by
+gravity, assisted by tank pressure. A pressure of about forty pounds is
+needed to produce a fine spray, and to send it across to meet the
+opposite jets. The little brass nozzles are drilled with about a
+one-eighth inch hollow. But the jet opening is small, about No. 20 W. G.
+This gives a wire-drawn stream that quickly vaporizes when it meets the
+resistance of the atmosphere. When properly installed a fine misty rain
+is created, which quickly takes the same temperature as the air, and
+settles so gently that the most delicate plants are not injured.
+
+_Quantity of Water to Use._--Good judgment is necessary in applying
+water to crops in regard to quantity, as well as the time of making
+application. Generally speaking, it is better to wait until the crop
+really needs moisture. When the pump is started give the crop plenty
+with the expectation that one irrigation will be sufficient. Much
+depends upon the amount of moisture in the soil; also the kind of crop
+and weather conditions enter into the problem. On sandy land that is
+very dry where drainage is good, water may be permitted to run in the
+corrugations for several days until the ground is thoroughly soaked.
+When potatoes are forming, or clover is putting down its big root
+system, a great deal of water is needed. Irrigation sufficient to make
+two inches of rainfall may be used to advantage for such crops under
+ordinary farming conditions. It is necessary after each irrigation to
+break the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation. This is just
+as important after irrigation as it is after a rain shower. Also any
+little pockets that hold water must be carefully drained out, otherwise
+the crop will be injured by standing water. We are not supposed to have
+such pockets on land that has been prepared for irrigation.
+
+_Kind of Crops to Irrigate._--Wheat, oats, barley, etc., may be helped
+with one irrigation from imminent failure to a wealth of production. But
+these rainfall grain crops do not come under the general classification
+that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond his diversity plans
+for producing considerable variety. Fruits, roots, clover, alfalfa,
+vegetables and Indian corn are money crops under irrigation. Certain
+seed crops yield splendidly when watered. An apple orchard properly
+cared for and irrigated just at the right time will pay from five
+hundred to a thousand dollars per acre. Small fruits are just as
+valuable. These successes account for the high prices of irrigated land.
+In the East and in the great Middle West, valuable crops are cut short
+or ruined by drouth when the fruit or corn is forming. It makes no
+difference how much rain comes along at other times in the year, if the
+roots cannot find moisture at the critical time, the yield is reduced
+often below the profit of raising and harvesting the crop. Strawberry
+blossoms shrivel and die in the blooming when rain fails. Irrigation is
+better than rain for strawberries. Strawberries under irrigation may be
+made to yield more bushels than potatoes under humid conditions. One
+hundred bushels of strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale, but
+it is possible on rich land under irrigation.
+
+The cost of pumping for irrigation, where the well and machinery is used
+for no other purpose, must be charged up to the crop. The items of
+expense are interest on the first cost of the pumping machinery,
+depreciation, upkeep and running expenses. On Eastern farms, however,
+where diversified farming is the business, this expense may be divided
+among the different lines of work. Where live-stock is kept, it is
+necessary to have a good, reliable water supply for the animals. A
+reservoir on high ground so water may be piped to the watering troughs
+and to the house is a great convenience. Also the same engine that does
+the pumping may be used for other work in connection with the farm, so
+that the irrigation pump engine, instead of lying idle ten or eleven
+months in the year, may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its
+keep. Well-water contains many impurities. For this reason, it is
+likely to be valuable for crop growing purposes in a wider sense than
+merely to supply moisture. Well-water contains lime, and lime is
+beneficial to most soils. It has been noticed that crops grow especially
+well when irrigated from wells.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 128.--Power Transmission. Circular motion is
+converted into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two
+pitman cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate. Power is carried
+to a distance by wires. To reduce friction the wires are supported by
+swinging hangers. Sometimes wooden rods are used instead of wires to
+lessen expansion and contraction.]
+
+_House and Barns Supplied from a Reservoir._--A farm reservoir may
+sometimes be built very cheaply by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow
+between two hills, or ridges. On other farms, it is necessary to scrape
+out a hole on the highest ground within reach. For easy irrigation a
+reservoir is necessary, and it is economical because the pump may work
+overtime and supply enough water so the irrigation may be done quickly
+and with sufficient water to make it effective. When the cost of the
+reservoir can be charged up to the different departments of the
+business, such as irrigation, live-stock and house use, the cost is
+divided and the profits are multiplied.
+
+_Power Conveyor._--Circular motion is converted into reciprocal motion
+to operate a pump at a distance from the engine. The short jack crank
+oscillates the driving pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth.
+The distance to which power may be carried is limited by the expansion
+and contraction of the conveying wires. Wooden rods are better under
+extremes of temperature. Where an engine is used night and morning in
+the dairy house to run a cream separator, this kind of power
+transmission may be worked to operate the pump at the house. Light wire
+hangers will support the line wires or rods. They should be about three
+feet in length, made fast at top and bottom to prevent wear. The spring
+of a No. 10 wire three feet long is sufficient to swing the length of a
+pump stroke and the friction is practically nothing.
+
+
+ELECTRICITY ON THE FARM
+
+Electric current in some sections may be purchased from electric
+railways or city lighting plants. But the great majority of farms are
+beyond the reach of high tension transmission cables. In some places
+three or four farmers may club together and buy a small lighting plant
+to supply their own premises with both light and power. Unless an
+engineer is employed to run it trouble is sure to follow, because one
+family does all of the work and others share equally in the benefits.
+The solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of his own.
+The proposition is not so difficult as it sounds. Two-horsepower plants
+are manufactured for this very purpose. But there is more to it than
+buying a dynamo and a few lamp bulbs. A farm electric system should
+supply power to run all of the light stationary machinery about the
+farm, and that means storage batteries, and the use of one or more small
+electric motors. There are several ways to arrange the plant, but to
+save confusion it is better to study first the storage battery plan and
+to start with an engine large enough to pump water and run the dynamo at
+the same time. It is a good way to do two jobs at once--you store water
+enough in the supply tank to last twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and
+at the same time you store up sufficient electricity to run the
+cream-separator for a week. Electric power is the only power that is
+steady enough to get all of the cream.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 129.--Electric Power Plant. A practical farm
+generator and storage battery, making a complete farm electric plant
+that will develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of
+the farm buildings.]
+
+Refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric power. There are small
+automatic refrigerator machines that maintain low temperatures to
+preserve food products. This branch of the work may be made profitable.
+Laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor until the small
+power washers and wringers were invented. Now a small electric motor
+takes the blue out of Monday, and the women wear smiles. Electric
+flatirons afford the greatest comfort on Tuesday. The proper heat is
+maintained continually until the last piece is ironed. Cooking by
+electricity is another great success. Some women buy separate cooking
+utensils, such as toasters, chafing dishes and coffee percolators.
+Others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a cost of fifty
+dollars and feel that the money was well spent. It takes about 100
+K.W.H. per month in hot weather to cook by electricity for a family of
+four. In winter, when heat is more of a luxury, the coal or wood range
+will save half of the electric current. Dishwashing by electricity is
+another labor-saver three times a day. Vacuum cleaners run by
+electricity take the dust and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand
+labor than pushing a carpet sweeper. Incubators are better heated by
+electricity than any other way. Brooders come under the same class.
+Sewing-machines were operated by electricity in sweatshops years
+ago--because it paid. Farm women are now enjoying the same privilege.
+
+Electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular, if not the most
+interesting result of electric generation in the country. This feature
+of the subject was somewhat overtaxed by talkative salesmen
+representing some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting
+plants, but the business has steadied down. Real electric generating
+machinery is being manufactured and sold on its merits in small units.
+
+Not many miles from Chicago there is an electric lighting plant on a
+dairy farm that is giving satisfaction. The stables are large and they
+are managed on the plan of milking early in the morning and again in the
+middle of the afternoon. The morning work requires a great deal of light
+in the different stables, more light than ordinary, because the milking
+is done by machinery. The milking machine air-pump is driven by
+electricity generated on the farm, the power being supplied by a
+kerosene engine.
+
+Electricity on this farm is used in units, separate lines extending to
+the different buildings. The lighting plant is operated on what is known
+as the 32-volt system; the rating costs less to install than some others
+and the maintenance is less than when a higher voltage is used. I
+noticed also that there are fewer parts in connection with the plant
+than in other electric light works that I have examined.
+
+Technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior under different
+circumstances is hardly necessary to a farmer, because the manufacturers
+have simplified the mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an
+extent that it is only necessary to use ordinary precaution to run the
+plant to its capacity.
+
+At the same time it is just as well to know something about generators,
+switchboards and the meanings of such terms and names as volt, ampere,
+battery poles, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, discharge switch,
+underload circuit breaker, false fuse blocks, etc., because familiarity
+with these names, and the parts they represent gives the person
+confidence in charging the batteries. Such knowledge also supplies a
+reason for the one principal battery precaution, which is not to use out
+all of the electricity the batteries contain.
+
+Those who have electric lighting plants on the farm do not seem to feel
+the cost of running the plants, because they use the engine for other
+purposes. Generally manufacturers figure about 1 H.P. extra to run a
+dynamo to supply from 25 to 50 lights. My experience with farm engines
+is that for ordinary farm work such as driving the cream separator,
+working the pump and grinding feed, a two-horse power engine is more
+useful than any other size. Farmers who conduct business in the usual
+way will need a three-horsepower engine if they contemplate adding an
+electric lighting system to the farm equipment.
+
+Among the advantages of an electric lighting system is the freedom from
+care on the part of the women. There are no lamps to clean or broken
+chimneys to cut a finger, so that when the system is properly installed
+the only work the women have to do is to turn the switches to throw the
+lights on or off as needed.
+
+The expense in starting a farm electric light plant may be a little more
+than some other installations, but it seems to be more economical in
+service when figured from a farmer's standpoint, taking into
+consideration the fact that he is using power for generating electricity
+that under ordinary farm management goes to waste.
+
+A three-horsepower engine will do the same amount of work with the same
+amount of gasoline that a two-horsepower engine will do. This statement
+may not hold good when figured in fractions, but it will in farm
+practice. Also when running a pump or cream separator the engine is
+capable of doing a little extra work so that the storage batteries may
+be charged with very little extra expense.
+
+On one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine is used to
+furnish power for various farm purposes. The engine is belted to a
+direct-current generator of the shunt-wound type. The generator is wired
+to an electric storage battery of 88 ampere hour capacity. The battery
+is composed of a number of separate cells. The cells are grouped
+together in jars. These jars contain the working parts of the batteries.
+As each jar of the battery is complete in itself, any one jar may be cut
+out or another added without affecting the other units. The switchboard
+receives current either from the battery or from the engine and
+generator direct. There are a number of switches attached to the
+switchboard, which may be manipulated to turn the current in any
+direction desired.
+
+Some provision should be made for the renewal of electric lamps. Old
+lamps give less light than new ones, and the manufacturers should meet
+customers on some kind of a fair exchange basis. Tungsten lamps are
+giving good satisfaction for farm use. These lamps are economical of
+current, which means a reduction of power to supply the same amount of
+light. The Mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of
+electric lamps.
+
+The Wisconsin _Agriculturist_ publishes a list of 104 different uses for
+electricity on farms. Many of the electrical machines are used for
+special detail work in dairies where cheese or butter is made in
+quantity. Sugar plantations also require small units of power that
+would not apply to ordinary farming. Some of the work mentioned is extra
+heavy, such as threshing and cutting ensilage. Other jobs sound trivial,
+but they are all possible labor-savers. Here is the list:
+
+"Oat crushers, alfalfa mills, horse groomers, horse clippers, hay
+cutters, clover cutters, corn shellers, ensilage cutters, corn crackers,
+branding irons, currying machines, feed grinders, flailing machines,
+live stock food warmers, sheep shears, threshers, grain graders, root
+cutters, bone grinders, hay hoists, clover hullers, rice threshers, pea
+and bean hullers, gas-electric harvesters, hay balers, portable motors
+for running threshers, fanning-mills, grain elevators, huskers and
+shredders, grain drying machines, binder motors, wheat and corn
+grinders, milking machines, sterilizing milk, refrigeration, churns,
+cream-separators, butter workers, butter cutting-printing, milk cooling
+and circulating pumps, milk clarifiers, cream ripeners, milk mixers,
+butter tampers, milk shakers, curd grinders, pasteurizers, bottle
+cleaners, bottle fillers, concrete mixers, cider mills, cider presses,
+spraying machines, wood splitters, auto trucks, incubators, hovers,
+telephones, electric bells, ice cutters, fire alarms, electric vehicles,
+electro cultures, water supply, pumping, water sterilizers, fruit
+presses, blasting magnetos, lighting, interior telephones, vulcanizers,
+pocket flash lights, ice breakers, grindstones, emery wheels, wood saws,
+drop hammers, soldering irons, glue pots, cord wood saws, egg testers,
+burglar alarms, bell ringing transformers, devices for killing insects
+and pests, machine tools, molasses heaters, vacuum cleaners, portable
+lamps to attract insects, toasters, hot plates, grills, percolators,
+flatirons, ranges, toilette articles, water heaters, fans, egg boilers,
+heating pads, dishwashers, washing machines, curling irons, forge
+blowers."
+
+
+GASOLINE HOUSE LIGHTING
+
+Gasoline gas for house lighting is manufactured in a small generator by
+evaporating gasoline into gas and mixing it with air, about 5 per cent
+gas and 95 per cent air. We are all familiar with the little brass
+gasoline torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat their
+soldering irons. The principle is the same.
+
+There are three systems of using gasoline gas for farmhouse lighting
+purposes, the hollow wire, tube system, and single lamp system.
+
+The hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline through the circuit
+in a small pipe called a hollow wire. Each lamp on the circuit takes a
+few drops of gasoline as needed, converts it into gas, mixes the gas
+with the proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant light. Each
+lamp has its own little generator and is independent of all other lamps
+on the line.
+
+The tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in appearance, but
+the tubes are larger and look more like regular gas pipes. In the tube
+system the gas is generated and mixed with air before it gets into the
+distribution tube, so that lamps do not require separate generators.
+
+In the separate lamp system each lamp is separate and independent. Each
+lamp has a small supply of gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a
+gas generator attached to the burner, which converts the gasoline into
+gas, mixes it with the proper amount of air and feeds it into the burner
+as required. Farm lanterns are manufactured that work on this principle.
+They produce a brilliant light.
+
+By investigating the different systems of gasoline gas lighting in use
+in village stores and country homes any farmer can select the system
+that fits into his home conditions to the best advantage. In one
+farmhouse the owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his big
+concrete gateposts, and this was one reason why he decided to adopt
+gasoline gas lighting and to use the separate lamp system.
+
+
+ACETYLENE GAS
+
+Acetylene lighting plants are intended for country use beyond the reach
+of city gas mains or electric cables. Carbide comes in lump form in
+steel drums. It is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with
+clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas is needed to keep
+up the pressure. Acetylene gas is said to be the purest of all
+illuminating gases. Experiments in growing delicate plants in
+greenhouses lighted with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be
+correct.
+
+The light also is bright, clear and powerful. The gas is explosive when
+mixed with air and confined, so that precautions are necessary in regard
+to using lanterns or matches near the generators. The expense of
+installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has prevented its general
+use.
+
+
+WOOD-SAW FRAMES
+
+There are a number of makes of saw frames for use on farms, some of
+which are very simple, while others are quite elaborate. Provision
+usually is made for dropping the end of the stick as it is cut.
+Sometimes carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile.
+Extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give more or less
+trouble, because when the stick to be sawed is crooked, it is almost
+impossible to prevent binding. If a saw binds in the kerf, very often
+the uniform set is pinched out of alignment, and there is some danger of
+buckling the saw, so that for ordinary wood sawing it is better to have
+the end of the stick project beyond the jig. If the saw is sharp and has
+the right set and the right motion, it will cut the stick off quickly
+and run free while the end is dropping to the ground.
+
+The quickest saw frames oscillate, being supported on legs that are
+hinged to the bottom of the frame. Oscillating frames work easier than
+sliding frames. Sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers, but
+roller frames are not steady enough. For cross sawing lumber V-shaped
+grooves are best. No matter what the feeding device is, it should always
+be protected by a hood over the saw. The frame should fall back of its
+own weight, bringing the hood with it, so that the saw is always covered
+except when actually engaged with the stick. Saw-mandrels vary in
+diameter and length, but in construction they are much alike. For wood
+sawing the shaft should be 1-3/8" or 1-1/2" in diameter. The shaft runs
+in two babbitted boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame. The frame itself
+should be well made and well braced.
+
+
+ROOT PULPER
+
+There are root pulpers with concave knives which slice roots in such a
+way as to bend the slices and break them into thousands of leafy shreds.
+The principle is similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that
+each sheet will slide past the next one. Animals do not chew roots when
+fed in large solid pieces. Cattle choke trying to swallow them whole,
+but they will munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evident
+satisfaction. American farmers are shy on roots. They do not raise roots
+in quantities because it requires a good deal of hand labor, but roots
+make a juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer and they
+carry mineral. Pulped roots are safe to feed and they offer the best
+mixing medium for crushed grains and other concentrated foods.
+
+
+FEED CRUSHER
+
+Instead of grinding grain for feeding, we have what is known as a
+crusher which operates on the roller-mill principle. It breaks the
+grains into flour by crushing instead of grinding. It has the advantage
+of doing good work quickly. Our feed grinding is done in the two-story
+corncrib and granary. It is one of the odd jobs on the farm that every
+man likes. The grain is fed automatically into the machine by means of
+the grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain down from the
+overhead bins. The elevator buckets carry the crushed feed back to one
+of the bins or into the bagger. In either case it is not necessary to do
+any lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck. We have no
+use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of big dustpan to use with the
+barn broom.
+
+
+STUMP PULLER
+
+Pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation compared with the old
+time methods of grubbing, chopping, prying and burning that our
+forefathers had on their hands. Modern stump pulling machines are small
+affairs compared with the heavy, clumsy things that were used a few
+years ago. Some of the new stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre
+a day of ordinary stumpage. This, of course, must be a rough estimate,
+because stumps, like other things, vary in numbers, size and condition
+of soundness. Some old stumps may be removed easily while others hang to
+the ground with wonderful tenacity.
+
+There are two profits to follow the removal of stumps from a partially
+cleared field. The work already put on the land has in every case cost
+considerable labor to get the trees and brush out of the way. The land
+is partially unproductive so long as stumps remain. For this reason, it
+is impossible to figure on the first cost until the stumps are removed
+to complete the work and to put the land in condition to raise machine
+made crops. When the stumps are removed, the value of the land either
+for selling or for farming purposes is increased at once. Whether sold
+or farmed, the increasing value is maintained by cropping the land and
+securing additional revenue.
+
+There are different ways of removing stumps, some of which are easy
+while others are difficult and expensive. One of the easiest ways is to
+bore a two-inch auger hole diagonally down into the stump; then fill the
+auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some weeks to soak into
+the wood. Large stumps may be bored in different directions so the
+coal-oil will find its way not only through the main part of the stumps
+but down into the roots. This treatment requires that the stumps should
+be somewhat dry. A stump that is full of sap has no room for coal-oil,
+but after the sap partially dries out, then coal oil will fill the pores
+of the wood. After the stump is thoroughly saturated with coal-oil, it
+will burn down to the ground, so that the different large roots will be
+separated. Sometimes the roots will burn below plow depth, but a good
+heavy pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the separated
+roots.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 130.--The Oldest Farm Hoist. The first invention
+for elevating a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied
+together at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide. When hunters were
+lucky enough to kill a bear, the tripod elevator was erected over the
+carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower the
+apex. The gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and attached to the
+top of the tripod. As the skinning of the animal proceeded the feet of
+the tripod were moved closer together. By the time the head was cut off
+the carcass would swing clear.]
+
+Dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces, and the work is not
+considered dangerous since the invention of safety devices. In some
+sections of the country where firewood is valuable, dynamite has the
+advantage of saving the wood. An expert with dynamite will blow a stump
+to pieces so thoroughly that the different parts are easily worked into
+stove lengths. Pitch-pine stumps have a chemical value that was not
+suspected until some fellows got rich by operating a retort.
+
+
+FARM ELEVATING MACHINERY
+
+Many handy and a few heavy elevators are being manufactured to replace
+human muscle. The simple tripod beef gin was familiar to the early
+settlers and it is still in use. When a heavy animal was killed for
+butchering, the small ends of three poles were tied together to form a
+tripod over the carcass. The feet of the tripod were placed wide apart
+to raise the apex only a few feet above the animal. After the gambrel
+was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were moved gradually
+closer together as the skinning proceeded, thus elevating the carcass to
+swing clear of the ground.
+
+_Grain Elevators._--As a farm labor-saver, machinery to elevate corn
+into the two-story corncrib and grain into the upper bins is one of the
+newer and more important farming inventions. With a modern two-story
+corncrib having a driveway through the center, a concrete floor and a
+pit, it is easy to dump a load of grain or ear corn by raising the front
+end of the wagon box without using a shovel or corn fork. After the load
+is dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a circle while
+the buckets carry the corn or small grain and deliver it by spout into
+the different corncribs or grain bins. There are several makes of
+powerful grain elevating machines that will do the work easily and
+quickly.
+
+The first requisite is a building with storage overhead, and a
+convenient place to work the machinery. Some of the elevating machines
+are made portable and some are stationary. Some of the portable machines
+will work both ways. Usually stationary elevators are placed in vertical
+position. Some portable elevators may be operated either vertically or
+on an incline. Such machines are adaptable to different situations, so
+the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm grain warehouse
+or the apparatus may be hauled to the railway station for chuting the
+grain or ear corn into a car. It depends upon the use to be made of the
+machinery whether the strictly stationary or portable elevator is
+required. To unload usually some kind of pit or incline is needed with
+any kind of an elevator, so the load may be dumped automatically quickly
+from the wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at leisure.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 131.--Portable Grain Elevator Filling a Corncrib.
+The same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars. The wagon is
+unloaded by a lifting jack. It costs from 1c to 1-1/2c per bushel to
+shovel corn by hand, but the greatest saving is in time.]
+
+Some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly from under the
+tailboard of a wagon box. The tailrod is removed and the tailboard
+raised half an inch or an inch, according to the capacity of the
+machinery. The load pays out through the opening as the front of the
+wagon is gradually raised, so the last grain will discharge into the pit
+or elevator hopper of its own weight. Technical building knowledge and
+skill is required to properly connect the building and elevating
+machinery so that the two will work smoothly together. There are certain
+features about the building that must conform to the requirements and
+peculiarities of the elevating machinery. The grain and ear corn are
+both carried up to a point from which they will travel by gravity to any
+part of the building. The building requires great structural strength in
+some places, but the material may be very light in others. Hence, the
+necessity of understanding both building and machinery in order to meet
+all of the necessary technical requirements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WORKING THE SOIL
+
+
+IMPORTANCE OF PLOWING
+
+[Illustration: Figure 132.--Heavy Disk Plow. A strong four-horse disk
+implement for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits
+before turning under with a moldboard.]
+
+Plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with physics, chemistry,
+bacteriology and entomology. The soil is the farmer's laboratory; his
+soil working implements are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A high
+order of intelligence is required to merge one operation into the next
+to take full advantage of the assistance offered by nature. The object
+of plowing and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition of the
+soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to provide a suitable home
+for the different kinds of soil bacteria.
+
+There are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, also nitrogen-gathering
+bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which are often loosely referred to as
+azotobacter species. Few of us are on intimate terms with any of them,
+but some of us have had formal introductions through experiments and
+observation.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 133.--Sulky Plow. This is a popular type of riding
+plow. It is fitted with a rolling coulter.]
+
+
+THE MECHANICS OF PLOWING
+
+_Walking Plow._--The draft of a walking plow may be increased or
+diminished by the manner of hitch. It is necessary to find the direct
+line of draft between the work performed and the propelling force. The
+clevis in the two-horse doubletree, or the three-horse evener and the
+adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam with the connecting link
+will permit a limited adjustment. The exact direction that this line
+takes will prove out in question. The walking plow should not have a
+tendency to run either in or out, neither too deep nor too shallow. For
+the proper adjustment as to width and depth of furrow, the plow should
+follow the line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it
+will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of several feet
+without guidance from the handles. In making the adjustment it is first
+necessary to see that the plow itself is in good working order. All
+cutting edges such as share, coulter or jointer must be reasonably sharp
+and the land slip in condition as the makers intended.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 134.--Disk Plow. Less power is required to plow
+with a disk, but it is a sort of cut and cover process. The disk digs
+trenches narrow at the bottom. There are ridges between the little
+trenches that are not worked.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 135.--Three-Horse and Four-Horse Eveners. This
+kind of evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others
+and they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds. The four-horse
+rig requires the best horses in the middle.]
+
+All plows should have a leather pocket on the side of the beam to carry
+a file. A 12-inch bastard file with a good handle is the most
+satisfactory implement for sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the
+fields. A good deal depends on the character of the soil and its
+condition of dryness, but generally speaking, it pays to do a little
+filing after plowing a half mile of furrow. If the horses are doing
+their duty, a little rest at the end of the half mile is well earned.
+The plowman can put in the time to advantage with the file and the next
+half mile will go along merrily in consequence. No farmer would continue
+to chop wood all day without whetting his axe, but, unfortunately,
+plowmen often work from morning till night without any attempt to keep
+the cutting edges of their plows in good working order.
+
+_Riding Plow._--The riding plow in lifting and turning the furrow slice
+depends a good deal on the wheels. The action of the plow is that of a
+wedge with the power pushing the point, the share and the moldboard
+between the furrow slices and the land side and the furrow bottom. There
+is the same friction between the moldboard and the furrow slice as in
+the case of the walking plow, but the wheels are intended to materially
+reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and against the land side. Plow
+wheels are intended to relieve the draft in this respect because wheels
+roll much easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight of the
+work on top. The track made in the bottom of the furrow with the walking
+plow shows plainly the heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the
+moldboard by the mark of the slip. To appreciate the weight the slip
+carries, an interesting experiment may be performed by loading the
+walking plow with weights sufficient to make the same kind of a mark
+when the plow is not turning a furrow.
+
+One advantage in riding plows in addition to the relief of such a load
+is less packing of the furrow bottom. On certain soils when the moisture
+is just sufficient to make the subsoil sticky, a certain portion of the
+furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it becomes impervious
+to the passage of moisture either up or down. The track of a plow wheel
+is less injurious.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 136.--Three-Section, Spike-Tooth Harrow. The
+harrow is made straight, but the hitch is placed over to one side to
+give each tooth a separate line of travel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 137.--Harrow Sled Long Enough to Hold a
+Four-Section Harrow.]
+
+Plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the pressure with
+especial reference to the work performed. Wheels should be adjusted with
+an eye single to the conditions existing in the furrow. Some wheel plows
+apparently are especially built to run light like a wagon above ground
+regardless of the underground work required of them.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 138.--Corn Cultivator. A one-row, riding-disk
+cultivator. The ridges are smoothed by the spring scrapers to leave an
+even surface to prevent evaporation.]
+
+Axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift so accurately as
+to cause the wheels to wear but lightly on the ends of the hubs.
+Mistakes in adjustment show in the necessity of keeping a supply of
+washers on hand to replace the ones that quickly wear thin.
+
+In this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands at the ends of the
+hubs. Plow wheels are constantly lifting gritty earth and dropping it on
+the hubs. There is only one successful way to keep sand out of the
+journals and that is by having the hubs, or hub ferrules, extend well
+beyond the bearings. Plow wheel hub extensions should reach two inches
+beyond the journal both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or
+linchpin end. Some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers consider oil a
+damage and they are permitted to run dry. This is not only very wasteful
+of expensive iron but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they
+no longer guide the plow, in which case the draft may be increased
+enormously.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 139.--A Combination Riding and Walking Cultivator,
+showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time through.
+The two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils or when deeper
+digging is necessary.]
+
+_Scotch Plows._--When the long, narrow Scotch sod plows are exhibited at
+American agricultural fairs they attract a good deal of attention and no
+small amount of ridicule from American farmers because of the six or
+seven inch furrows they are intended to turn. In this country we are in
+too much of a hurry to spend all day plowing three-fourths of an acre of
+ground. Intensive farming is not so much of an object with us as the
+quantity of land put under cultivation.
+
+Those old-fashioned Scotch plows turn a furrow about two-thirds of the
+way over, laying the sod surface at an angle of about 45° to the bottom
+of the furrow. The sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands
+upright so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp ridges six or
+seven inches apart, according to the width of the furrow. Edges of sod
+show in the bottoms of the corrugations between these little furrow
+ridges.
+
+When the rains come the water is held in these grooves and it finds its
+way down the whole depth of the furrow slice carrying air with it and
+moistening every particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow.
+Such conditions are ideal for the work of the different forms of
+bacteria to break down plant fibre contained in the roots and trash and
+work it into humus, which is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil
+bacteria to produce soil water which is the only food of growing plants.
+
+_Jointer Plows._--American plow makers also have recognized the
+necessity of mixing humus with soil in the act of plowing. To facilitate
+the process and at the same time turn a wide furrow, the jointer does
+fairly good work when soil conditions are suitable. The jointer is a
+little plow which takes the place of the coulter and is attached to the
+plow-beam in the same manner. The jointer turns a little furrow one inch
+or two inches deep and the large plow following after turns a
+twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat over, throwing the little
+jointer furrow in the middle of the furrow bottom in such a way that the
+big furrow breaks over the smaller furrow.
+
+If the work is well done, cracks as wide as a man's hand and from three
+to five inches deep are left all over the field. These cracks lead air
+and moisture to rot the trash below. This is a much quicker way of
+doing a fairly good job of plowing. Such plows loosen the soil and
+furnish the conditions required by nature; and they may be operated with
+much less skill than the old-fashioned narrow-furrowed Scotch plows.
+
+Good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper condition to
+plow, neither too dry nor too wet, but no man can do good plowing
+without the proper kind of plow to fit the soil he is working with.
+
+
+PLOWING BY TRACTOR
+
+Under present conditions farm tractors are not intended to replace horse
+power entirely but to precede horses to smooth the rough places that
+horses may follow with the lighter machines to add the finishing
+touches. Light tractors are being made, and they are growing in
+popularity, but the real business of the farm tractor is to do the heavy
+lugging--the work that kills horses and delays seeding until the growing
+season has passed. The actual power best suited to the individual farm
+can only be determined by the nature of the land and the kind of
+farming.
+
+In the Middle West where diversified farming is practiced, the 8-16 and
+the 10-20 sizes seem to be the most satisfactory, and this is without
+regard to the size of the farm. The preponderance of heavy work will
+naturally dictate the buying of a tractor heavier than a 10-20. The
+amount of stationary work is a factor. In certain communities heavy farm
+tractors are made to earn dividends by running threshing machines after
+harvest, silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers in the winter.
+
+Here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm tractor is good
+for:
+
+Clearing the Land--pulling up bushes by the roots, tearing out hedges,
+pulling stumps, grubbing, pulling stones.
+
+Preparing Seed Bed and Seeding--plowing, disking, crushing clods,
+pulling a land plane, rolling, packing, drilling, harrowing.
+
+Harvesting--mowing, pulling grain binders, pulling potato digger.
+
+Belt Work--hay baling, corn shelling, heavy pumping for irrigation,
+grinding feed, threshing, clover hulling, husking and shredding, silo
+filling, stone crushing.
+
+Road Work--grading, dragging, leveling, ditching, hauling crops.
+
+Miscellaneous--running portable sawmill, stretching wire fencing, ditch
+digging, manure spreading.
+
+Generally speaking, however, the most important farm tractor work is
+preparing the seed-bed thoroughly and quickly while the soil and weather
+conditions are the best. And the tractor's ability to work all day and
+all night at such times is one of its best qualifications.
+
+To plow one square mile, or 640 acres, with a walking plow turning a
+twelve-inch furrow, a man and team must walk 5,280 miles. The gang-plow
+has always been considered a horse killer, and, when farmers discovered
+that they could use oil power to save their horses, many were quick to
+make the change.
+
+It requires approximately 10 horsepower hours to turn an acre of land
+with horses. At a speed of two miles, a team with one plow in ten hours
+will turn two acres. To deliver the two horsepower required to do this
+work, they must travel 176 feet per minute and exert a continuous pull
+of 375 pounds or 187.5 pounds per horse.
+
+One horsepower equals a pull of 33,000 pounds, moved one foot per
+minute. Two-mile speed equals two times 5,280 or 10,560 feet per hour,
+or 176 feet per minute. Sixty-six thousand divided by 176 equals 375
+foot pounds pull per minute. One horsepower is absorbed in 88 feet of
+furrow.
+
+Horse labor costs, according to Government figures, 12-1/2 cents per
+hour per horse. On this basis ten hours' work will be $1.25, which is
+the average daily cost of each horse. An average Illinois diversified
+farm of 160 acres would be approximately as follows: Fifty acres of
+corn, 30 acres of oats and wheat, 20 acres of hay, 60 acres of rough
+land, pasture, orchard, building and feed lots.
+
+This average farm supports six work horses or mules and one colt.
+According to figures taken from farm work reports submitted by many
+different corn belt farmers, the amount of horse-work necessary to do
+this cropping would figure out as follows:
+
+Fifty acres of corn land for plowing, disking, harrowing, planting,
+cultivating and harvesting would amount to a total of 1,450 horsepower
+hours. Thirty acres of wheat would require a total of 330 horsepower
+hours. Twenty acres of hay would require 110 horsepower hours. In round
+figures, 1,900 horsepower hours at 12-1/2 cents would amount to $237.50.
+
+Elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically to show that this
+work can be done by an 8-16 farm tractor in 27-3/4 days at a cost for
+kerosene fuel and lubricating oil of $1.89 per day. Adding interest,
+repairs and depreciation, brings this figure up to about $4.00 per day,
+or a total of $111.00 for the job. No account is kept of man power in
+caring for either the horses or the tractor. The actual man labor on the
+job, however, figures 12-1/3 days less for the tractor than for horses.
+We should remember that actual farm figures are used for the cost of
+horse work. Such figures are not available for tractor work.
+
+The cost of plowing with a traction engine depends upon so many factors
+that it is difficult to make any definite statement. It depends upon the
+condition of the ground, size of the tractor, the number of plows
+pulled, and the amount of fuel used. An 8-16 horsepower tractor, for
+instance, burning from 15 to 20 gallons of low grade kerosene per ten
+hour day and using one gallon of lubricating oil, costs about $1.90 per
+ten hours work. Pulling two 14-inch plows and traveling 20 miles per
+day, the tractor will plow 5.6 acres at a fuel and an oil cost of about
+30 cents per acre. Pulling three 14-inch plows, it will turn 8.4 acres
+at a cost for fuel and oil of about 20 cents an acre.
+
+The kind and condition of soil is an important factor in determining the
+tractor cost of plowing. Comparison between the average horse cost and
+the average tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in
+favor of tractor plowing under good management.
+
+Aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also remember that no
+horse gang can possibly do the quality of work that can be accomplished
+by an engine gang. Anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off the
+profits of many a farmer. He has often plowed late on account of hard
+ground, and he has many times allowed a field to remain unplowed on
+account of worn-out teams. Under normal conditions, late plowing never
+produces as good results as early plowing. Many a farmer has fed and
+harnessed by the light of the lantern, gone to the field and worked his
+team hard to take advantage of the cool of the morning. With the
+approach of the hot hours of midday, the vicious flies sapping the
+vitality from his faithful team, he has eased up on the work or quit the
+job.
+
+In using the tractor for plowing, there are none of these distressing
+conditions to be taken into consideration, nothing to think of but the
+quality of work done. It is possible to plow deep without thought of the
+added burden. Deep plowing may or may not be advisable. But where the
+soil will stand it, deep plowing at the proper time of year, and when
+done with judgment, holds moisture better and provides more plant food.
+
+The pull power required to plow different soils varies from about three
+pounds per square inch of furrow for light sand up to twenty pounds per
+square inch of furrow for gumbo. The draft of a plow is generally
+figured from clover sod, which averages about seven pounds per square
+inch. Suppose a plow rig has two 14-inch bottoms, and the depth to be
+plowed is six inches. A cross section of each plow is therefore 14 by 6
+inches, or 84 square inches. Twice this for two bottoms is 168 square
+inches. Since, in sandy soil, the pressure per square inch is three
+pounds, therefore 168 times 3 pounds equals 504 pounds, the draft in
+sandy soil. 168 times 7 pounds equals 1,176 pounds, the draft in clover
+sod. 168 times 8 pounds equals 1,344 pounds, the draft in clay sod.
+
+The success of crop growing depends upon the way the seed-bed is
+prepared. The final preparation of the seed-bed can never be thoroughly
+well done unless the ground is properly plowed to begin with. It is not
+sufficient to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side but the
+plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uniform, systematic manner
+and lay it bottom side uppermost to receive the beneficial action of
+the air, rain and sunshine.
+
+The moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to properly shed the
+earth freely to make an easy turn-over. The shape of the shear and the
+forward part of the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge, but the roll
+or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to soil texture and
+the width and depth of furrow to be turned. Moldboards also differ in
+size and shape, according to the kind of furrow to be turned. Sometimes
+in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with a comb on the upper edge is
+preferable. In other soils a cracked or broken furrow slice works the
+best. When working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over on
+top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into fragments with wide
+cracks or openings reaching several inches down. Between these extremes
+there are many modifications made for the particular type or texture of
+the soil to be plowed. We can observe the effect that a rough, or badly
+scratched, or poorly shaped moldboard has on any kind of soil,
+especially when passing from gravelly soils to clay. In soil that
+contains the right amount of moisture, when a plow scours all the time,
+the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny appearance.
+This shows that the soil is slipping off the moldboard easily. In places
+where the plow does not scour the ground is pushed to one side and
+packed or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted and turned as
+it should be. A field plowed with a defective moldboard will be full of
+these places. Such ground cannot have the life to bring about a
+satisfactory bacteria condition necessary to promote the rapid plant
+growth that proper plowing gives it.
+
+Cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year after year. We are
+using lime to correct the acidity, but the use of lime requires better
+plowing and better after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with
+the earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different kinds of
+soil bacteria. Unless we pay special attention to the humus content of
+the soil we are likely to use lime to dissolve out plant foods that are
+not needed by the present crop, and, therefore, cannot be utilized. This
+is what the old adage means which reads: "Lime enricheth the father but
+impoverisheth the son." When that was written the world had no proper
+tillage tools and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of.
+
+Not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast iron. Then came the
+steel moldboard, which was supposed to be the acme of perfection in plow
+making. Steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils where cast
+iron would just root along without turning the ground at all. Later the
+art of molding steel was studied and perfected until many grades and
+degrees of hardness were produced and the shape of the moldboard passed
+through a thousand changes. The idea all the time was to make plows that
+would not only scour but polish in all kinds of soil. At the same time
+they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to make humus, to kill
+weeds and to destroy troublesome insects. Besides these requirements the
+soil must be pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and moisture.
+These experiments gradually led up to our present high grade plows of
+hardened steel and what is known as chilled steel.
+
+Besides the hardness there are different shapes designed for different
+soils so that a plow to work well on one farm may need to be quite
+different from a plow to do the best work in another neighborhood. The
+furrow slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the surface of the
+upturned ground as even as the bottom of the furrow. By using a modern
+plow carefully selected to fit the soil, gravel, sandy, stony or muck
+soils, or silt loams that contain silica, lime, iron and aluminum oxide
+can be worked with the right plow to do the best work possible if we use
+the necessary care and judgment in making the selection.
+
+One object of good plowing is to retain moisture in the soil until the
+growing crop can make good use of it.
+
+The ease with which soils absorb, retain or lose moisture, depends
+mostly on their texture, humus content, physical condition, and surface
+slope or artificial drainage. It is to the extent that cultivation can
+modify these factors that more soil water can be made available to the
+growing crop. There are loose, open soils through which water percolates
+as through a sieve, and there are tight, gumbo soils which swell when
+the surface is moistened and become practically waterproof. Sandy soils
+take in water more readily than heavier soils, hence less precaution is
+necessary to prevent run-off.
+
+Among the thousands of plows of many different makes there are plenty of
+good ones. The first consideration in making a selection is a reliable
+home dealer who has a good business reputation and a thorough knowledge
+of local soil from a mechanical standpoint. The next consideration is
+the service the plow will give in proportion to the price.
+
+
+DISK HARROW
+
+For preparing land to receive the seed no other implement will equal a
+double disk. These implements are made in various sizes and weights of
+frame. For heavy land, where it is necessary to weight the disk down, an
+extra heavy frame is necessary. It would probably be advisable to get
+the extra strong frame for any kind of land, because even in light sand
+there are times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill quackgrass
+or to chew up sod before plowing. In such cases it is customary to load
+on a couple of sacks of sand in addition to the weight of the driver.
+When a disk is carrying 300 or 400 pounds besides its own weight the
+racking strains which pull from different directions have a tendency to
+warp or twist a light frame out of shape. To keep a disk cultivator in
+good working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly before doing
+heavy work. Bolts must be kept tight, all braces examined occasionally,
+and the heavy nuts at the ends of the disk shafts watched. They
+sometimes loosen and give trouble. The greatest difficulty in running a
+disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings in good trim. Wooden
+boxes are provided with the implement. It is a good plan to insist on
+having a full set of eight extra boxes. These wooden boxes may be made
+on the farm, but it sometimes is difficult to get the right kind of
+wood. They should be made of hard maple, bored according to size of
+shaft, and boiled in a good quality of linseed oil. Iron boxings have
+never been satisfactory on a disk implement. Wooden ones make enough
+trouble, but wood has proved better than iron. On most disk cultivators
+there are oil channels leading to the boxings. These channels are large
+enough to carry heavy oil. The lighter grades of cylinder oil work the
+best. It is difficult to cork these oil channels tight enough to keep
+the sand out. Oil and sand do not work well together in a bearing. The
+manufacturers of these implements could improve the oiling device by
+shortening the channel and building a better housing for the oil
+entrance. It is quite a job to take a disk apart to put in new boxings,
+but, like all other repair work, the disk should be taken into the shop,
+thoroughly cleaned, repaired, painted and oiled in the winter time.
+
+Some double disk cultivators have tongues and some are made without.
+Whether the farmer wants a tongue or not depends a good deal on the
+land. The only advantage is that a tongue will hold the disk from
+crowding onto the horses when it is running light along the farm lanes
+or the sides of the fields with the disks set straight. Horses have been
+ruined by having the sharp disks run against them when going down hill.
+Such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes the danger.
+Unfortunately, farm implements are often used by men who do very little
+thinking. A spring disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown
+over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the back of the
+disk and continued to make a harsh, scraping noise until the proprietor
+went to see what was wrong. The man driving the disk said he thought
+something must be the matter with the cultivator, but he couldn't tell
+for the life of him what it was. When farmers are up against such
+difficulties it is safer to buy a disk with a tongue.
+
+_Harrow Cart._--A small two-wheel cart with a spring seat overshadowed
+with a big umbrella is sometimes called a "dude sulky." Many sensitive
+farmers trudge along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows
+afraid of such old fogy ridicule. The hardest and most tiresome and
+disagreeable job at seeding time is following a harrow on foot. Riding a
+harrow cart in the field is conserving energy that may be applied to
+better purposes after the day's work in the field is finished.
+
+
+KNIFE-EDGE PULVERIZERS
+
+A knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pulverizer for orchard
+work or when preparing a seed-bed for grain. These implements are sold
+under different names. It requires a stretch of imagination to attach
+the word "harrow" to these knife-edge weeders. There is a central bar
+which is usually a hardwood plank. The knives are bolted to the
+underside of the plank and sloped backward and outward from the center
+to the right and left, so that the knife-edges stand at an angle of
+about 45° to the line of draught. This angle is just about sufficient to
+let tough weeds slip off the edges instead of dragging along. If the
+knives are sharp, they will cut tender weeds, but the tough ones must be
+disposed of to prevent choking. The proper use of the knife-edge weeder
+prevents weeds from growing, but in farm practice, sometimes rainy
+weather prevents the use of such a tool until the weeds are well
+established. As a moisture retainer, these knife-edge weeders are
+superior to almost any other implement. They are made in widths of from
+eight to twenty feet. The wide ones are jointed in the middle to fit
+uneven ground.
+
+
+CLOD CRUSHER
+
+The farm land drag, float, or clod crusher is useful under certain
+conditions on low spots that do not drain properly. Such land must be
+plowed when the main portion of the field is in proper condition, and
+the result often is that the low spots are so wet that the ground packs
+into lumps that an ordinary harrow will not break to pieces. Such lumps
+roll out between the harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to
+interfere with cultivation. The clod crusher then rides over the lumps
+and grinds them into powder. Unfortunately, clod crushers often are
+depended on to remedy faulty work on ordinary land that should receive
+better treatment. Many times the clod crusher is a poor remedy for poor
+tillage on naturally good land that lacks humus.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 140.--Land Float. Clod crushers and land floats
+belong to the same tribe. Theoretically they are all outlaws, but some
+practical farmers harbor one or more of them. Wet land, containing
+considerable clay, sometimes forms into lumps which should be crushed.]
+
+As ordinarily made, the land float or clod crusher consists of from five
+to eight planks, two inches thick and ten or twelve inches wide, spiked
+together in sawtooth position, the edges of the planks being lapped over
+each other like clapboards in house siding. The planks are held in place
+with spikes driven through into the crosspieces.
+
+
+FARM ROLLER
+
+Farm rollers are used to firm the soil. Sometimes a seed-bed is worked
+up so thoroughly that the ground is made too loose so the soil is too
+open and porous. Seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall
+fit up closely against them. Good soil is impregnated with soil
+moisture, or film moisture as it is often called, because the moisture
+forms in a film around each little soil grain. In properly prepared
+soil this film moisture comes in contact with the freshly sown seed. If
+the temperature is right the seed swells and germination starts. The
+swelling of the seed brings it in contact with more film moisture
+attached to other grains of soil so the rootlet grows and pushes out
+into the soil in search of moisture on its own account. A roller is
+valuable to press the particles of soil together to bring the freshly
+sown seeds in direct contact with as many particles of soil as possible.
+Rolling land is a peculiar operation, the value of which is not always
+understood. The original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the
+lumps. It may be of some benefit on certain soils for this purpose, but
+the land should always be harrowed after rolling to form a dust mulch to
+prevent the evaporation of moisture. Land that has been rolled and left
+overnight shows damp the next morning, which is sufficient proof that
+moisture is coming to the surface and is being dissipated into the
+atmosphere. In the so-called humid sections of the country the great
+problem is to retain moisture. Any farm implement that has a tendency to
+dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the farmer. Probably nine times
+out of ten a farm roller is a damage to the crop it is intended to
+benefit because of the manner in which it is used. It is the abuse, not
+the proper use of a roller, that injures the crop.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 141.--Iron Land Roller Made of Boiler Plate.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 142.--Wooden Land Roller.]
+
+
+CORN-PLANTER
+
+Corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at once. The width of rows
+may be adjusted from about 32 to 44 inches apart. When seed-corn is
+carefully graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out the grains
+of corn regularly with very few skips. This is one reason why most
+farmers plant corn in drills. There are other cultural reasons which do
+not properly belong to this mechanical article. Hill dropping is
+considerably more complicated and difficult. After the feeding mechanism
+has been adjusted to the size of seed kernels to be planted so it will
+drop four kernels in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if
+it is right at every joint. Dropping in hills is a very careful
+mechanical proposition. An inch or two out of line either way means a
+loss of corn in cultivating.
+
+In setting the stakes to go and come by, a careful measurement of the
+field is necessary in order to get the stake lines on both sides of the
+field parallel. If the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line,
+then the first hill of corn must come at the same distance from the line
+in each row. Likewise in starting back from the far side of the field
+the first hill should measure exactly the same distance from the stake
+line as the first hills on the opposite side of the field. This is
+easily managed by counting the number of trips between the stake line
+and the first row of corn hills. If the two lines of stakes on the
+opposite sides of the field are exactly parallel it is not necessary to
+move either line in order to get the proper distance to start dropping,
+but it must be adjusted by measurement, otherwise the corn hills will be
+dodged. If the corn hills are to space three feet apart then the first
+row of hills should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line. Stakes
+may be measured and set a certain number of inches from the line to make
+the distance come right. This careful adjustment brings the hills in
+line in the rows.
+
+When the field is level or gently sloping there is no difficulty in
+making straight rows so far as check rowing is concerned. When the field
+is hilly another problem crops up. It is almost impossible to run corn
+rows along the side of a hill and keep them straight. The planter has a
+tendency to slide downhill. Also the distance across a field is greater
+where the rows pass over a hill. To keep the rows straight under such
+conditions allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill as well
+as for the side thrust of the planter. Where a chain marker is used it
+hangs downhill and a further allowance must be made for that. A good
+driver will skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will be
+planted fairly straight. This means a good deal more in check rowing
+than when the corn is planted in drills. The greatest objection to hill
+planting is the crowding of four corn plants into a space that should be
+occupied by one plant.
+
+A great many experiments have been tried to scatter the seeds in the
+hill, so far without definite results, except when considerable
+additional expense is incurred. However, a cone suspended below the end
+of the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so that no two seeds
+will touch each other. They may not drop and scatter four or five inches
+apart, but these little cones will help a good deal. They must be
+accurately adjusted so the point of the cone will center in the middle
+of the vertical delivery tube, and there must be plenty of room all
+around the cone so the corn seed kernels won't stick. The braces that
+hold the cones in place for the same reason must be turned edge up and
+supported in such a way as to leave plenty of clearance. The idea is
+that four kernels of corn drop together. They strike the cone and are
+scattered in different directions. They naturally fly to the outsides of
+the drill mark which scatters them as wide apart as the width of the
+shoe that opens the drill. The advantage of scattering seed grains in
+the hill has been shown by accurate experiments conducted at different
+times by agricultural colleges.
+
+
+GRAIN DRILL
+
+To know exactly how much seed the grain drill is using it is necessary
+to know how many acres are contained in the field. Most drills have an
+attachment that is supposed to measure how many acres and fractions of
+acres the drill covers. Farmers know how much grain each sack contains,
+so they can estimate as they go along, provided the drill register is
+correct. It is better to provide a check on the drill indicator. Have
+the field measured, then drive stakes along one side, indicating one
+acre, five acres and ten acres. When the one-acre stake is reached the
+operator can estimate very closely whether the drill is using more or
+less seed than the indicator registers. When the five-acre stake is
+reached another proof is available, and so on across the field. Next in
+importance to the proper working of the drill is straight rows. The only
+way to avoid gaps is to drive straight. The only way to drive straight
+is to sight over the wheel that follows the last drill mark. Farmers
+sometimes like to ride on the grain drill, which places the wheel
+sighting proposition out of the question. A harrow cart may be hitched
+behind the wheel of the grain drill, but it gives a side draft. The only
+way to have straight rows and thorough work is to walk behind the end of
+the drill. This is the proper way to use a drill, anyway, because a
+tooth may clog up any minute. Unless the operator is walking behind the
+drill he is not in position to see quickly whether every tooth is
+working properly or not. It is hard work to follow a drill all day long,
+but it pays at harvest time. It costs just as much to raise a crop of
+grain that only covers part of the ground, and it seems too bad to miss
+the highest possible percentage to save a little hard work at planting
+time.
+
+
+SPECIAL CROP MACHINERY
+
+Special crops require special implements. After they are provided, the
+equipment must be kept busy in order to make it pay. If a farmer
+produces five acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter, a planter, a
+riding cultivator, a sprayer that works under high pressure, a digger
+and a sorter. The same outfit will answer for forty acres, which would
+reduce the per acre cost considerably. No farmer can afford to grow five
+acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery, because hand labor is
+out of the question for work of that kind.
+
+On the right kind of soil, and within reach of the right market,
+potatoes are money-makers. But they must be grown every year because the
+price of potatoes fluctuates more than any other farm crop. Under the
+right conditions potatoes grown for five years with proper care and good
+management are sure to make money. One year out of five will break even,
+two years will make a little money and the other two years will make big
+money. At the end of five years, with good business management, the
+potato machinery will be all paid for, and there will be a substantial
+profit.
+
+
+WHEEL HOE
+
+In growing onions and other truck crops, where the rows are too close
+together for horse cultivation, the wheel hoe is valuable. In fact, it
+is almost indispensable when such crops are grown extensively. The best
+wheel hoes have a number of attachments. When the seed-bed has been
+carefully prepared, and the soil is fine and loose, the wheel hoe may be
+used as soon as the young plants show above ground. Men who are
+accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert. They can work almost
+as close to the growing plants with an implement of this kind as they
+can with an ordinary hand hoe. The wheel hoe, or hand cultivator, works
+the ground on both sides of the row at once, and it does it quickly, so
+that very little hand weeding is necessary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HANDLING THE HAY CROP
+
+
+REVOLVING HAYRAKE
+
+About the first contrivance for raking hay by horse power consisted of a
+stick eight or ten feet long with double-end teeth running through it,
+and pointing in two directions. These rakes were improved from time to
+time, until they reached perfection for this kind of tool. They have
+since been superseded by spring-tooth horse rakes, except for certain
+purposes. For pulling field peas, and some kinds of beans, the old style
+revolving horse rake is still in use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 143.--Grass Hook, for working around borders where
+the lawn-mower is too clumsy.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 144.--Revolving Hayrake. The center piece is 4" x
+6" x 12' long. The teeth are double enders 1-3/8" square and 4' 6" long,
+which allows 24" of rake tooth clear of the center timber. Every stick
+in the rake is carefully selected. It is drawn by one horse. If the
+center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop instantly,
+or the rake must flop over, or there will be a repair job. This
+invention has never been improved upon for pulling Canada peas.]
+
+Improved revolving horse rakes have a center timber of hardwood about 4
+x 6 inches in diameter. The corners are rounded to facilitate sliding
+over the ground. A rake twelve feet long will have about eighteen
+double-end teeth. The teeth project about two and one-half feet each way
+from the center timber. Each tooth is rounded up, sled-runner fashion,
+at each end so it will point forward and slide along over and close to
+the ground without catching fast. There is an iron pull rod, or long
+hook, attached to each end of the center bar by means of a bolt that
+screws into the center of the end of the wooden center shaft, thus
+forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve. Two handles are fastened
+by band iron straps to rounded recesses or girdles cut around the center
+bar. These girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk between
+and to operate the handles. Wooden, or iron lugs, reach down from the
+handles with pins projecting from their sides to engage the rake teeth.
+Two pins project from the left lug and three from the right. Sometimes
+notches are made in the lugs instead of pins. Notches are better; they
+may be rounded up to prevent catching when the rake revolves. As the
+rake slides along, the driver holds the rake teeth in the proper
+position by means of the handles. When sufficient load has been gathered
+he engages the upper notch in the right hand lug, releases the left and
+raises the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground. The pull
+of the horse turns the rake over and the man grasps the teeth again with
+the handle lugs as before. Unless the driver is careful the teeth may
+stick in the ground and turn over before he is ready for it. It requires
+a little experience to use such a rake to advantage. No better or
+cheaper way has ever been invented for harvesting Canada peas. The only
+objections are that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a
+certain amount of earth with the vines which makes dusty threshing.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 145.--Buck Rake. When hay is stacked in the field
+a four-horse buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the
+stack. The buck rake shown is 16 feet wide and the 2 x 4 teeth are 11
+feet long. Two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on
+the ends of the buck rake to operate it. The load is pushed under the
+horse fork, the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is dragged
+backward.]
+
+
+HAY-TEDDER
+
+The hay-tedder is an English invention, which has been adopted by
+farmers in rainy sections of the United States. It is an energetic
+kicker that scatters the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to dry
+between showers. Hay may be made quickly by starting the tedder an hour
+behind the mowing machine.
+
+It is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morning and put it in the
+mow in the afternoon, by shaking it up thoroughly once or twice with the
+hay-tedder. When clover is mixed with the timothy, it is necessary to
+leave it in the field until the next day, but the time between cutting
+and mowing is shortened materially by the use of the tedder.
+
+Grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field early during the
+wilting process without shattering the leaves. If left too long, then
+the hay-tedder is a damage because it kicks the leaves loose from the
+stems and the most valuable feeding material is wasted. But it is a good
+implement if rightly used. In catchy weather it often means the
+difference between bright, valuable hay and black, musty stuff, that is
+hardly fit to feed.
+
+Hay-tedders are expensive. Where two farmers neighbor together the
+expense may be shared, because the tedder does its work in two or three
+hours' time. Careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one time. The
+tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once. In fact the mowing machine,
+hay-tedder and horserake should all fit together for team work so they
+will follow each other without skips or unnecessary laps. The dividing
+board of the mowing-machine marks a path for one of the horses to follow
+and it is difficult to keep him out of it. But two horses pulling a
+hay-tedder will straddle the open strip between the swaths when the
+tedder is twice the width of the cut.
+
+
+HAY SKIDS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 146.--Hay Skid. This hay skid is 8 feet wide and
+16 feet long. It is made of 7/8" lumber put together with 2" carriage
+bolts--plenty of them. The round boltheads are countersunk into the
+bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats. It
+makes a low-down, easy-pitching, hay-hauling device.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 147.--Hay Sling. It takes no longer to hoist 500
+pounds of hay than 100 pounds if the rig is large and strong enough.
+Four feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay
+quickly. But the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used on a
+wagon.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 148.--(1) Four-Tined Derrick Fork. (2) Pea Guard.
+An extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the
+cleanest way to harvest Canada peas. The old-fashioned way of pulling
+peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion. But the heavy bearing
+varieties still persist in crawling on the ground. If the vines are
+lifted and cut clean they can be raked into windrows with a spring tooth
+hayrake. (3) Haystack Knife. This style of hay-cutting knife is used
+almost universally on stacks and in hay-mows. There is less use for
+hay-knives since farmers adopted power hayforks to lift hay out of a mow
+as well as to put it in.]
+
+Hay slips, or hay skids, are used on the old smooth fields in the
+eastern states. They are usually made of seven-eighths-inch boards
+dressed preferably on one side only. They are used smooth side to the
+ground to slip along easily. Rough side is up to better hold the hay
+from slipping. The long runner boards are held together by cross pieces
+made of inch boards twelve inches wide and well nailed at each
+intersection with nails well clinched. Small carriage bolts are better
+than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the bottom with the
+points up. They should be used without washers and the ends of the
+bolts cut close to the sunken nuts. The front end of the skid is rounded
+up slightly, sled runner fashion, as much as the boards will bear, to
+avoid digging into the sod to destroy either the grass roots or crowns
+of the plants. Hay usually is forked by hand from the windrows on to the
+skids. Sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the hay is
+forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped over each other in
+such a way as to hoist on to the stack without spilling out at the
+sides. Four hundred to eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one
+of these skids, according to horse power and unevenness of the ground.
+They save labor, as compared to wagons, because there is no pitching up.
+All hoisting is supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a hay
+derrick.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 149.--Double Harpoon Hayfork. This is a large size
+fork with extra long legs. For handling long hay that hangs together
+well this fork is a great success. It may be handled as quickly as a
+smaller fork and it carries a heavy load.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 150.--Six-Tined Grapple Hayfork. It is balanced to
+hang as shown in the drawing when empty. It sinks into the hay easily
+and dumps quickly when the clutch is released.]
+
+
+WESTERN HAY DERRICKS
+
+Two derricks for stacking hay, that are used extensively in the alfalfa
+districts of Idaho, are shown in the illustration, Figure 151. The
+derrick to the left is made with a square base of timbers which
+supports an upright mast and a horizontal boom. The timber base is
+sixteen feet square, made of five sticks of timber, each piece being 8 x
+8 inches square by 16 feet in length. Two of the timbers rest flat on
+the ground and are rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the
+derrick across the stubble ground or along the road to the next
+hayfield. These sleigh runner timbers are notched on the upper side near
+each end and at the middle to receive the three cross timbers. The cross
+timbers also are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make a
+sort of double mortise. The timbers are bound together at the
+intersections by iron U-clamps that pass around both timbers and fasten
+through a flat iron plate on top of the upper timbers. These flat plates
+or bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of the U-irons
+pass through these holes and the nuts are screwed down tight. The
+sleigh runner timbers are recessed diagonally across the bottom to fit
+the round U-irons which are let into the bottoms of the timbers just
+enough to prevent scraping the earth when the derrick is being moved.
+These iron U-clamp fasteners are much stronger and better than bolts
+through the timbers.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 151.--Idaho Hay Derricks. Two styles of hay
+derricks are used to stack alfalfa hay in Idaho. The drawing to the left
+shows the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move.
+The derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful. Wire
+cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears out
+quickly. They are similar in operation but different in construction.
+The base of each is 16 feet square and the high ends of the booms reach
+up nearly 40 feet. A single hayfork rope, or wire cable, is used; it is
+about 65 feet long. The reach is sufficient to drop the hay in the
+center of a stack 24 feet wide.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 152.--Hay Carrier Carriage. Powerful carriers are
+part of the new barn. The track is double and the wheels run on both
+tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily when
+the clutch is released.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 153.--(1) Hayfork Hitch. A whiffletree pulley
+doubles the speed of the fork. The knot in the rope gives double power
+to start the load. (2) Rafter Grapple, for attaching an extra pulley to
+any part of the barn roof.]
+
+There are timber braces fitted across the corners which are bolted
+through the outside timbers to brace the frame against a diamond
+tendency when moving the derrick. There is considerable strain when
+passing over uneven ground. It is better to make the frame so solid that
+it cannot get out of square. The mast is a stick of timber 8 inches
+square and 20 or 24 feet long. This mast is securely fastened solid to
+the center of the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the
+center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid and held
+perpendicular to the framework by 4" x 4" wooden braces at the corners.
+These braces are notched at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast
+and are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of the timbers.
+They are held in place by bolts and by strap iron or band iron bands.
+These bands are drilled with holes and are spiked through into the
+timbers with four-inch or five-inch wire nails. Holes are drilled
+through the band iron the right size and at the proper places for the
+nails. The mast is made round at the top and is fitted with a heavy
+welded iron ring or band to prevent splitting. The boom is usually about
+30 feet long. Farmers prefer a round pole when they can get it. It is
+attached to the top of the mast by an iron stirrup made by a blacksmith.
+This stirrup is made to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third
+of the way up from the big end, which makes the small end of the boom
+project 20 feet out from the upper end of the mast. The iron stirrup is
+made heavy and strong. It has a round iron gudgeon 1-1/2" in diameter
+that reaches down into the top of the mast about 18 inches. The shoulder
+of the stirrup is supported by a square, flat iron plate which rests on
+and covers the top of the mast and has the corners turned down. It is
+made large to shed water and protect the top of the mast. This plate has
+a hole one and a half inches in diameter in the center through which the
+stirrup gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast. A farm chain,
+or logging chain, is fastened to the large end of the boom by passing
+the chain around the boom and engaging the round hook. The grab hook end
+of the chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked back to
+give it the right length, which doubles the part of the chain within
+reach of the man in charge. This double end of the chain is lengthened
+or shortened to elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack. The
+small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack goes up.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 154.--Hay Rope Pulleys. The housing of the pulley
+to the left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves.]
+
+An ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the hay. Three single
+pulleys are attached, one to the outer end of the boom, one near the top
+of the mast, and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope
+passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and at the same time
+permits the boom to swing around as the fork goes up from the wagon rack
+over the stack. This swinging movement is regulated by tilting the
+derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over the stack by its
+own weight or by the weight of the hay on the horse fork. Usually a wire
+truss is rigged over the boom to stiffen it. The wire is attached to the
+boom at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to rest on a
+bridge placed over the stirrup.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 155.--Gambrel Whiffletree, for use in hoisting hay
+to prevent entanglements. It is also handy when cultivating around
+fruit-trees.]
+
+Farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because it is cheaply made
+and it may be easily moved because it is not heavy. It is automatic and
+it is about as cheap as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory
+for ordinary use. The base is large enough to make it solid and steady
+when in use. Before moving the point of the boom is lowered to a level
+position so that the derrick is not top-heavy. There is little danger
+of upsetting upon ordinary farm lands. Also the width of 16 feet will
+pass along country roads without meeting serious obstacles. Hay slings
+usually are made too narrow and too short. The ordinary little hay sling
+is prone to tip sideways and spill the hay. It is responsible for a
+great deal of profanity. The hay derrick shown to the right is somewhat
+different in construction, but is quite similar in action. The base is
+the same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an iron socket
+mortised into the center timber.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 156.--Cable Hay Stacker. The wire cable is
+supported by the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing
+stakes. Two single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the
+bipods from slipping in at the top. Two double-cable clamps hold the
+ends of the cables to form stake loops.]
+
+The wire hoisting cable is threaded differently, as shown in the
+drawing. This style of derrick is made larger, sometimes the peak
+reaches up 40' above the base. The extra large ones are awkward to move
+but they build fine big stacks.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 157.--California Hay Ricker, for putting either
+wild hay or alfalfa quickly in ricks. It is used in connection with
+home-made buck rakes. This ricker works against the end of the rick and
+is backed away each time to start a new bench. The upright is made of
+light poles or 2 x 4s braced as shown. It should be 28 or 30 feet high.
+Iron stakes hold the bottom, while guy wires steady the top.]
+
+
+CALIFORNIA HAY RICKER
+
+In the West hay is often put up in long ricks instead of stacks. One of
+my jobs in California was to put up 2,700 acres of wild hay in the
+Sacramento Valley. I made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar to
+the ones shown in the illustrations. Each ricker was operated by a crew
+of eight men. Four men drove two buck rakes. There were two on the rick,
+one at the fork and one to drive the hoisting rig. Ten mowing machines
+did most of the cutting but I hired eight more machines towards the
+last, as the latest grass was getting too ripe. The crop measured more
+than 2,100 tons and it was all put in ricks, stacks and barns without a
+drop of rain on it. I should add that rain seldom falls in the lower
+Sacramento Valley during the haying season in the months of May and
+June. This refers to wild hay, which is made up of burr clover, wild
+oats and volunteer wheat and barley.
+
+Alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot interior valleys, so
+that if a farmer is rash enough to plant alfalfa under irrigation his
+haying thereafter will reach from one rainy season to the next.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FARM CONVEYANCES
+
+
+STONE-BOAT
+
+One of the most useful and one of the least ornamental conveyances on a
+farm is the stone-boat. It is a low-down handy rig for moving heavy
+commodities in summer as well as in winter. No other sleigh or wagon
+will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or harrows from one field to
+another. It is handy to tote bags of seed to supply the grain drill, to
+haul a barrel of water, feed for the hogs, and a great many other
+chores.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 158.--Stone-Boat. Stump logs are selected for the
+planks. The bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots.
+The sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions.]
+
+When the country was new, sawmills made a business of sawing stone-boat
+plank. Trees for stone-boat staves were cut close to the ground and the
+natural crooks of the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners
+and for stone-boats. But cast-iron noses are now manufactured with
+recesses to receive the ends of straight ordinary hardwood planks. These
+cast-iron ends are rounded up in front to make the necessary nose
+crook. The front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the front ends
+of the runner planks. Usually there are two other hardwood plank cross
+pieces, one near the rear end and the other about one-third of the way
+back from the front. Placing the cross pieces in this way gives room
+between to stand a barrel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 159.--Wheelbarrow. This factory-made wheelbarrow
+is the only pattern worth bothering with. It is cheap and answers the
+purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings.]
+
+The cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom up. Round-headed
+bolts are used and they are countersunk, to come flush with the bottom
+of the sliding planks. The nuts are countersunk into the cross pieces by
+boring holes about one-quarter inch deep. The holes are a little larger
+than the cornerwise diameter of the nuts. No washers are used, and the
+nuts are screwed down tight into the plank. The ends of the bolts are
+cut off even and filed smooth. The nuts are placed sharp corner side
+down and are left nearly flush on top or even with the surface of the
+cross pieces. In using a stone-boat, nobody wants a projection to catch
+any part of the load.
+
+Regular doubletree clevises are attached to the corners of the
+old-fashioned stone-boat and the side chains are brought together to a
+ring and are just about long enough to form an equilateral triangle with
+the front end of the stone-boat. Cast-iron fronts usually have a
+projection in the center for the clevis hitch.
+
+
+OXEN ON A NEW ENGLAND FARM
+
+One of the most interesting experiences on a New England farm is to get
+acquainted with the manner in which oxen are pressed into farm service.
+One reason why oxen have never gone out of fashion in New England is the
+fact that they are patient enough to plow stony ground without smashing
+the plow.
+
+A great deal of New England farm land has been reclaimed by removing a
+portion of the surface stone. In the processes of freezing and thawing
+and cultivation, stones from underneath keep working up to the surface
+so that it requires considerable skill to do the necessary plowing and
+cultivating. Oxen ease the plowpoint over or around a rock so it can
+immediately dip in again to the full depth of the furrow. A good yoke of
+cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong and powerful.
+
+Oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and they are valuable for
+beef when they are not needed any longer as work animals. The Holstein
+breed seems to have the preference for oxen with New England farmers.
+The necessary harness for a pair of cattle consists of an ox yoke with a
+ringbolt through the center of the yoke, midway between the two oxen. A
+heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter, made of round iron, hangs
+from the ringbolt. There are two oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the
+necks of the cattle. A logging chain with a round hook on one end and a
+grab hook on the other end completes the yoking outfit.
+
+The round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring in the plow clevis.
+The chain is passed through the large iron ring in the oxbow and is
+doubled back to get the right length. The grab hook is so constructed
+that it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next link
+standing crosswise prevents it from slipping.
+
+The mechanism of a logging chain is extremely simple, positive in action
+and especially well adapted to the use for which it is intended. The
+best mechanical inventions often pass without notice because of their
+simplicity. Farmers have used logging chains for generations with hooks
+made on this plan without realizing that they were profiting by a high
+grade invention that embodies superior merit.
+
+In yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally simple. The end of the
+wagon tongue is placed in the ring in the ox yoke, the round hook
+engages with a drawbolt under the hammer strap bar. The small grab hook
+is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought back and engaged
+with a chain link at the proper distance to stretch the chain taut.
+
+The process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a wagon is one of the
+most interesting performances on a farm. The off ox works on the off
+side, or far side from the driver. He usually is the larger of the two
+and the more intelligent. The near (pronounced n-i-g-h) ox is nearest to
+the driver who walks to the left. Old plows turned the furrow to the
+right so the driver could walk on hard ground. In this way the
+awkwardness and ignorance of the near ox is played against the docility
+and superior intelligence of the off ox. In yoking the two together the
+yoke is first placed on the neck of the off ox and the near ox is
+invited to come under. This expression is so apt that a great many years
+ago it became a classic in the hands of able writers to suggest
+submission or slavery termed "coming under the yoke." Coming under the
+yoke, however, for the New England ox, in these days of abundant
+feeding, is no hardship. The oxen are large and powerful and the work
+they have to do is just about sufficient to give them the needed
+exercise to enjoy their alfalfa hay and feed of oats or corn.
+
+
+TRAVOY
+
+One of the first implements used by farm settlers in the timbered
+sections of the United States and Canada, was a three-cornered sled made
+from the fork of a tree. This rough sled, in the French speaking
+settlements, was called a "travoy." Whether it was of Indian or French
+invention is not known; probably both Indians and French settlers used
+travoys for moving logs in the woods before American history was much
+written. The legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long. There
+is a bunk which extends crossways from one runner to the other, about
+half or two-thirds of the way back from the turned-up nose. This bunk is
+fastened to the runners by means of wooden pins and U-shaped bows fitted
+into grooves cut around the upper half of the bunk near the ends. Just
+back of the turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a
+stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an auger hole
+extending through both legs from side to side of the travoy. The
+underside of the crotch is hollowed out in front of the bolt to make
+room to pass the logging chain through so it comes out in front under
+the turned up nose.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 160.--Travoy. A log-hauling sled made from the
+fork of a tree.]
+
+The front of the travoy is turned up, sled runner fashion, by hewing the
+wood with an axe to give it the proper shape. Travoys are used to haul
+logs from a thick woods to the skidways. The manner of using a travoy is
+interesting. It is hauled by a yoke of cattle or a team of horses to the
+place where the log lies in the woods. The round hook end of the logging
+chain is thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back under the
+log then around the bunk just inside of the runner and hooked fast upon
+itself. The travoy is then leaned over against the log, the grab hook
+end of the chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and
+straightened out at right angles to the log. The cattle are hitched to
+the end of the logging chain and started. This kind of a hitch rolls the
+log over on top of the bunk on the travoy. The cattle are then
+unhitched. The grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed down
+and around under the other end of the bunk from behind. The chain is
+then passed over the bolt near the nose of the travoy and pulled down
+through the opening and out in front from under the nose. The small
+grab hook of the logging chain is then passed through the clevis, in the
+doubletree, if horses are used, or the ring in the yoke if cattle are
+used, and hitched back to the proper length. A little experience is
+necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give the proper pull.
+The chain should be short enough so the pull lifts a little. It is
+generally conceded by woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier
+than a long hitch. However, there is a medium. There are limitations
+which experience only can determine. A travoy is useful in dense woods
+where there is a good deal of undergrowth or where there are places so
+rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage.
+
+
+LINCHPIN FARM WAGONS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 161.--Cross Reach Wagon. This wagon is coupled for
+a trailer, but it works just as well when used with a tongue and horses
+as a handy farm wagon. The bunks are made rigid and parallel by means of
+a double reach. There are two king bolts to permit both axles to turn.
+Either end is front.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 162.--Wagon Brake. The hounds are tilted up to
+show the brake beam and the manner of attaching it. The brake lever is
+fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up alongside
+of the bolster stake. The brake rod reaches from the upper end of the
+lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 163.--Bolster Spring.]
+
+In some parts of the country the wheels of handy wagons about the farm
+are held on axle journals by means of linchpins in the old-fashioned
+manner. There are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which project
+several inches beyond the wood. This is the best protection against sand
+to prevent it from working into the wheel boxing that has ever been
+invented. Sand from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands and
+rolls off to the ground. There is a hole through each band on the outer
+ends of the hubs to pass the linchpin through so that before taking off
+a wheel to oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes
+directly over the linchpin. To pry out the linchpin the drawbolt is
+used. Old-fashioned drawbolts were made with a chisel shaped end tapered
+from both sides to a thickness of about an eighth of an inch. This thin
+wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of the linchpin. The
+lower side of the hub-band forms a fulcrum to pry the pin up through the
+hole in the upper side of the sand-band projection. The linchpin has a
+hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever is transferred to
+the top of the sand-band when another pry lifts the pin clear out of the
+hole in the end of the axle so the wheel may be removed and grease
+applied to the axle. The drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usually has a
+head made in the form of the jaws of a wrench. The wrench is the right
+size to fit the nuts on the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt
+answers three purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 164.--Wagon Seat Spring. The metal block fits over
+the top of the bolster stake.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 165.--Hollow Malleable Iron Bolster Stake to hold
+a higher wooden stake when necessary.]
+
+
+SAND-BANDS
+
+Many parts of farm machinery require projecting sand-bands to protect
+the journals from sand and dust. Most farms have some sandy fields or
+ridges. Some farms are all sand or sandy loam. Even dust from clay is
+injurious to machinery. There is more or less grit in the finest clay.
+The most important parts of farm machinery are supposed to be protected
+by oil-cups containing cotton waste to strain the oil, together with
+covers in the shape of metal caps. These are necessary protections and
+they help, but they are not adequate for all conditions. It is not easy
+to keep sand out of bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal.
+Wooden plugs gather sand and dust. When a plug is pulled the sand drops
+into the oil hole. Farm machinery that is properly designed protects
+itself from sand and dust. In buying a machine this particular feature
+should appeal to the farmers more than it does. Leather caps are a
+nuisance. They are a sort of patchwork to finish the job that the
+manufacturer commences. A man who is provident enough to supply himself
+with good working tools and is sufficiently careful to take care of
+them, usually is particular about the appearance as well as the
+usefulness of his tools, machinery and implements.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 166.--Sand Caps. Not one manufacturer in a hundred
+knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing. Still it is one of the
+simplest tricks in mechanics. The only protection an axle needs is long
+ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at both
+ends. Old-fashioned Linchpin farm wagons were built on this principle.
+The hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins, but they wore for years.]
+
+
+BOBSLEIGHS
+
+On Northern farms bobsleighs are as important in the winter time as a
+farm wagon in summer. There are different ways of putting bobsleighs
+together according to the use required of them. When using heavy
+bobsleighs for road work, farmers favor the bolster reach to connect the
+front and rear sleighs. With this attachment the horses may be turned
+around against the rear sled. The front bolster fits into a recessed
+plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh. This plate is a
+combination of wearing plate and circle and must be kept oiled to turn
+easily under a heavy load. It not only facilitates turning, but it
+prevents the bolster from catching on the raves or on the upturned nose
+of the front bob when turning short.
+
+The heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the two bolsters is put
+through a mortise through the front bolster and is fastened rigidly by
+an extra large king-bolt. The reach plays back and forth rather loosely
+through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the rear sleigh. The
+rear hounds connect with the reach by means of a link and pin. This link
+pushes up through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with a
+wooden pin or key on top of the reach. Sometimes the hounds are taken
+away and the reach is fastened with pins before and behind the rear
+bolster. This reach hitch is not recommended except for light road work.
+These two ways of attaching the rear sled necessitate different ways of
+fastening the rear bolster to the sled. When the rear bolster is
+required to do the pulling, it is attached to the sled by double
+eyebolts which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows the nose
+of the rear sled to bob up and down freely. This is an advantage when a
+long box bed is used, because the bolster is made to fit the box closely
+and is not continually oscillating and wearing. Eye-bolts provide for
+this natural movement of the sled. Light pleasure bobs are attached to
+the box with eyebolts without bolster stakes. The light passenger riding
+seat box is bound together with iron braces and side irons so it does
+not need bolsters to hold the sides together.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 167.--Bobsleighs, Showing Three Kinds of Coupling.
+The upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan
+except that the reach is not mortised into the roller. It is gained in a
+quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and nuts
+on the under side. The bobs in the center show the bolster reach,
+principally used for road work. The bottom pair are coupled by cross
+chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the woods.]
+
+Bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together quite differently.
+The old-fashioned reach with a staple in the rear bench of the first
+sled and a clevis in the end of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for
+rough roads in the woods. Such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead of
+bolsters. Bunks are usually cut from good hardwood trees, hewed out with
+an axe and bored for round stakes. Log bunks for easy loading do not
+project beyond the raves. With this kind of a rig, a farmer can fasten
+two logging chains to the reach, carry the grab hook ends out and under
+and around the log and back again over the sleighs, and then hitch the
+horses to the two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids and
+on to the bunks without doing any damage to the bobsleighs. Bobsleighs
+hitched together with an old-fashioned reach and provided with wide
+heavy raves will climb over logs, pitch down into root holes, and weave
+their way in and out among trees better than any other sled contrivance,
+and they turn short enough for such roads. The shortest turning rig,
+however, is the cross chain reach shown in Figure 167.
+
+
+MAKING A FARM CART
+
+A two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of cider is a great
+convenience on a farm. The front wheels of a buggy are about the right
+size and usually are strong enough for cart purposes. A one-inch iron
+axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square bends. The
+axle is bent down near the hubs at right angles and carried across to
+support the floor of the cart box about one foot from the ground. The
+distance from the ground should be just sufficient so that when the cart
+is tipped back the hind end will rest on the ground with the bottom
+boards at an easy slant to roll a barrel or milk can into the bottom of
+the box. Under the back end of the cart platform is a good stout bar of
+hardwood framed into the sidepieces. All of the woodwork about the cart
+is well braced with iron. The floor of the cart is better when made of
+narrow matched hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick
+fastened with bolts. It should be well supported by cross pieces
+underneath. In fact the principal part of the box is the underneath part
+of the frame.
+
+Sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the vertical parts of
+the axle and braced in different directions to keep the frame solid,
+square and firm. The sides of the box are permanently fastened but both
+tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats and rods and are
+removable so that long scantling or lumber may be carried on the cart
+bottom. The ends of the box may be quickly put in place again when it is
+necessary to use them.
+
+To hold a cart box together, four rods are necessary, two across the
+front and two behind. They are made like tailboard rods in wagon boxes.
+There is always some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm
+cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or pushing. If a breast
+bar is used it handles better when supported by two curved projecting
+shafts or pieces of bent wood, preferably the bent up extended ends of
+the bedpieces. The handle bar should be about three feet from the
+ground.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 168.--Farm Cart. The axle need not be heavier than
+7/8". The hind axle of a light buggy works the best. It is bent down and
+spliced and welded under the box. The cart should be made narrow to
+prevent overloading. The box should be low enough to rest the back end
+on the ground at an angle of about 35° for easy loading.]
+
+
+COLT-BREAKING SULKY
+
+A pair of shafts that look a good deal too long, an axle, two wheels and
+a whiffletree are the principal parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The
+shafts are so long that a colt can kick his best without reaching
+anything behind. The principal danger is that he may come down with one
+hind leg over the shaft. It is a question with horsemen whether it is
+better to first start a colt alongside of an old, steady horse. But it
+is generally conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in such
+a way that he could kick himself loose. Different farmers have different
+ideas in regard to training colts, but these breaking carts with extra
+long shafts are very much used in some parts of the country. The shafts
+are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to make kicking
+impossible. A rope or heavy strap reaching from one shaft to the other
+over the colt's hips will keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground.
+Any rig used in connection with a colt should be strong enough to
+withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put upon it. If the
+colt breaks something or breaks loose, it takes him a long time to
+forget the scare. Farm boys make these breaking carts by using wheels
+and hind axles of a worn-out buggy. This is well enough if the wheels
+are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and braced. It is easy to make a
+mistake with a colt. To prevent accidents it is much better to have the
+harness and wagon amply strong.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 169.--Colt-Breaking Sulky. The axle and hind
+wheels of a light wagon, two strong straight-grained shafts about 4 feet
+too long, a whiffletree and a spring seat are the principal parts of a
+colt-breaking sulky. The shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and
+clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the
+colt. The traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach anything to
+kick, and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching from one
+shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft. In this rig the colt
+is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn around. The axle should
+be longer than standard to prevent upsetting when the colt turns a
+corner at high speed.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES
+
+
+FARM OFFICE
+
+[Illustration: Figure 170.--Perspective View of Two-Story Corn Crib. The
+side of the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery.]
+
+Business farming requires an office. Business callers feel sensitive
+about talking farm or live-stock affairs before several members of the
+family. But they are quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his
+office. A farm office may be small but it should contain a desk or
+table, two or three chairs, book shelves for books, drawers for
+government bulletins and a cabinet to hold glassware and chemicals for
+making soil tests and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds before
+planting. A good glass is also valuable in tracing the destructive work
+of many kinds of insect pests.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 171.--Floor Plans of Two-Story Corn Crib. The
+first floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the
+second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway, with
+location of the downspouts, stairway, etc.]
+
+The office is the proper place for making germination tests of various
+farm seeds. Seventy degrees of heat is necessary for the best results in
+seed testing. For this reason, as well as for comfort while working, the
+heating problem should receive its share of attention. Many times it so
+happens that a farmer has a few minutes just before mealtime that he
+could devote to office work if the room be warm enough.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 172.--Economy of Round Barn. The diagrams show
+that the popular 36' x 80' cow stable and the commonest size of round
+barn have about the same capacity. Each barn will stable forty cows, but
+the round barn has room for a silo in the center. Both barns have feed
+overhead in the shape of hay and straw, but the round feed room saves
+steps.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 173.--Concrete Farm Scale Base and Pit.]
+
+Neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are important. The sheets of
+paper should be eight and a half by eleven inches in size, pure white
+and of good quality. The printing should be plain black and of round
+medium-sized letters that may be easily read. Fancy lettering and
+flourishes are out of place on business stationery.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 174.--Top View of the Hay-Track Roof Extension,
+showing the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 175.--Side view showing plan for building a
+Hayfork Hood to project from peak of a storage barn. The jack-rafters
+form a brace to support the end of the hay-track beam.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 176.--Slaughter House. The house should be twelve
+feet wide. It may be any length to provide storage, but 12 x 12 makes a
+good beef skinning floor. The windlass shaft should be ten feet above
+the floor, which requires twelve-foot studding. The wheel is eight feet
+in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches. The animal is
+killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies limp against
+the revolving door. The door catch is sprung back and the carcass rolls
+down onto the concrete skinning floor.]
+
+Halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings are better used on
+separate advertising sheets that may be folded in with the letters when
+wanted.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 177.--Rule of Six, Eight and Ten. Diagram showing
+how to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be
+made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 178.--Roof Truss built strong enough to support
+the roof of a farm garage without center posts.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 179.--Design of Roof Truss Intended to Span a Farm
+Garage.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 180.--Roof Pitches. Mow capacity of the different
+roof pitches is given above the plates in figures.]
+
+Typewriters are so common that a hand-written letter is seldom seen
+among business correspondence. A busy farmer is not likely to acquire
+much speed with a typewriter, but his son or daughter may. One great
+advantage is the making of carbon copies. Every letter received is then
+filed in a letter case in alphabetical order and a carbon copy of each
+answer is pinned to it for future reference.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 181.--Double Corn Crib. Two cribs may be roofed
+this way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately. A storeroom is
+provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging.]
+
+The cost of furnishing a farm office will depend upon the inclinations
+of the man. A cheap kitchen table may be used instead of an expensive
+mahogany desk. A new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars, but
+a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be obtained for twenty.
+
+A useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought for a dollar or two.
+Or considerable money may be invested in a high-powered microscope.
+
+
+SPEED INDICATOR
+
+The speed requirements of machines are given by the manufacturers. It is
+up to the farmer to determine the size of pulleys and the speed of
+intermediate shafts between his engine and the machine to be driven. A
+speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at the center. The
+indicator pin then revolves with the shaft and the number of revolutions
+per minute are counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the second
+hand of a watch.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 182.--Speed Timers. Two styles. The point is held
+against the center of the shaft to be tested. The number of revolutions
+per minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial. The indicator is
+timed to the second hand of a watch.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 183.--Building Bracket. Made of 2 x 4 pieces put
+together at right angles with diagonal braces. The supporting leg fits
+between the four diagonal braces.]
+
+
+SOIL TOOLS
+
+Soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop raising. Soil
+moisture may be measured by analysis. The first step is to obtain
+samples at different depths. This is done accurately and quickly with a
+good soil auger. Other paraphernalia is required to make a careful
+analysis of the sample, but a farmer of experience will make a mud ball
+and form a very good estimate of the amount of water in it.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 184.--Diagram showing how to cut a plank on a
+band-saw to form a curved rafter. The two pieces of the plank are spiked
+together as shown in the lower drawing. This makes a curved rafter
+without waste of material.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 185.--Breeding Crate for Hogs. The illustration
+shows the manner of construction.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 186.--Soil Auger. Scientific farming demands that
+soils shall be tested for moisture. A long handled auger is used to
+bring samples of soil to the surface. The samples are weighed, the water
+evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of moisture.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 187.--Post Hole Diggers. Two patterns of the same
+kind of digger are shown. The first has iron handles, the lower has
+wooden handles.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 188.--Hoes and Weeders. The hang of a hoe affects
+its working. The upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle between
+the blade and the handle. The difference between a hoe and a weeder is
+that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to loosen the soil,
+while the blade of the weeder is intended to work parallel with the
+surface of the soil to cut young weeds.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 189.--Manure Hook and Potato Diggers.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 190.--Spud. Certain vegetables are grown for crop
+and for seed. The green plants are thinned with a spud for sale, leaving
+the best to ripen for seed. It is also used to dig tough weeds,
+especially those having tap roots.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 191.--(1) Corn Cutting Knife. (2) Asparagus
+Knife.]
+
+
+FENCE-MAKING TOOLS
+
+_Sliding Field Gate._--Each farm field should have a gate, not
+necessarily expensive, but it should be reasonably convenient. Farm
+field gates should be made sixteen feet long, which will allow for a
+clear opening about fourteen feet wide. The cheapest way to make a good
+farm gate is to use a 10-inch board for the bottom, 8-inch for the board
+next to the bottom and three 6-inch boards above that. The space between
+the bottom board and next board is two inches. This narrow space
+prevents hogs from lifting the gate with their noses. The spaces widen
+toward the top, so that the gate when finished is five feet high. If
+colts run the fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate. Six
+cross pieces 1 inch by 6 inches are used to hold the gate together.
+These cross pieces are bolted through at each intersection. Also a
+slanting brace is used on the front half of the gate to keep it from
+racking and this brace is put on with bolts. Two posts are set at each
+end of the gate. The front posts hold the front end of the gate between
+them, and the rear posts the same. There is a cross piece which reaches
+from one of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and hold it
+off the ground. A similar cross piece holds the front end of the gate up
+from the ground. Sometimes a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross
+piece to roll the gate if it is to be used a good deal. A plain, simple
+sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some distance from the
+barn.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 192.--(1) Plumb-Bob and Plumb-Line. The line is
+paid out about 6 feet from the spool and given a half hitch. It may then
+be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob. (2) Bipod. The
+legs of a fence bipod are cut 6 feet long. The bolt is put through 6
+inches from the top ends. By the aid of the plummet the upper wire is
+strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and 4' 6" above grade. The
+lower parts of the posts are set against the barb-wire and the upper
+faces of the posts at the top are set even with the upper wire. This
+plan not only places the posts in line, both at the top and bottom, but
+it regulates the height.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 193.--Fence Tools. The upper tool is a round steel
+pin to twist heavy brace wires. The scoop is for working stones out of
+post-holes. The steel crowbar is for working around the stones to loosen
+them.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 194.--Fence Pliers. This is a heavy fence tool
+made to pull fence staples and to stretch, cut and splice wire.]
+
+
+CORN SHOCK HORSE
+
+[Illustration: Figure 195.--Corn Horse. When corn is cut by hand there
+is no better shocking device than the old-style corn horse. It is almost
+as handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder.]
+
+A convenient corn shocking horse is made with a pole cut from a straight
+tree. The pole is about six inches through at the butt and tapers to a
+small end. About twenty feet is a good length. There are two legs which
+hold the large end of the pole up about 40" from the ground. These legs
+are well spread apart at the bottom. Two feet back from the legs is a
+horizontal hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to hold the
+crossbar. This crossbar may be an old broom handle. The pole and the
+crossbar mark the four divisions of a corn shock. Corn is cut and stood
+up in each corner, usually nine hills in a corner, giving thirty-six
+hills to a shock. Corn planted in rows is counted up to make about the
+same amount of corn to the shock. Of course a heavy or light crop must
+determine the number of rows or hills. When enough corn is cut for a
+shock it is tied with two bands, the crossbar is pulled out and the corn
+horse is dragged along to the next stand.
+
+
+HUSKING-PIN
+
+Hand huskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips of the ears are made
+of wood, bone or steel. Wooden husking-pins are made of ironwood,
+eucalyptus, second growth hickory, or some other tough hardwood. The
+pin is about four inches long, five-eighths of an inch thick and it is
+shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather long point. A recessed girdle is
+cut around the barrel of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and
+around this girdle. Generally the leather ring fits the larger finger to
+hold the pin in the right position while permitting it to turn to wear
+the point all around alike. Bone husking-pins are generally flat with a
+hole through the center to hold the leather finger ring. Steel
+husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to catch and tear the
+husks apart.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 196.--Brick Trowel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 197.--Plastering Trowel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 198.--Concrete Hog Wallow, showing drain pipe.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 199.--Concrete Center Alley for Hog House. The
+upper illustration represents the wooden template used to form the
+center of the hog house floor.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 200.--Sanitary Pig-Pen. One of the most
+satisfactory farrowing houses is constructed of concrete posts 6" square
+and 6" square mesh hog fencing and straw. The posts are set to make
+farrowing pens 8' wide and 16' deep from front to back. Woven wire is
+stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and back
+of each pen. Straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets, thus making
+partitions of straw 6" thick and 42" high. Fence wire is stretched over
+the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed rain. The front of the
+pens face the south and are closed by wooden gates. In the spring the
+pigs are turned out on pasture, the straw roof is hauled to the fields
+for manure and the straw partitions burned out. The sun shines into the
+skeleton pens all summer so that all mischievous bacteria are killed and
+the hog-lice are burned or starved. The next fall concrete floors may be
+laid in the pens, the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with
+another straw roof. In a colder climate I would cover the whole top with
+a straw roof. Sufficient ventilation would work through the straw
+partitions and the front gate. In very cold weather add a thin layer of
+straw to the gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 201.--Concrete Wall Mold. Wooden molds for shaping
+a concrete wall may be made as shown. If the wall is to be low--2' or
+less--the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the sides
+together. The form is made level by first leveling the 2" x 6" stringers
+that support the form.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 202.--Husking-Pin. The leather finger ring is
+looped into the recess in the wooden pin.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 203.--Harness Punch. The hollow punch points are
+of different sizes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 204.--Belt Punch. Two or three sizes should be
+kept in the tool box. Belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight.
+The smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing. Holes
+punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained
+hardwood.]
+
+
+PAINT BRUSHES
+
+Paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year without apparent
+injury. The paint should be deep enough to nearly bury the bristles.
+Pour a little boiled linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the
+air out. It is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the paint out of
+one that has been used.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 205.--Knots. The simple principles of knot tying
+as practiced on farms are here represented.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 206.--Sheepshank, two half hitches in a rope to
+take up slack. The rope may be folded upon itself as many times as
+necessary.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 207.--Marline Spike. Used for splicing ropes,
+tying rose knots, etc.]
+
+
+FRUIT PICKING
+
+[Illustration: Figure 208.--Fruit-Picking Tray. It is used for picking
+grapes and other fruits. The California lug box has vertical sides and
+is the same size top and bottom. Otherwise the construction is similar.]
+
+Apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men who understand the
+business of getting high prices. Picking boxes for apples have bothered
+orchard men more than any other part of the business. It is so difficult
+to get help to handle apples without bruising that many inventions have
+been tried to lessen the damage. In western New York a tray with
+vertical ends and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers as
+the most convenient tray for grapes. Apple growers are adopting the same
+tray. It is made of three-eighths-inch lumber cut 30 inches long for the
+sides, using two strips for each side. The bottom is 30 inches long and
+three-eighths of an inch thick, made in one piece. The ends are
+seven-eighths of an inch thick cut to a bevel so the top edge of the end
+piece is fourteen inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long.
+The depth of the end piece is eight inches. Hand cleats are nailed on
+the outsides of the end pieces so as to project one-half inch above the
+top. These cleats not only serve to lift and carry the trays, but when
+they are loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats to hold
+them from slipping endways. In piling these picking boxes empty, one
+end is slipped outward over the cleat until the other end drops down.
+This permits half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or
+when loaded on wagons to move to the orchard.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 209.--Fruit Thinning Nippers. Three styles of
+apple-stem cutters are shown. They are also used for picking grapes and
+other fruits.]
+
+Apples are picked into the trays from the trees. The trays are loaded on
+to wagons or stone-boats and hauled to the packing shed, where the
+apples are rolled out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to
+the cushioned bottom of the sorting table. Orchard men should have
+crates enough to keep the pickers busy without emptying until they are
+hauled to the packing shed. The use of such trays or crates save
+handling the apples over several times. The less apples are handled the
+fewer bruises are made.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 210.--Apple Picking Ladder. When apples are picked
+and placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient
+for holding the trays.]
+
+In California similar trays are used, but they have straight sides and
+are called lug boxes. Eastern fruit men prefer the sloping sides because
+they may be emptied easily, quickly and gently.
+
+
+FRUIT PICKING LADDERS
+
+Commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bearing fruit spurs as near
+the ground as possible, so that ladders used at picking time are not so
+long as they used to be.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 211.--Stepladder and Apple-Picking Bag. This
+ladder has only three feet, but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to
+prevent upsetting. This bag is useful when picking scattering apples on
+the outer or upper branches. Picking bags carelessly used are the cause
+of many bruised apples.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 212.--Tree Pruners. The best made pruners are the
+cheapest. This long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from the
+cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles. A positive
+stop prevents the handles from coming together. Small one-hand pruning
+nippers are made for clean cutting. The blades of both pruners should
+work towards the tree trunk so the hook will mash the bark on the
+discarded portion of the limb.]
+
+The illustration shows one of the most convenient picking ladders. It is
+a double ladder with shelves to hold picking trays supported by two
+wheels and two legs. The wheels which are used to support one side of
+the frame are usually old buggy wheels. A hind axle together with the
+wheels works about right. The ladder frame is about eight feet high with
+ladder steps going up from each side. These steps also form the support
+for the shelves. Picking trays or boxes are placed on the shelves, so
+the latter will hold eight or ten bushels of apples, and may be wheeled
+directly to the packing shed if the distance is not too great.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 213.--Shears. The first pair is used for sheep
+shearing. The second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of
+walks and flower beds.]
+
+Step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more convenient to get up
+into the middle of the tree than almost any other kind of ladder.
+Commercial apple trees have open tops to admit sunshine. For this
+reason, straight ladders are not much used. It is necessary to have
+ladders built so they will support themselves. Sometimes only one leg is
+used in front of a step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the
+bottom and taper to a point at the top. The kind of ladder to use
+depends upon the size of the trees and the manner in which they have
+been pruned. Usually it is better to have several kinds of ladders of
+different sizes and lengths. Pickers then have no occasion to wait for
+each other.
+
+
+FEEDING RACKS
+
+Special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs are built with
+slatted sides hinged at the top so they will swing in when the hogs
+crowd their noses through to get the hay. This movement drops the hay
+down within reach. Alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a winter feed
+for breeding stock. Sows may be wintered on alfalfa with one ear of
+corn a day and come out in the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine
+litter of pigs. Alfalfa is a strong protein feed. It furnishes the
+muscle-forming substances necessary for the young litter by causing a
+copious flow of milk. One ear of corn a day is sufficient to keep the
+sow in good condition without laying on too much fat. When shoats are
+fed in the winter for fattening, alfalfa hay helps them to grow. In
+connection with grain it increases the weight rapidly without adding a
+great deal of expense to the ration. Alfalfa in every instance is
+intended as a roughage, as an appetizer and as a protein feed. Fat must
+be added by the use of corn, kaffir corn, Canada peas, barley or other
+grains. Alfalfa hay is intended to take the place of summer pasture in
+winter more than as a fattening ration.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 214.--Horse Feeding Rack. This is a barnyard hay
+feeder for horses and colts. The diagonal boarding braces each corner
+post and leaves large openings at the sides. Horses shy at small hay
+holes. The top boards and the top rail are 2 x 4s for strength. The
+bottom is floored to save the chaff.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 215.--Corner Post Detail of Horse Feeding Rack. A
+2 x 6 is spiked into the edge of a 2 x 4, making a corner post 6"
+across. The side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and
+the open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 216.--Automatic Hog Feeder. The little building is
+8' x 12' on the ground and it is 10' high to the plates. The crushed
+grain is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as
+fast as the hogs eat it. The floor is made of matched lumber. It should
+stand on a dry concrete floor.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 217.--Sheep Feeding Rack. The hay bottom and grain
+trough sides slope together at 45° angles. The boarding is made tight to
+hold chaff and grain from wasting.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 218.--Rack Base and Sides. The 2 x 4s are halved
+at the ends and put together at right angles. These frames are placed 3'
+apart and covered with matched flooring. Light braces should be nailed
+across these frames a few inches up from the ground. The 1 x 4 pickets
+are placed 7" apart in the clear, so the sheep can get their heads
+through to feed. These picketed frames are bolted to the base and framed
+around the top. If the rack is more than 9' long there should be a
+center tie or partition. Twelve feet is a good length to make the
+racks.]
+
+
+SPLIT-LOG ROAD DRAG
+
+The only low cost road grader of value is the split-log road drag. It
+should be exactly what the name implies. It should be made from a light
+log about eight inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw.
+Plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of split logs, but the
+real principle is lost because such drags are too heavy and clumsy.
+They cannot be quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met with
+while in use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 219.--Hog Trough. In a winter hog house the feed
+trough is placed next to the alley or passageway. A cement trough is
+best. A drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while
+putting feed in the trough. The same gate is opened up level to admit
+hogs to the pen.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 220.--Reinforced Hog Trough. The section of hog
+trough to the left is reinforced with chicken wire, one-inch mesh. The
+trough to the right is reinforced with seven 1/4" rods--three in the
+bottom and two in each side.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 221.--Double Poultry Feeding Trough with Partition
+in the Center.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 222.--Poultry Feeder with Metal or Crockery
+Receptacle.]
+
+The illustration shows the right way of making a road drag, and the
+manner in which it is drawn along at an angle to the roadway so as to
+move the earth from the sides towards the center, but illustrations
+are useless for showing how to operate them to do good work. The
+eccentricities of a split-log road drag may be learned in one lesson by
+riding it over a mile or two of country road shortly after the frost has
+left the ground in the spring of the year. It will be noticed that the
+front half of the road drag presents the flat side of the split log to
+the work of shaving off the lumps while the other half log levels and
+smooths and puddles the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded
+side. Puddling makes earth waterproof. The front, or cutting edge, is
+faced with steel. The ridges and humps are cut and shoved straight ahead
+or to one side to fill holes and ruts. This is done by the driver, who
+shifts his weight from one end to the other, and from front to back of
+his standing platform to distribute the earth to the best advantage. The
+rounded side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place and
+leaves the surface smooth.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 223.--Split-Log Road Drag. The front edge is shod
+with a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log
+grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks and
+water holes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 224.--Heavy Breaking Plow, used for road work and
+other tough jobs.]
+
+Unfortunately, the habit of using narrow tired wagons on country roads
+has become almost universal in the United States. To add to their
+destructive propensities, all wagons in some parts of the country have
+the same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths made by
+other wheels, until they cut ruts of considerable depth. These little
+narrow ditches hold water so that it cannot run off into the drains at
+the sides of the roadway. When a rut gets started, each passing wheel
+squeezes out the muddy water, or if the wheel be revolving at a speed
+faster than a walk it throws the water, and the water carries part of
+the roadway with it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts are
+made deeper. In some limited sections road rules demand that wagons
+shall have wide tires and have shorter front axles, so that with the
+wide tires and the uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of
+rut makers. It is difficult to introduce such requirements into every
+farm section. In the meantime the evils of narrow tires may be overcome
+to a certain extent by the persistent and proper use of the split-log
+road drag. These drags are most effectual in the springtime when the
+frost is coming out of the ground. During the muddy season the roads get
+worked up into ruts and mire holes, which, if taken in time, may be
+filled by running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the earth is
+still soft. When the ground shows dry on top and is still soft and wet
+underneath is the time the drags do the best work by scraping the drier
+hummocks into the low places where the earth settles hard as it dries.
+
+A well rounded, smooth road does not get muddy in the summer time.
+Summer rains usually come with a dash. Considerable water falls in a
+short time, and the very act of falling with force first lays the dust,
+then packs the surface. The smooth packed surface acts like a roof, and
+almost before the rain stops falling all surface water is drained off to
+the sides so that an inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard
+as it was before the rain. That is the reason why split log road drags
+used persistently in the spring and occasionally later in the season
+will preserve good roads all summer. It is very much better to follow
+each summer rain with the road drag, but it is not so necessary as
+immediate attention at the proper time in spring. Besides, farmers are
+so busy during the summer months that they find it difficult to spend
+the time. In some sections of the middle West one man is hired to do the
+dragging at so much per trip over the road. He makes his calculations
+accordingly and is prepared to do the dragging at all seasons when
+needed. This plan usually works out the best because one man then makes
+it his business and he gets paid for the amount of work performed. This
+man should live at the far end of the road division so that he can
+smooth his own pathway leading to town.
+
+
+STEEL ROAD DRAG
+
+Manufacturers are making road drags of steel with tempered blades
+adjustable to any angle by simply moving the lever until the dog engages
+in the proper notch. Some of these machines are made with blades
+reversible, so that the other side can be used for cutting when the
+first edge is worn. For summer use the steel drag works very well, but
+it lacks the smoothing action of a well balanced log drag.
+
+
+SEED HOUSE AND BARN TRUCKS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 225.--Barn Trucks. The platform truck is made to
+move boxed apples and other fruit. The bag truck is well proportioned
+and strong, but is not full ironed.]
+
+Bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds should be heavy. Bag
+truck wheels should be eight inches in diameter with a three-inch face.
+The steel bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be
+twenty-two inches in length. That means that the bottom of the truck in
+front is twenty-two inches wide. The wheels run behind this bar so the
+hubs do not project to catch against standing bags or door frames. The
+length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the top end of the
+hand crook is four feet, six inches. In buying bag trucks it is better
+to get the heavy solid kind that will not upset. The light ones are a
+great nuisance when running them over uneven floors. The wheels are too
+narrow and too close together and the trucks tip over under slight
+provocation. Platform trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates
+of potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse also should
+be heavy. The most approved platform truck, the kind that market men
+use, is made with a frame four feet in length by two feet in width. The
+frame is made of good solid hardwood put together with mortise and
+tenon. The cross pieces or stiles are three-quarters of an inch lower
+than the side pieces or rails, which space is filled with hardwood
+flooring boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up flush
+with the side timbers. The top of the platform should be sixteen inches
+up from the floor. There are two standards in front which carry a
+wooden crossbar over the front end of the truck. This crossbar is used
+for a handle to push or pull the truck. The height of the handle-bar
+from the floor is three feet. Rear wheels are five inches in diameter
+and work on a swivel so they turn in any direction like a castor. The
+two front wheels carry the main weight. They are twelve inches in
+diameter with a three-inch face. The wheels are bored to fit a one-inch
+steel axle and have wide boxings bolted to the main timbers of the truck
+frame. Like the two-wheel bag truck, the wheels of the platform truck
+are under the frame so they do not project out in the way, which is a
+great advantage when the truck is being used in a crowded place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 226.--Farm Gate Post with Copper Mail Box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 227.--Concrete Post Supporting a Waterproof
+Clothes Line Reel Box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 228.--Dumb Waiter. The cage is poised by a
+counterweight. It is guided by a rope belt which runs on grooved pulleys
+at the top and bottom.]
+
+
+HOME CANNING OUTFIT
+
+There are small canning outfits manufactured and sold for farm use that
+work on the factory principle. For canning vegetables, the heating is
+done under pressure because a great deal of heat is necessary to destroy
+the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans. Steam under pressure is
+a good deal hotter than boiling water. There is considerable work in
+using a canning outfit, but it gets the canning out of the way quickly.
+Extra help may be employed for a few days to do the canning on the same
+principle that farmers employ extra help at threshing time and do it all
+up at once. Of course, fruits and vegetables keep coming along at
+different times in the summer, but the fall fruit canning may be done at
+two or three sittings arranged a week or two apart and enough fruit
+packed away in the cellar to last a big family a whole year. Canning
+machinery is simple and inexpensive. These outfits may be bought from
+$10 up. Probably a $20 or $25 canner would be large enough for a large
+family, or a dozen different families if it could be run on a
+co-operative plan.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 229.--Clothes Line Tightener. This device is made
+of No. 9 wire bent as shown in the illustration.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 230.--Goat Stall. Milch goats are milked on a
+raised platform. Feed is placed in the manger. The opening in the side
+of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 231.--Horse Clippers. Hand clippers are shown to
+the left. The flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand
+for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep, but for real business
+it should be driven by an electric motor.]
+
+
+ELECTRIC TOWEL
+
+The "air towel" is sanitary, as well as an economical method of drying
+the hands. A foot pedal closes a quick-acting switch, thereby putting
+into operation a blower that forces air through an electric heating
+device so arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts of the
+hands at the same time. The supply of hot air continues as long as the
+foot pedal is depressed. The hands are thoroughly dried in thirty
+seconds.
+
+
+STALLS FOR MILCH GOATS
+
+Milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like cows. The front of the
+manger is boarded tight with the exception of a round hole about two
+feet high and a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to
+within a few inches of the floor. The round hole is made large enough so
+that the goat puts her head through to reach the feed, and the slit is
+narrow enough so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall.
+This is a device to save fodder.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 232.--Hog Catching Hook. The wooden handle fits
+loosely into the iron socket. As soon as the hog's hind leg is engaged
+the wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut.]
+
+
+STABLE HELPS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 233.--Bull Nose-Chain. Cross bulls may be turned
+out to pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this
+into the nose-ring. The chain should be just long enough to swing and
+wrap around the bull's front legs when he is running. Also the length is
+intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with his front feet.
+There is some danger of pulling the nose ring out.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 234.--Manure Carriers. There are two kinds of
+manure carriers in general use. The principal difference is the elevator
+attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the usual
+level dump.]
+
+Overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible. Litter or feed
+carriers and manure carriers run on the same kind of a track, the only
+difference is in size and shape of the car and the manner in which the
+contents are unloaded. Manure carriers and litter carriers have a
+continuous track that runs along over the manure gutters and overhead
+lengthwise of the feed alleys. There are a number of different kinds of
+carriers manufactured, all of which seem to do good service. The object
+is to save labor in doing the necessary work about dairy stables. To get
+the greatest possible profit from cows, it is absolutely necessary that
+the stable should be kept clean and sanitary, also that the cows shall
+be properly fed several times a day. Different kinds of feed are given
+at the different feeding periods. It is impossible to have all the
+different kinds of food stored in sufficient quantities within easy
+reach of the cows. Hence, the necessity of installing some mechanical
+arrangement to fetch and carry. The only floor carrier in use in dairy
+stables is a truck for silage. Not in every stable is this the case.
+Sometimes a feed carrier is run directly to the silo. It depends a good
+deal on the floor what kind of a carrier is best for silage. The
+advantage of an overhead track is, that it is always free from litter.
+Where floor trucks are used, it is necessary to keep the floor bare of
+obstruction. This is not considered a disadvantage because the floor
+should be kept clean anyway.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 235.--Cow Stanchion. Wooden cow stanchions may be
+made as comfortable for the cows as the iron ones.]
+
+
+HOUSE PLUMBING
+
+When water is pumped by an engine and stored for use in a tank to be
+delivered under pressure in the house, then the additional cost of hot
+and cold water and the necessary sink and bath room fixtures is
+comparatively small. Modern plumbing fixtures fit so perfectly and go
+together so easily that the cost of installing house plumbing in the
+country has been materially reduced, while the dangers from noxious
+gases have been entirely eliminated. Open ventilator pipes carry the
+poisonous gases up through the roof of the house to float harmlessly
+away in the atmosphere. Septic tanks take care of the sewerage better
+than the sewer systems in some towns. Plumbing fixtures may be cheap or
+expensive, according to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner. The
+cheaper grades are just as useful, but there are expensive outfits that
+are very much more ornamental.
+
+
+FARM SEPTIC TANK
+
+[Illustration: Figure 236.--Frame for Holding Record Sheets in a Dairy
+Stable.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 237.--Loading Shute for Hogs. This loading shute
+is made portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow.]
+
+Supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse demands a septic tank to
+get rid of the waste. A septic tank is a scientific receptacle to take
+the poison out of sewerage. It is a simple affair consisting of two
+underground compartments, made water-tight, with a sewer pipe to lead
+the waste water from the house into the first compartment and a drain to
+carry the denatured sewerage away from the second compartment. The first
+compartment is open to the atmosphere, through a ventilator, but the
+second compartment is made as nearly air-tight as possible. The
+scientific working of a septic tank depends upon the destructive work of
+two kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anaerobic forms of
+bacteria. Sewerage in the first tank is worked over by aerobic bacteria,
+the kind that require a small amount of oxygen in order to live and
+carry on their work. The second compartment is inhabited by anaerobic
+bacteria, or forms of microscopic life that work practically without
+air. The principles of construction require that a septic tank shall be
+large enough to contain two days' supply of sewerage in each
+compartment; thus, requiring four days for the sewerage to enter and
+leave the tank.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 238.--Brass Valves. Two kinds of globe valves are
+used in farm waterworks. The straight valve shown to the left and the
+right angle valve to the right. Either one may be fitted with a long
+shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent
+freezing.]
+
+Estimating 75 gallons daily of sewerage for each inhabitant of the house
+and four persons to a family, the septic tank should be large enough to
+hold 600 gallons, three hundred gallons in each compartment, which
+would require a tank about four feet in width and six feet in length and
+four feet in depth. These figures embrace more cubic feet of tank than
+necessary to meet the foregoing requirements. It is a good plan to leave
+a margin of safety.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 239.--Septic Tank, a double antiseptic process for
+purifying sewerage.]
+
+It is usual to lay a vitrified sewer, four inches in diameter, from
+below the bottom of the cellar to the septic tank, giving it a fall of
+one-eighth inch in ten feet. The sewer enters the tank at the top of the
+standing liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the house through
+an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches to within about six inches of
+the bottom of the tank. The reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage
+without disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the tank.
+The scum is a protection for the bacteria. It helps them to carry on
+their work of destruction. The same principle applies to the second
+compartment. The liquid from the first compartment is carried over into
+the second compartment by means of a bent pipe in the form of a siphon
+which fills up gradually and empties automatically when the liquid in
+the first compartment rises to a certain level. The discharging siphon
+leg should be the shortest. The liquid from the second compartment is
+discharged into the drain in the same manner. There are special valves
+made for the final discharge, but they are not necessary. The bottom of
+the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage from two to four feet in
+depth. The top surface of the liquid in the tank is held down to a level
+of at least six inches below the bottom of the cellar. So there is no
+possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing up towards the
+house. Usually the vitrified sewer pipe is four inches in diameter, the
+septic tank siphons for a small tank are three inches in diameter and
+the final discharge pipe is three inches in diameter, with a rapid fall
+for the first ten feet after leaving the tank.
+
+Septic tanks should be made of concrete, waterproofed on the inside to
+prevent the possibility of seepage. Septic tank tops are made of
+reinforced concrete with manhole openings. Also the manhole covers are
+made of reinforced concrete, either beveled to fit the openings or made
+considerably larger than the opening, so that they sit down flat on the
+top surface of the tank. These covers are always deep enough down in the
+ground so that when covered over the earth holds them in place.
+
+In laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to calk each joint
+with okum or lead, or okum reinforced with cement. It is almost
+impossible to make a joint tight with cement alone, although it can be
+done by an expert. Each length of the sewer-pipe should be given a
+uniform grade. The vitrified sewer is trapped outside of the building
+with an ordinary S-trap ventilated, which leaves the sewer open to the
+atmosphere and prevents the possibility of back-pressure that might
+drive the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage through the
+sewer back into the house. In this way, the septic tank is made entirely
+separate from the house plumbing, except that the two systems are
+connected at this outside trap.
+
+It is sometimes recommended that the waste water from the second
+compartment shall be distributed through a series of drains made with
+three-inch or four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of
+drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly organized field
+drainage system. Generally speaking, the final discharge of liquid from
+a septic tank that is properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless.
+However, it is better to use every possible precaution to preserve the
+health of the family, and it is better to dispose of the final waste in
+such a way as to prevent any farm animal from drinking it.
+
+While manholes are built into septic tanks for the purpose of
+examination, in practice they are seldom required. If the tanks are
+properly built and rightly proportioned to the sewerage requirements
+they will take care of the waste water from the house year after year
+without attention. Should any accidents occur, they are more likely to
+be caused by a leakage in the vitrified sewer than from any other cause.
+Manufacturers of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons together with
+instructions for placing them properly in the concrete walls. Some firms
+supply advertising matter from which to work out the actual size and
+proportions of the different compartments and all connections. The
+making of a septic tank is simple when the principle is once
+understood.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                  PAGE
+
+  Acetylene gas                                    129
+  Air pressure pump                                107
+  Anvil                                             33
+  Apple-picking bag                                216
+    ladder                                         215
+  Asparagus knife                                  205
+  Auger, ship                                       26
+  Auger-bit                                     24, 25
+  Automatic hog feeder                             219
+  Axles, wagon                                      52
+  Babbitting boxings                                73
+  Barn trucks                                      226
+  Belt punch                                       211
+    work                                           146
+  Bench and vise                                    34
+  Bench for iron work                               35
+    for woodworking                                 16
+  Bipod                                            206
+  Bits, extension boring                            26
+  Bit, twist-drill, for wood-boring                 25
+  Blacksmith hammers                                61
+    shop                                            31
+  Block and tackle                                  77
+  Bobsleighs                                       188
+  Boiler, steam                                     90
+  Bolster spring                                   186
+    stake                                          187
+  Bolt cutter                                       45
+  Bolts, carriage and machine                       56
+    emergency                                       53
+    home-made                                       52
+    plow and sickle bar                             56
+  Boxings, babbitting                               73
+  Brace, wagon-box                                  58
+  Bramble hook                                      20
+  Brass valves                                     236
+  Breeding crate for hogs                          203
+  Brick trowel                                     209
+  Bridge auger                                      26
+  Bucket yoke                                       75
+  Buck rake                                        165
+  Building bracket                                 202
+  Bull nose-chain                                  233
+    treadmill                                       81
+  Cable hay stacker                                176
+  California hay ricker                            176
+  Calipers                                          43
+  Caliper rule                                      14
+  Canning outfit                                   229
+  Carpenter's bench                                 17
+    trestle                                         17
+  Cart, two-wheel                                  191
+  Centrifugal pumps                                105
+  Chain, logging                                    50
+  Chisels and gouges                                28
+  Circular saw, filing                              69
+    jointing                                        68
+    setting                                         68
+  Clearing land by tractor                         146
+  Clevises, plow                                    58
+  Clod crusher                                     155
+  Clothes line reel box, concrete                  228
+  Clothes line tightener                           230
+  Cold-chisel                                       37
+  Colt-breaking sulkey                             192
+  Compasses                                         18
+  Concrete center alley for hog house              209
+    farm scale base and pit                        196
+    hog wallow                                     209
+    wall mold                                      210
+  Conveniences, miscellaneous farm                 194
+  Conveyances, farm                                179
+  Corn crib, double                                201
+    two-story                                      194
+  Corn cultivator                                  142
+    planter                                        158
+    shock horse                                    208
+  Cotter pin tool                                   44
+  Coulter clamp                                     54
+  Countersink                                       41
+  Cow stanchion                                    234
+  Crop machinery, special                          161
+  Crops, kind of, to irrigate                      118
+  Crowbars                                          46
+  Cultivator, combination                          143
+    corn                                           142
+  Cutting nippers                                   46
+  Derrick fork                                     168
+  Dies and taps                                     55
+  Diggers, potato                                  205
+  Disk harrow                                      152
+    plow                                           137
+  Dog churn                                         79
+    power                                           80
+  Draw-filing                                       62
+  Drawing-knife                                     22
+  Drill, grain                                     160
+    power post                                      38
+  Drill-press                                       39
+    electric                                        40
+  Driven machines                                  100
+  Dumbwaiter                                       229
+  Economy of plowing by tractor                    146
+  Electricity on the farm                     121, 127
+  Electric lighting                                123
+  Electric power plant                             122
+    towel                                          231
+  Elevating machinery                              133
+  Elevator, grain                                  134
+  Emery grinders                                    31
+  Engine and truck, portable                        94
+  Engine, gasoline                                  91
+    kerosene                                        92
+    steam                                           90
+  Eveners for three- and four-horse teams          139
+  Extension boring bits                             26
+  Farm conveniences                                194
+    conveyances                                    179
+    office                                         194
+    shop and implement house                         9
+    shop work                                       50
+    tractor                                         97
+    waterworks                                 89, 100
+  Feed crusher                                     131
+  Feeding racks                                    217
+  Fence-making tools                          205, 206
+  Fence pliers                                     207
+  File handle                                       36
+  Files and rasps                                   36
+  Filing hand saw                                   56
+    roll                                            63
+  Flail                                             75
+  Fore-plane                                        27
+  Forge                                             32
+  Forges, portable                                  32
+  Forging iron and steel                            59
+  Fruit picking                                    212
+    ladders                                        215
+    tray                                           213
+  Fruit-thinning nippers                           214
+  Gambrel whiffletree                              173
+  Garage                                            10
+  Garden weeder                                     54
+  Gas, acetylene                                   129
+  Gasoline engine                                   91
+    house lightning                                128
+  Gate, sliding field                              205
+  Gatepost with copper mailbox                     227
+  Gauge, double-marking                             22
+  Generating mechanical power                       74
+  Goat stall                                       230
+  Grain drill                                      160
+    elevator                                       134
+    elevator, portable                             135
+  Grass hook                                       163
+  Grindstone                                        28
+  Hacksaw                                           45
+  Hammers, blacksmith                               61
+    machinist's                                     42
+  Hand axe                                          23
+  Hand saw                                      19, 65
+    filing                                          66
+    jointing                                        65
+    setting                                         65
+    using                                           67
+  Handspike                                         24
+  Hardy                                             43
+  Harness punch                                    211
+  Harrow cart                                      154
+    disk                                           152
+    sled                                           141
+    spike-tooth                                    141
+  Harvesting by tractor                            146
+  Hay carrier carriage                             172
+  Hay crop, handling                               163
+  Hay derricks, Idaho                              171
+    Western                                        169
+  Hayford, double harpoon                          169
+    grapple                                        170
+    hitch                                          173
+    hood                                           197
+  Hayrake, revolving                               163
+  Hay ricker, California                           176
+  Hay rope pulleys                                 174
+  Hay skids                                        167
+  Hay sling                                        167
+  Hay stacker, cable                               176
+  Haystack knife                                   168
+  Hay-tedder                                       165
+  Hay-track roof extension                         197
+  Hoe, how to sharpen                               70
+    wheel                                          162
+  Hoes and weeders                                 204
+  Hog catching hook                                232
+  Hog feeder, automatic                            219
+    trough                                         221
+    trough, reinforced                             222
+    wallow, concrete                               209
+  Hoist, oldest farm                               133
+  Hoists                                            78
+  Home repair work, profitable                      50
+  Horse clippers                                   231
+  Horse feeding rack                               218
+  Horsepower                                        86
+  House plumbing                                   234
+  Husking-pin                                      208
+  Hydraulic ram                                     95
+  Idaho hay derricks                               171
+  Implement shed                                    10
+    shed and work shop                              12
+  Iron, forging                                     59
+  Irons for neckyoke and whiffletree                51
+  Iron roller                                      157
+  Iron working tools                                42
+  Irrigation                                       112
+    by pumping                                     112
+    overhead spray                                 116
+  Jointer, carpenter's                              27
+  Jointer plows                                    144
+  Jointing hand saw                                 65
+  Kerosene engine                                   92
+  Keyhole saw                                       20
+  Knife, asparagus                                 205
+    corn cutting                                   205
+    haystack                                       168
+  Knots                                            212
+  Lag screw                                         57
+  Land float                                       156
+  Level, carpenter's                                24
+    iron stock                                      25
+  Lighting, gasoline                               128
+  Linchpin farm wagons                             185
+  Link, cold-shut                                   43
+    plow                                            58
+  Loading chute for hogs                           235
+  Logging chain                                     50
+  Machines, driven                                 100
+  Machinist's hammers                               42
+    vise                                            47
+  Manure carriers                                  233
+  Marline spike                                    212
+  Measuring mechanical work                         14
+  Mechanical power, generating                      74
+  Mechanics of plowing                             138
+  Melting ladle                                     73
+  Monkey-wrench                                     19
+  Mule pump                                         84
+  Nail hammers                                      21
+  Nail set                                          37
+  Office, farm                                     194
+  Oilstone                                          15
+  Overhead spray irrigation                        116
+  Oxen                                             181
+  Paint brushes                                    212
+  Pea guard                                        168
+  Picking fruit                                    212
+  Pig-pen, sanitary                                210
+  Pincers                                           44
+  Pipe cutter                                       48
+  Pipe-fitting tools                                46
+  Pipe vise                                         47
+    wrench                                          48
+  Plastering trowel                                209
+  Pliers                                            18
+  Plow, heavy-breaking                             224
+    riding                                         140
+    walking                                        138
+  Plowing by tractor                               145
+    importance of                                  137
+    mechanics of                                   138
+  Plows, jointer                                   144
+    Scotch                                         143
+  Plumb-bob and plumb-line                         206
+  Plumbing, house                                  234
+  Pod-bit                                           25
+  Portable farm engine                              94
+  Post-hole diggers                                204
+  Poultry feeding trough                           222
+  Power conveyor                                   121
+  Power, generating mechanical                      75
+  Power post drill                                  38
+  Power transmission                               120
+  Pulverizers                                      155
+  Pump, air pressure                               107
+    centrifugal                                    105
+    mule                                            84
+    jack                                           109
+    jacks and speed jacks                          111
+    rotary                                         103
+    suction                                        101
+  Punches                                           37
+  Quantity of water to use in irrigation           118
+  Racks, feeding                                   217
+    sheep feeding                                  219
+  Rafter grapple                                   173
+  Rasp                                              35
+  Rasps and files                                   36
+  Ratchet-brace                                     40
+  Refrigeration                                    123
+  Reservoir for supplying water to farm buildings  120
+  Revolving hayrake                                163
+  Riding plow                                      140
+  Ripsaw                                            21
+  Rivets                                            53
+  Rivet set                                         54
+  Road drag, split-log                             220
+    steel                                          225
+  Road work                                        146
+  Roller                                           156
+  Roll filing                                       63
+  Roof pitches                                     200
+    truss                                          199
+  Root pulper                                      130
+  Rotary pumps                                     103
+  Round barn, economy of                           196
+  Rule of six, eight and ten                       199
+  Sand bands                                       187
+    caps                                           188
+  Sanitary pig-pen                                 210
+  Saw, hack                                         45
+  Scotch plows                                     143
+  Screwdriver                                       23
+    ratchet                                         24
+  Seed house trucks                                226
+  Septic tank                                      235
+  Set-screws                                        64
+  Shave horse                                       18
+  Shears                                           217
+  Sheep feeding rack                               219
+  Sheepshank                                       212
+  Ship auger                                        26
+  Shoeing horses                                    71
+    knife                                           34
+    tool box                                        34
+  Shop, garage and implement shed                   10
+  Shop tools                                        14
+  Slaughter house                                  198
+  Sliding field gate                               205
+  Snips, sheet metal                                25
+  Soil auger                                       204
+    tools                                          202
+  Soil, working the                                137
+  Speed indicator                                  201
+    jacks                                          111
+  Split-log road drag                              220
+  Spud                                             205
+  Stable helps                                     232
+  Stall for milch goats                            232
+  Steam boiler and engine                           90
+  Steel, forging                                    59
+    road drag                                      225
+    square                                          22
+    tools, making                                   60
+  Stepladder                                       216
+  Stock for dies                                    55
+  Stone-boat                                       179
+  Stump puller                                     131
+  Suction pumps                                    101
+  Sulkey, colt-breaking                            192
+  S wrenches                                        44
+  Tapeline                                          15
+  Taper reamer                                      41
+    tap                                             56
+  Taps and dies                                     55
+  Tempering steel tools                             60
+  Tongs                                             43
+  Tool box for field use                            72
+    handy                                           72
+  Tool rack, blacksmith                             34
+  Tools for fence-making                           205
+    for woodworking                                 19
+    for working iron                                42
+    pipe-fitting                                    46
+    soil                                           202
+  Tractor economy                                  146
+    farm                                            97
+    transmission gear                               98
+    used in plowing                                145
+    uses for, on farm                              146
+  Tram points                                       40
+  Travoy                                           183
+  Treadmill, bull                                   81
+  Tree pruners                                     216
+  Trowel, brick                                    209
+    plastering                                     209
+  Trucks, barn                                     226
+  Try-square                                        22
+  Twist-drills                                  25, 41
+  U bolt in cement                                  57
+  Uses of electricity on farm                      126
+  Valves, brass                                    236
+  Vise                                              38
+  Wagon-box irons                                   57
+  Wagon brakes                                     186
+    seat spring                                    187
+  Walking plow                                     138
+  Water-power                                       88
+  Water storage                                    100
+  Waterworks, farm                                 100
+  Well sweep                                        76
+  Wheelbarrow                                      180
+  Wheel hoe                                        162
+  Winches                                           79
+  Windmills                                         83
+  Wire splice                                       52
+    splicer                                         44
+    stretcher                                       77
+  Wooden clamp                                      18
+    roller                                         157
+  Wood-saw frames                                  129
+  Woodworking bench                                 16
+    tools                                           19
+  Working the soil                                 137
+  Wrecking bar                                      24
+
+
+
+
+  _DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS_
+
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Electrical Books=
+
+  Electrical Tables and Engineering Data              *Lea.    $1.50
+  Electrical Tables and Engineering Data              *Cloth    1.00
+  Motion Picture Operation                            *Lea.     1.50
+  Motion Picture Operation                            *Cloth    1.00
+  Alternating Current                                  Lea.     1.50
+  Alternating Current                                  Cloth    1.00
+  Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions                    *Lea.     1.50
+  Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Armature and Magnet Winding                         *Lea.     1.50
+  Armature and Magnet Winding                         *Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Electric Illumination                        *Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Electric Illumination                        *Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Electrical Construction                      *Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Electrical Construction                      *Cloth    1.00
+  Electricians' Operating and Testing Manual          *Lea.     1.50
+  Electricians' Operating and Testing Manual          *Cloth    1.00
+  Drake's Electrical Dictionary                        Lea.     1.50
+  Drake's Electrical Dictionary                        Cloth    1.00
+  Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating             *Lea.     1.50
+  Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating             *Cloth    1.00
+  Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing            Lea.     1.50
+  Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing            Cloth    1.00
+  Drake's Telephone Handbook                           Lea.     1.50
+  Drake's Telephone Handbook                           Cloth    1.00
+  Elementary Electricity, Up-to-Date                  *Cloth    1.25
+  Electricity Made Simple                             *Cloth    1.00
+  Easy Electrical Experiments                         *Cloth    1.00
+  Wireless Telegraph and Telephone Handbook            Cloth    1.00
+  Telegraphy, Self-taught                              Cloth    1.00
+  Dynamo-Electric Machines                             Cloth    1.50
+  Electro-Plating Handbook                             Lea.     1.50
+  Electro-Plating Handbook                             Cloth    1.00
+  Modern American Telephony                            Lea.     2.00
+  Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary              Lea.      .50
+  Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary              Cloth     .25
+  Storage Batteries                                    Cloth     .50
+  Elevators--Hydraulic and Electric                    Cloth    1.00
+  How to Become a Successful Motorman                  Lea.     1.50
+  Motorman's Practical Air Brake Instructor            Lea.     1.50
+  Electric Railway Troubles                            Cloth    1.50
+  Electric Power Stations                              Cloth    2.50
+  Electrical Railroading                               Lea.     3.50
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Automobile Books=
+
+  Brookes' Automobile Handbook.                       *Lea.    $2.00
+  Automobile Starting and Lighting                    *Lea.     1.50
+  Automobile Starting and Lighting                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments    *Lea.     1.50
+  Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments    *Cloth    1.00
+  Automobile Catechism and Repair Manual              *Lea.     1.25
+  Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook               *Lea.     1.50
+  Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook               *Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Farm Books=
+
+  Farm Buildings, With Plans and Descriptions         *Cloth   $1.00
+  Farm Mechanics                                      *Cloth    1.00
+  Traction Farming and Traction Engineering           *Cloth    1.50
+  Farm Engines and How to Run Them                     Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Shop Practice Books=
+
+  Twentieth Century Machine Shop Practice              Cloth   $2.00
+  Practical Mechanical Drawing                         Cloth    2.00
+  Sheet Metal Workers' Manual                         *Lea.     2.00
+  Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting                   *Lea.     1.50
+  Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting                   *Cloth    1.00
+  20th Century Toolsmith and Steelworker               Cloth    1.50
+  Pattern Making and Foundry Practice                  Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Blacksmithing, Horseshoeing and Wagon Making  Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Steam Engineering Books=
+
+  Swingle's Handbook for Steam Engineers and
+  Electricians                                        *Lea.    $3.00
+  Steam Boilers, Construction, Care and Operation     *Lea.     1.50
+  Complete Examination Questions and Answers for
+  Marine and Stationary Engineers                     *Lea.     1.50
+  Swingle's Catechism of Steam, Gas and Electrical
+  Engineering                                        *Lea.      1.50
+  The Steam Turbine, Its Care and Operation           Cloth     1.00
+  Calculation of Horse Power Made Easy                Cloth      .75
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Railroad Books=
+
+  Modern Locomotive Engineering                       *Lea.    $3.00
+  Locomotive Fireman's Boiler Instructor              *Lea.     1.50
+  Locomotive Engine Breakdowns and How to Repair Them *Lea.     1.50
+  Operation of Trains and Station Work                *Lea.     2.00
+  Construction and Maintenance of Railway Roadbed
+  and Track                                            Lea.     2.00
+  First, Second and Third Year Standard Examination
+  Questions and Answers for Locomotive Firemen        *Lea.     2.00
+  Complete Air Brake Examination Questions and
+  Answers                                             *Lea.     2.00
+  Westinghouse Air Brake System                        Cloth    2.00
+  New York Air Brake System                            Cloth    2.00
+  Walschaert Valve Gear Breakdowns                     Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Carpentry and Building Books=
+
+  Modern Carpentry. Two volumes                        Cloth   $2.00
+  Modern Carpentry. Vol.  I                            Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Carpentry. Vol. II                            Cloth    1.00
+  The Steel Square. Two volumes                        Cloth    2.00
+  The Steel Square. Vol.  I                            Cloth    1.00
+  The Steel Square. Vol. II                            Cloth    1.00
+  A. B. C. of the Steel Square                         Cloth     .50
+  Common Sense Stair Building and Handrailing          Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Estimator and Contractor's Guide             *Cloth    1.50
+  Light and Heavy Timber Framing Made Easy             Cloth    2.00
+  Builders' Architectural Drawing Self-taught          Cloth    2.00
+  Easy Steps to Architecture                           Cloth    1.50
+  Five Orders of Architecture                          Cloth    1.50
+  Builders' and Contractors' Guide                     Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Bungalows and Cottages                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Low Cost American Homes                             *Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Cabinet Maker and Furniture Designer       Cloth    2.00
+  Practical Wood Carving                               Cloth    1.50
+  Home Furniture Making                                Cloth     .60
+  Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plasters and Stuccos    Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Steel Construction                         Cloth     .75
+  20th Century Bricklayer and Mason's Assistant        Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Bricklaying Self-taught                    Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Stonemasonry                               Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Up-to-date Plumbing                        Cloth    1.50
+  Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting             Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Handbook for Millwrights                   Cloth    2.00
+  Boat Building for Amateurs                           Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Painting Books=
+
+  Art of Sign Painting                                *Cloth   $3.00
+  Scene Painting and Bulletin Art                     *Cloth    3.00
+  "A Show at" Sho'Cards                                Cloth    3.00
+  Strong's Book of Designs                            *Lea.     3.00
+  Signist's Modern Book of Alphabets                   Cloth    1.50
+  Amateur Artist                                       Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Painter's Cyclopedia                          Cloth    1.50
+  Red Book Series of Trade School Manuals
+    1. Exterior Painting, Wood, Iron and Brick         Cloth     .60
+    2. Interior Painting, Water and Oil Colors         Cloth     .60
+    3. Colors                                          Cloth     .60
+    4. Graining and Marbling                           Cloth     .60
+    5. Carriage Painting                               Cloth     .60
+    6. The Wood Finisher                               Cloth     .60
+  New Hardwood Finishing                               Cloth    1.00
+  Automobile Painting                                 *Cloth    1.25
+  Estimates, Costs and Profits--House Painting and
+  Interior Decorating                                 *Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                           |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | The text of the original work has been maintained, except as       |
+  | mentioned below.                                                   |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Changed for consistency: screwdriver to screw-driver, pene to peen,|
+  | homemade to home-made, ballbearing to ball-bearing, horse-power to |
+  | horsepower, double-tree to doubletree, and eye-bolt to eyebolt. In |
+  | the Index, the following words have been changed to conform to the |
+  | text: sulkey to sulky, and re-inforced to reinforced. All          |
+  | dimensions have been standardised to a x b (with a and b           |
+  | representing two numbers).                                         |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Typographical errors corrected: azotabacter to azotobacter (p.     |
+  | 138), devise to device (p. 232), anarobic to anaerobic (p. 236),   |
+  | and Hayford to Hayfork (Index). Some minor typographical errors    |
+  | have been corrected silently.                                      |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Page 158: "the so-called humid sections" should possibly be "the   |
+  | so-called arid sections".                                          |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | The advertisements have been re-arranged to a single list per      |
+  | subject.                                                           |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM MECHANICS ***
+
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+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer.
+    </title>
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Farm Mechanics
+       Machinery and its Use to Save Hand Labor on the Farm.
+
+Author: Herbert A. Shearer
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2012 [EBook #39791]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM MECHANICS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tnbox">
+<p class="center">Please see <a href="#TN">Transcriber's Notes</a> at the end of this document.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cloth cover" width="417" height="650" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="box1"><div class="box2">
+<h1><span class="smcap">Farm Mechanics</span></h1>
+
+<p class="center fsize150" style="margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em;">MACHINERY AND ITS USE TO SAVE<br />
+HAND LABOR ON THE FARM</p>
+
+<p class="center fsize80">Including</p>
+
+<p class="center fsize125">Tools, Shop Work, Driving and Driven<br />
+Machines, Farm Waterworks, Care<br />
+and Repair of Farm Implements</p>
+
+<p class="center">By</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="fsize125">HERBERT A. SHEARER</span><br />
+AGRICULTURIST<br />
+Author of &#8220;Farm Buildings with Plans and Descriptions&#8221;</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="center"><i>ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE<br />
+HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS</i></p>
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<p class="center">CHICAGO<br />
+FREDERICK J. DRAKE &amp; CO.<br />
+Publishers</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="box3">
+<p class="center">Copyright 1918<br />
+By Frederick J. Drake &amp; Co.<br />
+Chicago</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>More mechanical knowledge is required on the farm
+than in any other line of business. If a farmer is not
+mechanically inclined, he is under the necessity of employing
+someone who is.</p>
+
+<p>Some farms are supplied with a great many handy
+contrivances to save labor. Farmers differ a great deal
+in this respect. Some are natural mechanics, some
+learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm machinery,
+while others are still living in the past.</p>
+
+<p>Some farmers who make the least pretensions have
+the best machinery and implements. They may not be
+good mechanics, but they have an eye to the value of
+labor saving tools.</p>
+
+<p>The object of this book is to emphasize the importance
+of mechanics in modern farming; to fit scores of
+quick-acting machines into the daily routine of farm
+work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders
+of men and women; to increase the output at less cost
+of hand labor and to improve the soil while producing
+more abundantly than ever before; to suggest the use
+of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced nutritious
+human foods from cheap farm by-products.</p>
+
+<p>Illustrations are used to explain principles rather
+than to recommend any particular type or pattern of
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>The old is contrasted with the new and the merits of
+both are expressed.</p>
+
+<p class="signature">THE AUTHOR.</p>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table summary="ToC">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER I</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="right fsize80">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">The Farm Shop with Tools for Working Wood and Iron</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER II</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">Farm Shop Work</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER III</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">Generating Mechanical Power to Drive Modern Farm Machinery</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER IV</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">Driven Machines</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER V</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">Working the Soil</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER VI</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">Handling the Hay Crop</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER VII</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">Farm Conveyances</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center high">CHAPTER VIII</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1"><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous Farm Conveniences</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left padr1 high"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+<td class="right padl1"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></p>
+
+<h2><a name="FARM_MECHANICS" id="FARM_MECHANICS">FARM MECHANICS</a></h2>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD
+AND IRON</h3>
+
+<h4>FARM SHOP AND IMPLEMENT HOUSE</h4>
+
+<p>The workshop and shed to hold farm implements
+should look as neat and attractive as the larger buildings.
+Farm implements are expensive. Farm machinery
+is even more so. When such machinery is all properly
+housed and kept in repair the depreciation is estimated
+at ten per cent a year. When the machines are
+left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the loss is
+simply ruinous.</p>
+
+<p>More machinery is required on farms than formerly
+and it costs more. Still it is not a question whether a
+farmer can afford a machine. If he has sufficient work
+for it he knows he cannot afford to get along without
+it and he must have a shed to protect it from the
+weather when not in use.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place the implement shed should be large
+enough to accommodate all of the farm implements
+and machinery without crowding and it should be well
+built and tight enough to keep out the wind and small
+animals, including chickens and sparrows.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#Fig_1">perspective</a> and <a href="#Fig_2">plan</a> shown herewith is twenty-four
+feet in width and sixty feet in length.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc600"><a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/illo008.png" alt="Fig. 1" width="600" height="240" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 1.&mdash;Perspective View of the Farm Shop, Garage and Implement Shed. The doors to the
+right are nearly 12 feet high to let in a grain separator over night, or during the winter, or a
+load of hay in case of a sudden storm.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc600"><a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/illo009.png" alt="Fig. 2" width="600" height="255" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 2.&mdash;Floor Plan of Shop, Garage and Storage. The building is 60 feet wide and 24 feet
+from front to back. The doors of the garage and tool shed are made to open full width, but 8 feet
+is wide enough for the shop door. All doors open out against posts and are fastened to prevent blowing
+shut. The work shop is well lighted and the stationary tools are carefully placed for convenience
+in doing repair work of all kinds. The pipe vise is at the doorway between the shop and garage
+so the handles of the pipe tools may swing through the doorway and the pipe may lie full length along
+the narrow pipe bench.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>The doorways provide headroom sufficient for the
+highest machines, and the width when the double
+doors are opened and the center post removed is nearly
+twenty feet, which is sufficient for a binder in field
+condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake.</p>
+
+<p>One end of the building looking toward the house is
+intended for a machine shop to be partitioned off by
+enclosing the first bent. This gives a room twenty feet
+wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith shop
+and general repair work. The next twenty feet is the
+garage. The machine shop part of the building will be
+arranged according to the mechanical inclination of
+the farmer.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a>
+<img src="images/illo010.png" alt="Fig. 3" width="400" height="174" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 3.&mdash;Perspective View of Farm Implement Shed and Workshop.</p></div>
+
+<p>A real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate mechanical
+proposition. There is a good brick chimney
+with a hood to carry off the smoke and gases from the
+blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate
+flue for a heating stove. Farm repair work is done
+mostly during the winter months when a fire in the
+shop is necessary for comfort and efficiency. A person
+cannot work to advantage with cold fingers. Paint
+requires moderate heat to work to advantage. Painting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+farm implements is a very important part of repair
+work.</p>
+
+<p>A good shop arrangement is to have an iron workbench
+across the shop window in the front or entrance
+end of the building. In the far corner against the back
+wall is a good place for a woodworking bench. It is
+too mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpenter
+work mixed up.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a>
+<img src="images/illo011.png" alt="Fig. 4" width="500" height="211" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 4.&mdash;Floor Plan of Farm Implement Shed, showing the
+workshop in one end of the building, handy to the implement storage
+room.</p></div>
+
+<p>Sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses
+for shoeing, or to pull the shoes off. For this reason,
+a tie rail bolted to the studding on the side of the shop
+near the entrance is an extra convenience.</p>
+
+<p>In a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because
+the wind will not slam it shut. In cold climates, hinge
+doors are better with a good sill and threshold to shut
+against to keep out the cold. Sometimes the large door
+contains a small door big enough to step through, but
+not large enough to admit much cold, when it is being
+opened and shut. Likewise a ceiling is needed in a cold
+country, while in warmer sections, a roof is sufficient.
+Farm shops, like other farm buildings, should conform<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+to the climate, as well as convenience in doing
+the work. A solid concrete floor is a great comfort.
+And it is easily kept clean.</p>
+
+<p>The perspective and floor plan show the arrangement
+of the doors, windows and chimney and the placing
+of the work benches, forge, anvil, toolbench and
+drill press.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#Fig_3">Figures 3</a> and <a href="#Fig_4">4</a> show the perspective and floor plan
+of a farm shop and implement house 40 x 16 feet in size,
+which is large enough for some farms.</p>
+
+<h4>SHOP TOOLS</h4>
+
+<p>Good tools are more important on a farm than in a
+city workshop for the reason that a greater variety of
+work is required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Measuring Mechanical Work.</i>&mdash;In using tools on the
+farm the first rule should be accuracy. It is just as
+easy to work to one-sixteenth of an inch as to carelessly
+lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won&#8217;t go together
+right.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a>
+<img src="images/illo012.png" alt="Fig. 5" width="500" height="94" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 5.&mdash;Caliper Rule. A handy slide caliper shop rule is made
+with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the drawing.
+The diameter of a rivet, bolt or other round object may be taken
+instantly. It is not so accurate as calipers for close measurements,
+but it is a practical tool for farm use.</p></div>
+
+<p>The handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old-fashioned
+two-foot rule that folds up to six inches in
+length to be carried in the pocket. Such rules to be
+serviceable should be brass bound. The interior marking
+should be notched to sixteenths. The outside marking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+may be laid out in eighths. The finer marking on
+the inside is protected by keeping the rule folded
+together when not in use. The coarser marking outside
+does not suffer so much from wear. <a href="#Fig_5">Figure 5</a>
+shows a 12-inch rule with a slide caliper jaw.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/illo013.png" alt="Fig. 6" width="400" height="228" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 6.&mdash;Small Pocket Oilstone. Shop oilstone in a box. 100-foot
+measuring tapeline marked in inches, feet and rods.</p></div>
+
+<p>In using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward
+end should contain the small figures so that the workman
+is counting back on the rule but forward on the
+work, and he has the end of the rule to scribe from. In
+laying off a 16-foot pole the stick is first marked with
+a knife point, or sharp scratchawl, and try square to
+square one end. The work is then laid off from left
+to right, starting from the left hand edge of the
+square mark or first mark. The two-foot rule is laid
+flat on top of the piece of wood. At the front end of
+the rule the wood is marked with a sharp scratchawl
+or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point
+against the end of the rule at the time of marking. In
+moving the rule forward the left end is placed exactly
+over the left edge of the mark, so the new measurement<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+begins at the exact point where the other left off, and
+so on the whole length of the stick. The final mark is
+then made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark.</p>
+
+<p>In sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste
+ends of the stick. The saw cuts to the mark but does
+not cut it out.</p>
+
+<p>In using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one-sixteenth
+of an inch every time he moves the rule,
+which would mean half of an inch in laying off a 16-foot
+pole, which would ruin it for carpenter work. If
+the pole is afterwards used for staking fence posts, he
+would gain one-half inch at each post, or a foot for
+every twenty-four posts, a distance to bother considerably
+in estimating acres. It is just as easy to measure
+exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little
+less, and it marks the difference between right and
+wrong.</p>
+
+<h4>WOODWORKING BENCH</h4>
+
+<p>In a farm workshop it is better to separate the woodworking
+department as far as possible from the blacksmith
+shop. Working wood accumulates a great deal
+of litter, shavings, blocks, and kindling wood, which
+are in the way in the blacksmith shop, and a spark from
+the anvil might set the shavings afire.</p>
+
+<p>A woodworking bench, <a href="#Fig_7">Figure 7</a>, carpenter&#8217;s bench,
+it is usually called, needs a short leg vise with wide
+jaws. The top of the vise should be flush with the top
+of the bench, so the boards may be worked when lying
+flat on the top of the bench. For the same reason the
+bench dog should lower down flush when not needed
+to hold the end of the board.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to make carpenter&#8217;s benches separate
+from the shop, and large enough to stand alone, so they
+may be moved out doors or into other buildings.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/illo015a.png" alt="Fig. 7" width="400" height="213" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 7.&mdash;Carpenter&#8217;s Bench. A woodworking bench is 16&#8242; long,
+3&#8242; 6&#8243; wide and 32&#8243; high. The height, to be particular, should be
+the length of the leg of the man who uses it. Lincoln, when joking
+with Stanton, gave it as his opinion that &#8220;a man&#8217;s legs should be
+just long enough to reach the ground.&#8221; But that rule is not sufficiently
+definite to satisfy carpenters, so they adopted the inside leg
+measurement. They claim that the average carpenter is 5&#8242; 10&#8243;
+tall and he wears a 32&#8243; leg.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/illo015b.png" alt="Fig. 8" width="400" height="221" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 8.&mdash;Carpenter&#8217;s Trestle, or Saw-Bench. The top piece is
+4 x 6 and the legs are 2 x 4. There is sufficient spread of leg to prevent
+it from toppling over, but the legs are not greatly in the way. It is
+heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along. It is 2
+feet high.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/illo016a.png" alt="Fig. 9" width="400" height="211" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 9.&mdash;Shave Horse. For shaping pieces of hardwood for
+repair work. A good shave horse is about 8&#8242; long and the seat end
+is the height of a chair. The head is carved on a hardwood stick
+with three projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/illo016b.png" alt="Fig. 10" width="400" height="292" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 10.&mdash;Compasses, Wooden Clamp and Cutting Pliers.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>Carpenter benches may be well made, or they may be
+constructed in a hurry. So long as the top is true it
+makes but little difference how the legs are attached,
+so long as they are strong and enough of them. A carpenter
+bench that is used for all kinds of work must be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+solid enough to permit hammering, driving nails, etc.
+Usually the top of the bench is straight, true and level
+and it should be kept free from litter and extra tools.</p>
+
+<p>Good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the
+bench. It may stand on the floor or be attached to the
+wall. Carpenter tools on a farm are not numerous,
+but they should have a regular place, and laborers on
+the farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where
+they belong.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/illo017.png" alt="Fig. 11" width="400" height="109" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 11.&mdash;Monkey-Wrenches are the handiest of all farm
+wrenches, but they were never intended to hammer with. Two sizes
+are needed&mdash;an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench,
+to open two inches or more, to use when taking the disks off the
+shafts of a disk harrow. A large pipe-wrench to hold the round
+shaft makes a good companion tool for this work.</p></div>
+
+<h4>WOODWORKING TOOLS</h4>
+
+<p>Every farmer has an axe or two, some sort of a
+handsaw and a nail hammer. It is astonishing what
+jobs of repair work a handy farmer will do with such
+a dearth of tools. But it is not necessary to worry
+along without a good repair kit. Tools are cheap
+enough.</p>
+
+<p>Such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed
+hand saws, a good square, a splendid assortment of
+hammers and the different kinds of wrenches, screw
+clamps, boring tools&mdash;in fact a complete assortment of
+handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a
+well-managed farm.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The farm kit should contain two sizes of nail hammers,
+see <a href="#Fig_15">Figure 15</a>, one suitable to drive small nails,
+say up to eight penny, and the other for large nails and
+spikes; a long thin-bladed handsaw, having nine teeth
+to the inch, for sawing boards and planks; a shorter
+handsaw, having ten teeth to the inch, for small work
+and for pruning trees. A pruning saw should cut a
+fine, smooth kerf, so the wound will not collect and hold
+moisture.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/illo018a.png" alt="Fig. 12" width="400" height="104" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 12.&mdash;Hand Saw. This pattern, both for cross cut and rip
+saw, has been adopted by all makers of fine saws. Nine teeth to
+the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a>
+<img src="images/illo018b.png" alt="Fig. 13" width="400" height="99" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 13.&mdash;Keyhole Saw with point slim enough to start the cut
+from a half-inch auger hole.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a>
+<img src="images/illo018c.png" alt="Fig. 14" width="400" height="125" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 14.&mdash;Bramble Hook for trimming berry bushes and cleaning
+out fence corners. It has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>Farmers&#8217; handsaws are required to do a great many
+different kinds of work. For this reason, it is difficult
+to keep them in good working condition, but if both
+saws are jointed, set and filed by a good mechanic once
+or twice a year, they may be kept in usable condition
+the rest of the time by a handy farm workman, unless
+extra building or special work is required.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a>
+<img src="images/illo019.png" alt="Fig. 15" width="400" height="304" />
+<p class="caption" style="margin: -210px -40px 125px 140px;">Figure 15.&mdash;Nail Hammers. Two styles.
+The upper hammer is made with a ball peen
+and a round face. It is tempered to drive
+small nails without slipping and shaped to
+avoid dinging the wood. This hammer
+should weigh 18 or 19 ounces, including the
+handle. The lower hammer is heavier, has
+a flat face and is intended for heavy work
+such as driving spikes and fence staples.</p></div>
+
+<p>A long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful, and what
+is commonly termed a keyhole saw finds more use on
+the farm than in a carpenter&#8217;s shop in town. It is
+necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions,
+floors, etc., and at such times a keyhole saw works in
+just right.</p>
+
+<p>Handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces
+of wood for repair jobs. Two sizes of handaxes for different
+kinds of work are very useful, also a wide blade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+draw shave, <a href="#Fig_16">Figure 16</a>, and shave horse, <a href="#Fig_9">Figure 9</a>. A
+steel square having one 24-inch blade and one 18-inch
+is the best size. Such squares usually are heavy enough
+to remain square after falling off the bench forty or
+fifty times. A good deal depends upon the quality of
+the steel.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a>
+<img src="images/illo020a.png" alt="Fig. 16" width="400" height="145" />
+<p class="caption" style="width: 250px; margin-top: -50px; margin-left: 75px; margin-bottom: 50px;">Figure 16.&mdash;Drawing-Knife with
+wide blade for finishing straight
+surfaces.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a>
+<img src="images/illo020b.png" alt="Fig. 17" width="400" height="186" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 17.&mdash;Try-Square With Six-Inch Blade. Wood, brass and
+steel are the proper materials for a try-square. A double marking
+gauge for scribing mortises is also shown.</p></div>
+
+<p>Steel squares differ in the measuring marks, but the
+kind to buy has one side spaced to sixteenths and the
+other side to tenths or twelfths. The sixteenth interest
+farmers generally, so that special attention should
+be given this side of the square. The lumber rule on
+some squares is useful, but the brace rules and mitre
+calculations are not likely to interest farmers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>Screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for
+farm work. Three sizes of handled screw-drivers of
+different lengths and sizes, also two or three brace bit
+screw-drivers are needed. One or two bits may be
+broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes
+exhausted before the screw is started.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a>
+<img src="images/illo021a.png" alt="Fig. 18" width="400" height="199" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 18.&mdash;Heavy Hand Axe for Use on the Shop Chopping Block.
+A beet topping knife is shown also.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a>
+<img src="images/illo021b.png" alt="Fig. 19" width="400" height="64" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 19.&mdash;Heavy Screwdriver. The strongest and cheapest
+screwdriver is made from a single bar of steel. The wooden handle
+is made in two parts and riveted as shown.</p></div>
+
+<p>Pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm
+tool kit. Farm mechanical work consists principally
+in repairing implements, machinery, fences and buildings.
+Always a worn or broken part must be removed
+before the repair can be made. A pinch bar twenty-four
+inches long, <a href="#Fig_21">Figure 21</a>, with a cold chisel end, and
+another bar eighteen inches long with a crooked claw
+end, <a href="#Fig_22">Figure 22</a>, for pulling nails and spikes comes in
+very handy. These two bars should be made of the best
+octagon steel, seven-eighths of an inch in diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a>
+<img src="images/illo022a.png" alt="Fig. 20" width="400" height="82" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 20.&mdash;(1) Ratchet Screwdriver. It does rapid work and
+will last a generation if carefully used. (2) Auger-Bit of the Side
+Cutter Type. A full set is needed. They are not for boring into old
+wood. Running once against a nail ruins one of these bits.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a>
+<img src="images/illo022b.png" alt="Fig. 21" width="400" height="44" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 21.&mdash;Handspike. A wooden handspike or pry is about seven
+feet long by 3 inches thick at the prying end. In the North it is
+usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling.
+The bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth
+on the shave horse. It is better to cut the poles in the winter when
+the sap is in the roots. After the handspikes are finished they
+should be covered deep with straw so they will season slowly to
+prevent checking.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a>
+<img src="images/illo022c.png" alt="Fig. 22" width="400" height="113" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 22.&mdash;Wrecking Bar for pulling nails and to pry broken parts
+from other wreckage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a>
+<img src="images/illo022d.png" alt="Fig. 23" width="400" height="52" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 23.&mdash;Carpenter&#8217;s Level. For practical farm work the level
+should be 24&#8243; or 30&#8243; long. Wood is the most satisfactory material.
+The best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued together
+to prevent warping or twisting. For this reason a good level
+should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a>
+<img src="images/illo023a.png" alt="Fig. 24" width="400" height="239" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 24.&mdash;(1) Snips for cutting sheet metal. (2) Carpenter&#8217;s
+Level, iron stock.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a>
+<img src="images/illo023b.png" alt="Fig. 25" width="400" height="24" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 25.&mdash;Wood-Boring Twist Drill Bit. Twist drills for wood
+have longer points than drills for boring iron.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a>
+<img src="images/illo023c.png" alt="Fig. 26" width="400" height="104" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 26.&mdash;Pod-Bit. The fastest boring gimlet bits are of this
+pattern. They are made in sizes from to <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; to <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; and are intended
+for boring softwood.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a>
+<img src="images/illo023d.png" alt="Fig. 27" width="400" height="44" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 27.&mdash;Auger-Bits. For smooth boring the lip bits are best.
+The side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the circle
+ahead of the chips. For boring green wood the single-worm clears
+better than the double-worm bit.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a>
+<img src="images/illo024a.png" alt="Fig. 28" width="400" height="109" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 28.&mdash;Extension Boring Bits. The cutting lips may be set
+to bore holes from <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; to 3&#8243; in diameter. They are used mostly in
+softwood.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a>
+<img src="images/illo024b.png" alt="Fig. 29" width="400" height="32" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 29.&mdash;Ship Auger. This shape auger is made with or without
+a screw point. It will bore straighter in cross-grained wood
+without a point.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a>
+<img src="images/illo024c.png" alt="Fig. 30" width="400" height="26" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 30.&mdash;Long Ship Auger.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a>
+<img src="images/illo024d.png" alt="Fig. 31" width="400" height="76" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 31.&mdash;Bridge Auger. The long handle permits the workman
+to stand erect while boring. The home made handle is welded onto
+the shank of a ship auger.</p></div>
+
+<p>A wooden carpenter&#8217;s level, <a href="#Fig_23">Figure 23</a>, two feet
+long, with a plumb glass near one end, is the most satisfactory
+farm level, an instrument that is needed a
+great many times during the year.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Good brace bits are scarce on farms. They are not
+expensive, but farmers are careless about bits and
+braces. Two sizes of braces are needed, a small brace
+for small pod bits and twist drills, and a large ratchet
+brace with a 6-inch crank radius for turning larger
+bits.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a>
+<img src="images/illo025a.png" alt="Fig. 32" width="400" height="133" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 32.&mdash;Carpenter&#8217;s Jointer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a>
+<img src="images/illo025b.png" alt="Fig. 33" width="400" height="97" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 33.&mdash;Fore-Plane. This style plane is preferred to a regular
+jointer for most farm work.</p></div>
+
+<p>Twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron, and
+they are not expensive up to three-eighths inch or one-half
+inch. But for larger sizes from one-half inch to
+one inch the finest lip wood boring bits will give the
+best satisfaction. Extension bits are used for boring
+holes larger than one inch. Two extension bits are better
+than one bit with two lip cutters. They will bore
+holes in soft wood in sizes from one inch to three inches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>Other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and
+smoothing plane, also an assortment of chisels, belong
+to the farm equipment.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a>
+<img src="images/illo026.png" alt="Fig. 34" width="400" height="289" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 34.&mdash;Tool Box of Socket Chisels and Gouges. The chisels
+are sized from <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; to 2&#8243; in width. The two chisels to the right
+show different patterns.</p></div>
+
+<p>All cutting tools should be of the best design and the
+best steel. If they are properly used and taken care of,
+the different jobs of repair work can be handled
+quickly and to great advantage.</p>
+
+<h4>FARM GRINDSTONE</h4>
+
+<p>A grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so
+it will bite the steel easily and cut it away quickly. A
+good stone is a very satisfactory farm implement, but
+a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance.</p>
+
+<p>There are grindstones with frames too light. The
+competition to manufacture and sell a grindstone for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+farm use at the cheapest possible price has resulted in
+turning out thousands of grindstone frames that possess
+very little stability.</p>
+
+<div class="figc350"><a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a>
+<img src="images/illo027.png" alt="Fig. 35" width="350" height="407" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 35.&mdash;Grindstone. The speed of a grindstone varies with
+the diameter of the stone. It should turn just fast enough to keep
+a flow of water on the upper face surface. If the stone turns too
+slow the water will run down; if too fast, it will fly off.</p></div>
+
+<p>Grindstones should be kept under cover; the best
+stone will be injured by leaving it in the hot sun. The
+sun draws the moisture out of the upper side and
+leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the
+stone soon becomes flat sided. The wet side freezes in
+winter, which is a disintegrating process.</p>
+
+<p>The best stones, with good care, will become uneven
+in time. The remedy is to true them with a quarter-inch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+soft iron round rod used like a lathe tool over an
+iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with the
+center of the stone. The rod is held against the stone in
+such a way as to cut away the high bumps and make the
+stone truly round. The stone cuts away best when it is
+dry. A small rod is better than a large rod. It digs
+into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite. Large
+power stones in machine shops are trued up in this way
+frequently. Farm stones often are neglected until
+they wabble so badly that it is difficult to grind any
+tool to an edge. If the grindstone is turned by a belt
+from an engine the work of truing may be done in a
+few minutes. If the stone is turned by hand the work
+of making it round takes longer and requires some
+muscle, but it pays.</p>
+
+<p>The face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly,
+and it should be kept so by grinding the tools first on
+one side of edge of the stone, then on the other, with
+the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the face of the
+stone.</p>
+
+<p>For safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water
+the stone should turn away from the operator.</p>
+
+<p>The best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of
+water from an overhead supply. Troughs of water
+suspended under the stone are unsatisfactory, because
+the water soon gets thick and unfit for use. Such
+troughs are forgotten when the job is done, so that one
+side of the stone hangs in the water. An overhead supply
+of water leaks away and no damage is done.</p>
+
+<p>Grindstone frames are best made of wood 3&#8243; x 4&#8243;
+thoroughly mortised together and well braced with
+wooden braces and tied across with plenty of iron rods.
+A good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron,
+but manufacturers generally fail in the attempt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>There are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on
+the market, both for hand crank stones and for belt
+use.</p>
+
+<p>The belt is less in the way if it is brought up from
+below. This is not difficult to do. A grindstone turns
+slower than any other farm machine so a speed reducing
+jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the
+grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip. This
+arrangement requires a short belt but it may have the
+full face width of the pulley as the tight and loose pulleys
+are on the jack shaft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Emery Grinders.</i>&mdash;There are small emery wheels
+made for grinding disks that work quickly and cut an
+even bevel all around. They are made in pairs and are
+attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal
+stand which is bolted to a bench. The same rig is used
+for sickle grinding and other farm jobs.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a>
+<img src="images/illo029.png" alt="Fig. 36" width="500" height="135" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 36.&mdash;Emery Grinder. The illustrations show two kinds of
+grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to. To
+grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse. By placing
+the rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will
+be the same on both sides, or edges, of the section.</p></div>
+
+<h4>BLACKSMITH SHOP</h4>
+
+<p>The furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge,
+anvil, half barrel, vise bench, drill press and tool rack.
+A farm shop also has a heating stove, shave horse, a
+woodworking bench, a good power driven grindstone
+and a double emery grinder.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span><i>Forge.</i>&mdash;The old-fashioned forge laid up with brick
+in connection with an old-fashioned chimney is just as
+popular as ever. The same old tuyer iron receives the
+air blast from the same old style leather bellows, and
+there is nothing more satisfactory. But there are modern
+portable forges, <a href="#Fig_37">Figure 37</a>, made of iron, that are
+less artistic, cheaper, take up less room and answer
+the purpose just about as well. The portable iron forge
+has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds
+oxygen into the fire. There are a good many different
+sizes of portable forges. Most of them work well up to
+their advertised capacity.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a>
+<img src="images/illo030.png" alt="Fig. 37" width="400" height="344" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 37.&mdash;Portable Forges. The smaller forge is for light work
+such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction. The larger
+forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>Generally, farm forges are not required to develop
+a great amount of heat. Farmers do but little welding,
+most of the forge work on the farm being confined
+to repair work such as heating brace irons, so
+they may be easily bent into the proper shape, or to
+soften metal so that holes may be punched through it
+easily.</p>
+
+<p>Sharpening harrow teeth, drawing out plow points
+and horseshoeing are about the heaviest forge jobs required
+in a farm blacksmith shop, so that a medium size
+forge will answer the purpose.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a>
+<img src="images/illo031.png" alt="Fig. 38" width="400" height="179" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 38.&mdash;Anvil. The only satisfactory anvil is forged out of
+ingot steel with a power trip-hammer. It should weigh 140 pounds.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Anvil.</i>&mdash;An anvil should weigh at least 120 pounds;
+140 is better. It should be set six feet from the center
+of the fire to the center of the anvil. It should be
+placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil set
+three feet in the ground. The top of the anvil should
+be about thirty inches high. Holmstrom&#8217;s rule is:
+&#8220;Close the fist, stand erect with the arm hanging
+down. The knuckles should just clear the face of the
+anvil.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span><i>Bench and Vise.</i>&mdash;The vise bench should be made
+solid and it should face a good light. The bench window
+should look to the east or north if possible. It
+should be about four feet high and eight feet long,
+with the window sill about six inches above the bench.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a>
+<img src="images/illo032a.png" alt="Fig. 39" width="400" height="255" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 39.&mdash;(1) Shoeing Tool Box. The four small compartments
+are for horseshoe nails of different sizes. There may be a leather
+loop for the paring knife. The low box end is for the shoeing hammer,
+rasp, nippers and hoof knife. (2) Blacksmith Tool Rack.
+Tongs, handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails.
+Hammers are thrown on top. The lower platform is the shop
+catch-all.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a>
+<img src="images/illo032b.png" alt="Fig. 40" width="400" height="106" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 40.&mdash;Shoeing Knife. Good temper is the main qualification.
+All shoeing knives are practically the same shape, although
+they may vary in size.</p></div>
+
+<p>Two and one-half feet is the usual height for a
+workbench above the floor. The best workbench tops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+are made by bolting together 2 x 4s with the edges up.
+Hardwood makes the best bench, but good pine will
+last for years. The top surface should be planed true
+and smooth after the nuts are drawn tight.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a>
+<img src="images/illo033a.png" alt="Fig. 41" width="400" height="95" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 41.&mdash;Horseshoeing Rasp and Wood Rasp. These are necessary
+tools in the farm shop.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a>
+<img src="images/illo033b.png" alt="Fig. 42" width="400" height="212" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 42.&mdash;Iron Work Bench. Solid is the first specification for
+an iron shop bench. It should be three feet wide, not less than
+eight feet long and about 32 inches high. The top is made of 2 x 4s
+placed on edge and bolted together. The supports are 2 x 6 bolted
+to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill.
+The front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas-pipe
+with threaded flanges at top and bottom. Heavy right angle
+wrought iron lugs are used to fasten the top of the bench to the
+studding. The foot of the vise leg is let into the floor of the shop
+or into a solid wooden block sunk in the ground.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a>
+<img src="images/illo034a.png" alt="Fig. 43" width="400" height="314" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 43.&mdash;Assortment of Files and Rasps needed in a farm shop.
+(1) Slim three-cornered handsaw-file. (2) Common three-cornered
+file suitable for filing a buck-saw. (3) Double-cut, or bastard, 10-inch
+flat file. (4) Single-cut, or mill file, either 10 or 12 inches.
+(5) Half-round 10-inch wood rasp. (6) Horseshoer&#8217;s rasp.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a>
+<img src="images/illo034b.png" alt="Fig. 44" width="400" height="89" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 44.&mdash;File Handle. Basswood makes the most satisfactory
+file handles. They are fitted by carefully turning them onto the
+file shank to take the right taper. There should be a handle for
+each file. The handle should be the right size and fitted straight
+with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when
+turned over.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a>
+<img src="images/illo035a.png" alt="Fig. 45" width="400" height="41" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 45.&mdash;Nail Set. On all wooden surfaces to be painted nails
+should be carefully driven with a round peen nail hammer and the
+heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set. The
+holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a>
+<img src="images/illo035b.png" alt="Fig. 46" width="400" height="44" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 46.&mdash;Cold-Chisel. There are more flat cold-chisels than
+all other shapes. They are easily made in the farm shop and it is
+good practice. They are usually made from octagon steel. Different
+sizes are needed according to the work in hand. A piece of <sup>5</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243;
+steel 6&#8243; long makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a>
+<img src="images/illo035c.png" alt="Fig. 47" width="400" height="52" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 47.&mdash;Cape Cold-Chisel. It may be tapered both ways or one
+way to a cutting edge, or one edge may be rounded.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a>
+<img src="images/illo035d.png" alt="Fig. 48" width="400" height="183" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 48.&mdash;(1) Tinner&#8217;s Punch. Made of octagon steel in sizes
+to fit the rivets. The cutting end is flat and has sharp edges made
+by roll filing. It should be about 7&#8243; long and from <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; to <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; in
+diameter, according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal
+to be punched. (2) Prick Punch. Usually made rather short and
+stocky. It may be <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; or <sup>5</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; diameter and 4<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; to 5&#8243; long. (3)
+Hot-iron Punch. Made in many sizes and lengths. The taper
+should be the same as the drawing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a>
+<img src="images/illo036.png" alt="Fig. 49" width="350" height="376" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 49.&mdash;(1) Blacksmith Vise. The old-fashioned leg vise is
+the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop. It should have 5&#8243;
+jaws. (2) Power Post Drill. Belt power is practical for the post
+drill in a farm shop. The hand crank may be easily attached when
+needed.</p></div>
+
+<p>The bench vise should be heavy. A vise is used for
+bending iron hot from the forge. Unless the jaws are
+large, the hot iron is likely to heat the vise sufficiently
+to draw the temper. Heavy jaws are solid enough to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36-<br />37-<br />38]</a></span>
+support the iron when it is being hammered. Often
+heavy hammers are used for this purpose. A heavy
+vise holds the work solid, because it may be screwed
+so much tighter than a light vise. A heavy vise will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a></span>
+hold light work, but a light vise will not hold heavy
+work. Heavy vises cost more, but they are cheaper in
+the end and more satisfactory at all times. A leg vise
+with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds; five and
+one-half-inch jaws, eighty pounds. A machinist&#8217;s vise<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+is made to bolt on top of the bench. It will answer for
+blacksmith work on the farm, but is not as good as the
+old-fashioned leg vise. A machinist&#8217;s vise is very useful
+in the garage, but it would hardly be necessary to
+have two heavy vises. The pipe vise belongs on a
+separate bench, which may be a plank bracketed
+against the side of the room.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drill-Press.</i>&mdash;The most satisfactory drill-press for
+use on a farm is the upright drill that bolts to a post.
+There is usually a self feed which may be regulated
+according to the work. The heavy flywheel keeps the
+motion steady, and because there is no bench in the
+way, wagon tires may be suspended from the drill
+block, so they will hang free and true for drilling.
+Often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with
+holes spaced certain distances apart. It is easier to
+pass them along when they lie flat side down on the
+drill block. To use a drill properly and safely, the
+chuck must run true. It is easy to break a drill when
+it wabbles.</p>
+
+<p>Most drills are made on the twist pattern, and it is
+something of a trick to grind a twist drill, but anyone
+can do it if he tackles the job with a determination to
+do it right. In grinding a twist drill, use a new drill
+for pattern. Grind the angles the same as the new
+drill, and be careful to have the point in the center. A
+little practice will make perfect.</p>
+
+<p>Mechanics will say that no one except an expert
+should attempt to grind a twist drill, but farmers who
+are mechanically inclined are the best experts within
+reach. It is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or
+use them dull.</p>
+
+<p>In drilling wrought iron either water or oil is required
+to cool the drill, but cast iron and brass are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+drilled dry. Light work such as hoop-iron may be
+drilled dry, but the cutting edge of the drill will last
+longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or
+water.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a>
+<img src="images/illo038.png" alt="Fig. 50" width="350" height="348" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 50.&mdash;(1) Electric Drill-Press. A small electric motor is
+attached to the drill spindle. (2) Tram Points. Two steel points
+are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden
+bar. They are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses.
+(3) Ratchet-Brace. Two braces, or bitstocks, are needed. A large
+brace with a 6&#8243; radius for large bits and a small brace with a 3&#8243;
+or 3<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; radius for small bits.</p></div>
+
+<p>In using drill-presses, some extra attachments come
+in very handy, such as a screw clamp to hold short
+pieces of metal. Before starting the drill, a center<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be bored
+and to start the drill in the right spot.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a>
+<img src="images/illo039a.png" alt="Fig. 51" width="400" height="197" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 51.&mdash;Twist-Drills. Round shank for the post drill and
+square taper shank for brace work. Brace drills are small, <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub>&#8243; or
+less.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a>
+<img src="images/illo039b.png" alt="Fig. 52" width="400" height="45" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 52.&mdash;Taper Reamer. Used to enlarge, or true, or taper a hole
+that has been drilled or punched.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a>
+<img src="images/illo039c.png" alt="Fig. 53" width="400" height="39" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 53.&mdash;Another style of Reamer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a>
+<img src="images/illo039d.png" alt="Fig. 54" width="350" height="56" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 54.&mdash;Countersink. This is the old style, blacksmith-made,
+flat countersink. It will do quick work but not so smooth as the
+fluted kind.</p></div>
+
+<p>In doing particular work, the drill may be re-centered
+when it starts wrong. This is done with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+small round-nosed cold chisel. If the work is not very
+particular, the drill may be turned a little to one side
+by slanting the piece to be drilled. This plan is only
+a makeshift, however, the proper way being to block
+the work level, so that the drill will meet it perpendicularly.
+However, by starting carefully, the hole may be
+bored exactly as required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iron Working Tools.</i>&mdash;Forge tools for a farm shop
+need not be numerous. Several pairs of tongs, one
+blacksmith hammer, one sledge, one hardy, one
+wooden-handled cold chisel, one pair pincers, one paring
+knife, one shoeing rasp, and one shoeing hammer
+will do to begin with.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_55" id="Fig_55"></a>
+<img src="images/illo040.png" alt="Fig. 55" width="500" height="355" />
+<p class="caption" style="margin: -200px auto 175px 100px;">Figure 55.&mdash;Machinist&#8217;s Hammers. A medium
+weight should be selected for farm
+repair work. It should be hung so the end
+of the handle clears half an inch when the
+face rests flat on the bench.</p></div>
+
+<p>Monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench department.
+The farmer needs three sizes, one may be quite
+small, say six inches in length, one ten inches, and the
+other large enough to span a two-inch nut. And there
+should be an ironclad rule, never use a monkey-wrench
+for a hammer. For work around plows, cultivators,
+harvesters, and other farm machines, a case of S
+wrenches will be greatly appreciated. Manufacturers
+include wrenches with almost all farm machines, but
+such wrenches are too cheap to be of much use.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_56" id="Fig_56"></a>
+<img src="images/illo041a.png" alt="Fig. 56" width="400" height="240" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 56.&mdash;(1) Hardy. The anvil hardy is used more than any
+other anvil tool except the blacksmith&#8217;s hammer and tongs. (2) A
+Cold-Shut Link that may be welded, riveted or simply pounded shut.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_57" id="Fig_57"></a>
+<img src="images/illo041b.png" alt="Fig. 57" width="400" height="203" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 57.&mdash;Calipers: (1) A pair of tight-joint inside calipers.
+(2) Its mate for taking outside dimensions. (3) A pair of spring-jointed,
+screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists&#8217; use.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_58" id="Fig_58"></a>
+<img src="images/illo041c.png" alt="Fig. 58" width="400" height="38" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 58.&mdash;Blacksmith Tongs. Straight tongs made to hold <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243;
+iron is the handiest size. Two or three pairs for larger sizes of iron
+and one pair smaller come in handy.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_59" id="Fig_59"></a>
+<img src="images/illo042a.png" alt="Fig. 59" width="400" height="123" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 59.&mdash;(1) Wire Splicer. The oval openings in the tool are
+of different sizes. They are made to hold two wires, close together,
+with ends projecting in opposite directions. Each end is wound
+around the other wire. The ends are then notched with a three-cornered
+file and broken off short and filed smooth. The splicing
+tool should be thin, about <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; or <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>16</sub>&#8243;, to bring the two twists close
+together. This is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden
+pails. (2) Blacksmith Shoeing Pincers, used to pull horseshoes.
+They should close together to catch a nail by the head.</p></div>
+
+<p>For heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely
+necessary. The reason for having so many wrenches is
+to save time when in the field. It often happens that
+men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be
+a quick repair job.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_60" id="Fig_60"></a>
+<img src="images/illo042b.png" alt="Fig. 60" width="400" height="101" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 60.&mdash;(1) Cotter Pin Tool. Handy for inserting or removing
+all sorts of cotter keys. (2) Nest of S Wrenches of different
+sizes. Farmers have never appreciated the value of light, handy
+wrenches to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely.</p></div>
+
+<p>For bench work a riveting hammer and a ball peen
+machinist&#8217;s hammer are needed. A nest of S wrenches,
+two rivet sets, cold chisels, round punches and several
+files also are required.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will
+do for iron as well as wood. However, if much drilling
+is done, then round shank twist drills to fit the drill
+chuck will work better. Farmers seldom drill holes in
+iron larger than one-half inch. For particular work,
+to get the exact size, reamers are used to finish the
+holes after drilling. Screw holes in iron are countersunk
+in the drill-press.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_61" id="Fig_61"></a>
+<img src="images/illo043a.png" alt="Fig. 61" width="400" height="103" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 61.&mdash;Hack Saw. One handle and a dozen blades. The
+frame should be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without
+binding. The teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_62" id="Fig_62"></a>
+<img src="images/illo043b.png" alt="Fig. 62" width="400" height="100" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 62.&mdash;Powerful Bolt Cutter. It is intended for factory use.</p></div>
+
+<p>For small work, twist drills with square shanks for
+brace use should range in sizes from one thirty-second
+of an inch up to one-quarter inch, then every one-sixteenth
+inch up to one-half inch.</p>
+
+<p>For boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is
+done with pod bits. Not many sizes are needed, but
+they are cheap, so that a half dozen, ranging from one-sixteenth
+to one-quarter inch or thereabouts, will be
+found very useful. Pod bits belong to the wood department,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+but on account of being used principally for
+screw sinking, they are just as useful in the iron working
+department as in the carpenter shop.</p>
+
+<p>Sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly
+belong with the iron working tools. Snips are from
+ten to fourteen inches in length. A medium size is
+best for miscellaneous work. If kept in good working
+order twelve-inch snips will cut 18-gauge galvanized
+or black iron. But a man would not care to do a great
+deal of such heavy cutting.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_63" id="Fig_63"></a>
+<img src="images/illo044a.png" alt="Fig. 63" width="400" height="106" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 63.&mdash;Cutting Nippers. For cutting the points from horseshoe
+nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe
+in place. These nippers are hard tempered and should not be used
+for any other purpose.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_64" id="Fig_64"></a>
+<img src="images/illo044b.png" alt="Fig. 64" width="400" height="89" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 64.&mdash;Two Shapes of Steel Crowbars.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Pipe-Fitting Tools.</i>&mdash;Recent farm improvements require
+a few tools that rightfully belong to plumbers.
+Every farm has some kind of water supply for domestic
+use and for live-stock. A great many farm machines
+require pipe tools for repair work. Every year
+more plumbing reaches the farm.</p>
+
+<p>Plumbing work is no more difficult than other mechanical
+work, if the tools are at hand to meet the different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+requirements. One job of plumbing that used
+to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering together
+of lead pipes, technically termed &#8220;wiping a
+joint.&#8221; This operation has been discontinued. Every
+possible connection required in farm plumbing is now
+provided for in standardized fittings. Every pipe-fitting
+or connection that conducts supply water or waste
+water nowadays screws together. Sizes are all made to
+certain standards and the couplings are almost perfect,
+so that work formerly shrouded in mystery or
+hidden under trade secrets is now open to every
+schoolboy who has learned to read.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_65" id="Fig_65"></a>
+<img src="images/illo045.png" alt="Fig. 65" width="400" height="242" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 65.&mdash;(1) Pipe Vise. Hinged to open for long pipes. (2)
+Machinist&#8217;s Vise. Made with a turntable to take any horizontal
+angle. The pipe jaws are removable.</p></div>
+
+<p>The necessary outfit to handle all the piping and
+plumbing on the farm is not very expensive, probably
+$25.00 will include every tool and all other appliances
+necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry water
+to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+water to the kitchen and the bathroom, together with
+the waste pipes, ventilators and the sewer to the septic
+tank. The same outfit of tools will answer for repair
+work for a lifetime.</p>
+
+<p>Farm water pipes usually are small. There may be
+a two-inch suction pipe to the force pump, and the discharge
+may be one and a half inch. But these pipes are
+not likely to make trouble.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_66" id="Fig_66"></a>
+<img src="images/illo046a.png" alt="Fig. 66" width="400" height="105" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 66.&mdash;Pipe Cutter. The most satisfactory pipe cutter has
+three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other around the
+pipe. Some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and one cutter
+roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe. The flat face
+rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the same size
+clear to the end.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_67" id="Fig_67"></a>
+<img src="images/illo046b.png" alt="Fig. 67" width="400" height="95" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 67.&mdash;Pipe-Wrench. This type of wrench is valuable for
+working with the heavier farm implements. It is intended more for
+holding than for turning. It is rather rough on nuts. Damaged
+nuts show signs of careless work.</p></div>
+
+<p>There should be a good pipe vise that will hold any
+size pipe up to three inches. At least two pipe wrenches
+are needed and they should be adjustable from one-quarter-inch
+up to two-inch pipe.</p>
+
+<p>We must remember that water pipe sizes mean inside
+measurements. One-inch pipe is about one and
+one-quarter inches outside diameter. Three-quarter-inch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+pipe is about one inch outside. Two-inch pipe will
+carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe, under
+the rule &#8220;doubling the diameter increases the capacity
+four times.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_68" id="Fig_68"></a>
+<img src="images/illo047.png" alt="Fig. 68" width="400" height="108" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 68.&mdash;A smaller sized wrench with wooden handle.</p></div>
+
+<p>The three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is
+satisfactory for most jobs. Sometimes two of the knife
+wheels are removed and rollers substituted to prevent
+raising a burr on the end of the pipe.</p>
+
+<p>Threading dies are made in standard sizes. A good
+farm set consists of stock and dies to thread all the
+different sizes of pipe from one-quarter inch to one
+inch, inclusive. Not many pipes larger than inch are
+threaded on the farm. They are cut to the proper
+lengths in the farm shop and the threads are cut in
+town.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h3>FARM SHOP WORK</h3>
+
+<h4>PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK</h4>
+
+<p>Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind
+of mechanical repair work that should be done at home
+and the kind and amount of repair work that should
+go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the
+mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. However,
+the poorest farm mechanic can do &#8220;first aid&#8221;
+service to farm implements and machinery in the nick
+of time, if he is so disposed. A great many farmers are
+helpless in this respect because they want to be helpless.
+It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at
+it with a determination to fix it, and fix it right.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_69" id="Fig_69"></a>
+<img src="images/illo048.png" alt="Fig. 69" width="400" height="171" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 69.&mdash;Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm inventions
+of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in all lumber
+camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in length,
+with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook
+on the other end that makes fast between any two links.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_70" id="Fig_70"></a>
+<img src="images/illo049a.png" alt="Fig. 70" width="400" height="191" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 70.&mdash;Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can make
+better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made.
+The irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by
+piece.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_71" id="Fig_71"></a>
+<img src="images/illo049b.png" alt="Fig. 71" width="400" height="129" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 71.&mdash;Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The
+pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is
+probably flattened on the bottom from wear.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>On general principles, however, farm repair work
+should not occupy a farmer&#8217;s time to the detriment of
+growing crops or the proper care of live-stock. Farming
+is the business; mechanical work is a side issue. At
+the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time during
+the year to look over every farm machine, every
+implement and every hand tool on the farm. The
+stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a
+spade and rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which
+some fine emery has been dusted. The emery will remove<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+the rust and the oil will prevent it from further
+rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a
+spade or shovel after a rivet head has given way so the
+handle is not properly supported by the plate extensions.
+There really is no excuse for using tools or machinery
+that are out of repair, but the extent to which
+a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends
+on many contingencies. In every case he must decide
+according to circumstances, always, however, with a
+desire and determination to run his farm on business
+principles.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_72" id="Fig_72"></a>
+<img src="images/illo050a.png" alt="Fig. 72" width="400" height="84" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 72.&mdash;Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought in
+the rough or partly fitted to the skeins.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_73" id="Fig_73"></a>
+<img src="images/illo050b.png" alt="Fig. 73" width="400" height="75" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 73.&mdash;Showing how to fit the irons on the forward end of a
+wagon reach.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_74" id="Fig_74"></a>
+<img src="images/illo050c.png" alt="Fig. 74" width="400" height="26" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 74.&mdash;Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may be wound
+close enough to prevent slipping.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Home-made Bolts.</i>&mdash;The easiest way to make a bolt
+is to cut a rod of round iron the proper length and run
+a thread on each end. On one end the thread may be
+just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut
+and to take up slack. A farmer needs round iron in
+sizes from one-fourth inch to five-eighths inch. He will
+use more three-eighths and one-half inch than any
+other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to
+fit any size of round iron. Have an assortment, in different
+sizes, of both the square and the hexagon nuts.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_75" id="Fig_75"></a>
+<img src="images/illo051a.png" alt="Fig. 75" width="400" height="201" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 75.&mdash;Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly without
+a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head
+and a longer thread on the other end for the nut.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_76" id="Fig_76"></a>
+<img src="images/illo051b.png" alt="Fig. 76" width="400" height="98" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 76.&mdash;Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of different sizes and
+lengths should be always kept on hand ready for immediate use.</p></div>
+
+<p>To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires welding,
+but for repair work in a hurry it is better to select
+the proper iron and cut it to the required length
+either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy
+and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest way of cutting that mashes the rod the least is to be
+preferred. The size of the rod will determine the manner
+of cutting in most instances.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_77" id="Fig_77"></a>
+<img src="images/illo052a.png" alt="Fig. 77" width="400" height="48" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 77.&mdash;Rivets.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_78" id="Fig_78"></a>
+<img src="images/illo052b.png" alt="Fig. 78" width="400" height="87" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 78.&mdash;Rivet Set. This style of set is used for small rivets.
+The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely. Larger rivets are
+made to hug the work by means of a flat piece of steel with a hole
+through it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_79" id="Fig_79"></a>
+<img src="images/illo052c.png" alt="Fig. 79" width="400" height="92" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 79.&mdash;Rivet Set.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_80" id="Fig_80"></a>
+<img src="images/illo052d.png" alt="Fig. 80" width="400" height="206" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 80.&mdash;(1) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be
+made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The
+quickest hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel
+blade that works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the
+ground.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_81" id="Fig_81"></a>
+<img src="images/illo053a.png" alt="Fig. 81" width="400" height="217" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 81.&mdash;Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are best kept
+in compartments in a case made for the purpose.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_82" id="Fig_82"></a>
+<img src="images/illo053b.png" alt="Fig. 82" width="400" height="59" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 82.&mdash;Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned true
+and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the
+die by friction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_83" id="Fig_83"></a>
+<img src="images/illo053c.png" alt="Fig. 83" width="400" height="131" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 83.&mdash;Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped into
+blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with accuracy
+and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be
+had in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub>&#8243; to
+<sup>5</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243;, inclusive.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_84" id="Fig_84"></a>
+<img src="images/illo054a.png" alt="Fig. 84" width="350" height="72" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 84.&mdash;Taper Tap for Blacksmith&#8217;s Use.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_85" id="Fig_85"></a>
+<img src="images/illo054b.png" alt="Fig. 85" width="400" height="55" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 85.&mdash;Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is used
+against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not arbitrary.
+The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood;
+the flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts
+if you expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_86" id="Fig_86"></a>
+<img src="images/illo054c.png" alt="Fig. 86" width="400" height="132" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 86.&mdash;Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be kept in
+stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different
+makes of plows and machines.</p></div>
+
+<p>Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the
+thread on the bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate
+die, the corresponding tap is run clear through the
+nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt easily,
+possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so intended
+by the manufacturers to give the workman a little leeway. If it is desirable to have the nut screw
+on the bolt very tight, then the tap is stopped before
+the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon
+qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place
+the bolt is to occupy.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_87" id="Fig_87"></a>
+<img src="images/illo055a.png" alt="Fig. 87" width="350" height="118" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 87.&mdash;Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood, bore a hole
+the size of the screw shank as calipered between the threads.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_88" id="Fig_88"></a>
+<img src="images/illo055b.png" alt="Fig. 88" width="400" height="384" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 88.&mdash;(1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach the box
+and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box to
+hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side
+of the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be embedded
+in concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug
+on parts of machines that shake a good deal, and this
+applies to almost all farm machinery and implements.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_89" id="Fig_89"></a>
+<img src="images/illo056a.png" alt="Fig. 89" width="400" height="88" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 89.&mdash;Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the rave and
+to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and sometimes
+in the middle of light wagon beds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_90" id="Fig_90"></a>
+<img src="images/illo056b.png" alt="Fig. 90" width="400" height="138" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 90.&mdash;Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link.</p></div>
+
+<p>Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily
+along like a cart, but the ground is rough and in practical
+use the nuts loosen almost as soon as haying commences.</p>
+
+<p>Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends
+to prevent nuts from working loose. When the bolts
+have square heads, this practice is not objectionable,
+because with two wrenches a nut can be twisted off
+over the riveting, but a great many bolts have round
+heads and very short, square shanks. Theoretically,
+the shanks are driven into the wood firm enough to
+prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+theory is a delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can
+testify.</p>
+
+<p>Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm
+blacksmith shop. They can be made by machinery
+cheaper, but so many times a bolt is needed on short
+notice that the farm shop should have the necessary
+tools and materials to supply the need quickly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forging Iron and Steel.</i>&mdash;Iron and steel are composed
+of the same properties, but differ chemically.
+Steel also is finer grained than iron and it requires
+different treatment. Iron should be forged at a light-red
+or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the
+iron generally will granulate or crack open and weaken
+the metal. For a smooth finish the last forging may
+be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be
+used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the
+blows also must differ with the different size of iron
+under heat. Small sizes should be treated with hammer
+blows that are rather light, while for large sizes
+the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light
+blows be given with a light hammer in forging heavy
+iron the outside alone will be affected, thus causing
+uneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron.</p>
+
+<p>Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If
+heated to a white heat the steel will be burned. Steel
+should never be forged at a dark-red heat. If this is
+done it will cause considerable strain between the inner
+and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while
+forging. The weight of the hammer and the hammer
+blows in forging of steel is vastly of more importance
+than in forging iron. If the blow or the hammer is not
+heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thickness
+of the steel it will probably crack in the process of
+hardening or tempering. If steel be properly forged it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+will harden easily and naturally, but if improperly
+forged the tempering will be very difficult&mdash;probably a
+failure. The quality of a finished tool depends greatly
+upon the correct heat and proper method used in forging
+and hardening it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Making Steel Tools.</i>&mdash;Steel for tools should first be
+annealed to even the density and prevent warping.
+This is done by heating it to a dull cherry red in a slow
+fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best because it
+contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities.
+After heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly
+as possible it should be buried several inches deep in
+powdered charcoal and left to cool. This completes the
+annealing process. While working steel into proper
+shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burning.
+It should be worked quickly and the process repeated
+as often as necessary. Practice is the only
+recipe for speed.</p>
+
+<p>When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the
+anvil it is then finished with a file by clamping the new
+tool in the vise, using single cut files. Bastard files are
+too rough for tool steel. After the tool is shaped by
+cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is sometimes
+polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around
+the file. Oil is used with emery cloth to give the steel
+a luster finish. Tempering is the last process in the
+making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies,
+punches, scratchawls, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc350"><a name="Fig_91" id="Fig_91"></a>
+<img src="images/illo059.png" alt="Fig. 91" width="350" height="563" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 91.&mdash;Blacksmith Hammers. Some smiths use a heavy machinist&#8217;s
+hammer. But the flat peen is more useful when working
+around the anvil and the leg vise.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Tempering Steel Tools.</i>&mdash;Good judgment is required
+to get the right temper. Good eyesight is needed to
+catch the color at the exact instant, and quick action to
+plunge it into the water before it cools too much. Dies
+are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping
+time should be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+break when being used if tempered too hard. If cold
+chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the color should
+be violet; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is
+the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark
+straw color at the cutting edge merging back into blue.
+The water in the dipping tub should be warm, as steel
+is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in cold
+water.</p>
+
+<p>Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position
+when it enters the water to cool all sides alike. Otherwise
+the new tool might warp. It is better to dip
+slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in
+the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly
+enough to remain soft. Some sizes of steel may be
+tempered too hard at first and the temper immediately
+drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow
+down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done
+quickly while watching the colors as they move towards
+the point or edge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Draw-filing.</i>&mdash;Making six-sided and eight-sided
+punches and scratchawls out of hexagon and octagon
+tool steel is interesting work. The steel is cut to length
+by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file.
+When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break
+straight across. To shape the tool and to draw out the
+point the steel is heated in the forge to a dull cherry
+red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape
+along the taper. Special attention must be given to
+the numerous corners. A scratchawl or small punch,
+must be heated many times and hammered quickly before
+cooling. An old English shop adage reads:
+&#8220;Only one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that
+was for pounding cold iron.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+anvil, it is fastened in the vise and finished by cross-filing
+and draw-filing. Copper caps on the vise jaws
+will prevent indentations.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_92" id="Fig_92"></a>
+<img src="images/illo061a.png" alt="Fig. 92" width="400" height="162" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 92.&mdash;Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are made of
+sheet copper or galvanized iron.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_93" id="Fig_93"></a>
+<img src="images/illo061b.png" alt="Fig. 93" width="400" height="151" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 93.&mdash;Roll Filing. To file a piece of steel round it is rolled by
+one hand while the file is used by the other hand.</p></div>
+
+<p>Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and
+moving it back and forth sidewise along the work. For
+this purpose single-cut files are used. The smoothing
+is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very particular,
+a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed
+on with fine emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is
+wrapped around the file and the same motion is continued.
+With some little practice a very creditable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span>
+piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valuable
+because of the instruction. A good test of skill at
+blacksmithing is making an octagon punch that tapers
+true to the eye when finished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Set-Screws.</i>&mdash;It is customary to fasten a good many
+gear wheels, cranks and pulleys to machinery shafts
+by set-screws. There are two kinds of set-screws; one
+has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are
+hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to
+cut a ring and the point is supposed to sink into the
+shaft to make a small hole sufficient to keep the wheel
+from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw
+is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of
+a strain. The point is so small it will slip and cut a
+groove around the shaft. To prevent this, the set-screw
+may be countersunk by first marking the shaft with an
+indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel
+or crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled
+into the shaft with a twist-drill the same size, or a
+sixty-fourth smaller, than the set-screw. Then by
+forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole, the
+wheel is held solid.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_94" id="Fig_94"></a>
+<img src="images/illo062.png" alt="Fig. 94" width="400" height="64" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 94.&mdash;Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the left is
+used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the right is
+the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a
+sharp rim.</p></div>
+
+<p>The principal objection to set-screws is that they are
+dangerous. The heads always project and are ready
+to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft is revolving. In
+all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is impossible
+to catch anything to wind around the shaft.
+Cup set-screws are not satisfactory except for very
+light work. If necessary to use them, the ends may be
+firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond-point
+cold chisel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Setting the Handsaw.</i>&mdash;Nine teeth to the inch is the
+most satisfactory handsaw for all kinds of lumber.
+Setting the teeth of this kind of saw is best done with
+a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be carefully
+adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give
+the necessary set. For general work a saw needs more
+set than is needed for kiln-dried stuff. The teeth
+should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade.
+Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is
+better to work from both sides of the saw by first setting
+one side the whole length of the blade. Then reverse
+the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth
+in the same manner. There should be a good solid stop
+between the handles of the set to insure equal pressure
+against each sawtooth. The pin should be carefully
+placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot
+every time and the pressure should be the same for each
+tooth.</p>
+
+<p>The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic
+so far as it is possible to make them so, but the skill
+of the operator determines the quality of the work.
+The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to leave
+the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade
+after the jointing and filing is completed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jointing a Handsaw.</i>&mdash;After the saw has been set it
+must be jointed to square the teeth and to even them to
+equal length, and to keep the saw straight on the cutting
+edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back.
+The camber facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre-box
+work without sawing into the bed piece of the box.
+It also throws the greatest weight of the thrust upon
+the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother,
+runs truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess.
+It is easy to file a saw when all of the teeth are the same
+length and all have the same set. Anyone can do a
+good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin with,
+but no one can put a saw in good working order with
+a three-cornered file as his only tool.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_95" id="Fig_95"></a>
+<img src="images/illo064.png" alt="Fig. 95" width="400" height="219" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 95.&mdash;Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two inches
+square by 12&#8243; or 14&#8243; in length. The block is made true and scribed
+carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The
+file is set into a mortise square with the block.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Filing the Handsaw.</i>&mdash;First comes the three-cornered
+file. It should be just large enough to do the
+work. There is no economy in buying larger files
+thinking that each of the three corners will answer the
+same purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the
+first place the small file is better controlled and will
+do better work. In the second place the three corners
+are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners
+than on the sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a
+small file are more acute, which means a good deal in
+the shape of the finished teeth.</p>
+
+<p>After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it
+in the saw vise and file one side of the saw from heel
+to point. Then reverse the saw in the saw clamp and
+file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of
+each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just before
+the tooth comes to a point. A triangular or diamond
+shaped point will cut faster and leave a smoother
+saw kerf and last longer than a needle point.</p>
+
+<p>As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both
+edges, it is necessary to make allowances when filing
+the first side, otherwise some of the teeth will come to
+a sharp point before the gumming is deep enough.</p>
+
+<p><i>Using a Handsaw.</i>&mdash;Anyone can saw a board square
+both up and down and crossways by following a few
+simple rules. Have the board supported on the level
+by two well made saw-benches 24&#8243; high. Stand up
+straight as possible and look down on both sides of
+the saw blade. Use long even strokes and let the saw
+play lightly and evenly through the saw cut.</p>
+
+<p>Do not cut the mark out; cut to it on the waste end,
+or further end, if there are more pieces to be cut from
+the board. The saw kerf is about <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>32</sub>&#8243; wide for a
+nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension
+stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and
+none from the next then one length will be <sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>16</sub>&#8243;
+shorter than the other.</p>
+
+<p>For practice it is a good plan to make two marks
+<sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>32</sub>&#8243; apart and cut between them. Use a sharp-pointed
+scratchawl to make the marks. A penknife
+blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+blade of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run
+off at a tangent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Setting a Circular Saw.</i>&mdash;A good saw-set for a circular
+saw may be made out of an old worn-out flat file.
+Heat the file in the forge fire to draw the temper and
+anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on the
+grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one
+edge. The notch should be just wide enough to fit
+loosely over the point of a sawtooth. The notch should
+be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter of the
+length of the tooth.</p>
+
+<p>Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or
+steel one inch wide and about four inches long. File a
+notch into and parallel to one edge at one corner, about
+one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and about
+half an inch long measuring from the end. With the
+home-made saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the
+points just miss the iron gauge in the corner notch.
+The edges of the gauge should be straight and parallel
+and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use
+the edge of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw
+so the projecting tooth reaches into the notch. One-sixteenth
+of an inch may be too much set for a small
+saw but it won&#8217;t be too much for a 24-inch wood saw
+working in green cord wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jointing a Circular Saw.</i>&mdash;Run the saw at full speed.
+Lay a 14-inch file flat on the top of the saw table at
+right angles to the saw. Move the file slowly and carefully
+towards the saw until it ticks against the teeth.
+Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth
+ticks lightly against the file. A saw in good working
+order needs very little jointing, but it should have attention
+every time the saw is set and it should be done
+after setting and before filing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span><i>Filing a Circular Saw.</i>&mdash;The teeth of a crosscut circular
+saw point a little ahead. Sometimes they point
+so nearly straight out from the center that you have to
+look twice to determine which way the saw should run.
+There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but
+they are subject to many qualifications. What interests
+a farmer is a saw that will cut green poles and
+crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least possible
+delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick
+eight inches through without turning it to finish the
+cut. The front or cutting edges of the teeth of a 24-inch
+crosscut circular saw for wood sawing should line
+to a point a little back from the center. This may not
+sound definite enough for best results, so the more particular
+farmers may use a straight edge. Select a
+straight stick about half an inch square. Rest it on
+top of or against the back of the saw mandrel and
+shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the
+upper side or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth
+will stand at the proper pitch when the saw is new,
+if it was designed for sawing green wood. If it works
+right before being filed, then the width of the straight
+edge may be made to conform to the original pitch and
+kept for future use.</p>
+
+<p>The gumming is done with the edge of the file while
+filing the front edges of the teeth. It is finished with
+the flat side of the file while filing the rear edges of
+the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth should be
+kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A
+wood saw works best when the front edges of the teeth
+have but little bevel. The back edges should have
+more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered or
+diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when
+they come against knots or cross-grained hardwood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut flat files are used
+for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It
+should be about <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; wider than the length of the front
+side of the teeth. The back edges require that the file
+shall have some play to show part of the tooth while
+the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy. The file
+should be carefully selected.</p>
+
+<div class="figc300"><a name="Fig_96" id="Fig_96"></a>
+<img src="images/illo068.png" alt="Fig. 96" width="300" height="288" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 96.&mdash;How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is difficult,
+but filing it sharp and straight at the cutting edge is easy. If the
+hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under the
+blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>How to Sharpen a Hoe.</i>&mdash;It is quicker and more satisfactory
+to file a hoe sharp than to grind it on the
+grindstone. The shank of the hoe must be held firmly
+in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood
+under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge;
+to keep the file from chattering. A single cut flat file
+is the best to use. It should be long enough to be
+easily held in one position to make a smooth, even bevel
+at the same angle to the face of the blade all the way
+across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is
+better to joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing
+just before reaching the edge. If the edge be left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>64</sub>&#8243; thick it will wear longer and work more easily
+after having been used an hour or two than it will if
+the edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable
+when the ground contains small stones. Hoes are
+sharpened from the under side only. The inside of a
+hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes
+should always have sharp corners. When working
+around valuable plants you want to know exactly
+where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried
+out of sight in the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shoeing Farm Horses.</i>&mdash;Farmers have no time or
+inclination to make a business of shoeing horses, but
+there are occasions when it is necessary to pull a shoe
+or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not
+numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box,
+with a stiff iron handle made in the shape of a bale.
+The box contains a shoeing hammer, hoof rasp, hoof
+knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called, and two
+sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is
+used to set the horse&#8217;s front foot on when the horse
+wants to bear down too hard, but this pedestal is not
+necessary in the farm shop.</p>
+
+<p>There are flat-footed horses that cannot work even
+in summer without shoes. Common sense and shoeing
+tools are the only requirements necessary to tack on a
+plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be purchased
+at so much a pound.</p>
+
+<p>A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the
+hoof so that it will have an even bearing on the shoe all
+the way round. It is not desirable to pare the frog or
+the braces in the bottom of a horse&#8217;s foot. If the foot
+is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken
+off near the edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten
+the toe. This is done partly with the hoof chisel and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes one-fourth
+of an inch is sufficient; at other times a horse&#8217;s
+hoof is very much improved by taking off one-half inch
+or more of the toe growth either from the bottom or the
+front or both.</p>
+
+<p>Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a
+horse&#8217;s foot should be studied and planned before
+starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to overcome
+when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature
+intended that a horse should have considerable toe
+length as a protection to the more tender parts of the
+foot. And the pastern bone should play at the proper
+angle.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_97" id="Fig_97"></a>
+<img src="images/illo070.png" alt="Fig. 97" width="400" height="163" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 97.&mdash;Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is for
+tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys, screws,
+nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the different
+divisions.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Handy Tool Box.</i>&mdash;A tool box with a high lengthwise
+partition in the middle and a handle in the middle of
+the top of the partition is the handiest tool box ever
+used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it should
+be fitted with the common tools required about haying
+and harvest machinery. One side is partitioned into
+square boxes to hold split wire keys, washers, bolts,
+rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of copper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the
+box is an assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches,
+pliers and hammers. This tool box belongs in the
+wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_98" id="Fig_98"></a>
+<img src="images/illo071.png" alt="Fig. 98" width="400" height="76" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 98.&mdash;Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing requires a
+melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl and
+about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge fire.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Babbitting Boxings.</i>&mdash;Babbitting boxings is one of
+the repair jobs on the farm. Some men are careless
+about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them out. Every
+year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting
+ladle should be large enough to pour the largest box.
+Usually a 5-inch bowl is about right. A large ladle
+will pour a small box but a small ladle won&#8217;t pour a
+large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should
+be warmed to insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard
+is fitted against the shaft when pouring the cap or top
+half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around the shaft
+at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from
+running out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy
+and the babbitt is made rough and uneven at the edges.
+Some skill is required to fit either wood or metal close
+enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job.</p>
+
+<p>If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be
+poured at once by making holes through the dividing
+pasteboard. The holes must be large enough to let the
+melted metal through and small enough to break apart
+easily when cold.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h3>GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE
+MODERN FARM MACHINERY</h3>
+
+<p>At one time ninety-seven per cent of the population
+of the United States got their living directly from tilling
+the soil, and the power used was oxen and manual
+labor. At the present time probably not more than
+thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged
+in agricultural pursuits. And the power problem has
+been transferred to horses, steam, gasoline, kerosene
+and water power, with electricity as a power conveyor.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a
+single moldboard cast-iron plow that he could follow all
+day on foot and turn over one, or at most, two acres.
+The new traction engines are so powerful that it is
+possible to plow sixty feet in width, and other machines
+have been invented to follow the tractor
+throughout the planting and growing seasons to the
+end of the harvest. The tractor is supplemented by
+numerous smaller powers. All of which combine to
+make it possible for one-third of the people to grow
+enough to feed the whole American family and to export
+a surplus to Europe.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time, the standard of living is very much
+higher than it was when practically everyone worked
+in the fields to grow and to harvest the food necessary
+to live.</p>
+
+<p>Farm machinery is expensive, but it is more expensive
+to do without. Farmers who make the most money<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+are the ones who use the greatest power and the best
+machinery. Farmers who have a hard time of it are
+the ones who use the old wheezy hand pump, the eight-foot
+harrow and the walking plow. The few horses
+they keep are small and the work worries them. The
+owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him.
+Worry is the commonest form of insanity.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_99" id="Fig_99"></a>
+<img src="images/illo073a.png" alt="Fig. 99" width="400" height="20" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 99.&mdash;Flail, the oldest threshing machine, still used for
+threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing. The staff is seven or
+eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and
+one-half inches thick in the middle, tapering to one and one-half
+inches at the ends. The staff and swiple are fastened together by
+rawhide thongs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_100" id="Fig_100"></a>
+<img src="images/illo073b.png" alt="Fig. 100" width="400" height="44" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 100.&mdash;Bucket Yoke. It fits around the neck and over the
+shoulders. Such human yokes have been used for ages to carry two
+buckets of water, milk or other liquids. The buckets or pails should
+nearly balance each other. They are steadied by hand to prevent
+slopping.</p></div>
+
+<p>At a famous plowing match held at Wheatland,
+Illinois, two interesting facts were brought out. Boys
+are not competing for furrow prizes and the walking
+plow has gone out of fashion. The plowing at the
+Wheatland plowing match was done by men with riding
+plows. Only one boy under eighteen years was
+ready to measure his ability against competition. The
+attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about
+three thousand, which shows that general interest in
+the old-fashioned plowing match is as keen as ever. A
+jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to
+draw a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time.
+It did its work well and without vulgar ostentation.
+Lack of sufficient land to keep it busy was the tractor&#8217;s<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+only disappointment, but it reached out a strong right
+arm and harrowed the furrows down fine, just to show
+that it &#8220;wasn&#8217;t mad at nobody.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_101" id="Fig_101"></a>
+<img src="images/illo074.png" alt="Fig. 101" width="400" height="402" />
+<p class="caption" style="margin: -100px -50px 30px 125px;">Figure 101.&mdash;Well Sweep. The length
+of the sweep is sufficient to lower the
+bucket into the water and to raise it to
+the coping at the top of the brickwork.
+The rock on the short end of the sweep
+is just heavy enough to balance the
+bucket full of water.</p></div>
+
+<p>Modern farm methods are continually demanding
+more power. Larger implements are being used and
+heavier horses are required to pull them. A great deal
+of farm work is done by engine power. Farm power is
+profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in
+manufacturing high-priced products. It may be
+profitable also in preventing waste by working up
+cheap materials into valuable by-products. The modern,
+well-managed farm is a factory and it should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+managed along progressive factory methods. In a
+good dairy stable hay, straw, grains and other feeds
+are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_102" id="Fig_102"></a>
+<img src="images/illo075a.png" alt="Fig. 102" width="400" height="209" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 102.&mdash;Wire Stretcher. A small block and tackle will
+stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence. By using two
+wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for
+splicing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_103" id="Fig_103"></a>
+<img src="images/illo075b.png" alt="Fig. 103" width="400" height="124" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 103.&mdash;Block and Tackle. The rope is threaded into two
+double blocks. There is a safety stop that holds the load at any
+height.</p></div>
+
+<p>Farming pays in proportion to the amount of work
+intelligently applied to this manner of increasing values.
+It is difficult to make a profit growing and selling
+grain. Grain may sell for more than the labor and
+seed, but it takes so much vitality from the land that
+depreciation of capital often is greater than the margin
+of apparent profit. When grains are grown and fed to
+live-stock on the farm, business methods demand better<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+buildings and more power, which means that the
+farmer is employing auxiliary machinery and other
+modern methods to enhance values.</p>
+
+<p>In other manufacturing establishments raw material
+is worked over into commercial products which
+bring several times the amount of money paid for the
+raw material.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_104" id="Fig_104"></a>
+<img src="images/illo076.png" alt="Fig. 104" width="400" height="267" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 104.&mdash;Farm Hoists. Two styles of farm elevating hoists
+are shown in this illustration. Two very different lifting jobs are
+also shown.</p></div>
+
+<p>The principle is the same on the farm except that
+when a farmer raises the raw material he sells it to
+himself at a profit. When he feeds it to live-stock and
+sells the live-stock he makes another profit. When the
+manure is properly handled and returned to the soil
+he is making another profit on a by-product.</p>
+
+<p>Farming carried on in this way is a complicated
+business which requires superior knowledge of business
+methods and principles. In order to conduct the business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+of farming profitably the labor problem has to be
+met. Good farm help is expensive. Poor farm help is
+more expensive. While farm machinery also is expensive,
+it is cheaper than hand labor when the farmer
+has sufficient work to justify the outlay. It is tiresome
+to have agricultural writers ding at us about the superior
+acre returns of German farms. German hand-made
+returns may be greater per acre, but one American
+farmhand, by the use of proper machinery, will
+produce more food than a whole German family.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_105" id="Fig_105"></a>
+<img src="images/illo077.png" alt="Fig. 105" width="400" height="260" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 105.&mdash;Two Powerful Winches. The one to the left is used
+for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land.
+The rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps
+or turns. The winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling
+tools or to hang a beef animal. The rope winds on the drum in two
+layers if necessary.</p></div>
+
+<h4>DOG CHURN</h4>
+
+<p>Even the dog works on some farms. A dog is a nuisance
+among dairy cattle, but he can be made to earn
+his salt at churning time. All mechanism in connection<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+with dog power must be light. It also is necessary
+to eliminate the friction as much as possible.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_106" id="Fig_106"></a>
+<img src="images/illo078.png" alt="Fig. 106" width="400" height="283" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 106.&mdash;Dog Churn Power. A wheel keyed to an iron shaft
+is placed at an angle as shown. The weight of the dog turns the
+wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt. It is
+necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like
+a stall over the wheel.</p></div>
+
+<p>The best way to make a dog power is to use a light
+wooden sulky wheel for the revolving turn table. Next
+best to the sulky wheel is a light buggy wheel. The
+wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is
+stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined
+at an angle of about fifteen degrees to give the necessary
+power. To steady the top of the shaft a light boxing
+is used, preferably a ball-bearing bicycle race to reduce
+friction. Power is conveyed to the churn by
+means of a grooved pulley on the top of the shaft. A
+small, soft rope or heavy string belt runs from this
+pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn.</p>
+
+<p>Dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately
+after the churning is finished. Dogs have been known
+to get on to the power wheel to call attention to their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+hungry condition. This calls to mind the necessity of
+arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off.
+When the wheel is running light, the dog cannot let go.</p>
+
+<p>A spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the
+wheel is the most satisfactory. The brake may be
+tripped and set against the tire automatically by a
+small lever and weight attached to the underside of
+the wheel. When the speed is too fast the weight
+swings out and sets the brake. When the speed slackens
+the weight drops back towards the center and releases
+the brake. When the speed is about right the
+weight swings between the two spring catches.</p>
+
+<h4>BULL TREADMILL</h4>
+
+<p>On dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure
+bred bull working a treadmill for exercise and to pump
+water. Sometimes he turns the cream-separator, but
+the motion is too unsteady for good results. Treadmills
+for this purpose are very simple. The mechanism
+turns a grooved pulley which propels a rope power
+conveyor. The rope belt may be carried across the
+yards in any direction and to almost any distance.
+Bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which
+carries an endless apron supported on rollers. The
+apron link chains pass around and turn two drumhead
+sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at
+the lower end. The sprocket-wheel drum shaft is
+geared to an auxiliary shaft which carries a grooved
+pulley. A rope belt power conveyor runs in this groove
+and carries power from the bull pen to the pump.</p>
+
+<p>Bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined
+lags, because a bull&#8217;s steps on the tread power are
+naturally uneven and irregular. This construction
+gives an even straight tread to the travel surface. To<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+prevent slipping, soft wooden strips are nailed onto the
+lags at the lower edges. Even incline tread blocks or
+lags are also recommended for horses that are not shod
+and for all animals with split hoofs. The traveling
+apron of the power is placed on an incline and the
+treads are carried around the two drums at the upper
+and lower ends of the frame by means of endless
+chains. There is a governor attachment which regulates
+the speed and prevents the machinery from &#8220;running
+away.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_107" id="Fig_107"></a>
+<img src="images/illo080.png" alt="Fig. 107" width="400" height="287" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 107.&mdash;Bull Tread Power. Treadmills have gone out of
+fashion. Too much friction was the cause, but a mill like this is
+valuable to exercise a pure bred bull. Some dairymen make him
+pump water.</p></div>
+
+<p>The simplest governor is made on the two-ball governor
+principle with weights on opposite levers. The
+governor is attached to two opposite spokes in the flywheel.
+As the speed increases the weights move outward
+because of their centrifugal force. This motion
+operates a brake lever to retard or stop the flywheel.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+When the machine stops an opposite weight rests
+against the flywheel until it starts in motion again, so
+the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released.
+This is necessary to get the animal on or off of the platform
+while it is at rest to avoid accidents. The usual
+incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power is
+wanted. This pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter
+of his own weight and it may be too severe for a heavy
+animal. The endless apron is an endless hill climb to
+the bull. Treadmills are not economical of power because
+there are so many bearings to generate friction.</p>
+
+<h4>WINDMILLS</h4>
+
+<p>Wind power is the cheapest power we have. A windmill
+properly proportioned to its work is a great help,
+especially when it is attached to a good pump for the
+purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank from
+which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes
+and for watering live-stock.</p>
+
+<p>You can have considerable patience with a windmill
+if you only depend upon it for pumping water, provided
+you have a tank that will hold a week&#8217;s supply to
+be drawn during a dry, hot time when every animal on
+the farm demands a double allowance of water. That
+is the time when a farmer hates to attach himself to
+the pump handle for the purpose of working up a
+hickory breeze. That also is the time when the wind
+neglects a fellow.</p>
+
+<p>A good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its
+rated capacity, which is the strongest argument for
+buying a mill larger than at first seems necessary. Some
+men have suffered at some time in their lives with the
+delusion that they could tinker with a poorly constructed
+windmill and make it earn its oil. They have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+never waked up to a full realization of their early delusion.
+It is a positive fact that all windmills are not
+lazy, deceitful nor wholly unreliable. When properly
+constructed, rightly mounted and kept in good repair,
+they are not prone to work in a crazy fashion when the
+tank is full and loaf when it is empty. There are
+thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on
+the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for
+five or ten years at a stretch, all the time working for
+nothing year after year without grumbling, except
+when compelled to run without oil. At such times the
+protest is loud and nerve racking.</p>
+
+<p>A good windmill with suitable derrick, pump and
+piping may cost $150. The yearly expense figures
+something like this:</p>
+
+<table summary="Table p. 84">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="left top padr3">Interest on investment at 6% per annum</td>
+<td class="center top padl1 padr1">$</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1">9.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr3">Depreciation 10%</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1">15.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr3">Oil</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padr3">Repairs</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1">3.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>making a total of $28, which is less than $2.50 per
+month for the work of elevating a constant supply of
+water for the house, stable and barnyard.</p>
+
+<h4>ONE-MULE PUMP</h4>
+
+<p>A home-made device that is much used on live-stock
+ranches in California is shown in the illustration.
+This simple mechanism is a practical means for converting
+circular mule motion into vertical reciprocating
+pump action. A solid post is set rather deep in the
+ground about twelve feet from the well. This post is
+the fulcrum support of the walking-beam. One end
+of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the
+well, where it connects with the pump shaft. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+other end of the walking-beam is operated by a pitman
+shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the
+ground. A round iron shaft similar to a horsepower
+tumbling rod about ten or twelve feet in length and
+one and a half inches in diameter is used to convey
+power and motion to the pitman shaft.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_108" id="Fig_108"></a>
+<img src="images/illo083.png" alt="Fig. 108" width="400" height="180" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 108.&mdash;Mule Pump. A practical home-made power to pump
+water for live-stock. It is used where the water-table is within
+20 feet of the surface of the ground. The drawing shows a post
+in the center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum.
+A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft.
+The other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a
+short post as shown at <i>B</i>. See also detail &#8220;<i>B</i>.&#8221;. The two plunger
+shafts are shown at <i>A</i> <i>A</i>. The mule is hitched to the round iron
+shaft near the traveling wheel by means of a round hook. As the
+mule walks around in a circle the shaft revolves and operates the
+crank <i>B</i>. There are side guys not shown in the drawing to keep the
+walking-beam in position.</p></div>
+
+<p>A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end
+of the tumbling rod. At the crank end is a babbitted
+boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down into the
+top of a short post set solidly into the ground, directly
+under the inner end of the walking-beam. This bolt
+permits the boxing to revolve with a swivel motion.
+Another swivel connects the upper end of the pitman
+shaft with the walking-beam. The whiffletree is attached
+to the tumbling rod by an iron hook. This hook
+is held in place by two iron collars fastened to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws. The
+mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a circle
+behind the mule turning the shaft which works the
+walking-beam and operates the pump. It would be
+difficult to design another horse or mule power so
+cheap and simple and effective. The mule grows wise
+after a while, so it is necessary to use a blindfold, or he
+will soldier on the job. With a little encouragement
+from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around and
+around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel
+after him.</p>
+
+<h4>HORSEPOWER</h4>
+
+<p>One horsepower is a force sufficient to lift 33,000
+pounds one foot high in one minute.</p>
+
+<p>The term &#8220;horsepower&#8221; in popular use years ago
+meant a collection of gear-wheels and long levers with
+eight or ten horses solemnly marching around in a circle
+with a man perched on a platform in the center in
+the capacity of umpire.</p>
+
+<p>This was the old threshing-machine horsepower. It
+was the first real success in pooling many different
+farm power units to concentrate the combined effort
+upon one important operation.</p>
+
+<p>Not many horses are capable of raising 33,000
+pounds one foot in one minute every minute for an
+hour or a day. Some horses are natural-born slackers
+with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own
+game. Some horses walk faster than others, also
+horses vary in size and capacity for work. But during
+a busy time each horse was counted as one horsepower,
+and they were only eight or ten in number. And it so
+developed that the threshing horsepower had limitations
+which the separator outgrew.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>The old threshing horsepower has been superseded
+by steam engines and gasoline and kerosene power, but
+horses are more important than ever.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_109" id="Fig_109"></a>
+<img src="images/illo085.png" alt="Fig. 109" width="400" height="278" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 109.&mdash;Horse Power, showing the manner of attaching the
+braced lever to the bull wheel.</p></div>
+
+<p>Farm horses are larger and more powerful; they are
+better kept, better trained, and hitched to better machinery,
+because it pays. One man drives three 1,600-pound
+draft horses as fast as he used to drive two
+1,000-pound general-purpose horses. The three drafters
+make play of a heavy load, while the two light
+horses worry themselves poor and accomplish little.
+Modern farm machinery is heavier, it cuts wider and
+digs deeper and does more thorough work. Modern
+farm requirements go scientifically into the proper cultivation
+and preparation of soil to increase fertility.
+Old methods used up fertility until the land refused
+to produce profitably.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>Although the old familiar horsepower has been
+greatly outclassed, it has not been discarded. There
+are many small horsepowers in use for elevating grain,
+baling hay, cutting straw for feed and bedding, grinding
+feed and other light work where engine power is
+not available.</p>
+
+<h4>WATER-POWER</h4>
+
+<p>Water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of
+stationary farm power, when a steady stream of water
+may be harnessed to a good water-wheel. It is not a
+difficult engineering feat to throw a dam across a small
+stream and take the water out into a penstock to supply
+water to a turbine water-wheel. In the first place
+it is necessary to measure the flow of water to determine
+the size of water-wheel which may be used to advantage.
+In connection with the flow of water it is also
+important to know the fall. Water is measured by
+what is termed a &#8220;weir.&#8221; It is easily made by cutting
+an oblong notch in a plank placed across the stream, as
+a temporary dam which raises the water a few inches
+to get a steady, even flow of water through the notch
+so that calculations may be made in miner&#8217;s inches.
+The term &#8220;miner&#8217;s inch&#8221; is not accurate, but it comes
+near enough for practical purposes. Measuring the
+volume of water should be done during a dry time in
+summer.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of the stream is easily measured by means
+of a carpenter&#8217;s level and a stake. The stake is driven
+into the ground at a point downstream where water
+may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace established
+to the best advantage. Sighting over the level to a
+mark on the stake will show the amount of fall. When
+a manufacturer of water-wheels has the amount of water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+and the fall, he can estimate the size and character
+of wheel to supply. The penstock may be vertical or
+placed on a slant. A galvanized pipe sufficient to carry
+the necessary amount of water may be laid along the
+bank, but it should be thoroughly well supported because
+a pipe full of water is heavy, and settling is
+likely to break a joint.</p>
+
+<p>Galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not necessarily
+expensive. It may be made at any tin shop
+and put together on the ground in sections. The only
+difficult part about it is soldering the under side of
+the joints, but generally it may be rolled a little to one
+side until the bottom of the seam is reached.</p>
+
+<p>The most satisfactory way to carry power from the
+water-wheel to the farm buildings is by means of electricity.
+The dynamo may be coupled to the water-wheel
+and wires carried any required distance.</p>
+
+<p>The work of installing electric power machinery is
+more a question of detail than mechanics or electrical
+engineering. The different appliances are bought from
+the manufacturer and placed where they are needed.
+It is principally a question of expense and quantity of
+electricity needed or developed. If the current is used
+for power, then a motor is connected with the dynamo
+and current from the dynamo drives the motor. A
+dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft
+at the source of power and the motor may be placed in
+the power-house or any of the other buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of farm waterworks depends principally
+on the amount of power developed. Small machinery
+may be had for a few hundred dollars, but large, powerful
+machinery is expensive. If the stream is large
+and considerable power is going to waste it might pay
+to put in a larger plant and sell current to the neighbors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+for electric lighting and for power purposes.
+Standard machinery is manufactured for just such
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>The question of harnessing a stream on your own
+land when you control both banks is a simple business
+proposition. If anyone else can set up a plausible plea
+of riparian rights, flood damage, interstate complications
+or interference with navigation, it then becomes
+a question of litigation to be decided by some succeeding
+generation.</p>
+
+<h4>STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE</h4>
+
+<p>Farm engines usually are of two different types,
+steam engines and gasoline or oil engines. Steam stationary
+engines are used on dairy farms because steam
+is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and
+sanitary. The boiler that furnishes power to run the
+engine also supplies steam to heat water and steam for
+sterilizing bottles, cans and other utensils.</p>
+
+<p>For some unaccountable reason steam engines are
+more reliable than gasoline engines. At the same time
+they require more attention, that is, the boilers do.
+Steam engines have been known to perform their tasks
+year after year without balking and without repairs
+or attention of any kind except to feed steam and oil
+into the necessary parts, and occasionally repack the
+stuffing boxes.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, boilers require superintendence
+to feed them with both fuel and water. The amount
+of time varies greatly. If the boiler is very much
+larger than the engine, that is, if the boiler is big
+enough to furnish steam for two such engines, it will
+furnish steam for one engine and only half try. This
+means that the fireman can raise 40 or 60 pounds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+steam and attend to his other work around the dairy
+or barn.</p>
+
+<p>Where steam boilers are required for heating water
+and furnishing steam to scald cans and wash bottles,
+the boiler should be several horsepower larger than the
+engine requirements. There is no objection to this
+except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller
+one, and that more steam is generated than is actually
+required to run the engine. The kind of work required
+of a boiler and engine must determine the size
+and general character of the installation.</p>
+
+<p>Portable boilers and engines are not quite so satisfactory
+as stationary, but there are a great many portable
+outfits that give good satisfaction, and there is
+the advantage of moving them to the different parts of
+the farm when power is required for certain purposes.</p>
+
+<h4>SMALL GASOLINE ENGINES</h4>
+
+<p>A gasoline engine of 2<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> horsepower is the most useful
+size for a general purpose farm engine. It is convenient
+to run the pump, washing-machine, fanning-mill,
+cream-separator, grindstone, and other similar
+farm chores that have heretofore always been done by
+human muscle. A small engine may be placed on a
+low-down truck and moved from one building to another
+by hand. One drive belt 20 or 30 feet long, making
+a double belt reach of 12 or 15 feet, will answer
+for each setting.</p>
+
+<p>The engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of
+any stationary machine is all that is necessary. When
+the truck is once placed in proper position the wheels
+may be blocked by a casting of concrete molded into a
+depression in the ground in front and behind each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+wheel. These blocks are permanent so that the truck
+may be pulled to the same spot each time.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_110" id="Fig_110"></a>
+<img src="images/illo090.png" alt="Fig. 110" width="400" height="285" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 110.&mdash;Kerosene Farm Engine. This is a very compact type
+of engine with heavy flywheels. A longer base might sit steadier
+on a wagon, but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives
+good service.</p></div>
+
+<p>A gasoline engine for farm use is expected to run
+by the hour without attention. For this reason it
+should have a good, reliable hit and miss governor to
+regulate the speed, as this type is the most economical
+in fuel. It should have a magneto in addition to a
+six-cell dry battery. It should be equipped with an
+impulse starter, a device that eliminates all starting
+troubles. The engine should be perfectly balanced so
+as to insure smooth running, which adds materially to
+the life of the engine. With a good, solid pump jack,
+a 2<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> horsepower engine will pump water until the
+tank is full, whether it requires one hour or half a
+day.</p>
+
+<p>It is easily moved to the dairy house to run the
+separator. As the cream-separator chore comes along<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+regularly every night and every morning, the engine
+and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy
+house more than any other place. If the dairy house
+is too small to let the engine in, then an addition is
+necessary, for the engine must be kept under cover.
+The engine house should have some artistic pretensions
+and a coat of paint.</p>
+
+<h4>KEROSENE PORTABLE ENGINES</h4>
+
+<p>The kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle
+governor type in order to maintain approximately uniform
+high temperature at all times, so essential to the
+proper combustion of kerosene fuel. Therefore, a kerosene
+engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided.
+However, there are certain classes of work where a
+throttle governor engine is at a decided disadvantage,
+such as sawing wood, because a throttle governor engine
+will not go from light load to full load as quickly
+as will a hit-and-miss type, and consequently chokes
+down much easier, causing considerable loss of time.</p>
+
+<p>A general purpose portable kerosene engine is admirably
+suited to all work requiring considerable horsepower
+and long hours of service with a fairly steady
+load, such as tractor work, threshing, custom feed
+grinding, irrigating and silo filling. There will be a
+considerable saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine
+if the engine will really run with kerosene, or other
+low-priced fuel, without being mixed with gasoline.</p>
+
+<p>In choosing a kerosene engine, particular attention
+should be paid to whether or not the engine can be run
+on all loads without smoking. Unless this can be done,
+liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will cause excessive
+wear on the piston and rings. A good kerosene
+engine should show as clean an exhaust as when operating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+on gasoline and should develop approximately as
+much horsepower. Another feature is harmonizing the
+fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not
+counteract the effects of the other.</p>
+
+<h4>PORTABLE FARM ENGINE AND TRUCK</h4>
+
+<p>A convenient arrangement for truck and portable
+power for spraying, sawing wood and irrigation pumping,
+is shown in the accompanying illustration. The
+truck is low down, which keeps the machinery within
+reach. The wheels are well braced, which tends to
+hold the outfit steady when the engine is running. The
+saw table is detachable. When removed, the spraying
+tank bolts on to the same truck frame; also the elevated
+table with the railing around it, where the men stand
+to spray large apple trees, is bolted onto the wagon
+bed.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_111" id="Fig_111"></a>
+<img src="images/illo092.png" alt="Fig. 111" width="500" height="219" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 111.&mdash;Portable Farm Engine. This engine is permanently
+mounted on a low wheel truck wagon. The saw frame is detachable
+and the same truck is used for spraying and other work.</p></div>
+
+<p>Spraying never was properly done until the powerful
+engine and high pressure tanks were invented.
+Spraying to be effective, should be fine as mist, which
+requires a pressure of 150 pounds. There may be a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>
+number of attachments to a spraying outfit of this
+kind. A pipe suspended under the frame with a nozzle
+for each row is used to spray potatoes, strawberry
+vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows.
+When not in use as a portable engine it is blocked
+firmly into place to run the regular stationary farm
+machinery.</p>
+
+<h4>HYDRAULIC RAM</h4>
+
+<p>The hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power
+from the momentum of running water. A ram consists
+of a pipe of large diameter, an air chamber and another
+pipe of small diameter, all connected by means of
+valves to encourage the flow of water in two different
+directions. A supply of running water with a fall of
+at least two feet is run through a pipe several inches
+in diameter reaching from above the dam to the hydraulic
+ram, where part of the flow enters the air
+chamber of the ram. Near the foot of the large pipe,
+or at what might be called the tailrace, is a peculiarly
+constructed valve that closes when running water
+starts to pass through it. When the large valve closes
+the water stops suddenly, which causes a back-pressure
+sufficient to lift a check-valve to admit a certain
+amount of water from the large supply pipe into the
+air-chamber of the ram.</p>
+
+<p>After the flow of water is checked, the foot-valve
+drops of its own weight, which again starts the flow
+of water through the large pipe, and the process is
+repeated a thousand or a million times, each time forcing
+a little water through the check-valve into the air
+chamber of the ram. The water is continually being
+forced out into the small delivery pipe in a constant
+stream because of the steady pressure of the imprisoned
+air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+This imprisoned air compresses after each kick and expands
+between kicks in a manner intended to force a
+more or less steady flow of water through the small
+pipe. The air pressure is maintained by means of a
+small valve that permits a little air to suck in with the
+supply of water.</p>
+
+<div class="figc600"><a name="Fig_112" id="Fig_112"></a>
+<img src="images/illo094.png" alt="Fig. 112" width="600" height="386" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 112.&mdash;Hydraulic Ram. The upper drawing shows how to
+install the ram. The lower drawing is a detail section through the
+center of the ram. Water flows downhill through the supply pipe.
+The intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water
+through another valve into the air-chamber. Air pressure forces
+this water out through delivery pipe. Another valve spills the waste
+water over into the tailrace. An automatic air-valve intermittently
+admits air into the air-chamber.</p></div>
+
+<p>Water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this
+means, sometimes to considerable distance. The size
+of the ram and its power to lift water depends upon
+the amount of water at the spring and the number of
+feet of fall. In laying the small pipe, it should be
+placed well down under ground to keep it cool in summer
+and to bury it beyond the reach of winter frost.
+At the upper end where the water is delivered a storage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+tank with an overflow is necessary, so the water
+can run away when not being drawn for use. A constant
+supply through a ram demands a constant delivery.
+It is necessary to guard the water intake at the
+dam. A fence protection around the supply pool to
+keep live-stock or wild animals out is the first measure
+of precaution. A fine screen surrounding the upper
+end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is necessary
+to keep small trash from interfering with the
+valves.</p>
+
+<h4>THE FARM TRACTOR</h4>
+
+<p>Farm tractors are becoming practical. Most theories
+have had a try out, the junk pile has received
+many failures and the fittest are about to survive.
+Now, if the manufacturers will standardize the rating
+and the important parts and improve their selling organizations
+the whole nation will profit. The successful
+tractors usually have vertical engines with four
+cylinders. They are likely to have straight spur transmission
+gears, and a straight spur or chain drive, all
+carefully protected from dust. And they will have
+considerable surface bearing to avoid packing the soil.
+Some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive
+wheels&mdash;a principle that utilizes weight to increase
+traction. Other tractors exert a great deal of energy
+in forcing a small, narrow front steering-wheel through
+the soft ground. Any farmer who has pushed a loaded
+wheelbarrow knows what that means. Some kerosene
+tractors require a large percentage of gasoline. The
+driver may be as much to blame as the engine. But
+it should be corrected.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_113" id="Fig_113"></a>
+<img src="images/illo096.png" alt="Fig. 113" width="400" height="503" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 113.&mdash;Tractor Transmission Gear. Spur gears are the most
+satisfactory for heavy work.</p></div>
+
+<p>Manufacturers should do more educational work and
+talk less about the wonderfully marvelous and marvelously
+wonderful. Salesmen should study mechanics<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+instead of oratory. Tractor efficiency should be rated
+practically instead of theoretically. The few actual
+reports of performance have emanated from tests with
+new machines in the hands of trained demonstrators.
+Manufacturers include belt power work among the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+virtues of farm tractors, and they enumerate many
+light jobs, such as running a cream-separator, sawing
+wood, pumping water and turning the fanning-mill.
+Well, a farm tractor can do such work&mdash;yes. So can
+an elephant push a baby carriage. If manufacturers
+would devise a practical means of using electricity as
+an intermediary, and explain to farmers how a day&#8217;s
+energy may be stored in practical working batteries to
+be paid out in a week, then we could understand why
+we should run a 20 horsepower engine to operate a
+cream-separator one hour at night and another hour in
+the morning.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_114" id="Fig_114"></a>
+<img src="images/illo097.png" alt="Fig. 114" width="400" height="359" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 114.&mdash;Straight Transmission Gear, forward and chain drive
+reverse, for traction engine.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h3>DRIVEN MACHINES</h3>
+
+<h4>FARM WATERWORKS</h4>
+
+<p>Every farm has its own water supply. Some are
+very simple, others are quite elaborate. It is both
+possible and practical for a farmer to have his own
+tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city.
+When good water is abundant within 75 feet of the
+surface of the ground the farm supply may be had
+cheaper and better than the city. Even deep well
+pumping is practical with good machinery rightly installed.
+Farm waterworks should serve the house and
+the watering troughs under a pressure of at least 40
+pounds at the ground level. The system should also
+include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigating
+the garden. If strawberries or other intensive
+money crops are grown for market there should be
+sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in time of
+drouth. These different uses should all be credited
+to the farm waterworks system pro rata, according to
+the amounts used by the different departments of the
+farm. The books would then prove that the luxury of
+hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less
+than the average city family pays.</p>
+
+<p><i>Three Systems of Water Storage.</i>&mdash;The first plan
+adopted for supplying water under pressure on farms
+was the overhead tank. The water was lifted up into
+the tank by a windmill and force pump. Because wind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+power proved rather uncertain farmers adopted the
+gasoline engine, usually a two horsepower engine.</p>
+
+<p>The second water storage plan was the air-tight steel
+water-tank to be placed in the cellar or in a pit underground.
+The same pump and power supplies the water
+for this system, but it also requires an air-pump to supply
+pressure to force the water out of the tank.</p>
+
+<p>The third plan forces the water out of the well by air
+pressure, as it is needed for use. No water pump is
+required in this system; the air-compressor takes its
+place.</p>
+
+<div class="figc350"><a name="Fig_115" id="Fig_115"></a>
+<img src="images/illo100.png" alt="Fig. 115" width="350" height="446" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 115.&mdash;The Farm Pump. It superseded the iron-bound
+bucket, the slimy old bucket, the malaria-lined bucket that hung
+in the well, but it wore out the women. Oil was never wasted on its
+creaking joints. Later it was fitted with a stuffing-box and an air-chamber,
+and the plunger was hitched to the windmill.<br />
+To the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers. The upper
+digger is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom
+of a hole dug by the lower digger.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Suction-Pumps.</i>&mdash;The word suction, when applied to
+pumps, is a misnomer. The principle upon which such
+pumps work is this: The pump piston drives the air
+out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum.
+The pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds
+per square inch of surface. This pressure forces sufficient
+water up through the so-called suction pipe to fill
+the vacuum in the cylinder. The water is held in the
+cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves. As the piston
+again descends into the cylinder it plunges into water
+instead of air. A foot-valve in the bottom end of the
+hollow piston opens while going down and closes to
+hold and lift the water as the piston rises. Water
+from the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to follow
+the piston and the pump continues to lift water so
+long as the joints remain air-tight. The size of piston
+and length of stroke depend on the volume of water
+required, the height to which it must be lifted and the
+power available. A small power and a small cylinder
+will lift a small quantity of water to a considerable
+height. But increasing the volume of water requires a
+larger pump and a great increase in the power to operate
+it. The size of the delivery pipe has a good deal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+to do with the flow of water. When water is forced
+through a small pipe at considerable velocity, there is a
+good deal of friction. Often the amount of water delivered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+is reduced because the discharge pipe is too
+small. Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its
+capacity four times. Square turns in the discharge
+pipe are obstructions; either the pipe must be larger
+or there will be a diminished flow of water. Some
+pump makers are particular to furnish easy round
+bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows. A
+great many pumps are working under unnecessary
+handicaps, simply because either the supply pipe or
+discharge pipe is not in proportion to the capacity of
+the pump, or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_116" id="Fig_116"></a>
+<img src="images/illo101.png" alt="Fig. 116" width="400" height="205" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 116.&mdash;Hand Force-Pump. Showing two ways of attaching
+wooden handles to hand force-pumps.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_117" id="Fig_117"></a>
+<img src="images/illo102a.png" alt="Fig. 117" width="400" height="376" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 117.&mdash;Rotary Pump. Twin water-chamber rotary pumps
+take water through the bottom and divide the supply, carrying half
+of the stream around to the left and the other half to the right.
+The two streams meet and are discharged at the top.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_118" id="Fig_118"></a>
+<img src="images/illo102b.png" alt="Fig. 118" width="350" height="278" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 118.&mdash;Section of Rotary Pump.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Rotary Pumps.</i>&mdash;A twin-chamber rotary pump admits
+water at the bottom of the chamber and forces it
+out through the top. Intermeshing cogs and rotary
+cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom, as
+shown by the arrows in <a href="#Fig_118">Figure 118</a>. The stream of
+water is divided by the cams, as it enters the supply
+pipe at the bottom, and half of the water is carried
+each way around the outsides of the double chamber.
+These streams of water meet at the top of the chamber,
+where they unite to fill the discharge pipe. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+pumps operate without air-chambers and supply water
+in a continuous stream. They may be speeded up to
+throw water under high pressure for fire fighting, but
+for economy in ordinary use the speed is kept down to
+200 revolutions, or thereabout. Rotary pumps are also
+made with one single water chamber cylinder. The
+pump head, or shaft, is placed a little off center. A
+double end cam moves the water. Both ends of the
+cam fit against the bore of the cylinder. It works
+loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the
+pump head. As the shaft revolves the eccentric motion
+of the double cam changes the sizes of the water-pockets.
+The pockets are largest at the intake and smallest
+at the discharge. Rotary pumps are comparatively
+cheap, as regards first cost, but they are not economical
+of power. In places where the water-table is near
+the surface of the ground they will throw water in a
+very satisfactory manner. But they are more used in
+refineries and factories for special work, such as pumping
+oil and other heavy liquids.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centrifugal Pumps.</i>&mdash;The invention and improvement
+of modern centrifugal pumps has made the lifting
+of water in large quantities possible. These pumps
+are constructed on the turbine principle. Water is
+lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel revolving
+under high speed. Water is admitted at the
+center and discharged at the outside of the casing.
+Centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from
+twenty to sixty feet. Manufacturers claim that farmers
+can afford to lift irrigation water sixty feet with a
+centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene engine.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations show the principle upon which the
+pump works and the most approved way of setting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+pumps and engines. Centrifugal pumps usually are
+set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table. While
+these pumps have a certain amount of suction, it is
+found that short supply pipes are much more efficient.
+Where water is found in abundance within from 15 to
+30 feet of the surface, and the wells may be so constructed
+that the pull-down, or the lowering of the
+water while pumping is not excessive, then it is possible
+to lift water profitably to irrigate crops in the
+humid sections. Irrigation in such cases, in the East, is
+more in the nature of insurance against drouth. Valuable
+crops, such as potatoes and strawberries, may be
+made to yield double, or better, by supplying plenty
+of moisture at the critical time in crop development.
+It is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely
+to develop in the near future.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_119" id="Fig_119"></a>
+<img src="images/illo104.png" alt="Fig. 119" width="400" height="332" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 119.&mdash;Centrifugal Pump. This style of pump is used in
+many places for irrigation. It runs at high speed, which varies
+according to the size of the pump. It takes water at the center and
+discharges it at the outside of the casing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_120" id="Fig_120"></a>
+<img src="images/illo105.png" alt="Fig. 120" width="400" height="244" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 120.&mdash;Air Pressure Pump. Pumping water by air pressure
+requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure of 100
+pounds per square inch. This illustration shows the pressure tank,
+engine, air-compressor, well and submerged pump.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span><i>Air Pressure Pump.</i>&mdash;Instead of pumping water out
+of the well some farmers pump air into the well to force
+the water out. A double compartment cylindrical tank
+is placed in the water in the well. These tanks are connected
+with the farm water distributing system to be
+carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables.
+Air under a pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds per
+square inch is stored in a steel tank above ground.
+Small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with
+the air-chamber of the air-water tank in the well. A
+peculiar automatic valve regulates the air so that it
+enters the compartment that is filled, or partly filled,
+with water, and escapes from the empty one so the two
+compartments work together alternately. That is, the
+second chamber fills with water, while the first chamber
+is being drawn upon. Then the first chamber
+fills while the second is being emptied. This system<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter,
+and to a depth of 140 feet. It might be made to work
+at a greater depth, but it seems hardly practical to
+do so for the reason that, after allowing for friction in
+the pipes, 100 pounds of air pressure is necessary to
+lift water 150 feet. An air tank of considerable size is
+needed to provide storage for sufficient air to operate
+the system without attention for several days. Careful
+engineering figures are necessary to account for
+the different depths of farm wells, and the various
+amounts of water and power required. For instance:
+The air tank already contains 1,000 gallons of air at
+atmospheric pressure&mdash;then: Forcing 1,000 gallons of
+atmospheric air into a 1,000-gallon tank will give a
+working pressure of 15 pounds per square inch; 2,000
+gallons, 30 pounds; 3,000 gallons, 45 pounds, and so on.
+Therefore, a pressure of 100 pounds in a 1,000-gallon
+tank (42 inches by 14 feet) would require 6,600 gallons
+of free atmosphere, in addition to the original 1,000
+gallons, and the tank would then contain 1,000 gallons
+of compressed air under a working pressure of 100
+pounds per square inch. A one cylinder compressor
+6 inches by 6 inches, operating at a speed of 200 R.P.M.
+would fill this tank to a working pressure of 100
+pounds in about 50 minutes. One gallon of air will
+deliver one gallon of water at the faucet. But the
+air must have the same pressure as the water, and there
+must be no friction. Thus, one gallon of air under a
+working pressure of forty-five pounds, will, theoretically,
+deliver one gallon of water to a height of 100 feet.
+But it takes three gallons of free air to make one gallon
+of compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure.
+If the lift is 100 feet, then 1,000 gallons of air under a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+pressure of forty-five pounds will theoretically deliver
+1,000 gallons of water. Practically, the air tank would
+have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to
+secure the 1,000 gallons of water before losing the
+elasticity of the compressed air. If one thousand gallons
+of water is needed on the farm every day, then
+the air pump would have to work about one hour each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+morning. This may not be less expensive than pumping
+the water directly, but it offers the advantage of
+water fresh from the well. Pure air pumped into the
+well tends to keep the water from becoming stale.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_121" id="Fig_121"></a>
+<img src="images/illo107.png" alt="Fig. 121" width="400" height="444" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 121.&mdash;(1) Single-Gear Pump Jack. This type of jack is
+used for wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. (2) Double-Gear, or
+Multiple-Gear Pump Jack. This is a rather powerful jack designed
+for deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_122" id="Fig_122"></a>
+<img src="images/illo108a.png" alt="Fig. 122" width="400" height="290" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 122.&mdash;Post Pump Jack. This arrangement is used in factories
+when floor space is valuable. The wide-face driving-pulley is
+shown to the left.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_123" id="Fig_123"></a>
+<img src="images/illo108b.png" alt="Fig. 123" width="500" height="211" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 123.&mdash;Three Jacks for Different Purposes. At the left is a
+reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right or
+left. The little jack in the center is for light work at high belt
+speed. To the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds
+such as hoisting or elevating grain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_124" id="Fig_124"></a>
+<img src="images/illo109a.png" alt="Fig. 124" width="400" height="266" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 124.&mdash;Speed Jack, for reducing speed between engine and
+tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and the
+driven machine.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_125" id="Fig_125"></a>
+<img src="images/illo109b.png" alt="Fig. 125" width="400" height="190" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 125.&mdash;The Speed Jack on the left is used either to reduce
+or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion. The
+Speed Jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling
+rod or reverse. It transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod
+speed, or vice versa.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span><i>Pump Jacks and Speed Jacks.</i>&mdash;Farm pumps and
+speed-reducing jacks are partners in farm pumping.
+Force-pumps should not run faster than forty strokes
+per minute. Considerable power is required to move
+the piston when the water is drawn from a deep well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+and forced into an overhead tank. Jacks are manufactured
+which bolt directly to the pump, and there are
+pumps and jacks built together. A pump jack should
+have good, solid gearing to reduce the speed. Spur-gearing
+is the most satisfactory. Bevel-gears are wasteful
+of power when worked under heavy loads. Power
+to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least
+twelve inches in diameter with a four-inch face when
+belting is used. If a rope power conveyor is used,
+then pulleys of larger diameters are required to convey
+the same amount of power.</p>
+
+<p>Only general terms may be used in describing the
+farm pump, because the conditions differ in each case.
+Generally speaking, farmers fail to appreciate the
+amount of power used, and they are more than likely
+to buy a jack that is too light. Light machinery may
+do the work, but it goes to pieces quicker, while a heavy
+jack with solid connections will operate the pump year
+in and year out without making trouble. For increasing
+or reducing either speed or power some kind
+of jack is needed. All farm machines have their best
+speed. A certain number of revolutions per minute
+will accomplish more and do better work than any
+other speed. To apply power to advantage speed jacks
+have been invented to adjust the inaccuracies between
+driver and driven.</p>
+
+<h4>IRRIGATION BY PUMPING</h4>
+
+<p>The annual rainfall in the United States varies in
+different parts of the country from a few inches to a
+few feet. Under natural conditions some soils get too
+much moisture and some too little. Irrigation is employed
+to supply the deficiency and drainage, either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+natural or artificial, carries off the excess. Irrigation
+and drainage belong together. Irrigation fills the soil
+with moisture and drainage empties it. Thus, a condition
+is established that supplies valuable farm plants
+with both air and moisture. In the drier portions of
+the United States, nothing of value will grow without
+irrigation. In the so-called humid districts deficiency
+of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield and
+destroys the profit. The value of irrigation has been
+demonstrated in the West, and the practice is working
+eastward.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_126" id="Fig_126"></a>
+<img src="images/illo111.png" alt="Fig. 126" width="400" height="321" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 126.&mdash;Centrifugal Pump Setting. When used for irrigation,
+centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as
+practical.</p></div>
+
+<p>Irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity. A
+rainy season is a bountiful one. Irrigation supplies
+the bounty without encouraging destructive fungus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+diseases. Where water is abundant within easy reach,
+pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical.
+Improvements in pumps in recent years have increased
+their capacity and insured much greater reliability.
+A centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down
+to 75 feet; beyond this depth the necessity of installing
+more expensive machinery places the business of pumping
+for irrigation on a different plane. A centrifugal
+pump will throw more water with less machinery than
+any other device, but like all other mechanical inventions,
+it has its limitations. In figuring economical
+pumping, the minimum quantity should be at least 100
+gallons per minute, because time is an object, and irrigation,
+if done at all, should cover an area sufficient to
+bring substantial returns. Centrifugal pumps should
+be placed near the surface of the water in the well.
+For this reason, a large, dry well is dug down to
+the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly
+bolted to a concrete foundation built on the bottom of
+this well. A supply pipe may be extended any depth
+below the pump, but the standing water surface in the
+well should reach within a few feet of the pump. The
+pump and supply must be so well balanced against
+each other that the pull-down from pumping will not
+lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet
+below the pump. The nearer the ground water is to
+the pump the better.</p>
+
+<p>The water well below the pump may be bored, or a
+perforated well pipe may be driven; or several well
+points may be connected. The kind of well must depend
+upon the condition of the earth and the nature
+of the water supply. Driven wells are more successful
+when water is found in a stratum of coarse gravel.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Before buying irrigation machinery, it is a good
+plan to test the water supply by temporary means.
+Any good farm pump may be hitched to a gasoline engine
+to determine if the water supply is lasting or not.
+Permanent pumping machinery should deliver the water
+on high ground. A main irrigation ditch may be
+run across the upper end of the field. This ditch
+should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped
+at convenient places to run through the corrugations to
+reach the roots of the plants to be benefited. There are
+different systems of irrigation designed to fit different
+soils. Corrugations are the cheapest and the most
+satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the
+water to soak into the soil sideways, as well as to sink
+down. The water should penetrate the soil on both
+sides of the corrugations for distances of several inches.
+Corrugations should be straight and true and just far
+enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across
+and meet between. Some soils will wash or gully out
+if the fall is too rapid. In such cases it may be necessary
+to terrace the land by following the natural contour
+around the ridges so the water may flow gently.
+Where the fall is very slight, that is, where the ground
+is so nearly level that it slopes away less than six inches
+in a hundred feet, it becomes necessary to prepare the
+land by building checks and borders to confine the
+water for a certain length of time. Then it is let out
+into the next check. In the check and border system
+the check bank on the lower side has an opening which
+is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam.
+When the canvas is lifted the water flows through and
+fills the next check. This system is more expensive,
+and it requires more knowledge of irrigation to get it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+started, and it is not likely to prove satisfactory in the
+East.</p>
+
+<p>For fruits and vegetables, what is known as the furrow
+system of irrigation is the most practical. An orchard
+is irrigated by plowing furrows on each side of
+each row of trees. The water is turned into these furrows
+and it runs across the orchard like so many little
+rivulets. Potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by
+running water through between the rows after the potatoes
+have been ridged by a double shovel-plow. This
+plan also works well with strawberries. After the land
+is prepared for irrigation, the expense of supplying
+water to a fruit orchard, strawberry patch or potato
+field is very little compared with the increase in yield.
+In fact, there are seasons when one irrigation will save
+the crop and produce an abundant yield, when otherwise
+it would have been almost a total loss.</p>
+
+<p><i>Overhead Spray Irrigation.</i>&mdash;The most satisfactory
+garden irrigation is the overhead spray system. Posts
+are set ten feet apart in rows 50 feet apart. Water
+pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely
+in position by large staples. These water pipes are
+perforated by drilling a line of small holes about three
+feet apart in a straight line along one side of the pipe.
+The holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are
+screwed in. The overhead pipes are connected with
+standpipes at the highest place, generally at the ends
+of the rows. The pipe-lines are loosely coupled to the
+standpipes to permit them to roll partly around to direct
+the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_127" id="Fig_127"></a>
+<img src="images/illo115.png" alt="Fig. 127" width="400" height="409" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 127.&mdash;Overhead Irrigation. Diagram showing the arrangement
+of pipes for irrigating one acre of land. The pipes are supported
+on posts six feet high.</p></div>
+
+<p>Six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or
+spray twenty-five feet, which is far enough to meet the
+spray from the next row, so the ground will be completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+covered. To do this the pipes are rolled from
+one side to the other, through a 90 degree arc to throw
+the spray on both sides. The pipes usually are laid
+with a grade which follows down the slope of the land.
+A fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient. Water is always
+admitted at the upper end of each pipe-line to flow
+down by gravity, assisted by tank pressure. A pressure
+of about forty pounds is needed to produce a fine
+spray, and to send it across to meet the opposite jets.
+The little brass nozzles are drilled with about a one-eighth
+inch hollow. But the jet opening is small,
+about No. 20 W. G. This gives a wire-drawn stream
+that quickly vaporizes when it meets the resistance of
+the atmosphere. When properly installed a fine misty
+rain is created, which quickly takes the same temperature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+as the air, and settles so gently that the most
+delicate plants are not injured.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quantity of Water to Use.</i>&mdash;Good judgment is necessary
+in applying water to crops in regard to quantity,
+as well as the time of making application. Generally
+speaking, it is better to wait until the crop really needs
+moisture. When the pump is started give the crop
+plenty with the expectation that one irrigation will be
+sufficient. Much depends upon the amount of moisture
+in the soil; also the kind of crop and weather conditions
+enter into the problem. On sandy land that is
+very dry where drainage is good, water may be permitted
+to run in the corrugations for several days until
+the ground is thoroughly soaked. When potatoes
+are forming, or clover is putting down its big root system,
+a great deal of water is needed. Irrigation sufficient
+to make two inches of rainfall may be used to
+advantage for such crops under ordinary farming conditions.
+It is necessary after each irrigation to break
+the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation.
+This is just as important after irrigation as it is after
+a rain shower. Also any little pockets that hold water
+must be carefully drained out, otherwise the crop will
+be injured by standing water. We are not supposed
+to have such pockets on land that has been prepared
+for irrigation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kind of Crops to Irrigate.</i>&mdash;Wheat, oats, barley, etc.,
+may be helped with one irrigation from imminent failure
+to a wealth of production. But these rainfall
+grain crops do not come under the general classification
+that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond
+his diversity plans for producing considerable variety.
+Fruits, roots, clover, alfalfa, vegetables and Indian
+corn are money crops under irrigation. Certain seed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+crops yield splendidly when watered. An apple orchard
+properly cared for and irrigated just at the right
+time will pay from five hundred to a thousand dollars
+per acre. Small fruits are just as valuable. These
+successes account for the high prices of irrigated land.
+In the East and in the great Middle West, valuable
+crops are cut short or ruined by drouth when the fruit
+or corn is forming. It makes no difference how much
+rain comes along at other times in the year, if the roots
+cannot find moisture at the critical time, the yield is
+reduced often below the profit of raising and harvesting
+the crop. Strawberry blossoms shrivel and die
+in the blooming when rain fails. Irrigation is better
+than rain for strawberries. Strawberries under irrigation
+may be made to yield more bushels than potatoes
+under humid conditions. One hundred bushels of
+strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale, but it is
+possible on rich land under irrigation.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of pumping for irrigation, where the well
+and machinery is used for no other purpose, must be
+charged up to the crop. The items of expense are interest
+on the first cost of the pumping machinery, depreciation,
+upkeep and running expenses. On Eastern
+farms, however, where diversified farming is the
+business, this expense may be divided among the different
+lines of work. Where live-stock is kept, it is
+necessary to have a good, reliable water supply for
+the animals. A reservoir on high ground so water may
+be piped to the watering troughs and to the house is a
+great convenience. Also the same engine that does the
+pumping may be used for other work in connection
+with the farm, so that the irrigation pump engine, instead
+of lying idle ten or eleven months in the year,
+may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its keep.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+Well-water contains many impurities. For this reason,
+it is likely to be valuable for crop growing purposes
+in a wider sense than merely to supply moisture.
+Well-water contains lime, and lime is beneficial to most
+soils. It has been noticed that crops grow especially
+well when irrigated from wells.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_128" id="Fig_128"></a>
+<img src="images/illo118.png" alt="Fig. 128" width="400" height="316" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 128.&mdash;Power Transmission. Circular motion is converted
+into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two pitman
+cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate. Power is carried
+to a distance by wires. To reduce friction the wires are supported
+by swinging hangers. Sometimes wooden rods are used instead of
+wires to lessen expansion and contraction.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>House and Barns Supplied from a Reservoir.</i>&mdash;A
+farm reservoir may sometimes be built very cheaply
+by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow between two
+hills, or ridges. On other farms, it is necessary to
+scrape out a hole on the highest ground within reach.
+For easy irrigation a reservoir is necessary, and it is
+economical because the pump may work overtime and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+supply enough water so the irrigation may be done
+quickly and with sufficient water to make it effective.
+When the cost of the reservoir can be charged up to
+the different departments of the business, such as irrigation,
+live-stock and house use, the cost is divided and
+the profits are multiplied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Power Conveyor.</i>&mdash;Circular motion is converted into
+reciprocal motion to operate a pump at a distance from
+the engine. The short jack crank oscillates the driving
+pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth. The
+distance to which power may be carried is limited by
+the expansion and contraction of the conveying wires.
+Wooden rods are better under extremes of temperature.
+Where an engine is used night and morning in
+the dairy house to run a cream separator, this kind of
+power transmission may be worked to operate the
+pump at the house. Light wire hangers will support
+the line wires or rods. They should be about three
+feet in length, made fast at top and bottom to prevent
+wear. The spring of a No. 10 wire three feet long is
+sufficient to swing the length of a pump stroke and the
+friction is practically nothing.</p>
+
+<h4>ELECTRICITY ON THE FARM</h4>
+
+<p>Electric current in some sections may be purchased
+from electric railways or city lighting plants. But the
+great majority of farms are beyond the reach of high
+tension transmission cables. In some places three or
+four farmers may club together and buy a small lighting
+plant to supply their own premises with both light
+and power. Unless an engineer is employed to run it
+trouble is sure to follow, because one family does all of
+the work and others share equally in the benefits. The
+solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+his own. The proposition is not so difficult as it sounds.
+Two-horsepower plants are manufactured for this very
+purpose. But there is more to it than buying a dynamo
+and a few lamp bulbs. A farm electric system
+should supply power to run all of the light stationary
+machinery about the farm, and that means storage
+batteries, and the use of one or more small electric motors.
+There are several ways to arrange the plant,
+but to save confusion it is better to study first the storage
+battery plan and to start with an engine large
+enough to pump water and run the dynamo at the same
+time. It is a good way to do two jobs at once&mdash;you
+store water enough in the supply tank to last twenty-four
+or forty-eight hours, and at the same time you<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+store up sufficient electricity to run the cream-separator
+for a week. Electric power is the only power that
+is steady enough to get all of the cream.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_129" id="Fig_129"></a>
+<img src="images/illo120.png" alt="Fig. 129" width="400" height="298" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 129.&mdash;Electric Power Plant. A practical farm generator
+and storage battery, making a complete farm electric plant that will
+develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of the
+farm buildings.</p></div>
+
+<p>Refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric power.
+There are small automatic refrigerator machines
+that maintain low temperatures to preserve food products.
+This branch of the work may be made profitable.
+Laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor
+until the small power washers and wringers were invented.
+Now a small electric motor takes the blue out
+of Monday, and the women wear smiles. Electric flatirons
+afford the greatest comfort on Tuesday. The
+proper heat is maintained continually until the last
+piece is ironed. Cooking by electricity is another great
+success. Some women buy separate cooking utensils,
+such as toasters, chafing dishes and coffee percolators.
+Others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a
+cost of fifty dollars and feel that the money was well
+spent. It takes about 100 K.W.H. per month in hot
+weather to cook by electricity for a family of four. In
+winter, when heat is more of a luxury, the coal or wood
+range will save half of the electric current. Dishwashing
+by electricity is another labor-saver three times a
+day. Vacuum cleaners run by electricity take the dust
+and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand labor
+than pushing a carpet sweeper. Incubators are better
+heated by electricity than any other way. Brooders
+come under the same class. Sewing-machines were operated
+by electricity in sweatshops years ago&mdash;because
+it paid. Farm women are now enjoying the same privilege.</p>
+
+<p>Electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular,
+if not the most interesting result of electric generation
+in the country. This feature of the subject was somewhat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+overtaxed by talkative salesmen representing
+some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting
+plants, but the business has steadied down. Real electric
+generating machinery is being manufactured and
+sold on its merits in small units.</p>
+
+<p>Not many miles from Chicago there is an electric
+lighting plant on a dairy farm that is giving satisfaction.
+The stables are large and they are managed on
+the plan of milking early in the morning and again in
+the middle of the afternoon. The morning work requires
+a great deal of light in the different stables,
+more light than ordinary, because the milking is done
+by machinery. The milking machine air-pump is
+driven by electricity generated on the farm, the power
+being supplied by a kerosene engine.</p>
+
+<p>Electricity on this farm is used in units, separate
+lines extending to the different buildings. The lighting
+plant is operated on what is known as the 32-volt
+system; the rating costs less to install than some others
+and the maintenance is less than when a higher voltage
+is used. I noticed also that there are fewer parts
+in connection with the plant than in other electric light
+works that I have examined.</p>
+
+<p>Technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior
+under different circumstances is hardly necessary to a
+farmer, because the manufacturers have simplified the
+mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an extent
+that it is only necessary to use ordinary precaution
+to run the plant to its capacity.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time it is just as well to know something
+about generators, switchboards and the meanings of
+such terms and names as volt, ampere, battery poles,
+voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, discharge switch, underload<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+circuit breaker, false fuse blocks, etc., because
+familiarity with these names, and the parts they represent
+gives the person confidence in charging the batteries.
+Such knowledge also supplies a reason for the
+one principal battery precaution, which is not to use
+out all of the electricity the batteries contain.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have electric lighting plants on the farm
+do not seem to feel the cost of running the plants, because
+they use the engine for other purposes. Generally
+manufacturers figure about 1 H.P. extra to run
+a dynamo to supply from 25 to 50 lights. My experience
+with farm engines is that for ordinary farm work
+such as driving the cream separator, working the pump
+and grinding feed, a two-horse power engine is more
+useful than any other size. Farmers who conduct
+business in the usual way will need a three-horsepower
+engine if they contemplate adding an electric lighting
+system to the farm equipment.</p>
+
+<p>Among the advantages of an electric lighting system
+is the freedom from care on the part of the women.
+There are no lamps to clean or broken chimneys to cut
+a finger, so that when the system is properly installed
+the only work the women have to do is to turn the
+switches to throw the lights on or off as needed.</p>
+
+<p>The expense in starting a farm electric light plant
+may be a little more than some other installations, but
+it seems to be more economical in service when figured
+from a farmer&#8217;s standpoint, taking into consideration
+the fact that he is using power for generating electricity
+that under ordinary farm management goes to
+waste.</p>
+
+<p>A three-horsepower engine will do the same amount
+of work with the same amount of gasoline that a two-horsepower<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+engine will do. This statement may not
+hold good when figured in fractions, but it will in farm
+practice. Also when running a pump or cream separator
+the engine is capable of doing a little extra work
+so that the storage batteries may be charged with very
+little extra expense.</p>
+
+<p>On one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine
+is used to furnish power for various farm purposes.
+The engine is belted to a direct-current generator of
+the shunt-wound type. The generator is wired to an
+electric storage battery of 88 ampere hour capacity.
+The battery is composed of a number of separate cells.
+The cells are grouped together in jars. These jars contain
+the working parts of the batteries. As each jar
+of the battery is complete in itself, any one jar may be
+cut out or another added without affecting the other
+units. The switchboard receives current either from
+the battery or from the engine and generator direct.
+There are a number of switches attached to the switchboard,
+which may be manipulated to turn the current
+in any direction desired.</p>
+
+<p>Some provision should be made for the renewal of
+electric lamps. Old lamps give less light than new
+ones, and the manufacturers should meet customers on
+some kind of a fair exchange basis. Tungsten lamps
+are giving good satisfaction for farm use. These
+lamps are economical of current, which means a reduction
+of power to supply the same amount of light. The
+Mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of
+electric lamps.</p>
+
+<p>The Wisconsin <i>Agriculturist</i> publishes a list of 104
+different uses for electricity on farms. Many of the
+electrical machines are used for special detail work
+in dairies where cheese or butter is made in quantity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+Sugar plantations also require small units of power
+that would not apply to ordinary farming. Some of
+the work mentioned is extra heavy, such as threshing
+and cutting ensilage. Other jobs sound trivial, but
+they are all possible labor-savers. Here is the list:</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Oat crushers, alfalfa mills, horse groomers, horse
+clippers, hay cutters, clover cutters, corn shellers, ensilage
+cutters, corn crackers, branding irons, currying
+machines, feed grinders, flailing machines, live stock
+food warmers, sheep shears, threshers, grain graders,
+root cutters, bone grinders, hay hoists, clover hullers,
+rice threshers, pea and bean hullers, gas-electric harvesters,
+hay balers, portable motors for running threshers,
+fanning-mills, grain elevators, huskers and shredders,
+grain drying machines, binder motors, wheat and
+corn grinders, milking machines, sterilizing milk, refrigeration,
+churns, cream-separators, butter workers,
+butter cutting-printing, milk cooling and circulating
+pumps, milk clarifiers, cream ripeners, milk mixers,
+butter tampers, milk shakers, curd grinders, pasteurizers,
+bottle cleaners, bottle fillers, concrete mixers,
+cider mills, cider presses, spraying machines, wood
+splitters, auto trucks, incubators, hovers, telephones,
+electric bells, ice cutters, fire alarms, electric vehicles,
+electro cultures, water supply, pumping, water sterilizers,
+fruit presses, blasting magnetos, lighting, interior
+telephones, vulcanizers, pocket flash lights, ice
+breakers, grindstones, emery wheels, wood saws, drop
+hammers, soldering irons, glue pots, cord wood saws,
+egg testers, burglar alarms, bell ringing transformers,
+devices for killing insects and pests, machine tools,
+molasses heaters, vacuum cleaners, portable lamps to
+attract insects, toasters, hot plates, grills, percolators,
+flatirons, ranges, toilette articles, water heaters, fans,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+egg boilers, heating pads, dishwashers, washing machines,
+curling irons, forge blowers.&#8221;</p>
+
+<h4>GASOLINE HOUSE LIGHTING</h4>
+
+<p>Gasoline gas for house lighting is manufactured in a
+small generator by evaporating gasoline into gas and
+mixing it with air, about 5 per cent gas and 95 per cent
+air. We are all familiar with the little brass gasoline
+torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat
+their soldering irons. The principle is the same.</p>
+
+<p>There are three systems of using gasoline gas for
+farmhouse lighting purposes, the hollow wire, tube system,
+and single lamp system.</p>
+
+<p>The hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline
+through the circuit in a small pipe called a hollow wire.
+Each lamp on the circuit takes a few drops of gasoline
+as needed, converts it into gas, mixes the gas with the
+proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant
+light. Each lamp has its own little generator and is
+independent of all other lamps on the line.</p>
+
+<p>The tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in
+appearance, but the tubes are larger and look more like
+regular gas pipes. In the tube system the gas is generated
+and mixed with air before it gets into the distribution
+tube, so that lamps do not require separate generators.</p>
+
+<p>In the separate lamp system each lamp is separate
+and independent. Each lamp has a small supply of
+gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a gas generator
+attached to the burner, which converts the gasoline
+into gas, mixes it with the proper amount of air and
+feeds it into the burner as required. Farm lanterns are
+manufactured that work on this principle. They produce
+a brilliant light.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span>By investigating the different systems of gasoline gas
+lighting in use in village stores and country homes any
+farmer can select the system that fits into his home conditions
+to the best advantage. In one farmhouse the
+owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his
+big concrete gateposts, and this was one reason why he
+decided to adopt gasoline gas lighting and to use the
+separate lamp system.</p>
+
+<h4>ACETYLENE GAS</h4>
+
+<p>Acetylene lighting plants are intended for country
+use beyond the reach of city gas mains or electric
+cables. Carbide comes in lump form in steel drums. It
+is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with
+clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas
+is needed to keep up the pressure. Acetylene gas is
+said to be the purest of all illuminating gases. Experiments
+in growing delicate plants in greenhouses lighted
+with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be correct.</p>
+
+<p>The light also is bright, clear and powerful. The
+gas is explosive when mixed with air and confined, so
+that precautions are necessary in regard to using lanterns
+or matches near the generators. The expense of
+installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has prevented
+its general use.</p>
+
+<h4>WOOD-SAW FRAMES</h4>
+
+<p>There are a number of makes of saw frames for use
+on farms, some of which are very simple, while others
+are quite elaborate. Provision usually is made for
+dropping the end of the stick as it is cut. Sometimes
+carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile.
+Extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give
+more or less trouble, because when the stick to be sawed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+is crooked, it is almost impossible to prevent binding.
+If a saw binds in the kerf, very often the uniform set
+is pinched out of alignment, and there is some danger
+of buckling the saw, so that for ordinary wood sawing
+it is better to have the end of the stick project beyond
+the jig. If the saw is sharp and has the right set and
+the right motion, it will cut the stick off quickly and
+run free while the end is dropping to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>The quickest saw frames oscillate, being supported
+on legs that are hinged to the bottom of the frame.
+Oscillating frames work easier than sliding frames.
+Sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers,
+but roller frames are not steady enough. For cross
+sawing lumber V-shaped grooves are best. No matter
+what the feeding device is, it should always be protected
+by a hood over the saw. The frame should fall
+back of its own weight, bringing the hood with it, so
+that the saw is always covered except when actually
+engaged with the stick. Saw-mandrels vary in diameter
+and length, but in construction they are much
+alike. For wood sawing the shaft should be 1<sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; or
+1<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; in diameter. The shaft runs in two babbitted
+boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame. The frame itself
+should be well made and well braced.</p>
+
+<h4>ROOT PULPER</h4>
+
+<p>There are root pulpers with concave knives which
+slice roots in such a way as to bend the slices and break
+them into thousands of leafy shreds. The principle is
+similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that
+each sheet will slide past the next one. Animals do
+not chew roots when fed in large solid pieces. Cattle
+choke trying to swallow them whole, but they will
+munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evident<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+satisfaction. American farmers are shy on roots.
+They do not raise roots in quantities because it requires
+a good deal of hand labor, but roots make a
+juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer
+and they carry mineral. Pulped roots are safe to feed
+and they offer the best mixing medium for crushed
+grains and other concentrated foods.</p>
+
+<h4>FEED CRUSHER</h4>
+
+<p>Instead of grinding grain for feeding, we have what
+is known as a crusher which operates on the roller-mill
+principle. It breaks the grains into flour by crushing
+instead of grinding. It has the advantage of doing
+good work quickly. Our feed grinding is done in the
+two-story corncrib and granary. It is one of the odd
+jobs on the farm that every man likes. The grain is
+fed automatically into the machine by means of the
+grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain
+down from the overhead bins. The elevator buckets
+carry the crushed feed back to one of the bins or into
+the bagger. In either case it is not necessary to do any
+lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck.
+We have no use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of
+big dustpan to use with the barn broom.</p>
+
+<h4>STUMP PULLER</h4>
+
+<p>Pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation
+compared with the old time methods of grubbing, chopping,
+prying and burning that our forefathers had on
+their hands. Modern stump pulling machines are
+small affairs compared with the heavy, clumsy things
+that were used a few years ago. Some of the new
+stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre a day of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+ordinary stumpage. This, of course, must be a rough
+estimate, because stumps, like other things, vary in
+numbers, size and condition of soundness. Some old
+stumps may be removed easily while others hang to
+the ground with wonderful tenacity.</p>
+
+<p>There are two profits to follow the removal of stumps
+from a partially cleared field. The work already put
+on the land has in every case cost considerable labor to
+get the trees and brush out of the way. The land is
+partially unproductive so long as stumps remain. For
+this reason, it is impossible to figure on the first cost
+until the stumps are removed to complete the work and
+to put the land in condition to raise machine made
+crops. When the stumps are removed, the value of the
+land either for selling or for farming purposes is increased
+at once. Whether sold or farmed, the increasing
+value is maintained by cropping the land and securing
+additional revenue.</p>
+
+<p>There are different ways of removing stumps, some
+of which are easy while others are difficult and expensive.
+One of the easiest ways is to bore a two-inch
+auger hole diagonally down into the stump; then fill
+the auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some
+weeks to soak into the wood. Large stumps may be
+bored in different directions so the coal-oil will find its
+way not only through the main part of the stumps
+but down into the roots. This treatment requires that
+the stumps should be somewhat dry. A stump that is
+full of sap has no room for coal-oil, but after the sap
+partially dries out, then coal oil will fill the pores of the
+wood. After the stump is thoroughly saturated with
+coal-oil, it will burn down to the ground, so that the
+different large roots will be separated. Sometimes the
+roots will burn below plow depth, but a good heavy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the
+separated roots.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_130" id="Fig_130"></a>
+<img src="images/illo131.png" alt="Fig. 130" width="400" height="211" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 130.&mdash;The Oldest Farm Hoist. The first invention for elevating
+a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied together
+at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide. When hunters were
+lucky enough to kill a bear, the tripod elevator was erected over the
+carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower
+the apex. The gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and attached
+to the top of the tripod. As the skinning of the animal proceeded
+the feet of the tripod were moved closer together. By the
+time the head was cut off the carcass would swing clear.</p></div>
+
+<p>Dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces, and
+the work is not considered dangerous since the invention
+of safety devices. In some sections of the country
+where firewood is valuable, dynamite has the advantage
+of saving the wood. An expert with dynamite will
+blow a stump to pieces so thoroughly that the different
+parts are easily worked into stove lengths. Pitch-pine
+stumps have a chemical value that was not suspected
+until some fellows got rich by operating a retort.</p>
+
+<h4>FARM ELEVATING MACHINERY</h4>
+
+<p>Many handy and a few heavy elevators are being
+manufactured to replace human muscle. The simple
+tripod beef gin was familiar to the early settlers and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+it is still in use. When a heavy animal was killed for
+butchering, the small ends of three poles were tied together
+to form a tripod over the carcass. The feet of
+the tripod were placed wide apart to raise the apex
+only a few feet above the animal. After the gambrel
+was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were
+moved gradually closer together as the skinning proceeded,
+thus elevating the carcass to swing clear of the
+ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grain Elevators.</i>&mdash;As a farm labor-saver, machinery
+to elevate corn into the two-story corncrib and grain
+into the upper bins is one of the newer and more important
+farming inventions. With a modern two-story
+corncrib having a driveway through the center, a concrete
+floor and a pit, it is easy to dump a load of grain
+or ear corn by raising the front end of the wagon box
+without using a shovel or corn fork. After the load is
+dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a
+circle while the buckets carry the corn or small grain
+and deliver it by spout into the different corncribs or
+grain bins. There are several makes of powerful grain
+elevating machines that will do the work easily and
+quickly.</p>
+
+<p>The first requisite is a building with storage overhead,
+and a convenient place to work the machinery.
+Some of the elevating machines are made portable and
+some are stationary. Some of the portable machines
+will work both ways. Usually stationary elevators are
+placed in vertical position. Some portable elevators
+may be operated either vertically or on an incline.
+Such machines are adaptable to different situations, so
+the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm
+grain warehouse or the apparatus may be hauled to the
+railway station for chuting the grain or ear corn into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+a car. It depends upon the use to be made of the machinery
+whether the strictly stationary or portable elevator
+is required. To unload usually some kind of pit
+or incline is needed with any kind of an elevator, so the
+load may be dumped automatically quickly from the
+wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at
+leisure.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_131" id="Fig_131"></a>
+<img src="images/illo133.png" alt="Fig. 131" width="400" height="234" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 131.&mdash;Portable Grain Elevator Filling a Corncrib. The
+same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars. The wagon is unloaded
+by a lifting jack. It costs from 1c to 1<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>c per bushel to
+shovel corn by hand, but the greatest saving is in time.</p></div>
+
+<p>Some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly
+from under the tailboard of a wagon box. The tailrod
+is removed and the tailboard raised half an inch or an
+inch, according to the capacity of the machinery. The
+load pays out through the opening as the front of the
+wagon is gradually raised, so the last grain will discharge
+into the pit or elevator hopper of its own weight.
+Technical building knowledge and skill is required to
+properly connect the building and elevating machinery
+so that the two will work smoothly together. There
+are certain features about the building that must conform<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+to the requirements and peculiarities of the elevating
+machinery. The grain and ear corn are both
+carried up to a point from which they will travel by
+gravity to any part of the building. The building requires
+great structural strength in some places, but the
+material may be very light in others. Hence, the necessity
+of understanding both building and machinery in
+order to meet all of the necessary technical requirements.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h3>WORKING THE SOIL</h3>
+
+<h4>IMPORTANCE OF PLOWING</h4>
+
+<p>Plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with
+physics, chemistry, bacteriology and entomology. The
+soil is the farmer&#8217;s laboratory; his soil working implements
+are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A
+high order of intelligence is required to merge one operation
+into the next to take full advantage of the
+assistance offered by nature. The object of plowing
+and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition
+of the soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to provide
+a suitable home for the different kinds of soil bacteria.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_132" id="Fig_132"></a>
+<img src="images/illo135.png" alt="Fig. 132" width="400" height="179" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 132.&mdash;Heavy Disk Plow. A strong four-horse disk implement
+for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits before
+turning under with a moldboard.</p></div>
+
+<p>There are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, also nitrogen-gathering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which
+are often loosely referred to as azotobacter species.
+Few of us are on intimate terms with any of them, but
+some of us have had formal introductions through experiments
+and observation.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_133" id="Fig_133"></a>
+<img src="images/illo136.png" alt="Fig. 133" width="400" height="238" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 133.&mdash;Sulky Plow. This is a popular type of riding plow.
+It is fitted with a rolling coulter.</p></div>
+
+<h4>THE MECHANICS OF PLOWING</h4>
+
+<p><i>Walking Plow.</i>&mdash;The draft of a walking plow may
+be increased or diminished by the manner of hitch. It
+is necessary to find the direct line of draft between the
+work performed and the propelling force. The clevis
+in the two-horse doubletree, or the three-horse evener
+and the adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam
+with the connecting link will permit a limited adjustment.
+The exact direction that this line takes will
+prove out in question. The walking plow should not
+have a tendency to run either in or out, neither too
+deep nor too shallow. For the proper adjustment as to
+width and depth of furrow, the plow should follow the
+line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of
+several feet without guidance from the handles. In
+making the adjustment it is first necessary to see that
+the plow itself is in good working order. All cutting
+edges such as share, coulter or jointer must be reasonably
+sharp and the land slip in condition as the makers
+intended.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_134" id="Fig_134"></a>
+<img src="images/illo137a.png" alt="Fig. 134" width="400" height="275" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 134.&mdash;Disk Plow. Less power is required to plow with a
+disk, but it is a sort of cut and cover process. The disk digs
+trenches narrow at the bottom. There are ridges between the little
+trenches that are not worked.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_135" id="Fig_135"></a>
+<img src="images/illo137b.png" alt="Fig. 135" width="400" height="111" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 135.&mdash;Three-Horse and Four-Horse Eveners. This kind of
+evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others and
+they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds. The four-horse
+rig requires the best horses in the middle.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>All plows should have a leather pocket on the side of
+the beam to carry a file. A 12-inch bastard file with a
+good handle is the most satisfactory implement for
+sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the fields. A
+good deal depends on the character of the soil and its
+condition of dryness, but generally speaking, it pays to
+do a little filing after plowing a half mile of furrow.
+If the horses are doing their duty, a little rest at the
+end of the half mile is well earned. The plowman can
+put in the time to advantage with the file and the next
+half mile will go along merrily in consequence. No
+farmer would continue to chop wood all day without
+whetting his axe, but, unfortunately, plowmen often
+work from morning till night without any attempt to
+keep the cutting edges of their plows in good working
+order.</p>
+
+<p><i>Riding Plow.</i>&mdash;The riding plow in lifting and turning
+the furrow slice depends a good deal on the wheels.
+The action of the plow is that of a wedge with the
+power pushing the point, the share and the moldboard
+between the furrow slices and the land side and the
+furrow bottom. There is the same friction between the
+moldboard and the furrow slice as in the case of the
+walking plow, but the wheels are intended to materially
+reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and
+against the land side. Plow wheels are intended to relieve
+the draft in this respect because wheels roll much
+easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight
+of the work on top. The track made in the bottom of
+the furrow with the walking plow shows plainly the
+heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the moldboard by
+the mark of the slip. To appreciate the weight the
+slip carries, an interesting experiment may be performed
+by loading the walking plow with weights sufficient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+to make the same kind of a mark when the plow
+is not turning a furrow.</p>
+
+<p>One advantage in riding plows in addition to the
+relief of such a load is less packing of the furrow bottom.
+On certain soils when the moisture is just sufficient
+to make the subsoil sticky, a certain portion of the
+furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it
+becomes impervious to the passage of moisture either
+up or down. The track of a plow wheel is less injurious.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_136" id="Fig_136"></a>
+<img src="images/illo139a.png" alt="Fig. 136" width="400" height="147" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 136.&mdash;Three-Section, Spike-Tooth Harrow. The harrow is
+made straight, but the hitch is placed over to one side to give each
+tooth a separate line of travel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_137" id="Fig_137"></a>
+<img src="images/illo139b.png" alt="Fig. 137" width="400" height="85" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 137.&mdash;Harrow Sled Long Enough to Hold a Four-Section
+Harrow.</p></div>
+
+<p>Plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the
+pressure with especial reference to the work performed.
+Wheels should be adjusted with an eye single to the
+conditions existing in the furrow. Some wheel plows
+apparently are especially built to run light like a
+wagon above ground regardless of the underground
+work required of them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>Axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift
+so accurately as to cause the wheels to wear but lightly
+on the ends of the hubs. Mistakes in adjustment show
+in the necessity of keeping a supply of washers on hand
+to replace the ones that quickly wear thin.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_138" id="Fig_138"></a>
+<img src="images/illo140.png" alt="Fig. 138" width="400" height="345" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 138.&mdash;Corn Cultivator. A one-row, riding-disk cultivator.
+The ridges are smoothed by the spring scrapers to leave an even
+surface to prevent evaporation.</p></div>
+
+<p>In this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands
+at the ends of the hubs. Plow wheels are constantly
+lifting gritty earth and dropping it on the hubs. There
+is only one successful way to keep sand out of the journals
+and that is by having the hubs, or hub ferrules,
+extend well beyond the bearings. Plow wheel hub extensions
+should reach two inches beyond the journal
+both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or linchpin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+end. Some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers
+consider oil a damage and they are permitted to run
+dry. This is not only very wasteful of expensive iron
+but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they
+no longer guide the plow, in which case the draft may
+be increased enormously.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_139" id="Fig_139"></a>
+<img src="images/illo141.png" alt="Fig. 139" width="400" height="299" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 139.&mdash;A Combination Riding and Walking Cultivator,
+showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time
+through. The two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils
+or when deeper digging is necessary.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Scotch Plows.</i>&mdash;When the long, narrow Scotch sod
+plows are exhibited at American agricultural fairs they
+attract a good deal of attention and no small amount of
+ridicule from American farmers because of the six or
+seven inch furrows they are intended to turn. In this
+country we are in too much of a hurry to spend all day
+plowing three-fourths of an acre of ground. Intensive
+farming is not so much of an object with us as the
+quantity of land put under cultivation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>Those old-fashioned Scotch plows turn a furrow
+about two-thirds of the way over, laying the sod surface
+at an angle of about 45° to the bottom of the furrow.
+The sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands upright
+so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp
+ridges six or seven inches apart, according to the width
+of the furrow. Edges of sod show in the bottoms of
+the corrugations between these little furrow ridges.</p>
+
+<p>When the rains come the water is held in these
+grooves and it finds its way down the whole depth of
+the furrow slice carrying air with it and moistening every
+particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow.
+Such conditions are ideal for the work of the different
+forms of bacteria to break down plant fibre contained
+in the roots and trash and work it into humus, which
+is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil bacteria
+to produce soil water which is the only food of growing
+plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jointer Plows.</i>&mdash;American plow makers also have
+recognized the necessity of mixing humus with soil in
+the act of plowing. To facilitate the process and at the
+same time turn a wide furrow, the jointer does fairly
+good work when soil conditions are suitable. The
+jointer is a little plow which takes the place of the
+coulter and is attached to the plow-beam in the same
+manner. The jointer turns a little furrow one inch
+or two inches deep and the large plow following after
+turns a twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat
+over, throwing the little jointer furrow in the middle
+of the furrow bottom in such a way that the big furrow
+breaks over the smaller furrow.</p>
+
+<p>If the work is well done, cracks as wide as a man&#8217;s
+hand and from three to five inches deep are left all over
+the field. These cracks lead air and moisture to rot the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+trash below. This is a much quicker way of doing a
+fairly good job of plowing. Such plows loosen the soil
+and furnish the conditions required by nature; and
+they may be operated with much less skill than the old-fashioned
+narrow-furrowed Scotch plows.</p>
+
+<p>Good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper
+condition to plow, neither too dry nor too wet, but no
+man can do good plowing without the proper kind of
+plow to fit the soil he is working with.</p>
+
+<h4>PLOWING BY TRACTOR</h4>
+
+<p>Under present conditions farm tractors are not intended
+to replace horse power entirely but to precede
+horses to smooth the rough places that horses may follow
+with the lighter machines to add the finishing
+touches. Light tractors are being made, and they are
+growing in popularity, but the real business of the
+farm tractor is to do the heavy lugging&mdash;the work that
+kills horses and delays seeding until the growing season
+has passed. The actual power best suited to the
+individual farm can only be determined by the nature
+of the land and the kind of farming.</p>
+
+<p>In the Middle West where diversified farming is
+practiced, the 8-16 and the 10-20 sizes seem to be the
+most satisfactory, and this is without regard to the size
+of the farm. The preponderance of heavy work will
+naturally dictate the buying of a tractor heavier than
+a 10-20. The amount of stationary work is a factor.
+In certain communities heavy farm tractors are made
+to earn dividends by running threshing machines after
+harvest, silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers
+in the winter.</p>
+
+<p>Here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm
+tractor is good for:</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>Clearing the Land&mdash;pulling up bushes by the roots,
+tearing out hedges, pulling stumps, grubbing, pulling
+stones.</p>
+
+<p>Preparing Seed Bed and Seeding&mdash;plowing, disking,
+crushing clods, pulling a land plane, rolling, packing,
+drilling, harrowing.</p>
+
+<p>Harvesting&mdash;mowing, pulling grain binders, pulling
+potato digger.</p>
+
+<p>Belt Work&mdash;hay baling, corn shelling, heavy pumping
+for irrigation, grinding feed, threshing, clover
+hulling, husking and shredding, silo filling, stone
+crushing.</p>
+
+<p>Road Work&mdash;grading, dragging, leveling, ditching,
+hauling crops.</p>
+
+<p>Miscellaneous&mdash;running portable sawmill, stretching
+wire fencing, ditch digging, manure spreading.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking, however, the most important
+farm tractor work is preparing the seed-bed thoroughly
+and quickly while the soil and weather conditions are
+the best. And the tractor&#8217;s ability to work all day and
+all night at such times is one of its best qualifications.</p>
+
+<p>To plow one square mile, or 640 acres, with a walking
+plow turning a twelve-inch furrow, a man and
+team must walk 5,280 miles. The gang-plow has always
+been considered a horse killer, and, when farmers
+discovered that they could use oil power to save their
+horses, many were quick to make the change.</p>
+
+<p>It requires approximately 10 horsepower hours to
+turn an acre of land with horses. At a speed of two
+miles, a team with one plow in ten hours will turn two
+acres. To deliver the two horsepower required to do
+this work, they must travel 176 feet per minute and
+exert a continuous pull of 375 pounds or 187.5 pounds
+per horse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>One horsepower equals a pull of 33,000 pounds,
+moved one foot per minute. Two-mile speed equals
+two times 5,280 or 10,560 feet per hour, or 176 feet per
+minute. Sixty-six thousand divided by 176 equals 375
+foot pounds pull per minute. One horsepower is absorbed
+in 88 feet of furrow.</p>
+
+<p>Horse labor costs, according to Government figures,
+12<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> cents per hour per horse. On this basis ten hours&#8217;
+work will be $1.25, which is the average daily cost of
+each horse. An average Illinois diversified farm of 160
+acres would be approximately as follows: Fifty acres
+of corn, 30 acres of oats and wheat, 20 acres of hay, 60
+acres of rough land, pasture, orchard, building and
+feed lots.</p>
+
+<p>This average farm supports six work horses or mules
+and one colt. According to figures taken from farm
+work reports submitted by many different corn belt
+farmers, the amount of horse-work necessary to do this
+cropping would figure out as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Fifty acres of corn land for plowing, disking, harrowing,
+planting, cultivating and harvesting would
+amount to a total of 1,450 horsepower hours. Thirty
+acres of wheat would require a total of 330 horsepower
+hours. Twenty acres of hay would require 110 horsepower
+hours. In round figures, 1,900 horsepower hours
+at 12<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub> cents would amount to $237.50.</p>
+
+<p>Elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically
+to show that this work can be done by an 8-16 farm
+tractor in 27<sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub> days at a cost for kerosene fuel and
+lubricating oil of $1.89 per day. Adding interest, repairs
+and depreciation, brings this figure up to about
+$4.00 per day, or a total of $111.00 for the job. No account
+is kept of man power in caring for either the
+horses or the tractor. The actual man labor on the job,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>
+however, figures 12<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>3</sub> days less for the tractor than for
+horses. We should remember that actual farm figures
+are used for the cost of horse work. Such figures are
+not available for tractor work.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of plowing with a traction engine depends
+upon so many factors that it is difficult to make any
+definite statement. It depends upon the condition of
+the ground, size of the tractor, the number of plows
+pulled, and the amount of fuel used. An 8-16 horsepower
+tractor, for instance, burning from 15 to 20 gallons
+of low grade kerosene per ten hour day and using
+one gallon of lubricating oil, costs about $1.90 per ten
+hours work. Pulling two 14-inch plows and traveling
+20 miles per day, the tractor will plow 5.6 acres at a
+fuel and an oil cost of about 30 cents per acre. Pulling
+three 14-inch plows, it will turn 8.4 acres at a cost for
+fuel and oil of about 20 cents an acre.</p>
+
+<p>The kind and condition of soil is an important factor
+in determining the tractor cost of plowing. Comparison
+between the average horse cost and the average
+tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in
+favor of tractor plowing under good management.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also
+remember that no horse gang can possibly do the quality
+of work that can be accomplished by an engine
+gang. Anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off
+the profits of many a farmer. He has often plowed late
+on account of hard ground, and he has many times
+allowed a field to remain unplowed on account of worn-out
+teams. Under normal conditions, late plowing
+never produces as good results as early plowing. Many
+a farmer has fed and harnessed by the light of the lantern,
+gone to the field and worked his team hard to take
+advantage of the cool of the morning. With the approach<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+of the hot hours of midday, the vicious flies
+sapping the vitality from his faithful team, he has
+eased up on the work or quit the job.</p>
+
+<p>In using the tractor for plowing, there are none of
+these distressing conditions to be taken into consideration,
+nothing to think of but the quality of work done.
+It is possible to plow deep without thought of the added
+burden. Deep plowing may or may not be advisable.
+But where the soil will stand it, deep plowing at
+the proper time of year, and when done with judgment,
+holds moisture better and provides more plant
+food.</p>
+
+<p>The pull power required to plow different soils varies
+from about three pounds per square inch of furrow for
+light sand up to twenty pounds per square inch of
+furrow for gumbo. The draft of a plow is generally
+figured from clover sod, which averages about seven
+pounds per square inch. Suppose a plow rig has two
+14-inch bottoms, and the depth to be plowed is six
+inches. A cross section of each plow is therefore 14 by
+6 inches, or 84 square inches. Twice this for two bottoms
+is 168 square inches. Since, in sandy soil, the
+pressure per square inch is three pounds, therefore 168
+times 3 pounds equals 504 pounds, the draft in sandy
+soil. 168 times 7 pounds equals 1,176 pounds, the draft
+in clover sod. 168 times 8 pounds equals 1,344 pounds,
+the draft in clay sod.</p>
+
+<p>The success of crop growing depends upon the way
+the seed-bed is prepared. The final preparation of the
+seed-bed can never be thoroughly well done unless the
+ground is properly plowed to begin with. It is not sufficient
+to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side
+but the plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uniform,
+systematic manner and lay it bottom side uppermost<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+to receive the beneficial action of the air, rain and
+sunshine.</p>
+
+<p>The moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to
+properly shed the earth freely to make an easy turn-over.
+The shape of the shear and the forward part of
+the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge, but the roll
+or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to
+soil texture and the width and depth of furrow to be
+turned. Moldboards also differ in size and shape, according
+to the kind of furrow to be turned. Sometimes
+in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with a comb
+on the upper edge is preferable. In other soils a
+cracked or broken furrow slice works the best. When
+working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over
+on top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into fragments
+with wide cracks or openings reaching several
+inches down. Between these extremes there are many
+modifications made for the particular type or texture
+of the soil to be plowed. We can observe the effect that a
+rough, or badly scratched, or poorly shaped moldboard
+has on any kind of soil, especially when passing from
+gravelly soils to clay. In soil that contains the right
+amount of moisture, when a plow scours all the time,
+the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny
+appearance. This shows that the soil is slipping off
+the moldboard easily. In places where the plow does
+not scour the ground is pushed to one side and packed
+or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted
+and turned as it should be. A field plowed with a defective
+moldboard will be full of these places. Such
+ground cannot have the life to bring about a satisfactory
+bacteria condition necessary to promote the
+rapid plant growth that proper plowing gives it.</p>
+
+<p>Cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+after year. We are using lime to correct the acidity,
+but the use of lime requires better plowing and better
+after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with the
+earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different
+kinds of soil bacteria. Unless we pay special attention
+to the humus content of the soil we are likely to use
+lime to dissolve out plant foods that are not needed by
+the present crop, and, therefore, cannot be utilized.
+This is what the old adage means which reads: &#8220;Lime
+enricheth the father but impoverisheth the son.&#8221; When
+that was written the world had no proper tillage tools
+and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of.</p>
+
+<p>Not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast
+iron. Then came the steel moldboard, which was supposed
+to be the acme of perfection in plow making.
+Steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils
+where cast iron would just root along without turning
+the ground at all. Later the art of molding steel was
+studied and perfected until many grades and degrees
+of hardness were produced and the shape of the moldboard
+passed through a thousand changes. The idea
+all the time was to make plows that would not only
+scour but polish in all kinds of soil. At the same time
+they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to
+make humus, to kill weeds and to destroy troublesome
+insects. Besides these requirements the soil must be
+pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and moisture.
+These experiments gradually led up to our present
+high grade plows of hardened steel and what is
+known as chilled steel.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the hardness there are different shapes designed
+for different soils so that a plow to work well on
+one farm may need to be quite different from a plow to
+do the best work in another neighborhood. The furrow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the surface
+of the upturned ground as even as the bottom of
+the furrow. By using a modern plow carefully selected
+to fit the soil, gravel, sandy, stony or muck soils, or silt
+loams that contain silica, lime, iron and aluminum oxide
+can be worked with the right plow to do the best
+work possible if we use the necessary care and judgment
+in making the selection.</p>
+
+<p>One object of good plowing is to retain moisture
+in the soil until the growing crop can make good use
+of it.</p>
+
+<p>The ease with which soils absorb, retain or lose moisture,
+depends mostly on their texture, humus content,
+physical condition, and surface slope or artificial drainage.
+It is to the extent that cultivation can modify
+these factors that more soil water can be made available
+to the growing crop. There are loose, open soils
+through which water percolates as through a sieve, and
+there are tight, gumbo soils which swell when the surface
+is moistened and become practically waterproof.
+Sandy soils take in water more readily than heavier
+soils, hence less precaution is necessary to prevent
+run-off.</p>
+
+<p>Among the thousands of plows of many different
+makes there are plenty of good ones. The first consideration
+in making a selection is a reliable home
+dealer who has a good business reputation and a thorough
+knowledge of local soil from a mechanical standpoint.
+The next consideration is the service the plow
+will give in proportion to the price.</p>
+
+<h4>DISK HARROW</h4>
+
+<p>For preparing land to receive the seed no other implement
+will equal a double disk. These implements<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span>
+are made in various sizes and weights of frame. For
+heavy land, where it is necessary to weight the disk
+down, an extra heavy frame is necessary. It would
+probably be advisable to get the extra strong frame for
+any kind of land, because even in light sand there are
+times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill
+quackgrass or to chew up sod before plowing. In such
+cases it is customary to load on a couple of sacks of
+sand in addition to the weight of the driver. When a
+disk is carrying 300 or 400 pounds besides its own
+weight the racking strains which pull from different
+directions have a tendency to warp or twist a light
+frame out of shape. To keep a disk cultivator in good
+working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly
+before doing heavy work. Bolts must be kept tight, all
+braces examined occasionally, and the heavy nuts at
+the ends of the disk shafts watched. They sometimes
+loosen and give trouble. The greatest difficulty in running
+a disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings
+in good trim. Wooden boxes are provided with the
+implement. It is a good plan to insist on having a full
+set of eight extra boxes. These wooden boxes may be
+made on the farm, but it sometimes is difficult to get
+the right kind of wood. They should be made of hard
+maple, bored according to size of shaft, and boiled in
+a good quality of linseed oil. Iron boxings have never
+been satisfactory on a disk implement. Wooden ones
+make enough trouble, but wood has proved better than
+iron. On most disk cultivators there are oil channels
+leading to the boxings. These channels are large
+enough to carry heavy oil. The lighter grades of cylinder
+oil work the best. It is difficult to cork these oil
+channels tight enough to keep the sand out. Oil and
+sand do not work well together in a bearing. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+manufacturers of these implements could improve the
+oiling device by shortening the channel and building a
+better housing for the oil entrance. It is quite a job to
+take a disk apart to put in new boxings, but, like all
+other repair work, the disk should be taken into the
+shop, thoroughly cleaned, repaired, painted and oiled
+in the winter time.</p>
+
+<p>Some double disk cultivators have tongues and some
+are made without. Whether the farmer wants a tongue
+or not depends a good deal on the land. The only advantage
+is that a tongue will hold the disk from crowding
+onto the horses when it is running light along the
+farm lanes or the sides of the fields with the disks set
+straight. Horses have been ruined by having the
+sharp disks run against them when going down hill.
+Such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes
+the danger. Unfortunately, farm implements are often
+used by men who do very little thinking. A spring
+disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown
+over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the
+back of the disk and continued to make a harsh, scraping
+noise until the proprietor went to see what was
+wrong. The man driving the disk said he thought
+something must be the matter with the cultivator, but
+he couldn&#8217;t tell for the life of him what it was. When
+farmers are up against such difficulties it is safer to
+buy a disk with a tongue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Harrow Cart.</i>&mdash;A small two-wheel cart with a spring
+seat overshadowed with a big umbrella is sometimes
+called a &#8220;dude sulky.&#8221; Many sensitive farmers trudge
+along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows
+afraid of such old fogy ridicule. The hardest and most
+tiresome and disagreeable job at seeding time is following
+a harrow on foot. Riding a harrow cart in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+field is conserving energy that may be applied to better
+purposes after the day&#8217;s work in the field is finished.</p>
+
+<h4>KNIFE-EDGE PULVERIZERS</h4>
+
+<p>A knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pulverizer
+for orchard work or when preparing a seed-bed
+for grain. These implements are sold under different
+names. It requires a stretch of imagination to
+attach the word &#8220;harrow&#8221; to these knife-edge weeders.
+There is a central bar which is usually a hardwood
+plank. The knives are bolted to the underside of the
+plank and sloped backward and outward from the
+center to the right and left, so that the knife-edges
+stand at an angle of about 45° to the line of draught.
+This angle is just about sufficient to let tough weeds
+slip off the edges instead of dragging along. If the
+knives are sharp, they will cut tender weeds, but the
+tough ones must be disposed of to prevent choking.
+The proper use of the knife-edge weeder prevents
+weeds from growing, but in farm practice, sometimes
+rainy weather prevents the use of such a tool until the
+weeds are well established. As a moisture retainer,
+these knife-edge weeders are superior to almost any
+other implement. They are made in widths of from
+eight to twenty feet. The wide ones are jointed in the
+middle to fit uneven ground.</p>
+
+<h4>CLOD CRUSHER</h4>
+
+<p>The farm land drag, float, or clod crusher is useful
+under certain conditions on low spots that do not drain
+properly. Such land must be plowed when the main
+portion of the field is in proper condition, and the result
+often is that the low spots are so wet that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+ground packs into lumps that an ordinary harrow will
+not break to pieces. Such lumps roll out between the
+harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to interfere
+with cultivation. The clod crusher then rides
+over the lumps and grinds them into powder. Unfortunately,
+clod crushers often are depended on to remedy
+faulty work on ordinary land that should receive
+better treatment. Many times the clod crusher is a
+poor remedy for poor tillage on naturally good land
+that lacks humus.</p>
+
+<div class="figc350"><a name="Fig_140" id="Fig_140"></a>
+<img src="images/illo154.png" alt="Fig. 140" width="350" height="80" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 140.&mdash;Land Float. Clod crushers and land floats belong
+to the same tribe. Theoretically they are all outlaws, but some
+practical farmers harbor one or more of them. Wet land, containing
+considerable clay, sometimes forms into lumps which should be
+crushed.</p></div>
+
+<p>As ordinarily made, the land float or clod crusher
+consists of from five to eight planks, two inches thick
+and ten or twelve inches wide, spiked together in sawtooth
+position, the edges of the planks being lapped
+over each other like clapboards in house siding. The
+planks are held in place with spikes driven through
+into the crosspieces.</p>
+
+<h4>FARM ROLLER</h4>
+
+<p>Farm rollers are used to firm the soil. Sometimes
+a seed-bed is worked up so thoroughly that the ground
+is made too loose so the soil is too open and porous.
+Seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall fit
+up closely against them. Good soil is impregnated
+with soil moisture, or film moisture as it is often called,
+because the moisture forms in a film around each little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+soil grain. In properly prepared soil this film moisture
+comes in contact with the freshly sown seed. If the temperature
+is right the seed swells and germination
+starts. The swelling of the seed brings it in contact
+with more film moisture attached to other grains of soil
+so the rootlet grows and pushes out into the soil in
+search of moisture on its own account. A roller is valuable
+to press the particles of soil together to bring the
+freshly sown seeds in direct contact with as many particles
+of soil as possible. Rolling land is a peculiar
+operation, the value of which is not always understood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+The original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the
+lumps. It may be of some benefit on certain soils for
+this purpose, but the land should always be harrowed
+after rolling to form a dust mulch to prevent the evaporation
+of moisture. Land that has been rolled and left
+overnight shows damp the next morning, which is sufficient
+proof that moisture is coming to the surface and
+is being dissipated into the atmosphere. In the so-called
+humid sections of the country the great problem
+is to retain moisture. Any farm implement that has a
+tendency to dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the
+farmer. Probably nine times out of ten a farm roller
+is a damage to the crop it is intended to benefit because
+of the manner in which it is used. It is the abuse, not
+the proper use of a roller, that injures the crop.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_141" id="Fig_141"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155a.png" alt="Fig. 141" width="400" height="212" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 141.&mdash;Iron Land Roller Made of Boiler Plate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_142" id="Fig_142"></a>
+<img src="images/illo155b.png" alt="Fig. 142" width="400" height="170" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 142.&mdash;Wooden Land Roller.</p></div>
+
+<h4>CORN-PLANTER</h4>
+
+<p>Corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at
+once. The width of rows may be adjusted from about
+32 to 44 inches apart. When seed-corn is carefully
+graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out
+the grains of corn regularly with very few skips. This
+is one reason why most farmers plant corn in drills.
+There are other cultural reasons which do not properly
+belong to this mechanical article. Hill dropping
+is considerably more complicated and difficult. After
+the feeding mechanism has been adjusted to the size
+of seed kernels to be planted so it will drop four kernels
+in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if
+it is right at every joint. Dropping in hills is a very
+careful mechanical proposition. An inch or two out
+of line either way means a loss of corn in cultivating.</p>
+
+<p>In setting the stakes to go and come by, a careful
+measurement of the field is necessary in order to get<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+the stake lines on both sides of the field parallel. If
+the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line, then
+the first hill of corn must come at the same distance
+from the line in each row. Likewise in starting back
+from the far side of the field the first hill should measure
+exactly the same distance from the stake line as the
+first hills on the opposite side of the field. This is
+easily managed by counting the number of trips between
+the stake line and the first row of corn hills. If
+the two lines of stakes on the opposite sides of the field
+are exactly parallel it is not necessary to move either
+line in order to get the proper distance to start dropping,
+but it must be adjusted by measurement, otherwise
+the corn hills will be dodged. If the corn hills are
+to space three feet apart then the first row of hills
+should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line.
+Stakes may be measured and set a certain number of
+inches from the line to make the distance come right.
+This careful adjustment brings the hills in line in the
+rows.</p>
+
+<p>When the field is level or gently sloping there is no
+difficulty in making straight rows so far as check rowing
+is concerned. When the field is hilly another problem
+crops up. It is almost impossible to run corn rows
+along the side of a hill and keep them straight. The
+planter has a tendency to slide downhill. Also the distance
+across a field is greater where the rows pass over
+a hill. To keep the rows straight under such conditions
+allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill
+as well as for the side thrust of the planter. Where a
+chain marker is used it hangs downhill and a further
+allowance must be made for that. A good driver will
+skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will
+be planted fairly straight. This means a good deal more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+in check rowing than when the corn is planted in drills.
+The greatest objection to hill planting is the crowding
+of four corn plants into a space that should be occupied
+by one plant.</p>
+
+<p>A great many experiments have been tried to scatter
+the seeds in the hill, so far without definite results,
+except when considerable additional expense is incurred.
+However, a cone suspended below the end of
+the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so
+that no two seeds will touch each other. They may not
+drop and scatter four or five inches apart, but these
+little cones will help a good deal. They must be accurately
+adjusted so the point of the cone will center
+in the middle of the vertical delivery tube, and there
+must be plenty of room all around the cone so the
+corn seed kernels won&#8217;t stick. The braces that hold
+the cones in place for the same reason must be turned
+edge up and supported in such a way as to leave
+plenty of clearance. The idea is that four kernels of
+corn drop together. They strike the cone and are scattered
+in different directions. They naturally fly to
+the outsides of the drill mark which scatters them as
+wide apart as the width of the shoe that opens the drill.
+The advantage of scattering seed grains in the hill has
+been shown by accurate experiments conducted at different
+times by agricultural colleges.</p>
+
+<h4>GRAIN DRILL</h4>
+
+<p>To know exactly how much seed the grain drill is
+using it is necessary to know how many acres are contained
+in the field. Most drills have an attachment
+that is supposed to measure how many acres and fractions
+of acres the drill covers. Farmers know how
+much grain each sack contains, so they can estimate as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+they go along, provided the drill register is correct. It
+is better to provide a check on the drill indicator. Have
+the field measured, then drive stakes along one side,
+indicating one acre, five acres and ten acres. When
+the one-acre stake is reached the operator can estimate
+very closely whether the drill is using more or less
+seed than the indicator registers. When the five-acre
+stake is reached another proof is available, and so on
+across the field. Next in importance to the proper
+working of the drill is straight rows. The only way to
+avoid gaps is to drive straight. The only way to drive
+straight is to sight over the wheel that follows the last
+drill mark. Farmers sometimes like to ride on the
+grain drill, which places the wheel sighting proposition
+out of the question. A harrow cart may be hitched behind
+the wheel of the grain drill, but it gives a side
+draft. The only way to have straight rows and thorough
+work is to walk behind the end of the drill. This
+is the proper way to use a drill, anyway, because a tooth
+may clog up any minute. Unless the operator is walking
+behind the drill he is not in position to see quickly
+whether every tooth is working properly or not. It is
+hard work to follow a drill all day long, but it pays at
+harvest time. It costs just as much to raise a crop of
+grain that only covers part of the ground, and it seems
+too bad to miss the highest possible percentage to save
+a little hard work at planting time.</p>
+
+<h4>SPECIAL CROP MACHINERY</h4>
+
+<p>Special crops require special implements. After
+they are provided, the equipment must be kept busy
+in order to make it pay. If a farmer produces five
+acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter, a planter, a
+riding cultivator, a sprayer that works under high<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+pressure, a digger and a sorter. The same outfit will
+answer for forty acres, which would reduce the per
+acre cost considerably. No farmer can afford to grow
+five acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery,
+because hand labor is out of the question for work of
+that kind.</p>
+
+<p>On the right kind of soil, and within reach of the
+right market, potatoes are money-makers. But they
+must be grown every year because the price of potatoes
+fluctuates more than any other farm crop. Under
+the right conditions potatoes grown for five years
+with proper care and good management are sure to
+make money. One year out of five will break even, two
+years will make a little money and the other two years
+will make big money. At the end of five years, with
+good business management, the potato machinery will
+be all paid for, and there will be a substantial profit.</p>
+
+<h4>WHEEL HOE</h4>
+
+<p>In growing onions and other truck crops, where the
+rows are too close together for horse cultivation, the
+wheel hoe is valuable. In fact, it is almost indispensable
+when such crops are grown extensively. The best
+wheel hoes have a number of attachments. When the
+seed-bed has been carefully prepared, and the soil is
+fine and loose, the wheel hoe may be used as soon as
+the young plants show above ground. Men who are
+accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert.
+They can work almost as close to the growing plants
+with an implement of this kind as they can with an ordinary
+hand hoe. The wheel hoe, or hand cultivator,
+works the ground on both sides of the row at once,
+and it does it quickly, so that very little hand weeding
+is necessary.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h3>HANDLING THE HAY CROP</h3>
+
+<h4>REVOLVING HAYRAKE</h4>
+
+<p>About the first contrivance for raking hay by horse
+power consisted of a stick eight or ten feet long with
+double-end teeth running through it, and pointing in
+two directions. These rakes were improved from time
+to time, until they reached perfection for this kind of
+tool. They have since been superseded by spring-tooth
+horse rakes, except for certain purposes. For
+pulling field peas, and some kinds of beans, the old
+style revolving horse rake is still in use.</p>
+
+<div class="figc350"><a name="Fig_143" id="Fig_143"></a>
+<img src="images/illo161.png" alt="Fig. 143" width="350" height="149" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 143.&mdash;Grass Hook, for working around borders where the
+lawn-mower is too clumsy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_144" id="Fig_144"></a>
+<img src="images/illo162.png" alt="Fig. 144" width="400" height="136" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 144.&mdash;Revolving Hayrake. The center piece is 4&#8243; x 6&#8243; x 12&#8242;
+long. The teeth are double enders 1<sup>3</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; square and 4&#8242; 6&#8243; long,
+which allows 24&#8243; of rake tooth clear of the center timber. Every
+stick in the rake is carefully selected. It is drawn by one horse.
+If the center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop
+instantly, or the rake must flop over, or there will be a repair job.
+This invention has never been improved upon for pulling Canada
+peas.</p></div>
+
+<p>Improved revolving horse rakes have a center timber
+of hardwood about 4 x 6 inches in diameter. The
+corners are rounded to facilitate sliding over the
+ground. A rake twelve feet long will have about eighteen
+double-end teeth. The teeth project about two
+and one-half feet each way from the center timber.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span>
+Each tooth is rounded up, sled-runner fashion, at each
+end so it will point forward and slide along over and
+close to the ground without catching fast. There is
+an iron pull rod, or long hook, attached to each end of
+the center bar by means of a bolt that screws into the
+center of the end of the wooden center shaft, thus
+forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve. Two
+handles are fastened by band iron straps to rounded
+recesses or girdles cut around the center bar. These
+girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk
+between and to operate the handles. Wooden, or iron
+lugs, reach down from the handles with pins projecting
+from their sides to engage the rake teeth. Two
+pins project from the left lug and three from the right.
+Sometimes notches are made in the lugs instead of
+pins. Notches are better; they may be rounded up to
+prevent catching when the rake revolves. As the rake
+slides along, the driver holds the rake teeth in the
+proper position by means of the handles. When sufficient
+load has been gathered he engages the upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+notch in the right hand lug, releases the left and raises
+the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground.
+The pull of the horse turns the rake over and the man
+grasps the teeth again with the handle lugs as before.
+Unless the driver is careful the teeth may stick in the
+ground and turn over before he is ready for it. It requires
+a little experience to use such a rake to advantage.
+No better or cheaper way has ever been invented
+for harvesting Canada peas. The only objections are
+that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a
+certain amount of earth with the vines which makes
+dusty threshing.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_145" id="Fig_145"></a>
+<img src="images/illo163.png" alt="Fig. 145" width="400" height="211" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 145.&mdash;Buck Rake. When hay is stacked in the field a four-horse
+buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the stack.
+The buck rake shown is 16 feet wide and the 2 x 4 teeth are 11 feet
+long. Two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on
+the ends of the buck rake to operate it. The load is pushed under
+the horse fork, the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is
+dragged backward.</p></div>
+
+<h4>HAY-TEDDER</h4>
+
+<p>The hay-tedder is an English invention, which
+has been adopted by farmers in rainy sections of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+the United States. It is an energetic kicker that scatters
+the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to
+dry between showers. Hay may be made quickly
+by starting the tedder an hour behind the mowing
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morning
+and put it in the mow in the afternoon, by shaking
+it up thoroughly once or twice with the hay-tedder.
+When clover is mixed with the timothy, it is necessary
+to leave it in the field until the next day, but the time
+between cutting and mowing is shortened materially
+by the use of the tedder.</p>
+
+<p>Grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field
+early during the wilting process without shattering the
+leaves. If left too long, then the hay-tedder is a damage
+because it kicks the leaves loose from the stems and
+the most valuable feeding material is wasted. But
+it is a good implement if rightly used. In catchy
+weather it often means the difference between bright,
+valuable hay and black, musty stuff, that is hardly fit
+to feed.</p>
+
+<p>Hay-tedders are expensive. Where two farmers
+neighbor together the expense may be shared, because
+the tedder does its work in two or three hours&#8217; time.
+Careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one
+time. The tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once.
+In fact the mowing machine, hay-tedder and horserake
+should all fit together for team work so they will follow
+each other without skips or unnecessary laps. The
+dividing board of the mowing-machine marks a path
+for one of the horses to follow and it is difficult to keep
+him out of it. But two horses pulling a hay-tedder will
+straddle the open strip between the swaths when the
+tedder is twice the width of the cut.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></p>
+
+<h4>HAY SKIDS</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_146" id="Fig_146"></a>
+<img src="images/illo165a.png" alt="Fig. 146" width="400" height="74" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 146.&mdash;Hay Skid. This hay skid is 8 feet wide and 16 feet
+long. It is made of <sup>7</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243; lumber put together with 2&#8243; carriage bolts&mdash;plenty
+of them. The round boltheads are countersunk into the
+bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats.
+It makes a low-down, easy-pitching, hay-hauling device.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_147" id="Fig_147"></a>
+<img src="images/illo165b.png" alt="Fig. 147" width="400" height="163" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 147.&mdash;Hay Sling. It takes no longer to hoist 500 pounds
+of hay than 100 pounds if the rig is large and strong enough. Four
+feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay
+quickly. But the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used
+on a wagon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_148" id="Fig_148"></a>
+<img src="images/illo166.png" alt="Fig. 148" width="400" height="319" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 148.&mdash;(1) Four-Tined Derrick Fork. (2) Pea Guard. An
+extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the
+cleanest way to harvest Canada peas. The old-fashioned way of
+pulling peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion. But the
+heavy bearing varieties still persist in crawling on the ground. If
+the vines are lifted and cut clean they can be raked into windrows
+with a spring tooth hayrake. (3) Haystack Knife. This style of
+hay-cutting knife is used almost universally on stacks and in hay-mows.
+There is less use for hay-knives since farmers adopted power
+hayforks to lift hay out of a mow as well as to put it in.</p></div>
+
+<p>Hay slips, or hay skids, are used on the old smooth
+fields in the eastern states. They are usually made of
+seven-eighths-inch boards dressed preferably on one
+side only. They are used smooth side to the ground to
+slip along easily. Rough side is up to better hold the
+hay from slipping. The long runner boards are held
+together by cross pieces made of inch boards twelve
+inches wide and well nailed at each intersection with
+nails well clinched. Small carriage bolts are better
+than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the
+bottom with the points up. They should be used without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+washers and the ends of the bolts cut close to the
+sunken nuts. The front end of the skid is rounded up
+slightly, sled runner fashion, as much as the boards
+will bear, to avoid digging into the sod to destroy either
+the grass roots or crowns of the plants. Hay usually is
+forked by hand from the windrows on to the skids.
+Sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the
+hay is forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped
+over each other in such a way as to hoist on to the stack
+without spilling out at the sides. Four hundred to
+eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+these skids, according to horse power and unevenness
+of the ground. They save labor, as compared to wagons,
+because there is no pitching up. All hoisting is
+supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a
+hay derrick.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_149" id="Fig_149"></a>
+<img src="images/illo167.png" alt="Fig. 149" width="200" height="378" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 149.&mdash;Double Harpoon Hayfork. This is a large size fork
+with extra long legs. For handling long hay that hangs together
+well this fork is a great success. It may be handled as quickly as
+a smaller fork and it carries a heavy load.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_150" id="Fig_150"></a>
+<img src="images/illo168.png" alt="Fig. 150" width="400" height="276" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 150.&mdash;Six-Tined Grapple Hayfork. It is balanced to hang
+as shown in the drawing when empty. It sinks into the hay easily
+and dumps quickly when the clutch is released.</p></div>
+
+<h4>WESTERN HAY DERRICKS</h4>
+
+<p>Two derricks for stacking hay, that are used extensively
+in the alfalfa districts of Idaho, are shown in
+the illustration, <a href="#Fig_151">Figure 151</a>. The derrick to the left is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+made with a square base of timbers which supports an
+upright mast and a horizontal boom. The timber base
+is sixteen feet square, made of five sticks of timber,
+each piece being 8 x 8 inches square by 16 feet in length.
+Two of the timbers rest flat on the ground and are
+rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the derrick
+across the stubble ground or along the road to the next
+hayfield. These sleigh runner timbers are notched on
+the upper side near each end and at the middle to receive
+the three cross timbers. The cross timbers also
+are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make
+a sort of double mortise. The timbers are bound together
+at the intersections by iron U-clamps that pass
+around both timbers and fasten through a flat iron
+plate on top of the upper timbers. These flat plates or
+bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of
+the U-irons pass through these holes and the nuts are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+screwed down tight. The sleigh runner timbers are recessed
+diagonally across the bottom to fit the round
+U-irons which are let into the bottoms of the timbers
+just enough to prevent scraping the earth when the
+derrick is being moved. These iron U-clamp fasteners
+are much stronger and better than bolts through the
+timbers.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_151" id="Fig_151"></a>
+<img src="images/illo169.png" alt="Fig. 151" width="400" height="334" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 151.&mdash;Idaho Hay Derricks. Two styles of hay derricks are
+used to stack alfalfa hay in Idaho. The drawing to the left shows
+the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move.
+The derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful.
+Wire cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears
+out quickly. They are similar in operation but different in construction.
+The base of each is 16 feet square and the high ends of the
+booms reach up nearly 40 feet. A single hayfork rope, or wire cable,
+is used; it is about 65 feet long. The reach is sufficient to drop the
+hay in the center of a stack 24 feet wide.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_152" id="Fig_152"></a>
+<img src="images/illo170.png" alt="Fig. 152" width="400" height="475" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 152.&mdash;Hay Carrier Carriage. Powerful carriers are part
+of the new barn. The track is double and the wheels run on both
+tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily
+when the clutch is released.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_153" id="Fig_153"></a>
+<img src="images/illo171.png" alt="Fig. 153" width="400" height="170" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 153.&mdash;(1) Hayfork Hitch. A whiffletree pulley doubles the
+speed of the fork. The knot in the rope gives double power to start
+the load. (2) Rafter Grapple, for attaching an extra pulley to any
+part of the barn roof.</p></div>
+
+<p>There are timber braces fitted across the corners
+which are bolted through the outside timbers to brace<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+the frame against a diamond tendency when moving
+the derrick. There is considerable strain when passing
+over uneven ground. It is better to make the frame so
+solid that it cannot get out of square. The mast is a
+stick of timber 8 inches square and 20 or 24 feet long.
+This mast is securely fastened solid to the center of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the
+center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid
+and held perpendicular to the framework by 4&#8243; x 4&#8243;
+wooden braces at the corners. These braces are notched
+at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast and
+are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of
+the timbers. They are held in place by bolts and by
+strap iron or band iron bands. These bands are drilled
+with holes and are spiked through into the timbers
+with four-inch or five-inch wire nails. Holes are drilled
+through the band iron the right size and at the proper
+places for the nails. The mast is made round at the
+top and is fitted with a heavy welded iron ring or band
+to prevent splitting. The boom is usually about 30
+feet long. Farmers prefer a round pole when they can
+get it. It is attached to the top of the mast by an iron
+stirrup made by a blacksmith. This stirrup is made
+to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third of the
+way up from the big end, which makes the small end
+of the boom project 20 feet out from the upper end
+of the mast. The iron stirrup is made heavy and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+strong. It has a round iron gudgeon 1<sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>2</sub>&#8243; in diameter
+that reaches down into the top of the mast about 18
+inches. The shoulder of the stirrup is supported by a
+square, flat iron plate which rests on and covers the
+top of the mast and has the corners turned down. It is
+made large to shed water and protect the top of the
+mast. This plate has a hole one and a half inches in
+diameter in the center through which the stirrup
+gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast. A farm
+chain, or logging chain, is fastened to the large end of
+the boom by passing the chain around the boom and
+engaging the round hook. The grab hook end of the
+chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked
+back to give it the right length, which doubles the part
+of the chain within reach of the man in charge. This
+double end of the chain is lengthened or shortened to
+elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack. The
+small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack
+goes up.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_154" id="Fig_154"></a>
+<img src="images/illo172.png" alt="Fig. 154" width="400" height="272" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 154.&mdash;Hay Rope Pulleys. The housing of the pulley to the
+left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>An ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the
+hay. Three single pulleys are attached, one to the
+outer end of the boom, one near the top of the mast,
+and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope
+passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and
+at the same time permits the boom to swing around as
+the fork goes up from the wagon rack over the stack.
+This swinging movement is regulated by tilting the
+derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over
+the stack by its own weight or by the weight of the hay
+on the horse fork. Usually a wire truss is rigged over
+the boom to stiffen it. The wire is attached to the boom
+at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to
+rest on a bridge placed over the stirrup.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_155" id="Fig_155"></a>
+<img src="images/illo173.png" alt="Fig. 155" width="400" height="195" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 155.&mdash;Gambrel Whiffletree, for use in hoisting hay to prevent
+entanglements. It is also handy when cultivating around
+fruit-trees.</p></div>
+
+<p>Farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because
+it is cheaply made and it may be easily moved because
+it is not heavy. It is automatic and it is about as cheap
+as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory for
+ordinary use. The base is large enough to make it solid
+and steady when in use. Before moving the point of
+the boom is lowered to a level position so that the derrick<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+is not top-heavy. There is little danger of upsetting
+upon ordinary farm lands. Also the width of 16
+feet will pass along country roads without meeting
+serious obstacles. Hay slings usually are made too
+narrow and too short. The ordinary little hay sling is
+prone to tip sideways and spill the hay. It is responsible
+for a great deal of profanity. The hay derrick
+shown to the right is somewhat different in construction,
+but is quite similar in action. The base is the
+same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an
+iron socket mortised into the center timber.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_156" id="Fig_156"></a>
+<img src="images/illo174.png" alt="Fig. 156" width="500" height="202" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 156.&mdash;Cable Hay Stacker. The wire cable is supported by
+the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing stakes. Two
+single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the bipods
+from slipping in at the top. Two double-cable clamps hold the
+ends of the cables to form stake loops.</p></div>
+
+<p>The wire hoisting cable is threaded differently, as
+shown in the drawing. This style of derrick is made
+larger, sometimes the peak reaches up 40&#8242; above the
+base. The extra large ones are awkward to move but
+they build fine big stacks.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_157" id="Fig_157"></a>
+<img src="images/illo175.png" alt="Fig. 157" width="400" height="356" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 157.&mdash;California Hay Ricker, for putting either wild hay
+or alfalfa quickly in ricks. It is used in connection with home-made
+buck rakes. This ricker works against the end of the rick
+and is backed away each time to start a new bench. The upright
+is made of light poles or 2 x 4s braced as shown. It should be 28 or
+30 feet high. Iron stakes hold the bottom, while guy wires steady
+the top.</p></div>
+
+<h4>CALIFORNIA HAY RICKER</h4>
+
+<p>In the West hay is often put up in long ricks instead
+of stacks. One of my jobs in California was to
+put up 2,700 acres of wild hay in the Sacramento Valley.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+I made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar
+to the ones shown in the illustrations. Each ricker was
+operated by a crew of eight men. Four men drove two
+buck rakes. There were two on the rick, one at the
+fork and one to drive the hoisting rig. Ten mowing
+machines did most of the cutting but I hired eight more
+machines towards the last, as the latest grass was getting
+too ripe. The crop measured more than 2,100
+tons and it was all put in ricks, stacks and barns without
+a drop of rain on it. I should add that rain seldom<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+falls in the lower Sacramento Valley during the
+haying season in the months of May and June. This
+refers to wild hay, which is made up of burr clover,
+wild oats and volunteer wheat and barley.</p>
+
+<p>Alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot interior
+valleys, so that if a farmer is rash enough to
+plant alfalfa under irrigation his haying thereafter
+will reach from one rainy season to the next.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h3>FARM CONVEYANCES</h3>
+
+<h4>STONE-BOAT</h4>
+
+<p>One of the most useful and one of the least ornamental
+conveyances on a farm is the stone-boat. It is
+a low-down handy rig for moving heavy commodities
+in summer as well as in winter. No other sleigh or
+wagon will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or
+harrows from one field to another. It is handy to tote
+bags of seed to supply the grain drill, to haul a barrel
+of water, feed for the hogs, and a great many other
+chores.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_158" id="Fig_158"></a>
+<img src="images/illo177.png" alt="Fig. 158" width="400" height="103" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 158.&mdash;Stone-Boat. Stump logs are selected for the planks.
+The bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots. The
+sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions.</p></div>
+
+<p>When the country was new, sawmills made a business
+of sawing stone-boat plank. Trees for stone-boat staves
+were cut close to the ground and the natural crooks of
+the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners and
+for stone-boats. But cast-iron noses are now manufactured
+with recesses to receive the ends of straight ordinary
+hardwood planks. These cast-iron ends are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+rounded up in front to make the necessary nose crook.
+The front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the
+front ends of the runner planks. Usually there are two
+other hardwood plank cross pieces, one near the rear
+end and the other about one-third of the way back from
+the front. Placing the cross pieces in this way gives
+room between to stand a barrel.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_159" id="Fig_159"></a>
+<img src="images/illo178.png" alt="Fig. 159" width="400" height="178" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 159.&mdash;Wheelbarrow. This factory-made wheelbarrow is the
+only pattern worth bothering with. It is cheap and answers the
+purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings.</p></div>
+
+<p>The cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom
+up. Round-headed bolts are used and they are countersunk,
+to come flush with the bottom of the sliding
+planks. The nuts are countersunk into the cross
+pieces by boring holes about one-quarter inch deep.
+The holes are a little larger than the cornerwise
+diameter of the nuts. No washers are used, and
+the nuts are screwed down tight into the plank.
+The ends of the bolts are cut off even and filed
+smooth. The nuts are placed sharp corner side down
+and are left nearly flush on top or even with the surface
+of the cross pieces. In using a stone-boat, nobody
+wants a projection to catch any part of the load.</p>
+
+<p>Regular doubletree clevises are attached to the
+corners of the old-fashioned stone-boat and the side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+chains are brought together to a ring and are just about
+long enough to form an equilateral triangle with the
+front end of the stone-boat. Cast-iron fronts usually
+have a projection in the center for the clevis hitch.</p>
+
+<h4>OXEN ON A NEW ENGLAND FARM</h4>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting experiences on a New
+England farm is to get acquainted with the manner in
+which oxen are pressed into farm service. One reason
+why oxen have never gone out of fashion in New England
+is the fact that they are patient enough to plow
+stony ground without smashing the plow.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal of New England farm land has been reclaimed
+by removing a portion of the surface stone.
+In the processes of freezing and thawing and cultivation,
+stones from underneath keep working up to the
+surface so that it requires considerable skill to do the
+necessary plowing and cultivating. Oxen ease the
+plowpoint over or around a rock so it can immediately
+dip in again to the full depth of the furrow. A good
+yoke of cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong
+and powerful.</p>
+
+<p>Oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and
+they are valuable for beef when they are not needed
+any longer as work animals. The Holstein breed seems
+to have the preference for oxen with New England
+farmers. The necessary harness for a pair of cattle
+consists of an ox yoke with a ringbolt through the center
+of the yoke, midway between the two oxen. A
+heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter, made of
+round iron, hangs from the ring bolt. There are two
+oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the necks of the
+cattle. A logging chain with a round hook on one end<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+and a grab hook on the other end completes the yoking
+outfit.</p>
+
+<p>The round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring
+in the plow clevis. The chain is passed through the
+large iron ring in the oxbow and is doubled back to get
+the right length. The grab hook is so constructed that
+it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next
+link standing crosswise prevents it from slipping.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanism of a logging chain is extremely simple,
+positive in action and especially well adapted to
+the use for which it is intended. The best mechanical
+inventions often pass without notice because of their
+simplicity. Farmers have used logging chains for generations
+with hooks made on this plan without realizing
+that they were profiting by a high grade invention
+that embodies superior merit.</p>
+
+<p>In yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally simple.
+The end of the wagon tongue is placed in the ring
+in the ox yoke, the round hook engages with a drawbolt
+under the hammer strap bar. The small grab hook
+is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought
+back and engaged with a chain link at the proper distance
+to stretch the chain taut.</p>
+
+<p>The process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a
+wagon is one of the most interesting performances on
+a farm. The off ox works on the off side, or far side
+from the driver. He usually is the larger of the two
+and the more intelligent. The near (pronounced
+n-i-g-h) ox is nearest to the driver who walks to the left.
+Old plows turned the furrow to the right so the driver
+could walk on hard ground. In this way the awkwardness
+and ignorance of the near ox is played against the
+docility and superior intelligence of the off ox. In
+yoking the two together the yoke is first placed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+neck of the off ox and the near ox is invited to come
+under. This expression is so apt that a great many
+years ago it became a classic in the hands of able writers
+to suggest submission or slavery termed &#8220;coming
+under the yoke.&#8221; Coming under the yoke, however,
+for the New England ox, in these days of abundant
+feeding, is no hardship. The oxen are large and powerful
+and the work they have to do is just about sufficient
+to give them the needed exercise to enjoy their alfalfa
+hay and feed of oats or corn.</p>
+
+<h4>TRAVOY</h4>
+
+<p>One of the first implements used by farm settlers in
+the timbered sections of the United States and Canada,
+was a three-cornered sled made from the fork of a tree.
+This rough sled, in the French speaking settlements,
+was called a &#8220;travoy.&#8221; Whether it was of Indian or
+French invention is not known; probably both Indians
+and French settlers used travoys for moving logs in the
+woods before American history was much written. The
+legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long.
+There is a bunk which extends crossways from one runner
+to the other, about half or two-thirds of the way
+back from the turned-up nose. This bunk is fastened
+to the runners by means of wooden pins and U-shaped
+bows fitted into grooves cut around the upper
+half of the bunk near the ends. Just back of the
+turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a
+stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an
+auger hole extending through both legs from side to
+side of the travoy. The underside of the crotch is
+hollowed out in front of the bolt to make room to pass
+the logging chain through so it comes out in front under
+the turned up nose.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_160" id="Fig_160"></a>
+<img src="images/illo182.png" alt="Fig. 160" width="400" height="182" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 160.&mdash;Travoy. A log-hauling sled made from the fork of a
+tree.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>The front of the travoy is turned up, sled runner
+fashion, by hewing the wood with an axe to give it the
+proper shape. Travoys are used to haul logs from a
+thick woods to the skidways. The manner of using a
+travoy is interesting. It is hauled by a yoke of cattle
+or a team of horses to the place where the log lies in the
+woods. The round hook end of the logging chain is
+thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back
+under the log then around the bunk just inside of the
+runner and hooked fast upon itself. The travoy is then
+leaned over against the log, the grab hook end of the
+chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and
+straightened out at right angles to the log. The cattle
+are hitched to the end of the logging chain and started.
+This kind of a hitch rolls the log over on top of the
+bunk on the travoy. The cattle are then unhitched.
+The grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed
+down and around under the other end of the bunk from
+behind. The chain is then passed over the bolt near
+the nose of the travoy and pulled down through the
+opening and out in front from under the nose. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+small grab hook of the logging chain is then passed
+through the clevis, in the doubletree, if horses are
+used, or the ring in the yoke if cattle are used, and
+hitched back to the proper length. A little experience
+is necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give
+the proper pull. The chain should be short enough so
+the pull lifts a little. It is generally conceded by
+woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier than a
+long hitch. However, there is a medium. There are
+limitations which experience only can determine. A
+travoy is useful in dense woods where there is a good
+deal of undergrowth or where there are places so
+rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage.</p>
+
+<h4>LINCHPIN FARM WAGONS</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_161" id="Fig_161"></a>
+<img src="images/illo183.png" alt="Fig. 161" width="400" height="139" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 161.&mdash;Cross Reach Wagon. This wagon is coupled for a
+trailer, but it works just as well when used with a tongue and
+horses as a handy farm wagon. The bunks are made rigid and
+parallel by means of a double reach. There are two king bolts to
+permit both axles to turn. Either end is front.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_162" id="Fig_162"></a>
+<img src="images/illo184a.png" alt="Fig. 162" width="400" height="173" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 162.&mdash;Wagon Brake. The hounds are tilted up to show the
+brake beam and the manner of attaching it. The brake lever is
+fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up alongside
+of the bolster stake. The brake rod reaches from the upper end
+of the lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon
+box.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc350"><a name="Fig_163" id="Fig_163"></a>
+<img src="images/illo184b.png" alt="Fig. 163" width="350" height="142" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 163.&mdash;Bolster Spring.</p></div>
+
+<p>In some parts of the country the wheels of handy
+wagons about the farm are held on axle journals by
+means of linchpins in the old-fashioned manner. There
+are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which project
+several inches beyond the wood. This is the best
+protection against sand to prevent it from working into
+the wheel boxing that has ever been invented. Sand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands
+and rolls off to the ground. There is a hole through
+each band on the outer ends of the hubs to pass the
+linchpin through so that before taking off a wheel to
+oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes
+directly over the linchpin. To pry out the linchpin the
+drawbolt is used. Old-fashioned drawbolts were made
+with a chisel shaped end tapered from both sides to a
+thickness of about an eighth of an inch. This thin
+wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of
+the linchpin. The lower side of the hub-band forms a
+fulcrum to pry the pin up through the hole in the upper
+side of the sand-band projection. The linchpin has
+a hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever
+is transferred to the top of the sand-band when another
+pry lifts the pin clear out of the hole in the end of the
+axle so the wheel may be removed and grease applied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+to the axle. The drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usually
+has a head made in the form of the jaws of a
+wrench. The wrench is the right size to fit the nuts on
+the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt answers
+three purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="figc200"><a name="Fig_164" id="Fig_164"></a>
+<img src="images/illo185a.png" alt="Fig. 164" width="200" height="141" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 164.&mdash;Wagon Seat
+Spring. The metal block fits
+over the top of the bolster
+stake.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc200"><a name="Fig_165" id="Fig_165"></a>
+<img src="images/illo185b.png" alt="Fig. 165" width="150" height="175" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 165.&mdash;Hollow Malleable
+Iron Bolster Stake to hold
+a higher wooden stake when
+necessary.</p></div>
+
+<h4>SAND-BANDS</h4>
+
+<p>Many parts of farm machinery require projecting
+sand-bands to protect the journals from sand and dust.
+Most farms have some sandy fields or ridges. Some
+farms are all sand or sandy loam. Even dust from clay
+is injurious to machinery. There is more or less grit
+in the finest clay. The most important parts of farm
+machinery are supposed to be protected by oil-cups
+containing cotton waste to strain the oil, together with
+covers in the shape of metal caps. These are necessary
+protections and they help, but they are not adequate
+for all conditions. It is not easy to keep sand out of
+bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal.
+Wooden plugs gather sand and dust. When a plug is
+pulled the sand drops into the oil hole. Farm machinery
+that is properly designed protects itself from
+sand and dust. In buying a machine this particular
+feature should appeal to the farmers more than it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+does. Leather caps are a nuisance. They are a sort
+of patchwork to finish the job that the manufacturer
+commences. A man who is provident enough to supply
+himself with good working tools and is sufficiently
+careful to take care of them, usually is particular about
+the appearance as well as the usefulness of his tools,
+machinery and implements.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_166" id="Fig_166"></a>
+<img src="images/illo186.png" alt="Fig. 166" width="250" height="299" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 166.&mdash;Sand Caps. Not one manufacturer in a hundred
+knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing. Still it is one of the
+simplest tricks in mechanics. The only protection an axle needs is
+long ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at
+both ends. Old-fashioned Linchpin farm wagons were built on this
+principle. The hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins, but they
+wore for years.</p></div>
+
+<h4>BOBSLEIGHS</h4>
+
+<p>On Northern farms bobsleighs are as important in
+the winter time as a farm wagon in summer. There are
+different ways of putting bobsleighs together according
+to the use required of them. When using heavy
+bobsleighs for road work, farmers favor the bolster
+reach to connect the front and rear sleighs. With this
+attachment the horses may be turned around against
+the rear sled. The front bolster fits into a recessed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh.
+This plate is a combination of wearing plate and circle
+and must be kept oiled to turn easily under a heavy
+load. It not only facilitates turning, but it prevents
+the bolster from catching on the raves or on the upturned
+nose of the front bob when turning short.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the
+two bolsters is put through a mortise through the front
+bolster and is fastened rigidly by an extra large king-bolt.
+The reach plays back and forth rather loosely
+through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the
+rear sleigh. The rear hounds connect with the reach
+by means of a link and pin. This link pushes up
+through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with
+a wooden pin or key on top of the reach. Sometimes
+the hounds are taken away and the reach is fastened
+with pins before and behind the rear bolster. This
+reach hitch is not recommended except for light road
+work. These two ways of attaching the rear sled necessitate
+different ways of fastening the rear bolster to
+the sled. When the rear bolster is required to do the
+pulling, it is attached to the sled by double eyebolts
+which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows
+the nose of the rear sled to bob up and down freely.
+This is an advantage when a long box bed is used, because
+the bolster is made to fit the box closely and is not
+continually oscillating and wearing. Eye-bolts provide
+for this natural movement of the sled. Light
+pleasure bobs are attached to the box with eyebolts
+without bolster stakes. The light passenger riding seat
+box is bound together with iron braces and side irons
+so it does not need bolsters to hold the sides together.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_167" id="Fig_167"></a>
+<img src="images/illo188.png" alt="Fig. 167" width="400" height="289" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 167.&mdash;Bobsleighs, Showing Three Kinds of Coupling. The
+upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan except
+that the reach is not mortised into the roller. It is gained in
+a quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and
+nuts on the under side. The bobs in the center show the bolster
+reach, principally used for road work. The bottom pair are coupled
+by cross chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the
+woods.</p></div>
+
+<p>Bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together
+quite differently. The old-fashioned reach with a staple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+in the rear bench of the first sled and a clevis in the end
+of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for rough roads in
+the woods. Such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead
+of bolsters. Bunks are usually cut from good hardwood
+trees, hewed out with an axe and bored for round
+stakes. Log bunks for easy loading do not project
+beyond the raves. With this kind of a rig, a farmer can
+fasten two logging chains to the reach, carry the grab
+hook ends out and under and around the log and back
+again over the sleighs, and then hitch the horses to the
+two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids
+and on to the bunks without doing any damage to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+bobsleighs. Bobsleighs hitched together with an old-fashioned
+reach and provided with wide heavy raves
+will climb over logs, pitch down into root holes, and
+weave their way in and out among trees better than any
+other sled contrivance, and they turn short enough for
+such roads. The shortest turning rig, however, is the
+cross chain reach shown in <a href="#Fig_167">Figure 167</a>.</p>
+
+<h4>MAKING A FARM CART</h4>
+
+<p>A two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of
+cider is a great convenience on a farm. The front
+wheels of a buggy are about the right size and usually
+are strong enough for cart purposes. A one-inch iron
+axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square
+bends. The axle is bent down near the hubs at right
+angles and carried across to support the floor of the
+cart box about one foot from the ground. The distance
+from the ground should be just sufficient so that when
+the cart is tipped back the hind end will rest on the
+ground with the bottom boards at an easy slant to roll
+a barrel or milk can into the bottom of the box. Under
+the back end of the cart platform is a good stout bar of
+hardwood framed into the sidepieces. All of the woodwork
+about the cart is well braced with iron. The floor
+of the cart is better when made of narrow matched
+hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick
+fastened with bolts. It should be well supported by
+cross pieces underneath. In fact the principal part of
+the box is the underneath part of the frame.</p>
+
+<p>Sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the
+vertical parts of the axle and braced in different directions
+to keep the frame solid, square and firm. The
+sides of the box are permanently fastened but both
+tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+and rods and are removable so that long scantling or
+lumber may be carried on the cart bottom. The ends
+of the box may be quickly put in place again when it
+is necessary to use them.</p>
+
+<p>To hold a cart box together, four rods are necessary,
+two across the front and two behind. They are made
+like tailboard rods in wagon boxes. There is always
+some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm
+cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or pushing.
+If a breast bar is used it handles better when supported
+by two curved projecting shafts or pieces of
+bent wood, preferably the bent up extended ends of the
+bedpieces. The handle bar should be about three feet
+from the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_168" id="Fig_168"></a>
+<img src="images/illo190.png" alt="Fig. 168" width="400" height="170" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 168.&mdash;Farm Cart. The axle need not be heavier than <sup>7</sup>&#8260;<sub>8</sub>&#8243;.
+The hind axle of a light buggy works the best. It is bent down and
+spliced and welded under the box. The cart should be made narrow
+to prevent overloading. The box should be low enough to rest the
+back end on the ground at an angle of about 35° for easy loading.</p></div>
+
+<h4>COLT-BREAKING SULKY</h4>
+
+<p>A pair of shafts that look a good deal too long, an
+axle, two wheels and a whiffletree are the principal
+parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The shafts are so long
+that a colt can kick his best without reaching anything
+behind. The principal danger is that he may come
+down with one hind leg over the shaft. It is a question
+with horsemen whether it is better to first start a colt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+alongside of an old, steady horse. But it is generally
+conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in
+such a way that he could kick himself loose. Different
+farmers have different ideas in regard to training colts,
+but these breaking carts with extra long shafts are very
+much used in some parts of the country. The shafts
+are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to
+make kicking impossible. A rope or heavy strap reaching
+from one shaft to the other over the colt&#8217;s hips will
+keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground. Any rig
+used in connection with a colt should be strong enough
+to withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put
+upon it. If the colt breaks something or breaks loose,
+it takes him a long time to forget the scare. Farm boys
+make these breaking carts by using wheels and hind
+axles of a worn-out buggy. This is well enough if the
+wheels are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and
+braced. It is easy to make a mistake with a colt. To
+prevent accidents it is much better to have the harness
+and wagon amply strong.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_169" id="Fig_169"></a>
+<img src="images/illo191.png" alt="Fig. 169" width="400" height="124" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 169.&mdash;Colt-Breaking Sulky. The axle and hind wheels of
+a light wagon, two strong straight-grained shafts about 4 feet too
+long, a whiffletree and a spring seat are the principal parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and
+clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the
+colt. The traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach anything
+to kick, and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching
+from one shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft. In
+this rig the colt is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn
+around. The axle should be longer than standard to prevent upsetting
+when the colt turns a corner at high speed.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h3>MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES</h3>
+
+<h4>FARM OFFICE</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_170" id="Fig_170"></a>
+<img src="images/illo192.png" alt="Fig. 170" width="400" height="316" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 170.&mdash;Perspective View of Two-Story Corn Crib. The side of
+the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery.</p></div>
+
+<p>Business farming requires an office. Business callers
+feel sensitive about talking farm or live-stock affairs
+before several members of the family. But they are
+quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his office.
+A farm office may be small but it should contain a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+desk or table, two or three chairs, book shelves for
+books, drawers for government bulletins and a cabinet
+to hold glassware and chemicals for making soil tests
+and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds before
+planting. A good glass is also valuable in tracing
+the destructive work of many kinds of insect pests.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_171" id="Fig_171"></a>
+<img src="images/illo193.png" alt="Fig. 171" width="500" height="542" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 171.&mdash;Floor Plans of Two-Story Corn Crib. The first
+floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the
+second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway,
+with location of the downspouts, stairway, etc.</p>
+<p class="caption center fsize80"><a href="images/large193.png">Large scale image</a> (1383 x 1500, 66 kB)</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>The office is the proper place for making germination
+tests of various farm seeds. Seventy degrees of
+heat is necessary for the best results in seed testing.
+For this reason, as well as for comfort while working,
+the heating problem should receive its share of attention.
+Many times it so happens that a farmer has a
+few minutes just before mealtime that he could devote
+to office work if the room be warm enough.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_172" id="Fig_172"></a>
+<img src="images/illo194a.png" alt="Fig. 172" width="400" height="139" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 172.&mdash;Economy of Round Barn. The diagrams show that
+the popular 36&#8242; x 80&#8242; cow stable and the commonest size of round
+barn have about the same capacity. Each barn will stable forty
+cows, but the round barn has room for a silo in the center. Both
+barns have feed overhead in the shape of hay and straw, but the
+round feed room saves steps.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_173" id="Fig_173"></a>
+<img src="images/illo194b.png" alt="Fig. 173" width="400" height="135" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 173.&mdash;Concrete Farm Scale Base and Pit.</p></div>
+
+<p>Neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are important.
+The sheets of paper should be eight and a
+half by eleven inches in size, pure white and of good
+quality. The printing should be plain black and of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+round medium-sized letters that may be easily read.
+Fancy lettering and flourishes are out of place on business
+stationery.</p>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_174" id="Fig_174"></a>
+<img src="images/illo195a.png" alt="Fig. 174" width="400" height="269" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 174.&mdash;Top View of the Hay-Track Roof Extension, showing
+the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_175" id="Fig_175"></a>
+<img src="images/illo195b.png" alt="Fig. 175" width="400" height="256" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 175.&mdash;Side view showing plan for building a Hayfork Hood
+to project from peak of a storage barn. The jack-rafters form a
+brace to support the end of the hay-track beam.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_176" id="Fig_176"></a>
+<img src="images/illo196.png" alt="Fig. 176" width="400" height="482" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 176.&mdash;Slaughter House. The house should be twelve feet
+wide. It may be any length to provide storage, but 12 x 12 makes a
+good beef skinning floor. The windlass shaft should be ten feet
+above the floor, which requires twelve-foot studding. The wheel is
+eight feet in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches.
+The animal is killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies
+limp against the revolving door. The door catch is sprung back and
+the carcass rolls down onto the concrete skinning floor.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>Halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings
+are better used on separate advertising sheets that may
+be folded in with the letters when wanted.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_177" id="Fig_177"></a>
+<img src="images/illo197a.png" alt="Fig. 177" width="400" height="279" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 177.&mdash;Rule of Six, Eight and Ten. Diagram showing how
+to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be
+made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_178" id="Fig_178"></a>
+<img src="images/illo197b.png" alt="Fig. 178" width="400" height="191" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 178.&mdash;Roof Truss built strong enough to support the roof of a
+farm garage without center posts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_179" id="Fig_179"></a>
+<img src="images/illo198a.png" alt="Fig. 179" width="400" height="217" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 179.&mdash;Design of Roof Truss Intended to Span a Farm Garage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_180" id="Fig_180"></a>
+<img src="images/illo198b.png" alt="Fig. 180" width="400" height="318" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 180.&mdash;Roof Pitches. Mow capacity of the different roof
+pitches is given above the plates in figures.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>Typewriters are so common that a hand-written letter
+is seldom seen among business correspondence. A
+busy farmer is not likely to acquire much speed with a
+typewriter, but his son or daughter may. One great<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+advantage is the making of carbon copies. Every letter
+received is then filed in a letter case in alphabetical
+order and a carbon copy of each answer is pinned to it
+for future reference.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_181" id="Fig_181"></a>
+<img src="images/illo199.png" alt="Fig. 181" width="400" height="264" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 181.&mdash;Double Corn Crib. Two cribs may be roofed this
+way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately. A storeroom is
+provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging.</p></div>
+
+<p>The cost of furnishing a farm office will depend upon
+the inclinations of the man. A cheap kitchen table
+may be used instead of an expensive mahogany desk.
+A new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars, but
+a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be obtained
+for twenty.</p>
+
+<p>A useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought
+for a dollar or two. Or considerable money may be invested
+in a high-powered microscope.</p>
+
+<h4>SPEED INDICATOR</h4>
+
+<p>The speed requirements of machines are given by
+the manufacturers. It is up to the farmer to determine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span>
+the size of pulleys and the speed of intermediate shafts
+between his engine and the machine to be driven. A
+speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at
+the center. The indicator pin then revolves with the
+shaft and the number of revolutions per minute are
+counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the second
+hand of a watch.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_182" id="Fig_182"></a>
+<img src="images/illo200a.png" alt="Fig. 182" width="400" height="101" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 182.&mdash;Speed Timers. Two styles. The point is held against
+the center of the shaft to be tested. The number of revolutions per
+minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial. The indicator
+is timed to the second hand of a watch.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_183" id="Fig_183"></a>
+<img src="images/illo200b.png" alt="Fig. 183" width="250" height="294" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 183.&mdash;Building Bracket. Made of 2 x 4 pieces put together
+at right angles with diagonal braces. The supporting leg fits between
+the four diagonal braces.</p></div>
+
+<h4>SOIL TOOLS</h4>
+
+<p>Soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop
+raising. Soil moisture may be measured by analysis.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203-<br />204-<br />205]</a><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></a></span>
+The first step is to obtain samples at different depths.
+This is done accurately and quickly with a good soil
+auger. Other paraphernalia is required to make a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></a></span>
+careful analysis of the sample, but a farmer of experience
+will make a mud ball and form a very good estimate
+of the amount of water in it.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_184" id="Fig_184"></a>
+<img src="images/illo201a.png" alt="Fig. 184" width="400" height="216" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 184.&mdash;Diagram showing how to cut a plank on a band-saw
+to form a curved rafter. The two pieces of the plank are spiked
+together as shown in the lower drawing. This makes a curved rafter
+without waste of material.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_185" id="Fig_185"></a>
+<img src="images/illo201b.png" alt="Fig. 185" width="400" height="262" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 185.&mdash;Breeding Crate for Hogs. The illustration shows the
+manner of construction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_186" id="Fig_186"></a>
+<img src="images/illo202a.png" alt="Fig. 186" width="400" height="150" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 186.&mdash;Soil Auger. Scientific farming demands that soils
+shall be tested for moisture. A long handled auger is used to bring
+samples of soil to the surface. The samples are weighed, the water
+evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of
+moisture.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_187" id="Fig_187"></a>
+<img src="images/illo202b.png" alt="Fig. 187" width="400" height="112" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 187.&mdash;Post Hole Diggers. Two patterns of the same kind
+of digger are shown. The first has iron handles, the lower has
+wooden handles.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_188" id="Fig_188"></a>
+<img src="images/illo202c.png" alt="Fig. 188" width="400" height="155" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 188.&mdash;Hoes and Weeders. The hang of a hoe affects its
+working. The upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle
+between the blade and the handle. The difference between a hoe and
+a weeder is that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to
+loosen the soil, while the blade of the weeder is intended to work
+parallel with the surface of the soil to cut young weeds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_189" id="Fig_189"></a>
+<img src="images/illo203a.png" alt="Fig. 189" width="400" height="138" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 189.&mdash;Manure Hook and Potato Diggers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_190" id="Fig_190"></a>
+<img src="images/illo203b.png" alt="Fig. 190" width="400" height="91" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 190.&mdash;Spud. Certain vegetables are grown for crop and
+for seed. The green plants are thinned with a spud for sale, leaving
+the best to ripen for seed. It is also used to dig tough weeds, especially
+those having tap roots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_191" id="Fig_191"></a>
+<img src="images/illo203c.png" alt="Fig. 191" width="400" height="100" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 191.&mdash;(1) Corn Cutting Knife. (2) Asparagus Knife.</p></div>
+
+<h4>FENCE-MAKING TOOLS</h4>
+
+<p><i>Sliding Field Gate.</i>&mdash;Each farm field should have
+a gate, not necessarily expensive, but it should be
+reasonably convenient. Farm field gates should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206-<br />207]</a><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></a></span>
+made sixteen feet long, which will allow for a clear
+opening about fourteen feet wide. The cheapest way
+to make a good farm gate is to use a 10-inch board for
+the bottom, 8-inch for the board next to the bottom and
+three 6-inch boards above that. The space between
+the bottom board and next board is two inches. This
+narrow space prevents hogs from lifting the gate with
+their noses. The spaces widen toward the top, so that
+the gate when finished is five feet high. If colts run the
+fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate.
+Six cross pieces 1 inch by 6 inches are used to hold
+the gate together. These cross pieces are bolted through
+at each intersection. Also a slanting brace is used on
+the front half of the gate to keep it from racking and
+this brace is put on with bolts. Two posts are set at
+each end of the gate. The front posts hold the front
+end of the gate between them, and the rear posts the
+same. There is a cross piece which reaches from one
+of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and
+hold it off the ground. A similar cross piece holds the
+front end of the gate up from the ground. Sometimes
+a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross piece to roll
+the gate if it is to be used a good deal. A plain, simple
+sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some distance
+from the barn.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_192" id="Fig_192"></a>
+<img src="images/illo204a.png" alt="Fig. 192" width="250" height="277" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 192.&mdash;(1) Plumb-Bob and Plumb-Line. The line is paid
+out about 6 feet from the spool and given a half hitch. It may then
+be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob. (2) Bipod.
+The legs of a fence bipod are cut 6 feet long. The bolt is put
+through 6 inches from the top ends. By the aid of the plummet the
+upper wire is strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and
+4&#8242; 6&#8243; above grade. The lower parts of the posts are set against the
+barb-wire and the upper faces of the posts at the top are set even
+with the upper wire. This plan not only places the posts in line,
+both at the top and bottom, but it regulates the height.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_193" id="Fig_193"></a>
+<img src="images/illo204b.png" alt="Fig. 193" width="400" height="217" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 193.&mdash;Fence Tools. The upper tool is a round steel pin to
+twist heavy brace wires. The scoop is for working stones out of
+post-holes. The steel crowbar is for working around the stones to
+loosen them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_194" id="Fig_194"></a>
+<img src="images/illo205.png" alt="Fig. 194" width="400" height="92" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 194.&mdash;Fence Pliers. This is a heavy fence tool made to pull
+fence staples and to stretch, cut and splice wire.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></p>
+
+<h4>CORN SHOCK HORSE</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_195" id="Fig_195"></a>
+<img src="images/illo206.png" alt="Fig. 195" width="400" height="63" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 195.&mdash;Corn Horse. When corn is cut by hand there is no
+better shocking device than the old-style corn horse. It is almost as
+handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder.</p></div>
+
+<p>A convenient corn shocking horse is made with a
+pole cut from a straight tree. The pole is about six
+inches through at the butt and tapers to a small end.
+About twenty feet is a good length. There are two legs
+which hold the large end of the pole up about 40&#8243; from
+the ground. These legs are well spread apart at the
+bottom. Two feet back from the legs is a horizontal
+hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to
+hold the crossbar. This crossbar may be an old broom
+handle. The pole and the crossbar mark the four divisions
+of a corn shock. Corn is cut and stood up in each
+corner, usually nine hills in a corner, giving thirty-six
+hills to a shock. Corn planted in rows is counted up to
+make about the same amount of corn to the shock. Of
+course a heavy or light crop must determine the number
+of rows or hills. When enough corn is cut for a
+shock it is tied with two bands, the crossbar is pulled
+out and the corn horse is dragged along to the next
+stand.</p>
+
+<h4>HUSKING-PIN</h4>
+
+<p>Hand huskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips
+of the ears are made of wood, bone or steel. Wooden
+husking-pins are made of ironwood, eucalyptus, second
+growth hickory, or some other tough hardwood. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209-<br />210-<br />211]</a><br /><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210"></a><br /><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a></span>
+pin is about four inches long, five-eighths of an inch
+thick and it is shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather
+long point. A recessed girdle is cut around the barrel
+of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and around
+this girdle. Generally the leather ring fits the larger
+finger to hold the pin in the right position while permitting
+it to turn to wear the point all around alike.
+Bone husking-pins are generally flat with a hole
+through the center to hold the leather finger ring. Steel
+husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to
+catch and tear the husks apart.</p>
+
+<div class="figc300"><a name="Fig_196" id="Fig_196"></a>
+<img src="images/illo207a.png" alt="Fig. 196" width="300" height="87" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 196.&mdash;Brick Trowel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc300"><a name="Fig_197" id="Fig_197"></a>
+<img src="images/illo207b.png" alt="Fig. 197" width="300" height="117" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 197.&mdash;Plastering Trowel.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_198" id="Fig_198"></a>
+<img src="images/illo207c.png" alt="Fig. 198" width="500" height="155" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 198.&mdash;Concrete Hog Wallow, showing drain pipe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_199" id="Fig_199"></a>
+<img src="images/illo207d.png" alt="Fig. 199" width="500" height="216" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 199.&mdash;Concrete Center Alley for Hog House. The upper
+illustration represents the wooden template used to form the center
+of the hog house floor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_200" id="Fig_200"></a>
+<img src="images/illo208a.png" alt="Fig. 200" width="400" height="184" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 200.&mdash;Sanitary Pig-Pen. One of the most satisfactory farrowing
+houses is constructed of concrete posts 6&#8243; square and 6&#8243;
+square mesh hog fencing and straw. The posts are set to make farrowing
+pens 8&#8242; wide and 16&#8242; deep from front to back. Woven wire
+is stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and
+back of each pen. Straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets,
+thus making partitions of straw 6&#8243; thick and 42&#8243; high. Fence wire
+is stretched over the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed
+rain. The front of the pens face the south and are closed by wooden
+gates. In the spring the pigs are turned out on pasture, the straw
+roof is hauled to the fields for manure and the straw partitions
+burned out. The sun shines into the skeleton pens all summer so
+that all mischievous bacteria are killed and the hog-lice are burned
+or starved. The next fall concrete floors may be laid in the pens,
+the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with another straw
+roof. In a colder climate I would cover the whole top with a straw
+roof. Sufficient ventilation would work through the straw partitions
+and the front gate. In very cold weather add a thin layer of straw
+to the gate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_201" id="Fig_201"></a>
+<img src="images/illo208b.png" alt="Fig. 201" width="500" height="205" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 201.&mdash;Concrete Wall Mold. Wooden molds for shaping a
+concrete wall may be made as shown. If the wall is to be low&mdash;2&#8242;
+or less&mdash;the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the
+sides together. The form is made level by first leveling the 2&#8243; x 6&#8243;
+stringers that support the form.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_202" id="Fig_202"></a>
+<img src="images/illo209a.png" alt="Fig. 202" width="400" height="60" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 202.&mdash;Husking-Pin. The leather finger ring is looped into the
+recess in the wooden pin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_203" id="Fig_203"></a>
+<img src="images/illo209b.png" alt="Fig. 203" width="400" height="157" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 203.&mdash;Harness Punch. The hollow punch points are of
+different sizes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_204" id="Fig_204"></a>
+<img src="images/illo209c.png" alt="Fig. 204" width="400" height="47" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 204.&mdash;Belt Punch. Two or three sizes should be kept in the
+tool box. Belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight. The
+smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing. Holes
+punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained
+hardwood.</p></div>
+
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></p>
+
+<h4>PAINT BRUSHES</h4>
+
+<p>Paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year
+without apparent injury. The paint should be deep
+enough to nearly bury the bristles. Pour a little boiled
+linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the air
+out. It is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the
+paint out of one that has been used.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_205" id="Fig_205"></a>
+<img src="images/illo210a.png" alt="Fig. 205" width="400" height="149" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 205.&mdash;Knots. The simple principles of knot tying as
+practiced on farms are here represented.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_206" id="Fig_206"></a>
+<img src="images/illo210b.png" alt="Fig. 206" width="200" height="50" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 206.&mdash;Sheepshank, two half hitches in a rope to take up
+slack. The rope may be folded upon itself as many times as necessary.</p></div>
+
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_207" id="Fig_207"></a>
+<img src="images/illo210c.png" alt="Fig. 207" width="400" height="91" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 207.&mdash;Marline Spike. Used for splicing ropes, tying rose
+knots, etc.</p></div>
+
+<h4>FRUIT PICKING</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_208" id="Fig_208"></a>
+<img src="images/illo211.png" alt="Fig. 208" width="400" height="183" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 208.&mdash;Fruit-Picking Tray. It is used for picking grapes
+and other fruits. The California lug box has vertical sides and is
+the same size top and bottom. Otherwise the construction is
+similar.</p></div>
+
+<p>Apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men
+who understand the business of getting high prices.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+Picking boxes for apples have bothered orchard men
+more than any other part of the business. It is so
+difficult to get help to handle apples without bruising
+that many inventions have been tried to lessen the damage.
+In western New York a tray with vertical ends
+and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers
+as the most convenient tray for grapes. Apple growers
+are adopting the same tray. It is made of three-eighths-inch
+lumber cut 30 inches long for the sides,
+using two strips for each side. The bottom is 30 inches
+long and three-eighths of an inch thick, made in one
+piece. The ends are seven-eighths of an inch thick cut
+to a bevel so the top edge of the end piece is fourteen
+inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long. The
+depth of the end piece is eight inches. Hand cleats
+are nailed on the outsides of the end pieces so as to project
+one-half inch above the top. These cleats not only
+serve to lift and carry the trays, but when they are
+loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats
+to hold them from slipping endways. In piling these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+picking boxes empty, one end is slipped outward over
+the cleat until the other end drops down. This permits
+half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or
+when loaded on wagons to move to the orchard.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_209" id="Fig_209"></a>
+<img src="images/illo212.png" alt="Fig. 209" width="300" height="348" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 209.&mdash;Fruit Thinning Nippers. Three styles of apple-stem
+cutters are shown. They are also used for picking grapes and
+other fruits.</p></div>
+
+<p>Apples are picked into the trays from the trees. The
+trays are loaded on to wagons or stone-boats and
+hauled to the packing shed, where the apples are rolled
+out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to the
+cushioned bottom of the sorting table. Orchard men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+should have crates enough to keep the pickers busy without
+emptying until they are hauled to the packing
+shed. The use of such trays or crates save handling
+the apples over several times. The less apples are
+handled the fewer bruises are made.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_210" id="Fig_210"></a>
+<img src="images/illo213.png" alt="Fig. 210" width="250" height="292" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 210.&mdash;Apple Picking Ladder. When apples are picked and
+placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient
+for holding the trays.</p></div>
+
+<p>In California similar trays are used, but they have
+straight sides and are called lug boxes. Eastern fruit
+men prefer the sloping sides because they may be
+emptied easily, quickly and gently.</p>
+
+<h4>FRUIT PICKING LADDERS</h4>
+
+<p>Commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bearing
+fruit spurs as near the ground as possible, so that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+ladders used at picking time are not so long as they
+used to be.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_211" id="Fig_211"></a>
+<img src="images/illo214a.png" alt="Fig. 211" width="350" height="275" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 211.&mdash;Stepladder and Apple-Picking Bag. This ladder has
+only three feet, but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to prevent
+upsetting. This bag is useful when picking scattering apples
+on the outer or upper branches. Picking bags carelessly used are the
+cause of many bruised apples.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_212" id="Fig_212"></a>
+<img src="images/illo214b.png" alt="Fig. 212" width="400" height="92" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 212.&mdash;Tree Pruners. The best made pruners are the
+cheapest. This long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from
+the cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles. A
+positive stop prevents the handles from coming together. Small
+one-hand pruning nippers are made for clean cutting. The blades
+of both pruners should work towards the tree trunk so the hook will
+mash the bark on the discarded portion of the limb.</p></div>
+
+<p>The illustration shows one of the most convenient
+picking ladders. It is a double ladder with shelves to
+hold picking trays supported by two wheels and two
+legs. The wheels which are used to support one side<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+of the frame are usually old buggy wheels. A hind
+axle together with the wheels works about right. The
+ladder frame is about eight feet high with ladder steps
+going up from each side. These steps also form the
+support for the shelves. Picking trays or boxes are
+placed on the shelves, so the latter will hold eight or
+ten bushels of apples, and may be wheeled directly to
+the packing shed if the distance is not too great.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_213" id="Fig_213"></a>
+<img src="images/illo215.png" alt="Fig. 213" width="400" height="53" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 213.&mdash;Shears. The first pair is used for sheep shearing.
+The second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of walks
+and flower beds.</p></div>
+
+<p>Step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more convenient
+to get up into the middle of the tree than almost
+any other kind of ladder. Commercial apple
+trees have open tops to admit sunshine. For this reason,
+straight ladders are not much used. It is necessary
+to have ladders built so they will support themselves.
+Sometimes only one leg is used in front of a
+step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the bottom
+and taper to a point at the top. The kind of ladder
+to use depends upon the size of the trees and the
+manner in which they have been pruned. Usually it
+is better to have several kinds of ladders of different
+sizes and lengths. Pickers then have no occasion to
+wait for each other.</p>
+
+<h4>FEEDING RACKS</h4>
+
+<p>Special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs
+are built with slatted sides hinged at the top so they
+will swing in when the hogs crowd their noses through<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+to get the hay. This movement drops the hay down
+within reach. Alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a
+winter feed for breeding stock. Sows may be wintered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+on alfalfa with one ear of corn a day and come out in
+the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine litter of pigs.
+Alfalfa is a strong protein feed. It furnishes the
+muscle-forming substances necessary for the young
+litter by causing a copious flow of milk. One ear of
+corn a day is sufficient to keep the sow in good condition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+without laying on too much fat. When shoats
+are fed in the winter for fattening, alfalfa hay helps
+them to grow. In connection with grain it increases
+the weight rapidly without adding a great deal of expense
+to the ration. Alfalfa in every instance is intended
+as a roughage, as an appetizer and as a protein
+feed. Fat must be added by the use of corn, kaffir corn,
+Canada peas, barley or other grains. Alfalfa hay is
+intended to take the place of summer pasture in winter
+more than as a fattening ration.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_214" id="Fig_214"></a>
+<img src="images/illo216a.png" alt="Fig. 214" width="350" height="300" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 214.&mdash;Horse Feeding Rack. This is a barnyard hay feeder
+for horses and colts. The diagonal boarding braces each corner post
+and leaves large openings at the sides. Horses shy at small hay
+holes. The top boards and the top rail are 2 x 4s for strength. The
+bottom is floored to save the chaff.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_215" id="Fig_215"></a>
+<img src="images/illo216b.png" alt="Fig. 215" width="250" height="241" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 215.&mdash;Corner Post Detail of Horse Feeding Rack. A 2 x 6
+is spiked into the edge of a 2 x 4, making a corner post 6&#8243; across.
+The side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and the
+open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_216" id="Fig_216"></a>
+<img src="images/illo217a.png" alt="Fig. 216" width="300" height="215" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 216.&mdash;Automatic Hog Feeder. The little building is 8&#8242; x 12&#8242;
+on the ground and it is 10&#8242; high to the plates. The crushed grain
+is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as fast
+as the hogs eat it. The floor is made of matched lumber. It should
+stand on a dry concrete floor.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_217" id="Fig_217"></a>
+<img src="images/illo217b.png" alt="Fig. 217" width="350" height="214" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 217.&mdash;Sheep Feeding Rack. The hay bottom and grain
+trough sides slope together at 45° angles. The boarding is made
+tight to hold chaff and grain from wasting.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_218" id="Fig_218"></a>
+<img src="images/illo218.png" alt="Fig. 218" width="400" height="151" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 218.&mdash;Rack Base and Sides. The 2 x 4s are halved at the
+ends and put together at right angles. These frames are placed 3&#8242;
+apart and covered with matched flooring. Light braces should be
+nailed across these frames a few inches up from the ground. The
+1 x 4 pickets are placed 7&#8243; apart in the clear, so the sheep can get
+their heads through to feed. These picketed frames are bolted to
+the base and framed around the top. If the rack is more than 9&#8242;
+long there should be a center tie or partition. Twelve feet is a good
+length to make the racks.</p></div>
+
+<h4>SPLIT-LOG ROAD DRAG</h4>
+
+<p>The only low cost road grader of value is the split-log
+road drag. It should be exactly what the name implies.
+It should be made from a light log about eight
+inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw.
+Plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of
+split logs, but the real principle is lost because such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+drags are too heavy and clumsy. They cannot be
+quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met
+with while in use.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_219" id="Fig_219"></a>
+<img src="images/illo219.png" alt="Fig. 219" width="200" height="369" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 219.&mdash;Hog Trough. In a winter hog house the feed trough
+is placed next to the alley or passageway. A cement trough is best.
+A drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while
+putting feed in the trough. The same gate is opened up level to
+admit hogs to the pen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_220" id="Fig_220"></a>
+<img src="images/illo220a.png" alt="Fig. 220" width="400" height="167" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 220.&mdash;Reinforced Hog Trough. The section of hog trough
+to the left is reinforced with chicken wire, one-inch mesh. The
+trough to the right is reinforced with seven <sup>1</sup>&#8260;<sub>4</sub>&#8243; rods&mdash;three in the
+bottom and two in each side.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_221" id="Fig_221"></a>
+<img src="images/illo220b.png" alt="Fig. 221" width="300" height="253" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 221.&mdash;Double Poultry Feeding Trough with Partition in the
+Center.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_222" id="Fig_222"></a>
+<img src="images/illo220c.png" alt="Fig. 222" width="350" height="112" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 222.&mdash;Poultry Feeder with Metal or Crockery Receptacle.</p></div>
+
+<p>The illustration shows the right way of making a
+road drag, and the manner in which it is drawn along
+at an angle to the roadway so as to move the earth
+from the sides towards the center, but illustrations are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222-<br />223]</a><br /><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223"></a></span>
+useless for showing how to operate them to do good
+work. The eccentricities of a split-log road drag may
+be learned in one lesson by riding it over a mile or two
+of country road shortly after the frost has left the
+ground in the spring of the year. It will be noticed
+that the front half of the road drag presents the flat
+side of the split log to the work of shaving off the lumps
+while the other half log levels and smooths and puddles
+the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded
+side. Puddling makes earth waterproof. The front,
+or cutting edge, is faced with steel. The ridges and
+humps are cut and shoved straight ahead or to one
+side to fill holes and ruts. This is done by the driver,
+who shifts his weight from one end to the other, and
+from front to back of his standing platform to distribute
+the earth to the best advantage. The rounded
+side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place
+and leaves the surface smooth.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_223" id="Fig_223"></a>
+<img src="images/illo221.png" alt="Fig. 223" width="400" height="168" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 223.&mdash;Split-Log Road Drag. The front edge is shod with
+a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log
+grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks
+and water holes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_224" id="Fig_224"></a>
+<img src="images/illo222.png" alt="Fig. 224" width="400" height="115" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 224.&mdash;Heavy Breaking Plow, used for road work and other
+tough jobs.</p></div>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, the habit of using narrow tired wagons
+on country roads has become almost universal in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+the United States. To add to their destructive propensities,
+all wagons in some parts of the country have the
+same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths
+made by other wheels, until they cut ruts of considerable
+depth. These little narrow ditches hold water so
+that it cannot run off into the drains at the sides of the
+roadway. When a rut gets started, each passing wheel
+squeezes out the muddy water, or if the wheel be revolving
+at a speed faster than a walk it throws the
+water, and the water carries part of the roadway with
+it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts
+are made deeper. In some limited sections road rules
+demand that wagons shall have wide tires and have
+shorter front axles, so that with the wide tires and the
+uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of rut
+makers. It is difficult to introduce such requirements
+into every farm section. In the meantime the evils of
+narrow tires may be overcome to a certain extent by
+the persistent and proper use of the split-log road drag.
+These drags are most effectual in the springtime when
+the frost is coming out of the ground. During the
+muddy season the roads get worked up into ruts and
+mire holes, which, if taken in time, may be filled by
+running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the
+earth is still soft. When the ground shows dry on top<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>
+and is still soft and wet underneath is the time the
+drags do the best work by scraping the drier hummocks
+into the low places where the earth settles hard as it
+dries.</p>
+
+<p>A well rounded, smooth road does not get muddy in
+the summer time. Summer rains usually come with a
+dash. Considerable water falls in a short time, and
+the very act of falling with force first lays the dust,
+then packs the surface. The smooth packed surface
+acts like a roof, and almost before the rain stops falling
+all surface water is drained off to the sides so that an
+inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard as
+it was before the rain. That is the reason why split log
+road drags used persistently in the spring and occasionally
+later in the season will preserve good roads all
+summer. It is very much better to follow each summer
+rain with the road drag, but it is not so necessary as
+immediate attention at the proper time in spring. Besides,
+farmers are so busy during the summer months
+that they find it difficult to spend the time. In some
+sections of the middle West one man is hired to do the
+dragging at so much per trip over the road. He makes
+his calculations accordingly and is prepared to do the
+dragging at all seasons when needed. This plan usually
+works out the best because one man then makes it
+his business and he gets paid for the amount of work
+performed. This man should live at the far end of the
+road division so that he can smooth his own pathway
+leading to town.</p>
+
+<h4>STEEL ROAD DRAG</h4>
+
+<p>Manufacturers are making road drags of steel with
+tempered blades adjustable to any angle by simply
+moving the lever until the dog engages in the proper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+notch. Some of these machines are made with blades
+reversible, so that the other side can be used for cutting
+when the first edge is worn. For summer use the
+steel drag works very well, but it lacks the smoothing
+action of a well balanced log drag.</p>
+
+<h4>SEED HOUSE AND BARN TRUCKS</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_225" id="Fig_225"></a>
+<img src="images/illo224.png" alt="Fig. 225" width="400" height="235" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 225.&mdash;Barn Trucks. The platform truck is made to move
+boxed apples and other fruit. The bag truck is well proportioned
+and strong, but is not full ironed.</p></div>
+
+<p>Bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds
+should be heavy. Bag truck wheels should be eight
+inches in diameter with a three-inch face. The steel
+bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be
+twenty-two inches in length. That means that the bottom
+of the truck in front is twenty-two inches wide.
+The wheels run behind this bar so the hubs do not project
+to catch against standing bags or door frames. The
+length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the
+top end of the hand crook is four feet, six inches. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+buying bag trucks it is better to get the heavy solid
+kind that will not upset. The light ones are a great
+nuisance when running them over uneven floors. The
+wheels are too narrow and too close together and the
+trucks tip over under slight provocation. Platform
+trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse
+also should be heavy. The most approved platform
+truck, the kind that market men use, is made with a
+frame four feet in length by two feet in width. The
+frame is made of good solid hardwood put together
+with mortise and tenon. The cross pieces or stiles
+are three-quarters of an inch lower than the side pieces
+or rails, which space is filled with hardwood flooring
+boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up
+flush with the side timbers. The top of the platform
+should be sixteen inches up from the floor. There are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+two standards in front which carry a wooden crossbar
+over the front end of the truck. This crossbar is used
+for a handle to push or pull the truck. The height of
+the handle-bar from the floor is three feet. Rear wheels
+are five inches in diameter and work
+on a swivel so they turn in any direction
+like a castor. The two front
+wheels carry the main weight. They
+are twelve inches in diameter with a
+three-inch face. The wheels are bored
+to fit a one-inch steel axle and have
+wide boxings bolted to the main timbers
+of the truck frame. Like the
+two-wheel bag truck, the wheels of
+the platform truck are under the
+frame so they do not project out in
+the way, which is a great advantage
+when the truck is being used in a
+crowded place.</p>
+
+<div class="figc300"><a name="Fig_226" id="Fig_226"></a>
+<img src="images/illo225.png" alt="Fig. 226" width="150" height="377" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 226.&mdash;Farm Gate Post with Copper Mail Box.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc300"><a name="Fig_227" id="Fig_227"></a>
+<img src="images/illo226.png" alt="Fig. 227" width="250" height="368" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 227.&mdash;Concrete Post Supporting a Water&shy;proof Clothes Line
+Reel Box.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc300"><a name="Fig_228" id="Fig_228"></a>
+<img src="images/illo227.png" alt="Fig. 228" width="125" height="332" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 228.&mdash;Dumb
+Waiter. The
+cage is poised by a
+counterweight. It
+is guided by a rope
+belt which runs on
+grooved pulleys at
+the top and bottom.</p></div>
+
+<h4>HOME CANNING OUTFIT</h4>
+
+<p>There are small canning outfits
+manufactured and sold for farm use
+that work on the factory principle.
+For canning vegetables, the heating is
+done under pressure because a great
+deal of heat is necessary to destroy
+the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans. Steam
+under pressure is a good deal hotter than boiling water.
+There is considerable work in using a canning outfit,
+but it gets the canning out of the way quickly. Extra
+help may be employed for a few days to do the canning
+on the same principle that farmers employ extra help
+at threshing time and do it all up at once. Of course,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+fruits and vegetables keep coming along at different
+times in the summer, but the fall fruit canning may
+be done at two or three sittings arranged a week or two
+apart and enough fruit packed away in the cellar to
+last a big family a whole year. Canning machinery is
+simple and inexpensive. These outfits may be bought
+from $10 up. Probably a $20 or $25 canner would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+be large enough for a large family, or a dozen different
+families if it could be run on a co-operative
+plan.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_229" id="Fig_229"></a>
+<img src="images/illo228a.png" alt="Fig. 229" width="400" height="88" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 229.&mdash;Clothes Line Tightener. This device is made of No. 9
+wire bent as shown in the illustration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_230" id="Fig_230"></a>
+<img src="images/illo228b.png" alt="Fig. 230" width="300" height="245" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 230.&mdash;Goat Stall. Milch goats are milked on a raised
+platform. Feed is placed in the manger. The opening in the side
+of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_231" id="Fig_231"></a>
+<img src="images/illo229.png" alt="Fig. 231" width="300" height="397" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 231.&mdash;Horse Clippers. Hand clippers are shown to the
+left. The flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand
+for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep, but for real business
+it should be driven by an electric motor.</p></div>
+
+<h4>ELECTRIC TOWEL</h4>
+
+<p>The &#8220;air towel&#8221; is sanitary, as well as an economical
+method of drying the hands. A foot pedal closes a quick-acting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+switch, thereby putting into operation a blower
+that forces air through an electric heating device so
+arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts
+of the hands at the same time. The supply of hot air
+continues as long as the foot pedal is depressed. The
+hands are thoroughly dried in thirty seconds.</p>
+
+<h4>STALLS FOR MILCH GOATS</h4>
+
+<p>Milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like
+cows. The front of the manger is boarded tight with
+the exception of a round hole about two feet high and
+a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to
+within a few inches of the floor. The round hole is
+made large enough so that the goat puts her head
+through to reach the feed, and the slit is narrow enough
+so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall.
+This is a device to save fodder.</p>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_232" id="Fig_232"></a>
+<img src="images/illo230.png" alt="Fig. 232" width="400" height="60" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 232.&mdash;Hog Catching Hook. The wooden handle fits loosely
+into the iron socket. As soon as the hog&#8217;s hind leg is engaged the
+wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut.</p></div>
+
+<h4>STABLE HELPS</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_233" id="Fig_233"></a>
+<img src="images/illo231a.png" alt="Fig. 233" width="400" height="31" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 233.&mdash;Bull Nose-Chain. Cross bulls may be turned out to
+pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this
+into the nose-ring. The chain should be just long enough to swing
+and wrap around the bull&#8217;s front legs when he is running. Also the
+length is intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with
+his front feet. There is some danger of pulling the nose ring out.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_234" id="Fig_234"></a>
+<img src="images/illo231b.png" alt="Fig. 234" width="400" height="271" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 234.&mdash;Manure Carriers. There are two kinds of manure
+carriers in general use. The principal difference is the elevator
+attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the
+usual level dump.</p></div>
+
+<p>Overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible.
+Litter or feed carriers and manure carriers run on the
+same kind of a track, the only difference is in size and
+shape of the car and the manner in which the contents
+are unloaded. Manure carriers and litter carriers have
+a continuous track that runs along over the manure
+gutters and overhead lengthwise of the feed alleys.
+There are a number of different kinds of carriers manufactured,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+all of which seem to do good service. The
+object is to save labor in doing the necessary work
+about dairy stables. To get the greatest possible profit
+from cows, it is absolutely necessary that the stable
+should be kept clean and sanitary, also that the cows
+shall be properly fed several times a day. Different
+kinds of feed are given at the different feeding periods.
+It is impossible to have all the different kinds of food
+stored in sufficient quantities within easy reach of the
+cows. Hence, the necessity of installing some mechanical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+arrangement to fetch and carry. The only floor
+carrier in use in dairy stables is a truck for silage.
+Not in every stable is this the case. Sometimes a feed
+carrier is run directly to the silo. It
+depends a good deal on the floor what
+kind of a carrier is best for silage.
+The advantage of an overhead track
+is, that it is always free from litter.
+Where floor trucks are used, it is
+necessary to keep the floor bare of
+obstruction. This is not considered
+a disadvantage because the floor
+should be kept clean anyway.</p>
+
+<div class="figc200"><a name="Fig_235" id="Fig_235"></a>
+<img src="images/illo232.png" alt="Fig. 235" width="100" height="370" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 235.&mdash;Cow
+Stanchion. Wooden
+cow stanchions
+may be made as
+comfortable for the
+cows as the iron
+ones.</p></div>
+
+<h4>HOUSE PLUMBING</h4>
+
+<p>When water is pumped by an engine
+and stored for use in a tank to
+be delivered under pressure in the
+house, then the additional cost of hot
+and cold water and the necessary sink
+and bath room fixtures is comparatively
+small. Modern plumbing fixtures
+fit so perfectly and go together
+so easily that the cost of installing
+house plumbing in the country has
+been materially reduced, while the
+dangers from noxious gases have been
+entirely eliminated. Open ventilator
+pipes carry the poisonous gases up
+through the roof of the house to float harmlessly away
+in the atmosphere. Septic tanks take care of the sewerage
+better than the sewer systems in some towns.
+Plumbing fixtures may be cheap or expensive, according
+to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+cheaper grades are just as useful, but there are expensive
+outfits that are very much more ornamental.</p>
+
+<h4>FARM SEPTIC TANK</h4>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_236" id="Fig_236"></a>
+<img src="images/illo233a.png" alt="Fig. 236" width="250" height="160" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 236.&mdash;Frame for Holding Record Sheets in a Dairy Stable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figc400"><a name="Fig_237" id="Fig_237"></a>
+<img src="images/illo233b.png" alt="Fig. 237" width="400" height="138" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 237.&mdash;Loading Shute for Hogs. This loading shute is made
+portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow.</p></div>
+
+<p>Supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse
+demands a septic tank to get rid of the waste. A septic
+tank is a scientific receptacle to take the poison out of
+sewerage. It is a simple affair consisting of two underground
+compartments, made water-tight, with a sewer
+pipe to lead the waste water from the house into the
+first compartment and a drain to carry the denatured
+sewerage away from the second compartment. The
+first compartment is open to the atmosphere, through a
+ventilator, but the second compartment is made as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+nearly air-tight as possible. The scientific working of a
+septic tank depends upon the destructive work of two
+kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anaerobic
+forms of bacteria. Sewerage in the first tank is worked
+over by aerobic bacteria, the kind that require a small
+amount of oxygen in order to live and carry on their
+work. The second compartment is inhabited by anaerobic
+bacteria, or forms of microscopic life that work
+practically without air. The principles of construction
+require that a septic tank shall be large enough to
+contain two days&#8217; supply of sewerage in each compartment;
+thus, requiring four days for the sewerage to
+enter and leave the tank.</p>
+
+<div class="figc350"><a name="Fig_238" id="Fig_238"></a>
+<img src="images/illo234.png" alt="Fig. 238" width="350" height="249" />
+<p class="caption">Figure 238.&mdash;Brass Valves. Two kinds of globe valves are used in
+farm waterworks. The straight valve shown to the left and the
+right angle valve to the right. Either one may be fitted with a long
+shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent
+freezing.</p></div>
+
+<p>Estimating 75 gallons daily of sewerage for each inhabitant
+of the house and four persons to a family, the
+septic tank should be large enough to hold 600 gallons,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+three hundred gallons in each compartment, which
+would require a tank about four feet in width and six
+feet in length and four feet in depth. These figures
+embrace more cubic feet of tank than necessary to meet
+the foregoing requirements. It is a good plan to leave
+a margin of safety.</p>
+
+<div class="figc500"><a name="Fig_239" id="Fig_239"></a>
+<img src="images/illo235.png" alt="Fig. 239" width="500" height="265" />
+<p class="caption center">Figure 239.&mdash;Septic Tank, a double antiseptic process for purifying
+sewerage.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is usual to lay a vitrified sewer, four inches in
+diameter, from below the bottom of the cellar to the
+septic tank, giving it a fall of one-eighth inch in ten
+feet. The sewer enters the tank at the top of the standing
+liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the
+house through an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches
+to within about six inches of the bottom of the tank.
+The reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage without
+disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the
+tank. The scum is a protection for the bacteria. It
+helps them to carry on their work of destruction. The
+same principle applies to the second compartment.
+The liquid from the first compartment is carried over
+into the second compartment by means of a bent pipe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+in the form of a siphon which fills up gradually and
+empties automatically when the liquid in the first compartment
+rises to a certain level. The discharging
+siphon leg should be the shortest. The liquid from the
+second compartment is discharged into the drain in the
+same manner. There are special valves made for the
+final discharge, but they are not necessary. The bottom
+of the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage
+from two to four feet in depth. The top surface of the
+liquid in the tank is held down to a level of at least six
+inches below the bottom of the cellar. So there is no
+possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing
+up towards the house. Usually the vitrified sewer pipe
+is four inches in diameter, the septic tank siphons for
+a small tank are three inches in diameter and the final
+discharge pipe is three inches in diameter, with a rapid
+fall for the first ten feet after leaving the tank.</p>
+
+<p>Septic tanks should be made of concrete, waterproofed
+on the inside to prevent the possibility of seepage.
+Septic tank tops are made of reinforced concrete
+with manhole openings. Also the manhole covers are
+made of reinforced concrete, either beveled to fit the
+openings or made considerably larger than the opening,
+so that they sit down flat on the top surface of the
+tank. These covers are always deep enough down in
+the ground so that when covered over the earth holds
+them in place.</p>
+
+<p>In laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to
+calk each joint with okum or lead, or okum reinforced
+with cement. It is almost impossible to make a joint
+tight with cement alone, although it can be done by an
+expert. Each length of the sewer-pipe should be given
+a uniform grade. The vitrified sewer is trapped outside
+of the building with an ordinary S-trap ventilated,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+which leaves the sewer open to the atmosphere and prevents
+the possibility of back-pressure that might drive
+the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage
+through the sewer back into the house. In this way, the
+septic tank is made entirely separate from the house
+plumbing, except that the two systems are connected at
+this outside trap.</p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes recommended that the waste water
+from the second compartment shall be distributed
+through a series of drains made with three-inch or
+four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of
+drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly
+organized field drainage system. Generally speaking,
+the final discharge of liquid from a septic tank that is
+properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless. However,
+it is better to use every possible precaution to preserve
+the health of the family, and it is better to dispose
+of the final waste in such a way as to prevent any
+farm animal from drinking it.</p>
+
+<p>While manholes are built into septic tanks for the
+purpose of examination, in practice they are seldom
+required. If the tanks are properly built and rightly
+proportioned to the sewerage requirements they will
+take care of the waste water from the house year after
+year without attention. Should any accidents occur,
+they are more likely to be caused by a leakage in the
+vitrified sewer than from any other cause. Manufacturers
+of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons together
+with instructions for placing them properly in
+the concrete walls. Some firms supply advertising
+matter from which to work out the actual size and proportions
+of the different compartments and all connections.
+The making of a septic tank is simple when the
+principle is once understood.</p>
+
+<hr class="c05" />
+<p class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<table summary="Index">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3" class="right top padl1 fsize80">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Acetylene gas</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Air pressure pump</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Anvil</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Apple-picking bag</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 1em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">ladder</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Asparagus knife</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Auger, ship</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Auger-bit</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Automatic hog feeder</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Axles, wagon</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Babbitting boxings</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Barn trucks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Belt punch</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">work</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bench and vise</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bench for iron work</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">for woodworking</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bipod</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bits, extension boring</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bit, twist-drill, for wood-boring</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Blacksmith hammers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">shop</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Block and tackle</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bobsleighs</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Boiler, steam</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bolster spring</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">stake</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bolt cutter</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bolts, carriage and machine</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">emergency</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">home-made</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">plow and sickle bar</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Boxings, babbitting</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Brace, wagon-box</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bramble hook</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Brass valves</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Breeding crate for hogs</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Brick trowel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bridge auger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bucket yoke</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Buck rake</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Building bracket</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Bull nose-chain</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">treadmill</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Cable hay stacker</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">California hay ricker</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Calipers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Caliper rule</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Canning outfit</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Carpenter&#8217;s bench</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">trestle</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Cart, two-wheel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Centrifugal pumps</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Chain, logging</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Chisels and gouges</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Circular saw, filing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">jointing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">setting</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Clearing land by tractor</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Clevises, plow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Clod crusher</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Clothes line reel box, concrete</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Clothes line tightener</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Cold-chisel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Colt-breaking sulkey</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Compasses</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Concrete center alley for hog house</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">farm scale base and pit</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">hog wallow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">wall mold</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Conveniences, miscellaneous farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Conveyances, farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Corn crib, double</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">two-story</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Corn cultivator</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">planter</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">shock horse</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Cotter pin tool</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Coulter clamp</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Countersink</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Cow stanchion</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Crop machinery, special</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Crops, kind of, to irrigate</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Crowbars</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Cultivator, combination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">corn</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Cutting nippers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Derrick fork</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Dies and taps</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Diggers, potato</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Disk harrow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">plow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Dog churn</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">power</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Draw-filing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Drawing-knife</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Drill, grain</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">power post</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Drill-press</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">electric</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Driven machines</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Dumbwaiter</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Economy of plowing by tractor</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electricity on the farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electric lighting</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electric power plant</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">towel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Elevating machinery</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Elevator, grain</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Emery grinders</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Engine and truck, portable</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Engine, gasoline</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">kerosene</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">steam</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Eveners for three- and four-horse teams</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Extension boring bits</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Farm conveniences</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">conveyances</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">office</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">shop and implement house</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">shop work</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">tractor</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">waterworks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Feed crusher</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Feeding racks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Fence-making tools</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Fence pliers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">File handle</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Files and rasps</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Filing hand saw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">roll</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Flail</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Fore-plane</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Forge</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Forges, portable</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Forging iron and steel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Fruit picking</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">ladders</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">tray</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Fruit-thinning nippers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Gambrel whiffletree</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Garage</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Garden weeder</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Gas, acetylene</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Gasoline engine</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">house lightning</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Gate, sliding field</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Gatepost with copper mailbox</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Gauge, double-marking</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Generating mechanical power</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Goat stall</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Grain drill</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">elevator</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">elevator, portable</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Grass hook</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Grindstone</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hacksaw</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hammers, blacksmith</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">machinist&#8217;s</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hand axe</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hand saw</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">filing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">jointing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">setting</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">using</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Handspike</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hardy</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Harness punch</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Harrow cart</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">disk</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">sled</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">spike-tooth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Harvesting by tractor</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay carrier carriage</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay crop, handling</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay derricks, Idaho<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Western</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hayford, double harpoon</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">grapple</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">hitch</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">hood</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hayrake, revolving</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay ricker, California</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay rope pulleys</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay skids</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay sling</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay stacker, cable</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Haystack knife</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay-tedder</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hay-track roof extension</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hoe, how to sharpen</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">wheel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hoes and weeders</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hog catching hook</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hog feeder, automatic</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">trough</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">trough, reinforced</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">wallow, concrete</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hoist, oldest farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hoists</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Home repair work, profitable</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Horse clippers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Horse feeding rack</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Horsepower</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">House plumbing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Husking-pin</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hydraulic ram</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Idaho hay derricks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Implement shed</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">shed and work shop</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Iron, forging</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Irons for neckyoke and whiffletree</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Iron roller</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Iron working tools</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Irrigation</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">by pumping</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">overhead spray</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Jointer, carpenter&#8217;s</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Jointer plows</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Jointing hand saw</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Kerosene engine</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Keyhole saw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Knife, asparagus</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">corn cutting</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">haystack</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Knots</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Lag screw</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Land float</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Level, carpenter&#8217;s</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">iron stock</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Lighting, gasoline</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Linchpin farm wagons</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Link, cold-shut</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">plow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Loading chute for hogs</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Logging chain</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Machines, driven</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Machinist&#8217;s hammers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">vise</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Manure carriers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Marline spike</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Measuring mechanical work</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Mechanical power, generating</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Mechanics of plowing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Melting ladle</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Monkey-wrench</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Mule pump</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Nail hammers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Nail set</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Office, farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Oilstone</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Overhead spray irrigation</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Oxen</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Paint brushes</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pea guard</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Picking fruit</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pig-pen, sanitary</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pincers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pipe cutter</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pipe-fitting tools</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pipe vise</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">wrench</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Plastering trowel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pliers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Plow, heavy-breaking</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">riding</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">walking</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Plowing by tractor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">importance of</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">mechanics of</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Plows, jointer</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">Scotch</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Plumb-bob and plumb-line</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Plumbing, house</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pod-bit</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Portable farm engine</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Post-hole diggers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Poultry feeding trough</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Power conveyor</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Power, generating mechanical</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Power post drill</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Power transmission</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pulverizers</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pump, air pressure</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">centrifugal</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">mule</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">jack</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">jacks and speed jacks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">rotary</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">suction</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Punches</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Quantity of water to use in irrigation</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Racks, feeding</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">sheep feeding</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Rafter grapple</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Rasp</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Rasps and files</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Ratchet-brace</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Refrigeration</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Reservoir for supplying water to farm buildings</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Revolving hayrake</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Riding plow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Ripsaw</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Rivets</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Rivet set</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Road drag, split-log</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">steel</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Road work</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Roller</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Roll filing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Roof pitches</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">truss</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Root pulper</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Rotary pumps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Round barn, economy of</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Rule of six, eight and ten</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Sand bands</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">caps</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Sanitary pig-pen</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Saw, hack</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Scotch plows</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Screwdriver</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">ratchet</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Seed house trucks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Septic tank</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Set-screws</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Shave horse</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Shears</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Sheep feeding rack</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Sheepshank</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Ship auger</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Shoeing horses</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">knife</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">tool box</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Shop, garage and implement shed</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Shop tools</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Slaughter house</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Sliding field gate</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Snips, sheet metal</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Soil auger</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">tools</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Soil, working the</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Speed indicator</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">jacks</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Split-log road drag</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Spud</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Stable helps</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Stall for milch goats</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Steam boiler and engine</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Steel, forging</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">road drag</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">square</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">tools, making</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Stepladder</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Stock for dies</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Stone-boat</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Stump puller</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Suction pumps</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Sulkey, colt-breaking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">S wrenches</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tapeline</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Taper reamer</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">tap</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Taps and dies</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tempering steel tools</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tongs</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tool box for field use</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">handy</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tool rack, blacksmith</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tools for fence-making</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">for woodworking</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">for working iron</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">pipe-fitting</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">soil</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tractor economy</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">transmission gear</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">used in plowing</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">uses for, on farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tram points</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Travoy</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Treadmill, bull</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Tree pruners</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Trowel, brick</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">plastering</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Trucks, barn</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Try-square</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Twist-drills</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">U bolt in cement</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Uses of electricity on farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Valves, brass</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Vise</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wagon-box irons</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wagon brakes</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">seat spring</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Walking plow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Water-power</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Water storage</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Waterworks, farm</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Well sweep</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wheelbarrow</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wheel hoe</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Winches</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Windmills</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wire splice<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">splicer</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">stretcher</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wooden clamp</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">roller</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wood-saw frames</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Woodworking bench</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">tools</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Working the soil</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wrecking bar</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="box1">
+
+<h2><i>DRAKE&#8217;S MECHANICAL BOOKS</i></h2>
+
+<table class="coll" summary="Advertisements">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="center btd br bb"><a name="NoteMark" id="NoteMark"></a><a href="#Note">*</a>Title</td>
+<td colspan="2" class="center padl1 padr1 btd br bb">Style</td>
+<td class="center padl1 padr1 btd bb">Price</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Electrical Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electrical Tables and Engineering Data</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electrical Tables and Engineering Data</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Motion Picture Operation</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Motion Picture Operation</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Alternating Current</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Alternating Current</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Armature and Magnet Winding</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Armature and Magnet Winding</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Electric Illumination</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Electric Illumination</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Electrical Construction</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Electrical Construction</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electricians&#8217; Operating and Testing Manual</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electricians&#8217; Operating and Testing Manual</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Drake&#8217;s Electrical Dictionary</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Drake&#8217;s Electrical Dictionary</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Drake&#8217;s Telephone Handbook</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Drake&#8217;s Telephone Handbook</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Elementary Electricity, Up-to-Date</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electricity Made Simple</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Easy Electrical Experiments</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Wireless Telegraph and Telephone Handbook</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Telegraphy, Self-taught</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Dynamo-Electric Machines</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electro-Plating Handbook</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electro-Plating Handbook</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern American Telephony</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Storage Batteries</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Elevators&mdash;Hydraulic and Electric</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">How to Become a Successful Motorman</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Motorman&#8217;s Practical Air Brake Instructor</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electric Railway Troubles</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electric Power Stations</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Electrical Railroading</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">3.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Automobile Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Brookes&#8217; Automobile Handbook.</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Automobile Starting and Lighting</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Automobile Starting and Lighting</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Automobile Catechism and Repair Manual</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Farm Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Farm Buildings, With Plans and Descriptions</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Farm Mechanics</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Traction Farming and Traction Engineering</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Farm Engines and How to Run Them</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Shop Practice Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Twentieth Century Machine Shop Practice</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Mechanical Drawing</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Sheet Metal Workers&#8217; Manual</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">20th Century Toolsmith and Steelworker</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Pattern Making and Foundry Practice</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Blacksmithing, Horseshoeing and Wagon Making</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Steam Engineering Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Swingle&#8217;s Handbook for Steam Engineers and Electricians</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">3.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Steam Boilers, Construction, Care and Operation</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Complete Examination Questions and Answers for Marine and Stationary Engineers</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Swingle&#8217;s Catechism of Steam, Gas and Electrical Engineering</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">The Steam Turbine, Its Care and Operation</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Calculation of Horse Power Made Easy</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Railroad Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Locomotive Engineering</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">3.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Locomotive Fireman&#8217;s Boiler Instructor</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Locomotive Engine Breakdowns and How to Repair Them</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Operation of Trains and Station Work</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Construction and Maintenance of Railway Roadbed and Track</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">First, Second and Third Year Standard Examination Questions and Answers for Locomotive Firemen</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Complete Air Brake Examination Questions and Answers</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Westinghouse Air Brake System</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">New York Air Brake System</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Walschaert Valve Gear Breakdowns</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Carpentry and Building Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Carpentry. Two volumes</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Carpentry. Vol. &nbsp;I</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Carpentry. Vol. II</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">The Steel Square. Two volumes</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">The Steel Square. Vol. &nbsp;I</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">The Steel Square. Vol. II</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">A. B. C. of the Steel Square</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Common Sense Stair Building and Handrailing</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Estimator and Contractor&#8217;s Guide</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Light and Heavy Timber Framing Made Easy</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Builders&#8217; Architectural Drawing Self-taught</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Easy Steps to Architecture</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Five Orders of Architecture</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Builders&#8217; and Contractors&#8217; Guide</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Bungalows and Cottages</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Low Cost American Homes</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Cabinet Maker and Furniture Designer</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Wood Carving</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Home Furniture Making</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plasters and Stuccos</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Steel Construction</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">20th Century Bricklayer and Mason&#8217;s Assistant</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Bricklaying Self-taught</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Stonemasonry</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Up-to-date Plumbing</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Practical Handbook for Millwrights</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">2.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Boat Building for Amateurs</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5"><h3>Painting Books</h3></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Art of Sign Painting</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">3.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Scene Painting and Bulletin Art</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">3.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">&#8220;A Show at&#8221; Sho&#8217;Cards</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">3.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Strong&#8217;s Book of Designs</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Lea.</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">3.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Signist&#8217;s Modern Book of Alphabets</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Amateur Artist</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Modern Painter&#8217;s Cyclopedia</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.50</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Red Book Series of Trade School Manuals</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td style="width: 1em;">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">1. Exterior Painting, Wood, Iron and Brick</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">2. Interior Painting, Water and Oil Colors</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">3. Colors</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">4. Graining and Marbling</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">5. Carriage Painting</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left top padl1 padr1">6. The Wood Finisher</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">.60</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">New Hardwood Finishing</td>
+<td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Automobile Painting</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2" class="left top padl1 padr1">Estimates, Costs and Profits&mdash;House Painting and Interior Decorating</td>
+<td class="right bot padr0">*</td>
+<td class="left bot padl0 padr1">Cloth</td>
+<td class="right bot padl1 padr1">1.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="5" class="left padl1 fsize80" style="padding-top: 1.5em;"><a name="Note" id="Note"></a><a href="#NoteMark">NOTE.</a>&mdash;New Books and Revised Editions are marked*</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="c25" />
+
+<div class="tnbox">
+
+<h2><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>TRANSCRIBER&#8217;S NOTES</h2>
+
+<p>The text of the original work has been maintained, except as mentioned below.</p>
+
+<p>Changed for consistency: screwdriver to screw-driver, pene to peen, homemade to home-made, ballbearing to ball-bearing, horse-power to
+horsepower, double-tree to doubletree, and eye-bolt to eyebolt. In the Index, the following words have been changed to conform to the
+text: sulkey to sulky, and re-inforced to reinforced. All dimensions have been standardised to a x b (with a and b representing two numbers).</p>
+
+<p>Typographical errors corrected: azotabacter to azotobacter (p. 138), devise to device (p. 232), anarobic to anaerobic (p. 236),
+and Hayford to Hayfork (Index). Some minor typographical errors have been corrected silently.</p>
+
+<p>Page 158: <i>the so-called humid sections</i> should possibly be <i>the so-called arid sections</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 180 (page 200): contrary to the caption, the mow capacities are not indicated in the illustration.</p>
+
+<p>The advertisements have been re-arranged to a single list per subject.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,6283 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Farm Mechanics
+       Machinery and its Use to Save Hand Labor on the Farm.
+
+Author: Herbert A. Shearer
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2012 [EBook #39791]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM MECHANICS ***
+
+
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+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                           |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Words printed in italics in the original work are represented here |
+  | between underscores, as in _text_. Words originally printed in bold|
+  | face are represented as =text=, words in small capitals as ALL     |
+  | CAPITALS.                                                          |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Further Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text.  |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+  FARM MECHANICS
+
+  MACHINERY AND ITS USE TO SAVE
+  HAND LABOR ON THE FARM
+
+  Including
+
+  Tools, Shop Work, Driving and Driven
+  Machines, Farm Waterworks, Care
+  and Repair of Farm Implements
+
+
+  By
+
+  HERBERT A. SHEARER
+
+  AGRICULTURIST
+
+  Author of "Farm Buildings with Plans and Descriptions"
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED WITH THREE
+  HUNDRED ORIGINAL DRAWINGS_
+
+
+  CHICAGO
+  FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.
+  Publishers
+
+
+
+
+  Copyright 1918
+  By Frederick J. Drake & Co.
+  Chicago
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+More mechanical knowledge is required on the farm than in any other line
+of business. If a farmer is not mechanically inclined, he is under the
+necessity of employing someone who is.
+
+Some farms are supplied with a great many handy contrivances to save
+labor. Farmers differ a great deal in this respect. Some are natural
+mechanics, some learn how to buy and how to operate the best farm
+machinery, while others are still living in the past.
+
+Some farmers who make the least pretensions have the best machinery and
+implements. They may not be good mechanics, but they have an eye to the
+value of labor saving tools.
+
+The object of this book is to emphasize the importance of mechanics in
+modern farming; to fit scores of quick-acting machines into the daily
+routine of farm work and thereby lift heavy loads from the shoulders of
+men and women; to increase the output at less cost of hand labor and to
+improve the soil while producing more abundantly than ever before; to
+suggest the use of suitable machines to manufacture high-priced
+nutritious human foods from cheap farm by-products.
+
+Illustrations are used to explain principles rather than to recommend
+any particular type or pattern of machine.
+
+The old is contrasted with the new and the merits of both are expressed.
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                               PAGE
+  CHAPTER I
+  THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD AND IRON              9
+
+  CHAPTER II
+  FARM SHOP WORK                                                 50
+
+  CHAPTER III
+  GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE MODERN FARM MACHINERY     74
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+  DRIVEN MACHINES                                               100
+
+  CHAPTER V
+  WORKING THE SOIL                                              137
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+  HANDLING THE HAY CROP                                         163
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+  FARM CONVEYANCES                                              179
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+  MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES                               197
+
+  INDEX                                                         241
+
+
+
+
+FARM MECHANICS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE FARM SHOP WITH TOOLS FOR WORKING WOOD AND IRON
+
+
+FARM SHOP AND IMPLEMENT HOUSE
+
+The workshop and shed to hold farm implements should look as neat and
+attractive as the larger buildings. Farm implements are expensive. Farm
+machinery is even more so. When such machinery is all properly housed
+and kept in repair the depreciation is estimated at ten per cent a year.
+When the machines are left to rust and weather in the rain and wind the
+loss is simply ruinous.
+
+More machinery is required on farms than formerly and it costs more.
+Still it is not a question whether a farmer can afford a machine. If he
+has sufficient work for it he knows he cannot afford to get along
+without it and he must have a shed to protect it from the weather when
+not in use.
+
+In the first place the implement shed should be large enough to
+accommodate all of the farm implements and machinery without crowding
+and it should be well built and tight enough to keep out the wind and
+small animals, including chickens and sparrows.
+
+The perspective and plan shown herewith is twenty-four feet in width and
+sixty feet in length.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.--Perspective View of the Farm Shop, Garage and
+Implement Shed. The doors to the right are nearly 12 feet high to let in
+a grain separator over night, or during the winter, or a load of hay in
+case of a sudden storm.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2.--Floor Plan of Shop, Garage and Storage. The
+building is 60 feet wide and 24 feet from front to back. The doors of
+the garage and tool shed are made to open full width, but 8 feet is wide
+enough for the shop door. All doors open out against posts and are
+fastened to prevent blowing shut. The work shop is well lighted and the
+stationary tools are carefully placed for convenience in doing repair
+work of all kinds. The pipe vise is at the doorway between the shop and
+garage so the handles of the pipe tools may swing through the doorway
+and the pipe may lie full length along the narrow pipe bench.]
+
+The doorways provide headroom sufficient for the highest machines, and
+the width when the double doors are opened and the center post removed
+is nearly twenty feet, which is sufficient for a binder in field
+condition or a two-horse spring-tooth rake.
+
+One end of the building looking toward the house is intended for a
+machine shop to be partitioned off by enclosing the first bent. This
+gives a room twenty feet wide by twenty-four feet deep for a blacksmith
+shop and general repair work. The next twenty feet is the garage. The
+machine shop part of the building will be arranged according to the
+mechanical inclination of the farmer.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3.--Perspective View of Farm Implement Shed and
+Workshop.]
+
+A real farm repair shop is a rather elaborate mechanical proposition.
+There is a good brick chimney with a hood to carry off the smoke and
+gases from the blacksmith fire and the chimney should have a separate
+flue for a heating stove. Farm repair work is done mostly during the
+winter months when a fire in the shop is necessary for comfort and
+efficiency. A person cannot work to advantage with cold fingers. Paint
+requires moderate heat to work to advantage. Painting farm implements
+is a very important part of repair work.
+
+A good shop arrangement is to have an iron workbench across the shop
+window in the front or entrance end of the building. In the far corner
+against the back wall is a good place for a woodworking bench. It is too
+mussy to have the blacksmith work and the carpenter work mixed up.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4.--Floor Plan of Farm Implement Shed, showing the
+workshop in one end of the building, handy to the implement storage
+room.]
+
+Sometimes it is necessary to bring in a pair of horses for shoeing, or
+to pull the shoes off. For this reason, a tie rail bolted to the
+studding on the side of the shop near the entrance is an extra
+convenience.
+
+In a hot climate a sliding door is preferable because the wind will not
+slam it shut. In cold climates, hinge doors are better with a good sill
+and threshold to shut against to keep out the cold. Sometimes the large
+door contains a small door big enough to step through, but not large
+enough to admit much cold, when it is being opened and shut. Likewise a
+ceiling is needed in a cold country, while in warmer sections, a roof is
+sufficient. Farm shops, like other farm buildings, should conform to
+the climate, as well as convenience in doing the work. A solid concrete
+floor is a great comfort. And it is easily kept clean.
+
+The perspective and floor plan show the arrangement of the doors,
+windows and chimney and the placing of the work benches, forge, anvil,
+toolbench and drill press.
+
+Figures 3 and 4 show the perspective and floor plan of a farm shop and
+implement house 40 x 16 feet in size, which is large enough for some
+farms.
+
+
+SHOP TOOLS
+
+Good tools are more important on a farm than in a city workshop for the
+reason that a greater variety of work is required.
+
+_Measuring Mechanical Work._--In using tools on the farm the first rule
+should be accuracy. It is just as easy to work to one-sixteenth of an
+inch as to carelessly lay off a piece of work so that the pieces won't
+go together right.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5.--Caliper Rule. A handy slide caliper shop rule
+is made with a slide marked in fractions of inches as shown in the
+drawing. The diameter of a rivet, bolt or other round object may be
+taken instantly. It is not so accurate as calipers for close
+measurements, but it is a practical tool for farm use.]
+
+The handiest measuring tool ever invented is the old-fashioned two-foot
+rule that folds up to six inches in length to be carried in the pocket.
+Such rules to be serviceable should be brass bound. The interior marking
+should be notched to sixteenths. The outside marking may be laid out in
+eighths. The finer marking on the inside is protected by keeping the
+rule folded together when not in use. The coarser marking outside does
+not suffer so much from wear. Figure 5 shows a 12-inch rule with a slide
+caliper jaw.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6.--Small Pocket Oilstone. Shop oilstone in a box.
+100-foot measuring tapeline marked in inches, feet and rods.]
+
+In using a two-foot rule to lay off work the forward end should contain
+the small figures so that the workman is counting back on the rule but
+forward on the work, and he has the end of the rule to scribe from. In
+laying off a 16-foot pole the stick is first marked with a knife point,
+or sharp scratchawl, and try square to square one end. The work is then
+laid off from left to right, starting from the left hand edge of the
+square mark or first mark. The two-foot rule is laid flat on top of the
+piece of wood. At the front end of the rule the wood is marked with a
+sharp scratchawl or the point of a knife blade by pressing the point
+against the end of the rule at the time of marking. In moving the rule
+forward the left end is placed exactly over the left edge of the mark,
+so the new measurement begins at the exact point where the other left
+off, and so on the whole length of the stick. The final mark is then
+made exactly sixteen feet from the first mark.
+
+In sawing the ends the saw kerf is cut from the waste ends of the stick.
+The saw cuts to the mark but does not cut it out.
+
+In using a rule carelessly a workman may gain one-sixteenth of an inch
+every time he moves the rule, which would mean half of an inch in laying
+off a 16-foot pole, which would ruin it for carpenter work. If the pole
+is afterwards used for staking fence posts, he would gain one-half inch
+at each post, or a foot for every twenty-four posts, a distance to
+bother considerably in estimating acres. It is just as easy to measure
+exactly as it is to measure a little more or a little less, and it marks
+the difference between right and wrong.
+
+
+WOODWORKING BENCH
+
+In a farm workshop it is better to separate the woodworking department
+as far as possible from the blacksmith shop. Working wood accumulates a
+great deal of litter, shavings, blocks, and kindling wood, which are in
+the way in the blacksmith shop, and a spark from the anvil might set the
+shavings afire.
+
+A woodworking bench, Figure 7, carpenter's bench, it is usually called,
+needs a short leg vise with wide jaws. The top of the vise should be
+flush with the top of the bench, so the boards may be worked when lying
+flat on the top of the bench. For the same reason the bench dog should
+lower down flush when not needed to hold the end of the board.
+
+It is customary to make carpenter's benches separate from the shop, and
+large enough to stand alone, so they may be moved out doors or into
+other buildings.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7.--Carpenter's Bench. A woodworking bench is 16'
+long, 3' 6" wide and 32" high. The height, to be particular, should be
+the length of the leg of the man who uses it. Lincoln, when joking with
+Stanton, gave it as his opinion that "a man's legs should be just long
+enough to reach the ground." But that rule is not sufficiently definite
+to satisfy carpenters, so they adopted the inside leg measurement. They
+claim that the average carpenter is 5' 10" tall and he wears a 32" leg.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8.--Carpenter's Trestle, or Saw-Bench. The top
+piece is 4 x 6 and the legs are 2 x 4. There is sufficient spread of leg
+to prevent it from toppling over, but the legs are not greatly in the
+way. It is heavy enough to stand still while you slide a board along. It
+is 2 feet high.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9.--Shave Horse. For shaping pieces of hardwood
+for repair work. A good shave horse is about 8' long and the seat end is
+the height of a chair. The head is carved on a hardwood stick with three
+projections to grip different sized pieces to be worked.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 10.--Compasses, Wooden Clamp and Cutting Pliers.]
+
+Carpenter benches may be well made, or they may be constructed in a
+hurry. So long as the top is true it makes but little difference how the
+legs are attached, so long as they are strong and enough of them. A
+carpenter bench that is used for all kinds of work must be solid enough
+to permit hammering, driving nails, etc. Usually the top of the bench is
+straight, true and level and it should be kept free from litter and
+extra tools.
+
+Good carpenters prefer a tool rack separate from the bench. It may stand
+on the floor or be attached to the wall. Carpenter tools on a farm are
+not numerous, but they should have a regular place, and laborers on the
+farms should be encouraged to keep the tools where they belong.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 11.--Monkey-Wrenches are the handiest of all farm
+wrenches, but they were never intended to hammer with. Two sizes are
+needed--an eight-inch for small nuts and a much larger wrench, to open
+two inches or more, to use when taking the disks off the shafts of a
+disk harrow. A large pipe-wrench to hold the round shaft makes a good
+companion tool for this work.]
+
+
+WOODWORKING TOOLS
+
+Every farmer has an axe or two, some sort of a handsaw and a nail
+hammer. It is astonishing what jobs of repair work a handy farmer will
+do with such a dearth of tools. But it is not necessary to worry along
+without a good repair kit. Tools are cheap enough.
+
+Such woodworking tools as coarse and fine toothed hand saws, a good
+square, a splendid assortment of hammers and the different kinds of
+wrenches, screw clamps, boring tools--in fact a complete assortment of
+handy woodworking tools is an absolute necessity on a well-managed
+farm.
+
+The farm kit should contain two sizes of nail hammers, see Figure 15,
+one suitable to drive small nails, say up to eight penny, and the other
+for large nails and spikes; a long thin-bladed handsaw, having nine
+teeth to the inch, for sawing boards and planks; a shorter handsaw,
+having ten teeth to the inch, for small work and for pruning trees. A
+pruning saw should cut a fine, smooth kerf, so the wound will not
+collect and hold moisture.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 12.--Hand Saw. This pattern, both for cross cut
+and rip saw, has been adopted by all makers of fine saws. Nine teeth to
+the inch is fine enough for most jobs on the farm.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 13.--Keyhole Saw with point slim enough to start
+the cut from a half-inch auger hole.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 14.--Bramble Hook for trimming berry bushes and
+cleaning out fence corners. It has a knife-edge with hooked sawteeth.]
+
+Farmers' handsaws are required to do a great many different kinds of
+work. For this reason, it is difficult to keep them in good working
+condition, but if both saws are jointed, set and filed by a good
+mechanic once or twice a year, they may be kept in usable condition the
+rest of the time by a handy farm workman, unless extra building or
+special work is required.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 15.--Nail Hammers. Two styles. The upper hammer is
+made with a ball peen and a round face. It is tempered to drive small
+nails without slipping and shaped to avoid dinging the wood. This hammer
+should weigh 18 or 19 ounces, including the handle. The lower hammer is
+heavier, has a flat face and is intended for heavy work such as driving
+spikes and fence staples.]
+
+A long-bladed ripsaw is also very useful, and what is commonly termed a
+keyhole saw finds more use on the farm than in a carpenter's shop in
+town. It is necessary frequently to cut holes through partitions,
+floors, etc., and at such times a keyhole saw works in just right.
+
+Handaxes are necessary for roughing certain pieces of wood for repair
+jobs. Two sizes of handaxes for different kinds of work are very useful,
+also a wide blade draw shave, Figure 16, and shave horse, Figure 9. A
+steel square having one 24-inch blade and one 18-inch is the best size.
+Such squares usually are heavy enough to remain square after falling off
+the bench forty or fifty times. A good deal depends upon the quality of
+the steel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 16.--Drawing-Knife with wide blade for finishing
+straight surfaces.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 17.--Try-Square With Six-Inch Blade. Wood, brass
+and steel are the proper materials for a try-square. A double marking
+gauge for scribing mortises is also shown.]
+
+Steel squares differ in the measuring marks, but the kind to buy has one
+side spaced to sixteenths and the other side to tenths or twelfths. The
+sixteenth interest farmers generally, so that special attention should
+be given this side of the square. The lumber rule on some squares is
+useful, but the brace rules and mitre calculations are not likely to
+interest farmers.
+
+Screw-drivers should be mostly strong and heavy for farm work. Three
+sizes of handled screw-drivers of different lengths and sizes, also two
+or three brace bit screw-drivers are needed. One or two bits may be
+broken or twisted so the assortment is sometimes exhausted before the
+screw is started.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 18.--Heavy Hand Axe for Use on the Shop Chopping
+Block. A beet topping knife is shown also.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 19.--Heavy Screwdriver. The strongest and cheapest
+screw-driver is made from a single bar of steel. The wooden handle is
+made in two parts and riveted as shown.]
+
+Pinch bars and claw bars are very useful in a farm tool kit. Farm
+mechanical work consists principally in repairing implements, machinery,
+fences and buildings. Always a worn or broken part must be removed
+before the repair can be made. A pinch bar twenty-four inches long,
+Figure 21, with a cold chisel end, and another bar eighteen inches long
+with a crooked claw end, Figure 22, for pulling nails and spikes comes
+in very handy. These two bars should be made of the best octagon steel,
+seven-eighths of an inch in diameter.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 20.--(1) Ratchet Screwdriver. It does rapid work
+and will last a generation if carefully used. (2) Auger-Bit of the Side
+Cutter Type. A full set is needed. They are not for boring into old
+wood. Running once against a nail ruins one of these bits.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 21.--Handspike. A wooden handspike or pry is about
+seven feet long by 3 inches thick at the prying end. In the North it is
+usually made from a hickory or an ironwood or a dogwood sapling. The
+bark is removed and the handle is worked round and smooth on the shave
+horse. It is better to cut the poles in the winter when the sap is in
+the roots. After the handspikes are finished they should be covered deep
+with straw so they will season slowly to prevent checking.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 22.--Wrecking Bar for pulling nails and to pry
+broken parts from other wreckage.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 23.--Carpenter's Level. For practical farm work
+the level should be 24" or 30" long. Wood is the most satisfactory
+material. The best levels are made up of different layers of wood glued
+together to prevent warping or twisting. For this reason a good level
+should be carefully laid away in a dry place immediately after using.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 24.--(1) Snips for cutting sheet metal. (2)
+Carpenter's Level, iron stock.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 25.--Wood-Boring Twist Drill Bit. Twist drills for
+wood have longer points than drills for boring iron.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 26.--Pod-Bit. The fastest boring gimlet bits are
+of this pattern. They are made in sizes from to 1/8" to 3/8" and are
+intended for boring softwood.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 27.--Auger-Bits. For smooth boring the lip bits
+are best. The side cutters project beyond the cutting lips to cut the
+circle ahead of the chips. For boring green wood the single-worm clears
+better than the double-worm bit.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 28.--Extension Boring Bits. The cutting lips may
+be set to bore holes from 1/2" to 3" in diameter. They are used mostly
+in softwood.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 29.--Ship Auger. This shape auger is made with or
+without a screw point. It will bore straighter in cross-grained wood
+without a point.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 30.--Long Ship Auger.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 31.--Bridge Auger. The long handle permits the
+workman to stand erect while boring. The home made handle is welded onto
+the shank of a ship auger.]
+
+A wooden carpenter's level, Figure 23, two feet long, with a plumb glass
+near one end, is the most satisfactory farm level, an instrument that is
+needed a great many times during the year.
+
+Good brace bits are scarce on farms. They are not expensive, but farmers
+are careless about bits and braces. Two sizes of braces are needed, a
+small brace for small pod bits and twist drills, and a large ratchet
+brace with a 6-inch crank radius for turning larger bits.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 32.--Carpenter's Jointer.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 33.--Fore-Plane. This style plane is preferred to
+a regular jointer for most farm work.]
+
+Twist drill bits will bore both wood and iron, and they are not
+expensive up to three-eighths inch or one-half inch. But for larger
+sizes from one-half inch to one inch the finest lip wood boring bits
+will give the best satisfaction. Extension bits are used for boring
+holes larger than one inch. Two extension bits are better than one bit
+with two lip cutters. They will bore holes in soft wood in sizes from
+one inch to three inches.
+
+Other cutting tools such as jack plane jointer and smoothing plane, also
+an assortment of chisels, belong to the farm equipment.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 34.--Tool Box of Socket Chisels and Gouges. The
+chisels are sized from 1/2" to 2" in width. The two chisels to the right
+show different patterns.]
+
+All cutting tools should be of the best design and the best steel. If
+they are properly used and taken care of, the different jobs of repair
+work can be handled quickly and to great advantage.
+
+
+FARM GRINDSTONE
+
+A grindstone may be gritty without being coarse so it will bite the
+steel easily and cut it away quickly. A good stone is a very
+satisfactory farm implement, but a greasy stone is a perpetual nuisance.
+
+There are grindstones with frames too light. The competition to
+manufacture and sell a grindstone for farm use at the cheapest possible
+price has resulted in turning out thousands of grindstone frames that
+possess very little stability.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 35.--Grindstone. The speed of a grindstone varies
+with the diameter of the stone. It should turn just fast enough to keep
+a flow of water on the upper face surface. If the stone turns too slow
+the water will run down; if too fast, it will fly off.]
+
+Grindstones should be kept under cover; the best stone will be injured
+by leaving it in the hot sun. The sun draws the moisture out of the
+upper side and leaves the lower side damp and soft so that in use the
+stone soon becomes flat sided. The wet side freezes in winter, which is
+a disintegrating process.
+
+The best stones, with good care, will become uneven in time. The remedy
+is to true them with a quarter-inch soft iron round rod used like a
+lathe tool over an iron rest placed close to the stone on a level with
+the center of the stone. The rod is held against the stone in such a way
+as to cut away the high bumps and make the stone truly round. The stone
+cuts away best when it is dry. A small rod is better than a large rod.
+It digs into the stone better and takes out a deeper bite. Large power
+stones in machine shops are trued up in this way frequently. Farm stones
+often are neglected until they wabble so badly that it is difficult to
+grind any tool to an edge. If the grindstone is turned by a belt from an
+engine the work of truing may be done in a few minutes. If the stone is
+turned by hand the work of making it round takes longer and requires
+some muscle, but it pays.
+
+The face of a grindstone should be rounded slightly, and it should be
+kept so by grinding the tools first on one side of edge of the stone,
+then on the other, with the cutting edge of the tool crosswise to the
+face of the stone.
+
+For safety and to prevent a sloppy waste of water the stone should turn
+away from the operator.
+
+The best way to keep a stone moist is by a trickle of water from an
+overhead supply. Troughs of water suspended under the stone are
+unsatisfactory, because the water soon gets thick and unfit for use.
+Such troughs are forgotten when the job is done, so that one side of the
+stone hangs in the water. An overhead supply of water leaks away and no
+damage is done.
+
+Grindstone frames are best made of wood 3" x 4" thoroughly mortised
+together and well braced with wooden braces and tied across with plenty
+of iron rods. A good grindstone frame could be made of angle iron, but
+manufacturers generally fail in the attempt.
+
+There are good ball-bearing grindstone hangers on the market, both for
+hand crank stones and for belt use.
+
+The belt is less in the way if it is brought up from below. This is not
+difficult to do. A grindstone turns slower than any other farm machine
+so a speed reducing jack may be bolted to the floor at the back of the
+grindstone a little to one side to escape the drip. This arrangement
+requires a short belt but it may have the full face width of the pulley
+as the tight and loose pulleys are on the jack shaft.
+
+_Emery Grinders._--There are small emery wheels made for grinding disks
+that work quickly and cut an even bevel all around. They are made in
+pairs and are attached to the ends of a mandrel supported by a metal
+stand which is bolted to a bench. The same rig is used for sickle
+grinding and other farm jobs.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 36.--Emery Grinder. The illustrations show two
+kinds of grinding that double emery wheels are especially adapted to. To
+grind a mowing-machine knife it is necessary to reverse. By placing the
+rest opposite the center between the two wheels the bevel will be the
+same on both sides, or edges, of the section.]
+
+
+BLACKSMITH SHOP
+
+The furniture in a blacksmith shop consists of forge, anvil, half
+barrel, vise bench, drill press and tool rack. A farm shop also has a
+heating stove, shave horse, a woodworking bench, a good power driven
+grindstone and a double emery grinder.
+
+_Forge._--The old-fashioned forge laid up with brick in connection with
+an old-fashioned chimney is just as popular as ever. The same old tuyer
+iron receives the air blast from the same old style leather bellows, and
+there is nothing more satisfactory. But there are modern portable
+forges, Figure 37, made of iron, that are less artistic, cheaper, take
+up less room and answer the purpose just about as well. The portable
+iron forge has a small blower attached to the frame which feeds oxygen
+into the fire. There are a good many different sizes of portable forges.
+Most of them work well up to their advertised capacity.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 37.--Portable Forges. The smaller forge is for
+light work such as heating rivets for iron bridge construction. The
+larger forge to the right is meant for blacksmith work.]
+
+Generally, farm forges are not required to develop a great amount of
+heat. Farmers do but little welding, most of the forge work on the farm
+being confined to repair work such as heating brace irons, so they may
+be easily bent into the proper shape, or to soften metal so that holes
+may be punched through it easily.
+
+Sharpening harrow teeth, drawing out plow points and horseshoeing are
+about the heaviest forge jobs required in a farm blacksmith shop, so
+that a medium size forge will answer the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 38.--Anvil. The only satisfactory anvil is forged
+out of ingot steel with a power trip-hammer. It should weigh 140
+pounds.]
+
+_Anvil._--An anvil should weigh at least 120 pounds; 140 is better. It
+should be set six feet from the center of the fire to the center of the
+anvil. It should be placed on a timber the size of the base of the anvil
+set three feet in the ground. The top of the anvil should be about
+thirty inches high. Holmstrom's rule is: "Close the fist, stand erect
+with the arm hanging down. The knuckles should just clear the face of
+the anvil."
+
+_Bench and Vise._--The vise bench should be made solid and it should
+face a good light. The bench window should look to the east or north if
+possible. It should be about four feet high and eight feet long, with
+the window sill about six inches above the bench.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 39.--(1) Shoeing Tool Box. The four small
+compartments are for horseshoe nails of different sizes. There may be a
+leather loop for the paring knife. The low box end is for the shoeing
+hammer, rasp, nippers and hoof knife. (2) Blacksmith Tool Rack. Tongs,
+handled punches and cutters are hung on the iron rails. Hammers are
+thrown on top. The lower platform is the shop catch-all.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 40.--Shoeing Knife. Good temper is the main
+qualification. All shoeing knives are practically the same shape,
+although they may vary in size.]
+
+Two and one-half feet is the usual height for a workbench above the
+floor. The best workbench tops are made by bolting together 2 x 4s with
+the edges up. Hardwood makes the best bench, but good pine will last for
+years. The top surface should be planed true and smooth after the nuts
+are drawn tight.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 41.--Horseshoeing Rasp and Wood Rasp. These are
+necessary tools in the farm shop.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 42.--Iron Work Bench. Solid is the first
+specification for an iron shop bench. It should be three feet wide, not
+less than eight feet long and about 32 inches high. The top is made of 2
+x 4s placed on edge and bolted together. The supports are 2 x 6 bolted
+to the shop studding and braced back to the studding at the sill. The
+front part of the bench is supported by iron legs made of gas-pipe with
+threaded flanges at top and bottom. Heavy right angle wrought iron lugs
+are used to fasten the top of the bench to the studding. The foot of the
+vise leg is let into the floor of the shop or into a solid wooden block
+sunk in the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 43.--Assortment of Files and Rasps needed in a
+farm shop. (1) Slim three-cornered handsaw-file. (2) Common
+three-cornered file suitable for filing a buck-saw. (3) Double-cut, or
+bastard, 10-inch flat file. (4) Single-cut, or mill file, either 10 or
+12 inches. (5) Half-round 10-inch wood rasp. (6) Horseshoer's rasp.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 44.--File Handle. Basswood makes the most
+satisfactory file handles. They are fitted by carefully turning them
+onto the file shank to take the right taper. There should be a handle
+for each file. The handle should be the right size and fitted straight
+with the file so the file will take the same angle to the work when
+turned over.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 45.--Nail Set. On all wooden surfaces to be
+painted nails should be carefully driven with a round peen nail hammer
+and the heads sunk about one-eighth of an inch deep with a nail set. The
+holes may then be filled with putty and covered smoothly with paint.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 46.--Cold-Chisel. There are more flat cold-chisels
+than all other shapes. They are easily made in the farm shop and it is
+good practice. They are usually made from octagon steel. Different sizes
+are needed according to the work in hand. A piece of 5/8" steel 6" long
+makes a handy cold-chisel for repair work.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 47.--Cape Cold-Chisel. It may be tapered both ways
+or one way to a cutting edge, or one edge may be rounded.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 48.--(1) Tinner's Punch. Made of octagon steel in
+sizes to fit the rivets. The cutting end is flat and has sharp edges
+made by roll filing. It should be about 7" long and from 3/8" to 1/2" in
+diameter, according to the size of rivet and thickness of sheet metal to
+be punched. (2) Prick Punch. Usually made rather short and stocky. It
+may be 1/2" or 5/8" diameter and 4-1/2" to 5" long. (3) Hot-iron Punch.
+Made in many sizes and lengths. The taper should be the same as the
+drawing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 49.--(1) Blacksmith Vise. The old-fashioned leg
+vise is the most satisfactory for the blacksmith shop. It should have 5"
+jaws. (2) Power Post Drill. Belt power is practical for the post drill
+in a farm shop. The hand crank may be easily attached when needed.]
+
+The bench vise should be heavy. A vise is used for bending iron hot from
+the forge. Unless the jaws are large, the hot iron is likely to heat the
+vise sufficiently to draw the temper. Heavy jaws are solid enough to
+support the iron when it is being hammered. Often heavy hammers are used
+for this purpose. A heavy vise holds the work solid, because it may be
+screwed so much tighter than a light vise. A heavy vise will hold light
+work, but a light vise will not hold heavy work. Heavy vises cost more,
+but they are cheaper in the end and more satisfactory at all times. A
+leg vise with five-inch jaws weighs about sixty pounds; five and
+one-half-inch jaws, eighty pounds. A machinist's vise is made to bolt
+on top of the bench. It will answer for blacksmith work on the farm, but
+is not as good as the old-fashioned leg vise. A machinist's vise is very
+useful in the garage, but it would hardly be necessary to have two heavy
+vises. The pipe vise belongs on a separate bench, which may be a plank
+bracketed against the side of the room.
+
+_Drill-Press._--The most satisfactory drill-press for use on a farm is
+the upright drill that bolts to a post. There is usually a self feed
+which may be regulated according to the work. The heavy flywheel keeps
+the motion steady, and because there is no bench in the way, wagon tires
+may be suspended from the drill block, so they will hang free and true
+for drilling. Often long pieces of straight iron are drilled with holes
+spaced certain distances apart. It is easier to pass them along when
+they lie flat side down on the drill block. To use a drill properly and
+safely, the chuck must run true. It is easy to break a drill when it
+wabbles.
+
+Most drills are made on the twist pattern, and it is something of a
+trick to grind a twist drill, but anyone can do it if he tackles the job
+with a determination to do it right. In grinding a twist drill, use a
+new drill for pattern. Grind the angles the same as the new drill, and
+be careful to have the point in the center. A little practice will make
+perfect.
+
+Mechanics will say that no one except an expert should attempt to grind
+a twist drill, but farmers who are mechanically inclined are the best
+experts within reach. It is up to a farmer to grind his own drills or
+use them dull.
+
+In drilling wrought iron either water or oil is required to cool the
+drill, but cast iron and brass are drilled dry. Light work such as
+hoop-iron may be drilled dry, but the cutting edge of the drill will
+last longer even in light work if the drill is fed with oil or water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 50.--(1) Electric Drill-Press. A small electric
+motor is attached to the drill spindle. (2) Tram Points. Two steel
+points are fitted with thumbscrew clamps to fasten them to a long wooden
+bar. They are used to scribe circles too large for the compasses. (3)
+Ratchet-Brace. Two braces, or bitstocks, are needed. A large brace with
+a 6" radius for large bits and a small brace with a 3" or 3-1/2" radius
+for small bits.]
+
+In using drill-presses, some extra attachments come in very handy, such
+as a screw clamp to hold short pieces of metal. Before starting the
+drill, a center punch is used to mark the center of the hole to be
+bored and to start the drill in the right spot.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 51.--Twist-Drills. Round shank for the post drill
+and square taper shank for brace work. Brace drills are small, 1/4" or
+less.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 52.--Taper Reamer. Used to enlarge, or true, or
+taper a hole that has been drilled or punched.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 53.--Another style of Reamer.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 54.--Countersink. This is the old style,
+blacksmith-made, flat countersink. It will do quick work but not so
+smooth as the fluted kind.]
+
+In doing particular work, the drill may be re-centered when it starts
+wrong. This is done with a small round-nosed cold chisel. If the work
+is not very particular, the drill may be turned a little to one side by
+slanting the piece to be drilled. This plan is only a makeshift,
+however, the proper way being to block the work level, so that the drill
+will meet it perpendicularly. However, by starting carefully, the hole
+may be bored exactly as required.
+
+_Iron Working Tools._--Forge tools for a farm shop need not be numerous.
+Several pairs of tongs, one blacksmith hammer, one sledge, one hardy,
+one wooden-handled cold chisel, one pair pincers, one paring knife, one
+shoeing rasp, and one shoeing hammer will do to begin with.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 55.--Machinist's Hammers. A medium weight should
+be selected for farm repair work. It should be hung so the end of the
+handle clears half an inch when the face rests flat on the bench.]
+
+Monkey-wrenches come first in the wrench department. The farmer needs
+three sizes, one may be quite small, say six inches in length, one ten
+inches, and the other large enough to span a two-inch nut. And there
+should be an ironclad rule, never use a monkey-wrench for a hammer. For
+work around plows, cultivators, harvesters, and other farm machines, a
+case of S wrenches will be greatly appreciated. Manufacturers include
+wrenches with almost all farm machines, but such wrenches are too cheap
+to be of much use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 56.--(1) Hardy. The anvil hardy is used more than
+any other anvil tool except the blacksmith's hammer and tongs. (2) A
+Cold-Shut Link that may be welded, riveted or simply pounded shut.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 57.--Calipers: (1) A pair of tight-joint inside
+calipers. (2) Its mate for taking outside dimensions. (3) A pair of
+spring-jointed, screw-adjustment inside calipers for machinists' use.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 58.--Blacksmith Tongs. Straight tongs made to hold
+3/8" iron is the handiest size. Two or three pairs for larger sizes of
+iron and one pair smaller come in handy.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 59.--(1) Wire Splicer. The oval openings in the
+tool are of different sizes. They are made to hold two wires, close
+together, with ends projecting in opposite directions. Each end is wound
+around the other wire. The ends are then notched with a three-cornered
+file and broken off short and filed smooth. The splicing tool should be
+thin, about 1/8" or 3/16", to bring the two twists close together. This
+is especially necessary in making hoops for wooden pails. (2) Blacksmith
+Shoeing Pincers, used to pull horseshoes. They should close together to
+catch a nail by the head.]
+
+For heavier work pipe-wrenches are absolutely necessary. The reason for
+having so many wrenches is to save time when in the field. It often
+happens that men and horses stand idle waiting for what should be a
+quick repair job.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 60.--(1) Cotter Pin Tool. Handy for inserting or
+removing all sorts of cotter keys. (2) Nest of S Wrenches of different
+sizes. Farmers have never appreciated the value of light, handy wrenches
+to fit all sorts of nuts and bolt heads closely.]
+
+For bench work a riveting hammer and a ball peen machinist's hammer are
+needed. A nest of S wrenches, two rivet sets, cold chisels, round
+punches and several files also are required.
+
+The same twist drills up to three-eighths-inch will do for iron as well
+as wood. However, if much drilling is done, then round shank twist
+drills to fit the drill chuck will work better. Farmers seldom drill
+holes in iron larger than one-half inch. For particular work, to get the
+exact size, reamers are used to finish the holes after drilling. Screw
+holes in iron are countersunk in the drill-press.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 61.--Hack Saw. One handle and a dozen blades. The
+frame should be stiff enough either to push or pull the saw without
+binding. The teeth may point either way to suit the work in hand.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 62.--Powerful Bolt Cutter. It is intended for
+factory use.]
+
+For small work, twist drills with square shanks for brace use should
+range in sizes from one thirty-second of an inch up to one-quarter inch,
+then every one-sixteenth inch up to one-half inch.
+
+For boring screw holes in wood the quickest work is done with pod bits.
+Not many sizes are needed, but they are cheap, so that a half dozen,
+ranging from one-sixteenth to one-quarter inch or thereabouts, will be
+found very useful. Pod bits belong to the wood department, but on
+account of being used principally for screw sinking, they are just as
+useful in the iron working department as in the carpenter shop.
+
+Sheet metal snips for cutting sheet metal properly belong with the iron
+working tools. Snips are from ten to fourteen inches in length. A medium
+size is best for miscellaneous work. If kept in good working order
+twelve-inch snips will cut 18-gauge galvanized or black iron. But a man
+would not care to do a great deal of such heavy cutting.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 63.--Cutting Nippers. For cutting the points from
+horseshoe nails after they are driven through the hoof to hold the shoe
+in place. These nippers are hard tempered and should not be used for any
+other purpose.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 64.--Two Shapes of Steel Crowbars.]
+
+_Pipe-Fitting Tools._--Recent farm improvements require a few tools that
+rightfully belong to plumbers. Every farm has some kind of water supply
+for domestic use and for live-stock. A great many farm machines require
+pipe tools for repair work. Every year more plumbing reaches the farm.
+
+Plumbing work is no more difficult than other mechanical work, if the
+tools are at hand to meet the different requirements. One job of
+plumbing that used to stand out as an impossibility was the soldering
+together of lead pipes, technically termed "wiping a joint." This
+operation has been discontinued. Every possible connection required in
+farm plumbing is now provided for in standardized fittings. Every
+pipe-fitting or connection that conducts supply water or waste water
+nowadays screws together. Sizes are all made to certain standards and
+the couplings are almost perfect, so that work formerly shrouded in
+mystery or hidden under trade secrets is now open to every schoolboy who
+has learned to read.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 65.--(1) Pipe Vise. Hinged to open for long pipes.
+(2) Machinist's Vise. Made with a turntable to take any horizontal
+angle. The pipe jaws are removable.]
+
+The necessary outfit to handle all the piping and plumbing on the farm
+is not very expensive, probably $25.00 will include every tool and all
+other appliances necessary to put in all the piping needed to carry
+water to the watering troughs and to supply hot and cold water to the
+kitchen and the bathroom, together with the waste pipes, ventilators and
+the sewer to the septic tank. The same outfit of tools will answer for
+repair work for a lifetime.
+
+Farm water pipes usually are small. There may be a two-inch suction pipe
+to the force pump, and the discharge may be one and a half inch. But
+these pipes are not likely to make trouble.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 66.--Pipe Cutter. The most satisfactory pipe
+cutter has three knife-edge roller cutters which follow each other
+around the pipe. Some of these cutters have two flat face rollers and
+one cutter roller to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe. The
+flat face rollers iron out the burr and leave the freshly cut pipe the
+same size clear to the end.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 67.--Pipe-Wrench. This type of wrench is valuable
+for working with the heavier farm implements. It is intended more for
+holding than for turning. It is rather rough on nuts. Damaged nuts show
+signs of careless work.]
+
+There should be a good pipe vise that will hold any size pipe up to
+three inches. At least two pipe wrenches are needed and they should be
+adjustable from one-quarter-inch up to two-inch pipe.
+
+We must remember that water pipe sizes mean inside measurements.
+One-inch pipe is about one and one-quarter inches outside diameter.
+Three-quarter-inch pipe is about one inch outside. Two-inch pipe will
+carry four times as much water as one-inch pipe, under the rule
+"doubling the diameter increases the capacity four times."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 68.--A smaller sized wrench with wooden handle.]
+
+The three-wheel pipe cutter works quickly and is satisfactory for most
+jobs. Sometimes two of the knife wheels are removed and rollers
+substituted to prevent raising a burr on the end of the pipe.
+
+Threading dies are made in standard sizes. A good farm set consists of
+stock and dies to thread all the different sizes of pipe from
+one-quarter inch to one inch, inclusive. Not many pipes larger than inch
+are threaded on the farm. They are cut to the proper lengths in the farm
+shop and the threads are cut in town.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FARM SHOP WORK
+
+
+PROFITABLE HOME REPAIR WORK
+
+Each farmer must be the judge in regard to the kind of mechanical repair
+work that should be done at home and the kind and amount of repair work
+that should go to the shop in town. A great deal depends on the
+mechanical ability of the farmer or his helpers. However, the poorest
+farm mechanic can do "first aid" service to farm implements and
+machinery in the nick of time, if he is so disposed. A great many
+farmers are helpless in this respect because they want to be helpless.
+It is so much easier to let it go than to go right at it with a
+determination to fix it, and fix it right.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 69.--Logging Chain. One of the cleverest farm
+inventions of any age is the logging chain. It is universally used in
+all lumber camps and on every farm. It usually is from 16 to 20 feet in
+length, with a round hook on one end for the slip hitch and a grab hook
+on the other end that makes fast between any two links.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 70.--Neckyoke and Whiffletree Irons. Farmers can
+make better neckyokes and whiffletrees than they can buy ready-made. The
+irons may be bought separately and the wood selected piece by piece.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 71.--Measuring a Worn Skein for a New Boxing. The
+pasteboard calipers are cut to fit the old skein sideways because it is
+probably flattened on the bottom from wear.]
+
+On general principles, however, farm repair work should not occupy a
+farmer's time to the detriment of growing crops or the proper care of
+live-stock. Farming is the business; mechanical work is a side issue. At
+the same time, a farmer so inclined can find time during the year to
+look over every farm machine, every implement and every hand tool on the
+farm. The stupidest farm helper can clean the rust off of a spade and
+rub the surface with an oily cloth, in which some fine emery has been
+dusted. The emery will remove the rust and the oil will prevent it from
+further rusting. Every laborer knows better than to use a spade or
+shovel after a rivet head has given way so the handle is not properly
+supported by the plate extensions. There really is no excuse for using
+tools or machinery that are out of repair, but the extent to which
+a farmer can profitably do his own repairing depends on many
+contingencies. In every case he must decide according to circumstances,
+always, however, with a desire and determination to run his farm on
+business principles.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 72.--Wooden Wagon Axles. Axle timber may be bought
+in the rough or partly fitted to the skeins.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 73.--Showing how to fit the irons on the forward
+end of a wagon reach.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 74.--Wire Splice. With a little practice wire may
+be wound close enough to prevent slipping.]
+
+_Home-made Bolts._--The easiest way to make a bolt is to cut a rod of
+round iron the proper length and run a thread on each end. On one end
+the thread may be just long enough to rivet the head, while the thread
+on the other end is made longer to accommodate the nut and to take up
+slack. A farmer needs round iron in sizes from one-fourth inch to
+five-eighths inch. He will use more three-eighths and one-half inch than
+any other sizes. Blank nuts are made in standard sizes to fit any size
+of round iron. Have an assortment, in different sizes, of both the
+square and the hexagon nuts.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 75.--Emergency Bolts. A bolt may be made quickly
+without a forge fire by cutting a short thread on one end for the head
+and a longer thread on the other end for the nut.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 76.--Rivets. A stock of soft iron rivets of
+different sizes and lengths should be always kept on hand ready for
+immediate use.]
+
+To make a bolt in the ordinary way requires welding, but for repair work
+in a hurry it is better to select the proper iron and cut it to the
+required length either with a cold chisel in the vise, or with a hardy
+and a handled cold chisel over an anvil. The quickest way of cutting
+that mashes the rod the least is to be preferred. The size of the rod
+will determine the manner of cutting in most instances.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 77.--Rivets.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 78.--Rivet Set. This style of set is used for
+small rivets. The size should be selected to fit the rivets closely.
+Larger rivets are made to hug the work by means of a flat piece of steel
+with a hole through it.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 79.--Rivet Set.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 80.--(1) Coulter Clamp. Plow-beam clamps should be
+made in the farm shop to fit each plow. (2) Garden Weeder. The quickest
+hand killer of young weeds in the garden is a flat steel blade that
+works horizontally half an inch below the surface of the ground.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 81.--Stock and Dies. Taps and dies and stocks are
+best kept in compartments in a case made for the purpose.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 82.--Stock for Round Dies. The opening is turned
+true and sized accurately to fit. The screw applies pressure to hold the
+die by friction.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 83.--Taps and Dies. Standard threads are tapped
+into blank nuts and corresponding threads are cut onto bolts with
+accuracy and rapidity by using this style taps and dies. They may be had
+in all sizes. The range for farm work should cut from 1/4" to 5/8",
+inclusive.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 84.--Taper Tap for Blacksmith's Use.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 85.--Machine Bolt and Carriage Bolt. The first is
+used against iron and the second against wood, but this rule is not
+arbitrary. The rounded side of the nuts are turned in against wood; the
+flat side against washers or heavier iron. Use square head bolts if you
+expect to take them out after the nuts have rusted on.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 86.--Plow bolts and sickle bar bolts should be
+kept in stock. Standard sizes and shapes are made for several different
+makes of plows and machines.]
+
+Taps and dies are made to fit each size of rod. If the thread on the
+bolt is cut with a solid, or round, plate die, the corresponding tap is
+run clear through the nut. In that case the nut will screw on the bolt
+easily, possibly a little loose for some purposes. It is so intended by
+the manufacturers to give the workman a little leeway. If it is
+desirable to have the nut screw on the bolt very tight, then the tap is
+stopped before the last thread enters the nut. A little practice soon
+qualifies a workman to fit a nut according to the place the bolt is to
+occupy.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 87.--Lag Screw. To set a lag screw in hardwood,
+bore a hole the size of the screw shank as calipered between the
+threads.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 88.--(1) Wagon-Box Irons, showing how to attach
+the box and the rave to the cross-piece and to brace the side of the box
+to hold it upright. There may be several of these braces on each side of
+the wagon box. (2) U Bolt in Cement. A solid staple to be embedded in
+concrete for a horse ring, door hinge, cow stanchion, etc.]
+
+Generally it is desirable to have nuts fit very snug on parts of
+machines that shake a good deal, and this applies to almost all farm
+machinery and implements.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 89.--Wagon-Box Brace. It is offset to hold the
+rave and to brace the sideboard at the rear and the front ends and
+sometimes in the middle of light wagon beds.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 90.--Two Plow Clevises and a Plow Link.]
+
+Ordinarily a horse rake is supposed to travel steadily along like a
+cart, but the ground is rough and in practical use the nuts loosen
+almost as soon as haying commences.
+
+Some farmers make a practice of riveting bolt ends to prevent nuts from
+working loose. When the bolts have square heads, this practice is not
+objectionable, because with two wrenches a nut can be twisted off over
+the riveting, but a great many bolts have round heads and very short,
+square shanks. Theoretically, the shanks are driven into the wood firm
+enough to prevent the bolts from turning. Practically this theory is a
+delusion and a snare, as every farm boy can testify.
+
+Bolts are not manufactured in quantities in the farm blacksmith shop.
+They can be made by machinery cheaper, but so many times a bolt is
+needed on short notice that the farm shop should have the necessary
+tools and materials to supply the need quickly.
+
+_Forging Iron and Steel._--Iron and steel are composed of the same
+properties, but differ chemically. Steel also is finer grained than iron
+and it requires different treatment. Iron should be forged at a
+light-red or white heat. If forged at a dark-red heat the iron generally
+will granulate or crack open and weaken the metal. For a smooth finish
+the last forging may be done at a dark-red heat, but the hammer must be
+used lightly. The weight of the hammer as well as the blows also must
+differ with the different size of iron under heat. Small sizes should be
+treated with hammer blows that are rather light, while for large sizes
+the blows should be correspondingly heavy. If light blows be given with
+a light hammer in forging heavy iron the outside alone will be affected,
+thus causing uneven tension and contrarywise strain in the iron.
+
+Steel should never be heated above a yellow heat. If heated to a white
+heat the steel will be burned. Steel should never be forged at a
+dark-red heat. If this is done it will cause considerable strain between
+the inner and outer portions, which may cause it to crack while forging.
+The weight of the hammer and the hammer blows in forging of steel is
+vastly of more importance than in forging iron. If the blow or the
+hammer is not heavy enough to exert its force throughout the thickness
+of the steel it will probably crack in the process of hardening or
+tempering. If steel be properly forged it will harden easily and
+naturally, but if improperly forged the tempering will be very
+difficult--probably a failure. The quality of a finished tool depends
+greatly upon the correct heat and proper method used in forging and
+hardening it.
+
+_Making Steel Tools._--Steel for tools should first be annealed to even
+the density and prevent warping. This is done by heating it to a dull
+cherry red in a slow fire. A charcoal fire for this purpose is best
+because it contains no sulphur or other injurious impurities. After
+heating the piece of new steel all over as evenly as possible it should
+be buried several inches deep in powdered charcoal and left to cool.
+This completes the annealing process. While working steel into proper
+shape for tools, great care is required to prevent burning. It should be
+worked quickly and the process repeated as often as necessary. Practice
+is the only recipe for speed.
+
+When the tool is shaped as well as possible on the anvil it is then
+finished with a file by clamping the new tool in the vise, using single
+cut files. Bastard files are too rough for tool steel. After the tool is
+shaped by cross-filing and draw-filing to make it smooth it is sometimes
+polished by wrapping fine emery cloth around the file. Oil is used with
+emery cloth to give the steel a luster finish. Tempering is the last
+process in the making of such tools as cold chisels, drills, dies,
+punches, scratchawls, etc.
+
+_Tempering Steel Tools._--Good judgment is required to get the right
+temper. Good eyesight is needed to catch the color at the exact instant,
+and quick action to plunge it into the water before it cools too much.
+Dies are made very hard. The color of the steel at dipping time should
+be a bright straw color. Cold chisels will break when being used if
+tempered too hard. If cold chisels are to be used for cutting iron, the
+color should be violet; if the chisels are for cutting stone, purple is
+the color. Drills for boring iron are tempered a dark straw color at the
+cutting edge merging back into blue. The water in the dipping tub should
+be warm, as steel is likely to check or crack when it is tempered in
+cold water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 91.--Blacksmith Hammers. Some smiths use a heavy
+machinist's hammer. But the flat peen is more useful when working around
+the anvil and the leg vise.]
+
+Tool steel should be held in a perpendicular position when it enters the
+water to cool all sides alike. Otherwise the new tool might warp. It is
+better to dip slowly, sometimes holding the point, or cutting edge, in
+the water while permitting the shank to cool slowly enough to remain
+soft. Some sizes of steel may be tempered too hard at first and the
+temper immediately drawn by permitting the heat of the shank to follow
+down almost to the edge, then dip. This is done quickly while watching
+the colors as they move towards the point or edge.
+
+_Draw-filing._--Making six-sided and eight-sided punches and scratchawls
+out of hexagon and octagon tool steel is interesting work. The steel is
+cut to length by filing a crease all around with a three-cornered file.
+When it is sufficiently notched, the steel will break straight across.
+To shape the tool and to draw out the point the steel is heated in the
+forge to a dull cherry red and hammered carefully to preserve the shape
+along the taper. Special attention must be given to the numerous
+corners. A scratchawl or small punch, must be heated many times and
+hammered quickly before cooling. An old English shop adage reads: "Only
+one blacksmith ever went to the devil and that was for pounding cold
+iron."
+
+After the punch or scratchawl is roughed out on the anvil, it is
+fastened in the vise and finished by cross-filing and draw-filing.
+Copper caps on the vise jaws will prevent indentations.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 92.--Vise Jaw Guards. Soft auxiliary vise jaws are
+made of sheet copper or galvanized iron.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 93.--Roll Filing. To file a piece of steel round
+it is rolled by one hand while the file is used by the other hand.]
+
+Draw-filing means grasping each end of the file and moving it back and
+forth sidewise along the work. For this purpose single-cut files are
+used. The smoothing is done with a very fine single-cut file, or if very
+particular, a float file is used. Then the polish is rubbed on with fine
+emery cloth and oil. The emery cloth is wrapped around the file and the
+same motion is continued. With some little practice a very creditable
+piece of work may be turned out. Such work is valuable because of the
+instruction. A good test of skill at blacksmithing is making an octagon
+punch that tapers true to the eye when finished.
+
+_Set-Screws._--It is customary to fasten a good many gear wheels, cranks
+and pulleys to machinery shafts by set-screws. There are two kinds of
+set-screws; one has a cone point, the other a cup end. Both screws are
+hardened to sink into the shaft. A cup is supposed to cut a ring and the
+point is supposed to sink into the shaft to make a small hole sufficient
+to keep the wheel from slipping. However, unless the cone-pointed screw
+is countersunk into the shaft, it will not hold much of a strain. The
+point is so small it will slip and cut a groove around the shaft. To
+prevent this, the set-screw may be countersunk by first marking the
+shaft with an indentation of the point of the screw. Then the wheel or
+crank or collar may be removed and a hole drilled into the shaft with a
+twist-drill the same size, or a sixty-fourth smaller, than the
+set-screw. Then by forcing the end of the set-screw into the drill hole,
+the wheel is held solid.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 94.--Machine-Bolt and Set-Screw. The bolt to the
+left is used to clamp cylinder heads in place. The set-screw to the
+right is the cup variety. The end is countersunk to form a cup with a
+sharp rim.]
+
+The principal objection to set-screws is that they are dangerous. The
+heads always project and are ready to catch a coat sleeve when the shaft
+is revolving. In all cases, set-screws should be as large as the hub
+will allow, and it is better to have them protected so it is impossible
+to catch anything to wind around the shaft. Cup set-screws are not
+satisfactory except for very light work. If necessary to use them, the
+ends may be firmly fixed by cutting a ring with a sharp, diamond-point
+cold chisel.
+
+_Setting the Handsaw._--Nine teeth to the inch is the most satisfactory
+handsaw for all kinds of lumber. Setting the teeth of this kind of saw
+is best done with a hand lever set. The plunger pin should be carefully
+adjusted to bend the teeth just far enough to give the necessary set.
+For general work a saw needs more set than is needed for kiln-dried
+stuff. The teeth should cut a kerf just wide enough to clear the blade.
+Anything more is a waste of time and muscle. It is better to work from
+both sides of the saw by first setting one side the whole length of the
+blade. Then reverse the saw in the clamp and set the alternate teeth in
+the same manner. There should be a good solid stop between the handles
+of the set to insure equal pressure against each sawtooth. The pin
+should be carefully placed against each tooth at exactly the same spot
+every time and the pressure should be the same for each tooth.
+
+The best saw-sets for fine tooth saws are automatic so far as it is
+possible to make them so, but the skill of the operator determines the
+quality of the work. The reason for setting a saw before jointing is to
+leave the flattened ends of the teeth square with the blade after the
+jointing and filing is completed.
+
+_Jointing a Handsaw._--After the saw has been set it must be jointed to
+square the teeth and to even them to equal length, and to keep the saw
+straight on the cutting edge. Some woodworkers give their saws a slight
+camber, or belly, to correspond with the sway-back. The camber
+facilitates cutting to the bottom in mitre-box work without sawing into
+the bed piece of the box. It also throws the greatest weight of the
+thrust upon the middle teeth. A saw with even teeth cuts smoother, runs
+truer and works faster than a saw filed by guess. It is easy to file a
+saw when all of the teeth are the same length and all have the same set.
+Anyone can do a good job of filing if the saw is made right to begin
+with, but no one can put a saw in good working order with a
+three-cornered file as his only tool.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 95.--Saw Jointer. The wooden block is about two
+inches square by 12" or 14" in length. The block is made true and
+scribed carefully to have the ripsaw slot square, straight and true. The
+file is set into a mortise square with the block.]
+
+_Filing the Handsaw._--First comes the three-cornered file. It should be
+just large enough to do the work. There is no economy in buying larger
+files thinking that each of the three corners will answer the same
+purpose as a whole file of smaller size. In the first place the small
+file is better controlled and will do better work. In the second place
+the three corners are needed to gum the bottoms of the divisions
+between the teeth. There is much more wear on the corners than on the
+sides of a saw-file. Also the corners of a small file are more acute,
+which means a good deal in the shape of the finished teeth.
+
+After the saw is carefully set and jointed, clamp it in the saw vise and
+file one side of the saw from heel to point. Then reverse the saw in the
+saw clamp and file the other side, being careful to keep the bevel of
+each tooth the same. It is better to stop filing just before the tooth
+comes to a point. A triangular or diamond shaped point will cut faster
+and leave a smoother saw kerf and last longer than a needle point.
+
+As the tooth of a crosscut saw is filed away from both edges, it is
+necessary to make allowances when filing the first side, otherwise some
+of the teeth will come to a sharp point before the gumming is deep
+enough.
+
+_Using a Handsaw._--Anyone can saw a board square both up and down and
+crossways by following a few simple rules. Have the board supported on
+the level by two well made saw-benches 24" high. Stand up straight as
+possible and look down on both sides of the saw blade. Use long even
+strokes and let the saw play lightly and evenly through the saw cut.
+
+Do not cut the mark out; cut to it on the waste end, or further end, if
+there are more pieces to be cut from the board. The saw kerf is about
+3/32" wide for a nine-tooth saw set for unkilned lumber or dimension
+stuff. If both saw kerfs are taken from one piece and none from the next
+then one length will be 3/16" shorter than the other.
+
+For practice it is a good plan to make two marks 3/32" apart and cut
+between them. Use a sharp-pointed scratchawl to make the marks. A
+penknife blade is next best, but it must be held flat against the blade
+of the square, otherwise it will crowd in or run off at a tangent.
+
+_Setting a Circular Saw._--A good saw-set for a circular saw may be made
+out of an old worn-out flat file. Heat the file in the forge fire to
+draw the temper and anneal it by covering it with ashes. Smooth it on
+the grindstone. Put it in the vise and file a notch in one edge. The
+notch should be just wide enough to fit loosely over the point of a
+sawtooth. The notch should be just deep enough to reach down one-quarter
+of the length of the tooth.
+
+Make a saw-set gauge out of a piece of flat iron or steel one inch wide
+and about four inches long. File a notch into and parallel to one edge
+at one corner, about one-sixteenth of an inch deep from the edge and
+about half an inch long measuring from the end. With the home-made
+saw-set bend the saw teeth outward until the points just miss the iron
+gauge in the corner notch. The edges of the gauge should be straight and
+parallel and the notch should be parallel with the edge. In use the edge
+of the gauge is laid against the side of the saw so the projecting tooth
+reaches into the notch. One-sixteenth of an inch may be too much set for
+a small saw but it won't be too much for a 24-inch wood saw working in
+green cord wood.
+
+_Jointing a Circular Saw._--Run the saw at full speed. Lay a 14-inch
+file flat on the top of the saw table at right angles to the saw. Move
+the file slowly and carefully towards the saw until it ticks against the
+teeth. Hold the file firmly by both ends until each sawtooth ticks
+lightly against the file. A saw in good working order needs very little
+jointing, but it should have attention every time the saw is set and it
+should be done after setting and before filing.
+
+_Filing a Circular Saw._--The teeth of a crosscut circular saw point a
+little ahead. Sometimes they point so nearly straight out from the
+center that you have to look twice to determine which way the saw should
+run. There are plenty of rules for the pitch of sawteeth, but they are
+subject to many qualifications. What interests a farmer is a saw that
+will cut green poles and crooked limbs into stove lengths with the least
+possible delay. A saw 20 inches in diameter will cut a stick eight
+inches through without turning it to finish the cut. The front or
+cutting edges of the teeth of a 24-inch crosscut circular saw for wood
+sawing should line to a point a little back from the center. This may
+not sound definite enough for best results, so the more particular
+farmers may use a straight edge. Select a straight stick about half an
+inch square. Rest it on top of or against the back of the saw mandrel
+and shape the forward edges of the teeth on a line with the upper side
+or rear side of the straight edge. The teeth will stand at the proper
+pitch when the saw is new, if it was designed for sawing green wood. If
+it works right before being filed, then the width of the straight edge
+may be made to conform to the original pitch and kept for future use.
+
+The gumming is done with the edge of the file while filing the front
+edges of the teeth. It is finished with the flat side of the file while
+filing the rear edges of the teeth. The depth, or length, of the teeth
+should be kept the same as the manufacturer designed them. A wood saw
+works best when the front edges of the teeth have but little bevel. The
+back edges should have more slant. The teeth should have three-cornered
+or diamond-shaped points. Needle points break off when they come against
+knots or cross-grained hardwood. Short teeth do no cutting. Single cut
+flat files are used for circular saws. The file should fit the saw. It
+should be about 1/8" wider than the length of the front side of the
+teeth. The back edges require that the file shall have some play to show
+part of the tooth while the file is in motion. Large files are clumsy.
+The file should be carefully selected.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 96.--How to Sharpen a Hoe. Grinding a hoe is
+difficult, but filing it sharp and straight at the cutting edge is easy.
+If the hoe chatters when held in the vise, spring a wooden block under
+the blade. Use false vise jaws to prevent dinging the shank.]
+
+_How to Sharpen a Hoe._--It is quicker and more satisfactory to file a
+hoe sharp than to grind it on the grindstone. The shank of the hoe must
+be held firmly in the vise and there should be a solid block of wood
+under the blade of the hoe, a little back from the edge; to keep the
+file from chattering. A single cut flat file is the best to use. It
+should be long enough to be easily held in one position to make a
+smooth, even bevel at the same angle to the face of the blade all the
+way across. To make sure not to file a feather edge it is better to
+joint the hoe to begin with, then to stop filing just before reaching
+the edge. If the edge be left 1/64" thick it will wear longer and work
+more easily after having been used an hour or two than it will if the
+edge be filed thin. This is especially noticeable when the ground
+contains small stones. Hoes are sharpened from the under side only. The
+inside of a hoe blade should be straight clear to the edge. Hoes should
+always have sharp corners. When working around valuable plants you want
+to know exactly where the corner of the hoe is when the blade is buried
+out of sight in the ground.
+
+_Shoeing Farm Horses._--Farmers have no time or inclination to make a
+business of shoeing horses, but there are occasions when it is necessary
+to pull a shoe or set a shoe and to do it quickly. Shoeing tools are not
+numerous or expensive. They consist first of a tool box, with a stiff
+iron handle made in the shape of a bale. The box contains a shoeing
+hammer, hoof rasp, hoof knife, or paring-knife, as it is usually called,
+and two sizes of horseshoe-nails. Sometimes a foot pedestal is used to
+set the horse's front foot on when the horse wants to bear down too
+hard, but this pedestal is not necessary in the farm shop.
+
+There are flat-footed horses that cannot work even in summer without
+shoes. Common sense and shoeing tools are the only requirements
+necessary to tack on a plate without calks. Shoes to fit any foot may be
+purchased at so much a pound.
+
+A paring-knife is used to level the bottom of the hoof so that it will
+have an even bearing on the shoe all the way round. It is not desirable
+to pare the frog or the braces in the bottom of a horse's foot. If the
+foot is well cupped, a little of the horny rim may be taken off near the
+edges. Generally it is necessary to shorten the toe. This is done partly
+with the hoof chisel and rasp after the shoe is nailed fast. Sometimes
+one-fourth of an inch is sufficient; at other times a horse's hoof is
+very much improved by taking off one-half inch or more of the toe growth
+either from the bottom or the front or both.
+
+Like all other mechanical work the shoeing of a horse's foot should be
+studied and planned before starting. A long toe is a bad leverage to
+overcome when pulling a heavy load. At the same time, nature intended
+that a horse should have considerable toe length as a protection to the
+more tender parts of the foot. And the pastern bone should play at the
+proper angle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 97.--Tool Box for Field Use. The long open side is
+for tools. On the other side of the center partition bolts, keys,
+screws, nails, bits of wire, leather, tin, etc., are kept in the
+different divisions.]
+
+_Handy Tool Box._--A tool box with a high lengthwise partition in the
+middle and a handle in the middle of the top of the partition is the
+handiest tool box ever used on a farm. At haying and harvest time it
+should be fitted with the common tools required about haying and harvest
+machinery. One side is partitioned into square boxes to hold split wire
+keys, washers, bolts, rivets, and a collection of wire nails, bits of
+copper wire, a leather punch, etc. On the other side of the box is an
+assortment of wrenches, cold chisels, punches, pliers and hammers. This
+tool box belongs in the wagon that accompanies the outfit to the field.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 98.--Melting Ladle. Babbitting shaft boxing
+requires a melting ladle. It should be about five inches across the bowl
+and about three inches deep. That is a good size to heat in a forge
+fire.]
+
+_Babbitting Boxings._--Babbitting boxings is one of the repair jobs on
+the farm. Some men are careless about oiling; sometimes sand cuts them
+out. Every year some boxings need rebabbitting. The melting ladle should
+be large enough to pour the largest box. Usually a 5-inch bowl is about
+right. A large ladle will pour a small box but a small ladle won't pour
+a large one. In cold weather the shaft and box should be warmed to
+insure an even flow of metal. Pasteboard is fitted against the shaft
+when pouring the cap or top half of the box. Pasteboard is fitted around
+the shaft at the ends of the box to keep the melted metal from running
+out. Never use clay or putty, it is too mussy and the babbitt is made
+rough and uneven at the edges. Some skill is required to fit either wood
+or metal close enough to prevent leaks and to do a neat job.
+
+If the boxing is small, both top and bottom may be poured at once by
+making holes through the dividing pasteboard. The holes must be large
+enough to let the melted metal through and small enough to break apart
+easily when cold.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+GENERATING MECHANICAL POWER TO DRIVE MODERN FARM MACHINERY
+
+
+At one time ninety-seven per cent of the population of the United States
+got their living directly from tilling the soil, and the power used was
+oxen and manual labor. At the present time probably not more than
+thirty-five per cent of our people are actively engaged in agricultural
+pursuits. And the power problem has been transferred to horses, steam,
+gasoline, kerosene and water power, with electricity as a power
+conveyor.
+
+Fifty years ago a farmer was lucky if he owned a single moldboard
+cast-iron plow that he could follow all day on foot and turn over one,
+or at most, two acres. The new traction engines are so powerful that it
+is possible to plow sixty feet in width, and other machines have been
+invented to follow the tractor throughout the planting and growing
+seasons to the end of the harvest. The tractor is supplemented by
+numerous smaller powers. All of which combine to make it possible for
+one-third of the people to grow enough to feed the whole American family
+and to export a surplus to Europe.
+
+At the same time, the standard of living is very much higher than it was
+when practically everyone worked in the fields to grow and to harvest
+the food necessary to live.
+
+Farm machinery is expensive, but it is more expensive to do without.
+Farmers who make the most money are the ones who use the greatest power
+and the best machinery. Farmers who have a hard time of it are the ones
+who use the old wheezy hand pump, the eight-foot harrow and the walking
+plow. The few horses they keep are small and the work worries them. The
+owner sympathizes with his team and that worries him. Worry is the
+commonest form of insanity.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 99.--Flail, the oldest threshing machine, still
+used for threshing pedigreed seeds to prevent mixing. The staff is seven
+or eight feet long and the swiple is about three feet long by two and
+one-half inches thick in the middle, tapering to one and one-half inches
+at the ends. The staff and swiple are fastened together by rawhide
+thongs.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 100.--Bucket Yoke. It fits around the neck and
+over the shoulders. Such human yokes have been used for ages to carry
+two buckets of water, milk or other liquids. The buckets or pails should
+nearly balance each other. They are steadied by hand to prevent
+slopping.]
+
+At a famous plowing match held at Wheatland, Illinois, two interesting
+facts were brought out. Boys are not competing for furrow prizes and the
+walking plow has gone out of fashion. The plowing at the Wheatland
+plowing match was done by men with riding plows. Only one boy under
+eighteen years was ready to measure his ability against competition. The
+attendance of farmers and visitors numbered about three thousand, which
+shows that general interest in the old-fashioned plowing match is as
+keen as ever. A jumbo tractor on the grounds proved its ability to draw
+a big crowd and eighteen plows at the same time. It did its work well
+and without vulgar ostentation. Lack of sufficient land to keep it busy
+was the tractor's only disappointment, but it reached out a strong
+right arm and harrowed the furrows down fine, just to show that it
+"wasn't mad at nobody."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 101.--Well Sweep. The length of the sweep is
+sufficient to lower the bucket into the water and to raise it to the
+coping at the top of the brickwork. The rock on the short end of the
+sweep is just heavy enough to balance the bucket full of water.]
+
+Modern farm methods are continually demanding more power. Larger
+implements are being used and heavier horses are required to pull them.
+A great deal of farm work is done by engine power. Farm power is
+profitable when it is employed to its full capacity in manufacturing
+high-priced products. It may be profitable also in preventing waste by
+working up cheap materials into valuable by-products. The modern,
+well-managed farm is a factory and it should be managed along
+progressive factory methods. In a good dairy stable hay, straw, grains
+and other feeds are manufactured into high-priced cream and butter.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 102.--Wire Stretcher. A small block and tackle
+will stretch a single barb-wire tight enough for a fence. By using two
+wire snatches the ends of two wires may be strained together for
+splicing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 103.--Block and Tackle. The rope is threaded into
+two double blocks. There is a safety stop that holds the load at any
+height.]
+
+Farming pays in proportion to the amount of work intelligently applied
+to this manner of increasing values. It is difficult to make a profit
+growing and selling grain. Grain may sell for more than the labor and
+seed, but it takes so much vitality from the land that depreciation of
+capital often is greater than the margin of apparent profit. When grains
+are grown and fed to live-stock on the farm, business methods demand
+better buildings and more power, which means that the farmer is
+employing auxiliary machinery and other modern methods to enhance
+values.
+
+In other manufacturing establishments raw material is worked over into
+commercial products which bring several times the amount of money paid
+for the raw material.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 104.--Farm Hoists. Two styles of farm elevating
+hoists are shown in this illustration. Two very different lifting jobs
+are also shown.]
+
+The principle is the same on the farm except that when a farmer raises
+the raw material he sells it to himself at a profit. When he feeds it to
+live-stock and sells the live-stock he makes another profit. When the
+manure is properly handled and returned to the soil he is making another
+profit on a by-product.
+
+Farming carried on in this way is a complicated business which requires
+superior knowledge of business methods and principles. In order to
+conduct the business of farming profitably the labor problem has to be
+met. Good farm help is expensive. Poor farm help is more expensive.
+While farm machinery also is expensive, it is cheaper than hand labor
+when the farmer has sufficient work to justify the outlay. It is
+tiresome to have agricultural writers ding at us about the superior acre
+returns of German farms. German hand-made returns may be greater per
+acre, but one American farmhand, by the use of proper machinery, will
+produce more food than a whole German family.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 105.--Two Powerful Winches. The one to the left is
+used for pulling small stumps or roots in the process of clearing land.
+The rope runs on and off the drum to maintain three or four laps or
+turns. The winch to the right is used for hoisting well drilling tools
+or to hang a beef animal. The rope winds on the drum in two layers if
+necessary.]
+
+
+DOG CHURN
+
+Even the dog works on some farms. A dog is a nuisance among dairy
+cattle, but he can be made to earn his salt at churning time. All
+mechanism in connection with dog power must be light. It also is
+necessary to eliminate the friction as much as possible.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 106.--Dog Churn Power. A wheel keyed to an iron
+shaft is placed at an angle as shown. The weight of the dog turns the
+wheel and power is conveyed to the churn by a light rope belt. It is
+necessary to confine the dog between stationary partitions built like a
+stall over the wheel.]
+
+The best way to make a dog power is to use a light wooden sulky wheel
+for the revolving turn table. Next best to the sulky wheel is a light
+buggy wheel. The wheel is made fast to an upright iron shaft that is
+stepped into an iron oil well at the bottom and inclined at an angle of
+about fifteen degrees to give the necessary power. To steady the top of
+the shaft a light boxing is used, preferably a ball-bearing bicycle race
+to reduce friction. Power is conveyed to the churn by means of a grooved
+pulley on the top of the shaft. A small, soft rope or heavy string belt
+runs from this pulley to a similar pulley connected with the churn.
+
+Dogs learn to like the work when fed immediately after the churning is
+finished. Dogs have been known to get on to the power wheel to call
+attention to their hungry condition. This calls to mind the necessity
+of arranging a brake to stop the wheel to let the dog off. When the
+wheel is running light, the dog cannot let go.
+
+A spring brake to wear against the iron tire of the wheel is the most
+satisfactory. The brake may be tripped and set against the tire
+automatically by a small lever and weight attached to the underside of
+the wheel. When the speed is too fast the weight swings out and sets the
+brake. When the speed slackens the weight drops back towards the center
+and releases the brake. When the speed is about right the weight swings
+between the two spring catches.
+
+
+BULL TREADMILL
+
+On dairy farms it is common to see a valuable pure bred bull working a
+treadmill for exercise and to pump water. Sometimes he turns the
+cream-separator, but the motion is too unsteady for good results.
+Treadmills for this purpose are very simple. The mechanism turns a
+grooved pulley which propels a rope power conveyor. The rope belt may be
+carried across the yards in any direction and to almost any distance.
+Bull treadmills consist of a framework of wood which carries an endless
+apron supported on rollers. The apron link chains pass around and turn
+two drumhead sprocket-wheels at the upper end and an idler drum at the
+lower end. The sprocket-wheel drum shaft is geared to an auxiliary shaft
+which carries a grooved pulley. A rope belt power conveyor runs in this
+groove and carries power from the bull pen to the pump.
+
+Bull tread powers usually have smooth inclined lags, because a bull's
+steps on the tread power are naturally uneven and irregular. This
+construction gives an even straight tread to the travel surface. To
+prevent slipping, soft wooden strips are nailed onto the lags at the
+lower edges. Even incline tread blocks or lags are also recommended for
+horses that are not shod and for all animals with split hoofs. The
+traveling apron of the power is placed on an incline and the treads are
+carried around the two drums at the upper and lower ends of the frame by
+means of endless chains. There is a governor attachment which regulates
+the speed and prevents the machinery from "running away."
+
+[Illustration: Figure 107.--Bull Tread Power. Treadmills have gone out
+of fashion. Too much friction was the cause, but a mill like this is
+valuable to exercise a pure bred bull. Some dairymen make him pump
+water.]
+
+The simplest governor is made on the two-ball governor principle with
+weights on opposite levers. The governor is attached to two opposite
+spokes in the flywheel. As the speed increases the weights move outward
+because of their centrifugal force. This motion operates a brake lever
+to retard or stop the flywheel. When the machine stops an opposite
+weight rests against the flywheel until it starts in motion again, so
+the apron cannot be moved until the brake is released. This is necessary
+to get the animal on or off of the platform while it is at rest to avoid
+accidents. The usual incline is a rise of two feet in eight when power
+is wanted. This pitch compels the bull to lift one-quarter of his own
+weight and it may be too severe for a heavy animal. The endless apron is
+an endless hill climb to the bull. Treadmills are not economical of
+power because there are so many bearings to generate friction.
+
+
+WINDMILLS
+
+Wind power is the cheapest power we have. A windmill properly
+proportioned to its work is a great help, especially when it is attached
+to a good pump for the purpose of lifting water into an elevated tank
+from which it is piped under pressure for domestic purposes and for
+watering live-stock.
+
+You can have considerable patience with a windmill if you only depend
+upon it for pumping water, provided you have a tank that will hold a
+week's supply to be drawn during a dry, hot time when every animal on
+the farm demands a double allowance of water. That is the time when a
+farmer hates to attach himself to the pump handle for the purpose of
+working up a hickory breeze. That also is the time when the wind
+neglects a fellow.
+
+A good windmill is useful up to about one-third of its rated capacity,
+which is the strongest argument for buying a mill larger than at first
+seems necessary. Some men have suffered at some time in their lives with
+the delusion that they could tinker with a poorly constructed windmill
+and make it earn its oil. They have never waked up to a full
+realization of their early delusion. It is a positive fact that all
+windmills are not lazy, deceitful nor wholly unreliable. When properly
+constructed, rightly mounted and kept in good repair, they are not prone
+to work in a crazy fashion when the tank is full and loaf when it is
+empty. There are thousands of windmills that have faithfully staid on
+the job continuously twenty-four hours per day for five or ten years at
+a stretch, all the time working for nothing year after year without
+grumbling, except when compelled to run without oil. At such times the
+protest is loud and nerve racking.
+
+A good windmill with suitable derrick, pump and piping may cost $150.
+The yearly expense figures something like this:
+
+  Interest on investment at 6% per annum   $ 9.00
+  Depreciation 10%                          15.00
+  Oil                                        1.00
+  Repairs                                    3.00
+
+making a total of $28, which is less than $2.50 per month for the work
+of elevating a constant supply of water for the house, stable and
+barnyard.
+
+
+ONE-MULE PUMP
+
+A home-made device that is much used on live-stock ranches in California
+is shown in the illustration. This simple mechanism is a practical means
+for converting circular mule motion into vertical reciprocating pump
+action. A solid post is set rather deep in the ground about twelve feet
+from the well. This post is the fulcrum support of the walking-beam. One
+end of the walking-beam reaches to the center line of the well, where it
+connects with the pump shaft. The other end of the walking-beam is
+operated by a pitman shaft connecting with a crank wrist pin near the
+ground. A round iron shaft similar to a horsepower tumbling rod about
+ten or twelve feet in length and one and a half inches in diameter is
+used to convey power and motion to the pitman shaft.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 108.--Mule Pump. A practical home-made power to
+pump water for live-stock. It is used where the water-table is within 20
+feet of the surface of the ground. The drawing shows a post in the
+center which supports the walking-beam and acts as a fulcrum. A
+mowing-machine wheel is keyed to one end of a round iron shaft. The
+other end of this shaft turns in a boxing which is swiveled to a short
+post as shown at _B_. See also detail "_B_.". The two plunger shafts are
+shown at _A_ _A_. The mule is hitched to the round iron shaft near the
+traveling wheel by means of a round hook. As the mule walks around in a
+circle the shaft revolves and operates the crank _B_. There are side
+guys not shown in the drawing to keep the walking-beam in position.]
+
+A mowing-machine wheel is keyed to the outer end of the tumbling rod. At
+the crank end is a babbitted boxing with a bolt attachment reaching down
+into the top of a short post set solidly into the ground, directly under
+the inner end of the walking-beam. This bolt permits the boxing to
+revolve with a swivel motion. Another swivel connects the upper end of
+the pitman shaft with the walking-beam. The whiffletree is attached to
+the tumbling rod by an iron hook. This hook is held in place by two iron
+collars fastened to the tumbling rod by means of keys or set-screws.
+The mowing-machine drive wheel travels around in a circle behind the
+mule turning the shaft which works the walking-beam and operates the
+pump. It would be difficult to design another horse or mule power so
+cheap and simple and effective. The mule grows wise after a while, so it
+is necessary to use a blindfold, or he will soldier on the job. With a
+little encouragement from a whip occasionally a mule will walk around
+and around for hours pulling the mowing-machine wheel after him.
+
+
+HORSEPOWER
+
+One horsepower is a force sufficient to lift 33,000 pounds one foot high
+in one minute.
+
+The term "horsepower" in popular use years ago meant a collection of
+gear-wheels and long levers with eight or ten horses solemnly marching
+around in a circle with a man perched on a platform in the center in the
+capacity of umpire.
+
+This was the old threshing-machine horsepower. It was the first real
+success in pooling many different farm power units to concentrate the
+combined effort upon one important operation.
+
+Not many horses are capable of raising 33,000 pounds one foot in one
+minute every minute for an hour or a day. Some horses are natural-born
+slackers with sufficient acumen to beat the umpire at his own game. Some
+horses walk faster than others, also horses vary in size and capacity
+for work. But during a busy time each horse was counted as one
+horsepower, and they were only eight or ten in number. And it so
+developed that the threshing horsepower had limitations which the
+separator outgrew.
+
+The old threshing horsepower has been superseded by steam engines and
+gasoline and kerosene power, but horses are more important than ever.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 109.--Horse Power, showing the manner of attaching
+the braced lever to the bull wheel.]
+
+Farm horses are larger and more powerful; they are better kept, better
+trained, and hitched to better machinery, because it pays. One man
+drives three 1,600-pound draft horses as fast as he used to drive two
+1,000-pound general-purpose horses. The three drafters make play of a
+heavy load, while the two light horses worry themselves poor and
+accomplish little. Modern farm machinery is heavier, it cuts wider and
+digs deeper and does more thorough work. Modern farm requirements go
+scientifically into the proper cultivation and preparation of soil to
+increase fertility. Old methods used up fertility until the land refused
+to produce profitably.
+
+Although the old familiar horsepower has been greatly outclassed, it has
+not been discarded. There are many small horsepowers in use for
+elevating grain, baling hay, cutting straw for feed and bedding,
+grinding feed and other light work where engine power is not available.
+
+
+WATER-POWER
+
+Water-power is the most satisfactory of all kinds of stationary farm
+power, when a steady stream of water may be harnessed to a good
+water-wheel. It is not a difficult engineering feat to throw a dam
+across a small stream and take the water out into a penstock to supply
+water to a turbine water-wheel. In the first place it is necessary to
+measure the flow of water to determine the size of water-wheel which may
+be used to advantage. In connection with the flow of water it is also
+important to know the fall. Water is measured by what is termed a
+"weir." It is easily made by cutting an oblong notch in a plank placed
+across the stream, as a temporary dam which raises the water a few
+inches to get a steady, even flow of water through the notch so that
+calculations may be made in miner's inches. The term "miner's inch" is
+not accurate, but it comes near enough for practical purposes. Measuring
+the volume of water should be done during a dry time in summer.
+
+The fall of the stream is easily measured by means of a carpenter's
+level and a stake. The stake is driven into the ground at a point
+downstream where water may be delivered to the wheel and a tailrace
+established to the best advantage. Sighting over the level to a mark on
+the stake will show the amount of fall. When a manufacturer of
+water-wheels has the amount of water and the fall, he can estimate the
+size and character of wheel to supply. The penstock may be vertical or
+placed on a slant. A galvanized pipe sufficient to carry the necessary
+amount of water may be laid along the bank, but it should be thoroughly
+well supported because a pipe full of water is heavy, and settling is
+likely to break a joint.
+
+Galvanized piping for a farm penstock is not necessarily expensive. It
+may be made at any tin shop and put together on the ground in sections.
+The only difficult part about it is soldering the under side of the
+joints, but generally it may be rolled a little to one side until the
+bottom of the seam is reached.
+
+The most satisfactory way to carry power from the water-wheel to the
+farm buildings is by means of electricity. The dynamo may be coupled to
+the water-wheel and wires carried any required distance.
+
+The work of installing electric power machinery is more a question of
+detail than mechanics or electrical engineering. The different
+appliances are bought from the manufacturer and placed where they are
+needed. It is principally a question of expense and quantity of
+electricity needed or developed. If the current is used for power, then
+a motor is connected with the dynamo and current from the dynamo drives
+the motor. A dynamo may be connected with the water-wheel shaft at the
+source of power and the motor may be placed in the power-house or any of
+the other buildings.
+
+The cost of farm waterworks depends principally on the amount of power
+developed. Small machinery may be had for a few hundred dollars, but
+large, powerful machinery is expensive. If the stream is large and
+considerable power is going to waste it might pay to put in a larger
+plant and sell current to the neighbors for electric lighting and for
+power purposes. Standard machinery is manufactured for just such plants.
+
+The question of harnessing a stream on your own land when you control
+both banks is a simple business proposition. If anyone else can set up a
+plausible plea of riparian rights, flood damage, interstate
+complications or interference with navigation, it then becomes a
+question of litigation to be decided by some succeeding generation.
+
+
+STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE
+
+Farm engines usually are of two different types, steam engines and
+gasoline or oil engines. Steam stationary engines are used on dairy
+farms because steam is the best known means of keeping a dairy clean and
+sanitary. The boiler that furnishes power to run the engine also
+supplies steam to heat water and steam for sterilizing bottles, cans and
+other utensils.
+
+For some unaccountable reason steam engines are more reliable than
+gasoline engines. At the same time they require more attention, that is,
+the boilers do. Steam engines have been known to perform their tasks
+year after year without balking and without repairs or attention of any
+kind except to feed steam and oil into the necessary parts, and
+occasionally repack the stuffing boxes.
+
+On the other hand, boilers require superintendence to feed them with
+both fuel and water. The amount of time varies greatly. If the boiler is
+very much larger than the engine, that is, if the boiler is big enough
+to furnish steam for two such engines, it will furnish steam for one
+engine and only half try. This means that the fireman can raise 40 or 60
+pounds of steam and attend to his other work around the dairy or barn.
+
+Where steam boilers are required for heating water and furnishing steam
+to scald cans and wash bottles, the boiler should be several horsepower
+larger than the engine requirements. There is no objection to this
+except that a large boiler costs more than a smaller one, and that more
+steam is generated than is actually required to run the engine. The kind
+of work required of a boiler and engine must determine the size and
+general character of the installation.
+
+Portable boilers and engines are not quite so satisfactory as
+stationary, but there are a great many portable outfits that give good
+satisfaction, and there is the advantage of moving them to the different
+parts of the farm when power is required for certain purposes.
+
+
+SMALL GASOLINE ENGINES
+
+A gasoline engine of 2-1/2 horsepower is the most useful size for a
+general purpose farm engine. It is convenient to run the pump,
+washing-machine, fanning-mill, cream-separator, grindstone, and other
+similar farm chores that have heretofore always been done by human
+muscle. A small engine may be placed on a low-down truck and moved from
+one building to another by hand. One drive belt 20 or 30 feet long,
+making a double belt reach of 12 or 15 feet, will answer for each
+setting.
+
+The engine once lined up to hitch onto the pulley of any stationary
+machine is all that is necessary. When the truck is once placed in
+proper position the wheels may be blocked by a casting of concrete
+molded into a depression in the ground in front and behind each wheel.
+These blocks are permanent so that the truck may be pulled to the same
+spot each time.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 110.--Kerosene Farm Engine. This is a very compact
+type of engine with heavy flywheels. A longer base might sit steadier on
+a wagon, but for stationary use on a solid concrete pier it gives good
+service.]
+
+A gasoline engine for farm use is expected to run by the hour without
+attention. For this reason it should have a good, reliable hit and miss
+governor to regulate the speed, as this type is the most economical in
+fuel. It should have a magneto in addition to a six-cell dry battery. It
+should be equipped with an impulse starter, a device that eliminates all
+starting troubles. The engine should be perfectly balanced so as to
+insure smooth running, which adds materially to the life of the engine.
+With a good, solid pump jack, a 2-1/2 horsepower engine will pump water
+until the tank is full, whether it requires one hour or half a day.
+
+It is easily moved to the dairy house to run the separator. As the
+cream-separator chore comes along regularly every night and every
+morning, the engine and truck would naturally remain inside of the dairy
+house more than any other place. If the dairy house is too small to let
+the engine in, then an addition is necessary, for the engine must be
+kept under cover. The engine house should have some artistic pretensions
+and a coat of paint.
+
+
+KEROSENE PORTABLE ENGINES
+
+The kerosene engine is necessarily of the throttle governor type in
+order to maintain approximately uniform high temperature at all times,
+so essential to the proper combustion of kerosene fuel. Therefore, a
+kerosene engine of the hit-and-miss type should be avoided. However,
+there are certain classes of work where a throttle governor engine is at
+a decided disadvantage, such as sawing wood, because a throttle governor
+engine will not go from light load to full load as quickly as will a
+hit-and-miss type, and consequently chokes down much easier, causing
+considerable loss of time.
+
+A general purpose portable kerosene engine is admirably suited to all
+work requiring considerable horsepower and long hours of service with a
+fairly steady load, such as tractor work, threshing, custom feed
+grinding, irrigating and silo filling. There will be a considerable
+saving in fuel bill over a gasoline engine if the engine will really run
+with kerosene, or other low-priced fuel, without being mixed with
+gasoline.
+
+In choosing a kerosene engine, particular attention should be paid to
+whether or not the engine can be run on all loads without smoking.
+Unless this can be done, liquid fuel is entering the cylinder which will
+cause excessive wear on the piston and rings. A good kerosene engine
+should show as clean an exhaust as when operating on gasoline and
+should develop approximately as much horsepower. Another feature is
+harmonizing the fuel oil and the lubricating oil so that one will not
+counteract the effects of the other.
+
+
+PORTABLE FARM ENGINE AND TRUCK
+
+[Illustration: Figure 111.--Portable Farm Engine. This engine is
+permanently mounted on a low wheel truck wagon. The saw frame is
+detachable and the same truck is used for spraying and other work.]
+
+A convenient arrangement for truck and portable power for spraying,
+sawing wood and irrigation pumping, is shown in the accompanying
+illustration. The truck is low down, which keeps the machinery within
+reach. The wheels are well braced, which tends to hold the outfit steady
+when the engine is running. The saw table is detachable. When removed,
+the spraying tank bolts on to the same truck frame; also the elevated
+table with the railing around it, where the men stand to spray large
+apple trees, is bolted onto the wagon bed.
+
+Spraying never was properly done until the powerful engine and high
+pressure tanks were invented. Spraying to be effective, should be fine
+as mist, which requires a pressure of 150 pounds. There may be a number
+of attachments to a spraying outfit of this kind. A pipe suspended under
+the frame with a nozzle for each row is used to spray potatoes,
+strawberry vines and other low down crops that are grown in rows. When
+not in use as a portable engine it is blocked firmly into place to run
+the regular stationary farm machinery.
+
+
+HYDRAULIC RAM
+
+The hydraulic ram is a machine that gets its power from the momentum of
+running water. A ram consists of a pipe of large diameter, an air
+chamber and another pipe of small diameter, all connected by means of
+valves to encourage the flow of water in two different directions. A
+supply of running water with a fall of at least two feet is run through
+a pipe several inches in diameter reaching from above the dam to the
+hydraulic ram, where part of the flow enters the air chamber of the ram.
+Near the foot of the large pipe, or at what might be called the
+tailrace, is a peculiarly constructed valve that closes when running
+water starts to pass through it. When the large valve closes the water
+stops suddenly, which causes a back-pressure sufficient to lift a
+check-valve to admit a certain amount of water from the large supply
+pipe into the air-chamber of the ram.
+
+After the flow of water is checked, the foot-valve drops of its own
+weight, which again starts the flow of water through the large pipe, and
+the process is repeated a thousand or a million times, each time forcing
+a little water through the check-valve into the air chamber of the ram.
+The water is continually being forced out into the small delivery pipe
+in a constant stream because of the steady pressure of the imprisoned
+air in the air-chamber which acts as a cushion. This imprisoned air
+compresses after each kick and expands between kicks in a manner
+intended to force a more or less steady flow of water through the small
+pipe. The air pressure is maintained by means of a small valve that
+permits a little air to suck in with the supply of water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 112.--Hydraulic Ram. The upper drawing shows how
+to install the ram. The lower drawing is a detail section through the
+center of the ram. Water flows downhill through the supply pipe. The
+intermittent action of the valve forces a portion of the water through
+another valve into the air-chamber. Air pressure forces this water out
+through delivery pipe. Another valve spills the waste water over into
+the tailrace. An automatic air-valve intermittently admits air into the
+air-chamber.]
+
+Water may be conveyed uphill to the house by this means, sometimes to
+considerable distance. The size of the ram and its power to lift water
+depends upon the amount of water at the spring and the number of feet of
+fall. In laying the small pipe, it should be placed well down under
+ground to keep it cool in summer and to bury it beyond the reach of
+winter frost. At the upper end where the water is delivered a storage
+tank with an overflow is necessary, so the water can run away when not
+being drawn for use. A constant supply through a ram demands a constant
+delivery. It is necessary to guard the water intake at the dam. A fence
+protection around the supply pool to keep live-stock or wild animals out
+is the first measure of precaution. A fine screen surrounding the upper
+end of the pipe that supplies water to the ram is necessary to keep
+small trash from interfering with the valves.
+
+
+THE FARM TRACTOR
+
+Farm tractors are becoming practical. Most theories have had a try out,
+the junk pile has received many failures and the fittest are about to
+survive. Now, if the manufacturers will standardize the rating and the
+important parts and improve their selling organizations the whole nation
+will profit. The successful tractors usually have vertical engines with
+four cylinders. They are likely to have straight spur transmission
+gears, and a straight spur or chain drive, all carefully protected from
+dust. And they will have considerable surface bearing to avoid packing
+the soil. Some tractors carry their weight mostly upon the drive
+wheels--a principle that utilizes weight to increase traction. Other
+tractors exert a great deal of energy in forcing a small, narrow front
+steering-wheel through the soft ground. Any farmer who has pushed a
+loaded wheelbarrow knows what that means. Some kerosene tractors require
+a large percentage of gasoline. The driver may be as much to blame as
+the engine. But it should be corrected.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 113.--Tractor Transmission Gear. Spur gears are
+the most satisfactory for heavy work.]
+
+Manufacturers should do more educational work and talk less about the
+wonderfully marvelous and marvelously wonderful. Salesmen should study
+mechanics instead of oratory. Tractor efficiency should be rated
+practically instead of theoretically. The few actual reports of
+performance have emanated from tests with new machines in the hands of
+trained demonstrators. Manufacturers include belt power work among the
+virtues of farm tractors, and they enumerate many light jobs, such as
+running a cream-separator, sawing wood, pumping water and turning the
+fanning-mill. Well, a farm tractor can do such work--yes. So can an
+elephant push a baby carriage. If manufacturers would devise a practical
+means of using electricity as an intermediary, and explain to farmers
+how a day's energy may be stored in practical working batteries to be
+paid out in a week, then we could understand why we should run a 20
+horsepower engine to operate a cream-separator one hour at night and
+another hour in the morning.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 114.--Straight Transmission Gear, forward and
+chain drive reverse, for traction engine.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DRIVEN MACHINES
+
+
+FARM WATERWORKS
+
+Every farm has its own water supply. Some are very simple, others are
+quite elaborate. It is both possible and practical for a farmer to have
+his own tap water under pressure on the same plan as the city. When good
+water is abundant within 75 feet of the surface of the ground the farm
+supply may be had cheaper and better than the city. Even deep well
+pumping is practical with good machinery rightly installed. Farm
+waterworks should serve the house and the watering troughs under a
+pressure of at least 40 pounds at the ground level. The system should
+also include water for sprinkling the lawn and for irrigating the
+garden. If strawberries or other intensive money crops are grown for
+market there should be sufficient water in the pipes to save the crop in
+time of drouth. These different uses should all be credited to the farm
+waterworks system pro rata, according to the amounts used by the
+different departments of the farm. The books would then prove that the
+luxury of hot and cold running water in the farmhouse costs less than
+the average city family pays.
+
+_Three Systems of Water Storage._--The first plan adopted for supplying
+water under pressure on farms was the overhead tank. The water was
+lifted up into the tank by a windmill and force pump. Because wind
+power proved rather uncertain farmers adopted the gasoline engine,
+usually a two horsepower engine.
+
+The second water storage plan was the air-tight steel water-tank to be
+placed in the cellar or in a pit underground. The same pump and power
+supplies the water for this system, but it also requires an air-pump to
+supply pressure to force the water out of the tank.
+
+The third plan forces the water out of the well by air pressure, as it
+is needed for use. No water pump is required in this system; the
+air-compressor takes its place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 115.--The Farm Pump. It superseded the iron-bound
+bucket, the slimy old bucket, the malaria-lined bucket that hung in the
+well, but it wore out the women. Oil was never wasted on its creaking
+joints. Later it was fitted with a stuffing-box and an air-chamber, and
+the plunger was hitched to the windmill.
+
+To the right are shown two kinds of post-hole diggers. The upper digger
+is sometimes used to clear the fine earth out of the bottom of a hole
+dug by the lower digger.]
+
+_Suction-Pumps._--The word suction, when applied to pumps, is a
+misnomer. The principle upon which such pumps work is this: The pump
+piston drives the air out of the pump cylinder which produces a vacuum.
+The pressure of the atmosphere is about fifteen pounds per square inch
+of surface. This pressure forces sufficient water up through the
+so-called suction pipe to fill the vacuum in the cylinder. The water is
+held in the cylinder by foot-valves or clack-valves. As the piston again
+descends into the cylinder it plunges into water instead of air. A
+foot-valve in the bottom end of the hollow piston opens while going down
+and closes to hold and lift the water as the piston rises. Water from
+the well is forced by atmospheric pressure to follow the piston and the
+pump continues to lift water so long as the joints remain air-tight. The
+size of piston and length of stroke depend on the volume of water
+required, the height to which it must be lifted and the power available.
+A small power and a small cylinder will lift a small quantity of water
+to a considerable height. But increasing the volume of water requires a
+larger pump and a great increase in the power to operate it. The size of
+the delivery pipe has a good deal to do with the flow of water. When
+water is forced through a small pipe at considerable velocity, there is
+a good deal of friction. Often the amount of water delivered is reduced
+because the discharge pipe is too small. Doubling the diameter of a pipe
+increases its capacity four times. Square turns in the discharge pipe
+are obstructions; either the pipe must be larger or there will be a
+diminished flow of water. Some pump makers are particular to furnish
+easy round bends instead of the ordinary right-angled elbows. A great
+many pumps are working under unnecessary handicaps, simply because
+either the supply pipe or discharge pipe is not in proportion to the
+capacity of the pump, or the arrangement of the pipes is faulty.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 116.--Hand Force-Pump. Showing two ways of
+attaching wooden handles to hand force-pumps.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 117.--Rotary Pump. Twin water-chamber rotary pumps
+take water through the bottom and divide the supply, carrying half of
+the stream around to the left and the other half to the right. The two
+streams meet and are discharged at the top.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 118.--Section of Rotary Pump.]
+
+_Rotary Pumps._--A twin-chamber rotary pump admits water at the bottom
+of the chamber and forces it out through the top. Intermeshing cogs and
+rotary cams revolve outward from the center at the bottom, as shown by
+the arrows in Figure 118. The stream of water is divided by the cams, as
+it enters the supply pipe at the bottom, and half of the water is
+carried each way around the outsides of the double chamber. These
+streams of water meet at the top of the chamber, where they unite to
+fill the discharge pipe. These pumps operate without air-chambers and
+supply water in a continuous stream. They may be speeded up to throw
+water under high pressure for fire fighting, but for economy in ordinary
+use the speed is kept down to 200 revolutions, or thereabout. Rotary
+pumps are also made with one single water chamber cylinder. The pump
+head, or shaft, is placed a little off center. A double end cam moves
+the water. Both ends of the cam fit against the bore of the cylinder. It
+works loosely back and forth through a slotted opening in the pump head.
+As the shaft revolves the eccentric motion of the double cam changes the
+sizes of the water-pockets. The pockets are largest at the intake and
+smallest at the discharge. Rotary pumps are comparatively cheap, as
+regards first cost, but they are not economical of power. In places
+where the water-table is near the surface of the ground they will throw
+water in a very satisfactory manner. But they are more used in
+refineries and factories for special work, such as pumping oil and other
+heavy liquids.
+
+_Centrifugal Pumps._--The invention and improvement of modern
+centrifugal pumps has made the lifting of water in large quantities
+possible. These pumps are constructed on the turbine principle. Water is
+lifted in a continuous stream by a turbine wheel revolving under high
+speed. Water is admitted at the center and discharged at the outside of
+the casing. Centrifugal pumps work best at depths ranging from twenty to
+sixty feet. Manufacturers claim that farmers can afford to lift
+irrigation water sixty feet with a centrifugal pump driven by a kerosene
+engine.
+
+The illustrations show the principle upon which the pump works and the
+most approved way of setting pumps and engines. Centrifugal pumps
+usually are set in dry wells a few feet above the water-table. While
+these pumps have a certain amount of suction, it is found that short
+supply pipes are much more efficient. Where water is found in abundance
+within from 15 to 30 feet of the surface, and the wells may be so
+constructed that the pull-down, or the lowering of the water while
+pumping is not excessive, then it is possible to lift water profitably
+to irrigate crops in the humid sections. Irrigation in such cases, in
+the East, is more in the nature of insurance against drouth. Valuable
+crops, such as potatoes and strawberries, may be made to yield double,
+or better, by supplying plenty of moisture at the critical time in crop
+development. It is a new proposition in eastern farming that is likely
+to develop in the near future.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 119.--Centrifugal Pump. This style of pump is used
+in many places for irrigation. It runs at high speed, which varies
+according to the size of the pump. It takes water at the center and
+discharges it at the outside of the casing.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 120.--Air Pressure Pump. Pumping water by air
+pressure requires a large air container capable of resisting a pressure
+of 100 pounds per square inch. This illustration shows the pressure
+tank, engine, air-compressor, well and submerged pump.]
+
+_Air Pressure Pump._--Instead of pumping water out of the well some
+farmers pump air into the well to force the water out. A double
+compartment cylindrical tank is placed in the water in the well. These
+tanks are connected with the farm water distributing system to be
+carried in pipes to the house and to the stock stables. Air under a
+pressure of from 50 to 100 pounds per square inch is stored in a steel
+tank above ground. Small gas-pipes connect this air pressure tank with
+the air-chamber of the air-water tank in the well. A peculiar automatic
+valve regulates the air so that it enters the compartment that is
+filled, or partly filled, with water, and escapes from the empty one so
+the two compartments work together alternately. That is, the second
+chamber fills with water, while the first chamber is being drawn upon.
+Then the first chamber fills while the second is being emptied. This
+system will work in a well as small as eight inches in diameter, and to
+a depth of 140 feet. It might be made to work at a greater depth, but it
+seems hardly practical to do so for the reason that, after allowing for
+friction in the pipes, 100 pounds of air pressure is necessary to lift
+water 150 feet. An air tank of considerable size is needed to provide
+storage for sufficient air to operate the system without attention for
+several days. Careful engineering figures are necessary to account for
+the different depths of farm wells, and the various amounts of water and
+power required. For instance: The air tank already contains 1,000
+gallons of air at atmospheric pressure--then: Forcing 1,000 gallons of
+atmospheric air into a 1,000-gallon tank will give a working pressure of
+15 pounds per square inch; 2,000 gallons, 30 pounds; 3,000 gallons, 45
+pounds, and so on. Therefore, a pressure of 100 pounds in a 1,000-gallon
+tank (42 inches by 14 feet) would require 6,600 gallons of free
+atmosphere, in addition to the original 1,000 gallons, and the tank
+would then contain 1,000 gallons of compressed air under a working
+pressure of 100 pounds per square inch. A one cylinder compressor 6
+inches by 6 inches, operating at a speed of 200 R.P.M. would fill this
+tank to a working pressure of 100 pounds in about 50 minutes. One gallon
+of air will deliver one gallon of water at the faucet. But the air must
+have the same pressure as the water, and there must be no friction.
+Thus, one gallon of air under a working pressure of forty-five pounds,
+will, theoretically, deliver one gallon of water to a height of 100
+feet. But it takes three gallons of free air to make one gallon of
+compressed air at forty-five pounds pressure. If the lift is 100 feet,
+then 1,000 gallons of air under a pressure of forty-five pounds will
+theoretically deliver 1,000 gallons of water. Practically, the air tank
+would have to be loaded to a very much greater pressure to secure the
+1,000 gallons of water before losing the elasticity of the compressed
+air. If one thousand gallons of water is needed on the farm every day,
+then the air pump would have to work about one hour each morning. This
+may not be less expensive than pumping the water directly, but it offers
+the advantage of water fresh from the well. Pure air pumped into the
+well tends to keep the water from becoming stale.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 121.--(1) Single-Gear Pump Jack. This type of jack
+is used for wells from 20 to 40 feet deep. (2) Double-Gear, or
+Multiple-Gear Pump Jack. This is a rather powerful jack designed for
+deep wells or for elevating water into a high water-tank.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 122.--Post Pump Jack. This arrangement is used in
+factories when floor space is valuable. The wide-face driving-pulley is
+shown to the left.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 123.--Three Jacks for Different Purposes. At the
+left is a reverse motion jack having the same speed turning either right
+or left. The little jack in the center is for light work at high belt
+speed. To the right is a powerful jack intended for slow speeds such as
+hoisting or elevating grain.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 124.--Speed Jack, for reducing speed between
+engine and tumbling rod or to increase speed between tumbling rod and
+the driven machine.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 125.--The Speed Jack on the left is used either to
+reduce or increase tumbling rod speed and to reverse the motion. The
+Speed Jack on the right transfers power either from belt to tumbling rod
+or reverse. It transforms high belt speed to low tumbling rod speed, or
+vice versa.]
+
+_Pump Jacks and Speed Jacks._--Farm pumps and speed-reducing jacks are
+partners in farm pumping. Force-pumps should not run faster than forty
+strokes per minute. Considerable power is required to move the piston
+when the water is drawn from a deep well and forced into an overhead
+tank. Jacks are manufactured which bolt directly to the pump, and there
+are pumps and jacks built together. A pump jack should have good, solid
+gearing to reduce the speed. Spur-gearing is the most satisfactory.
+Bevel-gears are wasteful of power when worked under heavy loads. Power
+to drive a pump jack is applied to a pulley at least twelve inches in
+diameter with a four-inch face when belting is used. If a rope power
+conveyor is used, then pulleys of larger diameters are required to
+convey the same amount of power.
+
+Only general terms may be used in describing the farm pump, because the
+conditions differ in each case. Generally speaking, farmers fail to
+appreciate the amount of power used, and they are more than likely to
+buy a jack that is too light. Light machinery may do the work, but it
+goes to pieces quicker, while a heavy jack with solid connections will
+operate the pump year in and year out without making trouble. For
+increasing or reducing either speed or power some kind of jack is
+needed. All farm machines have their best speed. A certain number of
+revolutions per minute will accomplish more and do better work than any
+other speed. To apply power to advantage speed jacks have been invented
+to adjust the inaccuracies between driver and driven.
+
+
+IRRIGATION BY PUMPING
+
+The annual rainfall in the United States varies in different parts of
+the country from a few inches to a few feet. Under natural conditions
+some soils get too much moisture and some too little. Irrigation is
+employed to supply the deficiency and drainage, either natural or
+artificial, carries off the excess. Irrigation and drainage belong
+together. Irrigation fills the soil with moisture and drainage empties
+it. Thus, a condition is established that supplies valuable farm plants
+with both air and moisture. In the drier portions of the United States,
+nothing of value will grow without irrigation. In the so-called humid
+districts deficiency of moisture at the critical time reduces the yield
+and destroys the profit. The value of irrigation has been demonstrated
+in the West, and the practice is working eastward.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 126.--Centrifugal Pump Setting. When used for
+irrigation, centrifugal pumps are set as close to the ground water as
+practical.]
+
+Irrigation is the new handmaiden of prosperity. A rainy season is a
+bountiful one. Irrigation supplies the bounty without encouraging
+destructive fungus diseases. Where water is abundant within easy reach,
+pumping irrigation water is thoroughly practical. Improvements in pumps
+in recent years have increased their capacity and insured much greater
+reliability. A centrifugal pump is recommended for depths down to 75
+feet; beyond this depth the necessity of installing more expensive
+machinery places the business of pumping for irrigation on a different
+plane. A centrifugal pump will throw more water with less machinery than
+any other device, but like all other mechanical inventions, it has its
+limitations. In figuring economical pumping, the minimum quantity should
+be at least 100 gallons per minute, because time is an object, and
+irrigation, if done at all, should cover an area sufficient to bring
+substantial returns. Centrifugal pumps should be placed near the surface
+of the water in the well. For this reason, a large, dry well is dug down
+to the level of the water-table and the pump is solidly bolted to a
+concrete foundation built on the bottom of this well. A supply pipe may
+be extended any depth below the pump, but the standing water surface in
+the well should reach within a few feet of the pump. The pump and supply
+must be so well balanced against each other that the pull-down from
+pumping will not lower the water-level in the well more than twenty feet
+below the pump. The nearer the ground water is to the pump the better.
+
+The water well below the pump may be bored, or a perforated well pipe
+may be driven; or several well points may be connected. The kind of well
+must depend upon the condition of the earth and the nature of the water
+supply. Driven wells are more successful when water is found in a
+stratum of coarse gravel.
+
+Before buying irrigation machinery, it is a good plan to test the water
+supply by temporary means. Any good farm pump may be hitched to a
+gasoline engine to determine if the water supply is lasting or not.
+Permanent pumping machinery should deliver the water on high ground. A
+main irrigation ditch may be run across the upper end of the field. This
+ditch should hold the water high enough so it may be tapped at
+convenient places to run through the corrugations to reach the roots of
+the plants to be benefited. There are different systems of irrigation
+designed to fit different soils. Corrugations are the cheapest and the
+most satisfactory when soils are loose enough to permit the water to
+soak into the soil sideways, as well as to sink down. The water should
+penetrate the soil on both sides of the corrugations for distances of
+several inches. Corrugations should be straight and true and just far
+enough apart so the irrigation water will soak across and meet between.
+Some soils will wash or gully out if the fall is too rapid. In such
+cases it may be necessary to terrace the land by following the natural
+contour around the ridges so the water may flow gently. Where the fall
+is very slight, that is, where the ground is so nearly level that it
+slopes away less than six inches in a hundred feet, it becomes necessary
+to prepare the land by building checks and borders to confine the water
+for a certain length of time. Then it is let out into the next check. In
+the check and border system the check bank on the lower side has an
+opening which is closed during the soaking period with a canvas dam.
+When the canvas is lifted the water flows through and fills the next
+check. This system is more expensive, and it requires more knowledge of
+irrigation to get it started, and it is not likely to prove
+satisfactory in the East.
+
+For fruits and vegetables, what is known as the furrow system of
+irrigation is the most practical. An orchard is irrigated by plowing
+furrows on each side of each row of trees. The water is turned into
+these furrows and it runs across the orchard like so many little
+rivulets. Potatoes are irrigated on the same plan by running water
+through between the rows after the potatoes have been ridged by a double
+shovel-plow. This plan also works well with strawberries. After the land
+is prepared for irrigation, the expense of supplying water to a fruit
+orchard, strawberry patch or potato field is very little compared with
+the increase in yield. In fact, there are seasons when one irrigation
+will save the crop and produce an abundant yield, when otherwise it
+would have been almost a total loss.
+
+_Overhead Spray Irrigation._--The most satisfactory garden irrigation is
+the overhead spray system. Posts are set ten feet apart in rows 50 feet
+apart. Water pipes are laid on the tops of the posts and held loosely in
+position by large staples. These water pipes are perforated by drilling
+a line of small holes about three feet apart in a straight line along
+one side of the pipe. The holes are tapped and small brass nozzles are
+screwed in. The overhead pipes are connected with standpipes at the
+highest place, generally at the ends of the rows. The pipe-lines are
+loosely coupled to the standpipes to permit them to roll partly around
+to direct the hundreds of spray nozzles as needed.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 127.--Overhead Irrigation. Diagram showing the
+arrangement of pipes for irrigating one acre of land. The pipes are
+supported on posts six feet high.]
+
+Six feet high is sufficient to throw a fine mist or spray twenty-five
+feet, which is far enough to meet the spray from the next row, so the
+ground will be completely covered. To do this the pipes are rolled from
+one side to the other, through a 90 degree arc to throw the spray on
+both sides. The pipes usually are laid with a grade which follows down
+the slope of the land. A fall of one foot in fifty is sufficient. Water
+is always admitted at the upper end of each pipe-line to flow down by
+gravity, assisted by tank pressure. A pressure of about forty pounds is
+needed to produce a fine spray, and to send it across to meet the
+opposite jets. The little brass nozzles are drilled with about a
+one-eighth inch hollow. But the jet opening is small, about No. 20 W. G.
+This gives a wire-drawn stream that quickly vaporizes when it meets the
+resistance of the atmosphere. When properly installed a fine misty rain
+is created, which quickly takes the same temperature as the air, and
+settles so gently that the most delicate plants are not injured.
+
+_Quantity of Water to Use._--Good judgment is necessary in applying
+water to crops in regard to quantity, as well as the time of making
+application. Generally speaking, it is better to wait until the crop
+really needs moisture. When the pump is started give the crop plenty
+with the expectation that one irrigation will be sufficient. Much
+depends upon the amount of moisture in the soil; also the kind of crop
+and weather conditions enter into the problem. On sandy land that is
+very dry where drainage is good, water may be permitted to run in the
+corrugations for several days until the ground is thoroughly soaked.
+When potatoes are forming, or clover is putting down its big root
+system, a great deal of water is needed. Irrigation sufficient to make
+two inches of rainfall may be used to advantage for such crops under
+ordinary farming conditions. It is necessary after each irrigation to
+break the soil crust by cultivation to prevent evaporation. This is just
+as important after irrigation as it is after a rain shower. Also any
+little pockets that hold water must be carefully drained out, otherwise
+the crop will be injured by standing water. We are not supposed to have
+such pockets on land that has been prepared for irrigation.
+
+_Kind of Crops to Irrigate._--Wheat, oats, barley, etc., may be helped
+with one irrigation from imminent failure to a wealth of production. But
+these rainfall grain crops do not come under the general classification
+that interests the regular irrigation farmer beyond his diversity plans
+for producing considerable variety. Fruits, roots, clover, alfalfa,
+vegetables and Indian corn are money crops under irrigation. Certain
+seed crops yield splendidly when watered. An apple orchard properly
+cared for and irrigated just at the right time will pay from five
+hundred to a thousand dollars per acre. Small fruits are just as
+valuable. These successes account for the high prices of irrigated land.
+In the East and in the great Middle West, valuable crops are cut short
+or ruined by drouth when the fruit or corn is forming. It makes no
+difference how much rain comes along at other times in the year, if the
+roots cannot find moisture at the critical time, the yield is reduced
+often below the profit of raising and harvesting the crop. Strawberry
+blossoms shrivel and die in the blooming when rain fails. Irrigation is
+better than rain for strawberries. Strawberries under irrigation may be
+made to yield more bushels than potatoes under humid conditions. One
+hundred bushels of strawberries per acre sounds like a fairy tale, but
+it is possible on rich land under irrigation.
+
+The cost of pumping for irrigation, where the well and machinery is used
+for no other purpose, must be charged up to the crop. The items of
+expense are interest on the first cost of the pumping machinery,
+depreciation, upkeep and running expenses. On Eastern farms, however,
+where diversified farming is the business, this expense may be divided
+among the different lines of work. Where live-stock is kept, it is
+necessary to have a good, reliable water supply for the animals. A
+reservoir on high ground so water may be piped to the watering troughs
+and to the house is a great convenience. Also the same engine that does
+the pumping may be used for other work in connection with the farm, so
+that the irrigation pump engine, instead of lying idle ten or eleven
+months in the year, may be utilized to advantage and made to earn its
+keep. Well-water contains many impurities. For this reason, it is
+likely to be valuable for crop growing purposes in a wider sense than
+merely to supply moisture. Well-water contains lime, and lime is
+beneficial to most soils. It has been noticed that crops grow especially
+well when irrigated from wells.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 128.--Power Transmission. Circular motion is
+converted into reciprocating motion by the different lengths of the two
+pitman cranks which cause the upper wheel to oscillate. Power is carried
+to a distance by wires. To reduce friction the wires are supported by
+swinging hangers. Sometimes wooden rods are used instead of wires to
+lessen expansion and contraction.]
+
+_House and Barns Supplied from a Reservoir._--A farm reservoir may
+sometimes be built very cheaply by throwing a dam across a narrow hollow
+between two hills, or ridges. On other farms, it is necessary to scrape
+out a hole on the highest ground within reach. For easy irrigation a
+reservoir is necessary, and it is economical because the pump may work
+overtime and supply enough water so the irrigation may be done quickly
+and with sufficient water to make it effective. When the cost of the
+reservoir can be charged up to the different departments of the
+business, such as irrigation, live-stock and house use, the cost is
+divided and the profits are multiplied.
+
+_Power Conveyor._--Circular motion is converted into reciprocal motion
+to operate a pump at a distance from the engine. The short jack crank
+oscillates the driving pulley to move the conveyor wires back and forth.
+The distance to which power may be carried is limited by the expansion
+and contraction of the conveying wires. Wooden rods are better under
+extremes of temperature. Where an engine is used night and morning in
+the dairy house to run a cream separator, this kind of power
+transmission may be worked to operate the pump at the house. Light wire
+hangers will support the line wires or rods. They should be about three
+feet in length, made fast at top and bottom to prevent wear. The spring
+of a No. 10 wire three feet long is sufficient to swing the length of a
+pump stroke and the friction is practically nothing.
+
+
+ELECTRICITY ON THE FARM
+
+Electric current in some sections may be purchased from electric
+railways or city lighting plants. But the great majority of farms are
+beyond the reach of high tension transmission cables. In some places
+three or four farmers may club together and buy a small lighting plant
+to supply their own premises with both light and power. Unless an
+engineer is employed to run it trouble is sure to follow, because one
+family does all of the work and others share equally in the benefits.
+The solution is for each farmer to install a small plant of his own.
+The proposition is not so difficult as it sounds. Two-horsepower plants
+are manufactured for this very purpose. But there is more to it than
+buying a dynamo and a few lamp bulbs. A farm electric system should
+supply power to run all of the light stationary machinery about the
+farm, and that means storage batteries, and the use of one or more small
+electric motors. There are several ways to arrange the plant, but to
+save confusion it is better to study first the storage battery plan and
+to start with an engine large enough to pump water and run the dynamo at
+the same time. It is a good way to do two jobs at once--you store water
+enough in the supply tank to last twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and
+at the same time you store up sufficient electricity to run the
+cream-separator for a week. Electric power is the only power that is
+steady enough to get all of the cream.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 129.--Electric Power Plant. A practical farm
+generator and storage battery, making a complete farm electric plant
+that will develop and store electricity for instant use in any or all of
+the farm buildings.]
+
+Refrigeration is a profitable way to use electric power. There are small
+automatic refrigerator machines that maintain low temperatures to
+preserve food products. This branch of the work may be made profitable.
+Laundry work on the farm was principally hand labor until the small
+power washers and wringers were invented. Now a small electric motor
+takes the blue out of Monday, and the women wear smiles. Electric
+flatirons afford the greatest comfort on Tuesday. The proper heat is
+maintained continually until the last piece is ironed. Cooking by
+electricity is another great success. Some women buy separate cooking
+utensils, such as toasters, chafing dishes and coffee percolators.
+Others invest in a regular electric cooking range at a cost of fifty
+dollars and feel that the money was well spent. It takes about 100
+K.W.H. per month in hot weather to cook by electricity for a family of
+four. In winter, when heat is more of a luxury, the coal or wood range
+will save half of the electric current. Dishwashing by electricity is
+another labor-saver three times a day. Vacuum cleaners run by
+electricity take the dust and microbes out of floor rugs with less hand
+labor than pushing a carpet sweeper. Incubators are better heated by
+electricity than any other way. Brooders come under the same class.
+Sewing-machines were operated by electricity in sweatshops years
+ago--because it paid. Farm women are now enjoying the same privilege.
+
+Electric lighting on the farm is the most spectacular, if not the most
+interesting result of electric generation in the country. This feature
+of the subject was somewhat overtaxed by talkative salesmen
+representing some of the pioneer manufacturers of electric lighting
+plants, but the business has steadied down. Real electric generating
+machinery is being manufactured and sold on its merits in small units.
+
+Not many miles from Chicago there is an electric lighting plant on a
+dairy farm that is giving satisfaction. The stables are large and they
+are managed on the plan of milking early in the morning and again in the
+middle of the afternoon. The morning work requires a great deal of light
+in the different stables, more light than ordinary, because the milking
+is done by machinery. The milking machine air-pump is driven by
+electricity generated on the farm, the power being supplied by a
+kerosene engine.
+
+Electricity on this farm is used in units, separate lines extending to
+the different buildings. The lighting plant is operated on what is known
+as the 32-volt system; the rating costs less to install than some others
+and the maintenance is less than when a higher voltage is used. I
+noticed also that there are fewer parts in connection with the plant
+than in other electric light works that I have examined.
+
+Technical knowledge of electricity and its behavior under different
+circumstances is hardly necessary to a farmer, because the manufacturers
+have simplified the mechanics of electric power and lighting to such an
+extent that it is only necessary to use ordinary precaution to run the
+plant to its capacity.
+
+At the same time it is just as well to know something about generators,
+switchboards and the meanings of such terms and names as volt, ampere,
+battery poles, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat, discharge switch,
+underload circuit breaker, false fuse blocks, etc., because familiarity
+with these names, and the parts they represent gives the person
+confidence in charging the batteries. Such knowledge also supplies a
+reason for the one principal battery precaution, which is not to use out
+all of the electricity the batteries contain.
+
+Those who have electric lighting plants on the farm do not seem to feel
+the cost of running the plants, because they use the engine for other
+purposes. Generally manufacturers figure about 1 H.P. extra to run a
+dynamo to supply from 25 to 50 lights. My experience with farm engines
+is that for ordinary farm work such as driving the cream separator,
+working the pump and grinding feed, a two-horse power engine is more
+useful than any other size. Farmers who conduct business in the usual
+way will need a three-horsepower engine if they contemplate adding an
+electric lighting system to the farm equipment.
+
+Among the advantages of an electric lighting system is the freedom from
+care on the part of the women. There are no lamps to clean or broken
+chimneys to cut a finger, so that when the system is properly installed
+the only work the women have to do is to turn the switches to throw the
+lights on or off as needed.
+
+The expense in starting a farm electric light plant may be a little more
+than some other installations, but it seems to be more economical in
+service when figured from a farmer's standpoint, taking into
+consideration the fact that he is using power for generating electricity
+that under ordinary farm management goes to waste.
+
+A three-horsepower engine will do the same amount of work with the same
+amount of gasoline that a two-horsepower engine will do. This statement
+may not hold good when figured in fractions, but it will in farm
+practice. Also when running a pump or cream separator the engine is
+capable of doing a little extra work so that the storage batteries may
+be charged with very little extra expense.
+
+On one dairy farm a five-horsepower kerosene engine is used to
+furnish power for various farm purposes. The engine is belted to a
+direct-current generator of the shunt-wound type. The generator is wired
+to an electric storage battery of 88 ampere hour capacity. The battery
+is composed of a number of separate cells. The cells are grouped
+together in jars. These jars contain the working parts of the batteries.
+As each jar of the battery is complete in itself, any one jar may be cut
+out or another added without affecting the other units. The switchboard
+receives current either from the battery or from the engine and
+generator direct. There are a number of switches attached to the
+switchboard, which may be manipulated to turn the current in any
+direction desired.
+
+Some provision should be made for the renewal of electric lamps. Old
+lamps give less light than new ones, and the manufacturers should meet
+customers on some kind of a fair exchange basis. Tungsten lamps are
+giving good satisfaction for farm use. These lamps are economical of
+current, which means a reduction of power to supply the same amount of
+light. The Mazda lamp is another valuable addition to the list of
+electric lamps.
+
+The Wisconsin _Agriculturist_ publishes a list of 104 different uses for
+electricity on farms. Many of the electrical machines are used for
+special detail work in dairies where cheese or butter is made in
+quantity. Sugar plantations also require small units of power that
+would not apply to ordinary farming. Some of the work mentioned is extra
+heavy, such as threshing and cutting ensilage. Other jobs sound trivial,
+but they are all possible labor-savers. Here is the list:
+
+"Oat crushers, alfalfa mills, horse groomers, horse clippers, hay
+cutters, clover cutters, corn shellers, ensilage cutters, corn crackers,
+branding irons, currying machines, feed grinders, flailing machines,
+live stock food warmers, sheep shears, threshers, grain graders, root
+cutters, bone grinders, hay hoists, clover hullers, rice threshers, pea
+and bean hullers, gas-electric harvesters, hay balers, portable motors
+for running threshers, fanning-mills, grain elevators, huskers and
+shredders, grain drying machines, binder motors, wheat and corn
+grinders, milking machines, sterilizing milk, refrigeration, churns,
+cream-separators, butter workers, butter cutting-printing, milk cooling
+and circulating pumps, milk clarifiers, cream ripeners, milk mixers,
+butter tampers, milk shakers, curd grinders, pasteurizers, bottle
+cleaners, bottle fillers, concrete mixers, cider mills, cider presses,
+spraying machines, wood splitters, auto trucks, incubators, hovers,
+telephones, electric bells, ice cutters, fire alarms, electric vehicles,
+electro cultures, water supply, pumping, water sterilizers, fruit
+presses, blasting magnetos, lighting, interior telephones, vulcanizers,
+pocket flash lights, ice breakers, grindstones, emery wheels, wood saws,
+drop hammers, soldering irons, glue pots, cord wood saws, egg testers,
+burglar alarms, bell ringing transformers, devices for killing insects
+and pests, machine tools, molasses heaters, vacuum cleaners, portable
+lamps to attract insects, toasters, hot plates, grills, percolators,
+flatirons, ranges, toilette articles, water heaters, fans, egg boilers,
+heating pads, dishwashers, washing machines, curling irons, forge
+blowers."
+
+
+GASOLINE HOUSE LIGHTING
+
+Gasoline gas for house lighting is manufactured in a small generator by
+evaporating gasoline into gas and mixing it with air, about 5 per cent
+gas and 95 per cent air. We are all familiar with the little brass
+gasoline torch heater that tinners and plumbers use to heat their
+soldering irons. The principle is the same.
+
+There are three systems of using gasoline gas for farmhouse lighting
+purposes, the hollow wire, tube system, and single lamp system.
+
+The hollow wire system carries the liquid gasoline through the circuit
+in a small pipe called a hollow wire. Each lamp on the circuit takes a
+few drops of gasoline as needed, converts it into gas, mixes the gas
+with the proper amount of air and produces a fine brilliant light. Each
+lamp has its own little generator and is independent of all other lamps
+on the line.
+
+The tube system of gasoline gas lighting is similar in appearance, but
+the tubes are larger and look more like regular gas pipes. In the tube
+system the gas is generated and mixed with air before it gets into the
+distribution tube, so that lamps do not require separate generators.
+
+In the separate lamp system each lamp is separate and independent. Each
+lamp has a small supply of gasoline in the base of the lamp and has a
+gas generator attached to the burner, which converts the gasoline into
+gas, mixes it with the proper amount of air and feeds it into the burner
+as required. Farm lanterns are manufactured that work on this principle.
+They produce a brilliant light.
+
+By investigating the different systems of gasoline gas lighting in use
+in village stores and country homes any farmer can select the system
+that fits into his home conditions to the best advantage. In one
+farmhouse the owner wanted gasoline gas street lamps on top of his big
+concrete gateposts, and this was one reason why he decided to adopt
+gasoline gas lighting and to use the separate lamp system.
+
+
+ACETYLENE GAS
+
+Acetylene lighting plants are intended for country use beyond the reach
+of city gas mains or electric cables. Carbide comes in lump form in
+steel drums. It is converted into gas by a generator that is fitted with
+clock work to drop one or more lumps into water as gas is needed to keep
+up the pressure. Acetylene gas is said to be the purest of all
+illuminating gases. Experiments in growing delicate plants in
+greenhouses lighted with acetylene seem to prove this claim to be
+correct.
+
+The light also is bright, clear and powerful. The gas is explosive when
+mixed with air and confined, so that precautions are necessary in regard
+to using lanterns or matches near the generators. The expense of
+installing an acetylene plant in a farm home has prevented its general
+use.
+
+
+WOOD-SAW FRAMES
+
+There are a number of makes of saw frames for use on farms, some of
+which are very simple, while others are quite elaborate. Provision
+usually is made for dropping the end of the stick as it is cut.
+Sometimes carriers are provided to elevate the blocks onto a pile.
+Extension frames to hold both ends of the stick give more or less
+trouble, because when the stick to be sawed is crooked, it is almost
+impossible to prevent binding. If a saw binds in the kerf, very often
+the uniform set is pinched out of alignment, and there is some danger of
+buckling the saw, so that for ordinary wood sawing it is better to have
+the end of the stick project beyond the jig. If the saw is sharp and has
+the right set and the right motion, it will cut the stick off quickly
+and run free while the end is dropping to the ground.
+
+The quickest saw frames oscillate, being supported on legs that are
+hinged to the bottom of the frame. Oscillating frames work easier than
+sliding frames. Sliding frames are sometimes provided with rollers, but
+roller frames are not steady enough. For cross sawing lumber V-shaped
+grooves are best. No matter what the feeding device is, it should always
+be protected by a hood over the saw. The frame should fall back of its
+own weight, bringing the hood with it, so that the saw is always covered
+except when actually engaged with the stick. Saw-mandrels vary in
+diameter and length, but in construction they are much alike. For wood
+sawing the shaft should be 1-3/8" or 1-1/2" in diameter. The shaft runs
+in two babbitted boxes firmly bolted to the saw frame. The frame itself
+should be well made and well braced.
+
+
+ROOT PULPER
+
+There are root pulpers with concave knives which slice roots in such a
+way as to bend the slices and break them into thousands of leafy shreds.
+The principle is similar to bending a number of sheets of paper so that
+each sheet will slide past the next one. Animals do not chew roots when
+fed in large solid pieces. Cattle choke trying to swallow them whole,
+but they will munch shredded roots with apparent patience and evident
+satisfaction. American farmers are shy on roots. They do not raise roots
+in quantities because it requires a good deal of hand labor, but roots
+make a juicy laxative and they are valuable as an appetizer and they
+carry mineral. Pulped roots are safe to feed and they offer the best
+mixing medium for crushed grains and other concentrated foods.
+
+
+FEED CRUSHER
+
+Instead of grinding grain for feeding, we have what is known as a
+crusher which operates on the roller-mill principle. It breaks the
+grains into flour by crushing instead of grinding. It has the advantage
+of doing good work quickly. Our feed grinding is done in the two-story
+corncrib and granary. It is one of the odd jobs on the farm that every
+man likes. The grain is fed automatically into the machine by means of
+the grain spouts which lead the different kinds of grain down from the
+overhead bins. The elevator buckets carry the crushed feed back to one
+of the bins or into the bagger. In either case it is not necessary to do
+any lifting for the sacks are carried away on a bag truck. We have no
+use for a scoop shovel except as a sort of big dustpan to use with the
+barn broom.
+
+
+STUMP PULLER
+
+Pulling stumps by machinery is a quick operation compared with the old
+time methods of grubbing, chopping, prying and burning that our
+forefathers had on their hands. Modern stump pulling machines are small
+affairs compared with the heavy, clumsy things that were used a few
+years ago. Some of the new stump pullers are guaranteed to clear an acre
+a day of ordinary stumpage. This, of course, must be a rough estimate,
+because stumps, like other things, vary in numbers, size and condition
+of soundness. Some old stumps may be removed easily while others hang to
+the ground with wonderful tenacity.
+
+There are two profits to follow the removal of stumps from a partially
+cleared field. The work already put on the land has in every case cost
+considerable labor to get the trees and brush out of the way. The land
+is partially unproductive so long as stumps remain. For this reason, it
+is impossible to figure on the first cost until the stumps are removed
+to complete the work and to put the land in condition to raise machine
+made crops. When the stumps are removed, the value of the land either
+for selling or for farming purposes is increased at once. Whether sold
+or farmed, the increasing value is maintained by cropping the land and
+securing additional revenue.
+
+There are different ways of removing stumps, some of which are easy
+while others are difficult and expensive. One of the easiest ways is to
+bore a two-inch auger hole diagonally down into the stump; then fill the
+auger hole with coal-oil and let it remain for some weeks to soak into
+the wood. Large stumps may be bored in different directions so the
+coal-oil will find its way not only through the main part of the stumps
+but down into the roots. This treatment requires that the stumps should
+be somewhat dry. A stump that is full of sap has no room for coal-oil,
+but after the sap partially dries out, then coal oil will fill the pores
+of the wood. After the stump is thoroughly saturated with coal-oil, it
+will burn down to the ground, so that the different large roots will be
+separated. Sometimes the roots will burn below plow depth, but a good
+heavy pair of horses with a grappling hook will remove the separated
+roots.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 130.--The Oldest Farm Hoist. The first invention
+for elevating a heavy object was a tripod made of three poles tied
+together at the top with thongs of bark or rawhide. When hunters were
+lucky enough to kill a bear, the tripod elevator was erected over the
+carcass with the lower ends of the poles spread well apart to lower the
+apex. The gambrel was inserted under the hamstrings and attached to the
+top of the tripod. As the skinning of the animal proceeded the feet of
+the tripod were moved closer together. By the time the head was cut off
+the carcass would swing clear.]
+
+Dynamite often is used to blow stumps to pieces, and the work is not
+considered dangerous since the invention of safety devices. In some
+sections of the country where firewood is valuable, dynamite has the
+advantage of saving the wood. An expert with dynamite will blow a stump
+to pieces so thoroughly that the different parts are easily worked into
+stove lengths. Pitch-pine stumps have a chemical value that was not
+suspected until some fellows got rich by operating a retort.
+
+
+FARM ELEVATING MACHINERY
+
+Many handy and a few heavy elevators are being manufactured to replace
+human muscle. The simple tripod beef gin was familiar to the early
+settlers and it is still in use. When a heavy animal was killed for
+butchering, the small ends of three poles were tied together to form a
+tripod over the carcass. The feet of the tripod were placed wide apart
+to raise the apex only a few feet above the animal. After the gambrel
+was inserted and attached the feet of the tripod were moved gradually
+closer together as the skinning proceeded, thus elevating the carcass to
+swing clear of the ground.
+
+_Grain Elevators._--As a farm labor-saver, machinery to elevate corn
+into the two-story corncrib and grain into the upper bins is one of the
+newer and more important farming inventions. With a modern two-story
+corncrib having a driveway through the center, a concrete floor and a
+pit, it is easy to dump a load of grain or ear corn by raising the front
+end of the wagon box without using a shovel or corn fork. After the load
+is dumped into the pit a boy can drive a horse around in a circle while
+the buckets carry the corn or small grain and deliver it by spout into
+the different corncribs or grain bins. There are several makes of
+powerful grain elevating machines that will do the work easily and
+quickly.
+
+The first requisite is a building with storage overhead, and a
+convenient place to work the machinery. Some of the elevating machines
+are made portable and some are stationary. Some of the portable machines
+will work both ways. Usually stationary elevators are placed in vertical
+position. Some portable elevators may be operated either vertically or
+on an incline. Such machines are adaptable to different situations, so
+the corn may be carried up into the top story of a farm grain warehouse
+or the apparatus may be hauled to the railway station for chuting the
+grain or ear corn into a car. It depends upon the use to be made of the
+machinery whether the strictly stationary or portable elevator is
+required. To unload usually some kind of pit or incline is needed with
+any kind of an elevator, so the load may be dumped automatically quickly
+from the wagon box to be distributed by carrying buckets at leisure.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 131.--Portable Grain Elevator Filling a Corncrib.
+The same rig is taken to the railway to load box cars. The wagon is
+unloaded by a lifting jack. It costs from 1c to 1-1/2c per bushel to
+shovel corn by hand, but the greatest saving is in time.]
+
+Some elevators are arranged to take grain slowly from under the
+tailboard of a wagon box. The tailrod is removed and the tailboard
+raised half an inch or an inch, according to the capacity of the
+machinery. The load pays out through the opening as the front of the
+wagon is gradually raised, so the last grain will discharge into the pit
+or elevator hopper of its own weight. Technical building knowledge and
+skill is required to properly connect the building and elevating
+machinery so that the two will work smoothly together. There are certain
+features about the building that must conform to the requirements and
+peculiarities of the elevating machinery. The grain and ear corn are
+both carried up to a point from which they will travel by gravity to any
+part of the building. The building requires great structural strength in
+some places, but the material may be very light in others. Hence, the
+necessity of understanding both building and machinery in order to meet
+all of the necessary technical requirements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WORKING THE SOIL
+
+
+IMPORTANCE OF PLOWING
+
+[Illustration: Figure 132.--Heavy Disk Plow. A strong four-horse disk
+implement for breaking stumpy ground or to tear tough sod into bits
+before turning under with a moldboard.]
+
+Plowing is a mechanical operation that deals with physics, chemistry,
+bacteriology and entomology. The soil is the farmer's laboratory; his
+soil working implements are his mechanical laboratory appliances. A high
+order of intelligence is required to merge one operation into the next
+to take full advantage of the assistance offered by nature. The object
+of plowing and cultivation is to improve the mechanical condition of the
+soil, to retain moisture, to kill insects and to provide a suitable home
+for the different kinds of soil bacteria.
+
+There are aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, also nitrogen-gathering
+bacteria and nitrifying bacteria which are often loosely referred to as
+azotobacter species. Few of us are on intimate terms with any of them,
+but some of us have had formal introductions through experiments and
+observation.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 133.--Sulky Plow. This is a popular type of riding
+plow. It is fitted with a rolling coulter.]
+
+
+THE MECHANICS OF PLOWING
+
+_Walking Plow._--The draft of a walking plow may be increased or
+diminished by the manner of hitch. It is necessary to find the direct
+line of draft between the work performed and the propelling force. The
+clevis in the two-horse doubletree, or the three-horse evener and the
+adjusting clevis in the end of the plow-beam with the connecting link
+will permit a limited adjustment. The exact direction that this line
+takes will prove out in question. The walking plow should not have a
+tendency to run either in or out, neither too deep nor too shallow. For
+the proper adjustment as to width and depth of furrow, the plow should
+follow the line of draft in strict obedience to the pull so that it
+will keep to the furrow on level ground a distance of several feet
+without guidance from the handles. In making the adjustment it is first
+necessary to see that the plow itself is in good working order. All
+cutting edges such as share, coulter or jointer must be reasonably sharp
+and the land slip in condition as the makers intended.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 134.--Disk Plow. Less power is required to plow
+with a disk, but it is a sort of cut and cover process. The disk digs
+trenches narrow at the bottom. There are ridges between the little
+trenches that are not worked.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 135.--Three-Horse and Four-Horse Eveners. This
+kind of evener hitches the horses closer to the load than some others
+and they are easier to handle than the spread out kinds. The four-horse
+rig requires the best horses in the middle.]
+
+All plows should have a leather pocket on the side of the beam to carry
+a file. A 12-inch bastard file with a good handle is the most
+satisfactory implement for sharpening the cutting edges of a plow in the
+fields. A good deal depends on the character of the soil and its
+condition of dryness, but generally speaking, it pays to do a little
+filing after plowing a half mile of furrow. If the horses are doing
+their duty, a little rest at the end of the half mile is well earned.
+The plowman can put in the time to advantage with the file and the next
+half mile will go along merrily in consequence. No farmer would continue
+to chop wood all day without whetting his axe, but, unfortunately,
+plowmen often work from morning till night without any attempt to keep
+the cutting edges of their plows in good working order.
+
+_Riding Plow._--The riding plow in lifting and turning the furrow slice
+depends a good deal on the wheels. The action of the plow is that of a
+wedge with the power pushing the point, the share and the moldboard
+between the furrow slices and the land side and the furrow bottom. There
+is the same friction between the moldboard and the furrow slice as in
+the case of the walking plow, but the wheels are intended to materially
+reduce the pressure on the furrow bottom and against the land side. Plow
+wheels are intended to relieve the draft in this respect because wheels
+roll much easier than the plow bottom can slide with the weight of the
+work on top. The track made in the bottom of the furrow with the walking
+plow shows plainly the heavy pressure of the furrow slice on the
+moldboard by the mark of the slip. To appreciate the weight the slip
+carries, an interesting experiment may be performed by loading the
+walking plow with weights sufficient to make the same kind of a mark
+when the plow is not turning a furrow.
+
+One advantage in riding plows in addition to the relief of such a load
+is less packing of the furrow bottom. On certain soils when the moisture
+is just sufficient to make the subsoil sticky, a certain portion of the
+furrow bottom is cemented by plow pressure so that it becomes impervious
+to the passage of moisture either up or down. The track of a plow wheel
+is less injurious.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 136.--Three-Section, Spike-Tooth Harrow. The
+harrow is made straight, but the hitch is placed over to one side to
+give each tooth a separate line of travel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 137.--Harrow Sled Long Enough to Hold a
+Four-Section Harrow.]
+
+Plow wheels should stand at the proper angle to the pressure with
+especial reference to the work performed. Wheels should be adjusted with
+an eye single to the conditions existing in the furrow. Some wheel plows
+apparently are especially built to run light like a wagon above ground
+regardless of the underground work required of them.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 138.--Corn Cultivator. A one-row, riding-disk
+cultivator. The ridges are smoothed by the spring scrapers to leave an
+even surface to prevent evaporation.]
+
+Axles should hang at right angles to the line of lift so accurately as
+to cause the wheels to wear but lightly on the ends of the hubs.
+Mistakes in adjustment show in the necessity of keeping a supply of
+washers on hand to replace the ones that quickly wear thin.
+
+In this respect a good deal depends on the sand-bands at the ends of the
+hubs. Plow wheels are constantly lifting gritty earth and dropping it on
+the hubs. There is only one successful way to keep sand out of the
+journals and that is by having the hubs, or hub ferrules, extend well
+beyond the bearings. Plow wheel hub extensions should reach two inches
+beyond the journal both at the large end of the hub and at the nut or
+linchpin end. Some plow wheels cut so badly that farmers consider oil a
+damage and they are permitted to run dry. This is not only very wasteful
+of expensive iron but the wheels soon wabble to such an extent that they
+no longer guide the plow, in which case the draft may be increased
+enormously.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 139.--A Combination Riding and Walking Cultivator,
+showing fenders attached to protect young plants the first time through.
+The two bull tongues shown are for use in heavy soils or when deeper
+digging is necessary.]
+
+_Scotch Plows._--When the long, narrow Scotch sod plows are exhibited at
+American agricultural fairs they attract a good deal of attention and no
+small amount of ridicule from American farmers because of the six or
+seven inch furrows they are intended to turn. In this country we are in
+too much of a hurry to spend all day plowing three-fourths of an acre of
+ground. Intensive farming is not so much of an object with us as the
+quantity of land put under cultivation.
+
+Those old-fashioned Scotch plows turn a furrow about two-thirds of the
+way over, laying the sod surface at an angle of about 45 deg. to the bottom
+of the furrow. The sharp comb cut by the coulter and share stands
+upright so that a sod field when plowed is marked in sharp ridges six or
+seven inches apart, according to the width of the furrow. Edges of sod
+show in the bottoms of the corrugations between these little furrow
+ridges.
+
+When the rains come the water is held in these grooves and it finds its
+way down the whole depth of the furrow slice carrying air with it and
+moistening every particle of trash clear to the bottom of the furrow.
+Such conditions are ideal for the work of the different forms of
+bacteria to break down plant fibre contained in the roots and trash and
+work it into humus, which is in turn manipulated by other forms of soil
+bacteria to produce soil water which is the only food of growing plants.
+
+_Jointer Plows._--American plow makers also have recognized the
+necessity of mixing humus with soil in the act of plowing. To facilitate
+the process and at the same time turn a wide furrow, the jointer does
+fairly good work when soil conditions are suitable. The jointer is a
+little plow which takes the place of the coulter and is attached to the
+plow-beam in the same manner. The jointer turns a little furrow one inch
+or two inches deep and the large plow following after turns a
+twelve-inch or fourteen-inch furrow slice flat over, throwing the little
+jointer furrow in the middle of the furrow bottom in such a way that the
+big furrow breaks over the smaller furrow.
+
+If the work is well done, cracks as wide as a man's hand and from three
+to five inches deep are left all over the field. These cracks lead air
+and moisture to rot the trash below. This is a much quicker way of
+doing a fairly good job of plowing. Such plows loosen the soil and
+furnish the conditions required by nature; and they may be operated with
+much less skill than the old-fashioned narrow-furrowed Scotch plows.
+
+Good plowing requires first that the soil be in proper condition to
+plow, neither too dry nor too wet, but no man can do good plowing
+without the proper kind of plow to fit the soil he is working with.
+
+
+PLOWING BY TRACTOR
+
+Under present conditions farm tractors are not intended to replace horse
+power entirely but to precede horses to smooth the rough places that
+horses may follow with the lighter machines to add the finishing
+touches. Light tractors are being made, and they are growing in
+popularity, but the real business of the farm tractor is to do the heavy
+lugging--the work that kills horses and delays seeding until the growing
+season has passed. The actual power best suited to the individual farm
+can only be determined by the nature of the land and the kind of
+farming.
+
+In the Middle West where diversified farming is practiced, the 8-16 and
+the 10-20 sizes seem to be the most satisfactory, and this is without
+regard to the size of the farm. The preponderance of heavy work will
+naturally dictate the buying of a tractor heavier than a 10-20. The
+amount of stationary work is a factor. In certain communities heavy farm
+tractors are made to earn dividends by running threshing machines after
+harvest, silo fillers in the fall and limestone crushers in the winter.
+
+Here is a classified list of jobs the medium size farm tractor is good
+for:
+
+Clearing the Land--pulling up bushes by the roots, tearing out hedges,
+pulling stumps, grubbing, pulling stones.
+
+Preparing Seed Bed and Seeding--plowing, disking, crushing clods,
+pulling a land plane, rolling, packing, drilling, harrowing.
+
+Harvesting--mowing, pulling grain binders, pulling potato digger.
+
+Belt Work--hay baling, corn shelling, heavy pumping for irrigation,
+grinding feed, threshing, clover hulling, husking and shredding, silo
+filling, stone crushing.
+
+Road Work--grading, dragging, leveling, ditching, hauling crops.
+
+Miscellaneous--running portable sawmill, stretching wire fencing, ditch
+digging, manure spreading.
+
+Generally speaking, however, the most important farm tractor work is
+preparing the seed-bed thoroughly and quickly while the soil and weather
+conditions are the best. And the tractor's ability to work all day and
+all night at such times is one of its best qualifications.
+
+To plow one square mile, or 640 acres, with a walking plow turning a
+twelve-inch furrow, a man and team must walk 5,280 miles. The gang-plow
+has always been considered a horse killer, and, when farmers discovered
+that they could use oil power to save their horses, many were quick to
+make the change.
+
+It requires approximately 10 horsepower hours to turn an acre of land
+with horses. At a speed of two miles, a team with one plow in ten hours
+will turn two acres. To deliver the two horsepower required to do this
+work, they must travel 176 feet per minute and exert a continuous pull
+of 375 pounds or 187.5 pounds per horse.
+
+One horsepower equals a pull of 33,000 pounds, moved one foot per
+minute. Two-mile speed equals two times 5,280 or 10,560 feet per hour,
+or 176 feet per minute. Sixty-six thousand divided by 176 equals 375
+foot pounds pull per minute. One horsepower is absorbed in 88 feet of
+furrow.
+
+Horse labor costs, according to Government figures, 12-1/2 cents per
+hour per horse. On this basis ten hours' work will be $1.25, which is
+the average daily cost of each horse. An average Illinois diversified
+farm of 160 acres would be approximately as follows: Fifty acres of
+corn, 30 acres of oats and wheat, 20 acres of hay, 60 acres of rough
+land, pasture, orchard, building and feed lots.
+
+This average farm supports six work horses or mules and one colt.
+According to figures taken from farm work reports submitted by many
+different corn belt farmers, the amount of horse-work necessary to do
+this cropping would figure out as follows:
+
+Fifty acres of corn land for plowing, disking, harrowing, planting,
+cultivating and harvesting would amount to a total of 1,450 horsepower
+hours. Thirty acres of wheat would require a total of 330 horsepower
+hours. Twenty acres of hay would require 110 horsepower hours. In round
+figures, 1,900 horsepower hours at 12-1/2 cents would amount to $237.50.
+
+Elaborate figures have been worked out theoretically to show that this
+work can be done by an 8-16 farm tractor in 27-3/4 days at a cost for
+kerosene fuel and lubricating oil of $1.89 per day. Adding interest,
+repairs and depreciation, brings this figure up to about $4.00 per day,
+or a total of $111.00 for the job. No account is kept of man power in
+caring for either the horses or the tractor. The actual man labor on the
+job, however, figures 12-1/3 days less for the tractor than for horses.
+We should remember that actual farm figures are used for the cost of
+horse work. Such figures are not available for tractor work.
+
+The cost of plowing with a traction engine depends upon so many factors
+that it is difficult to make any definite statement. It depends upon the
+condition of the ground, size of the tractor, the number of plows
+pulled, and the amount of fuel used. An 8-16 horsepower tractor, for
+instance, burning from 15 to 20 gallons of low grade kerosene per ten
+hour day and using one gallon of lubricating oil, costs about $1.90 per
+ten hours work. Pulling two 14-inch plows and traveling 20 miles per
+day, the tractor will plow 5.6 acres at a fuel and an oil cost of about
+30 cents per acre. Pulling three 14-inch plows, it will turn 8.4 acres
+at a cost for fuel and oil of about 20 cents an acre.
+
+The kind and condition of soil is an important factor in determining the
+tractor cost of plowing. Comparison between the average horse cost and
+the average tractor cost suggests very interesting possibilities in
+favor of tractor plowing under good management.
+
+Aside from the actual cost in dollars we should also remember that no
+horse gang can possibly do the quality of work that can be accomplished
+by an engine gang. Anxiety to spare the team has cut a big slice off the
+profits of many a farmer. He has often plowed late on account of hard
+ground, and he has many times allowed a field to remain unplowed on
+account of worn-out teams. Under normal conditions, late plowing never
+produces as good results as early plowing. Many a farmer has fed and
+harnessed by the light of the lantern, gone to the field and worked his
+team hard to take advantage of the cool of the morning. With the
+approach of the hot hours of midday, the vicious flies sapping the
+vitality from his faithful team, he has eased up on the work or quit the
+job.
+
+In using the tractor for plowing, there are none of these distressing
+conditions to be taken into consideration, nothing to think of but the
+quality of work done. It is possible to plow deep without thought of the
+added burden. Deep plowing may or may not be advisable. But where the
+soil will stand it, deep plowing at the proper time of year, and when
+done with judgment, holds moisture better and provides more plant food.
+
+The pull power required to plow different soils varies from about three
+pounds per square inch of furrow for light sand up to twenty pounds per
+square inch of furrow for gumbo. The draft of a plow is generally
+figured from clover sod, which averages about seven pounds per square
+inch. Suppose a plow rig has two 14-inch bottoms, and the depth to be
+plowed is six inches. A cross section of each plow is therefore 14 by 6
+inches, or 84 square inches. Twice this for two bottoms is 168 square
+inches. Since, in sandy soil, the pressure per square inch is three
+pounds, therefore 168 times 3 pounds equals 504 pounds, the draft in
+sandy soil. 168 times 7 pounds equals 1,176 pounds, the draft in clover
+sod. 168 times 8 pounds equals 1,344 pounds, the draft in clay sod.
+
+The success of crop growing depends upon the way the seed-bed is
+prepared. The final preparation of the seed-bed can never be thoroughly
+well done unless the ground is properly plowed to begin with. It is not
+sufficient to root the ground over or to crowd it to one side but the
+plow must really turn the furrow slice in a uniform, systematic manner
+and lay it bottom side uppermost to receive the beneficial action of
+the air, rain and sunshine.
+
+The moldboard of a plow must be smooth in order to properly shed the
+earth freely to make an easy turn-over. The shape of the shear and the
+forward part of the moldboard is primarily that of a wedge, but the roll
+or upper curve of the moldboard changes according to soil texture and
+the width and depth of furrow to be turned. Moldboards also differ in
+size and shape, according to the kind of furrow to be turned. Sometimes
+in certain soils a narrow solid furrow with a comb on the upper edge is
+preferable. In other soils a cracked or broken furrow slice works the
+best. When working our lighter soils a wide furrow turned flat over on
+top of a jointer furrow breaks the ground into fragments with wide
+cracks or openings reaching several inches down. Between these extremes
+there are many modifications made for the particular type or texture of
+the soil to be plowed. We can observe the effect that a rough, or badly
+scratched, or poorly shaped moldboard has on any kind of soil,
+especially when passing from gravelly soils to clay. In soil that
+contains the right amount of moisture, when a plow scours all the time,
+the top of the furrow slice always has a glazed or shiny appearance.
+This shows that the soil is slipping off the moldboard easily. In places
+where the plow does not scour the ground is pushed to one side and
+packed or puddled on the underside instead of being lifted and turned as
+it should be. A field plowed with a defective moldboard will be full of
+these places. Such ground cannot have the life to bring about a
+satisfactory bacteria condition necessary to promote the rapid plant
+growth that proper plowing gives it.
+
+Cultivated sandy soils are becoming more acid year after year. We are
+using lime to correct the acidity, but the use of lime requires better
+plowing and better after cultivation to thoroughly mix the trash with
+the earth to make soil conditions favorable to the different kinds of
+soil bacteria. Unless we pay special attention to the humus content of
+the soil we are likely to use lime to dissolve out plant foods that are
+not needed by the present crop, and, therefore, cannot be utilized. This
+is what the old adage means which reads: "Lime enricheth the father but
+impoverisheth the son." When that was written the world had no proper
+tillage tools and the importance of humus was not even dreamed of.
+
+Not so many years ago farm plows were made of cast iron. Then came the
+steel moldboard, which was supposed to be the acme of perfection in plow
+making. Steel would scour and turn the furrow in fluffy soils where cast
+iron would just root along without turning the ground at all. Later the
+art of molding steel was studied and perfected until many grades and
+degrees of hardness were produced and the shape of the moldboard passed
+through a thousand changes. The idea all the time was to make plows that
+would not only scour but polish in all kinds of soil. At the same time
+they must turn under all of the vegetable growth to make humus, to kill
+weeds and to destroy troublesome insects. Besides these requirements the
+soil must be pulverized and laid loose to admit both air and moisture.
+These experiments gradually led up to our present high grade plows of
+hardened steel and what is known as chilled steel.
+
+Besides the hardness there are different shapes designed for different
+soils so that a plow to work well on one farm may need to be quite
+different from a plow to do the best work in another neighborhood. The
+furrow slice sliding over a perfect moldboard leaves the surface of the
+upturned ground as even as the bottom of the furrow. By using a modern
+plow carefully selected to fit the soil, gravel, sandy, stony or muck
+soils, or silt loams that contain silica, lime, iron and aluminum oxide
+can be worked with the right plow to do the best work possible if we use
+the necessary care and judgment in making the selection.
+
+One object of good plowing is to retain moisture in the soil until the
+growing crop can make good use of it.
+
+The ease with which soils absorb, retain or lose moisture, depends
+mostly on their texture, humus content, physical condition, and surface
+slope or artificial drainage. It is to the extent that cultivation can
+modify these factors that more soil water can be made available to the
+growing crop. There are loose, open soils through which water percolates
+as through a sieve, and there are tight, gumbo soils which swell when
+the surface is moistened and become practically waterproof. Sandy soils
+take in water more readily than heavier soils, hence less precaution is
+necessary to prevent run-off.
+
+Among the thousands of plows of many different makes there are plenty of
+good ones. The first consideration in making a selection is a reliable
+home dealer who has a good business reputation and a thorough knowledge
+of local soil from a mechanical standpoint. The next consideration is
+the service the plow will give in proportion to the price.
+
+
+DISK HARROW
+
+For preparing land to receive the seed no other implement will equal a
+double disk. These implements are made in various sizes and weights of
+frame. For heavy land, where it is necessary to weight the disk down, an
+extra heavy frame is necessary. It would probably be advisable to get
+the extra strong frame for any kind of land, because even in light sand
+there are times when a disk may be used to advantage to kill quackgrass
+or to chew up sod before plowing. In such cases it is customary to load
+on a couple of sacks of sand in addition to the weight of the driver.
+When a disk is carrying 300 or 400 pounds besides its own weight the
+racking strains which pull from different directions have a tendency to
+warp or twist a light frame out of shape. To keep a disk cultivator in
+good working order it is necessary to go over it thoroughly before doing
+heavy work. Bolts must be kept tight, all braces examined occasionally,
+and the heavy nuts at the ends of the disk shafts watched. They
+sometimes loosen and give trouble. The greatest difficulty in running a
+disk harrow or cultivator is to keep the boxings in good trim. Wooden
+boxes are provided with the implement. It is a good plan to insist on
+having a full set of eight extra boxes. These wooden boxes may be made
+on the farm, but it sometimes is difficult to get the right kind of
+wood. They should be made of hard maple, bored according to size of
+shaft, and boiled in a good quality of linseed oil. Iron boxings have
+never been satisfactory on a disk implement. Wooden ones make enough
+trouble, but wood has proved better than iron. On most disk cultivators
+there are oil channels leading to the boxings. These channels are large
+enough to carry heavy oil. The lighter grades of cylinder oil work the
+best. It is difficult to cork these oil channels tight enough to keep
+the sand out. Oil and sand do not work well together in a bearing. The
+manufacturers of these implements could improve the oiling device by
+shortening the channel and building a better housing for the oil
+entrance. It is quite a job to take a disk apart to put in new boxings,
+but, like all other repair work, the disk should be taken into the shop,
+thoroughly cleaned, repaired, painted and oiled in the winter time.
+
+Some double disk cultivators have tongues and some are made without.
+Whether the farmer wants a tongue or not depends a good deal on the
+land. The only advantage is that a tongue will hold the disk from
+crowding onto the horses when it is running light along the farm lanes
+or the sides of the fields with the disks set straight. Horses have been
+ruined by having the sharp disks run against them when going down hill.
+Such accidents always are avoidable if a man realizes the danger.
+Unfortunately, farm implements are often used by men who do very little
+thinking. A spring disk scraper got twisted on a root and was thrown
+over the top of one of the disks so it scraped against the back of the
+disk and continued to make a harsh, scraping noise until the proprietor
+went to see what was wrong. The man driving the disk said he thought
+something must be the matter with the cultivator, but he couldn't tell
+for the life of him what it was. When farmers are up against such
+difficulties it is safer to buy a disk with a tongue.
+
+_Harrow Cart._--A small two-wheel cart with a spring seat overshadowed
+with a big umbrella is sometimes called a "dude sulky." Many sensitive
+farmers trudge along in the soft ground and dust behind their harrows
+afraid of such old fogy ridicule. The hardest and most tiresome and
+disagreeable job at seeding time is following a harrow on foot. Riding a
+harrow cart in the field is conserving energy that may be applied to
+better purposes after the day's work in the field is finished.
+
+
+KNIFE-EDGE PULVERIZERS
+
+A knife-edge weeder makes the best dust mulch pulverizer for orchard
+work or when preparing a seed-bed for grain. These implements are sold
+under different names. It requires a stretch of imagination to attach
+the word "harrow" to these knife-edge weeders. There is a central bar
+which is usually a hardwood plank. The knives are bolted to the
+underside of the plank and sloped backward and outward from the center
+to the right and left, so that the knife-edges stand at an angle of
+about 45 deg. to the line of draught. This angle is just about sufficient to
+let tough weeds slip off the edges instead of dragging along. If the
+knives are sharp, they will cut tender weeds, but the tough ones must be
+disposed of to prevent choking. The proper use of the knife-edge weeder
+prevents weeds from growing, but in farm practice, sometimes rainy
+weather prevents the use of such a tool until the weeds are well
+established. As a moisture retainer, these knife-edge weeders are
+superior to almost any other implement. They are made in widths of from
+eight to twenty feet. The wide ones are jointed in the middle to fit
+uneven ground.
+
+
+CLOD CRUSHER
+
+The farm land drag, float, or clod crusher is useful under certain
+conditions on low spots that do not drain properly. Such land must be
+plowed when the main portion of the field is in proper condition, and
+the result often is that the low spots are so wet that the ground packs
+into lumps that an ordinary harrow will not break to pieces. Such lumps
+roll out between the harrow teeth and remain on top of the ground to
+interfere with cultivation. The clod crusher then rides over the lumps
+and grinds them into powder. Unfortunately, clod crushers often are
+depended on to remedy faulty work on ordinary land that should receive
+better treatment. Many times the clod crusher is a poor remedy for poor
+tillage on naturally good land that lacks humus.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 140.--Land Float. Clod crushers and land floats
+belong to the same tribe. Theoretically they are all outlaws, but some
+practical farmers harbor one or more of them. Wet land, containing
+considerable clay, sometimes forms into lumps which should be crushed.]
+
+As ordinarily made, the land float or clod crusher consists of from five
+to eight planks, two inches thick and ten or twelve inches wide, spiked
+together in sawtooth position, the edges of the planks being lapped over
+each other like clapboards in house siding. The planks are held in place
+with spikes driven through into the crosspieces.
+
+
+FARM ROLLER
+
+Farm rollers are used to firm the soil. Sometimes a seed-bed is worked
+up so thoroughly that the ground is made too loose so the soil is too
+open and porous. Seeds to germinate require that the soil grains shall
+fit up closely against them. Good soil is impregnated with soil
+moisture, or film moisture as it is often called, because the moisture
+forms in a film around each little soil grain. In properly prepared
+soil this film moisture comes in contact with the freshly sown seed. If
+the temperature is right the seed swells and germination starts. The
+swelling of the seed brings it in contact with more film moisture
+attached to other grains of soil so the rootlet grows and pushes out
+into the soil in search of moisture on its own account. A roller is
+valuable to press the particles of soil together to bring the freshly
+sown seeds in direct contact with as many particles of soil as possible.
+Rolling land is a peculiar operation, the value of which is not always
+understood. The original idea was to benefit the soil by breaking the
+lumps. It may be of some benefit on certain soils for this purpose, but
+the land should always be harrowed after rolling to form a dust mulch to
+prevent the evaporation of moisture. Land that has been rolled and left
+overnight shows damp the next morning, which is sufficient proof that
+moisture is coming to the surface and is being dissipated into the
+atmosphere. In the so-called humid sections of the country the great
+problem is to retain moisture. Any farm implement that has a tendency to
+dissipate soil moisture is a damage to the farmer. Probably nine times
+out of ten a farm roller is a damage to the crop it is intended to
+benefit because of the manner in which it is used. It is the abuse, not
+the proper use of a roller, that injures the crop.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 141.--Iron Land Roller Made of Boiler Plate.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 142.--Wooden Land Roller.]
+
+
+CORN-PLANTER
+
+Corn-planters are designed to plant two rows at once. The width of rows
+may be adjusted from about 32 to 44 inches apart. When seed-corn is
+carefully graded to size the dropping mechanism will feed out the grains
+of corn regularly with very few skips. This is one reason why most
+farmers plant corn in drills. There are other cultural reasons which do
+not properly belong to this mechanical article. Hill dropping is
+considerably more complicated and difficult. After the feeding mechanism
+has been adjusted to the size of seed kernels to be planted so it will
+drop four kernels in a hill then the trip chain is tried out to see if
+it is right at every joint. Dropping in hills is a very careful
+mechanical proposition. An inch or two out of line either way means a
+loss of corn in cultivating.
+
+In setting the stakes to go and come by, a careful measurement of the
+field is necessary in order to get the stake lines on both sides of the
+field parallel. If the ring stakes are driven accurately on the line,
+then the first hill of corn must come at the same distance from the line
+in each row. Likewise in starting back from the far side of the field
+the first hill should measure exactly the same distance from the stake
+line as the first hills on the opposite side of the field. This is
+easily managed by counting the number of trips between the stake line
+and the first row of corn hills. If the two lines of stakes on the
+opposite sides of the field are exactly parallel it is not necessary to
+move either line in order to get the proper distance to start dropping,
+but it must be adjusted by measurement, otherwise the corn hills will be
+dodged. If the corn hills are to space three feet apart then the first
+row of hills should come nine or twelve feet from the stake line. Stakes
+may be measured and set a certain number of inches from the line to make
+the distance come right. This careful adjustment brings the hills in
+line in the rows.
+
+When the field is level or gently sloping there is no difficulty in
+making straight rows so far as check rowing is concerned. When the field
+is hilly another problem crops up. It is almost impossible to run corn
+rows along the side of a hill and keep them straight. The planter has a
+tendency to slide downhill. Also the distance across a field is greater
+where the rows pass over a hill. To keep the rows straight under such
+conditions allowance must be made for the stretch over the hill as well
+as for the side thrust of the planter. Where a chain marker is used it
+hangs downhill and a further allowance must be made for that. A good
+driver will skip an inch or so above the mark so that the rows will be
+planted fairly straight. This means a good deal more in check rowing
+than when the corn is planted in drills. The greatest objection to hill
+planting is the crowding of four corn plants into a space that should be
+occupied by one plant.
+
+A great many experiments have been tried to scatter the seeds in the
+hill, so far without definite results, except when considerable
+additional expense is incurred. However, a cone suspended below the end
+of the dropping tube usually will scatter the seeds so that no two seeds
+will touch each other. They may not drop and scatter four or five inches
+apart, but these little cones will help a good deal. They must be
+accurately adjusted so the point of the cone will center in the middle
+of the vertical delivery tube, and there must be plenty of room all
+around the cone so the corn seed kernels won't stick. The braces that
+hold the cones in place for the same reason must be turned edge up and
+supported in such a way as to leave plenty of clearance. The idea is
+that four kernels of corn drop together. They strike the cone and are
+scattered in different directions. They naturally fly to the outsides of
+the drill mark which scatters them as wide apart as the width of the
+shoe that opens the drill. The advantage of scattering seed grains in
+the hill has been shown by accurate experiments conducted at different
+times by agricultural colleges.
+
+
+GRAIN DRILL
+
+To know exactly how much seed the grain drill is using it is necessary
+to know how many acres are contained in the field. Most drills have an
+attachment that is supposed to measure how many acres and fractions of
+acres the drill covers. Farmers know how much grain each sack contains,
+so they can estimate as they go along, provided the drill register is
+correct. It is better to provide a check on the drill indicator. Have
+the field measured, then drive stakes along one side, indicating one
+acre, five acres and ten acres. When the one-acre stake is reached the
+operator can estimate very closely whether the drill is using more or
+less seed than the indicator registers. When the five-acre stake is
+reached another proof is available, and so on across the field. Next in
+importance to the proper working of the drill is straight rows. The only
+way to avoid gaps is to drive straight. The only way to drive straight
+is to sight over the wheel that follows the last drill mark. Farmers
+sometimes like to ride on the grain drill, which places the wheel
+sighting proposition out of the question. A harrow cart may be hitched
+behind the wheel of the grain drill, but it gives a side draft. The only
+way to have straight rows and thorough work is to walk behind the end of
+the drill. This is the proper way to use a drill, anyway, because a
+tooth may clog up any minute. Unless the operator is walking behind the
+drill he is not in position to see quickly whether every tooth is
+working properly or not. It is hard work to follow a drill all day long,
+but it pays at harvest time. It costs just as much to raise a crop of
+grain that only covers part of the ground, and it seems too bad to miss
+the highest possible percentage to save a little hard work at planting
+time.
+
+
+SPECIAL CROP MACHINERY
+
+Special crops require special implements. After they are provided, the
+equipment must be kept busy in order to make it pay. If a farmer
+produces five acres of potatoes he needs a potato cutter, a planter, a
+riding cultivator, a sprayer that works under high pressure, a digger
+and a sorter. The same outfit will answer for forty acres, which would
+reduce the per acre cost considerably. No farmer can afford to grow five
+acres of potatoes without the necessary machinery, because hand labor is
+out of the question for work of that kind.
+
+On the right kind of soil, and within reach of the right market,
+potatoes are money-makers. But they must be grown every year because the
+price of potatoes fluctuates more than any other farm crop. Under the
+right conditions potatoes grown for five years with proper care and good
+management are sure to make money. One year out of five will break even,
+two years will make a little money and the other two years will make big
+money. At the end of five years, with good business management, the
+potato machinery will be all paid for, and there will be a substantial
+profit.
+
+
+WHEEL HOE
+
+In growing onions and other truck crops, where the rows are too close
+together for horse cultivation, the wheel hoe is valuable. In fact, it
+is almost indispensable when such crops are grown extensively. The best
+wheel hoes have a number of attachments. When the seed-bed has been
+carefully prepared, and the soil is fine and loose, the wheel hoe may be
+used as soon as the young plants show above ground. Men who are
+accustomed to operating a wheel hoe become expert. They can work almost
+as close to the growing plants with an implement of this kind as they
+can with an ordinary hand hoe. The wheel hoe, or hand cultivator, works
+the ground on both sides of the row at once, and it does it quickly, so
+that very little hand weeding is necessary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HANDLING THE HAY CROP
+
+
+REVOLVING HAYRAKE
+
+About the first contrivance for raking hay by horse power consisted of a
+stick eight or ten feet long with double-end teeth running through it,
+and pointing in two directions. These rakes were improved from time to
+time, until they reached perfection for this kind of tool. They have
+since been superseded by spring-tooth horse rakes, except for certain
+purposes. For pulling field peas, and some kinds of beans, the old style
+revolving horse rake is still in use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 143.--Grass Hook, for working around borders where
+the lawn-mower is too clumsy.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 144.--Revolving Hayrake. The center piece is 4" x
+6" x 12' long. The teeth are double enders 1-3/8" square and 4' 6" long,
+which allows 24" of rake tooth clear of the center timber. Every stick
+in the rake is carefully selected. It is drawn by one horse. If the
+center teeth stick into the ground either the horse must stop instantly,
+or the rake must flop over, or there will be a repair job. This
+invention has never been improved upon for pulling Canada peas.]
+
+Improved revolving horse rakes have a center timber of hardwood about 4
+x 6 inches in diameter. The corners are rounded to facilitate sliding
+over the ground. A rake twelve feet long will have about eighteen
+double-end teeth. The teeth project about two and one-half feet each way
+from the center timber. Each tooth is rounded up, sled-runner fashion,
+at each end so it will point forward and slide along over and close to
+the ground without catching fast. There is an iron pull rod, or long
+hook, attached to each end of the center bar by means of a bolt that
+screws into the center of the end of the wooden center shaft, thus
+forming a gudgeon pin so the shaft can revolve. Two handles are fastened
+by band iron straps to rounded recesses or girdles cut around the center
+bar. These girdles are just far enough apart for a man to walk between
+and to operate the handles. Wooden, or iron lugs, reach down from the
+handles with pins projecting from their sides to engage the rake teeth.
+Two pins project from the left lug and three from the right. Sometimes
+notches are made in the lugs instead of pins. Notches are better; they
+may be rounded up to prevent catching when the rake revolves. As the
+rake slides along, the driver holds the rake teeth in the proper
+position by means of the handles. When sufficient load has been gathered
+he engages the upper notch in the right hand lug, releases the left and
+raises the other sufficient to point the teeth into the ground. The pull
+of the horse turns the rake over and the man grasps the teeth again with
+the handle lugs as before. Unless the driver is careful the teeth may
+stick in the ground and turn over before he is ready for it. It requires
+a little experience to use such a rake to advantage. No better or
+cheaper way has ever been invented for harvesting Canada peas. The only
+objections are that it shells some of the riper pods and it gathers up a
+certain amount of earth with the vines which makes dusty threshing.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 145.--Buck Rake. When hay is stacked in the field
+a four-horse buck rake is the quickest way to bring the hay to the
+stack. The buck rake shown is 16 feet wide and the 2 x 4 teeth are 11
+feet long. Two horses are hitched to each end and two drivers stand on
+the ends of the buck rake to operate it. The load is pushed under the
+horse fork, the horses are swung outward and the buck rake is dragged
+backward.]
+
+
+HAY-TEDDER
+
+The hay-tedder is an English invention, which has been adopted by
+farmers in rainy sections of the United States. It is an energetic
+kicker that scatters the hay swaths and drops the hay loosely to dry
+between showers. Hay may be made quickly by starting the tedder an hour
+behind the mowing machine.
+
+It is quite possible to cut timothy hay in the morning and put it in the
+mow in the afternoon, by shaking it up thoroughly once or twice with the
+hay-tedder. When clover is mixed with the timothy, it is necessary to
+leave it in the field until the next day, but the time between cutting
+and mowing is shortened materially by the use of the tedder.
+
+Grass cut for hay may be kicked apart in the field early during the
+wilting process without shattering the leaves. If left too long, then
+the hay-tedder is a damage because it kicks the leaves loose from the
+stems and the most valuable feeding material is wasted. But it is a good
+implement if rightly used. In catchy weather it often means the
+difference between bright, valuable hay and black, musty stuff, that is
+hardly fit to feed.
+
+Hay-tedders are expensive. Where two farmers neighbor together the
+expense may be shared, because the tedder does its work in two or three
+hours' time. Careful farmers do not cut down much grass at one time. The
+tedder scatters two mowing swaths at once. In fact the mowing machine,
+hay-tedder and horserake should all fit together for team work so they
+will follow each other without skips or unnecessary laps. The dividing
+board of the mowing-machine marks a path for one of the horses to follow
+and it is difficult to keep him out of it. But two horses pulling a
+hay-tedder will straddle the open strip between the swaths when the
+tedder is twice the width of the cut.
+
+
+HAY SKIDS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 146.--Hay Skid. This hay skid is 8 feet wide and
+16 feet long. It is made of 7/8" lumber put together with 2" carriage
+bolts--plenty of them. The round boltheads are countersunk into the
+bottom of the skid and the nuts are drawn down tight on the cleats. It
+makes a low-down, easy-pitching, hay-hauling device.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 147.--Hay Sling. It takes no longer to hoist 500
+pounds of hay than 100 pounds if the rig is large and strong enough.
+Four feet wide by ten feet in length is about right for handling hay
+quickly. But the toggle must reach to the ends of the rack if used on a
+wagon.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 148.--(1) Four-Tined Derrick Fork. (2) Pea Guard.
+An extension guard to lift pea-vines high enough for the sickle is the
+cleanest way to harvest Canada peas. The old-fashioned way of pulling
+peas with a dull scythe has gone into oblivion. But the heavy bearing
+varieties still persist in crawling on the ground. If the vines are
+lifted and cut clean they can be raked into windrows with a spring tooth
+hayrake. (3) Haystack Knife. This style of hay-cutting knife is used
+almost universally on stacks and in hay-mows. There is less use for
+hay-knives since farmers adopted power hayforks to lift hay out of a mow
+as well as to put it in.]
+
+Hay slips, or hay skids, are used on the old smooth fields in the
+eastern states. They are usually made of seven-eighths-inch boards
+dressed preferably on one side only. They are used smooth side to the
+ground to slip along easily. Rough side is up to better hold the hay
+from slipping. The long runner boards are held together by cross pieces
+made of inch boards twelve inches wide and well nailed at each
+intersection with nails well clinched. Small carriage bolts are better
+than nails but the heads should be countersunk into the bottom with the
+points up. They should be used without washers and the ends of the
+bolts cut close to the sunken nuts. The front end of the skid is rounded
+up slightly, sled runner fashion, as much as the boards will bear, to
+avoid digging into the sod to destroy either the grass roots or crowns
+of the plants. Hay usually is forked by hand from the windrows on to the
+skids. Sometimes hay slings are placed on the skids and the hay is
+forked on to the slings carefully in layers lapped over each other in
+such a way as to hoist on to the stack without spilling out at the
+sides. Four hundred to eight hundred pounds makes a good load for one
+of these skids, according to horse power and unevenness of the ground.
+They save labor, as compared to wagons, because there is no pitching up.
+All hoisting is supposed to be done by horse power with the aid of a hay
+derrick.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 149.--Double Harpoon Hayfork. This is a large size
+fork with extra long legs. For handling long hay that hangs together
+well this fork is a great success. It may be handled as quickly as a
+smaller fork and it carries a heavy load.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 150.--Six-Tined Grapple Hayfork. It is balanced to
+hang as shown in the drawing when empty. It sinks into the hay easily
+and dumps quickly when the clutch is released.]
+
+
+WESTERN HAY DERRICKS
+
+Two derricks for stacking hay, that are used extensively in the alfalfa
+districts of Idaho, are shown in the illustration, Figure 151. The
+derrick to the left is made with a square base of timbers which
+supports an upright mast and a horizontal boom. The timber base is
+sixteen feet square, made of five sticks of timber, each piece being 8 x
+8 inches square by 16 feet in length. Two of the timbers rest flat on
+the ground and are rounded up at the ends to facilitate moving the
+derrick across the stubble ground or along the road to the next
+hayfield. These sleigh runner timbers are notched on the upper side near
+each end and at the middle to receive the three cross timbers. The cross
+timbers also are notched or recessed about a half inch deep to make a
+sort of double mortise. The timbers are bound together at the
+intersections by iron U-clamps that pass around both timbers and fasten
+through a flat iron plate on top of the upper timbers. These flat plates
+or bars have holes near the ends and the threaded ends of the U-irons
+pass through these holes and the nuts are screwed down tight. The
+sleigh runner timbers are recessed diagonally across the bottom to fit
+the round U-irons which are let into the bottoms of the timbers just
+enough to prevent scraping the earth when the derrick is being moved.
+These iron U-clamp fasteners are much stronger and better than bolts
+through the timbers.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 151.--Idaho Hay Derricks. Two styles of hay
+derricks are used to stack alfalfa hay in Idaho. The drawing to the left
+shows the one most in use because it is easier made and easier to move.
+The derrick to the right usually is made larger and more powerful. Wire
+cable is generally used with both derricks because rope wears out
+quickly. They are similar in operation but different in construction.
+The base of each is 16 feet square and the high ends of the booms reach
+up nearly 40 feet. A single hayfork rope, or wire cable, is used; it is
+about 65 feet long. The reach is sufficient to drop the hay in the
+center of a stack 24 feet wide.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 152.--Hay Carrier Carriage. Powerful carriers are
+part of the new barn. The track is double and the wheels run on both
+tracks to stand a side pull and to start quickly and run steadily when
+the clutch is released.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 153.--(1) Hayfork Hitch. A whiffletree pulley
+doubles the speed of the fork. The knot in the rope gives double power
+to start the load. (2) Rafter Grapple, for attaching an extra pulley to
+any part of the barn roof.]
+
+There are timber braces fitted across the corners which are bolted
+through the outside timbers to brace the frame against a diamond
+tendency when moving the derrick. There is considerable strain when
+passing over uneven ground. It is better to make the frame so solid that
+it cannot get out of square. The mast is a stick of timber 8 inches
+square and 20 or 24 feet long. This mast is securely fastened solid to
+the center of the frame by having the bottom end mortised into the
+center cross timber at the middle and it is braced solid and held
+perpendicular to the framework by 4" x 4" wooden braces at the corners.
+These braces are notched at the top ends to fit the corners of the mast
+and are beveled at the bottom ends to fit flat on top of the timbers.
+They are held in place by bolts and by strap iron or band iron bands.
+These bands are drilled with holes and are spiked through into the
+timbers with four-inch or five-inch wire nails. Holes are drilled
+through the band iron the right size and at the proper places for the
+nails. The mast is made round at the top and is fitted with a heavy
+welded iron ring or band to prevent splitting. The boom is usually about
+30 feet long. Farmers prefer a round pole when they can get it. It is
+attached to the top of the mast by an iron stirrup made by a blacksmith.
+This stirrup is made to fit loosely half way around the boom one-third
+of the way up from the big end, which makes the small end of the boom
+project 20 feet out from the upper end of the mast. The iron stirrup is
+made heavy and strong. It has a round iron gudgeon 1-1/2" in diameter
+that reaches down into the top of the mast about 18 inches. The shoulder
+of the stirrup is supported by a square, flat iron plate which rests on
+and covers the top of the mast and has the corners turned down. It is
+made large to shed water and protect the top of the mast. This plate has
+a hole one and a half inches in diameter in the center through which the
+stirrup gudgeon passes as it enters the top of the mast. A farm chain,
+or logging chain, is fastened to the large end of the boom by passing
+the chain around the boom and engaging the round hook. The grab hook end
+of the chain is passed around the timber below and is hooked back to
+give it the right length, which doubles the part of the chain within
+reach of the man in charge. This double end of the chain is lengthened
+or shortened to elevate the outer end of the boom to fit the stack. The
+small outer end of the boom is thus raised as the stack goes up.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 154.--Hay Rope Pulleys. The housing of the pulley
+to the left prevents the rope from running off the sheaves.]
+
+An ordinary horse fork and tackle is used to hoist the hay. Three single
+pulleys are attached, one to the outer end of the boom, one near the top
+of the mast, and the other at the bottom of the mast so that the rope
+passes easily and freely through the three pulleys and at the same time
+permits the boom to swing around as the fork goes up from the wagon rack
+over the stack. This swinging movement is regulated by tilting the
+derrick towards the stack so that the boom swings over the stack by its
+own weight or by the weight of the hay on the horse fork. Usually a wire
+truss is rigged over the boom to stiffen it. The wire is attached to the
+boom at both ends and the middle of the wire is sprung up to rest on a
+bridge placed over the stirrup.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 155.--Gambrel Whiffletree, for use in hoisting hay
+to prevent entanglements. It is also handy when cultivating around
+fruit-trees.]
+
+Farmers like this simple form of hay derrick because it is cheaply made
+and it may be easily moved because it is not heavy. It is automatic and
+it is about as cheap as any good derrick and it is the most satisfactory
+for ordinary use. The base is large enough to make it solid and steady
+when in use. Before moving the point of the boom is lowered to a level
+position so that the derrick is not top-heavy. There is little danger
+of upsetting upon ordinary farm lands. Also the width of 16 feet will
+pass along country roads without meeting serious obstacles. Hay slings
+usually are made too narrow and too short. The ordinary little hay sling
+is prone to tip sideways and spill the hay. It is responsible for a
+great deal of profanity. The hay derrick shown to the right is somewhat
+different in construction, but is quite similar in action. The base is
+the same but the mast turns on a gudgeon stepped into an iron socket
+mortised into the center timber.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 156.--Cable Hay Stacker. The wire cable is
+supported by the two bipods and is secured at each end by snubbing
+stakes. Two single-cable collars are clamped to the cable to prevent the
+bipods from slipping in at the top. Two double-cable clamps hold the
+ends of the cables to form stake loops.]
+
+The wire hoisting cable is threaded differently, as shown in the
+drawing. This style of derrick is made larger, sometimes the peak
+reaches up 40' above the base. The extra large ones are awkward to move
+but they build fine big stacks.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 157.--California Hay Ricker, for putting either
+wild hay or alfalfa quickly in ricks. It is used in connection with
+home-made buck rakes. This ricker works against the end of the rick and
+is backed away each time to start a new bench. The upright is made of
+light poles or 2 x 4s braced as shown. It should be 28 or 30 feet high.
+Iron stakes hold the bottom, while guy wires steady the top.]
+
+
+CALIFORNIA HAY RICKER
+
+In the West hay is often put up in long ricks instead of stacks. One of
+my jobs in California was to put up 2,700 acres of wild hay in the
+Sacramento Valley. I made four rickers and eight buck rakes similar to
+the ones shown in the illustrations. Each ricker was operated by a crew
+of eight men. Four men drove two buck rakes. There were two on the rick,
+one at the fork and one to drive the hoisting rig. Ten mowing machines
+did most of the cutting but I hired eight more machines towards the
+last, as the latest grass was getting too ripe. The crop measured more
+than 2,100 tons and it was all put in ricks, stacks and barns without a
+drop of rain on it. I should add that rain seldom falls in the lower
+Sacramento Valley during the haying season in the months of May and
+June. This refers to wild hay, which is made up of burr clover, wild
+oats and volunteer wheat and barley.
+
+Alfalfa is cut from five to seven times in the hot interior valleys, so
+that if a farmer is rash enough to plant alfalfa under irrigation his
+haying thereafter will reach from one rainy season to the next.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+FARM CONVEYANCES
+
+
+STONE-BOAT
+
+One of the most useful and one of the least ornamental conveyances on a
+farm is the stone-boat. It is a low-down handy rig for moving heavy
+commodities in summer as well as in winter. No other sleigh or wagon
+will equal a stone-boat for carrying plows or harrows from one field to
+another. It is handy to tote bags of seed to supply the grain drill, to
+haul a barrel of water, feed for the hogs, and a great many other
+chores.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 158.--Stone-Boat. Stump logs are selected for the
+planks. The bend of the planks is the natural curve of the large roots.
+The sawing is done by band saw cutting from two directions.]
+
+When the country was new, sawmills made a business of sawing stone-boat
+plank. Trees for stone-boat staves were cut close to the ground and the
+natural crooks of the roots were used for the noses of sleigh runners
+and for stone-boats. But cast-iron noses are now manufactured with
+recesses to receive the ends of straight ordinary hardwood planks. These
+cast-iron ends are rounded up in front to make the necessary nose
+crook. The front plank cross piece is bolted well towards the front ends
+of the runner planks. Usually there are two other hardwood plank cross
+pieces, one near the rear end and the other about one-third of the way
+back from the front. Placing the cross pieces in this way gives room
+between to stand a barrel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 159.--Wheelbarrow. This factory-made wheelbarrow
+is the only pattern worth bothering with. It is cheap and answers the
+purpose better than the heavier ones with removable side wings.]
+
+The cross pieces are bolted through from the bottom up. Round-headed
+bolts are used and they are countersunk, to come flush with the bottom
+of the sliding planks. The nuts are countersunk into the cross pieces by
+boring holes about one-quarter inch deep. The holes are a little larger
+than the cornerwise diameter of the nuts. No washers are used, and the
+nuts are screwed down tight into the plank. The ends of the bolts are
+cut off even and filed smooth. The nuts are placed sharp corner side
+down and are left nearly flush on top or even with the surface of the
+cross pieces. In using a stone-boat, nobody wants a projection to catch
+any part of the load.
+
+Regular doubletree clevises are attached to the corners of the
+old-fashioned stone-boat and the side chains are brought together to a
+ring and are just about long enough to form an equilateral triangle with
+the front end of the stone-boat. Cast-iron fronts usually have a
+projection in the center for the clevis hitch.
+
+
+OXEN ON A NEW ENGLAND FARM
+
+One of the most interesting experiences on a New England farm is to get
+acquainted with the manner in which oxen are pressed into farm service.
+One reason why oxen have never gone out of fashion in New England is the
+fact that they are patient enough to plow stony ground without smashing
+the plow.
+
+A great deal of New England farm land has been reclaimed by removing a
+portion of the surface stone. In the processes of freezing and thawing
+and cultivation, stones from underneath keep working up to the surface
+so that it requires considerable skill to do the necessary plowing and
+cultivating. Oxen ease the plowpoint over or around a rock so it can
+immediately dip in again to the full depth of the furrow. A good yoke of
+cattle well trained are gentle as well as strong and powerful.
+
+Oxen are cheaper than horses to begin with and they are valuable for
+beef when they are not needed any longer as work animals. The Holstein
+breed seems to have the preference for oxen with New England farmers.
+The necessary harness for a pair of cattle consists of an ox yoke with a
+ringbolt through the center of the yoke, midway between the two oxen. A
+heavy iron ring about five inches in diameter, made of round iron, hangs
+from the ringbolt. There are two oxbows to hold the yoke in place on the
+necks of the cattle. A logging chain with a round hook on one end and a
+grab hook on the other end completes the yoking outfit.
+
+The round hook of the chain is hitched into the ring in the plow clevis.
+The chain is passed through the large iron ring in the oxbow and is
+doubled back to get the right length. The grab hook is so constructed
+that it fits over one link of the chain flatwise so that the next link
+standing crosswise prevents it from slipping.
+
+The mechanism of a logging chain is extremely simple, positive in action
+and especially well adapted to the use for which it is intended. The
+best mechanical inventions often pass without notice because of their
+simplicity. Farmers have used logging chains for generations with hooks
+made on this plan without realizing that they were profiting by a high
+grade invention that embodies superior merit.
+
+In yoking oxen to a wagon the hitch is equally simple. The end of the
+wagon tongue is placed in the ring in the ox yoke, the round hook
+engages with a drawbolt under the hammer strap bar. The small grab hook
+is passed through the large yoke ring and is brought back and engaged
+with a chain link at the proper distance to stretch the chain taut.
+
+The process of yoking oxen and hitching them to a wagon is one of the
+most interesting performances on a farm. The off ox works on the off
+side, or far side from the driver. He usually is the larger of the two
+and the more intelligent. The near (pronounced n-i-g-h) ox is nearest to
+the driver who walks to the left. Old plows turned the furrow to the
+right so the driver could walk on hard ground. In this way the
+awkwardness and ignorance of the near ox is played against the docility
+and superior intelligence of the off ox. In yoking the two together the
+yoke is first placed on the neck of the off ox and the near ox is
+invited to come under. This expression is so apt that a great many years
+ago it became a classic in the hands of able writers to suggest
+submission or slavery termed "coming under the yoke." Coming under the
+yoke, however, for the New England ox, in these days of abundant
+feeding, is no hardship. The oxen are large and powerful and the work
+they have to do is just about sufficient to give them the needed
+exercise to enjoy their alfalfa hay and feed of oats or corn.
+
+
+TRAVOY
+
+One of the first implements used by farm settlers in the timbered
+sections of the United States and Canada, was a three-cornered sled made
+from the fork of a tree. This rough sled, in the French speaking
+settlements, was called a "travoy." Whether it was of Indian or French
+invention is not known; probably both Indians and French settlers used
+travoys for moving logs in the woods before American history was much
+written. The legs or runners of a travoy are about five feet long. There
+is a bunk which extends crossways from one runner to the other, about
+half or two-thirds of the way back from the turned-up nose. This bunk is
+fastened to the runners by means of wooden pins and U-shaped bows fitted
+into grooves cut around the upper half of the bunk near the ends. Just
+back of the turned up nose is another cross piece in the shape of a
+stout wooden pin or iron bolt that is passed through an auger hole
+extending through both legs from side to side of the travoy. The
+underside of the crotch is hollowed out in front of the bolt to make
+room to pass the logging chain through so it comes out in front under
+the turned up nose.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 160.--Travoy. A log-hauling sled made from the
+fork of a tree.]
+
+The front of the travoy is turned up, sled runner fashion, by hewing the
+wood with an axe to give it the proper shape. Travoys are used to haul
+logs from a thick woods to the skidways. The manner of using a travoy is
+interesting. It is hauled by a yoke of cattle or a team of horses to the
+place where the log lies in the woods. The round hook end of the logging
+chain is thrown over the butt end of the log and pulled back under the
+log then around the bunk just inside of the runner and hooked fast upon
+itself. The travoy is then leaned over against the log, the grab hook
+end of the chain is brought over the log and over the travoy and
+straightened out at right angles to the log. The cattle are hitched to
+the end of the logging chain and started. This kind of a hitch rolls the
+log over on top of the bunk on the travoy. The cattle are then
+unhitched. The grab hook end of the chain thus released is passed down
+and around under the other end of the bunk from behind. The chain is
+then passed over the bolt near the nose of the travoy and pulled down
+through the opening and out in front from under the nose. The small
+grab hook of the logging chain is then passed through the clevis, in the
+doubletree, if horses are used, or the ring in the yoke if cattle are
+used, and hitched back to the proper length. A little experience is
+necessary to regulate the length of the chain to give the proper pull.
+The chain should be short enough so the pull lifts a little. It is
+generally conceded by woodsmen that a short hitch moves a log easier
+than a long hitch. However, there is a medium. There are limitations
+which experience only can determine. A travoy is useful in dense woods
+where there is a good deal of undergrowth or where there are places so
+rough that bobsleighs cannot be used to advantage.
+
+
+LINCHPIN FARM WAGONS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 161.--Cross Reach Wagon. This wagon is coupled for
+a trailer, but it works just as well when used with a tongue and horses
+as a handy farm wagon. The bunks are made rigid and parallel by means of
+a double reach. There are two king bolts to permit both axles to turn.
+Either end is front.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 162.--Wagon Brake. The hounds are tilted up to
+show the brake beam and the manner of attaching it. The brake lever is
+fastened to the forward side of the rear bolster and turns up alongside
+of the bolster stake. The brake rod reaches from the upper end of the
+lever elbow to the foot ratchet at the front end of the wagon box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 163.--Bolster Spring.]
+
+In some parts of the country the wheels of handy wagons about the farm
+are held on axle journals by means of linchpins in the old-fashioned
+manner. There are iron hub-bands on both ends of the hubs which project
+several inches beyond the wood. This is the best protection against sand
+to prevent it from working into the wheel boxing that has ever been
+invented. Sand from the felloes scatters down onto these iron bands and
+rolls off to the ground. There is a hole through each band on the outer
+ends of the hubs to pass the linchpin through so that before taking off
+a wheel to oil the journal it must first be turned so the hole comes
+directly over the linchpin. To pry out the linchpin the drawbolt is
+used. Old-fashioned drawbolts were made with a chisel shaped end tapered
+from both sides to a thickness of about an eighth of an inch. This thin
+wedge end of the drawbolt is placed under the end of the linchpin. The
+lower side of the hub-band forms a fulcrum to pry the pin up through the
+hole in the upper side of the sand-band projection. The linchpin has a
+hook on the outer side of the upper end so the lever is transferred to
+the top of the sand-band when another pry lifts the pin clear out of the
+hole in the end of the axle so the wheel may be removed and grease
+applied to the axle. The drawbolt on a linchpin wagon usually has a
+head made in the form of the jaws of a wrench. The wrench is the right
+size to fit the nuts on the wagon brace irons so that the drawbolt
+answers three purposes.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 164.--Wagon Seat Spring. The metal block fits over
+the top of the bolster stake.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 165.--Hollow Malleable Iron Bolster Stake to hold
+a higher wooden stake when necessary.]
+
+
+SAND-BANDS
+
+Many parts of farm machinery require projecting sand-bands to protect
+the journals from sand and dust. Most farms have some sandy fields or
+ridges. Some farms are all sand or sandy loam. Even dust from clay is
+injurious to machinery. There is more or less grit in the finest clay.
+The most important parts of farm machinery are supposed to be protected
+by oil-cups containing cotton waste to strain the oil, together with
+covers in the shape of metal caps. These are necessary protections and
+they help, but they are not adequate for all conditions. It is not easy
+to keep sand out of bearings on machinery that shakes a good deal.
+Wooden plugs gather sand and dust. When a plug is pulled the sand drops
+into the oil hole. Farm machinery that is properly designed protects
+itself from sand and dust. In buying a machine this particular feature
+should appeal to the farmers more than it does. Leather caps are a
+nuisance. They are a sort of patchwork to finish the job that the
+manufacturer commences. A man who is provident enough to supply himself
+with good working tools and is sufficiently careful to take care of
+them, usually is particular about the appearance as well as the
+usefulness of his tools, machinery and implements.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 166.--Sand Caps. Not one manufacturer in a hundred
+knows how to keep sand out of an axle bearing. Still it is one of the
+simplest tricks in mechanics. The only protection an axle needs is long
+ferrules that reach out three or four inches beyond the hub at both
+ends. Old-fashioned Linchpin farm wagons were built on this principle.
+The hubs held narrow rings instead of skeins, but they wore for years.]
+
+
+BOBSLEIGHS
+
+On Northern farms bobsleighs are as important in the winter time as a
+farm wagon in summer. There are different ways of putting bobsleighs
+together according to the use required of them. When using heavy
+bobsleighs for road work, farmers favor the bolster reach to connect the
+front and rear sleighs. With this attachment the horses may be turned
+around against the rear sled. The front bolster fits into a recessed
+plate bolted to the bench plank of the front sleigh. This plate is a
+combination of wearing plate and circle and must be kept oiled to turn
+easily under a heavy load. It not only facilitates turning, but it
+prevents the bolster from catching on the raves or on the upturned nose
+of the front bob when turning short.
+
+The heavy hardwood plank reach that connects the two bolsters is put
+through a mortise through the front bolster and is fastened rigidly by
+an extra large king-bolt. The reach plays back and forth rather loosely
+through a similar mortise in the other bolster on the rear sleigh. The
+rear hounds connect with the reach by means of a link and pin. This link
+pushes up through mortise holes in the reach and is fastened with a
+wooden pin or key on top of the reach. Sometimes the hounds are taken
+away and the reach is fastened with pins before and behind the rear
+bolster. This reach hitch is not recommended except for light road work.
+These two ways of attaching the rear sled necessitate different ways of
+fastening the rear bolster to the sled. When the rear bolster is
+required to do the pulling, it is attached to the sled by double
+eyebolts which permit the necessary rocking motion and allows the nose
+of the rear sled to bob up and down freely. This is an advantage when a
+long box bed is used, because the bolster is made to fit the box closely
+and is not continually oscillating and wearing. Eye-bolts provide for
+this natural movement of the sled. Light pleasure bobs are attached to
+the box with eyebolts without bolster stakes. The light passenger riding
+seat box is bound together with iron braces and side irons so it does
+not need bolsters to hold the sides together.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 167.--Bobsleighs, Showing Three Kinds of Coupling.
+The upper sleighs are coupled on the old-fashioned short reach plan
+except that the reach is not mortised into the roller. It is gained in a
+quarter of an inch and fastened by an iron strap with a plate and nuts
+on the under side. The bobs in the center show the bolster reach,
+principally used for road work. The bottom pair are coupled by cross
+chains for short turning around trees and stumps in the woods.]
+
+Bobsleighs for use in the woods are hitched together quite differently.
+The old-fashioned reach with a staple in the rear bench of the first
+sled and a clevis in the end of the reach is the old-fashioned rig for
+rough roads in the woods. Such sleighs are fitted with bunks instead of
+bolsters. Bunks are usually cut from good hardwood trees, hewed out with
+an axe and bored for round stakes. Log bunks for easy loading do not
+project beyond the raves. With this kind of a rig, a farmer can fasten
+two logging chains to the reach, carry the grab hook ends out and under
+and around the log and back again over the sleighs, and then hitch the
+horses to the two chains and roll the log up over a couple of skids and
+on to the bunks without doing any damage to the bobsleighs. Bobsleighs
+hitched together with an old-fashioned reach and provided with wide
+heavy raves will climb over logs, pitch down into root holes, and weave
+their way in and out among trees better than any other sled contrivance,
+and they turn short enough for such roads. The shortest turning rig,
+however, is the cross chain reach shown in Figure 167.
+
+
+MAKING A FARM CART
+
+A two-wheeled cart large enough to carry a barrel of cider is a great
+convenience on a farm. The front wheels of a buggy are about the right
+size and usually are strong enough for cart purposes. A one-inch iron
+axle will be stiff enough if it is reinforced at the square bends. The
+axle is bent down near the hubs at right angles and carried across to
+support the floor of the cart box about one foot from the ground. The
+distance from the ground should be just sufficient so that when the cart
+is tipped back the hind end will rest on the ground with the bottom
+boards at an easy slant to roll a barrel or milk can into the bottom of
+the box. Under the back end of the cart platform is a good stout bar of
+hardwood framed into the sidepieces. All of the woodwork about the cart
+is well braced with iron. The floor of the cart is better when made of
+narrow matched hardwood flooring about seven-eighths of an inch thick
+fastened with bolts. It should be well supported by cross pieces
+underneath. In fact the principal part of the box is the underneath part
+of the frame.
+
+Sidepieces of the box are wide and are bolted to the vertical parts of
+the axle and braced in different directions to keep the frame solid,
+square and firm. The sides of the box are permanently fastened but both
+tailboard and front board are held in place by cleats and rods and are
+removable so that long scantling or lumber may be carried on the cart
+bottom. The ends of the box may be quickly put in place again when it is
+necessary to use them.
+
+To hold a cart box together, four rods are necessary, two across the
+front and two behind. They are made like tailboard rods in wagon boxes.
+There is always some kind of tongue or handle bar in front of the farm
+cart conveniently arranged for either pulling or pushing. If a breast
+bar is used it handles better when supported by two curved projecting
+shafts or pieces of bent wood, preferably the bent up extended ends of
+the bedpieces. The handle bar should be about three feet from the
+ground.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 168.--Farm Cart. The axle need not be heavier than
+7/8". The hind axle of a light buggy works the best. It is bent down and
+spliced and welded under the box. The cart should be made narrow to
+prevent overloading. The box should be low enough to rest the back end
+on the ground at an angle of about 35 deg. for easy loading.]
+
+
+COLT-BREAKING SULKY
+
+A pair of shafts that look a good deal too long, an axle, two wheels and
+a whiffletree are the principal parts of a colt-breaking sulky. The
+shafts are so long that a colt can kick his best without reaching
+anything behind. The principal danger is that he may come down with one
+hind leg over the shaft. It is a question with horsemen whether it is
+better to first start a colt alongside of an old, steady horse. But it
+is generally conceded that in no case should a colt be made fast in such
+a way that he could kick himself loose. Different farmers have different
+ideas in regard to training colts, but these breaking carts with extra
+long shafts are very much used in some parts of the country. The shafts
+are heavy enough so that the colts may be tied down to make kicking
+impossible. A rope or heavy strap reaching from one shaft to the other
+over the colt's hips will keep its hind feet pretty close to the ground.
+Any rig used in connection with a colt should be strong enough to
+withstand any strain that the colt may decide to put upon it. If the
+colt breaks something or breaks loose, it takes him a long time to
+forget the scare. Farm boys make these breaking carts by using wheels
+and hind axles of a worn-out buggy. This is well enough if the wheels
+are strong and shafts thoroughly bolted and braced. It is easy to make a
+mistake with a colt. To prevent accidents it is much better to have the
+harness and wagon amply strong.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 169.--Colt-Breaking Sulky. The axle and hind
+wheels of a light wagon, two strong straight-grained shafts about 4 feet
+too long, a whiffletree and a spring seat are the principal parts of a
+colt-breaking sulky. The shafts and seat are thoroughly well bolted and
+clipped to the axle and braced against all possible maneuvers of the
+colt. The traces are made so long that the colt cannot reach anything to
+kick, and he is prevented from kicking by a strap reaching from one
+shaft up over his hips and down to the other shaft. In this rig the colt
+is compelled to go ahead because he cannot turn around. The axle should
+be longer than standard to prevent upsetting when the colt turns a
+corner at high speed.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+MISCELLANEOUS FARM CONVENIENCES
+
+
+FARM OFFICE
+
+[Illustration: Figure 170.--Perspective View of Two-Story Corn Crib. The
+side of the building is cut away to show the elevating machinery.]
+
+Business farming requires an office. Business callers feel sensitive
+about talking farm or live-stock affairs before several members of the
+family. But they are quite at ease when alone with the farmer in his
+office. A farm office may be small but it should contain a desk or
+table, two or three chairs, book shelves for books, drawers for
+government bulletins and a cabinet to hold glassware and chemicals for
+making soil tests and a good magnifying glass for examining seeds before
+planting. A good glass is also valuable in tracing the destructive work
+of many kinds of insect pests.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 171.--Floor Plans of Two-Story Corn Crib. The
+first floor shows the driveway with corn cribs at the sides and the
+second floor plan shows the grain bins over the center driveway, with
+location of the downspouts, stairway, etc.]
+
+The office is the proper place for making germination tests of various
+farm seeds. Seventy degrees of heat is necessary for the best results in
+seed testing. For this reason, as well as for comfort while working, the
+heating problem should receive its share of attention. Many times it so
+happens that a farmer has a few minutes just before mealtime that he
+could devote to office work if the room be warm enough.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 172.--Economy of Round Barn. The diagrams show
+that the popular 36' x 80' cow stable and the commonest size of round
+barn have about the same capacity. Each barn will stable forty cows, but
+the round barn has room for a silo in the center. Both barns have feed
+overhead in the shape of hay and straw, but the round feed room saves
+steps.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 173.--Concrete Farm Scale Base and Pit.]
+
+Neatly printed letter-heads and envelopes are important. The sheets of
+paper should be eight and a half by eleven inches in size, pure white
+and of good quality. The printing should be plain black and of round
+medium-sized letters that may be easily read. Fancy lettering and
+flourishes are out of place on business stationery.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 174.--Top View of the Hay-Track Roof Extension,
+showing the ridgeboard and supporting jack-rafters.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 175.--Side view showing plan for building a
+Hayfork Hood to project from peak of a storage barn. The jack-rafters
+form a brace to support the end of the hay-track beam.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 176.--Slaughter House. The house should be twelve
+feet wide. It may be any length to provide storage, but 12 x 12 makes a
+good beef skinning floor. The windlass shaft should be ten feet above
+the floor, which requires twelve-foot studding. The wheel is eight feet
+in diameter and the winding drum is about ten inches. The animal is
+killed on the incline outside of the building and it lies limp against
+the revolving door. The door catch is sprung back and the carcass rolls
+down onto the concrete skinning floor.]
+
+Halftone illustration of farm animals or buildings are better used on
+separate advertising sheets that may be folded in with the letters when
+wanted.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 177.--Rule of Six, Eight and Ten. Diagram showing
+how to stake the foundation of a farm building so the excavation can be
+made clear out to the corners without undermining the stakes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 178.--Roof Truss built strong enough to support
+the roof of a farm garage without center posts.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 179.--Design of Roof Truss Intended to Span a Farm
+Garage.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 180.--Roof Pitches. Mow capacity of the different
+roof pitches is given above the plates in figures.]
+
+Typewriters are so common that a hand-written letter is seldom seen
+among business correspondence. A busy farmer is not likely to acquire
+much speed with a typewriter, but his son or daughter may. One great
+advantage is the making of carbon copies. Every letter received is then
+filed in a letter case in alphabetical order and a carbon copy of each
+answer is pinned to it for future reference.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 181.--Double Corn Crib. Two cribs may be roofed
+this way as cheaply as to roof the two cribs separately. A storeroom is
+provided overhead and the bracing prevents the cribs from sagging.]
+
+The cost of furnishing a farm office will depend upon the inclinations
+of the man. A cheap kitchen table may be used instead of an expensive
+mahogany desk. A new typewriter costs from fifty to ninety dollars, but
+a rebuilt machine that will do good work may be obtained for twenty.
+
+A useful magnifying glass with legs may be bought for a dollar or two.
+Or considerable money may be invested in a high-powered microscope.
+
+
+SPEED INDICATOR
+
+The speed requirements of machines are given by the manufacturers. It is
+up to the farmer to determine the size of pulleys and the speed of
+intermediate shafts between his engine and the machine to be driven. A
+speed indicator is held against the end of a shaft at the center. The
+indicator pin then revolves with the shaft and the number of revolutions
+per minute are counted by timing the pointer on the dial with the second
+hand of a watch.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 182.--Speed Timers. Two styles. The point is held
+against the center of the shaft to be tested. The number of revolutions
+per minute is shown in figures on the face of the dial. The indicator is
+timed to the second hand of a watch.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 183.--Building Bracket. Made of 2 x 4 pieces put
+together at right angles with diagonal braces. The supporting leg fits
+between the four diagonal braces.]
+
+
+SOIL TOOLS
+
+Soil moisture often is the limiting factor in crop raising. Soil
+moisture may be measured by analysis. The first step is to obtain
+samples at different depths. This is done accurately and quickly with a
+good soil auger. Other paraphernalia is required to make a careful
+analysis of the sample, but a farmer of experience will make a mud ball
+and form a very good estimate of the amount of water in it.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 184.--Diagram showing how to cut a plank on a
+band-saw to form a curved rafter. The two pieces of the plank are spiked
+together as shown in the lower drawing. This makes a curved rafter
+without waste of material.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 185.--Breeding Crate for Hogs. The illustration
+shows the manner of construction.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 186.--Soil Auger. Scientific farming demands that
+soils shall be tested for moisture. A long handled auger is used to
+bring samples of soil to the surface. The samples are weighed, the water
+evaporated and the soil reweighed to determine the amount of moisture.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 187.--Post Hole Diggers. Two patterns of the same
+kind of digger are shown. The first has iron handles, the lower has
+wooden handles.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 188.--Hoes and Weeders. The hang of a hoe affects
+its working. The upper hoe shows about the easiest working angle between
+the blade and the handle. The difference between a hoe and a weeder is
+that the hoe is intended to strike into the ground to loosen the soil,
+while the blade of the weeder is intended to work parallel with the
+surface of the soil to cut young weeds.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 189.--Manure Hook and Potato Diggers.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 190.--Spud. Certain vegetables are grown for crop
+and for seed. The green plants are thinned with a spud for sale, leaving
+the best to ripen for seed. It is also used to dig tough weeds,
+especially those having tap roots.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 191.--(1) Corn Cutting Knife. (2) Asparagus
+Knife.]
+
+
+FENCE-MAKING TOOLS
+
+_Sliding Field Gate._--Each farm field should have a gate, not
+necessarily expensive, but it should be reasonably convenient. Farm
+field gates should be made sixteen feet long, which will allow for a
+clear opening about fourteen feet wide. The cheapest way to make a good
+farm gate is to use a 10-inch board for the bottom, 8-inch for the board
+next to the bottom and three 6-inch boards above that. The space between
+the bottom board and next board is two inches. This narrow space
+prevents hogs from lifting the gate with their noses. The spaces widen
+toward the top, so that the gate when finished is five feet high. If
+colts run the fields then a bar is needed along the top of the gate. Six
+cross pieces 1 inch by 6 inches are used to hold the gate together.
+These cross pieces are bolted through at each intersection. Also a
+slanting brace is used on the front half of the gate to keep it from
+racking and this brace is put on with bolts. Two posts are set at each
+end of the gate. The front posts hold the front end of the gate between
+them, and the rear posts the same. There is a cross piece which reaches
+from one of the rear posts to the other to slide the gate and hold it
+off the ground. A similar cross piece holds the front end of the gate up
+from the ground. Sometimes a swivel roller is attached to the rear cross
+piece to roll the gate if it is to be used a good deal. A plain, simple
+sliding gate is all that is necessary for fields some distance from the
+barn.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 192.--(1) Plumb-Bob and Plumb-Line. The line is
+paid out about 6 feet from the spool and given a half hitch. It may then
+be hung over the wire and the spool will balance the bob. (2) Bipod. The
+legs of a fence bipod are cut 6 feet long. The bolt is put through 6
+inches from the top ends. By the aid of the plummet the upper wire is
+strung plumb over the barb-wire in the furrow and 4' 6" above grade. The
+lower parts of the posts are set against the barb-wire and the upper
+faces of the posts at the top are set even with the upper wire. This
+plan not only places the posts in line, both at the top and bottom, but
+it regulates the height.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 193.--Fence Tools. The upper tool is a round steel
+pin to twist heavy brace wires. The scoop is for working stones out of
+post-holes. The steel crowbar is for working around the stones to loosen
+them.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 194.--Fence Pliers. This is a heavy fence tool
+made to pull fence staples and to stretch, cut and splice wire.]
+
+
+CORN SHOCK HORSE
+
+[Illustration: Figure 195.--Corn Horse. When corn is cut by hand there
+is no better shocking device than the old-style corn horse. It is almost
+as handy when setting up the corn sheaves from the corn binder.]
+
+A convenient corn shocking horse is made with a pole cut from a straight
+tree. The pole is about six inches through at the butt and tapers to a
+small end. About twenty feet is a good length. There are two legs which
+hold the large end of the pole up about 40" from the ground. These legs
+are well spread apart at the bottom. Two feet back from the legs is a
+horizontal hole about one and one-quarter inches in diameter to hold the
+crossbar. This crossbar may be an old broom handle. The pole and the
+crossbar mark the four divisions of a corn shock. Corn is cut and stood
+up in each corner, usually nine hills in a corner, giving thirty-six
+hills to a shock. Corn planted in rows is counted up to make about the
+same amount of corn to the shock. Of course a heavy or light crop must
+determine the number of rows or hills. When enough corn is cut for a
+shock it is tied with two bands, the crossbar is pulled out and the corn
+horse is dragged along to the next stand.
+
+
+HUSKING-PIN
+
+Hand huskers for dividing the cornhusks at the tips of the ears are made
+of wood, bone or steel. Wooden husking-pins are made of ironwood,
+eucalyptus, second growth hickory, or some other tough hardwood. The
+pin is about four inches long, five-eighths of an inch thick and it is
+shaped like a lead-pencil with a rather long point. A recessed girdle is
+cut around the barrel of the pin and a leather finger ring fits into and
+around this girdle. Generally the leather ring fits the larger finger to
+hold the pin in the right position while permitting it to turn to wear
+the point all around alike. Bone husking-pins are generally flat with a
+hole through the center to hold the leather finger ring. Steel
+husking-pins are shaped differently and have teeth to catch and tear the
+husks apart.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 196.--Brick Trowel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 197.--Plastering Trowel.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 198.--Concrete Hog Wallow, showing drain pipe.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 199.--Concrete Center Alley for Hog House. The
+upper illustration represents the wooden template used to form the
+center of the hog house floor.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 200.--Sanitary Pig-Pen. One of the most
+satisfactory farrowing houses is constructed of concrete posts 6" square
+and 6" square mesh hog fencing and straw. The posts are set to make
+farrowing pens 8' wide and 16' deep from front to back. Woven wire is
+stretched and fastened to both sides of the posts at the sides and back
+of each pen. Straw is stuffed in between the two wire nets, thus making
+partitions of straw 6" thick and 42" high. Fence wire is stretched over
+the top and straw piled on deep enough to shed rain. The front of the
+pens face the south and are closed by wooden gates. In the spring the
+pigs are turned out on pasture, the straw roof is hauled to the fields
+for manure and the straw partitions burned out. The sun shines into the
+skeleton pens all summer so that all mischievous bacteria are killed and
+the hog-lice are burned or starved. The next fall concrete floors may be
+laid in the pens, the partitions restuffed with straw and covered with
+another straw roof. In a colder climate I would cover the whole top with
+a straw roof. Sufficient ventilation would work through the straw
+partitions and the front gate. In very cold weather add a thin layer of
+straw to the gate.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 201.--Concrete Wall Mold. Wooden molds for shaping
+a concrete wall may be made as shown. If the wall is to be low--2' or
+less--the mold will stay in place without bolting or wiring the sides
+together. The form is made level by first leveling the 2" x 6" stringers
+that support the form.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 202.--Husking-Pin. The leather finger ring is
+looped into the recess in the wooden pin.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 203.--Harness Punch. The hollow punch points are
+of different sizes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 204.--Belt Punch. Two or three sizes should be
+kept in the tool box. Belt holes should be small to hold the lace tight.
+The smooth running of belts depends a good deal on the lacing. Holes
+punch better against the end of a hickory block or other fine grained
+hardwood.]
+
+
+PAINT BRUSHES
+
+Paint brushes may be left in the paint for a year without apparent
+injury. The paint should be deep enough to nearly bury the bristles.
+Pour a little boiled linseed oil over the top to form a skin to keep the
+air out. It is cheaper to buy a new brush than to clean the paint out of
+one that has been used.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 205.--Knots. The simple principles of knot tying
+as practiced on farms are here represented.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 206.--Sheepshank, two half hitches in a rope to
+take up slack. The rope may be folded upon itself as many times as
+necessary.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 207.--Marline Spike. Used for splicing ropes,
+tying rose knots, etc.]
+
+
+FRUIT PICKING
+
+[Illustration: Figure 208.--Fruit-Picking Tray. It is used for picking
+grapes and other fruits. The California lug box has vertical sides and
+is the same size top and bottom. Otherwise the construction is similar.]
+
+Apples are handled as carefully as eggs by men who understand the
+business of getting high prices. Picking boxes for apples have bothered
+orchard men more than any other part of the business. It is so difficult
+to get help to handle apples without bruising that many inventions have
+been tried to lessen the damage. In western New York a tray with
+vertical ends and slanting sides has been adopted by grape growers as
+the most convenient tray for grapes. Apple growers are adopting the same
+tray. It is made of three-eighths-inch lumber cut 30 inches long for the
+sides, using two strips for each side. The bottom is 30 inches long and
+three-eighths of an inch thick, made in one piece. The ends are
+seven-eighths of an inch thick cut to a bevel so the top edge of the end
+piece is fourteen inches long and the bottom edge is ten inches long.
+The depth of the end piece is eight inches. Hand cleats are nailed on
+the outsides of the end pieces so as to project one-half inch above the
+top. These cleats not only serve to lift and carry the trays, but when
+they are loaded on a wagon the bottoms fit in between the cleats to hold
+them from slipping endways. In piling these picking boxes empty, one
+end is slipped outward over the cleat until the other end drops down.
+This permits half nesting when the boxes are piled up for storage or
+when loaded on wagons to move to the orchard.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 209.--Fruit Thinning Nippers. Three styles of
+apple-stem cutters are shown. They are also used for picking grapes and
+other fruits.]
+
+Apples are picked into the trays from the trees. The trays are loaded on
+to wagons or stone-boats and hauled to the packing shed, where the
+apples are rolled out gently over the sloping sides of the crates on to
+the cushioned bottom of the sorting table. Orchard men should have
+crates enough to keep the pickers busy without emptying until they are
+hauled to the packing shed. The use of such trays or crates save
+handling the apples over several times. The less apples are handled the
+fewer bruises are made.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 210.--Apple Picking Ladder. When apples are picked
+and placed in bushel trays a ladder on wheels with shelves is convenient
+for holding the trays.]
+
+In California similar trays are used, but they have straight sides and
+are called lug boxes. Eastern fruit men prefer the sloping sides because
+they may be emptied easily, quickly and gently.
+
+
+FRUIT PICKING LADDERS
+
+Commercial orchards are pruned to keep the bearing fruit spurs as near
+the ground as possible, so that ladders used at picking time are not so
+long as they used to be.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 211.--Stepladder and Apple-Picking Bag. This
+ladder has only three feet, but the bottom of the ladder is made wide to
+prevent upsetting. This bag is useful when picking scattering apples on
+the outer or upper branches. Picking bags carelessly used are the cause
+of many bruised apples.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 212.--Tree Pruners. The best made pruners are the
+cheapest. This long handled pruner is made of fine tool steel from the
+cutting parts clear to the outer ends of the wooden handles. A positive
+stop prevents the handles from coming together. Small one-hand pruning
+nippers are made for clean cutting. The blades of both pruners should
+work towards the tree trunk so the hook will mash the bark on the
+discarded portion of the limb.]
+
+The illustration shows one of the most convenient picking ladders. It is
+a double ladder with shelves to hold picking trays supported by two
+wheels and two legs. The wheels which are used to support one side of
+the frame are usually old buggy wheels. A hind axle together with the
+wheels works about right. The ladder frame is about eight feet high with
+ladder steps going up from each side. These steps also form the support
+for the shelves. Picking trays or boxes are placed on the shelves, so
+the latter will hold eight or ten bushels of apples, and may be wheeled
+directly to the packing shed if the distance is not too great.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 213.--Shears. The first pair is used for sheep
+shearing. The second is intended for cutting grass around the edges of
+walks and flower beds.]
+
+Step-ladders from six to ten feet long are more convenient to get up
+into the middle of the tree than almost any other kind of ladder.
+Commercial apple trees have open tops to admit sunshine. For this
+reason, straight ladders are not much used. It is necessary to have
+ladders built so they will support themselves. Sometimes only one leg is
+used in front of a step-ladder and sometimes ladders are wide at the
+bottom and taper to a point at the top. The kind of ladder to use
+depends upon the size of the trees and the manner in which they have
+been pruned. Usually it is better to have several kinds of ladders of
+different sizes and lengths. Pickers then have no occasion to wait for
+each other.
+
+
+FEEDING RACKS
+
+Special racks for the feeding of alfalfa hay to hogs are built with
+slatted sides hinged at the top so they will swing in when the hogs
+crowd their noses through to get the hay. This movement drops the hay
+down within reach. Alfalfa hay is especially valuable as a winter feed
+for breeding stock. Sows may be wintered on alfalfa with one ear of
+corn a day and come out in the spring in fit condition to suckle a fine
+litter of pigs. Alfalfa is a strong protein feed. It furnishes the
+muscle-forming substances necessary for the young litter by causing a
+copious flow of milk. One ear of corn a day is sufficient to keep the
+sow in good condition without laying on too much fat. When shoats are
+fed in the winter for fattening, alfalfa hay helps them to grow. In
+connection with grain it increases the weight rapidly without adding a
+great deal of expense to the ration. Alfalfa in every instance is
+intended as a roughage, as an appetizer and as a protein feed. Fat must
+be added by the use of corn, kaffir corn, Canada peas, barley or other
+grains. Alfalfa hay is intended to take the place of summer pasture in
+winter more than as a fattening ration.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 214.--Horse Feeding Rack. This is a barnyard hay
+feeder for horses and colts. The diagonal boarding braces each corner
+post and leaves large openings at the sides. Horses shy at small hay
+holes. The top boards and the top rail are 2 x 4s for strength. The
+bottom is floored to save the chaff.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 215.--Corner Post Detail of Horse Feeding Rack. A
+2 x 6 is spiked into the edge of a 2 x 4, making a corner post 6"
+across. The side boarding is cut even with the corner of the post and
+the open corner is filled with a two-inch quarter-round as shown.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 216.--Automatic Hog Feeder. The little building is
+8' x 12' on the ground and it is 10' high to the plates. The crushed
+grain is shoveled in from behind and it feeds down hopper fashion as
+fast as the hogs eat it. The floor is made of matched lumber. It should
+stand on a dry concrete floor.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 217.--Sheep Feeding Rack. The hay bottom and grain
+trough sides slope together at 45 deg. angles. The boarding is made tight to
+hold chaff and grain from wasting.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 218.--Rack Base and Sides. The 2 x 4s are halved
+at the ends and put together at right angles. These frames are placed 3'
+apart and covered with matched flooring. Light braces should be nailed
+across these frames a few inches up from the ground. The 1 x 4 pickets
+are placed 7" apart in the clear, so the sheep can get their heads
+through to feed. These picketed frames are bolted to the base and framed
+around the top. If the rack is more than 9' long there should be a
+center tie or partition. Twelve feet is a good length to make the
+racks.]
+
+
+SPLIT-LOG ROAD DRAG
+
+The only low cost road grader of value is the split-log road drag. It
+should be exactly what the name implies. It should be made from a light
+log about eight inches in diameter split through the middle with a saw.
+Plenty of road drags are made of timbers instead of split logs, but the
+real principle is lost because such drags are too heavy and clumsy.
+They cannot be quickly adjusted to the varying road conditions met with
+while in use.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 219.--Hog Trough. In a winter hog house the feed
+trough is placed next to the alley or passageway. A cement trough is
+best. A drop gate is hinged over the trough so it can be swung in while
+putting feed in the trough. The same gate is opened up level to admit
+hogs to the pen.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 220.--Reinforced Hog Trough. The section of hog
+trough to the left is reinforced with chicken wire, one-inch mesh. The
+trough to the right is reinforced with seven 1/4" rods--three in the
+bottom and two in each side.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 221.--Double Poultry Feeding Trough with Partition
+in the Center.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 222.--Poultry Feeder with Metal or Crockery
+Receptacle.]
+
+The illustration shows the right way of making a road drag, and the
+manner in which it is drawn along at an angle to the roadway so as to
+move the earth from the sides towards the center, but illustrations
+are useless for showing how to operate them to do good work. The
+eccentricities of a split-log road drag may be learned in one lesson by
+riding it over a mile or two of country road shortly after the frost has
+left the ground in the spring of the year. It will be noticed that the
+front half of the road drag presents the flat side of the split log to
+the work of shaving off the lumps while the other half log levels and
+smooths and puddles the loosened moist earth by means of the rounded
+side. Puddling makes earth waterproof. The front, or cutting edge, is
+faced with steel. The ridges and humps are cut and shoved straight ahead
+or to one side to fill holes and ruts. This is done by the driver, who
+shifts his weight from one end to the other, and from front to back of
+his standing platform to distribute the earth to the best advantage. The
+rounded side of the rear half log presses the soft earth into place and
+leaves the surface smooth.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 223.--Split-Log Road Drag. The front edge is shod
+with a steel plate to do the cutting and the round side of the rear log
+grinds the loosened earth fine and presses it into the wagon tracks and
+water holes.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 224.--Heavy Breaking Plow, used for road work and
+other tough jobs.]
+
+Unfortunately, the habit of using narrow tired wagons on country roads
+has become almost universal in the United States. To add to their
+destructive propensities, all wagons in some parts of the country have
+the same width of tread so that each wheel follows in paths made by
+other wheels, until they cut ruts of considerable depth. These little
+narrow ditches hold water so that it cannot run off into the drains at
+the sides of the roadway. When a rut gets started, each passing wheel
+squeezes out the muddy water, or if the wheel be revolving at a speed
+faster than a walk it throws the water, and the water carries part of
+the roadway with it so that small ruts are made large and deep ruts are
+made deeper. In some limited sections road rules demand that wagons
+shall have wide tires and have shorter front axles, so that with the
+wide tires and the uneven treads the wheels act as rollers instead of
+rut makers. It is difficult to introduce such requirements into every
+farm section. In the meantime the evils of narrow tires may be overcome
+to a certain extent by the persistent and proper use of the split-log
+road drag. These drags are most effectual in the springtime when the
+frost is coming out of the ground. During the muddy season the roads get
+worked up into ruts and mire holes, which, if taken in time, may be
+filled by running lengthwise of the road with the drag when the earth is
+still soft. When the ground shows dry on top and is still soft and wet
+underneath is the time the drags do the best work by scraping the drier
+hummocks into the low places where the earth settles hard as it dries.
+
+A well rounded, smooth road does not get muddy in the summer time.
+Summer rains usually come with a dash. Considerable water falls in a
+short time, and the very act of falling with force first lays the dust,
+then packs the surface. The smooth packed surface acts like a roof, and
+almost before the rain stops falling all surface water is drained off to
+the sides so that an inch down under the surface the roadbed is as hard
+as it was before the rain. That is the reason why split log road drags
+used persistently in the spring and occasionally later in the season
+will preserve good roads all summer. It is very much better to follow
+each summer rain with the road drag, but it is not so necessary as
+immediate attention at the proper time in spring. Besides, farmers are
+so busy during the summer months that they find it difficult to spend
+the time. In some sections of the middle West one man is hired to do the
+dragging at so much per trip over the road. He makes his calculations
+accordingly and is prepared to do the dragging at all seasons when
+needed. This plan usually works out the best because one man then makes
+it his business and he gets paid for the amount of work performed. This
+man should live at the far end of the road division so that he can
+smooth his own pathway leading to town.
+
+
+STEEL ROAD DRAG
+
+Manufacturers are making road drags of steel with tempered blades
+adjustable to any angle by simply moving the lever until the dog engages
+in the proper notch. Some of these machines are made with blades
+reversible, so that the other side can be used for cutting when the
+first edge is worn. For summer use the steel drag works very well, but
+it lacks the smoothing action of a well balanced log drag.
+
+
+SEED HOUSE AND BARN TRUCKS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 225.--Barn Trucks. The platform truck is made to
+move boxed apples and other fruit. The bag truck is well proportioned
+and strong, but is not full ironed.]
+
+Bag trucks for handling bags of grain and seeds should be heavy. Bag
+truck wheels should be eight inches in diameter with a three-inch face.
+The steel bar or shoe that lifts and carries the bag should be
+twenty-two inches in length. That means that the bottom of the truck in
+front is twenty-two inches wide. The wheels run behind this bar so the
+hubs do not project to catch against standing bags or door frames. The
+length of truck handles from the steel lift bar to the top end of the
+hand crook is four feet, six inches. In buying bag trucks it is better
+to get the heavy solid kind that will not upset. The light ones are a
+great nuisance when running them over uneven floors. The wheels are too
+narrow and too close together and the trucks tip over under slight
+provocation. Platform trucks for use in moving boxes of apples or crates
+of potatoes or bags of seed in the seed house or warehouse also should
+be heavy. The most approved platform truck, the kind that market men
+use, is made with a frame four feet in length by two feet in width. The
+frame is made of good solid hardwood put together with mortise and
+tenon. The cross pieces or stiles are three-quarters of an inch lower
+than the side pieces or rails, which space is filled with hardwood
+flooring boards firmly bolted to the cross pieces so they come up flush
+with the side timbers. The top of the platform should be sixteen inches
+up from the floor. There are two standards in front which carry a
+wooden crossbar over the front end of the truck. This crossbar is used
+for a handle to push or pull the truck. The height of the handle-bar
+from the floor is three feet. Rear wheels are five inches in diameter
+and work on a swivel so they turn in any direction like a castor. The
+two front wheels carry the main weight. They are twelve inches in
+diameter with a three-inch face. The wheels are bored to fit a one-inch
+steel axle and have wide boxings bolted to the main timbers of the truck
+frame. Like the two-wheel bag truck, the wheels of the platform truck
+are under the frame so they do not project out in the way, which is a
+great advantage when the truck is being used in a crowded place.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 226.--Farm Gate Post with Copper Mail Box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 227.--Concrete Post Supporting a Waterproof
+Clothes Line Reel Box.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 228.--Dumb Waiter. The cage is poised by a
+counterweight. It is guided by a rope belt which runs on grooved pulleys
+at the top and bottom.]
+
+
+HOME CANNING OUTFIT
+
+There are small canning outfits manufactured and sold for farm use that
+work on the factory principle. For canning vegetables, the heating is
+done under pressure because a great deal of heat is necessary to destroy
+the bacteria that spoil vegetables in the cans. Steam under pressure is
+a good deal hotter than boiling water. There is considerable work in
+using a canning outfit, but it gets the canning out of the way quickly.
+Extra help may be employed for a few days to do the canning on the same
+principle that farmers employ extra help at threshing time and do it all
+up at once. Of course, fruits and vegetables keep coming along at
+different times in the summer, but the fall fruit canning may be done at
+two or three sittings arranged a week or two apart and enough fruit
+packed away in the cellar to last a big family a whole year. Canning
+machinery is simple and inexpensive. These outfits may be bought from
+$10 up. Probably a $20 or $25 canner would be large enough for a large
+family, or a dozen different families if it could be run on a
+co-operative plan.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 229.--Clothes Line Tightener. This device is made
+of No. 9 wire bent as shown in the illustration.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 230.--Goat Stall. Milch goats are milked on a
+raised platform. Feed is placed in the manger. The opening in the side
+of the manger is a stanchion to hold them steady.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 231.--Horse Clippers. Hand clippers are shown to
+the left. The flexible shaft clipper to the right may be turned by hand
+for clipping a few horses or shearing a few sheep, but for real business
+it should be driven by an electric motor.]
+
+
+ELECTRIC TOWEL
+
+The "air towel" is sanitary, as well as an economical method of drying
+the hands. A foot pedal closes a quick-acting switch, thereby putting
+into operation a blower that forces air through an electric heating
+device so arranged as to distribute the warmed air to all parts of the
+hands at the same time. The supply of hot air continues as long as the
+foot pedal is depressed. The hands are thoroughly dried in thirty
+seconds.
+
+
+STALLS FOR MILCH GOATS
+
+Milch goats are not fastened with stanchions like cows. The front of the
+manger is boarded tight with the exception of a round hole about two
+feet high and a slit in the boards reaching from the round opening to
+within a few inches of the floor. The round hole is made large enough so
+that the goat puts her head through to reach the feed, and the slit is
+narrow enough so she cannot back up to pull the feed out into the stall.
+This is a device to save fodder.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 232.--Hog Catching Hook. The wooden handle fits
+loosely into the iron socket. As soon as the hog's hind leg is engaged
+the wooden handle is removed and the rope held taut.]
+
+
+STABLE HELPS
+
+[Illustration: Figure 233.--Bull Nose-Chain. Cross bulls may be turned
+out to pasture with some degree of safety by snapping a chain like this
+into the nose-ring. The chain should be just long enough to swing and
+wrap around the bull's front legs when he is running. Also the length is
+intended to drag the ring where he will step on it with his front feet.
+There is some danger of pulling the nose ring out.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 234.--Manure Carriers. There are two kinds of
+manure carriers in general use. The principal difference is the elevator
+attachment for hoisting when the spreader stands too high for the usual
+level dump.]
+
+Overhead tracks have made feed carriers possible. Litter or feed
+carriers and manure carriers run on the same kind of a track, the only
+difference is in size and shape of the car and the manner in which the
+contents are unloaded. Manure carriers and litter carriers have a
+continuous track that runs along over the manure gutters and overhead
+lengthwise of the feed alleys. There are a number of different kinds of
+carriers manufactured, all of which seem to do good service. The object
+is to save labor in doing the necessary work about dairy stables. To get
+the greatest possible profit from cows, it is absolutely necessary that
+the stable should be kept clean and sanitary, also that the cows shall
+be properly fed several times a day. Different kinds of feed are given
+at the different feeding periods. It is impossible to have all the
+different kinds of food stored in sufficient quantities within easy
+reach of the cows. Hence, the necessity of installing some mechanical
+arrangement to fetch and carry. The only floor carrier in use in dairy
+stables is a truck for silage. Not in every stable is this the case.
+Sometimes a feed carrier is run directly to the silo. It depends a good
+deal on the floor what kind of a carrier is best for silage. The
+advantage of an overhead track is, that it is always free from litter.
+Where floor trucks are used, it is necessary to keep the floor bare of
+obstruction. This is not considered a disadvantage because the floor
+should be kept clean anyway.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 235.--Cow Stanchion. Wooden cow stanchions may be
+made as comfortable for the cows as the iron ones.]
+
+
+HOUSE PLUMBING
+
+When water is pumped by an engine and stored for use in a tank to be
+delivered under pressure in the house, then the additional cost of hot
+and cold water and the necessary sink and bath room fixtures is
+comparatively small. Modern plumbing fixtures fit so perfectly and go
+together so easily that the cost of installing house plumbing in the
+country has been materially reduced, while the dangers from noxious
+gases have been entirely eliminated. Open ventilator pipes carry the
+poisonous gases up through the roof of the house to float harmlessly
+away in the atmosphere. Septic tanks take care of the sewerage better
+than the sewer systems in some towns. Plumbing fixtures may be cheap or
+expensive, according to the wishes and pocketbook of the owner. The
+cheaper grades are just as useful, but there are expensive outfits that
+are very much more ornamental.
+
+
+FARM SEPTIC TANK
+
+[Illustration: Figure 236.--Frame for Holding Record Sheets in a Dairy
+Stable.]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 237.--Loading Shute for Hogs. This loading shute
+is made portable and may be moved like a wheelbarrow.]
+
+Supplying water under pressure in the farmhouse demands a septic tank to
+get rid of the waste. A septic tank is a scientific receptacle to take
+the poison out of sewerage. It is a simple affair consisting of two
+underground compartments, made water-tight, with a sewer pipe to lead
+the waste water from the house into the first compartment and a drain to
+carry the denatured sewerage away from the second compartment. The first
+compartment is open to the atmosphere, through a ventilator, but the
+second compartment is made as nearly air-tight as possible. The
+scientific working of a septic tank depends upon the destructive work of
+two kinds of microscopic life known as aerobic and anaerobic forms of
+bacteria. Sewerage in the first tank is worked over by aerobic bacteria,
+the kind that require a small amount of oxygen in order to live and
+carry on their work. The second compartment is inhabited by anaerobic
+bacteria, or forms of microscopic life that work practically without
+air. The principles of construction require that a septic tank shall be
+large enough to contain two days' supply of sewerage in each
+compartment; thus, requiring four days for the sewerage to enter and
+leave the tank.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 238.--Brass Valves. Two kinds of globe valves are
+used in farm waterworks. The straight valve shown to the left and the
+right angle valve to the right. Either one may be fitted with a long
+shank to reach above ground when pipes are laid deep to prevent
+freezing.]
+
+Estimating 75 gallons daily of sewerage for each inhabitant of the house
+and four persons to a family, the septic tank should be large enough to
+hold 600 gallons, three hundred gallons in each compartment, which
+would require a tank about four feet in width and six feet in length and
+four feet in depth. These figures embrace more cubic feet of tank than
+necessary to meet the foregoing requirements. It is a good plan to leave
+a margin of safety.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 239.--Septic Tank, a double antiseptic process for
+purifying sewerage.]
+
+It is usual to lay a vitrified sewer, four inches in diameter, from
+below the bottom of the cellar to the septic tank, giving it a fall of
+one-eighth inch in ten feet. The sewer enters the tank at the top of the
+standing liquid and delivers the fresh sewerage from the house through
+an elbow and a leg of pipe that reaches to within about six inches of
+the bottom of the tank. The reason for this is to admit fresh sewerage
+without disturbing the scum on the surface of the liquid in the tank.
+The scum is a protection for the bacteria. It helps them to carry on
+their work of destruction. The same principle applies to the second
+compartment. The liquid from the first compartment is carried over into
+the second compartment by means of a bent pipe in the form of a siphon
+which fills up gradually and empties automatically when the liquid in
+the first compartment rises to a certain level. The discharging siphon
+leg should be the shortest. The liquid from the second compartment is
+discharged into the drain in the same manner. There are special valves
+made for the final discharge, but they are not necessary. The bottom of
+the tank is dug deep enough to hold sewerage from two to four feet in
+depth. The top surface of the liquid in the tank is held down to a level
+of at least six inches below the bottom of the cellar. So there is no
+possible chance of the house sewer filling and backing up towards the
+house. Usually the vitrified sewer pipe is four inches in diameter, the
+septic tank siphons for a small tank are three inches in diameter and
+the final discharge pipe is three inches in diameter, with a rapid fall
+for the first ten feet after leaving the tank.
+
+Septic tanks should be made of concrete, waterproofed on the inside to
+prevent the possibility of seepage. Septic tank tops are made of
+reinforced concrete with manhole openings. Also the manhole covers are
+made of reinforced concrete, either beveled to fit the openings or made
+considerably larger than the opening, so that they sit down flat on the
+top surface of the tank. These covers are always deep enough down in the
+ground so that when covered over the earth holds them in place.
+
+In laying vitrified sewer it is absolutely necessary to calk each joint
+with okum or lead, or okum reinforced with cement. It is almost
+impossible to make a joint tight with cement alone, although it can be
+done by an expert. Each length of the sewer-pipe should be given a
+uniform grade. The vitrified sewer is trapped outside of the building
+with an ordinary S-trap ventilated, which leaves the sewer open to the
+atmosphere and prevents the possibility of back-pressure that might
+drive the poisonous gases from the decomposing sewerage through the
+sewer back into the house. In this way, the septic tank is made entirely
+separate from the house plumbing, except that the two systems are
+connected at this outside trap.
+
+It is sometimes recommended that the waste water from the second
+compartment shall be distributed through a series of drains made with
+three-inch or four-inch drain tile and that the outlet of this set of
+drains shall empty into or connect with a regularly organized field
+drainage system. Generally speaking, the final discharge of liquid from
+a septic tank that is properly constructed is inoffensive and harmless.
+However, it is better to use every possible precaution to preserve the
+health of the family, and it is better to dispose of the final waste in
+such a way as to prevent any farm animal from drinking it.
+
+While manholes are built into septic tanks for the purpose of
+examination, in practice they are seldom required. If the tanks are
+properly built and rightly proportioned to the sewerage requirements
+they will take care of the waste water from the house year after year
+without attention. Should any accidents occur, they are more likely to
+be caused by a leakage in the vitrified sewer than from any other cause.
+Manufacturers of plumbing supplies furnish the siphons together with
+instructions for placing them properly in the concrete walls. Some firms
+supply advertising matter from which to work out the actual size and
+proportions of the different compartments and all connections. The
+making of a septic tank is simple when the principle is once
+understood.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                  PAGE
+
+  Acetylene gas                                    129
+  Air pressure pump                                107
+  Anvil                                             33
+  Apple-picking bag                                216
+    ladder                                         215
+  Asparagus knife                                  205
+  Auger, ship                                       26
+  Auger-bit                                     24, 25
+  Automatic hog feeder                             219
+  Axles, wagon                                      52
+  Babbitting boxings                                73
+  Barn trucks                                      226
+  Belt punch                                       211
+    work                                           146
+  Bench and vise                                    34
+  Bench for iron work                               35
+    for woodworking                                 16
+  Bipod                                            206
+  Bits, extension boring                            26
+  Bit, twist-drill, for wood-boring                 25
+  Blacksmith hammers                                61
+    shop                                            31
+  Block and tackle                                  77
+  Bobsleighs                                       188
+  Boiler, steam                                     90
+  Bolster spring                                   186
+    stake                                          187
+  Bolt cutter                                       45
+  Bolts, carriage and machine                       56
+    emergency                                       53
+    home-made                                       52
+    plow and sickle bar                             56
+  Boxings, babbitting                               73
+  Brace, wagon-box                                  58
+  Bramble hook                                      20
+  Brass valves                                     236
+  Breeding crate for hogs                          203
+  Brick trowel                                     209
+  Bridge auger                                      26
+  Bucket yoke                                       75
+  Buck rake                                        165
+  Building bracket                                 202
+  Bull nose-chain                                  233
+    treadmill                                       81
+  Cable hay stacker                                176
+  California hay ricker                            176
+  Calipers                                          43
+  Caliper rule                                      14
+  Canning outfit                                   229
+  Carpenter's bench                                 17
+    trestle                                         17
+  Cart, two-wheel                                  191
+  Centrifugal pumps                                105
+  Chain, logging                                    50
+  Chisels and gouges                                28
+  Circular saw, filing                              69
+    jointing                                        68
+    setting                                         68
+  Clearing land by tractor                         146
+  Clevises, plow                                    58
+  Clod crusher                                     155
+  Clothes line reel box, concrete                  228
+  Clothes line tightener                           230
+  Cold-chisel                                       37
+  Colt-breaking sulkey                             192
+  Compasses                                         18
+  Concrete center alley for hog house              209
+    farm scale base and pit                        196
+    hog wallow                                     209
+    wall mold                                      210
+  Conveniences, miscellaneous farm                 194
+  Conveyances, farm                                179
+  Corn crib, double                                201
+    two-story                                      194
+  Corn cultivator                                  142
+    planter                                        158
+    shock horse                                    208
+  Cotter pin tool                                   44
+  Coulter clamp                                     54
+  Countersink                                       41
+  Cow stanchion                                    234
+  Crop machinery, special                          161
+  Crops, kind of, to irrigate                      118
+  Crowbars                                          46
+  Cultivator, combination                          143
+    corn                                           142
+  Cutting nippers                                   46
+  Derrick fork                                     168
+  Dies and taps                                     55
+  Diggers, potato                                  205
+  Disk harrow                                      152
+    plow                                           137
+  Dog churn                                         79
+    power                                           80
+  Draw-filing                                       62
+  Drawing-knife                                     22
+  Drill, grain                                     160
+    power post                                      38
+  Drill-press                                       39
+    electric                                        40
+  Driven machines                                  100
+  Dumbwaiter                                       229
+  Economy of plowing by tractor                    146
+  Electricity on the farm                     121, 127
+  Electric lighting                                123
+  Electric power plant                             122
+    towel                                          231
+  Elevating machinery                              133
+  Elevator, grain                                  134
+  Emery grinders                                    31
+  Engine and truck, portable                        94
+  Engine, gasoline                                  91
+    kerosene                                        92
+    steam                                           90
+  Eveners for three- and four-horse teams          139
+  Extension boring bits                             26
+  Farm conveniences                                194
+    conveyances                                    179
+    office                                         194
+    shop and implement house                         9
+    shop work                                       50
+    tractor                                         97
+    waterworks                                 89, 100
+  Feed crusher                                     131
+  Feeding racks                                    217
+  Fence-making tools                          205, 206
+  Fence pliers                                     207
+  File handle                                       36
+  Files and rasps                                   36
+  Filing hand saw                                   56
+    roll                                            63
+  Flail                                             75
+  Fore-plane                                        27
+  Forge                                             32
+  Forges, portable                                  32
+  Forging iron and steel                            59
+  Fruit picking                                    212
+    ladders                                        215
+    tray                                           213
+  Fruit-thinning nippers                           214
+  Gambrel whiffletree                              173
+  Garage                                            10
+  Garden weeder                                     54
+  Gas, acetylene                                   129
+  Gasoline engine                                   91
+    house lightning                                128
+  Gate, sliding field                              205
+  Gatepost with copper mailbox                     227
+  Gauge, double-marking                             22
+  Generating mechanical power                       74
+  Goat stall                                       230
+  Grain drill                                      160
+    elevator                                       134
+    elevator, portable                             135
+  Grass hook                                       163
+  Grindstone                                        28
+  Hacksaw                                           45
+  Hammers, blacksmith                               61
+    machinist's                                     42
+  Hand axe                                          23
+  Hand saw                                      19, 65
+    filing                                          66
+    jointing                                        65
+    setting                                         65
+    using                                           67
+  Handspike                                         24
+  Hardy                                             43
+  Harness punch                                    211
+  Harrow cart                                      154
+    disk                                           152
+    sled                                           141
+    spike-tooth                                    141
+  Harvesting by tractor                            146
+  Hay carrier carriage                             172
+  Hay crop, handling                               163
+  Hay derricks, Idaho                              171
+    Western                                        169
+  Hayford, double harpoon                          169
+    grapple                                        170
+    hitch                                          173
+    hood                                           197
+  Hayrake, revolving                               163
+  Hay ricker, California                           176
+  Hay rope pulleys                                 174
+  Hay skids                                        167
+  Hay sling                                        167
+  Hay stacker, cable                               176
+  Haystack knife                                   168
+  Hay-tedder                                       165
+  Hay-track roof extension                         197
+  Hoe, how to sharpen                               70
+    wheel                                          162
+  Hoes and weeders                                 204
+  Hog catching hook                                232
+  Hog feeder, automatic                            219
+    trough                                         221
+    trough, reinforced                             222
+    wallow, concrete                               209
+  Hoist, oldest farm                               133
+  Hoists                                            78
+  Home repair work, profitable                      50
+  Horse clippers                                   231
+  Horse feeding rack                               218
+  Horsepower                                        86
+  House plumbing                                   234
+  Husking-pin                                      208
+  Hydraulic ram                                     95
+  Idaho hay derricks                               171
+  Implement shed                                    10
+    shed and work shop                              12
+  Iron, forging                                     59
+  Irons for neckyoke and whiffletree                51
+  Iron roller                                      157
+  Iron working tools                                42
+  Irrigation                                       112
+    by pumping                                     112
+    overhead spray                                 116
+  Jointer, carpenter's                              27
+  Jointer plows                                    144
+  Jointing hand saw                                 65
+  Kerosene engine                                   92
+  Keyhole saw                                       20
+  Knife, asparagus                                 205
+    corn cutting                                   205
+    haystack                                       168
+  Knots                                            212
+  Lag screw                                         57
+  Land float                                       156
+  Level, carpenter's                                24
+    iron stock                                      25
+  Lighting, gasoline                               128
+  Linchpin farm wagons                             185
+  Link, cold-shut                                   43
+    plow                                            58
+  Loading chute for hogs                           235
+  Logging chain                                     50
+  Machines, driven                                 100
+  Machinist's hammers                               42
+    vise                                            47
+  Manure carriers                                  233
+  Marline spike                                    212
+  Measuring mechanical work                         14
+  Mechanical power, generating                      74
+  Mechanics of plowing                             138
+  Melting ladle                                     73
+  Monkey-wrench                                     19
+  Mule pump                                         84
+  Nail hammers                                      21
+  Nail set                                          37
+  Office, farm                                     194
+  Oilstone                                          15
+  Overhead spray irrigation                        116
+  Oxen                                             181
+  Paint brushes                                    212
+  Pea guard                                        168
+  Picking fruit                                    212
+  Pig-pen, sanitary                                210
+  Pincers                                           44
+  Pipe cutter                                       48
+  Pipe-fitting tools                                46
+  Pipe vise                                         47
+    wrench                                          48
+  Plastering trowel                                209
+  Pliers                                            18
+  Plow, heavy-breaking                             224
+    riding                                         140
+    walking                                        138
+  Plowing by tractor                               145
+    importance of                                  137
+    mechanics of                                   138
+  Plows, jointer                                   144
+    Scotch                                         143
+  Plumb-bob and plumb-line                         206
+  Plumbing, house                                  234
+  Pod-bit                                           25
+  Portable farm engine                              94
+  Post-hole diggers                                204
+  Poultry feeding trough                           222
+  Power conveyor                                   121
+  Power, generating mechanical                      75
+  Power post drill                                  38
+  Power transmission                               120
+  Pulverizers                                      155
+  Pump, air pressure                               107
+    centrifugal                                    105
+    mule                                            84
+    jack                                           109
+    jacks and speed jacks                          111
+    rotary                                         103
+    suction                                        101
+  Punches                                           37
+  Quantity of water to use in irrigation           118
+  Racks, feeding                                   217
+    sheep feeding                                  219
+  Rafter grapple                                   173
+  Rasp                                              35
+  Rasps and files                                   36
+  Ratchet-brace                                     40
+  Refrigeration                                    123
+  Reservoir for supplying water to farm buildings  120
+  Revolving hayrake                                163
+  Riding plow                                      140
+  Ripsaw                                            21
+  Rivets                                            53
+  Rivet set                                         54
+  Road drag, split-log                             220
+    steel                                          225
+  Road work                                        146
+  Roller                                           156
+  Roll filing                                       63
+  Roof pitches                                     200
+    truss                                          199
+  Root pulper                                      130
+  Rotary pumps                                     103
+  Round barn, economy of                           196
+  Rule of six, eight and ten                       199
+  Sand bands                                       187
+    caps                                           188
+  Sanitary pig-pen                                 210
+  Saw, hack                                         45
+  Scotch plows                                     143
+  Screwdriver                                       23
+    ratchet                                         24
+  Seed house trucks                                226
+  Septic tank                                      235
+  Set-screws                                        64
+  Shave horse                                       18
+  Shears                                           217
+  Sheep feeding rack                               219
+  Sheepshank                                       212
+  Ship auger                                        26
+  Shoeing horses                                    71
+    knife                                           34
+    tool box                                        34
+  Shop, garage and implement shed                   10
+  Shop tools                                        14
+  Slaughter house                                  198
+  Sliding field gate                               205
+  Snips, sheet metal                                25
+  Soil auger                                       204
+    tools                                          202
+  Soil, working the                                137
+  Speed indicator                                  201
+    jacks                                          111
+  Split-log road drag                              220
+  Spud                                             205
+  Stable helps                                     232
+  Stall for milch goats                            232
+  Steam boiler and engine                           90
+  Steel, forging                                    59
+    road drag                                      225
+    square                                          22
+    tools, making                                   60
+  Stepladder                                       216
+  Stock for dies                                    55
+  Stone-boat                                       179
+  Stump puller                                     131
+  Suction pumps                                    101
+  Sulkey, colt-breaking                            192
+  S wrenches                                        44
+  Tapeline                                          15
+  Taper reamer                                      41
+    tap                                             56
+  Taps and dies                                     55
+  Tempering steel tools                             60
+  Tongs                                             43
+  Tool box for field use                            72
+    handy                                           72
+  Tool rack, blacksmith                             34
+  Tools for fence-making                           205
+    for woodworking                                 19
+    for working iron                                42
+    pipe-fitting                                    46
+    soil                                           202
+  Tractor economy                                  146
+    farm                                            97
+    transmission gear                               98
+    used in plowing                                145
+    uses for, on farm                              146
+  Tram points                                       40
+  Travoy                                           183
+  Treadmill, bull                                   81
+  Tree pruners                                     216
+  Trowel, brick                                    209
+    plastering                                     209
+  Trucks, barn                                     226
+  Try-square                                        22
+  Twist-drills                                  25, 41
+  U bolt in cement                                  57
+  Uses of electricity on farm                      126
+  Valves, brass                                    236
+  Vise                                              38
+  Wagon-box irons                                   57
+  Wagon brakes                                     186
+    seat spring                                    187
+  Walking plow                                     138
+  Water-power                                       88
+  Water storage                                    100
+  Waterworks, farm                                 100
+  Well sweep                                        76
+  Wheelbarrow                                      180
+  Wheel hoe                                        162
+  Winches                                           79
+  Windmills                                         83
+  Wire splice                                       52
+    splicer                                         44
+    stretcher                                       77
+  Wooden clamp                                      18
+    roller                                         157
+  Wood-saw frames                                  129
+  Woodworking bench                                 16
+    tools                                           19
+  Working the soil                                 137
+  Wrecking bar                                      24
+
+
+
+
+  _DRAKE'S MECHANICAL BOOKS_
+
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Electrical Books=
+
+  Electrical Tables and Engineering Data              *Lea.    $1.50
+  Electrical Tables and Engineering Data              *Cloth    1.00
+  Motion Picture Operation                            *Lea.     1.50
+  Motion Picture Operation                            *Cloth    1.00
+  Alternating Current                                  Lea.     1.50
+  Alternating Current                                  Cloth    1.00
+  Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions                    *Lea.     1.50
+  Wiring Diagrams and Descriptions                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Armature and Magnet Winding                         *Lea.     1.50
+  Armature and Magnet Winding                         *Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Electric Illumination                        *Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Electric Illumination                        *Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Electrical Construction                      *Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Electrical Construction                      *Cloth    1.00
+  Electricians' Operating and Testing Manual          *Lea.     1.50
+  Electricians' Operating and Testing Manual          *Cloth    1.00
+  Drake's Electrical Dictionary                        Lea.     1.50
+  Drake's Electrical Dictionary                        Cloth    1.00
+  Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating             *Lea.     1.50
+  Electric Motors, Direct and Alternating             *Cloth    1.00
+  Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing            Lea.     1.50
+  Electrical Measurements and Meter Testing            Cloth    1.00
+  Drake's Telephone Handbook                           Lea.     1.50
+  Drake's Telephone Handbook                           Cloth    1.00
+  Elementary Electricity, Up-to-Date                  *Cloth    1.25
+  Electricity Made Simple                             *Cloth    1.00
+  Easy Electrical Experiments                         *Cloth    1.00
+  Wireless Telegraph and Telephone Handbook            Cloth    1.00
+  Telegraphy, Self-taught                              Cloth    1.00
+  Dynamo-Electric Machines                             Cloth    1.50
+  Electro-Plating Handbook                             Lea.     1.50
+  Electro-Plating Handbook                             Cloth    1.00
+  Modern American Telephony                            Lea.     2.00
+  Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary              Lea.      .50
+  Handy Vest-Pocket Electrical Dictionary              Cloth     .25
+  Storage Batteries                                    Cloth     .50
+  Elevators--Hydraulic and Electric                    Cloth    1.00
+  How to Become a Successful Motorman                  Lea.     1.50
+  Motorman's Practical Air Brake Instructor            Lea.     1.50
+  Electric Railway Troubles                            Cloth    1.50
+  Electric Power Stations                              Cloth    2.50
+  Electrical Railroading                               Lea.     3.50
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Automobile Books=
+
+  Brookes' Automobile Handbook.                       *Lea.    $2.00
+  Automobile Starting and Lighting                    *Lea.     1.50
+  Automobile Starting and Lighting                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments    *Lea.     1.50
+  Ford Motor Car and Truck and Tractor Attachments    *Cloth    1.00
+  Automobile Catechism and Repair Manual              *Lea.     1.25
+  Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook               *Lea.     1.50
+  Practical Gas and Oil Engine Handbook               *Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Farm Books=
+
+  Farm Buildings, With Plans and Descriptions         *Cloth   $1.00
+  Farm Mechanics                                      *Cloth    1.00
+  Traction Farming and Traction Engineering           *Cloth    1.50
+  Farm Engines and How to Run Them                     Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Shop Practice Books=
+
+  Twentieth Century Machine Shop Practice              Cloth   $2.00
+  Practical Mechanical Drawing                         Cloth    2.00
+  Sheet Metal Workers' Manual                         *Lea.     2.00
+  Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting                   *Lea.     1.50
+  Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Cutting                   *Cloth    1.00
+  20th Century Toolsmith and Steelworker               Cloth    1.50
+  Pattern Making and Foundry Practice                  Lea.     1.50
+  Modern Blacksmithing, Horseshoeing and Wagon Making  Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Steam Engineering Books=
+
+  Swingle's Handbook for Steam Engineers and
+  Electricians                                        *Lea.    $3.00
+  Steam Boilers, Construction, Care and Operation     *Lea.     1.50
+  Complete Examination Questions and Answers for
+  Marine and Stationary Engineers                     *Lea.     1.50
+  Swingle's Catechism of Steam, Gas and Electrical
+  Engineering                                        *Lea.      1.50
+  The Steam Turbine, Its Care and Operation           Cloth     1.00
+  Calculation of Horse Power Made Easy                Cloth      .75
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Railroad Books=
+
+  Modern Locomotive Engineering                       *Lea.    $3.00
+  Locomotive Fireman's Boiler Instructor              *Lea.     1.50
+  Locomotive Engine Breakdowns and How to Repair Them *Lea.     1.50
+  Operation of Trains and Station Work                *Lea.     2.00
+  Construction and Maintenance of Railway Roadbed
+  and Track                                            Lea.     2.00
+  First, Second and Third Year Standard Examination
+  Questions and Answers for Locomotive Firemen        *Lea.     2.00
+  Complete Air Brake Examination Questions and
+  Answers                                             *Lea.     2.00
+  Westinghouse Air Brake System                        Cloth    2.00
+  New York Air Brake System                            Cloth    2.00
+  Walschaert Valve Gear Breakdowns                     Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Carpentry and Building Books=
+
+  Modern Carpentry. Two volumes                        Cloth   $2.00
+  Modern Carpentry. Vol.  I                            Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Carpentry. Vol. II                            Cloth    1.00
+  The Steel Square. Two volumes                        Cloth    2.00
+  The Steel Square. Vol.  I                            Cloth    1.00
+  The Steel Square. Vol. II                            Cloth    1.00
+  A. B. C. of the Steel Square                         Cloth     .50
+  Common Sense Stair Building and Handrailing          Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Estimator and Contractor's Guide             *Cloth    1.50
+  Light and Heavy Timber Framing Made Easy             Cloth    2.00
+  Builders' Architectural Drawing Self-taught          Cloth    2.00
+  Easy Steps to Architecture                           Cloth    1.50
+  Five Orders of Architecture                          Cloth    1.50
+  Builders' and Contractors' Guide                     Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Bungalows and Cottages                    *Cloth    1.00
+  Low Cost American Homes                             *Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Cabinet Maker and Furniture Designer       Cloth    2.00
+  Practical Wood Carving                               Cloth    1.50
+  Home Furniture Making                                Cloth     .60
+  Concretes, Cements, Mortars, Plasters and Stuccos    Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Steel Construction                         Cloth     .75
+  20th Century Bricklayer and Mason's Assistant        Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Bricklaying Self-taught                    Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Stonemasonry                               Cloth    1.00
+  Practical Up-to-date Plumbing                        Cloth    1.50
+  Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting             Cloth    1.50
+  Practical Handbook for Millwrights                   Cloth    2.00
+  Boat Building for Amateurs                           Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+              *Title                                 | Style | Price
+  ---------------------------------------------------+-------+--------
+
+  =Painting Books=
+
+  Art of Sign Painting                                *Cloth   $3.00
+  Scene Painting and Bulletin Art                     *Cloth    3.00
+  "A Show at" Sho'Cards                                Cloth    3.00
+  Strong's Book of Designs                            *Lea.     3.00
+  Signist's Modern Book of Alphabets                   Cloth    1.50
+  Amateur Artist                                       Cloth    1.00
+  Modern Painter's Cyclopedia                          Cloth    1.50
+  Red Book Series of Trade School Manuals
+    1. Exterior Painting, Wood, Iron and Brick         Cloth     .60
+    2. Interior Painting, Water and Oil Colors         Cloth     .60
+    3. Colors                                          Cloth     .60
+    4. Graining and Marbling                           Cloth     .60
+    5. Carriage Painting                               Cloth     .60
+    6. The Wood Finisher                               Cloth     .60
+  New Hardwood Finishing                               Cloth    1.00
+  Automobile Painting                                 *Cloth    1.25
+  Estimates, Costs and Profits--House Painting and
+  Interior Decorating                                 *Cloth    1.00
+
+  NOTE.--New Books and Revised Editions are marked*
+
+
+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                      TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES                           |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | The text of the original work has been maintained, except as       |
+  | mentioned below.                                                   |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Changed for consistency: screwdriver to screw-driver, pene to peen,|
+  | homemade to home-made, ballbearing to ball-bearing, horse-power to |
+  | horsepower, double-tree to doubletree, and eye-bolt to eyebolt. In |
+  | the Index, the following words have been changed to conform to the |
+  | text: sulkey to sulky, and re-inforced to reinforced. All          |
+  | dimensions have been standardised to a x b (with a and b           |
+  | representing two numbers).                                         |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Typographical errors corrected: azotabacter to azotobacter (p.     |
+  | 138), devise to device (p. 232), anarobic to anaerobic (p. 236),   |
+  | and Hayford to Hayfork (Index). Some minor typographical errors    |
+  | have been corrected silently.                                      |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | Page 158: "the so-called humid sections" should possibly be "the   |
+  | so-called arid sections".                                          |
+  |                                                                    |
+  | The advertisements have been re-arranged to a single list per      |
+  | subject.                                                           |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Farm Mechanics, by Herbert A. Shearer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FARM MECHANICS ***
+
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